Bollywood

Hindi cinema, often known as Bollywood and formerly as "Bombay cinema", is the Indian Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay). The term is a portmanteau of "Bombay" and "Hollywood". The industry is related to Cinema of South India and other Indian film industries, making up Indian cinema—the world's largest by number of feature films produced.
In 2017, Indian cinema produced 1,986 feature films, with Bollywood as its largest filmmaker, producing 364 Hindi films the same year. Bollywood represents 43 percent of Indian net box-office revenue; Tamil and Telugu cinema represent 36 percent, and the remaining regional cinema constituted 21 percent in 2014. Bollywood is one of the largest centres of film production in the world. In 2001 ticket sales, Indian cinema (including Bollywood) reportedly sold an estimated 3.6 billion tickets worldwide, compared to Hollywood's 2.6 billion tickets sold. Bollywood films tend to use vernacular Hindustani, mutually intelligible by people who self-identify as speaking either Hindi or Urdu, and modern Bollywood movies increasingly incorporate elements of Hinglish.
The most popular commercial genre in Bollywood since the 1970s has been the masala film, which freely mixes different genres including action, comedy, romance, drama and melodrama along with musical numbers. Masala films generally fall under the musical film genre, of which Indian cinema has been the largest producer since the 1960s when it exceeded the American film industry's total musical output after musical films declined in the West; the first Indian musical talkie was "Alam Ara" (1931), several years after the first Hollywood musical talkie "The Jazz Singer" (1927). Alongside commercial masala films, a distinctive genre of art films known as parallel cinema has also existed, presenting realistic content and avoidance of musical numbers. In more recent years, the distinction between commercial masala and parallel cinema has been gradually blurring, with an increasing number of mainstream films adopting the conventions which were once strictly associated with parallel cinema.
Etymology.
"Bollywood" is a portmanteau derived from Bombay (the former name of Mumbai) and "Hollywood", a shorthand reference for the American film industry which is based in Hollywood, California.
The term "Tollywood", for the Tollygunge-based cinema of West Bengal, predated "Bollywood". It was used in a 1932 "American Cinematographer" article by Wilford E. Deming, an American engineer who helped produce the first Indian sound picture.
"Bollywood" was probably invented in Bombay-based film trade journals in the 1960s or 1970s, though the exact inventor varies by account. Film journalist Bevinda Collaco claims she coined the term for the title of her column in "Screen" magazine. Her column entitled "On the Bollywood Beat" covered studio news and celebrity gossip. Other sources state that lyricist, filmmaker and scholar Amit Khanna was its creator. It's unknown if it was derived from "Hollywood" through "Tollywood", or was inspired directly by "Hollywood".
The term has been criticised by some film journalists and critics, who believe it implies that the industry is a poor cousin of Hollywood.
"Bollywood" has since inspired a long list of Hollywood-inspired nicknames.
History.
Early history (1890s–1940s).
In 1897, a film presentation by Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's encouragement and camera, Hiralal Sen, an Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that show, "The Flower of Persia" (1898). "The Wrestlers" (1899) by H. S. Bhatavdekar showed a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay.
Dadasaheb Phalke's silent "Raja Harishchandra" (1913) is the first feature film made in India. By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per year. The first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani's "Alam Ara" (1931), was commercially successful. With a great demand for talkies and musicals, Bollywood and the other regional film industries quickly switched to sound films.
Challenges and Market Expansion (1930s-1940s).
The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times; India was buffeted by the Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition. Although most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, a number of filmmakers tackled tough social issues or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their films. Irani made the first Hindi colour film, "Kisan Kanya", in 1937. The following year, he made a colour version of "Mother India". However, colour did not become a popular feature until the late 1950s. At this time, lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were cinematic staples.
The decade of the 1940s saw an expansion of the Bollywood's commercial market and its presence in the national consciousness. The year 1943 saw the arrival of Indian cinema's first 'blockbuster' offering, the movie Kismet, which grossed in excess of the important barrier of one crore (10 million) rupees, made on a budget of only two lakh (0.2 million) rupees. Kismet tackled contemporary issues, especially those arising from the Indian Independence movement, and went on to become "the longest running hit of Indian cinema", a title it held till the 1970s. Film personalities like Bimal Roy, Sahir Ludhianvi and Prithviraj Kapoor participated in the creation of a national movement against colonial rule in India, while simultaneously leveraging the popular political movement to increase their own visibility and popularity. Themes from the Independence Movement deeply influenced Bollywood directors, screen-play writers, and lyricists, who saw their films in the context of social reform and the problems of the common people.
Although the 1947 partition of India, divided the country into the Republic of India and Pakistan, it precipitated the migration of film-making talent from film making centers like Lahore and Calcutta, which bore the brunt of the partition violence. These events further consolidated the Mumbai film industry's position as the preeminent center for film production in India.
Golden Age (late 1940s–1960s).
The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, after India's independence, is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Hindi cinema. Some of the most critically acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this time. Examples include "Pyaasa" (1957) and "Kaagaz Ke Phool" (1959), directed by Guru Dutt and written by Abrar Alvi; "Awaara" (1951) and "Shree 420" (1955), directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and "Aan" (1952), directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Dilip Kumar. The films explored social themes, primarily dealing with working-class life in India (particularly urban life) in the first two examples. "Awaara" presented the city as both nightmare and dream, and "Pyaasa" critiqued the unreality of urban life.
Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957), a remake of his earlier "Aurat" (1940), was the first Indian film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film; it lost by a single vote. "Mother India" defined conventional Hindi cinema for decades. It spawned a genre of dacoit films, in turn defined by "Gunga Jumna" (1961). Written and produced by Dilip Kumar, "Gunga Jumna" was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law (a theme which became common in Indian films during the 1970s). Some of the best-known epic films of Hindi cinema were also produced at this time, such as K. Asif's "Mughal-e-Azam" (1960). Other acclaimed mainstream Hindi filmmakers during this period included Kamal Amrohi and Vijay Bhatt.
The three most popular male Indian actors of the 1950s and 1960s were Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor, and Dev Anand, each with a unique acting style. Kapoor adopted Charlie Chaplin's tramp; Anand modeled himself on suave Hollywood stars like Gregory Peck and Cary Grant, and Kumar pioneered a form of method acting which predated Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando. Kumar, who was described as "the ultimate method actor" by Satyajit Ray, inspired future generations of Indian actors. Much like Brando's influence on Robert De Niro and Al Pacino, Kumar had a similar influence on Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui. Veteran actresses such as Suraiya, Nargis, Sumitra Devi, Madhubala, Meena Kumari, Waheeda Rehman, Nutan, Sadhana, Mala Sinha and Vyjayanthimala have had their share of influence on Hindi cinema.
While commercial Hindi cinema was thriving, the 1950s also saw the emergence of a parallel cinema movement. Although the movement (emphasising social realism) was led by Bengali cinema, it also began gaining prominence in Hindi cinema. Early examples of parallel cinema include "Dharti Ke Lal" (1946), directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and based on the Bengal famine of 1943,; "Neecha Nagar" (1946) directed by Chetan Anand and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and Bimal Roy's "Do Bigha Zamin" (1953). Their critical acclaim and the latter's commercial success paved the way for Indian neorealism and the Indian New Wave (synonymous with parallel cinema). Internationally acclaimed Hindi filmmakers involved in the movement included Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, and Vijaya Mehta.
After the social-realist film "Neecha Nagar" received the Palme d'Or at the inaugural 1946 Cannes Film Festival, Hindi films were frequently in competition for Cannes' top prize during the 1950s and early 1960s and some won major prizes at the festival. Guru Dutt, overlooked during his lifetime, received belated international recognition during the 1980s. Film critics polled by the British magazine "Sight & Sound" included several of Dutt's films in a 2002 list of greatest films, and Time's All-Time 100 Movies lists "Pyaasa" as one of the greatest films of all time.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the industry was dominated by musical romance films with romantic-hero leads.
Classic Bollywood (1970s–1980s).
By 1970, Hindi cinema was thematically stagnant and dominated by musical romance films. The arrival of screenwriting duo Salim–Javed (Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar) was a paradigm shift, revitalising the industry. They began the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films early in the decade with films such as "Zanjeer" (1973) and "Deewaar" (1975). Salim-Javed reinterpreted the rural themes of Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957) and Dilip Kumar's "Gunga Jumna" (1961) in a contemporary urban context, reflecting the socio-economic and socio-political climate of 1970s India and channeling mass discontent, disillusionment and the unprecedented growth of slums with anti-establishment themes and those involving urban poverty, corruption and crime. Their "angry young man", personified by Amitabh Bachchan, reinterpreted Dilip Kumar's performance in "Gunga Jumna" in a contemporary urban context and anguished urban poor.
By the mid-1970s, romantic confections had given way to gritty, violent crime films and action films about gangsters (the Bombay underworld) and bandits (dacoits). Salim-Javed's writing and Amitabh Bachchan's acting popularised the trend with films such as "Zanjeer" and (particularly) "Deewaar", a crime film inspired by "Gunga Jumna" which pitted "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smuggler Haji Mastan" (Bachchan); according to Danny Boyle, "Deewaar" was "absolutely key to Indian cinema". In addition to Bachchan, several other actors followed by riding the crest of the trend (which lasted into the early 1990s). Actresses from the era include Hema Malini, Jaya Bachchan, Raakhee, Shabana Azmi, Zeenat Aman, Parveen Babi, Rekha, Dimple Kapadia, Smita Patil, Jaya Prada and Padmini Kolhapure.
The name "Bollywood" was coined during the 1970s, when the conventions of commercial Bollywood films were defined. Key to this was the masala film, which combines a number of genres (action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama, and musical). The masala film was pioneered early in the decade by filmmaker Nasir Hussain, and the Salim-Javed screenwriting duo, pioneering the Bollywood-blockbuster format. "Yaadon Ki Baarat" (1973), directed by Hussain and written by Salim-Javed, has been identified as the first masala film and the first quintessentially Bollywood film. Salim-Javed wrote more successful masala films during the 1970s and 1980s. Masala films made Amitabh Bachchan the biggest Bollywood star of the period. A landmark of the genre was "Amar Akbar Anthony" (1977), directed by Manmohan Desai and written by Kader Khan, and Desai continued successfully exploiting the genre.
Both genres (masala and violent-crime films) are represented by the blockbuster "Sholay" (1975), written by Salim-Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan. It combined the dacoit film conventions of "Mother India" and "Gunga Jumna" with spaghetti Westerns, spawning the Dacoit Western (also known as the curry Western) which was popular during the 1970s.
Some Hindi filmmakers, such as Shyam Benegal, Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta, continued to produce realistic parallel cinema throughout the 1970s. Although the art film bent of the Film Finance Corporation was criticised during a 1976 Committee on Public Undertakings investigation which accused the corporation of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema, the decade saw the rise of commercial cinema with films such as "Sholay" (1975) which consolidated Amitabh Bachchan's position as a star. The devotional classic "Jai Santoshi Ma" was also released that year.
By 1983, the Bombay film industry was generating an estimated annual revenue of ( 7 billion, ), equivalent to (, 111.33 billion) when adjusted for inflation. By 1986, India's annual film output had increased from 741 films produced annually to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer. The most internationally acclaimed Hindi film of the 1980s was Mira Nair's "Salaam Bombay!" (1988), which won the Camera d'Or at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
New Bollywood (1990s–present).
Hindi cinema experienced another period of stagnation during the late 1980s with a box-office decline due to increasing violence, a decline in musical quality, and a rise in video piracy. One of the turning points came with such films as "Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak" (1988), presenting a blend of youthfulness, family entertainment, emotional intelligence and strong melodies, all of which lured audiences back to the big screen. It brought back the template for Bollywood musical romance films which went on to define 1990s Hindi cinema.
Known since the 1990s as "New Bollywood", contemporary Bollywood is linked to economic liberalization in India during the early 1990s. Early in the decade, the pendulum swung back toward family-centered romantic musicals. "Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak" (1988) was followed by blockbusters such as "Maine Pyar Kiya" (1989), "Hum Aapke Hain Kaun" (1994), "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" (1995), "Raja Hindustani" (1996), "Dil To Pagal Hai" (1997) and "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998), introducing a new generation of popular actors, including the three Khans: Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, and Salman Khan, who have starred in most of the top ten highest-grossing Bollywood films. The Khans and have had successful careers since the late 1980s and early 1990s, and have dominated the Indian box office for three decades. Shah Rukh Khan was the most successful Indian actor for most of the 1990s and 2000s, and Aamir Khan has been the most successful Indian actor since the mid 2000s. Action and comedy films, starring such actors as Akshay Kumar and Govinda.
The decade marked the entrance of new performers in art and independent films, some of which were commercially successful. The most influential example was "Satya" (1998), directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Anurag Kashyap. Its critical and commercial success led to the emergence of a genre known as Mumbai noir: urban films reflecting the city's social problems. This led to a resurgence of parallel cinema by the end of the decade. The films featured actors whose performances were often praised by critics.
The 2000s saw increased Bollywood recognition worldwide due to growing (and prospering) NRI and Desi communities overseas. The growth of the Indian economy and a demand for quality entertainment in this era led the country's film industry to new heights in production values, cinematography and screenwriting as well as technical advances in areas such as special effects and animation. Some of the largest production houses, among them Yash Raj Films and Dharma Productions were the producers of new modern films. Some popular films of the decade were "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" (2000), "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (2001), "" (2001), "Lagaan" (2001), "Koi... Mil Gaya" (2003), "Kal Ho Naa Ho" (2003), "Veer-Zaara" (2004), "Rang De Basanti" (2006), "Lage Raho Munna Bhai" (2006), "Dhoom 2" (2006), "Krrish" (2006), and "Jab We Met" (2007), among others, showing the rise of new movie stars.
During the 2010s, the industry saw established stars such as making big-budget masala films like "Dabangg" (2010), "Singham" (2011)"," "Ek Tha Tiger" (2012), "Son of Sardaar" (2012), "Rowdy Rathore" (2012), "Chennai Express" (2013), "Kick" (2014) and "Happy New Year" (2014) with much-younger actresses. Although the films were often not praised by critics, they were commercially successful. Some of the films starring Aamir Khan have been credited with redefining and modernising the masala film with a distinct brand of socially conscious cinema.
Most stars from the 2000s continued successful careers into the next decade, and the 2010s saw a new generation of popular actors in different films. Among new conventions, female-centred films such as "The Dirty Picture" (2011), "Kahaani" (2012), and "Queen" (2014), "Parched" (2015), Pink (2016) started gaining wide financial success.
Influences on Bollywood.
Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake identify six major influences which have shaped Indian popular cinema:
Sharmistha Gooptu identifies Indo-Persian-Islamic culture as a major influence. During the early 20th century, Urdu was the lingua franca of popular cultural performance across northern India and established in popular performance art traditions such as nautch dancing, Urdu poetry, and Parsi theater. Urdu and related Hindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, and Hindustani became the standard language of early Indian talkies. Films based on "Persianate adventure-romances" led to a popular genre of ""Arabian Nights" cinema".
Scholars Chaudhuri Diptakirti and Rachel Dwyer and screenwriter Javed Akhtar identify Urdu literature as a major influence on Hindi cinema. Most of the screenwriters and scriptwriters of classic Hindi cinema came from Urdu literary backgrounds, from Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and Akhtar ul Iman to Salim–Javed and Rahi Masoom Raza; a handful came from other Indian literary traditions, such as Bengali and Hindi literature. Most of Hindi cinema's classic scriptwriters wrote primarily in Urdu, including Salim-Javed, Gulzar, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Inder Raj Anand, Rahi Masoom Raza and Wajahat Mirza. Urdu poetry and the ghazal tradition strongly influenced filmi (Bollywood lyrics). Javed Akhtar was also greatly influenced by Urdu novels by Pakistani author Ibn-e-Safi, such as the "Jasoosi Dunya" and "Imran" series of detective novels; they inspired, for example, famous Bollywood characters such as Gabbar Singh in "Sholay" (1975) and Mogambo in "Mr. India" (1987).
Todd Stadtman identifies several foreign influences on 1970s commercial Bollywood masala films, including New Hollywood, Italian exploitation films, and Hong Kong martial arts cinema. After the success of Bruce Lee films (such as "Enter the Dragon") in India, "Deewaar" (1975) and other Bollywood films incorporated fight scenes inspired by 1970s martial arts films from Hong Kong cinema until the 1990s. Bollywood action scenes emulated Hong Kong rather than Hollywood, emphasising acrobatics and stunts and combining kung fu (as perceived by Indians) with Indian martial arts such as pehlwani.
Influence of Bollywood.
India.
Perhaps Bollywood's greatest influence has been on India's national identity, where (with the rest of Indian cinema) it has become part of the "Indian story". In India, Bollywood is often associated with India's national identity. According to economist and Bollywood biographer Meghnad Desai, "Cinema actually has been the most vibrant medium for telling India its own story, the story of its struggle for independence, its constant struggle to achieve national integration and to emerge as a global presence".
Scholar Brigitte Schulze has written that Indian films, most notably Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957), played a key role in shaping the Republic of India's national identity in the early years after independence from the British Raj; the film conveyed a sense of Indian nationalism to urban and rural citizens alike. Bollywood has long influenced Indian society and culture as the biggest entertainment industry; many of the country's musical, dancing, wedding and fashion trends are Bollywood-inspired. Bollywood fashion trendsetters have included Madhubala in "Mughal-e-Azam" (1960) and Madhuri Dixit in "Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!" (1994).
Bollywood has also had a socio-political impact on Indian society, reflecting Indian politics. In classic 1970s Bollywood films, Bombay underworld crime films written by Salim–Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan such as "Zanjeer" (1973) and "Deewaar" (1975) reflected the socio-economic and socio-political realities of contemporary India. They channeled growing popular discontent and disillusionment and state failure to ensure welfare and well-being at a time of inflation, shortages, loss of confidence in public institutions, increasing crime and the unprecedented growth of slums. Salim-Javed and Bachchan's films dealt with urban poverty, corruption and organised crime; they were perceived by audiences as anti-establishment, often with an "angry young man" protagonist presented as a vigilante or anti-hero whose suppressed rage voiced the anguish of the urban poor.
Overseas.
Bollywood has been a significant form of soft power for India, increasing its influence and changing overseas perceptions of India. In Germany, Indian stereotypes included bullock carts, beggars, sacred cows, corrupt politicians, and catastrophes before Bollywood and the IT industry transformed global perceptions of India. According to author Roopa Swaminathan, "Bollywood cinema is one of the strongest global cultural ambassadors of a new India." Its role in expanding India's global influence is comparable to Hollywood's similar role with American influence.
During the 2000s, Bollywood began influencing musical films in the Western world and was instrumental role in reviving the American musical film. Baz Luhrmann said that his musical film, "Moulin Rouge!" (2001), was inspired by Bollywood musicals; the film incorporated a Bollywood-style dance scene with a song from the film "China Gate". The critical and financial success of "Moulin Rouge!" began a renaissance of Western musical films such as "Chicago", "Rent", and "Dreamgirls".
Indian film composer A. R. Rahman wrote the music for Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Bombay Dreams", and a musical version of "Hum Aapke Hain Koun" was staged in London's West End. The Bollywood sports film "Lagaan" (2001) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and two other Bollywood films (2002's "Devdas" and 2006's "Rang De Basanti") were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.
Danny Boyle's "Slumdog Millionaire" (2008), which won four Golden Globes and eight Academy Awards, was inspired by Bollywood films and is considered an "homage to Hindi commercial cinema". It was also inspired by Mumbai-underworld crime films, such as "Deewaar" (1975), "Satya" (1998), "Company" (2002) and "Black Friday" (2007). "Deewaar" had a Hong Kong remake, "The Brothers" (1979), which inspired John Woo's internationally acclaimed breakthrough "A Better Tomorrow" (1986); the latter was a template for Hong Kong action cinema's heroic bloodshed genre. "Angry young man" 1970s epics such as "Deewaar" and "Amar Akbar Anthony" (1977) also resemble the heroic-bloodshed genre of 1980s Hong Kong action cinema.
The influence of "filmi" may be seen in popular music worldwide. Technopop pioneers Haruomi Hosono and Ryuichi Sakamoto of the Yellow Magic Orchestra produced a 1978 electronic album, "Cochin Moon", based on an experimental fusion of electronic music and Bollywood-inspired Indian music. Truth Hurts' 2002 song "Addictive", produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" in "Jyoti" (1981). The Black Eyed Peas' Grammy Award winning 2005 song "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was inspired by two 1970s Bollywood songs: "Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana" from "Don" (1978) and "Ae Nujawan Hai Sub" from "Apradh" (1972). Both songs were composed by Kalyanji Anandji, sung by Asha Bhosle, and featured the dancer Helen.
The Kronos Quartet re-recorded several R. D. Burman compositions sung by Asha Bhosle for their 2005 album, "You've Stolen My Heart: Songs from R.D. Burman's Bollywood", which was nominated for Best Contemporary World Music Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. "Filmi" music composed by A. R. Rahman (who received two Academy Awards for the "Slumdog Millionaire" soundtrack) has frequently been sampled by other musicians, including the Singaporean artist Kelly Poon, the French rap group La Caution and the American artist Ciara. Many Asian Underground artists, particularly those among the overseas Indian diaspora, have also been inspired by Bollywood music.
Genres.
Bollywood films are primarily musicals, and are expected to have catchy song-and-dance numbers woven into the script. A film's success often depends on the quality of such musical numbers. A film's music and song and dance portions are usually produced first and these are often released before the film itself, increasing its audience.
Indian audiences expect value for money, and a good film is generally referred to as "paisa vasool", (literally "money's worth"). Songs, dances, love triangles, comedy and dare-devil thrills are combined in a three-hour show (with an intermission). These are called "masala films", after the Hindi word for a spice mixture. Like "masalas", they are a mixture of action, comedy and romance; most have heroes who can fight off villains single-handedly. Bollywood plots have tended to be melodramatic, frequently using formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers, angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, political corruption, kidnapping, villains, kind-hearted courtesans, long-lost relatives and siblings, reversals of fortune and serendipity.
Parallel cinema films, in and outside Bollywood, tended to be less popular at the box office. A large Indian diaspora in English-speaking countries and increased Western influence in India have nudged Bollywood films closer to Hollywood.
According to film critic Lata Khubchandani, "Our earliest films ... had liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures." Although Bollywood plots feature Westernised urbanites dating and dancing in clubs rather than pre-arranged marriages, traditional Indian culture continues to exist outside the industry and is an element of resistance by some to Western influences. Bollywood plays a major role, however, in Indian fashion. Studies have indicated that some people, unaware that changing fashion in Bollywood films is often influenced by globalisation, consider the clothes worn by Bollywood actors as authentically Indian.
Casts and crews.
Bollywood employs people from throughout India. It attracts thousands of aspiring actors hoping for a break in the industry. Models and beauty contestants, television actors, stage actors and ordinary people come to Mumbai with the hope of becoming a star. As in Hollywood, very few succeed. Since many Bollywood films are shot abroad, many foreign extras are employed.
Very few non-Indian actors are able to make a mark in Bollywood, although many have tried. There have been exceptions, however, and the hit film "Rang De Basanti" starred the English Alice Patten. "Kisna", "Lagaan", and "" also featured foreign actors, and Australian-born actress Emma Brown Garett has starred in a few Indian films.
Bollywood can be insular, and relatives of film-industry figures have an edge in obtaining coveted roles in films or being part of a film crew. However, industry connections are no guarantee of a long career: competition is fierce, and film-industry scions will falter if they do not succeed at the box office. Stars such as Dilip Kumar, Dharmendra, Amitabh Bachchan, Rajesh Khanna, Anil Kapoor, Sridevi, Madhuri Dixit, Aishwarya Rai and Shah Rukh Khan lacked show-business connections.
Dialogues and lyrics.
Film scripts (known as dialogues in Indian English) and their song lyrics are often written by different people. Scripts are usually written in an unadorned Hindustani, which would be understood by the largest possible audience. Bollywood films tend to use a colloquial register of Hindustani, mutually intelligible by Hindi and Urdu speakers. Most of the classic scriptwriters of what is known as Hindi cinema, including Salim–Javed, Gulzar, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Inder Raj Anand, Rahi Masoom Raza and Wajahat Mirza, primarily wrote in Urdu. Salim-Javed wrote in Urdu script, which was then transcribed by an assistant into Devanagari script so Hindi readers could read the Urdu dialogues. During the 1970s, the Urdu writers and screenwriters Krishan Chander and Ismat Chughtai said that "more than seventy-five per cent of films are made in Urdu" but were categorised as Hindi films by the government. Urdu poetry has strongly influenced Bollywood songs, whose lyrics also draw from the ghazal tradition (filmi-ghazal). According to Javed Akhtar in 1996, Urdu diction dominates Bollywood film dialogue and lyrics, with about 90% of them written in Urdu script, including his own works as well as those of Majrooh Sultanpuri and Anand Bakshi.
Some films have used regional dialects to evoke a village setting, or archaic Urdu in medieval historical films. In her book, "The Cinematic ImagiNation", Jyotika Virdi wrote about the presence of Urdu in Hindi films: "Urdu is often used in film titles, screenplay, lyrics, the language of love, war, and martyrdom." Virdi notes that although Urdu was widely used in classic Hindi cinema decades after partition because it was widely taught in pre-partition India, its use has declined in modern Hindi cinema: "The extent of Urdu used in commercial Hindi cinema has not been stable ... the decline of Urdu is mirrored in Hindi films ... It is true that many Urdu words have survived and have become part of Hindi cinema's popular vocabulary. But that is as far as it goes ... For the most part, popular Hindi cinema has forsaken the florid Urdu that was part of its extravagance and retained a 'residual' Urdu". However, Urdu continues to be used in Bollywood films for dialogues and (particularly) songs.
Contemporary mainstream films also use English; according to the article "Bollywood Audiences Editorial", "English has begun to challenge the ideological work done by Urdu." Some film scripts are first written in Latin script. Characters may shift from one language to the other to evoke a particular atmosphere (for example, English in a business setting and Hindi in an informal one). The blend of Hindi, Urdu and English sometimes heard in modern Bollywood films, known as Hinglish, has become increasingly common.
Cinematic language (in dialogues or lyrics) is often melodramatic, invoking God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice. Song lyrics are often about love. Bollywood song lyrics (especially in older films) frequently use the poetic vocabulary of court Urdu, with a number of Persian loanwords. Another source for love lyrics in films such as "Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje" and "Lagaan" is the long Hindu tradition of poetry about the loves of Krishna, Radha, and the gopis.
Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, and the lyricist and composer may be seen as a team. This phenomenon has been compared to the pairs of American composers and songwriters who created classic Broadway musicals.
Sound.
Sound in early Bollywood films was usually not recorded on location (sync sound). It was usually created (or re-created) in the studio, with the actors speaking their lines in the studio and sound effects added later; this created synchronisation problems. Commercial Indian films are known for their lack of ambient sound, and the Arriflex 3 camera necessitated dubbing. "Lagaan" (2001) was filmed with sync sound, and several Bollywood films have recorded on-location sound since then.
Female makeup artists.
In 1955, the Bollywood Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association (CCMAA) ruled that female makeup artists were barred from membership. The Supreme Court of India ruled in 2014 that the ban violated Indian constitutional guarantees under Article 14 (right to equality), 19(1)(g) (freedom to work) and Article 21 (right to liberty). According to the court, the ban had no "rationale nexus" to the cause sought to be achieved and was "unacceptable, impermissible and inconsistent" with the constitutional rights guaranteed to India's citizens. The court also found illegal the rule which mandated that for any artist to work in the industry, they must have lived for five years in the state where they intend to work. In 2015, it was announced that Charu Khurana was the first woman registered by the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association.
Song and dance.
Bollywood film music is called "filmi" (from the Hindi "of films"). Bollywood songs were introduced with Ardeshir Irani's "Alam Ara" (1931) song, "De De Khuda Ke Naam pay pyaare". Bollywood songs are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the actors then lip syncing the words to the song on-screen (often while dancing). Although most actors are good dancers, few are also singers; a notable exception was Kishore Kumar, who starred in several major films during the 1950s while having a rewarding career as a playback singer. K. L. Saigal, Suraiyya, and Noor Jehan were known as singers and actors, and some actors in the last thirty years have sung one or more songs themselves.
Songs can make and break a film, determining whether it will be a flop or a hit: "Few films without successful musical tracks, and even fewer without any songs and dances, succeed". Globalization has changed Bollywood music, with lyrics an increasing mix of Hindi and English. Global trends such as salsa, pop and hip hop have influenced the music heard in Bollywood films.
Playback singers are featured in the opening credits, and have fans who will see an otherwise-lackluster film to hear their favourites. Notable Bollywood singers are Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sadhana Sargam, Alka Yagnik and Shreya Goshal (female), and K. L. Saigal, Talat Mahmood, Mukesh, Mohammed Rafi, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, Kishore Kumar, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam (male). Kishore Kumar and Mohammed Rafi have been considered the finest singers of Bollywood songs, followed by Lata Mangeshkar (who has recorded thousands of songs for Indian films in her six-decade career). Composers of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known. Remixing of film songs with modern rhythms is common, and producers may release remixed versions of some of their films' songs with the films' soundtrack albums.
Dancing in Bollywood films, especially older films, is modeled on Indian dance: classical dance, dances of north-Indian courtesans (tawaif) or folk dances. In modern films, Indian dance blends with Western dance styles as seen on MTV or in Broadway musicals; Western pop and classical-dance numbers are commonly seen side-by-side in the same film. The hero (or heroine) often performs with a troupe of supporting dancers. Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films contain unrealistically-quick shifts of location or changes of costume between verses of a song. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a duet, it is often staged in natural surroundings or architecturally-grand settings.
Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the film. A song may be worked into the plot, so a character has a reason to sing. It may externalise a character's thoughts, or presage an event in the film (such as two characters falling in love). The songs are often referred to as a "dream sequence", with things happening which would not normally happen in the real world. Song and dance scenes were often filmed in Kashmir but, due to political unrest in Kashmir since the end of the 1980s, they have been shot in western Europe (particularly Switzerland and Austria).
Contemporary Bollywood dancers include Madhuri Dixit, Hrithik Roshan, Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Sridevi, Meenakshi Seshadri, Malaika Arora Khan, Shahid Kapoor, Katrina Kaif and Tiger Shroff. Older dancers include Helen (known for her cabaret numbers), Madhubala, Vyjanthimala, Padmini, Hema Malini, Mumtaz, Cuckoo Moray, Parveen Babi , Waheeda Rahman, Meena Kumari, and Shammi Kapoor.
Bollywood producers have been releasing a film's soundtrack (as tapes or CDs) before the film's release, hoping that the music will attract audiences; a soundtrack is often more popular than its film. Some producers also release music videos, usually (but not always) with a song from the film.
Finances.
Bollywood films are multi-million dollar productions, with the most expensive productions costing up to 1 billion (about US$20 million). The science-fiction film "Ra.One" was made on a budget of 1.35 billion (about $27 million), making it the most expensive Bollywood film of all time. Sets, costumes, special effects and cinematography were less than world-class, with some notable exceptions, until the mid-to-late 1990s. As Western films and television are more widely distributed in India, there is increased pressure for Bollywood films to reach the same production levels (particularly in action and special effects). Recent Bollywood films, like "Krrish" (2006), have employed international technicians such as Hong Kong-based action choreographer Tony Ching. The increasing accessibility of professional action and special effects, coupled with rising film budgets, have seen an increase in action and science-fiction films.
Since overseas scenes are attractive at the box office, Mumbai film crews are filming in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Europe and elsewhere. Indian producers have also obtained funding for big-budget films shot in India, such as "Lagaan" and "Devdas".
Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few large studios. Although Indian banks and financial institutions had been forbidden from lending to film studios, the ban has been lifted. Finances are not regulated; some funding comes from illegitimate sources such as the Mumbai underworld, which is known to influence several prominent film personalities. Mumbai organised-crime hitmen shot Rakesh Roshan, a film director and father of star Hrithik Roshan, in January 2000. In 2001, the Central Bureau of Investigation seized all prints of "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" after the film was found to be funded by members of the Mumbai underworld.
Another problem facing Bollywood is widespread copyright infringement of its films. Often, bootleg DVD copies of movies are available before they are released in cinemas. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is an established small-scale industry in parts of south and southeast Asia. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) estimates that the Bollywood industry loses $100 million annually from unlicensed home videos and DVDs. In addition to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst portions of the Indian diaspora. Bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the Pakistani government has banned their sale, distribution and telecast. Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by small cable-TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia. Small convenience stores, run by members of the Indian diaspora in the US and the UK, regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance; consumer copying adds to the problem. The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to industry losses.
Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market. In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now, fewer do. Most Bollywood producers make money, however, recouping their investments from many sources of revenue (including the sale of ancillary rights). There are increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, where Bollywood is slowly being noticed. As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films. In 2002, Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had a total revenue (including theatre tickets, DVDs and television) of $1.3 billion; Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets, and had a total revenue of $51 billion.
Advertising.
A number of Indian artists hand-painted movie billboards and posters. M. F. Husain painted film posters early in his career; human labour was found to be cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material. Most of the large, ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are now created with computer-printed vinyl. Old hand-painted posters, once considered ephemera, are collectible folk art.
Releasing film music, or music videos, before a film's release may be considered a form of advertising. A popular tune is believed to help attract audiences. Bollywood publicists use the Internet as a venue for advertising. Most bigger-budget films have a websites on which audiences can view trailers, stills and information on the story, cast, and crew. Bollywood is also used to advertise other products. Product placement, used in Hollywood, is also common in Bollywood.
International filming.
Bollywood's increasing use of international settings such as Switzerland, London, Paris, New York, Mexico, Brazil and Singapore does not necessarily represent the people and cultures of those locales. Contrary to these spaces and geographies being filmed as they are, they are actually Indianised by adding Bollywood actors and Hindi speaking extras to them. While immersing in Bollywood films, viewers get to see their local experiences duplicated in different locations around the world.
According to Shakuntala Rao, "Media representation can depict India's shifting relation with the world economy, but must retain its 'Indianness' in moments of dynamic hybridity"; "Indianness" (cultural identity) poses a problem with Bollywood's popularity among varied diaspora audiences, but gives its domestic audience a sense of uniqueness from other immigrant groups.
Awards.
The Filmfare Awards are some of the most prominent awards given to Hindi films in India. The Indian screen magazine "Filmfare" began the awards in 1954 (recognising the best films of 1953), and they were originally known as the Clare Awards after the magazine's editor. Modeled on the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' poll-based merit format, individuals may vote in separate categories. A dual voting system was developed in 1956.
The National Film Awards were also introduced in 1954. The Indian government has sponsored the awards, given by its Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF), since 1973. The DFF screens Bollywood films, films from the other regional movie industries, and independent/art films. The awards are made at an annual ceremony presided over by the president of India. Unlike the Filmfare Awards, which are chosen by the public and a committee of experts, the National Film Awards are decided by a government panel.
Other awards ceremonies for Hindi films in India are the Screen Awards (begun in 1995) and the Stardust Awards, which began in 2003. The International Indian Film Academy Awards (begun in 2000) and the Zee Cine Awards, begun in 1998, are held abroad in a different country each year.
Global markets.
In addition to their popularity among the Indian diaspora from Nigeria and Senegal to Egypt and Russia, generations of non-Indians have grown up with Bollywood. Indian cinema's early contacts with other regions made inroads into the Soviet Union, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and China.
Bollywood entered the consciousness of Western audiences and producers during the late 20th century, and Western actors now seek roles in Bollywood films.
Asia-Pacific.
South Asia.
Bollywood films are also popular in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where Hindustani is widely understood. Many Pakistanis understand Hindi, due to its linguistic similarity to Urdu. Although Pakistan banned the import of Bollywood films in 1965, trade in unlicensed DVDs and illegal cable broadcasts ensured their continued popularity. Exceptions to the ban were made for a few films, such as the colorized re-release of "Mughal-e-Azam" and "Taj Mahal" in 2006. Early in 2008, the Pakistani government permitted the import of 16 films. More easing followed in 2009 and 2010. Although it is opposed by nationalists and representatives of Pakistan's small film industry, it is embraced by cinema owners who are making a profit after years of low receipts. The most popular actors in Pakistan are the three Khans of Bollywood: Salman, Shah Rukh, and Aamir. The most popular actress is Madhuri Dixit; at India-Pakistan cricket matches during the 1990s, Pakistani fans chanted "Madhuri dedo, Kashmir lelo!" ("Give Madhuri, take Kashmir!") Bollywood films in Nepal earn more than Nepali films, and Salman Khan, Akshay Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan are popular in the country.
The films are also popular in Afghanistan due to its proximity to the Indian subcontinent and their cultural similarities, particularly in music. Popular actors include Shah Rukh Khan, Ajay Devgan, Sunny Deol, Aishwarya Rai, Preity Zinta, and Madhuri Dixit. A number of Bollywood films were filmed in Afghanistan and some dealt with the country, including "Dharmatma", "Kabul Express", "Khuda Gawah" and "Escape From Taliban".
Southeast Asia.
Bollywood films are popular in Southeast Asia, particularly in maritime Southeast Asia. The three Khans are very popular in the Malay world, including Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. The films are also fairly popular in Thailand.
India has cultural ties with Indonesia, and Bollywood films were introduced to the country at the end of World War II in 1945. The "angry young man" films of Amitabh Bachchan and Salim–Javed were popular during the 1970s and 1980s before Bollywood's popularity began gradually declining in the 1980s and 1990s. It experienced an Indonesian revival with the release of Shah Rukh Khan's "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998) in 2001, which was a bigger box-office success in the country than "Titanic" (1997). Bollywood has had a strong presence in Indonesia since then, particularly Shah Rukh Khan films such as "Mohabbatein" (2000), "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (2001), "Kal Ho Naa Ho", "Chalte Chalte" and "Koi... Mil Gaya" (all 2003), and "Veer-Zaara" (2004).
East Asia.
Some Bollywood films have been widely appreciated in China, Japan, and South Korea. Several Hindi films have been commercially successful in Japan, including Mehboob Khan's "Aan" (1952, starring Dilip Kumar) and Aziz Mirza's "Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman" (1992, starring Shah Rukh Khan). The latter sparked a two-year boom in Indian films after its 1997 release, with "Dil Se.." (1998) a beneficiary of the boom. The highest-grossing Hindi film in Japan is "3 Idiots" (2009), starring Aamir Khan, which received a Japanese Academy Award nomination. The film was also a critical and commercial success in South Korea.
"Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani", "Awaara", and "Do Bigha Zamin" were successful in China during the 1940s and 1950s, and remain popular with their original audience. Few Indian films were commercially successful in the country during the 1970s and 1980s, among them Tahir Hussain's "Caravan", "Noorie" and "Disco Dancer". Indian film stars popular in China included Raj Kapoor, Nargis, and Mithun Chakraborty. Hindi films declined significantly in popularity in China during the 1980s. Films by Aamir Khan have recently been successful, and "Lagaan" was the first Indian film with a nationwide Chinese release in 2011. Chinese filmmaker He Ping was impressed by "Lagaan" (particularly its soundtrack), and hired its composer A. R. Rahman to score his "Warriors of Heaven and Earth" (2003).
When "3 Idiots" was released in China, China was the world's 15th-largest film market (partly due to its widespread pirate DVD distribution at the time). The pirate market introduced the film to Chinese audiences, however, and it became a cult hit. According to the Douban film-review site, "3 Idiots" is China's 12th-most-popular film of all time; only one domestic Chinese film ("Farewell My Concubine") ranks higher, and Aamir Khan acquired a large Chinese fan base as a result. After "3 Idiots", several of Khan's other films (including 2007's "Taare Zameen Par" and 2008's "Ghajini") also developed cult followings. China became the world's second-largest film market (after the United States) by 2013, paving the way for Khan's box-office success with "Dhoom 3" (2013), "PK" (2014), and "Dangal" (2016). The latter is the 16th-highest-grossing film in China, the fifth-highest-grossing non-English language film worldwide, and the highest-grossing non-English foreign film in any market. Several Khan films, including "Taare Zameen Par", "3 Idiots", and "Dangal", are highly rated on Douban. His next film, "Secret Superstar" (2017, starring Zaira Wasim), broke "Dangal"s record for the highest-grossing opening weekend by an Indian film and cemented Khan's status as "a king of the Chinese box office"; "Secret Superstar" was China's highest-grossing foreign film of 2018 to date. Khan has become a household name in China, with his success described as a form of Indian soft power improving China–India relations despite political tensions. With Bollywood competing with Hollywood in the Chinese market, the success of Khan's films has driven up the price for Chinese distributors of Indian film imports. Salman Khan's "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" and Irrfan Khan's "Hindi Medium" were also Chinese hits in early 2018.
Oceania.
Although Bollywood is less successful on some Pacific islands such as New Guinea, it ranks second to Hollywood in Fiji (with its large Indian minority), Australia and New Zealand. Australia also has a large South Asian diaspora, and Bollywood is popular amongst non-Asians in the country as well. Since 1997, the country has been a backdrop for an increasing number of Bollywood films. Indian filmmakers, attracted to Australia's diverse locations and landscapes, initially used the country as a setting for song-and-dance scenes; however, Australian locations now figure in Bollywood film plots. Hindi films shot in Australia usually incorporate Australian culture. Yash Raj Films' "Salaam Namaste" (2005), the first Indian film shot entirely in Australia, was the most successful Bollywood film of 2005 in that country. It was followed by the box-office successes "Heyy Babyy", (2007) "Chak De! India" (2007), and "Singh Is Kinng" (2008). Prime Minister John Howard said during a visit to India after the release of "Salaam Namaste" that he wanted to encourage Indian filmmaking in Australia to increase tourism, and he appointed Steve Waugh as tourism ambassador to India. Australian actress Tania Zaetta, who appeared in "Salaam Namaste" and several other Bollywood films, was eager to expand her career in Bollywood.
Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Bollywood films are popular in the former Soviet Union (Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia), and have been dubbed into Russian. Indian films were more popular in the Soviet Union than Hollywood films and, sometimes, domestic Soviet films. The first Indian film released in the Soviet Union was "Dharti Ke Lal" (1946), directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and based on the Bengal famine of 1943, in 1949. Three hundred Indian films were released in the Soviet Union after that; most were Bollywood films with higher average audience figures than domestic Soviet productions. Fifty Indian films had over 20 million viewers, compared to 41 Hollywood films. Some, such as "Awaara" (1951) and "Disco Dancer" (1982), had more than 60 million viewers and established actors Raj Kapoor, Nargis, Rishi Kapoor and Mithun Chakraborty in the country.
According to diplomat Ashok Sharma, who served in the Commonwealth of Independent States,
After the collapse of the Soviet film-distribution system, Hollywood filled the void in the Russian film market and Bollywood's market share shrank. A 2007 Russia Today report noted a renewed interest in Bollywood by young Russians.
In Poland, Shah Rukh Khan has a large following. He was introduced to Polish audiences with the 2005 release of "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (2001) and his other films, including "Dil Se.." (1998), "Main Hoon Na" (2004) and "Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna" (2006), became hits in the country. Bollywood films are often covered in "Gazeta Wyborcza", formerly Poland's largest newspaper.
The upcoming movie Squad, is the first Indian film to be shot in Belarus. A majority of the film was shot at Belarusfilm studios, in Minsk.
Middle East and North Africa.
Hindi films have become popular in Arab countries,
and imported Indian films are usually subtitled in Arabic when they are released. Bollywood has progressed in Israel since the early 2000s, with channels dedicated to Indian films on cable television; MBC Bollywood and Zee Aflam show Hindi movies and serials.
In Egypt, Bollywood films were popular during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1987, however, they were restricted to a handful of films by the Egyptian government. Amitabh Bachchan has remained popular in the country and Indian tourists visiting Egypt are asked, "Do you know Amitabh Bachchan?"
Bollywood movies are regularly screened in Dubai cinemas, and Bollywood is becoming popular in Turkey; "Barfi!" was the first Hindi film to have a wide theatrical release in that country. Bollywood also has viewers in Central Asia (particularly Uzbekistan and Tajikistan).
South America.
Bollywood films are not influential in most of South America, although its culture and dance is recognised. Due to significant South Asian diaspora communities in Suriname and Guyana, however, Hindi-language movies are popular. In 2006, "Dhoom 2" became the first Bollywood film to be shot in Rio de Janeiro. In January 2012, it was announced that UTV Motion Pictures would begin releasing films in Peru with "Guzaarish".
Africa.
Hindi films were originally distributed to some parts of Africa by Lebanese businessmen, and "Mother India" (1957) continued to be screened in Nigeria decades after its release. Indian movies have influenced Hausa clothing, songs have been covered by Hausa singers, and stories have influenced Nigerian novelists. Stickers of Indian films and stars decorate taxis and buses in Nigeria's Northern Region, and posters of Indian films hang on the walls of tailoring shops and mechanics' garages. Unlike Europe and North America, where Indian films cater to the expatriate marke, Bollywood films became popular in West Africa despite the lack of a significant Indian audience. One possible explanation is cultural similarity: the wearing of turbans, animals in markets; porters carrying large bundles, and traditional wedding celebrations. Within Muslim culture, Indian movies were said to show "respect" toward women; Hollywood movies were seen as having "no shame". In Indian movies, women are modestly dressed; men and women rarely kiss and there is no nudity, so the films are said to "have culture" which Hollywood lacks. The latter "don't base themselves on the problems of the people"; Indian films are based on socialist values and the reality of developing countries emerging from years of colonialism. Indian movies permitted a new youth culture without "becoming Western." The first Indian film shot in Mauritius was "Souten", starring Rajesh Khanna, in 1983.
In South Africa, film imports from India were watched by black and Indian audiences. Several Bollywood figures have travelled to Africa for films and off-camera projects. "Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav" (2005) was filmed in South Africa. "Dil Jo Bhi Kahey..." (2005) was also filmed almost entirely in Mauritius, which has a large ethnic-Indian population.
Bollywood, however, seems to be diminishing in popularity in Africa. New Bollywood films are more sexually explicit and violent. Nigerian viewers observed that older films (from the 1950s and 1960s) had more culture and were less Westernised. The old days of India avidly "advocating decolonization ... and India's policy was wholly influenced by his missionary zeal to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories" were replaced. The emergence of Nollywood (West Africa's film industry) has also contributed to the declining popularity of Bollywood films, as sexualised Indian films became more like American films.
Kishore Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan have been popular in Egypt and Somalia. In Ethiopia, Bollywood movies are shown with Hollywood productions in town square theatres such as the Cinema Ethiopia in Addis Ababa. Less-commercial Bollywood films are also screened elsewhere in North Africa.
Western Europe and North America.
The first Indian film to be released in the Western world and receive mainstream attention was "Aan" (1952), directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Dilip Kumar and Nimmi. It was subtitled in 17 languages and released in 28 countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and France. "Aan" received significant praise from British critics, and "The Times" compared it favourably to Hollywood productions. Mehboob Khan's later Academy Award-nominated "Mother India" (1957) was a success in overseas markets, including Europe, Russia, the Eastern Bloc, French territories, and Latin America.
Many Bollywood films have been commercially successful in the United Kingdom. The most successful Indian actor at the British box office has been Shah Rukh Khan, whose popularity in British Asian communities played a key role in introducing Bollywood to the UK with films such as "Darr" (1993), "Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge" (1995), and "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998). "Dil Se" (1998) was the first Indian film to enter the UK top ten. A number of Indian films, such as "Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge" and "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham" (2001), have been set in London.
Bollywood is also appreciated in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. Bollywood films are dubbed in German and shown regularly on the German television channel RTL II. Germany is the second-largest European market for Indian films, after the United Kingdom. The most recognised Indian actor in Germany is Shah Rukh Khan, who has had box-office success in the country with films such as "Don 2" (2011) and "Om Shanti Om" (2007). He has a large German fan base, particularly in Berlin (where the tabloid "Die Tageszeitung" compared his popularity to that of the pope).
Bollywood has experienced revenue growth in Canada and the United States, particularly in the South Asian communities of large cities such as Toronto, Chicago, and New York City. Yash Raj Films, one of India's largest production houses and distributors, reported in September 2005 that Bollywood films in the United States earned about $100 million per year in theatre screenings, video sales and the sale of movie soundtracks; Indian films earn more money in the United States than films from any other non-English speaking country. Since the mid-1990s, a number of Indian films have been largely (or entirely) shot in New York, Los Angeles, Vancouver or Toronto. Films such as "The Guru" (2002) and "" (2007) attempted to popularise Bollywood for Hollywood.
Plagiarism.
Pressured by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some Bollywood writers and musicians have been known to plagiarise. Ideas, plot lines, tunes or riffs have been copied from other Indian film industries or foreign films (including Hollywood and other Asian films) without acknowledging the source.
Before the 1990s, plagiarism occurred with impunity. Copyright enforcement was lax in India, and few actors or directors saw an official contract. The Hindi film industry was not widely known to non-Indian audiences (except in the Soviet states), who would be unaware that their material had been copied. Audiences may not have been aware of plagiarism, since many in India were unfamiliar with foreign films and music. Although copyright enforcement in India is still somewhat lenient, Bollywood and other film industries are more aware of each other and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign films and music. Organisations such as the India EU Film Initiative seek to foster a community between filmmakers and industry professionals in India and the European Union.
A commonly-reported justification for plagiarism in Bollywood is that cautious producers want to remake popular Hollywood films in an Indian context. Although screenwriters generally produce original scripts, many are rejected due to uncertainty about whether a film will be successful. Poorly-paid screenwriters have also been criticised for a lack of creativity. Some filmmakers see plagiarism in Bollywood as an integral part of globalisation, with which Western (particularly American) culture is embedding itself into Indian culture. Vikram Bhatt, director of "Raaz" (a remake of "What Lies Beneath") and "Kasoor" (a remake of "Jagged Edge"), has spoken about the influence of American culture and Bollywood's desire to produce box-office hits based along the same lines: "Financially, I would be more secure knowing that a particular piece of work has already done well at the box office. Copying is endemic everywhere in India. Our TV shows are adaptations of American programmes. We want their films, their cars, their planes, their Diet Cokes and also their attitude. The American way of life is creeping into our culture." According to Mahesh Bhatt, "If you hide the source, you're a genius. There's no such thing as originality in the creative sphere".
Although very few cases of film-copyright violations have been taken to court because of a slow legal process, the makers of "Partner" (2007) and "Zinda" (2005) were targeted by the owners and distributors of the original films: "Hitch" and "Oldboy". The American studio 20th Century Fox brought Mumbai-based B. R. Films to court over the latter's forthcoming "Banda Yeh Bindaas Hai", which Fox alleged was an illegal remake of "My Cousin Vinny". B. R. Films eventually settled out of court for about $200,000, paving the way for its film's release. Some studios comply with copyright law; in 2008, Orion Pictures secured the rights to remake Hollywood's "Wedding Crashers".
Music.
The Pakistani Qawwali musician Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan had a big impact on Bollywood music, inspiring numerous Indian musicians working in Bollywood, especially during the 1990s. However, there were many instances of Indian music directors plagiarising Khan's music to produce hit filmi songs. Several popular examples include Viju Shah's hit song "Tu Cheez Badi Hai Mast Mast" in "Mohra" (1994) being plagiarised from Khan's popular Qawwali song "Dam Mast Qalandar", "Mera Piya Ghar Aya" used in "Yaarana" (1995), and "Sanoo Ek Pal Chain Na Aaye" in "Judaai" (1997). Despite the significant number of hit Bollywood songs plagiarised from his music, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was reportedly tolerant towards the plagiarism. One of the Bollywood music directors who frequently plagiarised him, Anu Malik, claimed that he loved Khan's music and was actually showing admiration by using his tunes. However, Khan was reportedly aggrieved when Malik turned his spiritual "Allah Hoo, Allah Hoo" into "I Love You, I Love You" in "Auzaar" (1997). Khan said "he has taken my devotional song "Allahu" and converted it into "I love you". He should at least respect my religious songs."
Bollywood soundtracks also plagiarised Guinean singer Mory Kanté, particularly his 1987 album "Akwaba Beach". His song, "Tama", inspired two Bollywood songs: Bappi Lahiri's "Tamma Tamma" in "Thanedaar" (1990) and "Jumma Chumma" in Laxmikant–Pyarelal's soundtrack for "Hum" (1991). The latter also featured "Ek Doosre Se", which copied Kanté's "Inch Allah". His song "Yé ké yé ké" was used as background music in the 1990 Bollywood film "Agneepath", inspired the Bollywood song "Tamma Tamma" in "Thanedaar".


Isle of Sunken Gold

Isle of Sunken Gold is a 1927 American silent adventure film serial directed by Harry S. Webb. The film was long considered to be lost, however, chapters 4, 5, and 6 and reel 1 of chapter 7 were recently discovered in a European archive and retranslated back into English.
Plot.
A ship captain gets a hold of half of a map leading to a treasure buried on an island in the South Seas. The ruler of the island, a beautiful princess, has the other half of the map, and the two join forces to battle a gang of pirates and a group of islanders who don't want anyone to get the treasure.


Johan Baptista van Uther

Johan Baptista or Hans van Uther (died 1597) was a Dutch Renaissance painter, active in Sweden.
Life and works.
No personal details are known about Johan Baptista van Uther, and no signed works by his hand survive. He is thought to have been born in either Antwerp or Utrecht. He was active in Sweden, from 1562 as court painter. Several portraits have been attributed to him, notably portraits of King John III of Sweden, dowager Queen Catherine Stenbock and the future King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund III Vasa.
Stylistically, portraits attributed to Johan Baptista van Uther show influences from the refined court style of Antonis Mor. In turn, Johan Baptista van Uther taught and influenced court portraitist Holger Hansson and, possibly, Cornelius Arendtz.


Elva Nampeyo

Elva Nampeyo (1926–1985) (also known as Elva Tewaguna) was an American studio potter.
Biography.
She was born in the Corn Clan house where her grandmother Nampeyo resided, atop Hopi First Mesa, Arizona. She was the daughter of Fannie Nampeyo and Vinton Polacca. As a child Elva would watch her grandmother make pottery and play with the clay. When she was eleven years old her mother began teaching her to make pottery.
Elva became an expert at decorating and painting pottery. Her husband, Richard Tewaguna, never became involved in her pottery making. She specialized in black and red on yellow bowls and jars with traditional migration designs and eagle motifs. Her pieces most often resembled the works of her mother and grandmother. On occasion she could be persuaded to break from tradition and try some designs of her own invention. Elva took great pleasure in making pottery and could form as many as eight pots a day. During her later years when she was no longer able to finish her work, her daughter Adelle would polish, decorate and fire the pottery for her. Elva signed her pottery as "Elva Nampeyo" followed by the corn clan symbol which was initiated by her mother Fannie.
Elva had five children of which four are potters including Neva, Elton, Miriam and Adelle. All sign their work with their first names followed by "Nampeyo" and an ear of corn. She died in 1985.


Hana (name)

Hana as a given name may have any of several origins. It can be a variant transliteration of Hannah, which is the Jewish, French and Christian form, meaning "grace" in Hebrew associated with God. It is also a Kurdish name meaning hope (), a Persian name meaning flower (), and an Arabic name meaning "happiness and satisfaction" (). As a Japanese name, it is usually translated as "flower" (). In Korean, it means the number "one" (). In Hawaiian, "Hana" means "craft" or "work" . In Maori, "Hana" means to shine, glow, give out love or radiance


Amitabh Bachchan Corporation

Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Ltd. is an Indian entertainment company.
Controversy.
The company specialized in film production and event management. The business was plagued by financial difficulties. The main reason for the bad performance of ABCL was blamed on the gross mismanagement of the company by the, then CEO, Sanjiv Gupta, who went on to become the CEO of Coca-Cola India.
Miss World 1996.
The company burst into the limelight in 1996 when it was responsible for bringing to India the Miss World Pageant, but was then mired with controversy when the company was not able to pay its dues.
TV Show.
"Dekh Bhai Dekh" a Hindi sitcom was directed by Anand Mahendru, produced by Jaya Bachchan (via ABCL) and starring Sushma Seth, Navin Nischol and Shekhar Suman in lead roles.


Kilmainham

Kilmainham (, meaning "St Maighneann's church") is a suburb of Dublin, Ireland, south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre, in the Dublin 8 postal district.
History.
In the Viking era, the monastery was home to the first Norse base ("longphort") in Ireland.
In the 12th century, the lands on the banks of the Liffey first belonged to the Knights Templar. Strongbow erected for them a castle
about a mile distant from the Danish wall of old Dublin; and Hugh Tyrrel, first Baron Castleknock, granted them part of the lands which now form Phoenix Park. Here the Templars flourished, for nearly a century and a half, until the process for their suppression was instituted under Edward II, in 1308. Thirty members of the order were imprisoned and examined in Dublin and the order was condemned and suppressed. Their lands and privileges were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who remained in possession until the dissolution of the monasteries in the 16th century.
Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, when Dublin Castle became the centre of English power, the Lord Lieutenants often held court at the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, on being again appointed Lord Lieutenant, found that the building at Kilmainham had been damaged by a storm, and had to hold court at the palace of St. Sepulchre. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be upgraded to enable the Lord Lieutenant to reside there, and Kilmainham fell out of favour.
The Manor of Kilmainham formed a liberty outside the jurisdiction of the city of Dublin, with its own rights and privileges. The manor took in parts of James's Street and side-streets and stretched as far as Lucan and Chapelizod. After the Reformation, former lords (or chairmen, as they were later called) of this manor included Lord Cloncurry and Sir Edward Newenham. John "Bully" Egan, from Charleville, County Cork, was chairman from 1790 to 1800. These manorial rights were abolished after the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840, and much of the area was included within the city.
 The portion still outside the city in the latter part of the nineteenth century was within the township of New Kilmainham, a municipality governed by town commissioners, first under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act 1854 and then under an 1868 local act. From 1868, New Kilmainham comprised the townlands of Kilmainham, Goldenbridge North, Inchicore North, Inchicore South, and Butchers Arms. Its total area was and the population was 5,391 in 1881 and 6,519 in 1891. In 1900 the township was absorbed into the municipal boundary of Dublin city as the New Kilmainham ward.
Local attractions.
The area is best known for Royal Hospital Kilmainham, constructed on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It now houses the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.
Kilmainham holds one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse "haugr" meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin, others including Bully's Acre and where College Green is now located.
A tourist map of the area can be viewed here.
Railway station.
The Dublin Heuston railway station, one of Dublin's three main railway stations, is nearby.


Unit citation

A unit citation is a formal, honorary mention by high authority of a military unit's specific and outstanding performance, notably in battle.
Similar mentions can also be made for individual soldiers.
Alternatively or concurrently, the unit can be awarded an honorary title, a mention on the flag or a decoration.
In France, since 1916, the "fourragère" (an ornamental colored cord) is worn on the uniform by the members of a unit which had received several citations. This tradition has since spread to other countries.
Unit citations by country.
United States.
Military (In order of precedence)
Other's (Alphabetical):
further, there are various unit awards of the National Guard and state defense forces


Gallagher (surname)

Gallagher (, "Ó Gallchobhoir"; Modern ) is an Irish Gaelic clan based most prominently in what is today County Donegal. The clan name originated in the 10th century as a derivative of its founder Gallchobhair mac Rorcan. They descend in the paternal line from the Northern Uí Néill's Cenél Conaill. The immediate progenitors of the Gallaghers held the High Kingship of Ireland during the 6th and 7th centuries in the form of Ainmuire mac Sétnai, Áed mac Ainmuirech, Máel Coba mac Áedo and Cellach mac Máele Coba; Áed was also an ancestor of the O'Donnell and O'Doherty clans. Indeed, during the Middle Ages, the Gallaghers were Marshals of the Kingdom of Tyrconnell, ruled by their previously junior kinsmen the O'Donnells.
Etymology.
In Ireland, the anglicised version of the name "Gallagher" is pronounced "Goll-a-her" in parts of its native County Donegal in Ulster, while elsewhere in the country it is most frequently pronounced as "Gall-a-her". Outside Ireland, there has been a corruption or alteration of the pronunciation, resulting in "Gall-ag-er" in some parts of Britain and the USA.
The name Gallagher is an anglicisation of the Irish surname "Ó Gallchobhair", "Ó Gallchobhoir" (or two newer spelling forms, "Ó Gallchóir" and "Ó Gallachóir"), these being masculine forms; the corresponding feminine forms are "Ní Ghallchobhair" (newer forms "Ní Ghallchóir" and "Ní Ghallachóir"). Apart from the aforementioned spelling there are at least 30 recorded variants including Gallacher, Gallager, Gallaher, Gallocher, Galliher, Gallaugher, Galagher, Galegher, Goligher, Golliher, Gollaher and Gallahue.
The earliest recorded incidence of the name is in a fragment of a manuscript presently in the Royal Library of Brussels, which states the name "Gallchubhair". A similarly earlier mention occurs in the "Annals of the Four Masters", where it is recorded that Mael Cobo Úi Gallchobhar, abbot of Scrin Adamnain, died in 1022 AD. Gallchobhar was the one given the role of founding father of the clan at the advent of widespread surname usage in Ireland, which began around the 10th century.
As with the modern Irish surname Ó Conchúir, frequently anglicized as O'Conor, Ó Gallchóir similarly appears to be a conjoined/compound word and shares in common with O'Connor, the same suffix. With O'Conner likewise starting out in the original Irish as Conchobhar/Conchubhar (Con-chobhar meaning "lover of canines"). The original Irish spelling, Ó Gallchobhar, draws from this same compound naming convention.
It is the most common surname in County Donegal ("Dún na nGall" means "fort of the foreigner"), and thus is very common in Derry, and is the fourteenth most common by birth records in Ireland. In the United States, it was ranked by the 2000 US Census as the 433rd most common name out of over 68,000 surnames found. According to Professor Edward MacLysaght, in the mid 20th century Gallagher was one of the most common Irish surnames, most of the recorded births being located in the northern province,
Ulster, and the western province, Connacht, with the majority being recorded in the homeland of the sept – County Donegal in Ulster. In 1890 it was ranked the 12th most common surname in Ireland, while in 1996 it was 20th.
History.
Origins.
Conall Gulban, son of Niall Noígiallach, founded the kingdom of Tír Chonaill (Tyrconnell) in the 5th century. It comprises much of what is now County Donegal, and several surrounding areas. The following is a pruned and truncated version of the Conall Gulban family tree with Conall Gulban's brothers Eógan, to Lóegaire, also displayed. For clarity's sake number of Conall Gulban's sons, grandsons and great-grandsons are not listed. Gallchobar is descended from Mael Coba brother of Domnall mac Áedo.
Genetic analysis of Gallagher Y chromosome haplogroups can trace back their origin to a single medieval, 5th century individual, lending credence to the legend of Niall Noígiallach.
The prefix Mac means 'son of' and the now more popular Ua (later Ó') means 'grandson of, or, of the generations of'.
 Niall Noígiallach, died c. A.D.455.
 |________________________________________________________________________________
 | | | | | |
 Conall Gulban Eógan Cairpre Fiacha Conall Cremthainne Lóegaire
 | | | | | |
 | Cenél nEógain | Cenél Fiachach | Cenél Lóegaire
 | Cenél Cairpre / \
 | / \
 | Clann Cholmáin Síl nÁedo Sláine
 Cenél Conaill of In Fochla
 |_________________________________________________
 |
 Fergus Cennfota
 |_________________________________________________
 |
 Sétna
 |_________________________________________________
 | |
 |Ainmuire mac Sétnai, d. 569 Lugaid
 Rí/King of Ireland |
 | Cenél Lugdach
 |__________________________________________________
 |
 Áed (mac Ainmuirech), d. 598
 |__________________________________________________________
 | | | |
 Domnall, d. 642 Conall Cu, Mael Coba, d. 615, Cumuscach, d. 597
 | |_____________
 | | |
 | Cellach Conall Cael
 | | both died 658 & 654
 | ~
 | Gallchobar
 | (Clann Ua Gallchobair)
 |___________________________________________________________
 |
 Óengus, died 650
 |Further Cenél Conaill.
The Gallchobhar clan hails from the Irish baronies of Tír Aodha/Tír Hugh ("land of Hugh") and Raphoe, in the east of County Donegal, Ireland, in which Ballybeit and Ballynaglack served as seats of their power. They are members of Cenél Aedha ("descendants of Hugh/Áed (mac Ainmuireach)") and of the larger Cenél Conaill.
One modern and therefore apocryphal origin story is that the original person, being a courageous and charitable person, went to the assistance of the crew of the first Viking ship to arrive off the Irish coast and whose ship was wrecked off the coast of County Donegal, where he was the local chieftain. He having first saved them and then cared for them, they eventually returned to their homeland, only to return soon after with the first raiding party. Hence it is argued he was given the name ("Gall" means stranger or foreigner in modern Irish and the ending "cubhair" and "cobhair" which for the purpose of this story is said to be derived from "cabhair" in modern Irish meaning help or helper). Whatever the derivation of his name (see reference to O' Clery's Glossary above giving the derivation as Gal+acobhar 'ambition of valour'), Gallchobhar was the one given the role of founding father of the clan at the advent of surname use in Ireland in around the 10th century. The earliest recorded incidence of the name in a fragment of a manuscript presently in the Royal Library of Brussels is "Gallchubhair". A similarly earlier mention occurs in the Annals of the Four Masters, where it is recorded that Mael Cobo Úi Gallchobhar, abbot of Scrin Adamnain, died in 1022 AD.
The family's origins are with the chieftain Aodh, a name corresponding to the English Hugh (whence Tirhugh), a lineal descendant of Conall Gulban son of 5th century High King and warlord Niall Noígíallach, known in English as Niall of the Nine Hostages, who is reputed to have brought St Patrick to Ireland as a slave. Aodh established his "dúnarus" fort building or residence at a place corresponding to the present day townland of Glassbolie in Tirhugh. The chieftains of his line ruled in relative peace for several generations until the beginning of the Viking invasion of Ireland in the 9th century. The ruling chieftain of the time, whose real name is not recorded, was almost certainly obliged to come to some accommodation with the foreign invader resulting in the nickname "Gallcóbhair" which has been applied to his descendants thereafter.
It would appear that the previously obscure Cenél Lugdach forged multiple matrimonial alliances with the local Viking leadership, and not the Gallchobair of the Cenél Aedha who existed before the arrival of the Vikings in the 800s, the Cenél Lugdach are descended from Lugaid mac Sétnai, one of the great-grandsons of Conall Gulban. In contrast to the Gallchobair who are descended from his brother and the first born son Ainmuire mac Sétnai. The Cenél Lugdach tribal territory extended from Dobhar (Gweedore) to the river Suilidhe (Swilly) in Donegal. From this clan descend the Cenél Conaill surnames of O'Doherty, and O'Donnell.
The modern surname system began c. 900, but wasn't adopted in its entirety until about 1100. Despite the legend that Brian Boru was somehow responsible for the widespread implementation of this naming system, the custom may have developed of its own accord as the Irish population grew in size.
The Ó Gallchobhair sept claims to be the most senior family of the Cenél Conaill as Gallchobar was descended from Conall Gulban. The sept's territory was spread across the areas within the modern baronies of Raphoe and Tirhugh in Co Donegal. From the 14th century until the 16th century, the sept's chiefs were marshals of the O'Donnell cavalry in the O'Donnell Lucht Tighe. The principal branch of the family was centred at Ballybeit and Ballynaglack. Although generally aligned with the O'Donnells during the period, a renegade band of Gallaghers helped their rival, Shane O'Neill, escape after the battle of Fearsaid Suili in 1567.
16th century Tudor-era.
In the 16th century, the Ó Gallchobairs also opposed the Ó Donnells for a short time for religious reasons after King Henry VIII of England declared himself King of Ireland and head of the church in the Tudor conquest of Ireland beginning in 1541. To maintain their lands and power, the Ó Donnell Lord of Tír Conaill, was forced to recognise Henry VIII as King of Ireland, leader of the Irish Church and had to defend the new English religion from anyone who would advocate papal authority. As a result, the Ó Donnells supported Bishop O'Kane over Edmond O'Gallagher. O'Gallagher was never accepted as bishop, and he died mysteriously in 1543. The O'Gallagher clan then seized the Ó Donnell Lifford Castle in retaliation, for about a year.
With the death of Edmond, the Pope appointed another Gallagher as Bishop of Raphoe in his place, although this bishop was not capable of assuming this position until the arrival of the English Queen Mary who restored Roman Catholicism as the state religion in 1553. It appears that, with the death of the subservient Ó Donnell lord, the practice of Catholicism was left to continue peacefully in Tír Conaill, at least up to the end of the Nine Years' War(c. 1594) and the British Plantation of Ulster(1606).
Redmond O'Gallagher was appointed Bishop of Killala by Pope Paul III in 1545 and presumably was recognised by the Crown in the reign of Queen Mary I, but there is no record of his recognition by Queen Elizabeth I. In 1569, Redmond O'Gallagher was appointed Bishop of Derry. He died in office on 15 March 1601. Donat O'Gallagher, OFM succeeded Redmond as Bishop of Killala in 1570. In 1580, Donat was appointed Bishop of Down and Connor and died in office in 1581.
17th century and the Flight of the Earls.
In the Annals of the Four Masters, on 14 September 1607, mention by Tadhg Ó Cianáin is made of five Gallaghers named Cathaoir (mac Toimlin), Cathaoir (mac Airt), Toirleach Corrach, Tuathal and Aodh Og who accompanied the O'Donnell 'Earls', as they fled Ireland. They stayed in Belgium and joined the O'Neill regiment in the Spanish Army of Flanders. The regiment fought against the Dutch during the Eighty Years' War. Aodh Ó Gallchobhair and his wife (mentor and nursemaid of O'Donnell sons) chose to travel with the O'Donnells to Rome.
Michael Gallaher was the first to arrive in Philadelphia as a merchant trader, in the year 1750.
18th to 19th century under the British Act of Union.
Captain Gallagher (died 1818) was an Irish highwayman who, as one of the later Irish Rapparees (guerrillas), led a bandit group in the hills of the Irish countryside, armed with the Blunderbuss of the day, during the late 18th and early 19th century.
Born in Bonniconlon, County Mayo, he lived with his aunt in Derryronane, Swinford, for much of his early life and was raised near the woods of Barnalyra(roughly the location of modern-day Ireland West Airport Knock) As he reached early adulthood, he and a group of others began raiding mail coaches as well as wealthy landowners and travellers throughout eastern Mayo and parts of southern County Sligo and western County Roscommon.
His attacks on landowners were especially widely known and, in one reported incident, Gallagher and his men raided the home of an extremely unpopular landlord in Killasser and forced him to eat half a dozen eviction notices he had recently drawn up for nearly half a dozen tenant farmers before escaping with silver and other valuables.
Although successfully evading British patrols for some time, he was finally apprehended by authorities in the parish of Coolcarney (or possibly Attymass) near the foothills of the Ox Mountains while recovering from an illness at a friend's home during Christmas.
He had been informed on by a neighbour whom Gallagher had formerly helped after sending a message of Gallagher's whereabouts to the British commanding officer at Foxford. Immediately sending for reinforcements from Ballina, Castlebar and Swinford, a force of 200 redcoats were sent after Gallagher and, upon their arrival, proceeded to surround the home where the highwayman had been staying. Gallagher, by then in poor health and not wishing to endanger his host or his family, surrendered to the British. Taken back to Foxford, he was tried and convicted before being taken to Castlebar, where he was executed.
Shortly before his execution, he had claimed to the British commanding officer that his treasure had been hidden under a rock in the woods of Barnalyra. After Gallagher's execution, the officer quickly led several cavalryman to Barnalyra who discovered there were thousands of rocks in the wood, upon a long search of all the rocks within the area, they reportedly only recovered a jewel hilted sword. It has been speculated that Gallagher may have been hoping to lead them to the site in the hopes his men would be able to rescue him from their hideout near the Derryronane-Curryane border although the treasure was never recovered.
Irish war of Independence.
"Cork Free Press"s Frank Gallagher, hired by William O'Brien of the political party, the All-for-Ireland League, was a prominent Sinn Féin supporter in the press. However the paper was censored and suppressed in 1916 after Frank, as its republican editor, accused the British authorities of lying about the conditions and situation of republican prisoners in Frongoch internment camp. In December 1931, Gallagher now at The Irish Press, was prosecuted by the Irish Free State military tribunal for publishing Seditious libel, articles alleging that Gardaí had mistreated the opponents (Anti-Treaty republicans) of the Irish Free State government. This was facilitated by "Amendment No. 17 of Constitution of the Irish Free State" and Gallagher was convicted and fined £50.
Frank is most well known for penning "Four Glorious Years 1918–1921" and becoming the deputy director of the first Dáil's Department of Publicity in March 1921, assisting his colleague Erskine Childers, and together they published the "Irish Bulletin". In 1965 his book "The Anglo-Irish Treaty" was published posthumously. In 1974 "The indivisible island : the history of the partition of Ireland" was to be his last published, again posthumously.
In the US.
"The San Francisco Call"'s James Gallagher was a frequent contributor and book reviewer c. 1906.
Arms.
The Gallagher coat of arms displays a black lion rampant on a silver shield, treading on a green snake surrounded by eight green trefoils. The correct heraldic description is "Field argent a lion rampant sable treading on a serpent in fess proper between eight trefoils vert". The crest which surmounts the helmet over the shield depicts a red crescent surrounding a green snake or, to give its heraldic definition, "A crescent gules out of the horns a serpent erect proper". The motto of the clan in Latin is "Mea Gloria Fides" ("The Faith is My Glory"). While in Irish it is "Buaidh nó Bás" ("Victory or death").


Hey! Hey! Cowboy

Hey! Hey! Cowboy is a lost 1927 American silent western film directed by Lynn Reynolds and starring Hoot Gibson. It was produced and released by Universal Pictures.


List of Indiana state historical markers in Lake County

This is a list of the Indiana state historical markers in Lake County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Lake County, Indiana, United States by the Indiana Historical Bureau. The locations of the historical markers and their latitude and longitude coordinates are included below when available, along with their names, years of placement and topics as recorded by the Historical Bureau. There are eight historical markers located in Lake County.


Former Texas State Guard Association Medal

The Former Texas State Guard Association Medal is a medal within the awards and decorations of the Texas State Guard Nonprofit Association that may be awarded to a member of the Texas Military Forces. This includes Air National Guard, Army National Guard, and State Guard.
Use.
The Former Texas State Guard Association Medal is presented for previous membership in the Texas State Guard Association. The ribbon and medals may now only be worn on appropriate Texas State Guard uniforms by former Texas State Guard Association life members (those who joined prior to the merger with NGAT). Life members of the association wear the hourglass device with the award. New supporters of the TXSGNA will receive this medal which authorizes the donor to wear the ribbon for the year of donation or permanently for Life Donors. Additionally, a bronze oak leaf cluster is authorized for wear on the medal for three consecutive years of annual donations.


Uiju Castle

 Uiju Castle is a historic structure located on the Chinese border, along the Yalu River in Uiju County, in North Pyongan Province, North Korea. A structure first built during the Ri Dynasty was designed to serve as the main border town (Uiju) in the area and was one of the most important northern defense posts during this time (the area had been fortified since the time of the Koryo dynasty). The present castle was built in 1520, it probably included parts of the old fortress. It is listed as one of the National Treasures of North Korea.
Description.
As built, the castle surrounding the town was approximately in circumference. The castle walls were built using rough, square stones with a height of up to five meters. It had gates at each of the four cardinal points and contained 43 wells. Much of the castle was destroyed during the Japanese colonial period, but the remains of the south gate are well-preserved; it is a majestic dragon gate in the style of Confucian Chinese architecture. Notably, the Tonggun Pavilion was the northern terrace of the Castle. It is cited as one of the Eight Scenic Spots in the Kwanso Area of the country.
History.
During the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, King Seonjo of Joseon took refuge at Uiju, taking the ancestral tablets from Jongmyo and the shrines with him; the tablets were returned to Seoul in October of 1593.
Im Gyeong-eop was in charge of the castle in the early 17th century.
During the Manchu invasion of Korea in 1636, Qing soldiers were able to sneak into the fortress through a drainage hole and opened the gate of the fortress.
In June 2015, a painting dated from 1723 depicting the castle, was found in the collections of the Yamaguchi Prefectural University, having never before seen by the public. It was likely brought to Japan by Terauchi Masatake, among other items smuggled into Japan by Masatake.


Vulcan Gas Company

The Vulcan Gas Company (usually called simply Vulcan) was the first successful psychedelic music venue in Austin, Texas. The Vulcan opened its doors at 316 Congress Avenue in the fall of 1967, and closed in the summer of 1970. Gary Scanlon, Houston White, Don Hyde and Sandy Lockett started the VGC. By 1969, management was primarily by White and Lockett, along with Jim Franklin. There was a substantial sound system installed by Sandy Lockett. Charlie Sauer was the principal audio engineer for the last year of operation. Bobby Hedderman and Marty McDermott managed the club for the last few months. Underground cartoonist Gilbert Shelton became their art director in 1967 and drew their weekly posters.
In an interview with Don Hyde by Eddie Wilson 2010, Hyde said that the landlord had tremendous pressure from everywhere to throw them out. He went down to the VGC a couple of times, unannounced, on a Saturday night, walked around and said “I just don’t see what everyone is so upset about. It just looks like young people having fun. It is loud! But to each his own.” He told Hyde that as long as the rent was paid--$350 a month—they could stay.
A name plaque for the Vulcan is still on the front wall of the historic W.B. Smith building, named after the dry goods store which first occupied the building in 1884. In 1967 this end of the street leading to the Texas Capitol was not particularly prosperous and rents were relatively low.
The Vulcan provided a concert stage for unconventional bands of various genres, most notably the 13th Floor Elevators and the Conqueroo. By 1969, Shiva's Headband became the "de facto" house band, and in the first half of 1970 the Hub City Movers played frequently at the Vulcan.
The club had homemade benches and old church pews for the audience. The main floor, in front of the stage, was used for dancing. The club owner(s) always wanted all ages to attend and even gave passes out to Jr. High kids who would pass handbills out at lunchtime. Smoking marijuana inside the club was discouraged and rare. Alcohol was discouraged, but common. For some time, the Vulcan used space in the adjoining building to the north for selling sandwiches and soft drinks and as office space, but this auxiliary space was eventually abandoned to reduce rent.
Since there was no liquor license and beer could not be sold, almost all of the income came from gate receipts, typically $1.50 per person. That was the main cause of the club's ultimate demise. Johnny Winter, as a favor to White and Lockett, played a benefit concert, along with the Hub City Movers, March 10 & 11, 1970. Even that concert was not enough to offset ominous financial difficulties.
The elevated stage at the northwest end of the hall was rustic, but the psychedelic light show offset that appearance. The light show was operated from a suspended platform on the south side of the room and near the ceiling - reached by a ladder. There was a large horizontal drain pipe across the back of the stage—that pipe is prominent in many photos of performances at the Vulcan.
There is one feature that most customers never saw, but is still a part of the Vulcan legend: the freight elevator. It was in the back, next to the doors that opened onto the alley. Made of wood and powered by human muscle via a rope that worked a reel of steel cable. The ride up was difficult, but the ride down could be precarious. The cable often got snarled and had to be unsnarled by hand.
For much of the history, concerts were advertised with both large posters and letter sized handbills, similar to those produced for concerts at the Avalon Ballroom and The Fillmore. Gradually, the larger posters were sacrificed to save cost, and eventually the handbills were abandoned for the same reason. A comprehensive annotated collection is available online.
The Vulcan Gas Company dance club, opening in 2014, is adopting the name, but is otherwise unrelated to the original venue.


List of Indiana state historical markers in Greene County

This is a list of the Indiana state historical markers in Greene County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Greene County, Indiana, United States by the Indiana Historical Bureau. The locations of the historical markers and their latitude and longitude coordinates are included below when available, along with their names, years of placement, and topics as recorded by the Historical Bureau. There are 2 historical markers located in Greene County.


Almost a Husband

Almost a Husband is a lost 1919 American comedy film directed by Clarence G. Badger and written by Robert F. Hill. It is based on the 1897 novel "Old Ebenezer" by Opie Read. The film stars Will Rogers, Peggy Wood, Herbert Standing, Cullen Landis, Clara Horton, and Ed Brady. The film was released on October 12, 1919, by Goldwyn Pictures.
Premise.
A New England schoolteacher moves to a small Southern town and comes to the aid of many local people, including a young woman who faces unwanted romantic advances from another man. He pretends to marry the woman, but their marriage ends up being real.


El Pisito

El Pisito is a 1959 Spanish comedy film directed by Marco Ferreri. The Spanish Ministry of Culture forced the producers to sign the film as co-directed by Spaniard Isidoro M. Ferry. It was co-written by famous Spanish screenwriter Rafael Azcona, who collaborated with Ferreri throughout his career.
The film was a huge flop when it was released in Spain, but nowadays is a cult classic. The film had troubles with Spanish censorship.
In the film, Marco Ferreri and Carlos Saura appear in cameos.


Eugenie Magnus Ingleton

Eugenie Magnus Ingleton (1873 - 3 August 1936) was a British screenwriter, actress, and war correspondent. She started acting on the stage at the age of ten playing Little Eva in "Uncle Tom’s Cabin".
She worked as a war correspondent in South Africa during the Second Boer War before moving to the United States.
She worked mainly as a screenwriter but got also involved in stage design and other tasks around the set.