Battle of Pfaffenhofen

The Battle of Pfaffenhofen was fought on 15 April 1745 between France and Austria. The Austrians under Karl Josef Batthyány defeated the outnumbered French under General Ségur, ending the war in Bavaria.
Prelude.
In October 1744, the Franco-Bavarian army had succeeded, in coordination with Prussia, to expel the Austrians from Bavaria, and to reinstate Charles VII, Prince-elector of Bavaria and Holy Roman Emperor, in his capital Munich. Here he died 3 months later.

His 18-year-old son and heir Maximilian III Joseph wavered between the "Peace-party", led by his mother Maria Amalia, Holy Roman Empress and Army Commander Friedrich Heinrich von Seckendorff and the "War-party", led by Foreign Minister General Ignaz von Törring and the French envoy Chavigny.
This hampered the ongoing peace negotiations, so Maria Theresia ordered the Austrian Army to start a new offensive to put pressure on the Bavarian negotiators. Amberg and Vilshofen were taken and the Bavarian army under Törring and its French, Hessian and Palatinate allies were pushed on the defensive.
Törring decided to pull back his Bavarian and Hessian troops behind the Lech River.
The French Army commander Henri François de Ségur was not informed of this manoeuver and waited unaware and unprotected near Pfaffenhofen on Palatinate reinforcements under General Zastrow, which arrived on 14 April. The next day Segur decided to also pull back behind the Lech.

The Austrians, aware of the isolated French position, had by then reached Pfaffenhofen with a force larger than the French.
The battle.
First the Austrians attacked the town of Pfaffenhofen and were met by French fire.
But the Austrians took the town in house-to-house combat in which the fierce Croatian Pandurs inflicted heavy casualties on the French defenders.
Meanwhile, François de Ségur had hastily improvised a defensive position around a hill west of the city. But, when more and more Austrian troops, including the main force under Batthyány, reached the battlefield, de Ségur was forced twice to withdraw his army, to avoid encirclement. When the sign for a general withdrawal was given, panic broke out amongst the
Palatinate troops and they fled. de Ségur had the greatest difficulty in preventing the panic spreading amongst his French troops.
The retreating army was harassed by the Pandur and Hussar light cavalry, which inflicted many casualties.
Only after the French and Palatinates had crossed the Paar river at Hohenwart at 18:00, the Austrians gave up their pursuit. The defeated army reached Rain on the Lech the next day at 11:00 at set up camp. But the next morning the Austrian army appeared and the allies fled over the Lech River, leaving all its material behind. Only the burning down of the bridge prevented a total disaster for the allies.
de Ségur had lost many troops and material, but his maintenance of discipline had prevented the total destruction of his army.
Consequences.
The day after the defeat, Törring was dismissed and the "Peace-party" prevailed.
One week later, Maximilian III Joseph concluded the Treaty of Füssen with Austria.
Maximilian recognized the Pragmatic Sanction. He also abandoned his father's claims on Bohemia and the imperial crown and promised to support the imperial candidacy of Maria Theresa's husband, Francis Stephen of Lorraine, who in fact became the next Emperor on 13 September 1745.
The Battle of Pfaffenhofen eliminated Bavaria-Bohemia as one of the four theaters of War the Austrians had to fight on, releasing troops for the war in Silesia, Italy and the Austrian Netherlands.


Wesel citadel

The Wesel citadel is the largest intact fortification system of the Rhineland and was built 1688–1722 in Wesel according to plans by Johan de Corbin, in the form of a pentagonal star, with each point of the star being a bastion. The citadel was the core of the fortress of Wesel. It is currently used as a cultural centre.
Architecture.
The main architectural features of the citadel can be derived from the principles of Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the most prominent constructor of fortifications at the time. The construction costs of the phase built between 1668 and 1700 are estimated at 373,452 Reichsthaler. In subsequent years also, a substantial amount of funds flowed into the construction, for the years 1701 and 1702 the costs were 221,600 Reichsthaler. The entire Wesel fortification was at this time armed with 250 cannons.
In 1687 Frederick William I of Brandenburg ordered the construction of a citadel to turn Wesel into a fortified city. It was to be built in the south of the city and be connected to the existing city defences, and be equipped with 5 bastions and five ravelins. The main gate of the citadel was built in 1718. Probably before the mid-18th century, the citadel was expanded and strengthened on its south and east sides. In the period when the French occupied it (1805–1814), they constructed in the citadel a 2-floor brick building, which still stands today: the old Kaserne VIII (Barracks VIII).
The main gate is impressive in design; in the southern wing, there is a prison cell, in which amongst others eleven of Ferdinand von Schill's officers were detained.
Current use.
Due to their dismantling after World War I in 1919-1920, the old fortifications are no longer present today. Especially in the direction of the Rhine and the Lippe, where the enemy would have come from, the fortifications have disappeared. The only thing that reminds of the old gate there is a street name.
After its dismantlement in 1919/1920 after World War I, the following buildings remained:


List of wars involving Tanzania

The following is a list of wars involving Tanzania since its formation in 1964.


Operation Newcombe

Operation Newcombe is the code name for two complimentary British non-combat military operations in Mali. One part of the operation involves logistical support for the French-led Operation Barkhane (previously Operation Serval), whilst the other encompasses peacekeeping in support of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). The operation was first launched on 13 January 2013 by Prime Minister David Cameron and initially involved strategic airlift and aerial reconnaissance.
Background.
In 2012, amid unprecedented civil unrest, rebel groups — including Islamist militants with links to Al-Qaeda — began to violently take control of northern parts of Mali. The United Nations Security Council subsequently authorised a French-backed resolution for African-led military action to retake control. In January 2013, Ansar Dine Islamists ran the Malian Army out of the city of Konna, which is situated northeast of the capital Bamako. Following a request for military assistance from Mali, France launched Operation Serval and began targeting Islamist militants in the north of the country. France requested assistance from other countries, including the United Kingdom, and following a phone call between British Prime Minister David Cameron and French President François Hollande, the UK agreed to contribute "very limited strategic tactical support" with no personnel deployed in a combat role.
Deployment.
20132020.
On 13 January 2013, two Royal Air Force C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft from No. 99 Squadron RAF took off from RAF Brize Norton en route to Évreux-Fauville Air Base in France. The aircraft were loaded with French armoured vehicles and other military equipment before airlifting them to French forces in Bamako, Mali's capital. Defence Secretary Philip Hammond later announced the UK would also deploy a Sentinel R1 surveillance aircraft. The aircraft, from No. 5 Squadron RAF, was based in Dakar, Senegal alongside 100 support personnel. In four months, it had flown for a total of 697 hours across 66 sorties and had delivered 100 intelligence reports to French commanders. It returned to the UK on 22 May 2013.
On 29 January 2013, 330 British military personnel were deployed to West Africa in a training role, including 40 destined for Mali in support of the EU Training Mission in Mali (EUTM Mali). In addition to assisting French and EU forces, the UK also assisted the African-led International Support Mission to Mali (AFISMA) with the deployment of a 200-strong military training team and RAF C-17 transportation flights.
In 2016, the UK pledged to continue its C-17 support on a monthly basis.
In 2018, No. 1310 Flight RAF, consisting of three RAF Chinook transport helicopters and up to 60 support personnel, were deployed to Mali to assist French operations. A C-17 was used to transport supplies necessary for the deployment, which landed at Gao International Airport. In November 2019, the aircraft were involved in the response effort following the 2019 Ménaka helicopter crash which killed 13 French soldiers — the largest loss of French service personnel in nearly four decades.
In 2019, the UK announced its intention to deploy 250 military personnel to Gao in 2020 as peacekeepers in support of United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). In April, Sierra Troop, 244 Signal Squadron (Air Support), Royal Signals arrived in Gao via an RAF A400M Atlas transport aircraft to provide information and communication services (ICS) support. The troop constructed a permanent communications shelter with the assistance of the Royal Engineers.
2020present.
By May 2020, the Chinooks had passed 2,000 flying hours, moved over 1,000 tonnes of freight and transported 12,000 passengers. The aircraft were flown by No. 18 Squadron RAF and had their deployment extended in June. The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2019, had not impacted operations. Additionally, the Light Dragoons and The Royal Anglian Regiment prepared to deploy as the 250-strong peacekeeping force announced previously in support of MINUSMA. Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk unmanned aerial vehicles were also deployed by the British Army.
During a four-month tour between May–July 2020, British Chinook helicopters took part in several intensive operations, including a series of company-sized airlifts of French Army units. One phase of the operation saw a Chinook flying during the night alongside French Caiman helicopters to insert over 130 troops for a clearance patrol before returning them back to Gao 36 hours later.
In November 2020, 300 British troops from the Light Dragoons and the Royal Anglian Regiment arrived in Mali to undertake their MINUSMA peacekeeping mission. Arriving via an RAF Atlas aircraft, the troops began operating out of a British section of a UN camp in Gao, named Camp Bagnold in honour of the desert explorer and soldier Brigadier Ralph Alger Bagnold. As part of their mission, the troops provided a reconnaissance capability, carrying out patrols and gathering intelligence for the local population. Additionally, the three Chinook helicopters and 100 logistics personnel remained committed to the operation.


Governor of Londonderry

The Governor of Londonderry and Culmore was a British military appointment. The Governor was the officer who commanded the garrison and fortifications of the city of Derry and of Culmore fort. The Governor was paid by The Honourable The Irish Society.


Montsec, Meuse

Montsec () is a commune in the Meuse department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Fighting in World War I and World War II took place in and around Montsec. The Montsec American Monument was built here during the 1930s by the American Battle Monuments Commission. The monument, dedicated in 1937, commemorates the American forces who fought in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel in World War I.
History.
During The Great War, also known as World War I, the village was occupied by the Germans in 1914 during the Battle of Flirey. A hill, sharing the same name, commands a view of the Woëvre Plain, and was used by German forces as a strong point and for observation.
During the Battle of Saint-Mihiel in 1918, the American 1st Division attacked in the area of Montsec, bypassing it. The 1st Division was joined by the American 26th Division, attacking on the other side of Montsec, also bypassing it. Both the 1st and 26th Divisions were able to accomplish it by a smoke screen being placed on the hill.
Having been bypassed due to it being fortified, being cut off from the rest of the German line, it fell to the Allies. This was accomplished by forces of the French 2nd Colonial Corps.
Before the Battle of Nancy, the commune was liberated by the American 317th Infantry in 1944.
Montsec American Monument.
The monument was designed by Egerton Swartwout, and has been described as a doric temple. It was built during the 1930s by the American Battle Monuments Commission; it was dedicated in 1937. The monument commemorates American forces involved in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel. These included the First and Second armies.
During World War II, German forces occupying France left the monument untouched. As American forces advanced, and began to displace the Germans, the memorial was damaged by American artillery. The monument was later restored.
It has been described as being similar to the Jefferson Memorial.


Battle of Siikajoki

The Battle of Siikajoki () was fought between Swedish and Russian troops on 18 April 1808 at Siikajoki, approximately 60 km south of Oulu, Finland. During the first stage of the Finnish War, the Swedish commander Wilhelm Mauritz Klingspor had decided to retreat from southern Finland, so that the Swedes would gain time, and more troops could be moved to Finland via Tornio. The retreat was also made in an effort to delay battles until the seas thawed, and to reserve troops in case the Danes took the opportunity to attack Sweden.
The Battle of Pyhäjoki, which had been fought two days earlier, was one of the first skirmishes of the war, but Siikajoki was the first major attempt to stop the advancing Russians. Carl Johan Adlercreutz had been appointed commander after Count Gustaf Löwenhielm had been captured by the Russian at Pyhäjoki. The force commanded by Georg Carl von Döbeln was trying to cross the Siikajoki River when the Russians caught up with his force. Von Döbeln decided to take a stance on the south bank of the river. He first ordered a counterattack, but was forced to pull back. At that point the Russian center opened up and the newly appointed General-Adjutant Adlercreutz ordered another attack, which threw the Russians back and halted their advance.
The Battle of Siikajoki is described in the poem "Adlercreutz" in Runeberg's epic "Tales of Ensign Stål".
The Nyland Regiment distinguished themselves at the battle, and today the Siikajoki Cross can be worn by soldiers of the Nyland Brigade, which is the traditional heir, though now part of the Finnish Navy.


Battle of Skyhill

The Battle of Scacafell or Skyhill took place about one mile (1.5 km) west of Ramsey, Isle of Man in 1079. This was during the third and final time that the Norse-Gael warrior Godred Crovan had invaded the island, finally taking it from the ruling king Fingal Godredson.
At the time of the battle, the Isle of Man was part of a larger political entity called the Kingdom of the Sudreys, which consisted of Mann and the Hebrides. According to the "Chronicles of Mann" Godred Crovan's father was "Harald the Black of Ysland" about whom nothing more is known. Other sources suggest he may have been a brother or son of Ivar Haraldsson who died in 1054.
In 1070 King Godred Sitricson died and his throne was passed to Fingal, but he does not seem to have remained there long. In 1079, Godred Crovan assembled a fleet and an army, probably of Norsemen from the Hebrides, and attacked the island. He was repulsed, but was soon back for a second attempt. Again he was repulsed, but later in the same year Godred Crovan came back a third time, and the chronicles are reasonably clear as to what happened next:
"A third time he gathered a massive force and came by night to the harbour which is called Ramsey, and three hundred men he hid in a wood which was on the sloping brow of the mountain called Sky Hill. At dawn the Manxmen formed up in battle order and after a massive charge joined battle with Godred. When the battle was raging vehemently, the three hundred rose from their place of hiding at their rear and began to weaken the resistance of the Manxmen and compelled them to flee. Now when they saw themselves defeated without any place for them to escape to, for the tide had filled the riverbed at Ramsey and the enemy were pressing constantly from the other side, those that were left begged Godred with pitiful cries to spare them their lives. Moved with compassion and taking pity on their plight, since he had been reared among them for some time, he called off his army and forbade them to pursue them further."
It has been suggested that Fingal died at this battle, as he disappears from the record from this time, but the otherwise detailed account neglects to mention this.
The result of the battle was that the Manx submitted to Godred’s rule and a sanctioned plundering of the island was carried out by his men. The island was then divided between the north, for rule by the Manx, and the South, for rule by those from the Hebrides whom Godred had brought with him to the battle. Despite Godred then moving on to a conquest of Dublin before returning to the Hebrides, he retained rule of the island until his death in 1095. His descendants continued to rule the island for the next 74 years, until 1153. Again, this is clear in the chronicales:
“Next day Godred gave his army the option of having the country divided amongst them if they preferred to remain and inhabit it, or of taking everything it contained worth having, and returning to their homes. The soldiers preferred plundering the whole island, and returning home enriched by its wealth. Godred then granted to the few islanders who had remained with him, the southern part of the island, and to the surviving Manxmnen the northern portion, on condition that none of them should ever presume to claim any of the land by hereditary right.”


Swedish Wars on Bremen

The Swedish Wars on Bremen were fought between the Swedish Empire and the Hanseatic town of Bremen in 1654 and 1666. Bremen claimed to be subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, maintaining Imperial immediacy, while Sweden claimed Bremen to be a mediatised part of her dominions of Bremen-Verden, themselves territories immediately beneath the emperor. Sweden was able to gain some territory, but despite forcing a formal oath of allegiance on Bremen, did not gain control of the town.
Background.
When in 1648 the Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War, the parties agreed that the prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden were to become dominions of Sweden. The peace treaty had been prepared at a congress throughout the final years of the war.
During the negotiations, several mostly Hanseatic cities requested that they become Imperial cities, with only Bremen being successful: Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor accepted Bremen as a Free imperial city in 1646. A respective document was signed in Linz on 1 June, with the aim of preventing Sweden from gaining the city. In turn Bremen, among other concessions, paid about 100.000 talers. Owing to Swedish diplomatic efforts however, the text of the 1648 treaty did not determine whether or not Bremen was to be included in the future Swedish dominion.
The Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, northerly and easterly neighbouring the city's territory, had been occupied by Sweden since 1646/47. Swedish forces had then expelled the forces of Prince-Archbishop Frederick II, Prince of Denmark, officiating from 1637 to 1648. On 18 February 1647, the emperor accepted Sweden's annexation of the prince-archbishopric's territory as a secularized duchy.
After the war a dispute about custom collection between Bremen and the emperor led to the latter imposing an Imperial ban on the city in 1652/53. Sweden, which had never accepted Bremen's Imperial immediacy, attacked in 1654.
First war (1654).
Swedish forces commanded by Hans Kristofer von Königsmark occupied part of the territory held by the city, but did not attack the city itself. Bremen recruited mercenaries and strengthened its defensive works. Without engaging in any major confrontation, the parties agreed on the on 28 November. It was agreed that Sweden kept occupied Bederkesa and Lehe, and Bremen had to pledge allegiance to the Swedish king Charles X Gustav. Bremen did so on 6 December.
Second war (1666).
In 1665, Bremen refused to pledge allegiance to Charles X Gustav's successor, Charles XI of Sweden. In March, the Swedish riksråd decided to wage war. Thereupon, 12,000 Swedish troops were transferred to the Duchy of Bremen by the end of the year. In January 1666, Carl Gustaf Wrangel departed from Swedish Pomerania to command the Swedish army, which in early 1666 numbered 14,000 troops. By summer, all of the city of Bremen's territory was occupied, except the city itself.
The Swedish chancellor of Bremen-Verden, Esaias von Pufendorf, went to the court in Paris to build an alliance with France. The Swedish position was that France had to intervene on the Swedish side, since Bremen was Swedish according to the Peace of Westphalia, of which France was a guarantor. Pufendorf was, however, told by Hugues de Lionne that France would not hesitate to declare openly that she read the treaty as Bremen being an Imperial city, rather than provoke a new great war with the Holy Roman Empire and the Dutch Republic with an assault Sweden and France could hardly win. Lionne said Sweden would be better off waiting for a situation when the Dutch and the neighboring German principalities were weak, and then take the city of Bremen by surprise.
The city of Bremen on the other side was successful in gathering allies, most notably Brunswick-Lüneburg (Celle) and the Electorate of Cologne, who raised a relief army. Brandenburg, Denmark and the Dutch Republic joined the anti-Swedish alliance. Wrangel failed to take the city, and initiated negotiations at his headquarters in Habenhausen. On 14 November, the Peace of Habenhausen was signed: Swedish Bremen-Verden was obliged to destroy the fortresses built close to the city. Bremen had to dispense with its status as an Imperial city during the contemporary sessions of the Imperial Diet, which were scheduled to last until the end of the 17th century. Bremen was also banned from emitting representatives to the Diet of the Lower Saxon Circle. What could not be foreseen at the time of the peace was that the Imperial Diet was to become the "Perpetual Diet of Regensburg", lasting until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Bremen further had to cede its territories north of the city and at the lower Weser river. However, the city itself with a number of villages around, maintained its independence. When in 1700 Charles XII of Sweden asked "Bremen-Verden's General Government" what to do about Bremen's independence, the General Government recommended to concede its status as a "Free Imperial City".
Aftermath.
In 1672, Sweden founded Carlsburg at the confluence of the Weser and Geeste rivers to compete with Bremen, but the settlement did not prosper. Sweden later lost all of Bremen-Verden during the Great Northern War (1700–1721).


Pader Watan

Pader Watan was an indigenous paramilitary unit in the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). Formed in 1983, the Pader Watan consisted of former mujahideen who defected to the DRA to form paramilitary units. They were referred to derisively as "Traitors in Turbans".


Battle of Krosno

The Battle of Krosno on December 7, 1655. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth forces under the command of Gabriel Wojniłłowicz defeated the Swedish forces, supported by their Polish allies under Colonel Aleksander Pracki. The battle was regarded as a symbol of Polish resistance to the invaders, as it was first Polish victory since the Swedish invasion of summer 1655.
In November 1655, when Swedish forces reached Krosno, the town opened its gates to the invaders. The sejmik of the Przemysl Land, which convened here, pledged allegiance to Charles Gustav. Soon afterwards, however, residents of Krosno saw the real face of the Swedes, who looted, plundered, murdered people and burned houses. Organized by Colonel Gabriel Wojniłłowicz, they renounced their pledge and attacked Swedish garrison, together with their Polish allies. Surprised Swedes lost the battle, and the Poles recaptured the town. Traitors, together with Pracki, were hanged in the market square, while Wojniłłowicz with his unit headed towards Biecz and Nowy Sącz.


Battle of Rajovka

The Battle of Rajovka took place on September 20, 1708 near Rajovka during the Swedish invasion of Russia in the Great Northern War. The Swedish army of about 2,400 men under the command of Charles XII defeated the Russian army of 10,000 men under Christian Felix Bauer after a fierce cavalry skirmish where the king himself was in great danger.
After having fought the battle of Malatitze the victorious Swedish army marched towards Tatarsk in order to fight the Russians under tsar Peter I. However, after a while a great number of Russian horse were spotted, having stalked the Swedish units. Charles immediately put himself in charge of the Östgöta kavalleriregemente to persecute the fleeing Russians. Unknown to the Swedes, a great number of other Russian horse were concealed behind some small woods near the exposed Russian cavalry in order to ambush Charles and his Östgöta cavalry who were running straight into the trap. For the moment, the Swedes had less than 1,000 men against close to 10,000 Russians and Charles' small squadron was quickly surrounded. The Swedes fought valiantly and Charles got his horse shot dead under him, however, they managed to halt the Russian attacks long enough for further Swedish reinforcements to arrive in form of Norra Skånska kavalleriregemente and Smålands kavalleriregemente and so all the Russians were pushed back with a loss of about 375 men killed. The Swedish losses were 100 men killed.


History of the Sri Lanka Navy

Beginning and World War II.
In January 1938 the Ceylon Naval Volunteer Force (CNVF) was created with Commander W. G. Beauchamp as Commanding Officer. On 31 August 1939, the CNVF was mobilized for war duties. Three years later, the CNVF was offered to, and accepted by the Royal Navy (RN) as a Volunteer Reserve, the "Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve", or CRNVR. It continued under RN operational and administrative command until March 1946. With the end of the war, it reverted to Ceylon Government Control, though yet CRNVR in name. In the 1939–1946 period, the CRNVR carried out several operational duties, mainly at sea. Cutting its teeth on the Port Commission tugs "Samson" and "Goliath", it later manned and operated trawlers and Antarctic whalers converted as minesweepers and fitted out with guns, submarine detection equipment and anti-submarine weaponry. They were HMS "Overdale Wyke" (the first ship to be purchased by the Government of Ceylon), HMS "Okapi", HMS "Semla", HMS "Sambhur", HMS "Hoxa", HMS "Balta" and HM Tugs "Barnet" and "C 405". In addition the CRNVR manned several motor fishing vessels (MFV), harbour defence motor launch (HDML) and miscellaneous auxiliary vessels. All were manned exclusively by CRNVR personnel. These ships were meant to sweep and guard the approaches the harbors but were often used on extended missions outside Ceylon waters. In the course of these operations, the ships came under enemy fire, recovered essential information from Japanese aircraft that were shot down, sailed to Akyab after the Burma front was opened in two FMVs for harbour duties and, was called upon to accept the surrender of the Italian light cruiser "Eritrea" and escort her to port with a prize crew on board.
Royal Ceylon Navy.
After independence from British rule in 1948, the government believed an island nation should possess a strong navy to be it first line of defense. Therefore, on 9 December 1950 the Royal Ceylon Navy was created, with Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve forming the nucleus. The first warship was commissioned , an "Algerine"-class minesweeper, ex-HMS "Flying Fish" along with other patrol boats and tugs. Later the fleet was expanded with HMCyS "Parakram", another "Algerine"-class minesweeper (ex-HMS "Pickle"), two Canadian-built River-class frigates HMCyS "Mahasena" (ex-HMS "Violetta", HMCS "Orkney" and ex-Israeli ship "Mivtach"), HMCyS "Gajabahu" (ex-HMCS "Hallowell", ex-Israeli "Misnak") and oceangoing tug (ex-HMS "Adept"). During the 1971 insurrection the navy sent its sailors for combat operations against the insurgents.
In 1972 the "Dominion of Ceylon" became the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka", and the Royal Ceylon Navy became the Sri Lanka Navy. The naval ensign along with the flag officers' flags were redesigned.
Recent years.
At the beginning of the civil war in the 1980s the navy found itself poorly equipped to face the new threats the LTTE created. But this was soon overcome by increasing the fleet of patrol boats and the introduction of fast attack crafts. These proved highly successful in limiting the LTTE's use of the seas. The weapon systems on these were upgraded with time as the sea tigers resorted to using sophisticated suicide crafts against naval vessels.
During this time the navy took part in its first amphibious operation in its history. The size of the force along with the fleet increased in the years of war. In the early 1980s a land combat force was created which at first limited itself to base defense and as its numbers increased took part in offensive operations against rebel forces along with the Sri Lankan Army. An elite naval special forces unit called the Special Boat Squadron was created in the late 80's based on the British Special Boat Service. In 2000 the Navy started a fleet air arm (FAA) by acquiring a HAL Chetak from India. Today the FAA operates from the two offshore patrol vessels of the fleet. At present conventional warfare capability is increased by the addition of missile corvettes.


Treaty of Mellifont

The Treaty of Mellifont (), also known as the Articles of Mellifont, was signed in 1603 and ended the Nine Years' War which took place in the Kingdom of Ireland from 1594 to 1603.
End of war.
Following the English victory in the Battle of Kinsale, the leaders fighting in Cork returned to protect their homelands. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, had succeeded where his predecessor, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, had failed. However, Mountjoy knew that as long as Hugh O'Neill was still in hiding, O'Neill was still a threat. Although most of the lesser chiefs allied with him had been compelled to submit, Rory O'Donnell, Brian Oge O'Rourke, Cuchonnacht Maguire (brother of Hugh Maguire), and Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare remained loyal to "The Great Earl".
During the spring of 1603, Lord Mountjoy concentrated his campaign in the northern counties and the province of Leinster. He ordered all land be scorched. Harvests and stock were destroyed and famine soon prevailed.
Mountjoy and the English Privy Council had long urged Queen Elizabeth I of England to make peace. The war was costing three quarters of the Exchequer's annual revenue, and the aged Queen had been obliged to maintain an army of 20,000 men for several years past.
By contrast, the English army assisting the Dutch during the Eighty Years' War was never more than 12,000 strong
 Horrified by the cost of the war, Elizabeth now dropped her insistence on unconditional surrender and authorised Mountjoy to treat with "The O'Neill" upon honourable terms.
Negotiations.
The agents employed by the Lord Deputy in the negotiations were Sir William Godolphin and Sir Garrett Moore, an ancestor of the Marquesses of Drogheda. Moore, a personal friend of O Neill, found him in early March at his retreat near Lough Neagh and persuaded him that he should negotiate peace terms, and would travel under a safe conduct.
Negotiations were conducted at Mellifont, near Drogheda in County Louth. This was Sir Garret's seat, which had been sold to his family following the dissolution of the Cistercian abbey.
On 27 March, Mountjoy received news that the Queen had died in London on 24 March, but he kept that information from the other parties until 5 April. Delaying the news had no legal effect, because of the principle of the demise of the Crown and the lack of an interregnum, but it might have caused a further delay if the new King James had wanted to appoint different negotiators.
Terms.
On 30 March, Tyrone submitted to the Crown. The pardon and the terms were considered to be very generous at the time:
The terms were similar in policy to many previous "surrender and regrant" agreements conducted after 1537 between the Crown and many autonomous Irish chieftains, but unusually, the earl was not obliged to convert to the Church of Ireland.
Aftermath.
By the terms of the Treaty of London, the kings of England and Spain committed each side to the cessation of "all hostility and enmity" from April 24, 1603, forward. The terms further provided that neither side would furnish "soldiers, provision, money [sic], arms ammunition or any other kind of assistance to forment [sic] war with the enemies and rebels of the other party". By that, the Irish rebels understood that no more aid could be expected from Spain.
On 2 June 1603 Mountjoy left Ireland in company with Hugh O'Neill and the new lord of Tír Conaill, Rory O'Donnell, to see King James in London.
In 1604, an Act of Oblivion declared that all "offences against the Crown" committed before the King's accession were to be "pardoned, remitted, and utterly extinguished". O'Neill returned to Ulster and appeared to have become a model subject of the Crown. Mountjoy, now a Privy Counsellor remained a champion of the terms of the Treaty and it seems he had become quite taken with his former adversary. The elderly Sir George Carey, who took over as Lord Deputy, made no attempt to clip Tyrone's wings.
That state of affairs was reversed when Sir Arthur Chichester was sworn in as Lord Deputy in February 1605. Lord Deputy Chichester saw Irish Catholicism as a major threat to the crown after the Gunpowder Plot was revealed in October 1605. Though no Irish were involved in the plot, he oversaw a widespread persecution of Catholics, and he ordered the execution of two bishops. He led the campaign by royal officials, acting on the complaints of the "servitors" (tenants) to undermine the authority of Tyrone and Tyrconnell and to erode their economic base. When Hugh O'Neill and other rebel chieftains left Ireland in the Flight of the Earls (1607) to seek Spanish help for a new rebellion, Chichester became entitled to seize their lands under the law of forfeiture. The Plantation of Ulster followed within a decade.
Some of the loyal Gaelic lords were unhappy with the restoration of lands to the rebel leaders, and that was one factor that drove one of them, Sir Cahir O'Doherty, to launch O'Doherty's Rebellion, which he began with the Burning of Derry in 1608.


Battle of Barcelona

The Naval battle of Barcelona was a naval engagement of the Franco-Habsburg War fought off Barcelona from 29 June to 3 July 1642 between a Spanish fleet commanded by Juan Alonso Idiáquez, Duke of Ciudad Real, and a French fleet under Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé, Duc de Fronsac.<br>
In a three-day battle, Brézé defeated the Spanish fleet, which was attempting to relieve some Spanish garrisons isolated along the Catalan coast, and forced the Duke of Ciudad Real to retreat to Majorca for repairs. As usual in most of the battles involving Maillé-Brézé, the French fleet made an extensive use of her fireships. This time, however, a large French vice-flagship, the "Galion de Guise", fell victim to one of his own fireships and went down enveloped in flames. The victory, in any case, was for the French fleet, and its main long-term effect was the fall of Perpignan into the hands of the Franco-Catalan army.
Background.
The outbreak in 1640 of the Reapers' War, or the Catalan Uprising against the Spanish Monarchy, left most of the Principality in hands of the rebels and their French allies by mid-1641. The Spanish forces were restricted to the area around Tarragona and Tortosa in the south and the County of Roussillon in the north, besides a series of isolated ports along the coast. The French viceroy of Catalonia, Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt, attempted to conquer Tarragona between May and August, but failed, as a French blockading fleet under Henri d'Escoubleau de Sourdis was not big enough to prevent the entrance into Tarragona of a large Spanish relief convoy. Sourdis had been never very enthusiastic of blockading Tarragona and preferred to focus all the efforts in capturing Collioure to starve the Spanish army in Perpignan. Cardinal Richelieu replaced him with his nephew Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé, but for the 1642 campaign he followed his plans and committed most of his forces to conquer Rousillon.
French preparations.
Marshall Charles de La Porte gained Collioure on 13 April and, together with Frederick Schomberg, laid siege to Perpignan. The French fleet would blockade the coast between Tarragona and Collioure, and battle with the Spanish fleet if necessary. The fleets of Ponant and Levant were concentrated at Barcelona. The squadron of Brest, composed of 21 sailing vessels, 2 fluyts, and 6 fireships, doubled the Cabo de Gata on 10 June. The Toulon squadron, of 19 sailing vessels, 4 fluyts, and 6 fireships under the Chevalier de Cangé, arrived to Barcelona on 8 May. The "flotte des galères" led by the bailli de Forbin, composed of 25 units, arrived on 21 June. The fleet was completed with a small squadron under Abraham Duquesne which had been left to cruise off the Catalan coast, and ten English and Dutch chartered vessels, thus increasing its strength to nearly 60 ships. After a war council was held aboard the fleet on 22 June, Maillé-Brézé put his ships on sail in order to intercept a Spanish fleet reportedly seen at the height of Tarragona.
Spanish preparations.
Spanish naval officials tried to have ready on time the Spanish fleet to avoid the conjunction of the French Levant and Ponant fleets, but failed, and therefore focused on collecting as many ships as possible for a relief fleet that was supposed to relieve the maritime garrisons isolated along the coast, and specifically the much tightened Rousillon. The maritime relief was the only way, as a land army organized to cross the country till Perpignan had been defeated by La Mothe-Houdancourt at the Battle of Montmeló and the subsequent Battle of La Granada, in which Count Pedro Antonio de Aragón, his lieutenant Gerolamo Caracciolo, and the entire force of some 3,500 men, were made prisoners. In view of the defeat, the whole Castile was put on the warpath. Foreign and private ships were seized, silver from individuals was melted to mint coins to pay troops, and soon Cádiz was full of soldiers and seamen come from all over the country. The Duke of Ciudad Real, a man devoid of experience in naval fighting, was the chief of the fleet. He was seconded by Admiral General Sancho de Urdanivia. The force consisted of 31 galleons or large sailing vessels, 2 frigates, 3 pataches, 6 fireships, a convoy of tartanes, and 35 "barcos longos", a newly invented sort of counter-fireship.
The battle.
The Spanish fleet arrived off Barcelona on June 29 around 15:00h, and despite the late hour, the rough seas, and not being complete, they immediately attacked the French. The battle raged until sunset. The Spanish tried to board some French ships, but without success. The French launched one fireship and the Spanish three, but also without any effect.
The next day, the slower Spanish galleys had reached Barcelona, and the complete Spanish fleet attacked again. Now the "Magdalena" and some smaller Spanish ships were able to isolate the large French "Galion de Guise", and threatened to board the ship. The French launched a fireship against the "Magdalena", but the Spanish crew was able to deviate the fireship towards the "Galion de Guise" which caught fire and went up in flames, together with its commander Vice Admiral Hercule de Conigan de Cangé, 500 French out of a total crew of 540, and 30 Spaniards.
On July 3, the battle resumed, but now the French artillery prevailed and several Spanish ships were seriously damaged. The Duke of Ciudad Real was forced to retreat and the victory was for the French.


Arrow Boys

The Arrow Boys are a militia in the Western Equatoria region of South Sudan. The militia sprung up as a self-defense unit who get their name from the bows, arrows supposedly treated with poison, and other traditional weapons they use.
Lord's Resistance Army rebellion.
During the insurgency by the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in Uganda, the Arrow Boys were started in Teso in the Eastern Region as a self-defense militia. As the Lord's Resistance Army fled Uganda into South Sudan, the militia spread there as well in order to defend against the LRA.
South Sudanese Civil War.
When Dinka cattle herders, allegedly backed by the SPLA, occupied farmland, Azande youth rose up into militias mostly with the Arrow Boys, whose leader Alfred Karaba Futiyo Onyang declared allegiance to SPLM-IO and claimed to have occupied parts of Western Equatoria.
See also.
South Sudan


Battle of the Isle of Man

The Battle of the Isle of Man was a battle fought in 1158 between the Norse Gofraidh mac Amhlaibh (Godred II), King of Mann and the Isles and Celtic Somhairle MacGillebride (Somerled), King of Cinn Tìre (Kintyre), Argyll and Lorne, on the Isle of Man.
Somerled sailed his fleet of 53 birlinns into Ramsey Bay and set about attacking the forces of Godred II and plundering the Isle of Man. Godred II left the Isle of Man and went in search of support in England, Scotland and Norway to retaliate against Somerled.
As a result of the victory, Somerled seized the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles for himself. He paid a visit to Norway in 1158 and visited Inge, the King of Norway obtaining confirmation of the right to King of Mann and the Isles. Somerled held the title until his death in 1164 at the battle of Renfrew, whereupon Godred II was reinstated as the King of Mann and the Isles.


Battle of Suvodol

The Battle of Suvodol was fought near Sjenica between the Serbian rebels under Karađorđe and Ottoman army consisting of Albanians under Köprülüzade Numan Pasha in late May 1809, during the First Serbian Uprising. It resulted in a Serbian victory.
Prelude.
In the spring of 1809, during the Russo-Turkish War (1806–12), the Serbs took up arms once again, and begun directing attacks on Serb-inhabited territories outwards of the former Sanjak of Smederevo. Prior to the Battle of Suvodol, Karađorđe and his forces liberated Nova Varoš and Sjenica and moved onwards towards the river Lim. On the 9th of June and wary of Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces that were already based in the Suvi Do area, Karađorđe’s forces moved onwards from the river Lim towards Suvi Do. The next day on the 10th of June, Karađorđe’s forces arrived in Suvi Do from the North West. The exact number of soldiers that were deployed is difficult to attain, with some numbers ranging from 8000 to 20000 Albanian fighters under Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s command and between 4000-6000 Serbian fighters under Karađorđe’s command. However, a rough estimate puts Karađorđe’s forces at 4-4,500 troops and an unknown number of cannons. While Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces were numbered at 4,000 soldiers with no cannons.
Expecting the arrival of revolutionaries, Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces began to set up trenches on the hills surrounding Suvi Do. From this vantage point, Albanian forces under Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s command had a view of the plains below and from a strategic point of view; this was a convenient position to be in. However, thanks to the dense forest below and morning fog, Karađorđe’s forces were able to sneak up to the Albanian trenches without being detected.
Battle.
The first attack on the trenches was ferocious; Karađorđe’s forces were able to take positions early on, but due to weaknesses of the Serbian forces (fatigue from the previous night's march), Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces had a strong advantage early on in repelling the attack. Köprülüzade Numan Pasha was aware of his initial advantage and tried to capitalize on it. On the evening of the 10th of June, Numan Pasha ordered a counter-attack on the revolutionaries and forced the Serbian forces back to their cannon lines. However, with defeat in sight, Serbian Cavalry under the command of Vojvoda Vule Ilić Kolarac attacked one of the Albanian wings with such force and surprise that it threw the Albanian forces in disarray as the cavalry were flanking them. Albanian forces attempted to regroup and attack the revolutionaries; however, they were met with fierce gunfire from the Serbian cannons and infantry. In the midst of the fighting and poor visibility due to the fog, Vojvoda Vule Ilic Kolarac began to yell out in Turkish “our forces have retreated” in order to fool the Albanians into retreating. This ploy threw Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces into even more disarray. Battered by relentless attacks, the injured Köprülüzade Numan Pasha and his forces retreated.
The retreating Albanian forces tried to regroup and ambush revolutionaries who were chasing after them. However, the Albanian forces were pushed further into rocky canyons where the Serbian revolutionaries began to shower the Albanians forces with large boulders that were abundant in the area. Those who survived the onslaught retreated towards Peć and Novi Pazar.
Aftermath.
Köprülüzade Numan Pasha’s forces lost more than 600 men while Karađorđe’s forces lost 120 men. The victory of the battle liberated further territory and opened up further routes into Montenegro.


Blighty

"Blighty" is a British English slang term for Great Britain, or often specifically England. Though it was used throughout the 1800s in India to mean an English or British visitor, it was first used during the Boer War in the specific meaning of homeland for the English or British, and it was not until World War I that use of the term became widespread.
The word derives from the Bengali word , (older sources mention a regional Hindustani language but the use of b replacing v is found in Bengali and not Urdu) meaning "foreign", which more specifically came to mean "European", and "British; English" during the time of the British Raj. The Bengali word is a loan of Indian Persian from meaning "Iran" and later "Europe" or "Britain", ultimately from Arabic "state, province".
Context.
The term is commonly used as a term of endearment by the expatriate British community or those on holiday to refer to home. In "Hobson-Jobson", an 1886 historical dictionary of Anglo-Indian words, Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell explained that the word came to be used in British India for several things the British had brought into the country, such as the tomato and soda water.
During the First World War, "Dear Old Blighty" was a common sentimental reference, suggesting a longing for home by soldiers in the trenches. The term was particularly used by such as Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. During that war, a "Blighty wound" – a wound serious enough to require recuperation away from the trenches, but not serious enough to kill or maim the victim – was hoped for by many, and sometimes self-inflicted.
Examples.
An early example of the usage of a derivative of the Arabic being used to refer to Britain is after diplomat returned from Britain back to the Mughal Empire. The locals nicknamed him as due to him being the first South Asian to travel to what was known as the .
"Blighty", a humorous weekly magazine, was issued free to British troops during the First World War. It contained short stories, poems, cartoons, paintings and drawings, with contributions from men on active service. It was distributed by the War Office, the Admiralty and the Red Cross, and subsidised through donations and sales to the general public. The magazine was revived in 1939 and continued until 1958.
In his First World War autobiography "Good-Bye to All That" (1929), the writer Robert Graves attributes the term "Blitey" to the Hindustani word for "home". He writes: "The men are pessimistic but cheerful. They all talk about getting a 'cushy' one to send them back to 'Blitey'."
The music hall artiste Vesta Tilley had a hit in 1916 with the song "I'm Glad I've Got a Bit of a Blighty One" (1916), in which she played a soldier delighted to have been wounded and in hospital. "When I think about my dugout," she sang, "where I dare not stick my mug out... I'm glad I've got a bit of a blighty one". Another music hall hit was "Take Me Back to Dear Old Blighty" (1917). The song is sung by Cicely Courtneidge in the 1962 film "The L-Shaped Room". The term was also referenced in the song "All American Alien Boy" by Ian Hunter ("I'm just a whitey from Blighty"), from the 1976 album of the same name. Folksinger Ian Robb's album "Rose and Crown" features a topical parody of the traditional song "Maggie Mae", about the Falklands War. The song contains the lines: "When I get back to Blighty, I'll give thanks to The Almighty / Whether Maggie's little war is lost or won".
UKTV operated a digital television channel called "Blighty" that opened in February 2009 and closed on 5 July 2013. The subscription channel, which concentrated on British-made programming, was replaced by a Freeview channel called "Drama".


Fossar de les Moreres

The Fossar de les Moreres (, literally "Grave of the Mulberries") is a memorial square in Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain), adjacent to the basilica of Santa Maria del Mar. The plaza was built over a cemetery where defenders of the city were buried following the Siege of Barcelona at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1714. The plaza retains its everyday use as a public space, but also prominently features a memorial to the fallen Catalans of the war, with a torch of eternal flame and a heroic poem by Frederic Soler, "El Fossar de les Moreres".
In the aftermath of the War of Spanish Succession, Catalonia suffered a loss of autonomy. The subsequent royal decrees known as the "Decretos de Nueva Planta" abolished the "furs" (fueros) of Catalonia as well as institutions that dated back to the time of the Crown of Aragon and beyond. At a later date the public use of the Catalan language was banned for public documents. These actions by Philip V have two interpretations. First there was an obvious desire to punish for the support that was offered to Archduke Charles. Territories in Spain that supported Philip V had a less severe restriction of their historical "fueros". Second, Philip V was initiating in Spain a greater concentration and centralization of power that was occurring simultaneously in the other major European monarchies, namely Great Britain, France, and Austria. The "Decretos" dealt not only with Catalonia, but also with other parts of Spain and the empire as a whole. Philip V sought to regulate what had been a complex and sometimes conflicting polysynodal system of governance that characterized the first two centuries of the unified Spanish monarchy.
Given this tumultuous history connected with the decrees and the war, the Fossar de les Moreres is an important place of remembrance every year during the National Day of Catalonia ("Diada Nacional de Catalunya" in Catalan). The holiday commemorates the date on which Barcelona fell, 11 September, and Catalans yearly pay homage to the defenders of city who were killed and are buried at the memorial.
The original cemetery in which Barcelona's defenders were buried was paved over, and the square was created during the urbanization of parochial cemeteries in 1821 under pressure from King Charles III of Spain and General Castaños.


Battle of Trenton

The Battle of Trenton was a small but pivotal American Revolutionary War battle that took place on the morning of December 26, 1776, in Trenton, New Jersey. After General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton the previous night, Washington led the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian auxiliaries garrisoned at Trenton. After a brief battle, almost two-thirds of the Hessian force was captured, with negligible losses to the Americans. The battle significantly boosted the Continental Army's waning morale, and inspired re-enlistments.
The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had been forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania. Morale in the army was low; to end the year on a positive note, George Washington—Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army—devised a plan to cross the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26 and surround the Hessians' garrison.
Because the river was icy and the weather severe, the crossing proved dangerous. Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington with only 2,400 men under his command in the assault, 3,000 fewer than planned. The army marched south to Trenton. The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the Americans' army, and had no long-distance outposts or patrols. Washington's forces caught them off guard, and after a short but fierce resistance, most of the Hessians surrendered and were captured, with just over a third escaping across Assunpink Creek.
Despite the battle's small numbers, the victory inspired patriots and sympathizers of the newly formed United States. With the success of the ongoing revolution in doubt a week earlier, the army had seemed on the verge of collapse. The dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks.
Background.
In early December 1776, American morale was very low. The Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey. Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone. Men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost. Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed some doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia, "I think the game is pretty near up."
At the time a small town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by four regiments of Hessian soldiers (numbering about 1,400 men) commanded by Colonel Johann Rall. Washington's force comprised 2,400 men, with infantry divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan, and artillery under the direction of Brigadier General Henry Knox.
Prelude.
Intelligence.
George Washington had stationed a spy named John Honeyman, posing as a Tory, in Trenton. Honeyman had served with Major General James Wolfe in Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on September 13, 1759, and had no trouble establishing his credentials as a Tory. Honeyman was a butcher and bartender, who traded with the British and Hessians. This enabled him to gather intelligence and to convince the Hessians that the Continental Army was in such a low state of morale that they would not attack Trenton. Shortly before Christmas, he arranged to be captured by the Continental Army, who had orders to bring him to Washington unharmed. After being questioned by Washington, he was imprisoned in a hut to be tried as a Tory in the morning, but a small fire broke out nearby, enabling him to "escape".
U.S. plan.
The U.S. plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions. General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south. General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping. The main assault force of 2,400 men would cross the river north of Trenton and split into two groups, one under Greene and one under Sullivan, to launch a pre-dawn attack. Sullivan would attack the town from the south, and Greene from the north. Depending on the success of the operation, the Americans would possibly follow up with separate attacks on Princeton and New Brunswick.
During the week before the battle, U.S. advance parties began to ambush enemy cavalry patrols, capturing dispatch riders and attacking Hessian pickets. The Hessian commander, to emphasize the danger his men were facing, sent 100 infantry and an artillery detachment to deliver a letter to the British commander at Princeton. Washington ordered Ewing and his Pennsylvania militia to try to gain information on Hessian movements and technology. Ewing instead made three successful raids across the river. On December 17 and 18, 1776, they attacked an outpost of jägers and on the 21st, they set fire to several houses. Washington put constant watches on all possible crossings near the Continental Army encampment on the Delaware, as he believed William Howe would launch an attack from the north on Philadelphia if the river froze over.
On December 20, 1776, some 2,000 troops led by General Sullivan arrived in Washington's camp. They had been under the command of Charles Lee and had been moving slowly through northern New Jersey when Lee was captured. That same day, an additional 800 troops arrived from Fort Ticonderoga under the command of Horatio Gates.
Hessian moves.
On December 14, 1776, the Hessians arrived in Trenton to establish their winter quarters. At the time, Trenton was a small town with about 100 houses and two main streets, King (now Warren) Street and Queen (now Broad) Street. Carl von Donop, Rall's superior, had marched south to Mount Holly on December 22 to deal with the resistance in New Jersey, and had clashed with some New Jersey militia there on December 23.
Donop, who despised Rall, was reluctant to give command of Trenton to him. Rall was known to be loud and unacquainted with the English language, but he was also a 36-year soldier with a great deal of battle experience. His request for reinforcements had been turned down by British commander General James Grant, who disdained the American rebels and thought them poor soldiers. Despite Rall's experience, the Hessians at Trenton did not admire their commander.
Trenton lacked city walls or fortifications, which was typical of U.S. settlements. Some Hessian officers advised Rall to fortify the town, and two of his engineers advised that a redoubt be constructed at the upper end of town and fortifications be built along the river. The engineers went so far as to draw up plans, but Rall disagreed with them. When Rall was again urged to fortify the town, he replied, "Let them come ... We will go at them with the bayonet."
As Christmas approached, Loyalists came to Trenton to report the Americans were planning action. U.S. deserters told the Hessians that rations were being prepared for an advance across the river. Rall publicly dismissed such talk as nonsense, but privately in letters to his superiors, he said he was worried about an imminent attack. He wrote to Donop that he was "liable to be attacked at any moment". Rall said that Trenton was "indefensible" and asked that British troops establish a garrison in Maidenhead (now Lawrenceville). Close to Trenton, this would help defend the roads from Americans. His request was denied. As the Americans disrupted Hessian supply lines, the officers started to share Rall's fears. One wrote, "We have not slept one night in peace since we came to this place." On December 22, 1776, a spy reported to Grant that Washington had called a council of war; Grant told Rall to "be on your guard".
The main Hessian force of 1,500 men was divided into three regiments: Knyphausen, Lossberg and Rall. That night, they did not send out any patrols because of the severe weather.
Crossing and march.
Before Washington and his troops left, Benjamin Rush came to cheer up the general. While he was there, he saw a note Washington had written, saying, "Victory or Death". Those words would be the password for the surprise attack. Each soldier carried 60 rounds of ammunition, and three days of rations. When the army arrived at the shores of the Delaware, they were already behind schedule, and clouds began to form above them. It began to rain. As the air's temperature dropped, the rain changed to sleet, and then to snow. The Americans began to cross the river, with John Glover in command. The men went across in Durham boats, while the horses and artillery went across on large ferries. The 14th Continental Regiment of Glover manned the boats. During the crossing, several men fell overboard, including Colonel John Haslet. Haslet was quickly pulled out of the water. No one died during the crossing, and all the artillery pieces made it over in good condition.
Two small detachments of infantry of about 40 men each were ordered ahead of main columns. They set roadblocks ahead of the main army and were to take prisoner whoever came into or left the town. One of the groups was sent north of Trenton, and the other was sent to block River Road, which ran along the Delaware River to Trenton.
The terrible weather conditions delayed the landings in New Jersey until 3:00 am; the plan was that they were supposed to be completed by 12:00 am. Washington realized it would be impossible to launch a pre-dawn attack. Another setback occurred for the Americans, as generals Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to join the attack because of the weather conditions.
At 4:00 am, the soldiers began to march towards Trenton. Along the way, several civilians joined as volunteers and led as guides (such as John Mott) because of their knowledge of the terrain. After marching through winding roads into the wind, they reached Bear Tavern, where they turned south onto Bear Tavern Road . The ground was slippery, but it was level, making it easier for the horses and artillery. They began to make better time. They soon reached Jacobs Creek, where, with difficulty, the Americans made it across. The two groups stayed together until they reached Birmingham (now West Trenton), where they split apart, with Greene’s force heading east to approach Trenton by the Scotch and Pennington roads and Sullivan’s heading southwest to approach via River Road. Soon after, they reached the house of Benjamin Moore, where the family offered food and drink to Washington. At this point, the first signs of daylight began to appear. Many of the troops did not have boots, so they were forced to wear rags around their feet. Some of the men's feet bled, turning the snow to a dark red. Two men died on the march.
As they marched, Washington rode up and down the line, encouraging the men to continue. General Sullivan sent a courier to tell Washington that the weather was wetting his men's gunpowder. Washington replied, "Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet. I am resolved to take Trenton."
About outside the town, the main columns reunited with the advance parties. They were startled by the sudden appearance of 50 armed men, but they were American. Led by Adam Stephen, they had not known about the plan to attack Trenton and had attacked a Hessian outpost. Washington feared the Hessians would have been put on guard, and shouted at Stephen, "You sir! You Sir, may have ruined all my plans by having them put on their guard." Despite this, Washington ordered the advance continue to Trenton. In the event, Rall thought the first raid was the attack which Grant had warned him about, and that there would be no further action that day.
Battle.
U.S. attack.
At 8 am, the outpost was set up by the Hessians at a cooper shop on Pennington Road about one mile northwest of Trenton. Washington led the assault, riding in front of his soldiers. As the Hessian commander of the outpost, Lieutenant Andreas Wiederholdt, left the shop, an American fired at him but missed. Wiederholdt immediately shouted, "Der Feind!" (The Enemy!) and other Hessians came out. The Americans fired three volleys, and the Hessians returned one of their own. Washington ordered Edward Hand's Pennsylvania Riflemen and a battalion of German-speaking infantry to block the road that led to Princeton. They attacked the Hessian outpost there. Wiederholdt soon realized that this was more than a raiding party; seeing other Hessians retreating from the outpost, he led his men to do the same. Both Hessian detachments made organized retreats, firing as they fell back. On the high ground at the north end of Trenton, they were joined by a duty company from the Lossberg Regiment. They engaged the Americans, retreating slowly, keeping up continuous fire and using houses for cover. Once in Trenton, they gained covering fire from other Hessian guard companies on the outskirts of the town. Another guard company nearer to the Delaware River rushed east to their aid, leaving open the River Road into Trenton. Washington ordered the escape route to Princeton be cut off, sending infantry in battle formation to block it, while artillery formed at the head of King and Queen streets.
Leading the southern U.S. column, General Sullivan entered Trenton by the abandoned River Road and blocked the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape. Sullivan briefly held up his advance to make sure Greene's division had time to drive the Hessians from their outposts in the north. Soon after, they continued their advance, attacking the Hermitage, home of Philemon Dickinson, where 50 jägers under the command of Lieutenant von Grothausen were stationed. Lieutenant von Grothausen brought 12 of his jägers into action against the advanced guard but had only advanced a few hundred yards when he saw a column of Americans advancing to the Hermitage. Pulling back to the Hessian barracks, he was joined by the rest of the jägers. After the exchange of one volley, they turned and ran, some trying to swim across the creek, while others escaped over the bridge, which had not yet been cut off. The 20 British dragoons also fled. As Greene and Sullivan's columns pushed into the town, Washington moved to high ground north of King and Queens streets to see the action and direct his troops. By this time, U.S. artillery from the other side of the Delaware River had come into action, devastating the Hessian positions.
With the sounding of the alarm, the three Hessian regiments began to prepare for battle. The Rall regiment formed on lower King Street along with the Lossberg regiment, while the Knyphausen regiment formed at the lower end of Queen Street. Lieutenant Piel, Rall's brigade adjutant, woke his commander, who found that the rebels had taken the "V" of the main streets of the town. This is where the engineers had recommended building a redoubt. Rall ordered his regiment to form up at the lower end of King Street, the Lossberg regiment to prepare for an advance up Queen Street, and the Knyphausen regiment to stand by as a reserve for Rall's advance up King Street.
The U.S. cannon stationed at the head of the two main streets soon came into action. In reply, Rall directed his regiment, supported by a few companies of the Lossberg regiment, to clear the guns. The Hessians formed ranks and began to advance up the street, but their formations were quickly broken by the U.S. guns and fire from Mercer's men who had taken houses on the left side of the street. Breaking ranks, the Hessians fled. Rall ordered two three-pound cannon into action. After getting off six rounds each, within just a few minutes, half of the Hessians manning their guns were killed by the U.S. cannon. After the men fled to cover behind houses and fences, their cannons were taken by the Americans. Following capture of the cannon, men under the command of George Weedon advanced down King Street.
On Queen Street, all Hessian attempts to advance up the street were repulsed by guns under the command of Thomas Forrest. After firing four rounds each, two more Hessian guns were silenced. One of Forrest's howitzers was put out of action with a broken axle. The Knyphausen regiment became separated from the Lossberg and the Rall regiments. The Lossberg and the Rall regiments fell back to a field outside of town, taking heavy losses from grapeshot and musket fire. In the southern part of the town, Americans under command of Sullivan began to overwhelm the Hessians. John Stark led a bayonet charge at the Knyphausen regiment, whose resistance broke because their weapons would not fire. Sullivan led a column of men to block off escape of troops across the creek.
Hessian resistance collapses.
The Hessians in the field attempted to reorganize and make one last attempt to retake the town so they could make a breakout. Rall decided to attack the U.S. flank on the heights north of the town. Rall yelled "Forward! Advance! Advance!", and the Hessians began to move, with the brigade's band playing fifes, bugles and drums to help the Hessians' spirit.
Washington, still on high ground, saw the Hessians approaching the U.S. flank. He moved his troops to assume battle formation against the enemy. The two Hessian regiments began marching toward King Street but were caught in U.S. fire that came at them from three directions. Some Americans had taken up defensive positions inside houses, reducing their exposure. Some civilians joined the fight against the Hessians. Despite this, they continued to push, recapturing their cannon. At the head of King Street, Knox saw the Hessians had retaken the cannon and ordered his troops to take them. Six men ran and, after a brief struggle, seized the cannon, turning them on the Hessians. With most of the Hessians unable to fire their guns, the attack stalled. The Hessians' formations broke, and they began to scatter. Rall was mortally wounded. Washington led his troops down from high ground while yelling, "March on, my brave fellows, after me!" Most of the Hessians retreated into an orchard, with the Americans in close pursuit. Quickly surrounded, the Hessians were offered terms of surrender, to which they agreed.
Although ordered to join Rall, the remains of the Knyphausen regiment mistakenly marched in the opposite direction. They tried to escape across the bridge but found it had been taken. The Americans quickly swept in, defeating a Hessian attempt to break through their lines. Surrounded by Sullivan's men, the regiment surrendered, just minutes after the rest of the brigade.
Casualties and capture.
The Hessian forces lost 22 killed in action, including their commander Colonel Johann Rall, 83 wounded, and 896 capturedincluding the wounded. The Americans suffered only two deaths during the march and five wounded from battle, including a near-fatal shoulder wound to future president James Monroe. Other losses incurred by the Patriots from exhaustion, exposure, and illness in the following days may have raised their losses above those of the Hessians.
The captured Hessians were sent to Philadelphia and later Lancaster. In 1777 they were moved to Virginia. Rall was mortally wounded and died later that night at his headquarters. All four Hessian colonels in Trenton were killed in the battle. The Lossberg regiment was effectively removed from the British forces. Parts of the Knyphausen regiment escaped to the south, but Sullivan captured some 200 additional men, along with the regiment's cannon and supplies. They also captured approximately 1,000 arms and much-needed ammunition. The Americans also captured their entire store of provisions—tons of flour, dried and salted meats, ale and other liquors, as well as shoes, boots, clothing and bedding—things that were as much needed by the ragtag Continental forces as weapons and horses.
Among those captured by the Patriots was Christian Strenge, later to become a schoolmaster and fraktur artist in Pennsylvania.
Hessian drinking.
An officer in Washington's staff wrote before the battle, "They make a great deal of Christmas in Germany, and no doubt the Hessians will drink a great deal of beer and have a dance to-night. They will be sleepy to-morrow morning." Popular history commonly portrays the Hessians as drunk from Christmas celebrations. However, historian David Hackett Fischer quotes Patriot John Greenwood, who fought in the battle and supervised Hessians afterward, who wrote, "I am certain not a drop of liquor was drunk during the whole night, nor, as I could see, even a piece of bread eaten." Military historian Edward G. Lengel wrote, "The Germans were dazed and tired but there is no truth to the legend claiming that they were helplessly drunk."
Aftermath.
After the Hessians' surrender, Washington is reported to have shaken the hand of a young officer and said, "This is a glorious day for our country." On December 28, General Washington interviewed Lieutenant (later Colonel) Andreas Wiederhold, who detailed the failures of Rall's preparation. Washington soon learned however that Cadwalader and Ewing had been unable to complete their crossing, leaving his worn-out army of 2,400 men isolated. Without their 2,600 men, Washington realized he did not have the forces to attack Princeton and New Brunswick.
By noon, Washington's force had moved across the Delaware back into Pennsylvania, taking their prisoners and captured supplies with them. Washington would follow up his success a week later in the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and the Battle of Princeton solidifying Patriot gains.
Legacy.
This small but decisive battle, as with the later Battle of Cowpens, had an effect disproportionate to its size. The Patriot victory gave the Continental Congress new confidence, as it proved colonial forces could defeat regulars. It also increased re-enlistments in the Continental Army forces. By defeating a European army, the colonials reduced the fear which the Hessians had caused earlier that year after the fighting in New York. Howe was stunned that the Patriots so easily surprised and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison. Colonial support for the rebellion was further buoyed significantly at this time by writings of Thomas Paine and additional successful actions by the New Jersey Militia.
Two notable U.S. officers were wounded while leading the charge down King Street: William Washington, cousin of General Washington, and Lieutenant James Monroe, the future President of the United States. Monroe was carried from the field bleeding badly after he was struck in the left shoulder by a musket ball, which severed an artery. Doctor John Riker clamped the artery, preventing him from bleeding to death.
The Trenton Battle Monument, erected at "Five Points" in Trenton, stands as a tribute to this U.S. victory. The crossing of the Delaware River and battle are reenacted by local enthusiasts every year (unless the weather is too severe on the river).
Eight current Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 111th Inf, 125th QM Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one currently-active Regular Army Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from U.S. units that participated in the Battle of Trenton. There are thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
Painting.
In 1851, German-American artist Emanuel Leutze painted the second of three paintings depicting Washington crossing the Deleware. It is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and is "one of the most famous American paintings." At the time of its first exhibition it caused a sensation, in Europe and the United States. Leutze hoped it would stir revolutionary sentiments in Germany. After six months in Germany it was shipped to New York City where the New-York Mirror newspaper lauded it with the words, "the grandest, most majestic, and most effective painting ever exhibited in America." The painting is the center-piece of the collections in the American Wing. It is still one of the most recognizable paintings at the Metropolitan. It is central to the canon of American historical art images, its monumental popularity undimmed in the years since it was first exhibited.


Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council

The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC; "Majlis Qiyāda ath-Thawra") was the body established to supervise the Republic of Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan after the Revolution of 1952. It initially selected Ali Maher Pasha as Prime Minister, but forced him to resign after conflict over land reform. At that time, the Council took full control of Egypt. The RCC controlled the state until 1954, when the Council dissolved itself.
History.
In July 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "Free Officers") led by General Muhammad Naguib and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with Israel. The revolutionaries then formed the Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council, which constituted the real power in Egypt, with Naguib as chairman and Nasser as vice-chairman. After assuming power, the Free Officers were not interested in undertaking the day-to-day administration of the Egyptian government. Thus, the Free Officers passed power to Ali Mahir Pasha, a long-time political insider, whom they appointed as Prime Minister.
Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in Kafr Dawar on August 1952, which resulted in two death sentences. The Revolutionary Council actually had strong ideological notions, and Mahir was forced to resign in 1952 because he refused to support agrarian reform laws proposed by the Council. Naguib assumed full leadership, but, from the beginning, Nasser was a powerful force in the Revolutionary Command Council. Naguib was appointed, first as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, in order to keep the armed forces firmly behind the junior officers' coup. In September, Naguib was appointed Prime Minister of Egypt and a member of the Royal Regent Council, with Nasser acting in the background as Minister of the Interior. Also in September, the Agrarian Reform Law was passed, signalling a major land redistribution program. In December 1952, the 1923 Constitution was abrogated "in the name of the people."
In January 1953, the officers of the RCC dissolved and banned all political parties, declaring a three-year transitional period during which the RCC would rule. A provisional Constitutional Charter which legitimized the RCC was proclaimed on 10 February 1953. A Liberation Rally—the first of 3 political organisations linked to the July regime—was launched soon afterwards with the aim of mobilising popular support.
Conflict and change.
Naguib began to clash with other RCC members over how the Revolution's goals should be implemented. He wanted to phase out the political influence of the military and return the country to civilian rule, believing that the role of the military was not to rule the country, but rather to protect those in power. Following the brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers declared Egypt a republic on June 18, 1953. With land reform fully under way, Naguib announced the official abolition of the Egyptian and Sudanese monarchy and proclaimed himself President of the Republic of Egypt. After the establishment of the republic, Naguib and Nasser began to come into conflict with each other. These troubles culminated in Naguib’s resignation from his posts as both President and Prime Minister. The Revolutionary Command Council then proclaimed Nasser as Prime Minister; however, they selected no President at that time. Next, the Revolutionary Command Council placed Naguib under house arrest, hoping to prevent any chance that he would return to power.
The Revolutionary Command Council had overstepped its popular support in dealing with Naguib, and large numbers of citizens joined protests demanding that he be reinstated. As a result of these demonstrations, a sizable group within the Revolutionary Command Council demanded that Nasser allow Neguib to return to the Presidency and then hold free elections to select a new President and Prime Minister. Nasser was forced to agree and Naguib reassumed the Presidency. Several days later, Nasser was forced to resign as Prime Minister in favor of Naguib, effectively destroying all progress that Nasser had made towards leadership.
End of the council.
Nasser did use his brief time as Prime Minister to "purge... pro-Naguib elements in the army", and over the duration of the RCC he gradually forced Naguib from power. Finally, in October 1954, Nasser formally removed Naguib from power and established himself as the effective leader of Egypt. Nasser remained in power over Egypt for the next fifteen years with no major domestic challenges to his power. When Nasser seized power in Egypt, he decided to abolish the Council. Thus, on July 24, 1956, the Council dissolved itself and announced the end of the Egyptian revolution.
Characteristics.
The Revolutionary Command Council promoted and implemented "Arab socialism". Arguably, the most notable economic manifestations of Arab Socialism was the land reforms in Egypt in 1952 and the nationalization of major industries and the banking systems in the country. Later, many of these policies were later reversed though. The RCC also tried to further their secular ideology, which led to a conflict with the emerging Muslim radicalism, and argued for modernization, industrialization and the abolishment of the more archaic society and social traditionalism.
Accomplishments.
Under the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, Britain controlled the Suez Canal. But in 1951, Egypt repudiated the treaty. By 1954, Britain had agreed to pull out. Nasser signed an agreement with Britain that provided for the withdrawal of all British uniformed military personnel from the Suez Canal Zone, although a small civilian force was allowed to temporarily remain. This agreement finally gave Egypt true full independence and ended tensions between Britain and Egypt. Shortly after the treaty with the British, Nasser won forty million dollars in combined financial aid for economic development from the British and Americans.
The Egyptian economy was dominated by private capital until the revolution of 1952. The new government began to reorganize the economy along socialist lines in the late 1950s. The state played an increasing role in economic development through its management of the agricultural sector after the land reforms of 1952. These reforms limited the amount of land an individual or family could own. Financial hurdles delayed the progress of the land reforms. The land reform proposed two basic steps to improve the lot of the Egyptian peasant:
In September 1952, the process of land reform in Egypt began. A law was passed that had numerous provisions which attempted to remedy the Egyptian land problems. These were:
Additionally, the law provided for the redistribution of any land that owners held over the limits it established:
By the end of 1955, of the total of 567,000 feddâns subject to sequestration, 415,000 feddâns had been expropriated by the government. However, only a part of this land has been distributed among the small landholders, and the government held most of the expropriated land. By the end of 1955, 261,000 feddâns had been reallocated from the government reserve. In addition, 92,000 feddâns had been sold by large to small landowners just prior to the requisition. The government was attempting to organize the beneficiaries of this plan in cooperatives and also to continue the maintenance of the existing irrigation and drainage systems. The land reform of the revolutionary government had undoubtedly benefited the Egyptian peasantry. An Egyptian government source estimated that the new farmers have doubled their incomes, and that setting a limit on rents has reduced the total amount of land rent by $196,000,000.
There was growth in industrial production. Electricity consumption increased from 978,000,000 kW in 1952 to 1,339,000,000 kW in 1954. The cotton yarn output increased from 49,200 to 64,400 tons, and cotton fabric output increased from 157,800,000 meters to 240,900,000 meters. Cement production reached a new high of almost 1,500,000 tons.
Failures.
Egypt, under the RCC, never fully implemented socialism. In addition, there was never a fully implemented democracy and a return of the country to civilian rule. Naguib called for this early on, but was thwarted by other forces in the RCC. Naguib's view was that the army could interfere to change a corrupt regime, but it should then withdraw (similar to the actions of the military in the history of Turkey). As Naguib wrote later in his book, "Egypt's Fate",
Nasser, by contrast, thought that any talk of democracy, or of a multi-party system, or of the withdrawal of the army from politics, would allow the Wafd, the Muslim Brotherhood and the other political parties to regain the ground they had lost in 1952.