Cayman Islands Regiment

The Cayman Islands Regiment is the home defence unit of the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands. It is a single territorial infantry and engineer battalion of the British Armed Forces that was formed in 2020.
History.
2019.
On 12 October 2019, the government announced the formation of the Cayman Islands Regiment, a new British Armed Forces unit. The Cayman Islands Regiment was planned to become operational in 2020, with an initial 35–50 personnel of mostly reservists that are locally recruited and likely initially trained as engineers. The expected growth of the Regiment is expected to see an increase of personnel to several hundred. One of the main goals of the Regiment would be humanitarian relief, responding to natural disasters on the islands as well as regionally to events such as hurricanes. However, the Regiment is to be assisted by the UK Ministry of Defence and Foreign and Commonwealth Office and is likely to be in the form of logistical advice and support and further along include operational training and equipment. It was said to be in ways similar to the Royal Bermuda Regiment, the Royal Gibraltar Regiment, the Falkland Islands Defence Force and Royal Montserrat Defence Force and is to be linked with the British Army Corps of Royal Engineers. A team of experts from the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office will deploy to the Cayman Islands before end of year for operational needs assessment, to begin the advisory and support roles and to determine a suitable location to base the Regiment.
On 15 October 2019, Government of Bermuda issued a statement that the Royal Bermuda Regiment is ready to assist the Cayman Islands Regiment and to share their experiences, as the Cayman Islands Regiment builds.
In mid-November 2019, the team from the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence from 131 Commando Squadron Royal Engineers, 40 Commando Royal Marines, and Royal Navy arrived in Grand Cayman to begin work on setting up the Cayman Islands Regiment.
In mid-December 2019, recruitment for junior and commanding officers began, with the commanding officers expected to begin work in January 2020 and the junior officers to begin work in February 2020.
In December 2019, Turks and Caicos Islands Governor Nigel Dakin had announced that they will also follow the Cayman Islands in the formation of the Turks and Caicos Regiment. The Turks and Caicos Regiment will operate similarly to the Cayman Islands Regiment and the Royal Bermuda Regiment and the roles of the Regiment will also be the same as their British Overseas Territories counterparts. The Turks and Caicos Regiment also will be assisted by the UK Ministry of Defence and Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
2020.
In late January 2020, the first set of senior officers and junior officers were chosen. The Commanding Officer was announced to be Lieutenant Colonel Simon Watson, who was formerly an Officer for the Royal Dragoon Guards. The Second in Command is Lieutenant Colonel Simon Spiers. The Staff Judge Advocate and Regimental Legal Advisor is Major Andre Mon Desir, who was the Supreme Court Judge in Trinidad and Tobago and also a member of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force. The first six Jr. Officers were chosen, these six will be sent for training in mid-February 2020 to Bermuda with the Royal Bermuda Regiment, and thereafter onwards to the United Kingdom for additional officer training at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. An additional 50-60 personnel will be recruited and will also be sent for training in Bermuda with the Royal Bermuda Regiment in early Summer 2020. The Regimental Sergeant Major is Warrant Officer 1 David Shelton, who has had 13 years of Non-Commissioned Officer experience in the British Army with Operational Tours of Duty, Training, and Recruitment.
In early June 2020, five of the junior officer cadets began their officer training at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and the recruitment of the 50 additional personnel began.
Commanding officers.
As of January 2020, the commanding officer is Lieutenant Colonel Simon Watson.
Recruitment and training.
The first set of junior officer recruits were sent to Bermuda to train at Warwick Camp in Bermuda to train alongside recruits of the Bermuda Regiment for their basic military training. This is a two-week course. On the completion of this course the officer recruits will take on an intense condensed 8 week Officer course at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.
Uniforms.
The uniforms, weapons, and equipment for the Cayman Islands Regiment will be provided by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence. During the basic training, the recruits are given the same kits as those of the Bermuda Regiment recruits. This is mainly the British Army's No. 8 Combat Dress Multi-Terrain Pattern Personal Clothing System – Combat Uniform (PCS-CU). The PCS-CU mostly consists of a windproof smock, a lightweight jacket, and trousers with a range of ancillaries such as thermals and waterproofs. Recruits are also issued with British Army Standard Issued Brown Combat Boots.
Insignia.
Cap Badge.
The Cap Badge of the Cayman Islands Regiment is a gold badge. On top, is the Queen's Crown. In the middle, a grey Thatch Palm leaf (one of the Cayman Islands' symbols is the Silver Thatch Palm) and a Blue background with gold circular band and rope with engraving of Cayman Islands on top half and Regiment on bottom half. On bottom, a banner with the Regimental motto "In Arduis Paratus", meaning "Prepared in Adversity".
Badges of Rank.
Cayman Islands Regiment Rank slides has the badge of Rank and wording on bottom of 'CAYMAN ISLANDS'


Philip Taft

Philip Taft (March 22, 1902 – November 17, 1976) was a noted labor historian whose research focused on the labor history of the United States and the American Federation of Labor.
Early life.
Taft was born in 1902 in Syracuse, New York. His father died when he was still a young boy. His mother moved the family to New York City, where she took up work as a house cleaner.
Living in youth hostels and traveling the country by hopping trains, he took a long series of odd and day-laborer jobs: errand boy, factory worker, stable boy, power plant worker, ore freighter coalman, farm hand, oil field worker, mule skinner and many more. Taft joined the Industrial Workers of the World and, while working in the northern Great Plains as a harvest hand, became an organizer. Later he assisted with legal defense of IWW members in New York City where he was befriended by Roger Baldwin, a founder of the American Civil Liberties Union.
Education and career.
Taft attended night school in New York City and obtained a high school diploma in 1928. At the age of 26, he enrolled at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and graduated in 1932 with a bachelor's degree in economics. He then entered the doctoral program in economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In graduate school, he took a job conducting research for one of his professors, Selig Perlman. Taft's contribution to the work was so significant that Perlman made him a co-author on volume four of "History of Labor in the United State" in 1935. In the same year he earned his doctorate.
Taft worked for the Wisconsin Industrial Commission and the federal Resettlement Administration before taking a job as an associate economist at the Social Security Administration in 1936. He was appointed an assistant professor of economics at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island in 1937. He was chairman of the Economics Department from 1949 to 1953.
Throughout his tenure at Brown, Taft sought to use the university's expertise to improve society. In 1950, President Harry S Truman appointed Taft to a committee of experts on the New England economy under the aegis of the President's Council of Economic Advisors. In 1952, Taft pushed Brown University to join with a newly formed Rhode Island businessmen's committee to study the economic problems of the state. In 1963, Taft won a grant from the Ford Foundation to study the financial difficulties confronting, and the economic impact of, an aging populace.
Taft was appointed in 1961 to a committee on labor-management reports established by the U.S. Department of Labor, where he helped advise the department and draft rules implementing the Landrum-Griffin Act.
Retirement and later life.
Taft retired from teaching in 1968. He maintained an office at Brown, however, and continued to conduct research. In 1975, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to study the history of the labor movement in Alabama.
He became an acquaintance of AFL-CIO president George Meany, who thought highly of Taft's intelligence and ability to quickly analyze any situation.
Philip Taft died in Providence on November 17, 1976 at the age of 74.
Impact on the field of labor studies.
Taft was and remains a well-known and highly respected labor historian. His "The Structure and Government of Labor Unions" was the first work to rigorously detail the organizational structure and governance practices of American labor unions, and is considered a fine application of organizational theory to labor unions.
His "The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers," published in 1957, was for many years seen as the definitive history of the American Federation of Labor. Nearly 50 years later, it is still routinely cited by labor historians.
To many in the American labor movement, Taft was a highly regarded and sympathetic scholar. Two months before Taft's death, George Meany summed up the labor movement's gratitude by writing, "Generations of students will continue to benefit from your scholarship and understanding of the economic, social and human aspects of the world of work."
In 1977, Cornell University instituted the Philip Taft Labor History Book Award prize. The highly sought-after and prestigious annual award goes to a book of original research which explores
Taft's papers are maintained at the Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, which is housed at the Catherwood Library at Cornell University. The records consist mainly of research notes which Taft gathered while writing manuscripts. The archives include numerous original documents found nowhere else. The records are particularly detailed in regard to labor organizations outside the United States; the AFL-CIO's foreign affairs policies; maritime unions; labor's involvement with the National Industrial Recovery Act; the National Labor Relations Board; organized crime and unions; labor and the steel industry; teacher unions; and labor's involvement in national mobilization and economic policy during the two world wars.


Kuppenheimer

B. Kuppenheimer & Co., or simply Kuppenheimer, was a men's clothing manufacturing and retail operation based in Chicago, Illinois and later Atlanta, Georgia.
History.
Kohn, Clayburgh & Einstein.
In 1852, Bernard Kuppenheimer, who immigrated to America in 1850, founded a retail clothing store in Terre Haute, Indiana. In 1863, Julius Kohn, Martin Clayburgh, and Morris Einstein founded Kohn, Clayburgh & Einstein at 27 Lake Street in Chicago. Only two years later, in 1865, Kohn retired and Bernard Kuppenheimer, who relocated to Chicago leaving the Terre Haute store under the supervision of his brother John, and David Lindauer became members. Clayburgh, Einstein, Kuppenheimer, and Lindauer continued to operate the company without changing the name. They operated out of the Lake Street location until the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, when their building was burnt to the ground and they suffered losses totaling $200,000 (). After rebuilding, they resumed business and in July 1872, moved to the corner of Randolph Street and Wabash Avenue where they remained until the fall of 1876.
B. Kuppenheimer & Co..
In 1876, the business was dissolved and Kuppenheimer formed B. Kuppenheimer & Co. The new company was composed of him, his son Jonas Kuppenheimer, and Samuel Nathan. The remaining members of the Kohn, Claybugh & Einstein reorganized as Einstein, Longini & Co. B. Kuppenheimer & Co. started in business on Wabash Avenue and stayed there until 1880.
In January 1880, Kuppenheimer & Co. moved to Madison Street and Louis B. Kuppenheimer, the second son of Bernard Kuppenheimer, was admitted as a partner. As of 1884, Kuppenheimer & Co had annual sales of nearly $1,000,000 (). In 1903, Kuppenheimer died and was buried at Rosehill Cemetery and Mausoleum in Chicago.
In 1906, the company operated "The House of Kuppenheimer" branches in Boston and New York, with sales in Washington, D.C. handled by Isidor Grosner of 1013 Pennsylvania Ave., NW. During the World War I, Kuppenheimer manufactured the uniforms for the U.S. Army. By 1910, the company employed close to 2,000 men and women at shops in and around Chicago.
In 1912, Louis became vice-president of the company. In 1920, Albert Kuppenheimer retired from the company. He died in California in 1931 at the age of 64 although his residence in Chicago was the Drake Hotel. Later in 1920, Louis Kuppenheimer became president of B. Kuppenheimer & Co.
In 1921, Jonas Kuppenheimer, who had been serving as president of "The House of Kuppenheimer," died. In 1926, Louis Kuppenheimer retired as president of the company. In 1936, Louis, the last living son of founder Bernard Kuppenheimer, died.
In 1959, Lester E. Frankenstein succeeded Bertram J. Cahn to become president of the company. Frankenstein was previously the vice-president.
Sale and closure.
In March 1963, the firm was purchased by Louis Roth & Co., Inc. of Los Angeles for $3 million (). The firm continued as a leading manufacturer of men's clothing until 1982, when it was purchased by Hart Schaffner & Marx (later known as Hartmarx), a Chicago-based apparel-maker and wholesaler. By the mid-1990s, after the headquarters moved to Atlanta, sales were lagging, many of its stores were closing, and it entered into bankruptcy.
In 1995, Hartmarx sold Kuppenheimer to Kupp Acquisition Corp. for $14 million () in cash ($12 million upfront and an additional $2 million over the next four years) and a $2.5 million promissory note secured by one of Kuppenheimer's manufacturing facilities. Kupp was formed by an investment group led by Gene Kosack, former president and chief executive of NBO Stores Inc., a clothing retailer.
In 1997, The Men's Wearhouse purchased Kuppenheimer Manufacturing Co. from Kupp Acquisition Corp. At that time, Kuppenheimer consisted of 43 men's clothing stores, mostly in the Chicago, St. Louis and Atlanta areas and the manufacturing facilities. The sale included the rights to Kuppenheimer's trademark and customer list. Men's Wearhouse closed the remaining Kuppenheimer stores and folded the business into its own by liquidating the remaining assets.


PSA Aulnay-sous-Bois Plant

The PSA Aulnay-sous-Bois Plant is a former car plant in France, producing approximately 135,700 cars in 2011. The plant was acquired by the PSA Group in 1976 when Peugeot took a majority stake in the Citroën company which had built the plant. The plant is located on the northern edge of Paris at Aulnay-sous-Bois, close to the A1, A3 and .
The plant came on stream on 24 April 1973, just one month before Citroën and Fiat announced their "divorce", ending a collaboration agreement entered into amid much fanfare just seven year earlier, in 1968.
The Aulnay plant's closure was scheduled for 2014, but in the end this was brought forward and the last car came off the line in October 2013.
The plant incorporated manufacturing, painting and assembly departments including, between 1979 and 2008, two assembly lines and all the ancillary activities of an integrated car plant. It also housed two divisions unique within the PSA group:
History.
The Aulnay plant has hit the headlines many times over the years, often in connection with industrial unrest. Nevertheless, in 2003 it produced its six millionth car, and in 2003 production peaked at 447,575 vehicles produced by approximately 5,000 employees. (The figure did not include sub-contractors or temporary/agency workers.)
Closure plans became known by June 2011 thanks to the publication by the trades union at the plant of an internal document, the contents of which management confirmed a month later. A four-month-long strike took place during the first part of 2013 and on 30 August 2013 the company's management announced that the closure scheduled for 2014 would take place in October 2013. The final car, a Citroën C3, was produced on Friday, 25 October 2013 and purchased by the "Citroën Héritage" organisation.
Products.
The first cars produced at Aulnay were Citroën DS models, but this was in effect a pilot run of what was by 1973 becoming a "run-out" model. The first car to be produced by Aulnay in significant volumes was the Citroën CX, produced at Aulnay between 1974 and 1989, during which time 1,012,733 CXs emerged from the plant. Subsequently Aulnay concentrated on the manufacturer's smaller models. Three other Aulnay models beat the one million threshold as follows:
When the manufacturer found itself short of capacity for mechanically similar Peugeot models, production of these was also supplemented with output from Aulnay, notably in respect of the popular Peugeot 205 and 106 models.
By the time production ended in 2013 Aulnay had clocked up production of 8,568,391 automobiles.
References.
This article incorporates information from the in the French Wikipedia.


Pinta Trail (Texas)

The Pinta Trail is a historic trail in Central Texas that was first traveled by indigenous tribes, and later explorers, settlers, soldiers, and travelers. The 19th-century Germans who settled the Texas Hill Country used part of the Pinta Trail on their journey northward from New Braunfels to found Fredericksburg. A historic battle between a Texas Rangers patrol and a band of Comanches is often said to have occurred near a ford where the Pinta Trail crossed the Guadalupe River.
Route.
The Pinta Trail began in San Antonio and proceeded through the Texas Hill Country, crossing the Guadalupe River near Sisterdale and fording the Pedernales River east of Fredericksburg. From there its route is not certain, but it appears to have continued north to the Llano River along a route shown on an 1847 survey map drawn by James P. Hudson.
Historic maps and original Texas land surveys establish that north of San Antonio the trail traversed the Balcones Escarpment through a canyon that is now the route of the Northwest Military Highway. From there, the trail passed Comanche Spring before crossing Cibolo Creek at Post Oak Creek, below Balcones Creek. The trail proceeded northwest to the Guadalaupe River near Sisterdale, crossing Spring Creek, Sabinas Creek, and Wasp Creek on the way. After fording the Guadalupe, the trail followed West Sister Creek to Jung Creek, then followed that stream to its headwaters before crowning a ridge and dropping into the Grape Creek drainage, then fording the Pedernales River about 4.5 miles east of today’s downtown Fredericksburg.
History.
The Pinta Trail makes its first appearance in the journals of Nicolás Lafora and the Marqués de Rubí chronicling a 1767 inspection of Spanish frontier presidios. Leaving the Presidio San Saba, their expedition followed the San Saba Road (which was to the west of the Pinta Trail and was known to German immigrants as the Camino Viejo) until the road reached the Guadalupe River. There, they followed the river until they came to the Pinta Trail ford near today’s Sisterdale, where they picked up the Pinta Trail and followed it to San Antonio. Neither Lafora nor Rubí (nor any other Spanish writer) gave a name to the trail, but geographical landmarks mentioned in Lafora’s journal mark the route clearly.
In April 1846, German settlers under the auspices of the Adelsverein colonization company ventured west from their initial townsite at New Braunfels and picked up the Pinta Trail north of San Antonio, following it to found their next frontier settlement at Fredericksburg. The trail was used by Ferdinand Roemer in January 1847, Lieutenant Francis T. Bryan in June 1849, and John Russell Bartlett in October 1850, all on journeys passing through Fredericksburg. In 1854, Frederick Law Olmsted observed that the lower extent of the trail was overgrown and disused, having been abandoned in favor of a new road that passed through Boerne on the way to Fredericksburg via Welfare, with a branch offering an alternate route through Sisterdale.
In June 1844, a squad of Texas Rangers led by the legendary Captain Jack Hays fought a band of Comanche warriors led by Yellow Wolf in an engagement known as the Battle of Walker’s Creek. The fight is famous for the rangers’ use of the new Colt Paterson 5-shot revolver. One participant in the battle places it at the Pinta Trail ford of the Guadalupe River; another places it about four miles east. Hays’s own report does not mention the Pinta Trail, even though he surveyed the trail at the ford five years earlier.
The Pinta Trail above Sisterdale remained at least partly in use until 1879, but soon thereafter its upper reaches were eclipsed by a road passing through Luckenbach on the way to Fredericksburg.
Modern roads.
The only sections of the Pinta Trail that are resembled by modern roads are a short stretch of San Antonio’s Northwest Military Highway through the Balcones Escarpment and, 30 miles further north, two miles of Texas Farm-to-Market Road 1376 above the Guadalupe River. Most of the old trail is on land that is not open to the public.
Misconceptions.
Though some legends state that the trail connected San Antonio to the abandoned Spanish Presidio San Sabá, there is no historical evidence to support that assertion; those legends, along with other accounts that have the trail passing through Boerne, Comfort, or Menard, confuse the trail with the San Saba Road, the Fredericksburg Road (a variation and extension of the San Saba Road) or other routes. Accounts that have the trail passing through Cain City, Fredericksburg, Luckenbach, or Mason confuse the trail with roads that emerged later. The Pinta Trail did not become the Emigrant Road to California or the Military Road to U.S. Army forts on that route; those roads were established after Fredericksburg was founded.


Union Bank of Switzerland

Union Bank of Switzerland (UBS) was a Swiss investment bank and financial services company located in Switzerland. The bank, which at the time was the second largest bank in Switzerland, merged with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998, to become UBS to form what was then the largest bank in Europe and the second largest bank in the World.
UBS was formed in 1912 through the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and Toggenburger Bank, both founded in the early 1860s. UBS then continued to grow through acquisitions, including Aargauische Kreditanstalt in 1919, Eidgenössische Bank in 1945, Interhandel Basel in 1967, Phillips & Drew in 1986, and Schröder, Münchmeyer, Hengst & Co. in 1997 among others.
The historical UBS logo comprises the initials "UBS" horizontally, referring to the "Union Bank of Switzerland", "Union de Banques Suisses" or "Unione di Banche Svizzere", crossed by vertical "SBG", referring to the name of the bank in German "Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft". "UBS" ceased to be considered a representational abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland after the bank's 1998 merger with Swiss Bank Corporation and is today considered a standalone brand.
1980–1998.
By the 1980s, the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally. The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé, Rockwell, IBM, and Mobil at below market rates.
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986, first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm, founded in 1895. However, UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew. The firm lost £15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm's settlement system in 1987. Then the bank lost £48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash. Between April 1987 and February 1988, UBS was required to spend as much as £115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew. Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses. UBS also expanded into West Germany, acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986.
In 1991, UBS made its first acquisition in the United States, purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation, the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank. Chase Investors, which was established in 1972, was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition. At the time of the acquisition, which resulted in approximately US$100 million for Chase, the business managed in excess of US$30 billion in public and private pension plans, as well as various financial assets of corporations, governments, foundations and endowments.
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life. UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995, known as UBS Swiss Life. UBS took a 25% ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50% share in the joint venture.
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks. Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse, which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking, UBS's investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60% of the bank's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations. In 1993, Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland's Swiss Volksbank, the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s. The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time. UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions, purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell-Ausserrhoden in 1996.
In its final acquisition, prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation, the bank acquired Schröder, Münchmeyer, Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients. Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks: Schroeder Brothers & Co., Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co. (formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach).
Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation.
During the mid-1990s, UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders, critical of bank's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity. Martin Ebner, through his investment trust, BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank's operations. The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid-1990s. Looking to take advantage of the situation, Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996. UBS's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger. Ebner, who supported the idea of a merger, led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS's chairman, Robert Studer. Studer's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation.
On 8 December 1997, Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all-stock merger. At the time of the merger, Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland, respectively both trailing Credit Suisse. Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier, less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse's merger overtures.
The all-stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG, a huge new bank with total assets of more than US$590 billion. Also referred to as the "New UBS" to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland, the combined bank became the second largest in the world, at that time, behind only the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi. Additionally, the merger pulled together the banks' various asset management businesses to create the world's largest money manager, with approximately US$910 billion in assets under management.
The merger, which was billed as a merger of equals, resulted in UBS's shareholders receiving 60% of the combined company and Swiss Bank's shareholders receiving the remaining 40% of the bank's common shares. UBS's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer. However, it quickly became evident that from a management perspective, it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80% of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals. Additionally, UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions, particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses. The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business, Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London. Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business, particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform. UBS, on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities.
After the merger was completed, it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger. It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have.
The company.
Prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation, UBS operated as a full-service bank and a provider of wholesale financial services through its retail banking, commercial banking, investment banking, asset management and wealth management businesses. In 1997, prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation, UBS operated 275 branches in Switzerland and 82 branches, subsidiaries and representative offices outside Switzerland. The company had approximately 27,611 employees, of which 19,355 worked in Switzerland and the remaining 8,256 employees were outside Switzerland. The bank had total assets of nearly CHF578 billion and shareholders' equity of nearly CHF28 billion as of the end of 1997.
History.
Origins of the Union Bank of Switzerland.
In 1862, The Bank in Winterthur was founded in Winterthur, Switzerland, with an initial share capital of CHF5 million. The Bank in Winterthur operated primarily as a commercial bank, providing financing for a range of companies and projects. The bank would be involved in funding the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works, the hotel Baur au Lac in Zurich and many other companies. The bank capitalized on its location at an important Swiss railroad junction and its large warehousing facilities allowed the bank to take advantage of the dramatic rise in cotton prices caused by the American Civil War. The Bank in Winterthur saw its share capital double by the end of the war.
Meanwhile, in 1863, the Toggenburger Bank was founded in Lichtensteig, Switzerland with an initial share capital of CHF1.5 million. The Toggenburger Bank was a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers with a branch office network in Eastern Switzerland. In 1882, Toggenburger Bank opened a branch in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland and began to shift its operations there through the end of the 19th century.
The Union Bank of Switzerland was formed in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur merged with the Toggenburger Bank. The combined bank had total assets of CHF202 million and a total shareholders' equity of CHF46 million. This combination was part of a larger trend toward concentration in the banking sector in Switzerland at the time. Through the next few years, the bank would begin to shift its operations to Zurich from its historical headquarters in the cities of Winterthur and St. Gallen, Switzerland. In 1917, UBS completed construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse, considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland.
The new bank used different names in its three core languages: German, French and English. In German, the bank was Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft and was known by the initials SBG. The original English name for the combined bank was the Swiss Banking Association, but it was later changed to Union Bank of Switzerland in 1921 to mirror the French form of the name: Union de Banques Suisses. The bank's logo, introduced in 1966, would later reflect both the German SBG and the English and French name UBS.
UBS acquired a number of banks in its first decade as a combined bank and expanded its branch network, establishing representation throughout Switzerland by 1923. UBS acquired a controlling interest in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1913 and Banque Ch. Masson & Cie. in 1916. Although the bank suffered during World War I and the postwar economic crises in Europe, UBS continued to make acquisitions after the conclusion of World War I. The bank purchased the remaining stake in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1919 that it had not acquired in 1913. Also in 1919, the bank acquired Commandit-AG Weibel & Cie. in Fleurier and William Cuénod & Cie. In 1920, UBS acquired Banca Svizzera-Americana with branches in Locarno and Lugano; Unionbank Geneva and Banque Henry Rieckel & Cie., based in La Chaux-de-Fonds. Three years later, in 1923, UBS acquired the Schweizerische Vereinsbank in Bern establishing representation in the last of the major cities in Switzerland.
Through the Great Depression, UBS pared its assets considerably shrinking from CHF993 million in 1929 to CHF441 million at the end of 1935. The bank saw its shareholders' capital decline from CHF100 million in 1929 to CHF80 million in 1933 and then further to CHF40 million by 1936. However, the bank continued to acquire smaller, weaker competitors, purchasing Banca Unione di Credito in Lugano and Chiasso in 1935 followed by Berner Handelsbank in Bern in 1938. In 1937, UBS established Intrag AG, an asset management business responsible for investment trusts (i.e., mutual funds) and set up the "America-Canada Trust Fund AMCA". Over the years, Intrag would set up a series of other funds, including the "Mutual Fund for Swiss Stocks FONSA" and the "South Africa Trust Fund SAFIT".
The Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank merge to form the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft. Its French name is Union de Banques Suisses (UBS) and its Italian name is Unione di Banche Svizzere (UBS). The English name of the bank at first is Swiss Banking Association. In 1921 that somewhat inappropriate name is changed into Union Bank of Switzerland (UBS).
The merged bank shows the following figures for 1912:
Total assets: CHF202 million. Shareholders' Equity: CHF46 million. Profit: CHF2.4 million.
Dr. Rudolf Ernst (1865–1956)
First Chairman of the Board of Directors of the merged bank from 1912 until 1941 is Rudolf Ernst, of Winterthur, until 1921 alternating with C. Emil Grob-Halter of Lichtensteig.
After the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland (UBS), Dr. Rudolf Ernst became the merged bank's first chairman in 1912. Following his resignation in 1941, he was elected as an Honorary chairman of Union Bank of Switzerland.
Rudolf Ernst joined the Bank in Winterthur in 1895. He was also financial director of the City of Winterthur for 16 years. At the young age of 36, he was elected in 1901 to the Board of Directors of the Bank in Winterthur and as its chairman at the same time. During his chairmanship, the bank changed its focus from its original lending business and began to expand its issuing and asset management franchise. With the acquisition of the Bank in Baden in 1906, the bank gained a branch in Zurich and a seat on the stock exchange, one of the cornerstones for the successful merger in 1912 with the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland. Rudolf Ernst also held directorships on the boards of various industrial and insurance companies. Between 1912 and his retirement in 1941, he was chairman of the Board of Union Bank of Switzerland, in an alternating capacity with Carl Emil Grob-Halter, who held the chairmanship in 1916 and 1918 as the representative of the merger partner Toggenburger Bank.
Activities in World War II.
On the eve of World War II, UBS was the recipient of a large influx of foreign funds for safekeeping. During the war, the bank's traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest clients. Still, unlike many of its peers, UBS's business lagged through much of the war.
Decades after the war, it was demonstrated that Union Bank of Switzerland likely took active roles in trading stolen gold, securities and other assets during World War II. The issue of "unclaimed property" of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid-1990s and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997. UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts that had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account. UBS's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S. UBS came under significant pressure, particularly from American politicians, to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank.
In January 1997, Christoph Meili, a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland, found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany. The shredding was in direct violation of a recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material. UBS acknowledged that it had "made a deplorable mistake", but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust. Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy, which is a criminal offence in Switzerland. Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997.
Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS, following a criminal investigation. Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum. By contrast, in the U.S., Meili was largely regarded as a hero and whistleblower and received a particularly warm reception from the American Jewish community.
In 1997, the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks (WJC) was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II. Negotiations involving Union Bank of Switzerland, Credit Suisse, the WJC and Stuart Eizenstat, on behalf of the U.S., ultimately resulted in a settlement of US$1.25 billion in August 1998. The settlement, which coincided with UBS's merger with Swiss Bank, together with the bank's embarrassment in the Long Term Capital Management collapse in 1998 brought a degree of closure to the issue.
1945–1979.
Shortly after the end of World War II, UBS completed the acquisition of Eidgenössische Bank, a large Zurich-based bank that became insolvent. As a result of the merger, UBS exceeded CHF1 billion of assets for the first time and completed the transition of its operations to Zurich. Although UBS opened an office in New York in 1946, the bank remained primarily focused on its domestic business. Prior to the end of World War II, the Swiss banking landscape was dominated by Swiss Bank Corporation and Credit Suisse. UBS was among the next group of large banks that included Schweizerische Volksbank (Swiss Volksbank or Swiss Popular Bank) and Bank Leu. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Union Bank of Switzerland, which was at best the third largest bank in Switzerland would catch up to its larger peers and by the 1970s surpass them in terms of size.
UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland growing from 31 offices in 1950 to 81 offices by the beginning of the 1960s. Throughout the 1950s, UBS was the most acquisitive bank in Switzerland, acquiring Banque Palézieux & Cie. (1948), Volksbank Interlaken (1952), Weck, Aebi & Cie (1954), Banque Tissières fils & Cie. (1956), Banque de Sion (1956), Banque de Brigue (1957), the Crédit Gruyérien (1957), Crédit Sierrois (1957), Bank Cantrade AG (1960) and Volksbank in Visp (1960).
In addition to these bank acquisitions, UBS also acquired an 80% stake in Argor SA, a Swiss precious metal refinery founded in 1951, through whom they started to issue UBS branded gold bars. In 1973, the bank increased the stake to full 100% ownership only to withdraw by 1999 with ownership of the refinery changing to Hereaus & Management. Nevertheless, UBS continues to issue gold bars via Argor-Heraeus which is famous for the unique kinebar holographic technology it uses to provide enhanced protection against bank gold bar counterfeiting.
By 1962, UBS reached CHF6.96 billion of assets, narrowly edging ahead of Swiss Bank Corporation to become the largest bank in Switzerland temporarily. Through 1979, SBC was consistently the largest of the three major Swiss banks by assets, except for short periods in 1962 and then again in 1968 when UBS temporarily moved ahead of SBC. After 1979, UBS would firmly establish itself as the largest Swiss bank. UBS would retain this position for the next 15 years until Credit Suisse leapfrogged into the top spot following its 1993 acquisition of Schweizerische Volksbank (Swiss Volksbank) and later Winterthur Group.
UBS continued its rapid growth in the 1960s punctuated by the acquisition of Interhandel (Industrie- und Handelsbeteiligungen AG) in 1967. Interhandel, originally, was a large Swiss conglomerate that up until the 1960s had both financial as well as industrial holdings. Interhandel was the corporate successor of I.G. Chemie, which the U.S. government had claimed was a front for Germany's I.G. Farben during World War II. During the war, the U.S. government seized General Aniline & Film (later GAF Corporation), an Interhandel subsidiary, and it was not until 1963 that the long-running dispute between Interhandel and the U.S. government was resolved. The shares in GAF Corporation were sold in a highly competitive auction in 1965 and the proceeds were split between Interhandel and the U.S. government. As a result of the sale of GAF, at the time of its merger with UBS, Interhandel held substantial amounts of cash. The addition of the Interhandel capital, which propelled UBS into the top spot among Swiss banks in 1968, also made UBS one of the strongest banks in Europe and helped fuel the bank's further expansion in the late 1960s and 1970s. UBS consolidated four affiliated mortgage lenders and assumed their domestic retail operations. The bank further expanded into consumer lending through the acquisition of a series of Swiss financial businesses in 1969, including Banque Orca, Abri Bank Bern, Aufina Bank and AKO Bank.
UBS also began to intensify its overseas expansion. In 1967, UBS opened a full branch office in London, its first such office outside Switzerland. Prior to this, UBS had operated through a series of correspondent banks and representative offices. Three years later, UBS opened a branch office in New York. The bank also established a UK subsidiary in 1975 and a U.S. subsidiary in 1979 to focus on building the bank's presence in the underwriting of debt and equity securities. Nevertheless, UBS, which had traditionally concentrated its efforts on the domestic Swiss market, was the last of the three largest Swiss banks to establish a branch office in the U.S. and its securities operations were overshadowed by those of its two Swiss peers.
1980–1998.
By the 1980s, the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally. The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé, Rockwell, IBM, and Mobil at below market rates.
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986, first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm, founded in 1895. However, UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew. The firm lost £15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm's settlement system in 1987. Then the bank lost £48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash. Between April 1987 and February 1988, UBS was required to spend as much as £115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew. Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses. UBS also expanded into West Germany, acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986.
In 1991, UBS made its first acquisition in the United States, purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation, the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank. Chase Investors, which was established in 1972, was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition. At the time of the acquisition, which resulted in approximately US$100 million for Chase, the business managed in excess of US$30 billion in public and private pension plans, as well as various financial assets of corporations, governments, foundations and endowments.
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life. UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995, known as UBS Swiss Life. UBS took a 25% ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50% share in the joint venture.
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks. Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse, which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking, UBS's investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60% of the bank's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations. In 1993, Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland's Swiss Volksbank, the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s. The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time. UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions, purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell-Ausserrhoden in 1996.
In its final acquisition, prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation, the bank acquired Schröder, Münchmeyer, Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients. Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks: Schroeder Brothers & Co., Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co. (formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach).
Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation.
During the mid-1990s, UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders, critical of bank's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity. Martin Ebner, through his investment trust, BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank's operations. The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid-1990s. Looking to take advantage of the situation, Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996. UBS's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger. Ebner, who supported the idea of a merger, led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS's chairman, Robert Studer. Studer's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation.
On 8 December 1997, Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all-stock merger. At the time of the merger, Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland, respectively both trailing Credit Suisse. Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier, less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse's merger overtures.
The all-stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG, a huge new bank with total assets of more than US$590 billion. Also referred to as the "New UBS" to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland, the combined bank became the second largest in the world, at that time, behind only the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi. Additionally, the merger pulled together the banks' various asset management businesses to create the world's largest money manager, with approximately US$910 billion in assets under management.
The merger, which was billed as a merger of equals, resulted in UBS's shareholders receiving 60% of the combined company and Swiss Bank's shareholders receiving the remaining 40% of the bank's common shares. UBS's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer. However, it quickly became evident that from a management perspective, it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80% of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals. Additionally, UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions, particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses. The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business, Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London. Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business, particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform. UBS, on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities.
After the merger was completed, it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger. It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have.
Long-Term Capital Management.
Union Bank of Switzerland, suffering criticism of its conservative business model, was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank's growth. In 1997, UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM and the hedge fund quickly became the bank's largest client, generating US$15 million in fees for UBS. Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7-year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM, then valued at about US$800 million. It hedged this option by purchasing a US$800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US$300 million in the hedge fund. Following the merger, Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS. Ultimately, UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998.
By November 1998, UBS's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at approximately CHF790 million. UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse, ultimately writing off CHF950 million. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US$3.625 billion by the hedge fund's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets. UBS contributed US$300 million to the bailout effort, which would largely be recovered. In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse, Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS along with three other executives.
Acquisition history.
Union Bank of Switzerland, prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation was the result of the combination of dozens of individual firms, many of which date to the 19th century. The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors, although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list:


Mormon Road

Mormon Road, also known to the 49ers as the Southern Route, of the California Trail (in what would become the Western United States), was a seasonal wagon road first pioneered by a Mormon party from Salt Lake City, Utah led by Jefferson Hunt, that followed the route of Spanish explorers and the Old Spanish Trail across southwestern Utah, northwestern Arizona, southern Nevada and the Mojave Desert of California to Los Angeles in 1847. From 1855, it became a military and commercial wagon route between California and Utah, called the Los Angeles - Salt Lake Road. In later decades this route was variously called the "Old Mormon Road", the "Old Southern Road", or the "Immigrant Road" in California. In Utah, Arizona and Nevada it was known as the "California Road".
Mormon Road 1847 - 1855.
Jefferson Hunt and Mormon Veterans Expeditions 1847-1848.
The wagon road later called the "Mormon Road" was pioneered by a Mormon party with pack horses, led by Jefferson Hunt, intent on obtaining supplies for the struggling, newly founded Salt Lake City, traveling to and from Southern California in the fall and winter of 1847-1848. Following Hunt's route back to Utah in 1848 were discharged veterans of the Mormon Battalion, taking the first wagons over the old pack trail. This route created by the returning veterans confirmed that a wagon route could be made from Salt Lake City southwest through southwestern Utah to link to the Old Spanish Trail at Parowan, that then followed the old pack trail, southwest to the Virgin River. Then using John Fremont's cutoff from the Virgin River at Halfway Wash, crossed southern Nevada, passing over the arid country between the Muddy River and Las Vegas Springs, then over the Spring Mountains at Mountain Springs and Nopah Range beyond through Emigrant Pass to Resting Springs in Southern California. Then, again following the Old Spanish Trail, southwest along the Amargosa River to Salt Spring then a long dry haul across the Mojave Desert to Bitter Spring and on to the Mojave River at Fork of the Road with the Mohave Trail. From there the route followed the river upstream to the crossing at its lower narrows. There they left the river, crossing the remaining desert to Cajon Summit on Baldy Mesa, then descended past Cajon Pass, through Crowder Canyon and the lower Cajon Canyon to the San Bernardino Valley. The road crossed the valley to the Rancho Santa Ana del Chino and then followed the Sonora Road from there west to the pueblo of Los Angeles.
Southern Route of the California Trail.
The first large use of the route pioneered by Hunt and the Veterans were hundreds of late arriving Forty-niners, and some parties of Mormons, both packers and teamsters, looking to avoid the fate of the Donner Party, by using this snow free route into California in the fall and winter of 1849 - 1850. From Parowan onward to the southwest, the original route closely followed the route of the Old Spanish Trail diverting from that route between the Virgin River at Halfway Wash to Resting Springs, following the cutoff discovered by John Frémont on his return from California in 1844. This road only diverted to find places that could be traversed by the wagons of Mormon and Forty-niner parties that pioneered it. The principal change was the shortcut from the Virgin River where the road ascended to Mormon Mesa at Virgin Hill, crossed the mesa to the Muddy River and its crossing at California Wash. This saved the longer route to Halfway Wash through the quicksands along the Virgin River. The later immigrants and the Mormon colonists of San Bernardino, in the early 1850s found a better route through Cajon Pass along a hogback in the western side of the Upper Cajon Pass overlooked by Baldy Mesa. At the same time along the Mormon Road were being seeded many of the Mormon settlements that developed into towns and cities of modern Utah, Arizona, Nevada and Southern California.
Los Angeles – Salt Lake Road 1855–1905.
By mid-1855 the Mormon Road had been improved and rerouted, to make it a military and commercial wagon road that ran between Salt Lake City, Utah and Los Angeles, California. In Cajon Pass the State of California paid to reroute the road from Coyote Canyon route to the Sanford Cutoff and made improvements to the route as far as the California border. In Utah Territory, the Federal government sent an engineer that built Leach's Cutoff between Cedar City and Mountain Meadow that shortened the route between Johnson Springs (now known as Enoch) and the meadow by , avoiding the longer route via Cedar Spring, Antelope Spring, Pyute Creek to Road Springs at the lower end of Mountain Meadow. The road was also rerouted between Cove Creek to the crossing of Beaver River at modern Beaver, upriver from the old one at what in 1861 became the site of Greenville. This change was made with the major alteration from the new Beaver River crossing to Muley Point to shorten the route and avoid a difficult section of up California Hollow and over a steep mountain ridge in the Black Mountains, better suited to the Old Spanish Trail mule trains than wagons. The terrain feature called Doubleup Hollow at the point that steep ascent began is indicative of the technique of doubling up the wagon teams that was required to get wagons over the worst part of the climb. The new route passed through more wagon-friendly terrain in Nevershine Hollow and over Beaver Ridge into the canyon of Fremont Wash where it rejoined the original road. This route is the one Interstate 15 runs along today.
The road then soon became a winter seasonal route for trains of wagons carrying goods shipped by sea from San Francisco to San Pedro and then to Los Angeles. The trains left Los Angeles, (and later San Bernardino), for Salt Lake City during the late fall and returned by the end of the spring season, ending the isolation of Utah when the passes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and Rocky Mountains were closed by snow. In California, the road became known as the "Los Angeles – Salt Lake Road" or "Salt Lake Road", and in Utah and Nevada, the "California Road".
In 1858, following the Mountain Meadows Massacre, the Dukes-Turner wagon company pioneered an alternate wagon route to avoid Leach's Cutoff and Mountain Meadow. It ran from Cedar City southward via the Black Ridge grade to the Virgin River, then up the Santa Clara River to link up with the old route of the Mormon Road at Camp Spring. As the Mormons began to settle the area from 1858, they opened stations at Washington and Fort Harmony to provide for feed and provisions to passing freighters for trade goods or cash.
In the 1860s the wagon road was a route of trade and migration from California to the gold rush country in Idaho and Montana. It was also the route of continued Mormon colonization of Washington County in Utah Territory and the lower reach of the Virgin River, in northern Arizona Territory, that part that later became Clark County, Nevada.
In 1865, the Miller Cutoff was constructed as a freight wagon road, to the north of the Virgin River to bypass the many crossings of that river, its quicksands, its sandy roads and the steep road into and out of the river valley at Virgin Hill. It ran between the old road at Castle Cliff, west to Mormon Well up Beaver Dam Creek from the Virgin River, then westward south of the mountains, to rejoin the old road on Mormon Mesa, south of Mormon Mountain.
With the advent of the transcontinental railroad in Utah in 1869, the wagon road was used decreasingly when long-haul wagons were replaced by wagons from the rail-heads as the rails advanced southwestward in Utah between the 1870s and 1890s. However, as a long-haul road it remained in use in Southern California until the Santa Fe Railroad came to Southern California in 1883. The northern Mojave Desert region of California, southern Nevada, and northwestern Arizona still used the road until the Salt Lake Route was built through them in 1903–1905.
Legacy.
In the early 20th Century, much of the old road became the Arrowhead Trail (auto trail) one of the first automobile highways in and between Utah, Southern Nevada and Southern California. I-15 follows or closely parallels its route for much of its length from Devore, California to Victorville, California, from Barstow, to Yermo, California, from Las Vegas, Nevada to Littlefield, Arizona and from St. George, Utah to Salt Lake City.


Yasuda clan

The Yasuda clan was a Japanese samurai kin group in the Sengoku period and Edo period.
History.
The clan was established by Oe Hiromoto.
In the Sengoku period, a branch of the Yasuda clan was made responsible for the collection of duties on the cloth trade.
In modern history, the Yasuda are known as a "financial clan" because of their success in banking.


The Pace Collection

The Pace Collection was a high-end contemporary furniture company in business from 1960 to 2001. The company was founded by Irving and Leon Rosen in New York City. The showroom was located in Manhattan on East 62nd Street to offer its fine furniture and services to the contract interior design trade. The Pace Collection advertised in numerous architectural and interior design periodicals. The Pace Collection furniture designs were all distinctly different from those offered by Knoll (company), Herman Miller, Steelcase and other contract furniture companies.
The Pace Collection line of desks, tables and cabinets was distinguished by the unique Rosen style employing rich, exotic wood veneers having high-gloss finishes with polished stainless steel trim. The Pace Collection also offered its own line of chairs, sofas, shelves and accessories. The Rosens patented many of their designs.
In 1985, the Rosen partnership ended. Leon Rosen commissioned New York architect Steven Holl to design a new showroom. This showroom, which opened in 1986, was located on the corner of Madison Avenue and East 72nd Street. Holl received the American Institute of Architects (AIA) award for best architectural design in New York in 1986 for the new Pace Collection showroom. Holl also designed several furniture pieces for The Pace Collection, which were patented.
After opening of the new showroom, president Leon Rosen told New York magazine, “I wanted high visibility. I wanted this showcase to serve as a reminder to our regular customers, and to expose our company to new people.”


Texas Trail

The Texas Trail, better known as the Texas Road but also known as the Shawnee Trail, Sedalia Trail or the Kansas Trail, was a historic cattle trail which was used to drive cattle from Texas to Ogallala, Nebraska and other locations on the Union Pacific Railway in Nebraska. This emerged as an alternative to the Chisholm Trail which had brought cattle to Abilene, Kansas and other locations on the Kansas Pacific Railroad.
Near Imperial, Nebraska are portions of a dry stone corral which served the trail. The corral was built c.1876; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Texas Trail Stone Corral.
According to one source the last cattle drive over the trail was in 1884, but others say there were drives later.
The XIT Ranch used the Texas Trail, connecting Tascosa to Dodge City until 1885. That was when the quarantine line was extended to southwestern Kansas.


New Seabury Shopping Center


Afrique 50

Afrique 50 is a 1950 French documentary film directed by René Vautier. The first French anti-colonialist film, the film derived from an assignment in which the director was to cover educational activities by the French League of Schooling in West Africa. Vautier later filmed what he saw, a "lack of teachers and doctors, the crimes committed by the French Army in the name of France, the instrumentalization of the colonized peoples". For his role in the film Vautier was imprisoned over several months. The film was not permitted to be shown for more than 40 years.


Tony Aspromourgos

Tony Aspromourgos (born 1957-01-11) is an Australian historian of economic thought, professor at the University of Sydney and a Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (ASSA). He has published several books and many articles in economic journals on different subjects concerning the history of economic thought, especially on William Petty, Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith.
Biography.
In 1978 Aspromourgos did his Bachelor of Economics at the University of Queensland. Three years later, in 1981 he became a Master of Commerce at the University of Melbourne, and in the same year he received his degree as a Master of Arts at the University of Chicago. In 1986 he obtained his Ph.D. at the University of Sydney.
Since 1978 Aspromourgos has held positions at the University of Melbourne and the University of Sydney:
Work.
Apart from his specialisation in the history of economic thought, Aspromourgos also specialised in monetary economics, macro-economics and long-period theory.
His research activities were concentrated on William Petty and the origins of classical economics, on Adam Smith, on John Maynard Keynes and on the question of public debt sustainability.
Aspromourgos published in many international economic journals, including "Australian Economic Papers, Oxford Economic Papers", and the "Review of Political Economy." He is co-editor of the "History of Economics Review" and serves on the editorial board of the "European Journal of the History of Economic Thought".
Aspromourgos is Secretary of ESHET, the European Society for the History of Economic Thought.


The Princess Louise Fusiliers

The Princess Louise Fusiliers is a Primary Reserve light infantry regiment of the Canadian Armed Forces.
History.
Based in Halifax, Nova Scotia, this infantry regiment traces its local roots as a Halifax unit of Militia back to June 18, 1749, when Sir Edward Cornwallis formed a local Militia under his own command during Father Le Loutre's War. Ten companies were formed at the Grand Parade in the city and were made a collective battalion.
As an officially constituted unit of Canada, The Princess Louise Fusiliers were authorized in 1867. During the unit's history, it has undergone several name changes. On November 5, 1869, the regiment was named the 66th The Halifax Battalion of Infantry. Originally consisting of six companies, it later gained two more.
Ten years later, on November 14, 1879, the regiment was once again renamed, this time to the 66th Battalion "Princess Louise" Fusiliers, named for Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria and wife of the Marquess of Lorne, Governor General of Canada at the time. It was shortly after this point in which the regiment received its first battle honour, when they helped suppress the Northwest Rebellion of 1885. Soldiers of the unit served in North West Canada with the Halifax Provisional Battalion. Fourteen years later, in 1899, the regiment provided some of its soldiers to a company raised in Nova Scotia for the 2nd (Special Service) Battalion of The Royal Canadian Regiment, which was raised for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War. May 8, 1900 brought about another name change, this time to 66th Regiment "Princess Louise" Fusiliers, and in October 1901 the regiment received new colours from the Duke of Cornwall and York (later King George V) during his visit to Canada. The new colours were subscribed for by the ladies of Halifax in honour of "their" battalion.
During the First World War the 66th Regiment provided soldiers to the locally raised battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF). At the end of the war, as a result of the Otter Commission headed by General William Otter, the regiment perpetuated the 64th Canadian Infantry Battalion of the CEF. As a result of the unit's contributions of soldiers and this perpetuation, the regiment holds five battle honours of the First World War. In May 1915 the regiment was renamed to its current name, the Princess Louise Fusiliers.
The onset of World War II saw more action for the Fusiliers, when they were sent to Italy as part of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division. The regiment fielded two machine gun companies, the 11th Independent MG Coy. in support of the 11th Infantry Brigade, and the 12th Independent MG Coy. in support of the 12th Infantry Brigade. In British and Commonwealth armoured divisions of that period, independent MG coys. consisted of a HQ platoon, plus one platoon operating Browning .50 cal. heavy MGs and a second platoon operating 107mm heavy mortars; they were heavy direct-fire support units.
In February 1945 the 5th Armoured was transferred from Italy to Belgium, and these two companies participated in the liberation of the Netherlands from late March to the German surrender. During the conflict, the regiment received nine more battle honours, bringing their total count to 16.
Following World War II, the PLF converted back to a light infantry unit. Their most recent battle honour, received in 1999 following a lengthy struggle by unit officers to discover the necessary supporting documents, was for the unit's actions at Arnhem in 1945.
In Afghanistan, on Easter Sunday, April 8, 2007, Master Corporal Chris Stannix was killed along with five other Canadian soldiers when their vehicle was hit by an explosive device. Corporal Shaun Fevens was injured in the explosion and transported to a military hospital in Germany.
The PLF performed a ceremonial Trooping the Colours at Citadel Hill in Halifax, Nova Scotia on 23 April 2009. Inspecting the parade was His Royal Highness Duke of York Prince Andrew, The Colonel in Chief of the Princess Louise Fusiliers, with a large crowd in attendance.
On May 14, 2014, a new passenger transit harbour ferry was christened the "Christopher Stannix" as it was brought into service as part of the Halifax Metro Transit Ferry System. The Christopher Stannix ferry is the first of five new ferries introduced to modernize the current fleet. The ceremony in honour of the naming of the ferry in the memory of Master Corporal Stannix was well attended by the public as well as members of the Stannix family, the CO, RSM, and a number of serving and former-serving members of the regiment.
In celebration of the 150th anniversary of the formation of the regiment, the city of Halifax installed two special displays in its honour. The first was a recreation of the regiment's flaming grenade hat badge in the form of a floral display, prominently displayed in the Public Gardens. A second was installed on the Halifax side of the A. Murray McKay bridge, this time displaying a large version of the famous hat badge, framed in a bed of stones and commemorating 150 years of service to Canada.
In June 2019, the regiment celebrated its 150th anniversary with a Freedom of the City parade, with the regiment parading through the city in their distinct scarlet uniforms. Former members of the regiment were also present on parade as a formed contingent of "The Old Guard".
Battle Honours.
The Princess Louise Fusiliers have been awarded 17 battle honours since the unit's inception in 1869. (See listing below)
Theatre Honours.
On May 9, 2014 it was announced that the Princess Louise Fusiliers would be among the units to be awarded the “Afghanistan” Theatre Honour to recognize the dedication and sacrifice made by members of the unit who took part in Canada's operations in Afghanistan, the longest armed conflict in Canadian history.
Theatre Honours are a type of Battle Honour given to publicly recognize a Canadian Armed Forces unit for successful participation in a theatre of armed conflict. Such honours have been awarded after every major conflict in which Canada has been engaged.
Hackle.
As a fusilier regiment, the PLF wear a hackle. In the case of the PLF it is the grey hackle of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers. (Affiliated regiment)


Royden Harrison

Royden John Harrison (3 March 1927 – 30 June 2002) was a British labour historian.
He was born in London and educated at King Alfred's School, Hampstead, before being evacuated to Canada and Australia because of the Second World War. He attended a progressive school in Australia, where he was tutored in logic and philosophy by an Austrian-Jewish refugee.
He read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at St Catherine's College, Oxford, after he won an ex-servicemen's scholarship. Here he was tutored by G. D. H. Cole, who also oversaw Harrison's doctorate in English Positivism. While at Oxford he met his future wife, Pauline Cowan, who was a molecular biologist. After they were both awarded PhDs, they took up posts at Sheffield University, where he became a lecturer in 1955. It was here, with Kenneth Alexander and John Hughes, that he founded day-release educational courses for miners from Derbyshire and Yorkshire. Harrison also represented the National Union of Public Employees on Sheffield's trades and labour council.
Harrison was a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain until 1956, when he joined the Labour Party. In 1960 he helped found the Society of the Study of Labour History and became editor of its bulletin (which was later renamed the "Labour History Journal").
In 1965 he was appointed senior lecturer at Bernard Crick's Department of Political Theory and Institutions at Sheffield before he became reader in 1969. In 1971 he succeeded E. P. Thompson as Professor and Director of Warwick University's Centre for the Study of Social History. Here he oversaw the founding of the modern records centre for storing the papers of the Trades Union Congress and the Confederation of British Industry, as well as those of other unions and businesses. Harrison also created a research programme in which he adapted methods used in the natural sciences, which he had learnt from his wife.
Harrison contributed an essay to the first volume of "Essays in Labour History" in 1960. In his first book, "Before the Socialists" (1965), he employed a "history from below" perspective to study the relationship between labour and politics during 1861–1881. He also edited a collection of essays from what he called his "student collective" at Warwick: "The Independent Collier" was published in 1978 and, according to John Halstead, it "transformed the study of the miners". "Divisions of Labour" (1985) focused on the "labour aristocracy".


Detroit Assembly

Detroit Assembly (also known as Detroit Cadillac, Cadillac Assembly or Clark Street Assembly) was a General Motors automobile factory in Detroit, Michigan on Clark Street, south of Michigan Avenue (U.S. Route 12). It began operations in 1921 and Cadillac bodies were supplied by Fleetwood Metal Body in 1921 after Fisher Body assumed operations. It was the second location that built Cadillacs, when Cadillac originally started out as the Henry Ford Company which was located at the intersection of Cass Avenue and Amsterdam Street. Engine block and cylinder heads were cast at Saginaw Metal Casting Operations then assembled at Tonawanda Engine before delivery to Detroit Assembly for installation.
In 1902, the Cadillac Motor Company began operations, and began building cars at the all new Clark Street facility in 1921, where the factory manufactured Cadillac models until December 23, 1987, when production of Cadillac's full-size D-bodies moved to Arlington Assembly in Arlington, Texas, while production of downsized FWD DeVille/Fleetwood/Seville models were relocated to Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly and Orion Assembly by 1985. It is approximately 2 miles southeast of the original Lincoln factory located at 6200 West Warren Avenue.
All Cadillac vehicles were built only at this facility, with production of popular selling models later added to Linden, New Jersey, South Gate, California or Arlington, Texas in "knock down kits" starting in the 1930s to meet demand. The bodies were built by Fisher at Fleetwood Plant #18 at 261 W End St, and transferred by rail to Clark Street for final assembly.
From 1984 to 1987, the plant also built the Oldsmobile 88 and Custom Cruiser, and the Chevrolet Caprice and Impala.
Detroit Assembly used the VIN codes "Q" and "9."
The site of the plant was redeveloped into the 88-acre Clark Street Technology Park in 1997 by General Motors and three other partners. It is now the location for Inland Waters Pollution Control.
For a brief time Cadillac's LaSalle was built at a separate factory in Detroit called Wyoming Assembly at 6000 Wyoming Avenue just north of Ford Road west of the Ford Drive-In Theatre. It was built in 1917 to manufacture Liberty Engines for airplanes used during WW I, then the factory was used by Chalmers Automobile to build the Saxon automobile until 1922, General Motors bought the Chalmers Plant in 1926 and 1927 built LaSalle cars there. The factory is adjacent to the Dearborn neighborhood and is 2.75 miles west of the Clark Street Factory location. After LaSalle was no longer manufactured, it was briefly a DeSoto factory until that brand was cancelled in the early 1960s. The factory is nearby railroad tracks which were very busy supplying coackwork from the Fleetwood Factory or other Fisher factories within Detroit and shipping finished product to cities across the United States.


Sports Authority

Sports Authority, Inc. (formerly The Sports Authority) was an American sports retailer that was headquartered in Englewood, Colorado. At its peak, Sports Authority operated more than 460 stores in 45 States and Puerto Rico. The company's website was on the GSI Commerce platform and supported the retail stores as well as other multi-channel programs. A joint venture with ÆON Co., Ltd., operates "Sports Authority" stores in Japan over a licensing agreement.
On March 2, 2016, Sports Authority filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and the case was converted to Chapter 7 a few months later. On May 18, 2016, the company's stores were sold to a group of liquidators and on May 25, CEO Michael Foss announced that all of the stores would close by the end of August 2016. On June 30, 2016, Dick's Sporting Goods won the auction for Sports Authority's brand name and intellectual property.
On July 15, 2016, the online store closed operations, redirecting users to the Dick's Sporting Goods website. On July 21, 2016, the purchase of Sports Authority's intellectual property by rival Dick's Sporting Goods was approved.
History.
Gart Brothers.
Gart Brothers, or Gart Bros. began in 1928, when "Denver Post" newspaper carrier Nathan Gart started the company with $50 in fishing rod samples.
In 1971, Gart Bros. Company opened the "Sportscastle" superstore in Denver, Colorado, at the corner of 10th Avenue and Broadway. The 1980s marked a period of substantial growth for the company through a series of acquisitions. These mergers included Hagan's Sports Ltd. (1987) and Stevens Brown of Salt Lake City (1987). In the fall of 1992, Leonard Green & Partners acquired Thrifty and became the company's largest shareholder.
Sportmart.
At the same time that Gart Bros. opened the Sportscastle, the Hochberg family and the Cantor family opened their first Sportmart in Niles, Illinois. The company grew to 60 stores in nine states. Gart Sports and Sportmart merged in 1998. Sportmart briefly operated in Canada in the 1990s before closing down their operations after two years.
Oshman's.
Oshman's Sporting Goods was founded in Houston, Texas, in 1919 by Jake Oshman. By 1965, Oshman's had become the largest sporting goods chain in Texas, operating 43 Oshman's SuperSports USA stores and 15 traditional stores; the company merged with Gart Bros. in 2001, changing their name to Gart Sports.
Sports Authority.
The Sports Authority, Inc., was founded in Lakes Mall in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida, by a syndicate of venture capital groups and several key founding executives. Jack A. Smith, formerly COO of Herman's World of Sports, CEO; Roy M. Cohen, senior vice president and general merchandise manager; Richard Lynch, senior vice president and CFO and Arnold Sedel, vice president of stores operations, were the founding executives. The venture capital syndicate was led by William Blair Venture Partners and included First Chicago Venture Partners, Bain Capital, Phillips-Smith Venture Partners, Marquette Venture Partners, and Bessemer Securities.
The Sports Authority, Inc. opened its first store in November 1987 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. In 1990, Kmart acquired the company. Five years later, The Sports Authority had expanded to 136 stores in 26 states, and was spun off from parent Kmart.
Its headquarters were in Lauderdale Lakes, near Fort Lauderdale.
Gart Sports merge with Sports Authority.
Gart Sports, which also operated Oshman's and Sportmart, completed a "merger of equals" with Sports Authority on August 4, 2003. At the time of its merger with Gart Sports Company, The Sports Authority was the largest full-line sporting goods retailer in the United States, and had 205 stores in 33 states. The combined company took the Sports Authority name. With the merger, each share of Sports Authority was exchanged with 0.37 shares of Gart Sports which gave investors in each about 50% of the new merchant. The new company was based in Englewood, Colorado, which was the home of Gart Sports.
As of May 2006, the remaining stores that were not operating under the Sports Authority name were re-branded to the Sports Authority name.
2006 leveraged buyout by Leonard Green & Partners.
In January 2006, Sports Authority agreed to be purchased in a leveraged buyout by affiliates of Leonard Green & Partners, a private equity investment firm, in a transaction valued at $1.4 billion. Shareholders approved the deal in May 2006. Upon completion of the merger, Sports Authority ceased to be a publicly listed stock. There were also no public bonds outstanding, and Sports Authority no longer filed financial statements with the SEC.
Copeland's Sports.
In August 2006, Copeland's Sports, headquartered in San Luis Obispo, California filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and on November 17, 2006, Sports Authority, through a wholly owned subsidiary, assumed the leasehold interests in seven former Copeland's Sports retail store locations.
S.A. Elite.
Sports Authority launched new store brand "S.A. Elite" in mid-2010, based on consumer research and testing. These stores are smaller than typical Sports Authority outlets and carry high-end sports apparel and accessories.
Bankruptcy/liquidation.
On February 4, 2016, it was widely reported that Sports Authority was set to declare Chapter 11 bankruptcy, due to debt problems. Later that month, "The Dallas Morning News" reported that the company planned to close all 25 of its stores in Texas. The report did not specify a date for the closures. On March 2, 2016, Sports Authority filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. After considering restructuring, Sports Authority announced that on April 26, they would sell all of their assets, including all of the remaining store locations. Earlier in April, Reuters reported that Academy Sports + Outdoors and Dick's Sporting Goods had expressed interest in purchasing Sports Authority's assets. On May 3, 2016, the company notified the US Bankruptcy Court that it would not reorganize its debt but would auction its assets. Contrary to media reports, the company announced it would not be liquidating its assets, but would be auctioning off its stores and operations, with the intended goal of keeping all of its stores open. On May 18, however, it was announced that the effort to avoid liquidation was unsuccessful, causing the Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing to be converted to Chapter 7. The stores would in fact be closed, part of the American retail trend known as the retail apocalypse.
As of July 28, 2016, the Sports Authority website redirects to the Dick's Sporting Goods website.
Brands.
Sports Authority sold different brands of sporting goods from many different vendors. The company also sold products under its own private labels, including Alpine Design (seasonal clothing and outdoor goods), Sims (seasonal clothing and snowboards), Aspire (women's sportswear), SA Gear (men's sportswear and fitness equipment), Tommy Armour and Ram (Golf), Parkside (outdoor games and trampolines), and Bodyfit by Sports Authority (fitness accessories). Many of these products were made by other manufacturers and branded with the Sports Authority private labels.
Sports Authority Field at Mile High.
Sports Authority owned the corporate naming rights to Sports Authority Field at Mile High, a stadium in Denver, Colorado, which is the home of the Denver Broncos. The Denver Broncos purchased the stadium naming rights in August 2016, and has since removed the Sports Authority name from the stadium. By 20 June 2018, the stadium operated under the name Broncos Stadium at Mile High until Empower Retirement took over in September 2019.
Competition.
Sports Authority's major competitor stores included:


Union of Trade Unions

The Union of Trade Unions (, ZZZ) was a trade union confederation formed as a result of an attempt to unite pro-social trade unions. It operated until 1939 and was one of the three largest union centers in Poland. It was pro-government at first, but under the influence of anarchists, it began to lean towards anarcho-syndicalism from 1936 onward. Soon it became the target of police and judicial repression, and their efforts were finally interrupted by the outbreak of World War II.
History.
The ZZZ was established on May 25, 1931 as a result of the consolidation of pro-social trade unions: the syndicalist General Labor Federation, the solidarist Confederation of Economic Trade Unions, part of the Sanation-Socialist Central Association of Class Trade Unions and the nationalist Polish Trade Unions "Praca" from Poznań and Pomerania. It was one of the three largest union headquarters in the country (169,000 members in 1934). ZZZ published the following magazines: "Front Robotniczy", "Front Pracownika Umysłowego", "Front Górniczy Śląska i Zagłębia", "Wiadomości Robotnicze", "Głos Ludu" and the daily "Głos Powszechny". The Workers' Institute of Education and Culture named after S. Żeromski was active at the ZZZ.
Main activists of ZZZ: Jędrzej Moraczewski (president), Jerzy Szurig (secretary general), Stefan Kapuściński (activist from Upper Silesia), Kazimierz Zakrzewski (secretary of the Lviv District). Most of the ZZZ activists were associated with the left-wing Sanacja Repair Union. There were also anarchists active in ZZZ: Tomasz Pilarski (Sosnowiec, from 1939 in the Central Department of ZZZ), Władysław Głuchowski (Częstochowa) and Wiesław Protschke (Lviv). It is not entirely clear whether the anarchist activities within the ZZZ took place openly or conspiratorially in front of the leadership.
Initially, the ZZZ supported the ruling camp and, in return, benefited from the support of the state administration. It was reformist in nature and did not protest against Sanation authoritarianism or capitalism. The program adopted at the 1st Congress of the Union of Trade Unions (ZZZ) called for an increase in the role of the state in the economy and the unification of the working class in trade unions independent of the party. Class struggle was negated, social conflicts were to be settled by state arbitration.
During the Great Depression in ZZZ, a conflict grew between the solidarist group of Tomaszkiewicz and Malinowski and the syndicalists (Jędrzej Moraczewski, J. Szurig, B. Gawlik, G. Zieliński, S. Kapuściński, Stefan Szwedowski). During the Second Congress of the ZZZ in 1934, the program was radicalized under the influence of the syndicalists. Although they continued to emphasize the supra-class character of the state and postulated evolutionary changes, they also recognized the class struggle and proclaimed the slogan "take over the social ownership of the workshops". In 1935, the ZZZ concluded a "non-aggression pact" with the socialist union headquarters. From 1936, under the influence of the anarchists, there was an ever greater shift in course towards syndicalism. The "ideological declaration" adopted at the 3rd Congress of the ZZZ in 1937 proclaimed the class struggle, demanded the nationalization and communization of large plants, banks and foreign trade, postulated "people's democracy" (combining strong executive power with civil rights and participation of the popular masses in government). Congress also passed a resolution in solidarity with the Spanish anarcho-syndicalist CNT and refused to join the Camp of National Unity.
From then, the union was subjected to constant police and judicial repression (censorship interventions, arrests, trials for participation in demonstrations and anti-state public statements). In 1937, the police forcibly seized the premises of the ZZZ in Silesia to hand them over to a pro-government dissenting group. Solidarists from ZZZ led a split, as a result of which most of the members joined the pro-government Union of Polish Trade Unions (the number of ZZZ fell to 35,000 members).
On March 13-14, 1938, the Fourth Congress of the ZZZ took place, which adopted a new Ideological Declaration, an interpretation of Polish syndicalism. The union program now advocated a classless producer society, community management of workplaces, nonpartisan trade unions, and a general strike as a method of making the union's goals a reality. At the same time, it emphasized its patriotism, proclaiming its concern for the fate of the nation and the state, "building a new system on the Polish basis", and maintaining independence from international powers.
During World War II, members of ZZZ co-created, among others, the Union of Polish Syndicalists.


Madison Square Mall

Madison Square Mall was a shopping mall in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. The largest in the city, it encompassed over . It was also the oldest extant enclosed shopping mall (after the Heart of Huntsville Mall closed) in the city until its closure in 2017. The mall was located on the corner of University Drive (US 72) and Research Park Boulevard (SR-255).
In late January 2017, the mall permanently closed after 32 years of operation. Demolition of the former mall began on February 6, 2017. The property was redeveloped into MidCity District beginning in 2017.
History.
Madison Square Mall opened on August 1, 1984, with anchors JCPenney, Parisian, Castner Knott, Pizitz, and a Sears which relocated from Heart of Huntsville Mall. Junior anchors included Yielding and Blach's. The opening day ceremonies were attended by the Miss America 1984 contestant, Suzette Charles, in her first public appearance as the successor to Vanessa Williams after she was forced to resign the title due to unauthorized publication of nude photographs. Over time, some of the anchors moved or were bought out by bigger companies. Blach's was closed by 1987 and replaced by The Limited and Victoria's Secret. Pizitz was acquired by Jackson, Mississippi-based McRae's in 1988 and renamed as such until McRae's was acquired by Charlotte, North Carolina-based Belk. Castner Knott was acquired in 1998 by Dillard's. Yielding closed their Madison Square Mall location around 1993.
For the next 10 years, the space was used by Castner Knott/Dillard's for their menswear. Until 2008, Steve & Barry's used the space. In 2007, Belk, after purchasing Parisian, moved its store from the former McRae's space to the much larger former Parisian space and renovated it to fit the Belk model. The former McRae's building remained vacant from then until the mall closed. Belk departed for Bridge Street Town Center in late 2014.
In addition to the in-line mall stores, several other businesses are located in the Madison Square complex, including a Holiday Inn hotel, a Steak 'n Shake restaurant, and a TouchStar Cinemas movie theater. Former businesses in the complex include Romano's Macaroni Grill and Lone Star Steakhouse & Saloon.
Madison Square Mall had been renovated twice since its opening, first in 1994 and again in 2006.
Decline and Closure (2006-2017).
In the years following the renovation of 2006, a decrease in foot traffic and an increased crime threat led to many tenants of the mall relocating to other locations. A riot erupted in December 2012 over the new Nike Air Jordan; police had to use pepper spray to calm the situation. No arrests were made. In July 2014, a video surfaced online of a Belk employee attempting to fight off a shoplifter in the parking lot. In September 2015, a woman was robbed at gunpoint in the parking lot of the mall.
The pilot episode of the Food Network show, Food Court Wars was filmed at this mall. Kettle N' Spouts, the winner of the episode, received a year's worth of free rent in the mall that was valued at $100,000. Kettle N' Spouts closed only 6 months after the episode aired.
Madison Square Mall was owned by CBL & Associates Properties, Inc., until it was sold to The Grove Huntsville LLC for $5 million in late April 2015. The new owners intended to redevelop the property, despite struggles with the city of Huntsville against property owners Sears, JCPenney, and most notably TouchStar Cinemas, who started a petition on June 7, 2016 to prevent their property from being demolished. Not even 24 hours later, the petition achieved over 1,000 signatures. Huntsville's Director of Urban Development, Shane Davis, made a statement regarding this move, and confirmed that the theater would not be demolished, and instead the plans would be reworked around the property.
Madison Square Mall began liquidation in summer 2016. The last liquidation sale ended on January 8, 2017.
On November 28, 2016, Sears announced it would be closing on January 29, 2017, making it the last tenant or anchor to close in the mall. Sears also announced it would return to the MidCity Huntsville development that will replace Madison Square Mall in a smaller store. In December 2016, JCPenney announced it would close on January 28, 2017. It is unknown if JCPenney will remain in the Huntsville area.
With the closure of Sears and JCPenney, Madison Square Mall permanently closed on January 29, 2017. Demolition of the former mall began on February 6, 2017. The property is now the site of MidCity District.


Simon David

Until its closing in 2010, Simon David was the oldest gourmet and specialty foods store in Dallas, Texas. Simon David was a long-time specialty retail brand and division of Tom Thumb Supermarkets. Tom Thumb became a division of Randalls in 1992, which itself became a 112-store division of Safeway Inc. in 1999.
History.
Named for its founder, Simon David opened in 1889 as the first food retailer and deliverer in Dallas to specialize in out-of-season items and imported merchandise. Originally a small brick structure adjacent to Mr. David's home in Uptown Dallas' historic State Thomas neighborhood, the business expanded to 4311 Oak Lawn Avenue in the 1920s and thrived under the supervision of second-generation owner Delmer David, who opened an additional wholesale outlet along with separate packing and shipping facilities that distributed Simon David products nationwide. The third location opened October 19, 1961, on Inwood Road, where the founder's grandson, Stanley M. David became the first grocer in Dallas to offer a liquor department before selling the franchise to Tom Thumb in 1963. A larger building replaced the original Inwood Road location in 1985 at the same address. While Tom Thumb would later market a statewide chain of Simon David stores, only the Inwood Road location retains the name of its founder.
Randall's Food Markets.
Tom Thumb and its Simon David division were acquired by the Randall's Food Markets chain of Houston in 1992. Randall's retained the Tom Thumb and Simon David names in the Dallas/Fort Worth market, but would convert the seven Tom Thumb stores in Austin, Texas, to Randall's in January 1994, when it also converted nine newly acquired AppleTree Markets. The Simon David in the Arboretum Market (opened in 1987) was not converted, but it would close in December 1996 and would be converted into a Saks Fifth Avenue. Though after many customers lamented the loss of the city's only Simon David, Randall's decided in 1998 to make its Bee Caves store a Flagship Randall's supermarket, the first in the city and the eighth in the chain.
Safeway.
In 1999 Randall's and its Tom Thumb/Simon David divisions were acquired by Safeway. Safeway retained the Randall's name in Houston and Austin and the Tom Thumb and Simon David names in Dallas/Fort Worth. Safeway announced plans in May 2010 that the Inwood Road location, the last to use the Simon David banner, will be replaced with a Tom Thumb, pending permit approvals.


C. C. Roberts

Charles Collingwood Roberts (6 July 1900 – 17 May 1980) was a British entrepreneur. He was a former Chairman of the Butterfield & Swire and an unofficial member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.
Biography.
Roberts joined Butterfield and Swire in October 1922, responsible for sugar traveling from Shanghai from 1925-1926, shore management for China Navigation Company in Hankow from 1926–28, and responsible for Chinese Staff Shanghai from 1932-34. On 1 October 1932, Roberts married to Constance May Mitchell at the St. John's Cathedral.
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, he was among many other British local figures who were held at the Block 8 of the St. Stephen College and participated in the camp councils.
After the war, Roberts became the first chairman of the Cathay Pacific Airways, the airline which was acquired by Butterfield & Swire and its associated shipping interests in 1948. At that time, he co-founded the Hong Kong Aircraft Engineering Company with David F. Landale, taipan of the Jardine Matheson and founder of the Hong Kong Airways in 1950.
In 1948 and 1950, he was the chairman of the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce. After the resignation of R. D. Gillespie, he was elected by the chamber to be the representative on the Legislative Council of Hong Kong on 6 May, until he stepped down in August and was replaced by P. S. Cassidy.
He was also deputy chairman of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation in 1940-41 and director of the bank.