National Program Office

The National Program Office (NPO) was an office of the United States Government, established to ensure continuity of government in the event of a national disaster. The NPO was established by a secret executive order (National Security Decision Directive 55) signed on 14 September 1982 by President Ronald Reagan during the Cold War in preparation for a nuclear war, presumably with the Soviet Union.
The NPO plan was classified as Top Secret, codeword Pegasus. It was also referred to as Project 908 (also known as "Nine Naught Eight"). The only oversight was by a Project Pegasus committee chaired by then-Vice President George Herbert Walker Bush. The committee included The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (or his deputy), FBI Director William H. Webster, Attorney General Edwin Meese III and other top cabinet officials. The action officer for the project was Marine Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, who then worked at the National Security Council under retired Marine Lieutenant Colonel Robert McFarlane.
Background.
On June 30, 1980, President Jimmy Carter signed Presidential Directive 58 (PD-58), which directed the establishment of a Joint Program Office to provide Continuity of Government for the Presidency.
Organization.
Disaster preparedness.
The FBI played a critical role in Project 908: selection and analysis of locations throughout the United States for use during and after a crisis. Agreements were made with various businesses for leasing of space and resources (i.e. power and water) for use by the U.S. government during the crisis period.
Survivable communications.
Most of the money was used to design and build relocatable communications vans that would be activated if there was a threat of nuclear war. The rationale for relocatable vans was that the National Military Command Center (NMCC) at the Pentagon and the Alternate National Military Command Center (ANMCC) located in the Raven Rock Mountain Complex were already targeted by the Soviet Union and therefore would not survive a nuclear strike. The same criticism could not be leveled at the Boeing E-4 aircraft that made up the National Emergency Airborne Command Posts (NEACP), but the plan for relocatable communications vans went forward nevertheless.
The government agency that was the strongest advocate for relocatable vans was the Defense Communications Agency (DCA), since renamed the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), whose responsibility it was to plan for continuity of military communications despite the possible loss of both land and satellite-based links. This necessitated the development of alternatives that would be independent of both landlines and land-based radio systems, and also satellites, all of which were thought to be possibly subject to destruction or impairment in an all-out war. The alternatives needed to be capable of being relocated, perhaps frequently, and set up rapidly in a new location when necessary. Since the facts of nuclear warfare also seemed to indicate that High Frequency (HF) Radio propagation might be disturbed by unfamiliar nuclear effects, this led to the consideration of exotic technologies such as troposcatter and meteor burst communication links. Such systems, while effective, used relatively small antennas and could indeed be transported efficiently and economically in relocatable vans.
Facilities.
The Federal Reserve established Mount Pony under the NPO where billions of dollars in currency was stored in a hardened bunker. The cash was to be used to restart the economy east of the Mississippi River in case of a nuclear war. The facility also housed the central switching center for the Federal Reserve's Fedwire system until 1988 when all money was removed, switching was decentralized, and the site deactivated as an NPO facility.
Cover.
The NPO was organized in the mid-1980s under a retired Army Lieutenant General, and funded in an initial amount of $2.7 billion in so-called black money. The NPO set up offices at 400 Army-Navy Drive in the Crystal City section of Arlington, Virginia. The NPO recruited communications specialists and retired military officers to do staff work. It was known as the Defense Mobilization Systems Planning Activity (DMSPA), a cover organization. A special security compartment named CHALIS was established for classified documents, which were distributed with a yellow stripe down the right border.
Disestablishment.
President Bill Clinton attempted to dismantle the NPO during his tenure in the White House; he cancelled Project 908 and declassified it. However, those efforts proved incomplete when the legacy NPO plan for Continuity of Government was briefly activated by President George W. Bush on September 11, 2001, in response to the terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, DC.
The relocatable communications vans that had already been built were put under the command of the U. S. Army's 11th Signal Brigade at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Similarly equipped trucks are presently within the inventory of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), called Multi-Radio Vans.
Military counterpart.
The military analog was the Strategic Air Command's (SAC) Headquarters Emergency Relocation Team (HERT)). Later evolving in the 55th Mobile Command and Control Squadron, the unit's purpose was to provide command and control to United States nuclear forces in the event of a national emergency (i.e. nuclear war), and relocation or destruction of SAC Headquarters at Offutt AFB, Nebraska.


Ardennes American Cemetery and Memorial

Ardennes American Cemetery and Memorial is a Second World War American military war grave cemetery, located in the village of Neuville-en-Condroz, near the southeast edge of Neupré, some south-west of Liège in Belgium. The cemetery, dedicated in 1960, contains 5,329 American war dead and covers . It is one of three American war cemeteries in Belgium, the other two being at Flanders Field and Henri-Chapelle and is administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC).
History.
The site of the cemetery was liberated from German control by the U.S. 1st Infantry Division on 8 September 1944. A temporary cemetery was established on the site on 8 February 1945. After the war, the Ardennes site was designated a permanent cemetery, becoming one of 14 permanent cemeteries for American World War II dead on foreign soil. All temporary cemeteries were disestablished by the U.S. Army, and the bodies of those whose next of kin requested permanent burial overseas were moved to one of the fourteen permanent cemeteries.
The American Battle Monuments Commission oversaw the design and construction of the site. Architects Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist of New York City were hired to design the cemetery and memorial, while the landscaping was designed by Richard K. Webel of Roslyn, New York. Construction of the cemetery and memorial was completed in 1962.
The Ardennes American Cemetery served as the location of the Central Identification Point for the Graves Registration Service (now known as Mortuary Affairs) of the Army Quartermaster Corps during much of the life of the Service. The Graves Registration Service interred the dead at the Ardennes cemetery in the distinctive grave pattern proposed by the architect and approved by the Commission. When the interment program was completed the cemetery was turned over to the ABMC for maintenance and administration.
Layout and memorial.
The Ardennes American Cemetery is generally rectangular in shape. Its grave plots are arranged in the form of a Greek cross separated by two broad intersecting paths. At the east end of the traverse path is a bronze figure symbolizing American youth, designed by sculptor C. Paul Jennewein. The cemetery is surrounded on all sides by stands of trees.
An approach drive leads to the memorial, a rectangular structure bearing on its south facade a high American eagle with three figures symbolizing Justice, Liberty, and Truth and thirteen stars representing the United States. This facade was designed by C. Paul Jennewein. The facade on the far (north) end, which overlooks the burial area, bears the insignia in mosaic of the major United States units which operated in northwest Europe in World War II. Along the outside of the memorial are the "Tablets of the Missing", granite slabs on which are inscribed the names of 462 American missing (15 Navy and 447 Army and Army Air Forces) who gave their lives in the service of their country, but whose remains were never recovered or identified. Within the memorial are a chapel, three large wall maps composed of inlaid marble, marble panels depicting combat and supply activities and other ornamental features.
Interments.
Many of the 5,329 people interred at the Ardennes American Cemetery died during Nazi Germany's final major offensive in the west, the Battle of the Bulge. They include some service troops who were fighting as infantry. Others died in the advance to the Rhine and across Germany, and in the strategic bombardment of Europe. Three-fifths of those buried in the cemetery were airmen.
The dead came from almost every state in the Union as well as from Washington, D.C., Canada, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Ireland, the Philippines, and the British West Indies. 777 of the headstones mark the graves of 792 unidentified bodies. Among the headstones are eleven instances in which two brothers are buried side by side. There are also three cases in which two identified airmen are buried in single graves.
The cemetery is closed to future interments, with exceptions made for recently recovered remains of American World War II dead. In 1992, the remains of American war dead were discovered in a forest east of Elsenborn, Belgium. Through DNA testing, one set of remains was identified as Sgt. John T. Puckett of Wichita, Kansas, who had been listed as Missing in Action during the Battle of the Bulge. Puckett's family requested he be interred in the Ardennes cemetery; his burial there took place on 18 June 2005.
Notable burials.
Three Medal of Honor recipients are honored in the cemetery, their graves are marked by special headstones with gold lettering:
Other notable burials include:


Military history of Serbia

The military history of Serbia spans over 1200 years on the Balkan peninsula during the various forms of the Serbian state and Serbian army.
History of the Serbian army.
Medieval Serbian army.
The Serbian army during this period was primarily consisted of light cavalry and infantry force armed with spear, javelin or bows. With the increasing wealth from mining, mercenary knights were recruited to complement noble cavalry armed with bow and lance. This enabled the Serbs to fight effectively outwith their mountain strongholds. The core of the army consisted of noble cavalry (vlastela) armed with lance and bow in the Byzantine style in early medieval time. These were increasingly supplemented by western style knights. Mostly Germans in Dušan's reign. Dušan's military tactics consisted of wedge shaped heavy cavalry attacks with horse archers on the flanks. Many foreign mercenaries were in the Serbian army, mostly Germans as cavalry and Spaniards as infantry. He also had personal mercenary guards, mainly German knights. A knight named Palman was the commander of this unit and was the leader of all German mercenaries. Light horses were provided by Hungarian and Cuman mercenaries. Later in the period Serbian lance armed Hussars took over this role. The infantry still included lightly armed javelin troops although the bow and crossbow became the most important infantry weapon in the 14th century. A western style charge by the armoured cavalry and knights was the main tactic with the infantry used to follow up. In the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330, Dušan was also successful against Louis' vassals: he defeated the armies of the Croatian ban and the forces of Hungarian voivodes. Bulgaria became a Serbian vassal in 1331, a situation that lasted until 1365.
The Serbs expanded their state to the south conquering most of Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly from the Byzantine Empire which was in the midst of a disastrous civil war. Without major field battles, the Serbian tactic was based on seizing towns by siege.
In 1346 Stephen Dušan was proclaimed Emperor.
However, his empire began to fall apart after his death in 1355 due to rivalry among the nobility and the lack of consolidation of the newly conquered territories. In 1371 a Serbian army led by Vukašin advanced on Adrianople only to be surprised in a dawn attack by an inferior Ottoman force commanded by Lala Şahin.
The Serbian leaders were killed and Serbian lands were grabbed by various independent nobles as well as the Ottomans. A decade later, Serbs defeated Ottomans in Battle of Pločnik in 1386. As the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 is generally considered as temporarily the end of the medieval Serbian state until 1402. Despotovina, the successor of the Serbian Empire and the state of Prince Lazar survived for 70 more years, experiencing a cultural and political renaissance in the first half of the 15th century before it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1459. Ragusan historian Mavro Orbin recorded that prince Lazar used cannons as early as 1373 in his war against Nikola Altamanovich in northern Serbia. The state was led by despot Stefan Lazarević and his successors from the Branković dynasty. Despot Stefan has armed his knights with light firearms (musket "Fitiljača"),also with spears, swords, daggers, maces, bow and arrows, crossbows, shields, armours, halberd and cannons. He also introduced Europe style knight tournaments. Even then, Serbian state continued to last in the Hungarian exile until the mid 16th century and the autonomous Serbian principality fell only in 1540.
Military tradition.
Day of the Serbian Armed Forces.
The Day of the Serbian Armed Forces was elected to be 23 April. On that day, on Palm Sunday, in Takovo in 1815, prominent elders met and reached a decision to start the Second Serbian Uprising for the liberation of Serbia from the Turkish authorities.
The Second Serbian uprising resulted in a positive starting point in the long run. Initially it was a military operation of the Serbian history, but in the later period ensued political and diplomatic activities, which led to the Serbia being freed from supreme Turkish authorities and the Second Serbian Uprising in some ways is the foundation for the creation of the Serbian government and Serbian armed forces. As a product, and independence was followed by the creation of the standing army and the establishment of the Guard which consisted of 76 men who were selected "in stature and reputation of" from finest families in Serbia.
Since the creation of a standing army, the first "conscripts" and later "soldats", went unnoticed by the Porte, the National Assembly made the name "Soldat" official. This is when first recruits were introduced, who remained in the army for ten years, bearing in mind that their service period was not determined. A standing army was living in the barracks and receiving salary. They received uniforms." These first Serbian regular army formations were modeled after the Austrian army, which confirms that both at that time the experience of foreign armies were invaluable in creating our army.
Second Serbian Uprising was precisely the combination of events led by faith in the liberation of Serbia using existing military assets and military organization, which led to the final liberation and recognition of modern Serbia as a state with full international legality and recognized by the powers at Berlin congress in 1878.


Battle of the CIMIC House

CIMIC-House was the British Army-led Multi-National Division (South-East)'s centre of Civil-Military Co-operation activities in the Iraqi town of Al Amarah. It was situated in the former residence of the Ba'ath Party governor of Maysan province.
Determined to take the strongpoint, militia of the Shia Mahdi Army launched sustained attacks on the British positions at CIMIC House and the neighbouring Pink Palace, the seat of local government, beginning on 5 August 2004.
Al Amarah was garrisoned by fewer than 90 Soldiers from Y Company of the 1st Battalion, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (including TA elements from 52nd Lowland Regiment), 60 from the Royal Welch Fusiliers, and two troops of soldiers from A squadron the Queens Royal Lancers (QRL). These units were part of the 1st Mechanised Brigade on TELIC IV. The forces in Amarah were isolated some from the main Battle Group in Abu Naji, and dependent on convoys for resupply. During the siege, they faced an estimated 500 militia who launched a total of 86 assaults on the compound over the next 23 days, ranging from section strength up to a series of company-level assaults with 100-plus fighters.
Incoming fire from the Mahdi Army included 595 mortar rounds from 230 different bombardments, direct hits with 57 rocket-propelled grenades and six 107 mm rockets plus 86 ground assaults on CIMIC (Civil-Military Co-operation) House itself. Y Company, 1
PWRR, based at CIMIC House, became the most attacked company in the entire Iraqi theatre of operations. In defending the compound, the British fired 33,000 rounds, and many Challenger 2, Warrior, and High Explosive 81mm Mortar shells and managed to persuade the US Air Force to drop a precision laser guided 500 lb bomb onto enemy mortar positions in open ground right in the middle of a built up-city, defending their positions in trying to repulse the Mahdi Army in what has been described by Y Company's Sergeant Dan Mill's book "Sniper One" as "the longest continuous action fought by the British Army since the Korean War 50 years ago". It was also the "lengthiest defensive stand since World War II".
Fighting reached a peak between the 5 and 25 August when the intensity was such that armoured convoys were unable to reach the base to resupply the British, although none of the waves of infantry attacks by the Mahdi Army got within 30 metres of the British lines. During this time commanding officer, Major Justin Featherstone, was given permission to withdraw by his commanding officer if he felt events on the ground required it but refused to have his men leave their posts. Captain Charlie Curry was given command for 6 days during this time when Major Featherstone went on R&R.
At the end of the siege, six British soldiers were injured seriously in the battle, the only fatality on the British side was Private Chris Rayment who died when a traffic barrier fell on his head, after the linkage was caught by a Snatch Land Rover which was entering the camp in a convoy, under heavy enemy fire.
Mahdi Army casualties at the end of the battle were estimated by the British to be at least 200 dead, leaving them as a seriously depleted force in Al Amarah, incapable of attacking the British in large numbers for the remainder of the coalition occupation of the town. CIMIC House was handed over to the Iraqis at the end of August 2004, with the British consolidating their forces in Camp Abu Naji.
Among the soldiers defending CIMIC house was a large contingent of Territorial Army soldiers who were mobilised to serve with the PWRR and QRL Battle Groups in April 2004. They included one Warrior (AFV) from B Coy 3 Scots The Blackwatch. Territorial soldiers from the 52nd Lowland Regiment and Soldiers from various different squadrons of the Royal Yeomanry regiment. Although these reservists contributed significantly to the defence of CIMIC house, their efforts were largely overshadowed by the regular PWRR (Y Company).
External links.
Books on the siege


Battle of La Ebonal

The Battle of La Ebonal was fought in December 1859 near Brownsville, Texas during the First Cortina War. Following the Brownsville Raid, on September 28, and a few skirmishes with the Texas Rangers, rebel leader Juan Cortina led his small army into the hills outside of town and dug in near a series of cattle ranches. The United States Army responded by sending an expedition into the area, under the command of Major Samuel P. Heintzelman, with orders to pacify all resistance. A minor battle began on December 13, at a ranch called La Ebonal, and continued for a few hours as the Americans routed and then pursued the retreating Cortinistas.
Background.
The First Cortina War began on September 28, 1859 when Juan Cortina led about seventy-five men into Brownsville to punish the town marshal for past grievances. After killing between four and six people, releasing the prisoners from the town jail, and taking whatever arms and ammunition, the Cortinistas fled northwest to Rancho del Carmen, which was owned by Cortina's mother and used as his base for operations north of the river border. On October 12, the sheriff of Cameron County, James Browne, led a posse to the ranch and succeeded in arresting the sixty-year-old Tomas Cabrera, who was not only a close friend of Cortina but one of his chief lieutenants that had participated in the Brownsville raid. When Cortina found out what had happened to his friend, he issued an ultimatum to the people of Brownsville, threatening that he would "lay the town in ashes" if Cabrera was not released and if his enemies did not surrender to him. The situation quickly escalated from there. The citizens of Brownsville began constructing defenses, including a barricade to block the main road through town. They also formed a twenty-man militia, called the "Brownsville Tigers," which was sent to Rancho del Carmen and was hastily defeated by 300 rebels, who captured both of the Tigers' small artillery pieces. Cortina had his men build a forward base for his artillery outside of town and he formed a frontline close enough to Brownsville so that it could be seen by the Americans at the barricade. However, other than a shot from the cannon every morning at 6:00 am, there was no battle at the town itself. Over the next weeks, volunteers flocked to Cortina's camps from both sides of the border. Among his new recruits were some sixty Mexican criminals, who had broken out of the prison at Ciudad Victoria, and a band of Tampacaus native Americans from near Reynosa.
With Cortina's army growing stronger every day, the Americans sent for help and a force of Texas Rangers, under Captain William G. Tobin, was soon ordered to begin assembling in Brownsville. Cortina was well informed by his network of spies and sympathizers who lived in South Texas so he planned to ambush the rangers as they arrived in the area. On November 11, the morning after the arrival of the first rangers, Cortina was spotted coming down the road towards Brownsville, leading a body of an estimated 200 men. The American defenders quickly manned the barricades but Cortina decided not to attack and quietly withdrew back to base. The people of Brownsville panicked and, with the help of the rangers, an angry mob removed Cabrera from his cell and lynched him in Market Square. Cortina then hung three of his American prisoners before ambushing a small troop of rangers in the Palo Alto chaparral, near the Palo Alto Battlefield. In a fight that lasted less than one hour, three Americans were killed and four others were wounded. Their bodies were later found to have been ""stripped and mutilated." In retaliation, Captain Tobin rode to the village of Santa Rita and burned it to the ground without any resistance. Later he moved up the river to attack Rancho del Carmen but again Cortina was victorious and the rangers were driven back to Brownsville by a "galling fire of round shot, grape and canister." Outgunned, about 100 Texas Rangers deserted and headed back north for home while those that remained waited for reinforcements.
At this point the United States Army became involved. On November 13, General David E. Twiggs ordered Major Samuel P. Heintzelman to lead an expedition of several hundred men to Brownsville. Though the major would be starting out from Old Camp Verde, in central Texas, many of the units placed under his command would be coming from distant states or territories, such as Kansas and Virginia. Because of this, Heinztelman issued orders for the majority of his men to rendezvous with him at Fort Merrill, on the Nueces River, and the remainder to assemble at Fort McIntosh, in Laredo, before beginning the final march to Brownsville. The major left Camp Verde on November 14 and arrived in Brownsville just before midnight on December 6, a journey of 332 miles. At that time, Heintzelman had with him two batteries from the 1st Artillery, under Lieutenants Douglas Ramsay and William Montrose Graham, Jr., a company from the 2nd Cavalry, under Captain George Stoneman, and two companies from the 8th Infantry, under Captains Arthur Tracy Lee and Charles Downer Jordan. Another battery of artillery, one company of cavalry, and a few more companies of infantry was still at Laredo. During all this time, Cortina's army grew to at least 400 men and a few artillery pieces but they were not well armed individually and had little or no military training. With information collected by Mayor Stephen Powers, District Judge Edmund J. Davis, and the filibuster José María Jesús Carbajal in Matamoros, Heintzelman concluded that Cortina probably had no more than 300 to 350 men, only 100 of whom were mounted. The Texas Rangers insisted that the number was at least 600.
Battle.
Immediately after arriving in Brownsville, Major Heintzelman reoccupied Fort Brown, rested his troops for a few days, and organized the rangers and the militia into one unit under his command. He also waited for some artillery pieces to arrive from the army stores in Brazos Santiago. On the morning of December 13, when he was ready, Heintzelman began marching 165 men west, up the Rio Grande road, to Rancho del Carmen. The weather was cold and slightly rainy. Two miles outside of town, the soldiers were joined by a force of 125 Texas Rangers. Heintzelman wanted to use the rangers for reconnaissance but they refused to move through the dense chaparral along the road in fear of being ambushed. As they approached Rancho del Carmen, the rangers again hesitated to continue further but Judge Davis, who accompanied the expedition, was able to convince some of them to keep moving. When the expedition reached Rancho del Carmen, they found that the "ten-foot thick mesquite (wood) parapets" had only recently been abandoned. The rangers then fanned out as they were supposed to by taking positions on the flanks in front of the column. After advancing down the river road two miles further, Heintzelman spotted one of Cortina's men waving a Mexican flag in the distance. Seconds later, the Cortinistas started the engagement by firing a "four pound ball"" down the road from their positions at the nearby Rancho la Ebonal. Heintzelman had his artillery return the fire immediately but the American gunners were inexperienced, having never fired live ammunition before. At first, the American artillery went flying well over the Cortinista fortifications but after a spotter was deployed to the top of a mesquite tree the fire became more accurate. A gunnery duel continued for some time but casualties remained light on both sides. A piece of canister hit the pommel of Judge Davis' saddle and another piece wounded a man in the thigh. A third piece killed a mule before striking an ammunition wagon and setting it on fire.
After softening up the rebel positions, Heintzelman took the initiative by dismounting the rangers and sending them forward to attack one of the enemy's flanks while the infantry and cavalry attacked the other. In the meantime, the artillery would hold the road along the river, in the center of the battlefield. Neither of the movements made very much progress though. Not just because of incoming fire but because of how thick the prairie was. As the advance slowed, the Cortinistas launched an attack of their own, hoping to capture the American artillery. However, the Americans repulsed the attack with musketry and afterwards found eight dead rebels on the field. One Texas Ranger was killed during the engagement while two others were wounded. Two soldiers also received wounds. When the fighting ceased, Major Heintzelman ordered his men to regroup and rest for two hours before continuing further down the road. The rebels made another stand a short distance away from La Ebonal and yet another four miles up the road that leads to Edinburg and Rio Grande City, at the ranch of Jesus de Leon. During the latter engagement, both the rangers and the soldiers routed the Cortinistas, most of whom fled further up the river while others crossed over to Mexico. One more ranger was mortally wounded while a second was badly wounded in the shoulder due to an accidental discharge. Heintzelman reported that he counted eight more dead Mexicans as he rode up to the De Leon Ranch but overall casualties were difficult to determine because many of the rebels were literally "blown to pieces" by artillery fire. After another halt, the expedition continued on. At a fork in the road near Cortina's Rancho San Jose, fifteen miles from Brownsville, the Americans found a path leading through the chaparral where the rebels had dragged one of their cannons. The rain was starting to get heavier though so Heintzelmen decided to make camp for the night and follow the path on the next morning.
It was after 8:00 am by the time the march started again, mostly because the rangers took their time breaking camp. Not long after, the Americans heard the sound of Mexican bugles in the distance, sounding the retreat. Heintzelman ordered his men to make haste but no more Cortinistas were found. The major assumed correctly that he had successfully dispersed Cortina's army so he turned the column around and went back to Fort Brown, arriving later that evening. The Texas Rangers burned down several abandoned homes during the return march. According to Heintzelman; ""The Texas Rangers were burning all - friends and foes... We would undoubtedly have done better without the Rangers." Heintzelman later found that Cortina himself was not in charge of the rebels during the battle. He had gone north with 200 of his men, to conduct an ambush, and left his lieutenant, Teodoro Zamora, in command. However, when he heard the sound of cannon fire, Cortina rushed to the scene but apparently arrived too late to engage.
Aftermath.
After arriving back in Brownsville and the fort, Heintzelman allowed his men to celebrate the victory with a barrel of beer that was captured during the skirmish at Rancho de Leon. On the next morning, Heintzelman was "besieged by visitors congratulating him on his success." There were rumors, however, that Cortina was preparing to take up the offensive again by attacking Point Isabel and destroying the fleet of steamships there. Furthermore, the Texas Rangers were feuding over who they wanted to be led by. One half preferred Captain Tobin but the others preferred the recently arrived John Salmon Ford. Heintzelman preferred the latter, being that Salmon had discipline while Tobin let his men run wild. A war council later decided to send one company of rangers to Point Isabel, to protect the port, while the remaining rangers were sent north to scout Los Fresnos and Las Norias. Captain George Stoneman would also take a company of the 2nd Cavalry on a patrol up the Rio Grande. Meanwhile, Heintzelman was communicating with the Mexican authorities across the river in Matamoros. After speaking with the Mexican consul, Manuel Trevino, about Cortina and Mexican-American affairs in general, Heintzelman reviewed seven hundred Mexican Army troops before returning to Texas. At about the same time, a prominent local rancher, named Henry Clay Davis, entered Brownsville and told Heintzelman that Cortina was still retreating west, "burning and plundering as he went."" This was further substantiated by Captain Stoneman and the Texas Rangers, who reported the same thing. For this, Heintzelman began preparing for a second march up the river. Leaving on December 21, the expedition headed west and eventually encountered the Cortinistas on December 27 in the Battle of Rio Grande City, the decisive engagement of the war. During the fighting, the rebels were surprised and routed from the city. They lost much of their arms and equipment, as well as about sixty men. The First Cortina War ended soon after.


Battle of Nisko

The Battle of Nisko took place on March 28, 1656, and was one of battles of the Swedish invasion of Poland. It resulted in a victory of Swedish forces, commanded by King Charles X Gustav.
The battle took place during a Swedish raid of southern part of the Kingdom of Poland, in which King Charles X Gustav tried to finally destroy Polish forces loyal to King John II Casimir Vasa. The badly organized Swedish campaign was terminated after the Battle of Jaroslaw, when Charles X Gustav ordered a retreat toward central Poland. At the same time, Polish forces concentrated near Lwow began guerrilla attacks on the Swedish Army. The retreat took place in adverse weather conditions, and Swedish losses were high.
On March 28, 1656, the Swedish Army camped near Nisko. Hungry soldiers began combing the area in search of food, while those sick and wounded remained at lightly guarded camp. Stefan Czarniecki decided to take advantage of this, and his cavalry entered the camp. Alarm was raised by Swedish drummers, and units which had scattered in the countryside returned to camp.
According to the plan, a Polish unit under Colonel Aleksander Hilary Polubinski was to attack the camp from the rear. However, due to a misunderstanding, Polubinski failed to appear at Nisko. Therefore, after some time, a Polish division faced entire Swedish Army. Czarniecki’s forces were forced to flee, and the Hetman was almost captured by the enemy. The Polish plan failed, while Swedish soldiers once again proved their professionalism. Nevertheless, after the skirmish, remaining Polish banners, loyal to Charles Gustav, switched sides and returned their allegiance to John II Casimir Vasa. A few days later, Swedish Army was blocked by Poles and Lithuanians in the confluence of the Vistula and San river.


Operation Ironclad


Battle of Katia

The Battle of Katia, also known as the Affair of Qatia by the British, was an engagement fought east of the Suez Canal and north of El Ferdan Station, in the vicinity of Katia and Oghratina, on 23 April 1916 during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I. An Ottoman force led by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein made a surprise attack on three and a half squadrons of the British 5th Mounted Brigade, which was widely scattered to the east of Romani. The mounted brigade had been ordered to the area to protect the new railway and water pipeline being built from Kantara on the Suez Canal, as this infrastructure extended out past the Canal's zone of defences into the Sinai Peninsula towards Romani. Kress Von Kressenstein's attack was completely successful, decimating the equivalent of little more than a regiment. On the same day, an associated Ottoman attack on Duidar, very close to the Suez Canal, failed when it met with strong British opposition.
Kress von Kressenstein's force had been active in the area since the First Suez Offensive of early 1915, when three columns attacked the Canal along the northern, central, and southern routes across the Sinai Peninsula. The growing Imperial strength made attacks on the Suez Canal difficult, and ended the dominance of the Ottoman force in the area. The Ottoman Empire's attacks on 23 April demonstrated their intention to continue opposing the British Empire in the region.
However, the Imperial reaction to these attacks was to double the strength of their forces. The 2nd Light Horse Brigade, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, were sent to Katia and Romani and established a strong Imperial presence over the contested ground. Soon after, the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade was also sent forward, and the 52nd (Lowland) Division arrived at Romani not long after. At the beginning of August, the Battle of Romani was fought over much of the same ground as that at Katia.
Background.
In 1915, Sir Archibald Murray, the Imperial Commander in Chief of Egypt, partially addressed the threat of von Kressenstein's forces to the Suez Canal by organising the defences into three sectors. No. 1 (Southern) sector, with its headquarters at Suez, covered the area from Suez to Kabrit, No. 2 (Central) sector, with its headquarters at Ismailia, covered the area from Kabrit to Ferdan, and No. 3 (Northern) sector, with its headquarters at Port Said, covered the area from Ferdan to Port Said. The No. 3 sector also had an advanced headquarters at Kantara. To support these forward defences, the British Empire improved their lines of communication by doubling the single railway line that ran from Cairo to the Suez Canal, and also pumped water from the River Nile along the Sweet Water Canal to supply the troops and the towns on the Suez Canal.
After the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign, both sides had large numbers of troops available for redeployment, and the British decided to move their Suez Canal defences from positions on the canal eastwards into the Sinai desert. Murray aimed to extend the railway and water pipeline to Katia, so that a permanent forward Imperial base of 50,000 men could be established. In February 1916, he requested permission from the War Office in London to extend this infrastructure further across the Sinai to El Arish. He considered that such an advance along the northern route, combined with the destruction of the central route's water sources and regular patrols from a base at El Arish, would permanently secure the Suez Canal. An advance to Katia was agreed by the War Office, but no decision was made regarding an advance to El Arish.
The first shipload of rails and sleepers arrived at Kantara on 10 March and, four weeks later, of track stretching towards Katia had been laid by the Egyptian Labour Corps and Royal Engineers. There were also two new appointments: Brigadier General Edgar Askin Wiggin took command of the Katia district on 6 April and, three days later, Major General H. A. Lawrence became responsible for No. 3 Sector of the canal defences, which covered the northern section.
Meanwhile, several raids were undertaken by the Australian Light Horse and the Bikaner Camel Corps, accompanied by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps carrying supplies, rations and ammunition. The purpose of these raids was to destroy water sources on the central inland route, which had been used by the Ottomans during the First Suez Offensive in late January and early February 1915.
To provide forward protection for the railway construction workers and the infrastructure, the 5th Mounted Brigade was ordered to move to Katia. By early April, however, signs of renewed Ottoman activity in the area were detected and, as a result, the 5th Light Horse Regiment was ordered to reinforce the 5th Mounted Brigade; it was due to arrive at Katia on 24 April.
Prelude.
Ottoman forces.
Kress von Kressenstein moved to challenge the growing Imperial presence with a force of ninety-five officers 3,560 other ranks comprising 1st and 2nd Battalions and one company of the 3rd Battalion, 32nd Regiment, a regiment of Arab irregulars on camels, and six mountain guns, a 75-mm battery of the 8th F. A. Regiment and two guns of the 9th F. A. Regiment (one and a half batteries), two field ambulances and an ammunition column.
The Ottoman and Arab force travelled across the Sinai Peninsula on the northern route, which runs not far from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and nearly parallel with it. A series of oases with date palms and reliable water stretch for from Bir el Abd in the east to Oghratina, Katia and Romani near the Suez Canal. These oases make the northern route from the Ottoman-Egyptian Frontier at Rafa to El Arish and Romani viable, and British strategists thought it possible that 250,000 Ottoman troops could cross the Sinai, and 80,000 be based permanently in this fertile area. Whoever could hold the contested ground in the area of Katia and Romani would be in a position to protect the Canal, or within striking distance. The area was patrolled almost daily by Ottoman aircraft, which bombed the recently established Katia camp on 20 April, and both Katia and Romani the next day.
Imperial deployments.
23 April 1916 was St George's Day and also Easter Sunday, and dawn found the 5th Mounted Brigade, dispersed over a wide area. The brigade was made up of the Warwickshire Yeomanry, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars (Worcestershire Yeomanry). These regiments were deployed as follows:
At Oghrantina was two squadrons of Worcestershire Hussars (less one troop), with four officers and 60 other ranks of the 2/2nd Lowland Field Company Royal Engineers.
At Katia was one squadron and a machine gun subsection of the Gloucestershire Hussars, along with 40 dismounted men of the Worcestershire Hussars, and a detail from the Royal Army Medical Corps, Army Veterinary Corps and camel transport.
At Bir el Hamisah were the Warwickshire Yeomanry (less one squadron), and one squadron and one troop from the Worcestershire Hussars.
At Romani, near Pelusium, were the Gloucestershire Hussars (less one squadron), and a machine gun subsection in reserve.
At the small oasis of Dueidar south south west of Katia were 156 men; 120 from the 5th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers and thirty-six from the Bikanir Camel Corps, including a few Yeomanry. The 4th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, were holding Hill 70, behind Dueidar.
On 22 April Wiggin and his brigade headquarters, with one squadron and one troop of Worcestershire Hussars, had arrived at Bir el Hamisah from Katia. Wiggin moved there in response to an intelligence report that an Ottoman force was at Bir el Mageibra some distance to the south and, with the agreement of his commander H. A. Lawrence, he prepared to launch a surprise attack. At dawn on 23 April, Wiggin found and destroyed a large but almost empty camp at Bir el Mageibra, capturing six prisoners. He was back at Bir el Hamisah by 09:00, having covered a distance of , when he heard news of Ottoman attacks.
Battle.
Oghratina.
The oasis at Oghratina had been occupied by a squadron from the Worcestershire Hussars and a dismounted detachment of Royal Engineers thirty-six hours before the Ottoman attack; a second squadron arrived just twelve hours before the attack, so defensive works had not been extensive. These squadrons stood to at 04:00 in dense sea-fog, which was common at that time of year. They heard the sound of pumps operating at wells to their south west, and an officer who investigated found about sixty Ottoman soldiers. The yeomanry completely surprised this small Ottoman force, opening fire and causing heavy casualties, but in following up their retreat, the yeomanry were met with very heavy rifle fire from a much larger force. Soon afterwards, British squadrons on the right were attacked, and by 05:15 the whole camp was being assaulted from north, east and south east in overwhelming strength at a range of or less.
The Ottoman attack began with heavy fire from light guns, machine guns and rifles. Although the commander of the yeomanry detachment had orders to retire if attacked in force, he could not leave the dismounted engineers. The Ottoman attack was resisted for two hours, but by 07:45 eleven yeomanry officers and 135 other ranks were casualties. The survivors, four officers and forty-two other ranks, surrendered.
Katia.
At 03:30 "A" Squadron Gloucestershire Hussars, under Captain Lloyd Baker, stood to arms and saddled up; a patrol was sent out and returned to report all clear. Soon afterwards a small Ottoman patrol fired on the yeomanry and retired. About 05:30 heavy fire was heard from Oghratina, and a message was received half an hour later that an attack had been repulsed. At 06:30 another message reported that the attack had been renewed, and a message from Romani reported that Dueidar had also been attacked. At 07:45 another Ottoman attack at Katia was driven off.
At 08:45 a patrol sent out towards Oghratina saw 600 Ottoman soldiers marching towards Katia in open order in two long lines about away, followed by more troops in a formed body, and cavalry advancing to the south west to surround Katia. At 09:45 a battery of mountain guns near Er Rabah opened fire on Katia from the north east, which killed or maimed some of the horses within a few minutes.
Rather than retiring to Romani or to Bir el Hamisah, Captain Lloyd Baker decided to stay at Katia and protect his party of Royal Engineers, hoping for support from Romani. The Gloucestershire squadron maintained rapid fire against the increasing numbers of Ottoman attackers, and just before 10:00 British reinforcements from Romani (Gloucestershire Hussars) and Bir el Hamisah (Worcestershire Hussars) converged on Katia and fought their way through to the garrison. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Coventry of the Worcestershire Hussars now took command of the garrison. Heavy fire from Ottoman rifles and machine guns continued for several hours at Katia, and the Ottomans gradually pressed in on the yeomanry's front and flanks. Eventually working their way to within , the Ottomans rushed the garrison shortly before 15:00. The flank held by the Gloucestershire Hussars collapsed and Coventry then ordered a general surrender.
At about 13:30 Coventry had asked Captain W.H. Wiggin (brother of Brigadier General Wiggin) to bring up the horses to allow as many men as possible the chance of escape, but the captain fainted from the effects of a wound before he reached them. When he came to, he saw the camp had been captured, and galloped with the surviving horses and horse holders to meet escaping yeomanry. A total of eighty men escaped, with Wiggin being the only officer to get away from Oghratina or Katia. The Gloucestershire Hussars lost 4 officers and 16 other ranks killed, 15 other ranks were wounded and 64 were taken prisoner. The casualties of the Worcestershire Hussars at Oghratina and Katia were even worse with a loss of 9 officers and 101 other ranks killed and 235 men taken prisoner. The regiment was almost wiped out – they mustered after the battle with just 54 NCOs and men.
Dueidar.
At Dueidar the garrison of 156 men defended an area of just containing six small redoubts. At 04:00 a linesman was sent out to investigate a loss of communication with Katia; the commander of the garrison visited the posts under his command and sent out a patrol to the south east, ordering his troops to stand to arms. The patrol saw nothing in the mist, but at 05:17 a sentry saw a large group of Ottoman soldiers and opened fire on them. This alerted the nearest redoubt garrison armed with fifty men and a Lewis gun which swept the Ottoman ranks. So effective was the fire that the attackers soon fell back leaving twenty dead and wounded, while an Ottoman mountain gun battery was unable to find the British positions. At 07:00 Ottoman forces attempted to outflank the British position to the south, but were stopped by fire from a small defensive works on that flank containing one non-commissioned officer (NCO) and six men. Shortly afterwards Ottoman soldiers repeated their attack on the south eastern redoubt. Some of them got to within of the defensive barbed wire, but were again routed by steady fire.
British and Australian reinforcements.
Brigadier General Wiggin ordered the Worcestershire Yeomanry to water at Bir el Hamisah and then advance on Katia, but before watering was complete they saw shells bursting at Katia, and moved off at 09:50 to reinforce the line of the Gloucester squadron on the left.
The remaining squadrons of Warwickshire Yeomanry, after watering at Bir el Hamisah, moved at 10:30 to attack the Hod um Ugba, which was north east of Katia and halfway between Bir el Hamisah and Katia. Wiggin moved off an hour later to attack the same place, and this force became engaged with Ottoman flanking troops. By 13:45 Wiggin had advanced about against very strong opposition, but soon afterwards he saw a commotion among the camels at Katia; the tents in the camp were burning and he decided that the best option was to fall back to Bir el Hamisah.
Reinforcements from Romani, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel R. M. Yorke, attacked the Ottoman force to the north of Katia, but were driven off. These five troops and a machine gun section of Gloucestershire Hussars moved out from Romani at 10:15 to intercept a column of 500 Ottoman soldiers retiring south-east from Dueidar. Shortly after leaving Romani, firing was heard from Katia, and from some high ground they could see the Ottoman artillery north of Er Rabah shelling the camp. When the Gloucestershire Hussars advanced towards the Ottoman artillery, it ceased fire, and fifteen minutes later was seen to withdraw some distance. The Gloucestershire Hussars pushed some Ottoman soldiers back to the high ground south of the Hod um Ugba, where Ottoman reinforcements stopped their advance. The strength of the Ottoman attacks made a gradual withdrawal necessary, but long halts were made to enable the wounded at Romani to retire also.
Unfortunately the Gloucestershire Hussars from Romani were not aware of Wiggin and his reinforcements on the other flank until it was too late, finally coming in sight of them at about 15:00. Wiggin had seen Yorke's force an hour earlier, but had not been able to communicate with it.
Dueidar was reinforced by two companies of 4th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers from Hill 70 on the railway to the rear. On approaching Dueidar, a small detachment of reinforcements was sent to the south eastern redoubt. The Ottoman firing line was found to be south of the Dueidar to Katia track and from the principal redoubt. Shortly after the mist cleared, a British aircraft dropped a message that the main Ottoman force was in retreat and that there were only about 150 rifles still attacking. A squadron of the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at midday from Kantara, and moved off south east in pursuit of the main Ottoman force, while the garrison at Dueidar attacked the Ottoman rearguard which broke and fled, leaving behind seventeen unwounded troops who were taken prisoner. The remainder of 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at Duidar at 13:30 and took up the pursuit. They captured one officer and thirty-one other ranks, and killed seventy-five men; there were fifty-five British casualties.
Aftermath.
The commander of 5th Mounted Brigade decided to retire towards the Suez Canal, and the two squadrons from Romani joined him, abandoning much equipment to ride overnight to Bir el Nuss. Wiggin arrived at Dueidar at 09:00 on 24 April with two squadrons. The 5th Mounted Brigade had been completely surprised; its commander and his important reserve force had been out of position at a critical time following false intelligence, and could not support his regiments. The three and a half squadrons at Oghratina and Katia were decimated—almost all were killed, wounded or captured.
The overwhelming success of the Ottoman Army's operations during the Battle of Katia demonstrated the attacking strength and determination of Kress von Kressenstein's force in 1916, and their efficient implementation of appropriate tactics, particularly timing and false intelligence. This success was underpinned by the Ottoman infantry's ability to make the gruelling march across the Sinai Peninsula and be fit enough to then launch attacks with force and determination.
On 24 April Romani was reoccupied and the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division (Anzac Mounted Division), Major General Harry Chauvel, took command of the advance positions. The 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the mounted division were ordered to Romani and reoccupied the area unopposed by any Ottoman force. The 52nd (Lowland) Division reinforced the garrison at Dueidar and also came under Chauvel's command.
After the battle the area was held by British forces with their main bases at Romani and Kantara. Regular patrols and reconnaissances were carried out over the oases area, until the issue was resolved at the Battle of Romani in August 1916 when British Empire forces won a decisive victory.


Suicide bombings in Sri Lanka

Suicide Bombing was a popular tactic of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. According to Jane's Information Group, between 1980 and 2000, the LTTE carried out 168 suicide attacks causing heavy damage to mainly military targets, but in some cases also to economic and civilian targets.
By LTTE.
The Sri Lankan economy and the Sri Lankan Army have been targeted on numerous occasions, including during a high-profile attack on Colombo's International Airport (Bandaranaike Airport attack) in 2001 that caused damage to several commercial airliners and military jets . The LTTE was also responsible for a 1998 attack on the Buddhist shrine, and UNESCO world heritage site, Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy that killed 8 worshippers. The attack was symbolic in that the shrine, which houses a sacred tooth of the Buddha, is the holiest Buddhist shrine in Sri Lanka. Other Buddhist shrines have been attacked, notably the Sambuddhaloka Temple in Colombo that killed 9 worshippers.
The LTTE's Black Tigers have carried out the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991 using a prototype suicide vest, and Ranasinghe Premadasa, assassinated in 1993.
Easter Sunday bombings.
On Easter Sunday (21 April) 2019, approximately 250 people died in six separate suicide bombings in churches and hotels. The local group National Thowheeth Jama'ath, was suspected.
History.
The first prominent suicide bombing by the LTTE occurred in 1987 when Captain Miller drove a truck laden with explosives into a Sri Lankan army camp killing 40 soldiers. He is heralded by the LTTE as the first Black Tiger.
The use of suicide bombing by the LTTE became notorious in the 90s when they developed a unique suicide bomb vest that would be emulated by terrorist groups around the world including the Middle East. On May 21, 1991, the LTTE had Thenmozhi Rajaratnam blow herself up at a campaign rally for Rajiv Gandhi, killing him and 14 other bystanders.


Glorious Revolution (Spain)

The Glorious Revolution () took place in Spain in 1868, resulting in the deposition of Queen Isabella II. The success of the revolution marked the beginning of the Sexenio Democrático with the installment of a provisional government.
Background.
An 1866 rebellion led by General Juan Prim and a revolt of the sergeants at San Gil barracks, in Madrid, sent a signal to Spanish liberals and republicans that there was serious unrest that could be harnessed if it were properly led. Liberals and republican exiles abroad made agreements at Ostend in 1866 and Brussels in 1867. These agreements laid the framework for a major uprising, this time not merely to replace the Prime Minister with a Liberal, but to overthrow Queen Isabella, whom Spanish liberals and republicans began to see as the source of Spain's difficulties.
Her continual vacillation between liberal and conservative quarters had, by 1868, outraged the moderates, the progressives, and the members of the "Unión Liberal." An opposition to her government had developed that crossed party lines. Leopoldo O'Donnell's death in 1867 caused the "Unión Liberal" to unravel; many of its supporters, who had crossed party lines to create the party initially, joined the growing movement to overthrow Isabella in favor of a more effective regime.
Revolution.
In September 1868 naval forces under admiral Juan Bautista Topete mutinied in Cadiz. This was the same city where a half-century before, Rafael del Riego had launched his coup against Isabella's father.
When the generals Prim and Francisco Serrano denounced the government, much of the army defected to the revolutionary generals on their arrival in Spain. The queen made a brief show of force at the Battle of Alcolea, where her loyal "moderado" generals under Manuel Pavia were defeated by General Serrano.
In 1868 Queen Isabella crossed into France and retired from Spanish politics. She lived there in exile, at the Palacio Castilla in Paris, until her death in 1904.
Aftermath.
The revolutionary spirit that had just overthrown the Spanish government lacked direction; the coalition of liberals, moderates, and republicans were faced with the incredible task of creating a government that would suit them better than had Isabella. Control of the government passed to Francisco Serrano, an architect of the revolution against Baldomero Espartero's dictatorship. The "Cortes" initially rejected the notion of a republic; Serrano was named regent while a search was launched for a suitable monarch to lead the country. In 1869, the "Cortes" wrote and promulgated a liberal constitution, the first such constitution in Spain since 1812.
The search for a suitable king proved to be problematic for the "Cortes". The republicans were mostly willing to accept a monarch if he was capable and abided by a constitution. Prim, a perennial rebel against the Isabelline governments, was named regent in 1869. The aged Espartero was brought up as an option, still having considerable sway among the progressives; even after he rejected the notion of being named king, he received eight votes for his coronation in the final tally. Many proposed Isabella's young son Alfonso (the future Alfonso XII of Spain), but others thought that he would be dominated by his mother and inherit her flaws. Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, the former regent of neighboring Portugal, was sometimes mentioned as a possibility. Politicians feared that a nomination offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen would trigger a Franco-Prussian War.
In August 1870, they selected an Italian prince, Amadeo of Savoy. The younger son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, Amadeo had less of the troublesome political baggage that a German or French claimant would bring, and his liberal credentials were strong. He was elected King as Amadeo I of Spain on November 3, 1870.
He landed in Cartagena on November 27, the same day that Juan Prim was assassinated while leaving the "Cortes". Amadeo swore upon the general's corpse that he would uphold Spain's constitution. He lasted two years, after which the parties formed the first Spanish Republic. That in turn lasted two years. No political force was willing to restore Isabella; instead, in 1875 the Cortes proclaimed Isabella's son as King Alfonso XII.


First Anglo-Mysore Peace treaty


Operation Kipion

Operation Kipion is a long-standing maritime presence by the United Kingdom in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean to promote enduring peace and stability in the region, and ensure the safe flow of oil and trade. A permanent presence of 4 minesweepers forms the Mine Countermeasures element of this tasking. Royal Air Force operations in the broader Middle East also fall under this operation.
Assets.
Historical:


Battle of Escape Creek

The Battle of Escape Creek was a naval engagement fought between the United Kingdom's Royal Navy and the Qing Chinese naval force on 25–27 May 1857 during the Second Opium War. Commodore Charles Elliot's squadron chased the war-junks at Escape Creek (present-day East River) and then, once the British ships were grounded as the river narrowed, they chased them in the ships' boats until all the junks had been overhauled.


2007 Helmand Province airstrikes

The 2007 Helmand province airstrikes were a set of airstrikes conducted by NATO on 22 June 2007 which resulted in death of at least 45 Afghan civilians. The death count in southern Helmand province was the highest since 2001, when US-led forces used heavy bombing in their campaign to drive the Taliban from power.
Background.
The War in Afghanistan began on October 7, 2001, in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. This marked the beginning of the U.S. War on Terror. The stated purpose of the invasion was to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy Al-Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to Al-Qaeda.
The U.S. and Britain led the aerial bombing campaign, with ground forces supplied primarily by the Afghan Northern Alliance and supplemented by NATO troops. The U.S. military name of the conflict was Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF).
A U.N. tally shows that of civilian deaths this year, 314 were caused by international or Afghan security forces, and 279 by insurgents. A similar Associated Press count, though lower, shows the same trend: 213 killed by the U.S. or NATO and 180 by the Taliban.
The event.
On 22 June 2007, NATO fighters attacked alleged insurgents in South Afghanistan.
They targeted several houses in the southern part of Helmand province. What is not clear is exactly how many people died. It is known that women and children were among the dead, some local leaders say over 100 people were killed.
The US and NATO say they do not have civilian casualty figures.
Afghans' reaction.
Civilian deaths have infuriated Afghans. Afghan president Hamid Karzai has condemned the forces for carelessness and viewing Afghan lives as "cheap." He has also blamed the Taliban for using civilians as human shields.
President Hamid Karzai ordered a six-man team to conduct a more thorough investigation into the dozens of deaths in Helmand province, said Sher Mohammad Akhanzada, a member of parliament from the province. Karzai accused NATO of careless operation.
NATO's response.
NATO, which has admitted some civilians were killed in the battle late Friday but says the number is far fewer than 45, welcomed Karzai's order.
International reactions.
Pakistan condemned civilian killings by NATO forces in tribal areas bordering Afghanistan.


German Federal Army

The German Federal Army () was the military arm of the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866 whose purpose was the defence of the Confederation against external enemies. Although the Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed the formation of the army and delimited its size and purpose, no work on its formation was begun until 1841, after the Rhine crisis brought the threat of war to Germany. Even then, only preliminary work was accomplished on troop readiness. Most work focused on the building of federal fortresses.
Most preparations were aimed toward France, from where several wars of occupation had been launched in earlier times against the Holy Roman Empire. Cases of conflict between the federal allies, such as arose later during the Second Schleswig War (the Duke of Holstein was simultaneously the King of Denmark), were not anticipated or governed.
The Austro-Prussian War, provoked by Kingdom of Prussia against the Austrian Empire, for domination of the German Confederation and its allies led to the defeat of the Federal Army in 1866 and thus to its disbandment.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 837

United Nations Security Council resolution 837, adopted unanimously on 6 June 1993, after reaffirming resolutions 733 (1992), 746 (1992), 751 (1992), 767 (1992), 775 (1992), 794 (1992) and 814 (1993), the Council condemned the attacks on the United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) in which 24 Pakistani troops deployed in the Unified Task Force were killed and 56 injured, including 1 Italian and 3 American soldiers.
Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Council re-emphasised the importance of the early implementation of the disarmament of all Somali parties, factions and movements, as well as neutralizing radio broadcasting systems that contributed to attacks towards United Nations forces. It also demanded that all parties in Somalia comply with the commitments they had undertaken in the agreements they concluded at the informal Preparatory Meeting on Somali Political Reconciliation in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, reaffirming that the UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali is authorised to take action against those responsible for the armed attacks against UNOSOM II to establish its authority throughout Somalia.
The Council concluded by encouraging the deployment of all UNOSOM II contingents to meet the full requirements of 28,000 men; urging Member States to contribute equipment to the Operation; and for the Secretary-General to report back on the situation within seven days of the adoption of the current resolution.
It was on this resolution that the decision was made to arrest General Mohamed Farrah Aidid who was responsible for the attack, although he was not captured.


Victory Museum

The Victory Museum () is a national military and war museum in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey, which was used as headquarters by then Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk), his chief general staff and army commanders before the Great Offensive in August 1922.


Operation Phalat

Operation Phalat (2 April–20 August 1971) was a military offensive of the Laotian Civil War aimed at an active defense of the Kingdom of Thailand's northern border with the Kingdom of Laos. Evoked by the approach of The Chinese Road, and despite feeble cooperation from the Royal Lao Government, the Thai military established a three-battalion presence on Lao territory south of the Mekong River as a defense against potential invasion by the People's Republic of China.
Overview.
In January 1962, during the beginning of the Laotian Civil War, Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma struck a foreign aid pact with the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communist Chinese would build roads in northwestern Laos despite the ongoing Laotian Civil War. As part of this project, in the wake of the defeat at Nam Bac on 14 January 1968, Chinese engineers began building Route 46 from Yunnan Province south down the Nam Beng Valley towards Pakbeng, which was located on the Mekong River. As the road construction neared the Thai border, and was guarded by Chinese troops and antiaircraft guns, the Royal Thai Government (RTG) became concerned about the possibility of both a Chinese invasion and Chinese support for the Communist Party of Thailand.
Background.
Lao Auto Defense Choc (ADC) militia were stationed in two villages near Route 46, Ban Houei Lao and Ban Moung. During Spring 1971, Pathet Lao (PL) troops associated with the road construction effort drove the ADC militia from these villages. The militiamen fled south across the Mekong River and the Thai border. In turn, the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) flew tactical air strike missions to support the reoccupation of those village outposts.
Activities.
On 2 April 1971, the Royal Thai Army (RTA) began a three-week-long military offensive sweep along its Mekong River border with the Kingdom of Laos. The Thais deployed an infantry regiment, a paratroop battalion, and two artillery batteries, all supported by tactical air power from the RTAF. As Operation Phalat (Operation Mountain Slope) was scheduled as a joint exercise, Lao artillery and Royal Lao Air Force (RLAF) were pledged by the Royal Lao Government (RLG), but never showed. Some Lao ADC did appear on the Lao side of the boundary. In the event, RTG forces destroyed a CPT insurgent base camp in their territory and cut several infiltration trails across the border.
Though these results were satisfactory to the Thais, they were anxious to extend their defensive zone into the southern edge of Military Region 1. As they already had the Operation Unity program for supplying mercenary "volunteers" to support the RLG on the Plain of Jars, they proposed stationing some of those troops as a blocking force between The Chinese Road and the Thai/Lao border. On 15 June 1971, three battalions of Unity troops were stationed at Xieng Lom, Laos. They were dubbed Task Force Rattikone. Due to their crucial location, they were handpicked from the finest Thai troops, and led by a West Point graduate and seasoned combat veterans of the Vietnam War.
On 20 August 1971, "Bataillion Commando 612" (BC 612) swept northwestward to the top of Phou Phine, 19 kilometers from Xieng Lom. Once there, they were bloodied in combat after overcoming ammunition shortages for their mortars and recoilless rifles.
Result.
Operation Phalat had succeeded in implanting three Thai battalions in a forward position on Lao soil at Xieng Lom. In the near future, the "mountain slope" would lead to an operation named after a mythical Thai warrior—Operation Sourisak Montry.