Encampment for Citizenship

The Encampment for Citizenship (EFC) is a non-profit, non-partisan, non-sectarian organization that conducts residential summer programs with year-round follow-up for young people of widely diverse backgrounds and nations. The Encampment program brings youth together to form a self-governing community, learn to think critically about pressing social and political issues, and become empowered to take action. EFC was founded in 1946 by Algernon D. Black, a leader of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, and Alice K. Pollitzer, a prominent civic leader. The program was sponsored by the American Ethical Union and its affiliated societies, in particular the New York Ethical Culture Society. The first Encampment was held at the Fieldston School.
EFC provides youth with a compelling experience in democratic living, with emphasis on critical thinking and social action. Through this transformative experience, young people become more informed and sensitive about the key issues of our time and committed to active citizenship and involvement in their community as justice seekers.
The camp program's aim is, according to the society, for "young adults of many religious, racial, social and national backgrounds"
to learn "the principles and techniques of citizenship in a liberal democracy through lived experience." Campers would establish their own camp government and be guided toward socio-political activism, a sense of civic responsibility, and volunteerism — all in a context of tolerance and diversity.
Eleanor Roosevelt, a long-time member of the society's board of directors, was an early supporter of the program and routinely hosted encampment workshops at her Hyde Park estate. When the program was attacked as "socialistic" by McCarthyite forces in the early 1950s, Roosevelt vigorously defended it. The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was a later supporter.


Chaluka Site

The Chaluka Site is a prehistoric archaeological site and National Historic Landmark in Nikolski, Alaska, on Umnak Island in the Aleutian Islands of southwestern Alaska. The site documents more than 4,000 years of more-or-less continuous occupation of the area now occupied by the modern village of Nikolski. The site includes a large midden, yielding much information about the origins of the Aleut people.
Description.
The major feature of the site is its large midden, a mound about long, wide, and deep. Excavations at the site have yielded more than 4,000 artifacts, including a wide variety of projectile points, made from ivory, bone, and stone. The site has also yielded one of the oldest radiocarbon dates in the Aleutian Islands, documenting human activity there as early as 1,800 BCE. Human remains identified as Paleo-Aleut in age have been recovered from the site, as have stone lamps, stone knives of a type similar to those found at Dorset culture sites, and carved ivory deity images.
The site was first identified as of archaeological interest in 1909, and its first major excavation took place in 1938 under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution's Aleš Hrdlička. It has since been a regular subject of study. One of the most important excavations took place in 1962 under the leadership of William S. Laughlin, in which two wide trenches were dug, and the stratigraphy of the midden carefully documented.
The Chaluka site is unique because it supported a continuous population for nearly 3500 years and reveals a very precise food sourcing system that sustains the fostering of faunal life. Mathematical figures were used to manage natural stocks.
The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.


Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency

The presidency of Harry S. Truman began on April 12, 1945 when Harry S. Truman became president upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in the last months of World War II, and ended on January 20, 1953.


Timeline of Kingston, Jamaica

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Kingston, Jamaica.


Massasoit

Massasoit Sachem () or Ousamequin (c. 15811661) was the sachem or leader of the Wampanoag confederacy. "Massasoit" means "Great Sachem".
Massasoit's people had been seriously weakened by a series of epidemics and were vulnerable to attacks by the Narragansetts, and he formed an alliance with the colonists at Plymouth Colony for defense against them. It was through his assistance that the Plymouth Colony avoided starvation during the early years.
English at Plymouth.
At the time of the pilgrims' arrival in Plymouth, the realm of the Pokanokets included parts of Rhode Island and much of southeastern Massachusetts. Massasoit lived in Sowams, a village at Pokanoket in Warren, Rhode Island. He held the allegiance of a number of lesser Pokanoket sachems. In 1621, he sent Squanto to live among the colonists at Plymouth.
Outbreaks of smallpox had devastated the Pokanokets, and Massasoit sought an alliance with the colonies of New England against the neighboring Narragansetts who controlled an area west of Narragansett Bay in the Rhode Island. Samoset was a minor Abenakki sachem ("sagamore") who hailed from the Muscongus Bay area of Maine, and he learned to speak English from fishermen who plied those waters. Massasoit sent him to approach the colonists to find out whether their intentions were peaceful.
Massasoit forged critical political and personal ties with colonial leaders William Bradford, Edward Winslow, Stephen Hopkins, John Carver, and Myles Standish, ties which grew out of a negotiated peace treaty on March 22, 1621. The alliance ensured that the Pokanoket s remained neutral during the Pequot War in 1636. According to Colonial sources, Massasoit prevented the failure of Plymouth Colony and the starvation that the Pilgrims faced during the earliest years of its establishment.
Lasting alliance.
There was some tension between Massasoit and the colonists when they refused to give up Squanto, whom Massasoit believed to have betrayed him. This, however, was resolved in March 1623 when Massasoit was gravely ill and Edward Winslow nursed him back to health. After his recovery, Winslow reports that Massasoit said, "the English are my friends and love me... whilst I live I will never forget this kindness they have showed me." In return for their kindness, Massasoit warned the Plymouth colonists of a plot against them. He had learned that a group of influential Massachusett warriors intended to destroy both the Wessagusset and Plymouth colonies, and he warned the Pilgrims in time.
The alliance came under minor tension in later years, as the colonists needed to expand into new lands in order to support their growing colony. Massasoit sold a tract of land 14 miles square to Myles Standish and others of Duxbury in 1649 to alleviate tension and maintain the peace between his people and the colonists. The sale took place atop Sachem Rock, an outcropping on the Satucket River in East Bridgewater, Massachusetts. The site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Children.
Massasoit had five children: son Wamsutta, who was born between 1621 and 1625; son Pometecomet, Metacomet, or Metacom; son Sonkanuchoo; and daughters Amie and Sarah. Soon after the death of Massasoit, Wamsutta and Pometecomet went to Plymouth and asked the Pilgrims to give them English names. The court named them Alexander and Philip. Wamsutta (Alexander), the eldest, became sachem of the Pokanokets on the death of his father. He died within a year, and his brother Metacom (Philip) succeeded him in 1662. Amie married Tispaquin and was the only one of Massasoit's five children to survive King Philip's War in 1676.
Consequences.
The Pokanokets and the Colonists of Massachusetts Bay Colony maintained peace for nearly 40 years, until Massasoit's death. Roger Williams was banished from the Massachusetts colony and was taken in by Massasoit for several weeks. Massasoit was humane and honest, never violated his word, and constantly endeavored to imbue his people with a love of peace. He kept the Pilgrims advised of any warlike designs toward them by other tribes. It is unclear when Massasoit died. Some accounts claim that it was as early as 1660; others contend that he died as late as 1662. He was anywhere from 80 to 90 at the time. His son Wamsutta (Alexander) became his successor after his death.
Legacy.
Roger Williams fled the Massachusetts Bay Colony to avoid arrest and deportation for religious reasons and stayed the winter of 1635–36 with Massasoit, who gave him land along the Seekonk River the following spring. Governor Winslow of Plymouth Colony advised Williams to move his settlement to the other side of the river because his current location was within the bounds of Plymouth Colony. Williams did so and founded Providence Plantations, which later became part of the Colony of Rhode Island.
The half century of peace that Massasoit so assiduously maintained collapsed soon after his death. Wamsutta (also known as Alexander) broke away from his father's diplomacy and began to form an alliance with Connecticut Colony. He died suddenly within a year of his succession in 1662, and Massasoit's second son Metacom (also known as Philip) became sachem of the Pokanokets and chief sachem of the Greater Wampanoag Confederacy. He believed that Alexander had been murdered at the hands of the Colonists, and this was one of the factors that eventually led to King Philip's War, one of the bloodiest wars in Colonial American history.
Statues of Massasoit by sculptor Cyrus E. Dallin stand near Plymouth Rock, outside the Utah State Capitol building, on the campus of Brigham Young University, at the Springville Museum of Art in Springville, Utah, and in Kansas City, Missouri at the corner of Main Street and Emanuel Cleaver II Blvd. In Massachusetts, both Massasoit Community College and Massasoit State Park are named for him.


Cole culture

The Cole Culture (800–1300 CE) is a Late Woodland Period culture of Native American people from central Ohio.
Cole Culture people made flint tools and pottery. They were agrarian and cultivated beans, maize, squash, and tobacco. Cole people buried their dead in subterranean graves instead of mounds. They shared many traits with the Hopewell tradition and might be descended from them. A major Cole Culture site is the Ufferman Site in Delaware County, Ohio. Another is the Highbank Park Works, also in Delaware County, built between 800 and 1300 CE.


Tunja Province

Tunja Province was one of the provinces of Gran Colombia. It belonged to the Boyacá Department which was created in 1824.


42nd Parliament of British Columbia

The 42nd Parliament of British Columbia was chosen in the 2020 British Columbia general election. All 87 seats were up for election.
The 41st Parliament of British Columbia was dissolved on September 21, 2020. The 42nd Parliament convened for its first session on December 7, 2020.
Election and appointments.
The members of the legislative assembly were elected in the 42nd general election, held on October 24, 2020. The election resulted in an absolute majority for the BC NDP, and after a judicial recount in West Vancouver-Sea to Sky the final results had 57 BC NDP members, 28 BC Liberals, and 2 BC Greens being certified. As leader of the BC NDP, John Horgan continued from the previous parliament as premier. Even though BC Liberal leader Andrew Wilkinson won his riding in Vancouver-Quilchena, he resigned as leader of the Opposition prior to the new parliament commencing, with Shirley Bond assuming that position and being interim leader of the BC Liberals. In replacing members of his Executive Council that had retired, Horgan added newly elected MLAs Jennifer Whiteside as minister of Education, Murray Rankin as minister of Indigenous Relations, and Josie Osborne as minister of Municipal Affairs, as well as Nathan Cullen as minister of state for Lands and Natural Resources. Continuing in their roles from the previous parliament, Adrian Dix continued as minister of Health, David Eby as attorney general, George Heyman as minister of Environment, Harry Bains as minister of Labour, Lana Popham as minister of Agriculture, and Mike Farnworth as solicitor general.
First session.
The first session of the 42nd parliament began on December 17, 2020, with the speech from the throne delivered by Lieutenant Governor Janet Austin on behalf of Premier Horgan and the BC NDP government. The first session only lasted four months, with all bills receiving royal assent by the end of March. Among the legislation adopted, the "Firearm Violence Prevention Act" (Bill 4) repealed and replaced the "Firearm Act" and included new measures as recommended in the 2017 report from a previous parliament's Illegal Firearms Task Force, such as a prohibition on the sale of imitation and low-velocity guns to youth. Bill 5 created the position of the Fairness Officer at ICBC to replace the corporation's Fairness Commissioner; Bill 8 brought the Real Estate Council of BC and the Office of the Superintendent of Real Estate under the regulatory authority of the BC Financial Services Authority; and Bill 9 amended how local government elections are conducted by regulating activities during a defined pre-campaign period, limiting sponsorship contributions and creating a registry of elector organizations.


Edinburgh Island

Edinburgh Island is an island located within Coronation Gulf, south of Victoria Island, in the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut, Canada. It is approximately above sea level.
Other islands in the vicinity include Doak Island, Bate Islands, Outpost Islands, Richardson Islands, Sesqui Islands, and Sisters Islands.
Edinburgh Island, PIN-DA, is a former Distant Early Warning Line and a current North Warning System site.


Noel Jeddore

Noel Joseph Jeddore "We’jitu" also Newell Jeddore "Gietol", "Geodol" (December 18, 1865 – May 14, 1944) was "Saqamaw" "grand chief" of the Mi'kmaq at "Miawpukek" in Bay d'Espoir on the south coast of Newfoundland in the Coast of Islands region. Jeddore served as chief from July 26, 1919 until he was forced into exile to Eskasoni, Nova Scotia, in 1924. He was born at Indian Point, Bay d'Espoir and he died at Eskasoni, Cape Breton.
Saqamaw.
The name "Jeddore" can be traced back to We’jitu Isidore, (ca. 1656 – ca. 1769) who "was a "Kji-Saqamaw" or grand chief of the Mi’kmaq of the provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia and Quebec." Prior to the passage of the 1876 Indian Act, the Mi'kmaq were governed by the Grand Council - "Santé Mawiómi" - made up of representatives from the seven district councils in Mi'kma'ki. The chief of the Newfoundland Mi'kmak was Reuben Lewis, who was elected as probationary chief in 1900 following the death of Joe Bernard. In June 1907 Reuben Lewis was to "go in state with the principal men of Conn River to Sydney to be invested with the full right of chieftainship and the possession of the gold medal which is the badge of office." As chief, Noel Jeddore was given guardianship of the gold medal first given to the previous district Chief Maurice Lewis by the Grand Council. Maurice Lewis came to Miawipukek originally from Cape Breton in 1815. When he left Miawpukek Jerrold hung the medal on the statue of St. Anne near the Catholic Church. The priest, St. Croix, who deposed Chief Noel Jeddore in 1924 "was also responsible for dismantling traditional governing structures in the community."
Lewis as chief made settled disputes about territorial trapping areas and his decisions were final. Noel Jeddore was known as Saqamaw Jeddore or Geodol to the Mi'kmaq of Miawpukek/Conne River. In a 1907 publication "Newfoundland and It's Untrodden Ways" by Millais (1865 – 1931) the author included his favourable observations of the Jeddore family and other Conne River Mi'kmaq during his visits to Newfoundland in "two short hunting seasons in 1905-1906." Millais observed that in the absence of a Catholic priest Conne River at Christmas time, Joe Jeddore was "high priest."
Miawpukek.
Miawpukek was a summer camp until Jeannot Pequidalouet - the eastern Mi'kmaq chief of Cape Breton, who had previously overwintered in Newfoundland - began to create a permanent settlement in Miawpukek from in the 1760s. In his MA thesis Butler citing Jackson described how under the leadership of Jeddore, the Mi’kmaq in the Bay D’Espoir "lived in greater isolation and so were able both to retain their language well into the twentieth century and to continue their traditional practices of living as hunter-gatherers and commercial trappers." Jackson described how, the "uninhabited wilderness of the southern interior offered an abundant variety of small game: fox, muskrat and beaver. Thousands of woodland caribou roamed the bush and barrens." Prior to the early nineteenth century Mi'kmaq lived a nomadic life moving in cycles and seasons between Newfoundland and Cape Breton. In the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century they made a transition to semi-sedentary life as hunter-gatherers living "on the country" on Newfoundland itself in permanent communities lime St. George's Bay and Miawpukek in Bay d'Espoir. In a 1907 publication "Newfoundland and It's Untrodden Ways" by John Guille Millais' (1865 – 1931) the author included his favourable observations of the Jeddore family and other Conne River Mi'kmaq during his visits to Newfoundland in "two short hunting seasons in 1905-1906." Like William Cormack who had undertaken an expedition in 1822 to the interior of Newfoundland with his Mi'kmaq guide Joseph Sylvester, a young Mi'kmaq hunter from Miawpukek, Bay d'Espoir, he provided details on the lives of the Newfoundland Mi'kmaq.
Newfoundland Governor William MacGregor visited Bay d'Espoir in September 1908. In his report he described how the lives of Mi'kmaq on the reserve were becoming more difficult with the encroachment of the railway, a mill and settlers which contributed to the depletion of natural resources on their traditional hunting lands. MacGregor described how the Mi'kmaq there were "hunters and trappers, and are ignorant alike of agriculture, of seamanship, and of fishing... They pay 60 to 70 cents a pound for their tobacco, 20 to 30 cents for gunpowder, and 10 cents for shot. They sell their fur locally where they make their small family purchases." Although he acknowledged that they were healthy and free of tuberculosis, resourceful, self-sufficient, "easy to govern", "seldom quarrel", with "no intoxicating liquor and seldom obtain any", he predicted that their future on the reserve was bleak. The only two cows on the reserve were owned by the Jeddore brothers. MacGregor explained that the Chieftainship was "not hereditary, but is conferred, when a vacancy occurs, on the man the people prefer."
Controversy.
The Mi'kmaq at Bay d'Espoir had converted to Catholicism when an early French missionary came to the area and continued to be devout Catholics. They built the first chapel in Bay d’Espoir, Conne River in the 1870s even though there was never a regular parish priest. As chief of the Mi'kmaq, Noel Jeddore was the guardian of a prayer book watermarked in 1807 that he used for Sunday mass and other religious services - deciphering the "Komqwej wi’kasikl" - Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics. The prayer book which was "originally given by the missionaries and was in Mi’kmaq" - was used "firstly within the wigwam, then the village chapel and later at [St. Anne's Roman Catholic Church]."
According to Noel Jeddore's son, Peter Jeddore (May 9, 1892 – May 18, 1970), his father was exiled because of a misunderstanding with the Catholic priest, Father Stanislaus (Stanley) St. Croix, who arrived in 1916 and was based in St. Alban's as parish priest and school administrator and priest. Ethnographer Doug Jackson - who "began research in [Miaswpukek] in 1976 and lived there until 1981" - observed that St. Croix - who forbid the use of traditional language in the church and in the school, was the primary force behind the acceleration of the loss of the Mi'kmaw language in the early twentieth century. St. Croix "told teachers to strictly enforce the use of English in the classroom. Children were to be strapped if they reverted to Micmac, and he banned the use of Micmac in church.". Jackson wrote that Mi'kmaw Rod Jeddore indicated that, "the impact of intermarriage, economic climate, and Fr. St. Croix's ban on language" were "the primary reasons for the decline of Mi'kmaw language in the area and by the 1980s the language had largely disappeared." "These acts together with other forces of change (including the opening of the interior of the island and increased intermarriage with Europeans) left only three fluent speakers of Mi’kmaq in the community by the mid-1980s."
When the first regular priest Father Stanislaus St. Croix arrived in 1916 he wanted the Mi'kmaq to join his parish in St. Albans instead of holding services in their own church. St. Croix wanted the Mi'kmaq to stop saying their prayers - particularly in the church - in Mi'kmaq as he thought it "mocked God." During an impassioned community meeting in 1923 Noel Jeddore said that "if we stopped speaking Mi’kmaq in the church, there would be murder in our hearts." When community members reported this to St. Croix he interpreted it to mean that Jeddore was threatening murder. He called the RCMP and Jeddore was given the choice of going to jail or exile. He along with some community members chose to go to a Mi’kmaq reserve in Eskasoni, Cape Breton with very close ties to the Conne River community. Noel Jeddore appointed his son as Chief in the 1920s but his son refused. According to American anthropologist and University of Pennsylvania professor Frank Speck, one of his older Mi'kmaq informants described in detail how the Mi'kmaq made the sixty mile voyage across the Cabot Strait between Cape Ray on the south-western coast of Newfoundland and Cape North, Cape Breton in two days by birch bark canoes.
According to the Miawpukek First Nation, Jeddore said: "One time before they became Christians, Mi’kmaw were very strong, not even bullets could hurt them. But when they became Christian, they turned into a very weak people".


Han Yerry

Han Yerry Tewahangarahken ("He Who Takes Up the Snow Shoe") (1724 – 1794) was also known as Honyery Doxtator. Han Yerry was born into his mother's Wolf clan, as the Iroquois had a matrilineal society with women holding property and hereditary leadership passing through their lines, children took the nationality and clan of their mother, as they gain social status through her.
He became a war chief of the Oneida people and was key during the American Revolutionary War, considered to be one of the most influential leader of the Oneida. Yerry fought in the Battle of Oriskany against Loyalists and other members of the Haudenosaunee. He was married to Tyonajanegen.
Nomenclature.
Han Yerry was thought to have had a German Palatine father. Although this statement is most likely a result of confusion with another family of "Dockstaders" that can trace their line back to Georg Dachstädter, a German Palatine who settled in Upstate New York in 1709. Han Yerry is not in his line and therefore his children most likely adopted the name.
There are also unclear references in documents of the period to a Wolf Clan title "Otatshehte", or "Carries a Quiver". It is possible that the surname Dachstädter could have developed as an Anglicization of this title. This was discussed in the online resources of the Oneida nation."Americans feared invasion from Canada throughout much of 1776. Late that year, another Oneida leader brought accurate intelligence indicating there would be no attack that year. Ojistalak was a sachem (holder of a League office) in the Wolf clan. The Oneidas had nine such titles and they carried immense prestige. Ojistalak's title (Otatshete) was considered to be the highest and, as a gifted public speaker (he spoke for the sachems in the council), he was a very influential man among the Oneidas. Strongly pro-American in outlook, Ojistalak had a great deal to do with the pro-American stand of the Oneidas during the war. It is likely that it was Ojistalak who, in 1778, declared his Nation's "unalterable resolution" at every hazard, to hold fast the Covenant Chain with the United States, and with which to be buried in the same grave, or to enjoy the fruits of victory and peace."This word is a variant of "Otsistarare" (meaning "Grasshopper") which was also a known nickname of Han Yerry. Beginning in the 1780s a Peter Otsistarare, likely Han Yerry's son, is recorded using this name as well. It is possible that the title became hereditary. Like many accounts from this era, the records are fragmentary and sometimes transcribed by indian agents with poor phonetic accuracy to the preservation of indigenous languages.


Battle of Plum Creek

The Battle of Plum Creek was a clash between allied Tonkawa, militia, and Rangers of the Republic of Texas and a huge Comanche war party under Chief Buffalo Hump, which took place near Lockhart, Texas, on August 12, 1840, following the Great Raid of 1840 as the Comanche war party returned to west Texas.
Background.
Following the Council House Fight of 1840 a group of Comanches led by the Penateka Comanche War Chief Buffalo Hump, warriors from his own band plus allies from various other Comanche bands, raided from West Texas all the way to the coast and the sea. These Comanches were angered by the events of the Council House, in which Texans had killed the Comanche Chiefs when the Texans had raised a white flag of truce.
The Council House Fight.
The Texan officials began the treaty talks with demands that were unacceptable or impossible to fulfill for the Comanches, such as the Comanche return all white captives, including the famous captive Cynthia Parker. Other white captives were with bands of the Comanche not represented at the talks. As a show of good faith the Comanche chiefs brought in two captives, a Mexican boy and an adolescent girl named Matilda Lockhart. The Texans thought they were going against their word, because the Comanche chiefs did not return all of the white captives and figured they held back some of their white captives to guarantee their own safety. Exercising a premeditated plan of violating the immunity of the peace delegation, the Texas militiamen told the chiefs it was they that would indeed be held hostage to guarantee the release of their other white captives. Everyone panicked and drew their weapons. The militia began firing and the entire Comanche peace delegation was killed.
The Great Raid of 1840.
But Buffalo Hump was determined to do more than merely complain about what the Comanches viewed as a bitter betrayal. Spreading word to the other bands of Comanches that he was raiding the white settlements in revenge, Buffalo Hump led the Great Raid of 1840. On this raid the Comanches went all the way from beyond the Edwards Plateau in West Texas to the cities of Victoria and Linnville on the Texas coast. In what may have been the largest organized raid by the Comanches to that point on Texas settlements, or an attack by Indians on any white city in the continental United States, they raided and burned these towns, plundering at will. Linnville was the second largest port in Texas at that time. On the way back from the sea the Comanches were confronted by Texas rangers and militia in a fight called the "Battle of Plum Creek" (near the modern town of Lockhart).
The Battle of Plum Creek.
The "battle" was really more of a running gun fight, as the Comanche War Party was trying to get back to the Llano Estacado with a huge herd of horses and mules they had stolen, a large number of firearms, and other plunder such as mirrors, liquor, and cloth. Volunteers from Gonzales under Mathew Caldwell and from Bastrop under Ed Burleson gathered to intercept the Comanches. Joined by Ranger companies and armed settlers hastily assembled as militia from central and east Texas, they confronted the Indians at Good's Crossing on Plum Creek, near the modern town of Lockhart (about 27 miles south of Austin). Texas history says the Texans won this battle, although the Indians got away with most of their plunder and a great many of the stolen horses and mules. "Several hundred head of horses and mules were recaptured, as were also immense quantities of dry goods." The Texans reported killing 80 Comanches in the fight, yet recovered only 12 Native American bodies.
Apparently greed largely determined the battle's outcome. The Comanches would have never been caught had they not been herding such an enormous number of stolen and heavily laden mules and horses. Thomas J. Pilgrim took part in the Battle of Plum Creek.
Aftermath.
Buffalo Hump continued to raid white settlements until 1856, when he led his band into the Brazos River Reservation. The town of Linnville never recovered from the Great Raid, most of its residents moving to Port Lavaca, the new settlement established on the bay three and one half miles southwest by displaced Linnville residents.


Nahnebahwequa

Nahnebahwequa ("Naaniibawikwe" in the Fiero spelling, meaning "Standing-Upright Woman") or Catherine Bunch was an Ojibwa spokeswoman and Christian Missionary.
Early life.
Born in the early fall of 1824 at the Credit River, now called Port Credit, Ontario, Nah ne bah wee qua was the daughter of Bunch Sunego and Mary Polly Crane. Her paternal grandfather was Osunego ("Asanagoo", "Black squirrel"), a Mississauga Tribal Chief from the Eagle doodem, and her maternal grandfather was (Otesoo), a War Chief from the Otter Clan who fought for the British Crown in the American Revolutionary War. She was baptized Catherine Bunch by Rev. Thomas Madden in 1825, but later took the name Catherine Brown, after a revered Christian Cherokee convert. Catherine was unofficially adopted by her uncle, Rev. Peter Jones and his English wife, Eliza Field with whom she lived at the Credit Mission from about 1837 until her marriage in 1839.
A Petition to the Queen.
Aunt Eliza Jones took Catherine to England in 1837 where she furthered her education while Peter, known as Kahkewaquonaby (Sacred Feathers), a Chief of the Credit Band, delivered a Petition and Wampum Belt to Queen Victoria.
The petition expressed the desire of the Mississauga Band to acquire titled deeds and ownership to their lands, as they felt that this was the only way to prevent the encroachment of European settlers at the Credit River.
Negotiations with Bond Head and Arthur.
In Upper Canada, Lieutenant Governor Francis Bond Head had developed a scheme to put all the natives living in Southern Ontario on Manitoulin Island. However, the Mississaugas knew Manitoulin Island was not fit for farming as it was mostly rock with animals, fruits and grasses being scarce due to lack of fertile soil and viewed the scheme as yet another violation of their rights.
The Mississaugas had cleared and built a thriving community at the Credit Mission as they had been promised retention of the land for future generations. In response to Bond Head's scheme, the Mississauga Band decided to send Catherine's uncle, Rev. Peter Jones, who was also the Chief of the Mississaugas to Great Britain to present their grievances to Queen Victoria. The Colonial Secretary, Lord Glenelg, sympathetic to the Canadian Native people's plight, recommended to Her Majesty the Queen, that the Credit River Mississaugas should be granted title deeds.
Meanwhile, having been ill-equipped to deal with European settlers, Lieutenant Governor Bond Head had resigned. His successor George Arthur, however, was no better and in 1840, he told the Native people that he was not in favor of them receiving deeds "for fear they would sell them".
On top of this, S.P. Jarvis, who was Chief Superintendent of Indian Affairs since 1837 was dismissed in disgrace in 1845 after an investigation by the Bagot commission found him guilty of misappropriating the Mississauga's funds. Shortly after, the Saugeen and Nawash Band invited the Mississaugas to settle on the Bruce Peninsula.
Oral history of the Saugeen people serves to remind people that Saugeen Territory never included a "Nawash Band." The traditional territory of the Saugeen people covered most of Southern Ontario, from around what is now known as Orangeville to Tobermory and to Grand Bend/Goderich.
Some people were relocated to Cape Croker from the Owen Sound area around 1860.
According to oral history, Saugeen allowed people to settle in the part of their traditional territory at Cape Croker. Also, descendants of Peter Jones are still alive at Saugeen. Peter Jones converted Chief Kegedonce of the Sable River and he took his Christian name to become Peter Kegedonce Jones. Descendants of Kegedonce Jones still live at Nawash, formerly Cape Croker. But Sable River no longer exists as an Aboriginal community.
Marriage, Family & Missionary Work.
On January 9, 1839, Catherine's adopted father and uncle, Rev. Peter Jones, performed the marriage of Catherine to William Sutton at the Credit Mission. William and Catherine Sutton continued to live at the Credit Mission with their three children, Catherine Brown Sutton, Joseph Sunego Sutton and Sophia Anne Sutton. They were all were members of the tribe until 1845 when they accepted the invitation of the Nawash Tribe and traveled north to Georgian Bay. After their adoption into the Nawash Band, they were given of land by the tribe, now known as, Lot 34 and Lot 35, Concession 3, Sarawak on the beautiful shore of Georgian Bay. Catherine and William cleared of the and built a house, barn, and enclosed garden on lot 34.
Oral history of the Saugeen notes that the Owen Sound area was part of their traditional territory. In fact, a footpath from Saugeen to Owen Sound later became a highway. It was not until the late 1980s that Cape Croker changed its name to Nawash. Cape Croker was also part of Saugeen Territory. Those who chose to move to Cape Croker after being forced out of Owen Sound around 1858 were mainly from the United States, from the Coldwater area or displaced from their homelands.
Also according to Saugeen oral history land was cared for and used by the entire membership. The Creator provided for all Ojibway and land ownership by individuals was not believed possible.
The people of Saugeen never agreed to give away individual parcels or lots to non natives such as William Sutton.
[The Nawash didn't give land to Englishman William Sutton either. They gave it to Catherine Brown Sutton who was William Sutton's wife and daughter of Bunch Sonego ] Source Nov 7th 1845 gift of Two Hundred Acres to Catherine Sutton and her heirs (RG 10 Volume 2877, File 177,181)
The letter reads:
Unfortunately, 1851 was a hard winter and as well as losing their first child to be born in Sarawak, a son named after William, Catherine also became ill and nearly died. The soil was hard to work and the Suttons, not used to such an isolated area, wanted to leave Sarawak. They had been used to living in a large native community at the Credit, with lots of support, doctors, churches and schools where children could be educated. Although they planned to return when their son Joseph would be old enough to help with the farming, William also felt they should be compensated for the improvements he had made to their land if there ever was a surrender.
In 1852 William was asked to superintend a model farm for the Wesleyan Methodist Church's Mission in Garden River, near Sault Ste. Marie so they gathered their family and went farther north to teach the Grace of God and farming to the Native community there. They stayed until around 1855 when they moved to Michigan spending two years working at the Ojibwa Methodist Missions before finally returning to their farm at Sarawak in 1857.
Conflict with Indian Affairs.
On returning, they found that a Surrender had taken place and their gift of land had been included and divided up into lots for sale at a public auction, taking away the land that had been given to Catherine and her lawful heirs, her children.
Catherine and William approached R.T. Pennefather, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, asking for Catherine's share of the annuities that she should have received between 1852 and 1857. They also felt that they should receive recompense for the monies they had spent on their house, barn and stable, which had also been surrendered in their absence.
The Government had promised the Nawash Band that they would be able to have the lots they bid on at the Land Sale for half the upset price per acre so Catherine went to the sale along with the European settlers. She bid and paid the first installments for lots 34, 35 and 36, for William and herself, for lot 31 for their son Joseph. Lot 32 and lot 33 for her mother Mary, (who had been living and farming on these lots since her move from the Credit with her new husband Joseph KaKaKe) and lot 37 for her sister Mary Sunego meant that Catherine paid for land totalling almost . This purchase was made despite the fact that Catherine and her family had already been given lots 34 and 35 as a gift, land that she considered was already hers due to the promises made to her forefathers in many speeches and council meetings due to their loyalty to the British Crown in many wars.
At this same sale, David Sawyer, a cousin of Catherine's, and Abner Elliot, also made first installments on the land they had been given by the Nawash. They had cleared their land, built homes and barns and had been farming since their arrival from the Credit River having also been adopted by the Nawash tribe from the Credit Band of Mississauga's.
After successfully bidding and paying her money, Catherine was given a Certificate of Sale by the Land Agent and she in turn passed it to her Methodist minister, Conrad Vandusen, who had offered to have the lots registered. However, he was intercepted by the Indian Affair's Representative, Bartlett, who asked Vandusen to see the Certificates of Sale. He handed Catherine's documents to Bartlett who stole the Certificates and the money, informing Vandusen that Indians were not allowed to buy land. It was at this point that Catherine and William approached Richard T. Pennefather, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, for her annuities and for the money spent on the house, barn and improvements on their land as other native people had received their Annuities and compensation for their land improvements. These annuities only amounted to $10.00 semi annually because of the dishonest handling of the funds.
The money collected from the sale of Indian Lands were intended to go directly for the good of the Nawash Band but was instead held in Trust by the Government preventing the Native people from accessing it. The Government also promised to provide roads, schools and houses in return for this Surrender.
Indian Affairs for rejected Catherine's purchase citing that she was not eligible to the land because she was married to a white man. Catherine knew there was no such law. Indian Affairs also argued her ineligibility due to the fact she was absent from the country at the time of the Surrender although this was also incorrect as she was still considered a Native person by the Nawash Band.
Catherine went to Toronto many times and petitioned Provincial Parliament along with David Sawyer and Abner Elliot in 1858. The Nawash Band also petitioned on Catherine's behalf in 1858 but this petition also failed.
In 1859, she was finally approached by Bartlett and Pennefather and was informed that she would be able to buy her land after all, if she followed the conditions of sale, including the condition that she re-pay the first installments for each lot, which she refused to do. Another condition of purchase was to give up her annuities and thus give up her birthright of being Indian. so again she refused. Her remarks made in 1861 were "I am Indian; and the blood of my forefathers runs through my veins and I am not ashamed to own it; for my forefathers were a noble race before the pale-faces came to possess their lands and homes”. She refused to dishonor her ancestors and leave her children without a home.
Abner Elliot and David Sawyer, also petitioned the Government, but were not given this same right to purchase their land. This unfortunately caused bad feelings towards the Suttons.
England.
In July 1859 at a general Council meeting in Rama, Catherine was appointed to go to England on the Nawash Band's behalf just as her Uncle Peter Jones had done 22 years before her. In order to raise funds for this mission, Catherine, who was expecting a child, left her home, her children and her husband. She was carrying letters of introduction from local ministers and Justices of the Peace in Owen Sound that showed her moral character 45. Off to New York she went on a speaking tour to promote Native Rights. She was well received by the public. She was interviewed and written up in many newspaper articles throughout New York State. As a result, she was able to raise enough money, and with the support of the Quakers and The Aborigine Protection Society, she was soon on her way to England aboard the steamship, Persia, armed with prestigious letters of introduction.
In England, she met Member of Parliament, John Bright, who was a Quaker. He introduced her to Robert and Christena Alsop who were also Quakers and members of the Aborigine Protection Society. Catherine was their guest while in England. On June 19, 1860, she was presented to Queen Victoria.
On June 29, 1860, Catherine wrote a letter to the son of her Uncle Rev Peter Jones, C A Jones that was reprinted in a Brantford newspaper on August 3. It reads:
The letter (dated June 28, 1860) Mrs. Christine R. Alsop received from the Duke of New Castle, confirming a date and time for Catherine's appointment was also reprinted in this Brantford newspaper. It reads:
The letter to her Uncle and Grandfather goes on to say:
The Queen promised to look into her concerns and requested the Duke of New Castle to investigate matters during his up-and-coming trip to Canada.
It became very evident, that Indian Affairs wanted Catherine to be silent. A letter written by Bartlett to Jones of Cape Croker says, “Discourage Mrs. Sutton's actions of choosing others in which she could place confidence to speak to New Castle; you must tell Indians not to listen to her." The affairs of the Indian Department had been handled by Britain, but on July 1, 1860, Britain handed over the responsibility to the new Provincial Parliament of Canada, the very people who had everything to gain by not looking into the problem.
Manatoulin Treaty.
Catherine and William were devastated. By 1861 the Indian Department began negotiating the Manatoulin Treaty for white settlers. Manitoulin Island had been promised in 1836 to remain forever in the hands of the Native people. Catherine again stood up for Native Rights and opposed very strongly this purchase. Charles Lindsey, who was the editor of the "Toronto Leader", wrote an unfavorable racist article in his newspaper. Catherine responded with her own very powerful letter that criticized Lindsey and the government for their attempt to purchase Manitoulin Island for white settlers. She had seen this happen again and again with the Mississauga, Saugeen and Nawash.
By 1861 William, not Catherine, agreed to the conditions of sale, but he was still negotiating a reduction in price for his lots until 1871. He felt he should get the reduction that had been previously offered to his wife and his neighbors of $3.00 an acre. Catherine died on Sept 26th 1865 before these negotiations were finalized. In the end he paid $5.00 an acre. Finally, he received the deeds for Lots 32 and 33. By then he was living on Lot 33, along with Catherine's mother Mary KaKaKe and her children, Martha and Moses, whom he'd been taking care of since Mary's husband disappeared. He was also supporting his own younger children and his grandchildren by his daughter, Sophia Staves, who had died in 1875. William Sutton had a lot on his plate financially.
Burial.
Catherine was buried in her garden on Lot 34. Catherine and William's neighbor Charles Julyan recorded going to Nahnebahwequa's funeral, where at her own request, she was buried in her garden. This is substantiated in Julyan's letter to Joseph Howe in 1871. Catherine made sure she was buried on the very lot for which she had been trying to get a deed. This certainly was one way they could not remove her. One way or another she was staying.
 Catherine was laid to rest
 On the land she loved
 In the bosom of Mother Earth
 She found comfort within her
 She has become the earth.
 The spring rain falls to her
 And rises, to become clouds to rain again like tears.
 She is in the whisper of the wind in the trees
 The birds ring out her sorrow
 In cries of needed justice for her people
 The song they sing is for her children to have a home
 Catherine has a home in heaven now
 No earthly hands can sell.


Henry Beekman

Henry Beekman (January 4, 1687 – January 3, 1775) was a prominent colonial American politician and landowner.
Early life.
Beekman was born in Kingston, New York. the son of Judge Hendrick "Henry" Beekman (1652–1716) and his wife, Johanna (née de Loper) Davidson Beekman. His mother was the widow of Joris Davidson. His father served as a Justice of the Peace for Ulster County. His sister was Cornelia Beekman, who married Gilbert Livingston, a son of Robert Livingston, first Lord of Livingston Manor. Through his sister Cornelia, he was uncle to Margaret and Joanna Livingston. Margaret married Peter Stuyvesant, a great-grandson of the Peter Stuyvesant (who was the last Dutch Director-General of New Netherland) and Joanna married Pierre Van Cortlandt, the first Lieutenant Governor of the New York.
His paternal grandparents were Catalina (née de Boogh) Beekman and Wilhelmus Beekman, who served as the Governor of the Colony of Swedes and acting Mayor of New York City from 1682 to 1683 under Governor Anthony Brockholls. His uncle Gerardus Beekman was elected president of the council and acting governor of the Province of New York in 1710. His maternal grandparents were Captain Jacob de Loper and Cornelia Melyn (a daughter of Cornelius Melyn, Patroon of Staten Island).
Career.
From his father, Beekman inherited the large Beekman estate consisting of two large tracts of land in Dutchess County in the Province of New York. One in the area of Rhinebeck, New York and the other, called the "Back Lots" or Beekman Patent, in the south east corner of Dutchess County. From 1725 to 1759, he represented Dutchess County in the New York General Assembly.
Personal life.
Beekman was twice married. His first wife was Janet Livingston (1703–1724), a daughter of Robert Livingston the Younger. Together, they were the parents of:
After his first wife's death in 1724, he married Gertrude van Cortlandt (1682–1777) in 1726. Gertrude was a daughter of Stephanus Van Cortlandt, the 10th and 17th Mayor of New York City.
Beekman died in Rhinebeck, New York on January 3, 1775. His widow died two years later on March 23, 1777.
Descendants.
Through his daughter Margaret, he was a grandfather of Robert R. Livingston, the Chancellor of New York; Janet Livingston (wife of Gen. Richard Montgomery); Margaret Livingston (wife of Thomas Tillotson, an army surgeon who became New York Secretary of State); Henry Beekman Livingston, who commanded the 4th New York Regiment at the Battles of Saratoga and Monmouth and during the winter at Valley Forge and married Ann Hume Shippen, daughter of Prof. Dr. William Shippen; Catharine Livingston (who married Freeborn Garrettson); John R. Livingston, a merchant who married Margaret Sheafe and, after her death, Eliza McEvers; Gertrude Livingston (wife of Gov. Morgan Lewis); Joanna Livingston (wife of Peter R. Livingston, acting Lieutenant Governor of New York); Alida Livingston (wife of John Armstrong Jr., a U.S. Senator, U.S. Secretary of War, and U.S. Minister to France); and Edward Livingston, a U.S. Senator and U.S. Secretary of State who married Mary McEvers, the sister of Auguste Davezac.


Cattaraugus Reservation, Chautauqua County, New York

Cattaraugus Reservation is an Indian reservation of the Seneca Nation of New York, located partly in Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The population of this portion of the reservation was 38 at the 2010 census, Most of the inhabitants are of the Seneca tribe.
This part of the reservation is small. The remainder of the reservation is in Erie and Cattaraugus counties.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of 2.8 mi² (7.1 km²). 2.6 mi² (6.8 km²) of it is land and 0.1 mi² (0.4 km²) of it (5.09%) is water.
Cattaraugus Creek runs through the middle, and Lake Erie forms part of the western boundary.
Demographics.
At the 2000 census there were 23 people, 10 households, and 6 families residing in the Indian reservation. The population density was 8.8/mi² (3.4/km²). There were 12 housing units at an average density of 4.6/mi² (1.8/km²). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 26.09% White and 73.91% Native American.
Of the 10 households 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.0% were married couples living together, and 40.0% were non-families. 30.0% of households were one person and none had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.83.
The age distribution was 30.4% under the age of 18, 13.0% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 13.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% 65 or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 130.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.
The median household income was $19,286 and the median family income was $17,813. Males had a median income of $0 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $11,421. There are 42.9% of families living below the poverty line and 31.6% of the population, including 100.0% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.


Ted Russell (Canadian politician)

Ted Russell (June 27, 1904 – October 16, 1977) was a Newfoundland writer, teacher, and politician.
Biography.
The son of Edward Russell and Sarah Jane Kelly, he was born in Coley's Point, Conception Bay, Newfoundland. Russell was educated there and at Bishop Feild College. He started work as a teacher immediately after completing high school at the age of 16. After teaching in several small Newfoundland communities during the 1920s and 1930s, interspersed with stints at Memorial University College, he became a magistrate. In 1943 he became head of the government division responsible for promoting co-operatives throughout Newfoundland.
After 1949, when Newfoundland joined Canada, Russell entered politics and served for two years in Joey Smallwood's cabinet as Minister of Natural Resources, but, opposing Smallwood's industrial policies, resigned from cabinet and left politics shortly thereafter. For several years he worked as an insurance salesman, later returning to teaching at the high school and then at Memorial University of Newfoundland.
Despite having done little previous creative writing, from 1954 to 1961, Russell wrote and narrated (on CBC Radio) stories set in a fictional Newfoundland outport, Pigeon Inlet, using the persona of "Uncle Mose". These stories featured a colourful cast of characters and were told from a generally positive and optimistic, yet realistic, point of view. Many featured tall tales, but some were based on Russell's own experiences in rural Newfoundland. In addition to providing entertainment, these stories commented on issues of the day and also provided practical information to a population just beginning to deal with a profound change in its system of government.
Two volumes of these stories were published in the 1970s, and three more in the 1980s. Russell is also the author of several radio plays, the most successful of which was "The Holdin' Ground", which was adapted into a television play and continues to air irregularly on Newfoundland television station NTV as part of its "Captain Atlantis" anthology series.
Two albums were released after his death. Both were made up of stories taken from his CBC Radio programs.
The Chronicles Of Uncle Mose - 1979
Uncle Mose From Pigeon Inlet - 1981
In 2011, he was designated a "Person of Provincial Significance".
Personal life.
Russell and his wife Dora (Oake), whom he married in 1935, had five children, among them Elizabeth Miller, a scholar and academic famous for her work on Bram Stoker's Dracula and Vlad the Impaler, and Kelly Russell, a well-known Newfoundland musician.


Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsburgh Railroad

The Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsburgh Railroad is a historic railroad company that operated in Pennsylvania and New York.
Chartered in 1867, its first passenger train ran in 1871. After several mergers and name changes, it was leased to the New York Central and Hudson River RR in 1873 for a term of 501 years. It was later wholly absorbed by the New York Central. Passenger service ceased in 1937. Only a few structures built by the company are extant.
Early history.
Begun as an idea of the businessmen of Warren, Pennsylvania about 1833 to build a railway following the Conewango River valley north toward Lake Erie. The idea produced no action until 1853, when 1700 shares of stock were sold, but it wasn't until the winter of 1866 that several influential men of Chautauqua County, New York started stoking the fires of progress. By April 1867, the New York State Legislature issued a charter for the "Dunkirk, Warren & Pittsburgh Railroad Company" to sell stock, and on June 17, 1867 that actual work began. The first passenger train ran over the line on June 22, 1871, from Dunkirk, New York to at least Falconer, New York.
The Dunkirk, Allegheny (sometimes spelled "Allegany") and Pittsburgh incorporated on December 31, 1872 as a merger of the "Dunkirk Warren and Pittsburgh Railway Company," and the "Warren and Venango Railroad Company". Four days after incorporation, on January 3, 1873, the DAV&P was leased to the New York Central and Hudson River RR for a term of 501 years.
1897 Financial Statement.
"D. A. V. & P. RAILROAD COMPANY"
"Regular Annual Report to the State Railroad Commission"
"Bureau of The Journal
"467 Broadway
"Albany, Sept. 16, 1897
"The regular annual report of the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railroad company for the year ending June 10, has been filed with the state railroad commission. The report shows"
"Gross earnings: $206,851 50"
"Operating expenses: 199,105 42"
"Net earnings: 7,746 08"
"Other income: 221 25"
"Gross income: 7,967 33"
"Fixed charges: 13,307 34"
"Net deficit: 5,339 91"
"The general balance sheet shows assets of $4,577,006.67, including $4,541,486.67, for cost of road and equipment; $10,562.74 cash on hand. The liabilities include $1,300,000 capital stock; $2,900,00 funded debt and $49,628.80 profit and loss surplus."
Service history.
The DAV&P railroad connected with the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway (later a part of the New York Central System); the New York, Chicago and Saint Louis Railroad (aka "Nickel Plate") in Dunkirk; the Erie Railroad in Jamestown, New York; the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in Warren, Pennsylvania (later the Pennsylvania Railroad) and Pennsylvania Railroad in Titusville, Pennsylvania. A blueprint of the Titusville terminus in 1901 shows the DAVP main line become the Titusville, Cambridge and Lake Erie Railroad just west of the DAVP Titusville Station. Originally intended to connect Erie with the Pennsylvania oil fields, the small amount of track it laid became a siding used by the DAVP to serve the Queen City Tannery.
A 1921 list of industries served by the DAVP, shows a wide variety of products moved by the railroad, including lumber, coal, oil, ice, produce, canned goods, grains, cattle, foundry goods, chemicals, etc. Maps of each station and siding in 1901 were posted to the internet as of 2014.
At some point, the DAV&P became wholly owned by the NYC, motive power bore the NYC logo, and as of 1968, Penn Central, though the line was still known as the "DAV&P", or "Dolly Varden", or "Valley Branch".
Except for a brief revival during WWII, regular passenger service was dropped in 1937. Freight traffic continued along the length of the line through 1972 when the rail line was abandoned from Cassadaga, New York to Falconer, New York due to a bridge washout just west of the village of Sinclairville, New York in the wake of Hurricane Agnes. Thereafter, Penn Central ran weekly turns between Warren and Falconer.
With the formation of Conrail, service was further cut from North Warren to Falconer. Service to North Warren ended in the early '90s
Most rails were removed from the line in the late 1970s. A few small portions of the line still exist, including a short spur off the Dunkirk mainline of the former Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway / NYC (Penn Central/Conrail, now CSX) to Fredonia to serve the former Red Wing (?-1999) / Carriage House Foods (1999-2010) / ConAgra (2010–2015) manufacturing plant just north of U.S. Route 20 in Fredonia, as well as a small spur less than a mile long to serve a plastics company in Warren, Pennsylvania. An additional active segment is operated by the Oil Creek & Titusville Railroad from the former PRR-DAVP junction near the Pennsylvania Railroad station in Titusville to an industrial customer just east of the Route 27 crossing.
The DAV&P Fredonia Depot and freight house sit just south of Route 20, but are suffering from neglect, the freight house being in better shape, having been used as a warehouse for a few years by a local business. North Warren Station (Pennsylvania) along the east side of U.S. Route 62, just north of the City of Warren, was a restaurant as of the spring of 2018. Two smaller stations which were once the stations for Cassadaga and Lily Dale are now combined to be one building, hardly recognizable, in Cassadaga, New York, part of a campground. The former DAVP freight station stands in good condition (2018) in Warren, Pennsylvania as well, though a freight station in Falconer, New York was torn down in 2006.


Jacob Coenraedt Ten Eyck

Jacob Coenraedt Ten Eyck (April 1705 in Albany, Albany County, New York – September 9, 1793 in Albany, Albany County, New York) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.
Early life.
Jacob Coenraedt Ten Eyck was born in April 1705 in Albany, New York. He was one of ten children born to Coenradt Ten Eyck (1678–1753), a silversmith, and Gerritje Van Schaick (b. 1687). His siblings included Barent Ten Eyck (1714–1795), Anna Margarita Ten Eyck (1721–1802), who married John Barclay, also a Mayor of Albany, Gerritje Ten Eyck (1728–1782), who married Pieter Gansevoort (1725–1809), a grandson of Harmen Harmense Gansevoort.
His maternal grandparents were Anthony Van Schaick (1655–1737) and Maria (née Vanderpoel) Van Schaick. His paternal grandparents were Jacob Coenraedtsen Ten Eyck (1647–1693), a shoemaker who was born in the Netherlands, and Geertruy Coeymans. They moved to Albany sometime after 1664 and established the Ten Eyck family in the Albany region.
Career.
At age fifteen, he went to New York to apprentice with Charles LeRoux (1689–1745), a prominent silversmith and engraver. While in New York, Ten Eyck learned his craft and began to work with gold. By 1736, Ten Eyck had returned to Albany and married.
In Albany, Ten Eyck served as constable and firemaster before winning election to the City Council as an assistant in 1734. In 1741, he was elected Alderman for the First Ward, holding that position for several years. In 1747, he was appointed Sheriff of Albany County.
In 1748, he was named Mayor of Albany and served for two years, succeeding Dirck Ten Broeck (1686–1751), who was married to Margarita Cuyler, his wife's sister. Following his term as mayor, he was again elected Alderman in 1750 for the Second Ward, serving until 1762. Ten Eyck also served three years as an Albany commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1752 and 1754.
During the Revolutionary War, he was a member of Albany’s Committee of Safety.
Personal life.
On August 17, 1736, he married Catharine Cuyler (1709–1790), the daughter of Abraham Cuyler (c. 1663–1747), Albany commissioner of Indian Affairs, and Catharina (née Bleecker) Cuyler (1670–1734). Together, they were the parents of four children baptized between 1741 and 1749 in the Albany Dutch Church where they were members. Their children were:
Ten Eyck was one of the wealthiest Albany businessmen with his property regularly assessed around the top of all households. He died on September 9, 1793 in Albany, New York. He was buried at the Albany Rural Cemetery.
Descendants.
His grandchildren through his son Anthony included U.S. Representative Egbert Ten Eyck (1779–1844), Anthony Ten Eyck (1784–1859), Jacob A. Ten Eyck (1781–1859), Coenraad Anthony Ten Eyck (1789–1845), Sheriff of Albany County.
His grandchildren through his son Abraham include Jacob Ten Eyck (1772–1862), a member of the New York State Assembly, Catherine Ten Eyck (1769–1850), who married Sanders Lansing (1766–1850), brother of Abraham G. Lansing, the New York State Treasurer, and John Lansing, Jr., Chancellor of New York. Through Catherine, he was the great-grandfather of Robert Lansing (1799–1878), a New York State Senator and the 3x-great grandfather of U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing (1864–1928).


Janet Morison Miller

Janet Morison Miller (1891–1946) was the first woman entered on the rolls on the Newfoundland Law Society, in the Dominion of Newfoundland, United Kingdom.
Early life.
The youngest daughter of Lewis Miller and Mary Morison, Miller was born in St. John's, Newfoundland on November 12, 1891. She attended Bishop Spencer College, St. John's, where she won the Lord Bishop's Scripture prize and was runner up for the Jubilee Scholarship. Miller studied law in the office of her uncle, Donald Morison, who was Newfoundland's attorney general. In 1910, she petitioned the Law Society to be examined, but the Law Society refused on the grounds that membership was restricted to men.
Law society.
At the next annual general meeting of the society, Morison put forward a motion requesting that women be allowed to join the society. His request was refused. However, as an influential member of government, he convinced cabinet to amend the Law Society Act in 1911 to give women the legal right to become members of the legal profession in Newfoundland. In 1913 Miller became a law student in her uncle's firm.
In Scotland.
In 1915, after the start of World War I, Janet and her mother moved to Scotland, where Janet's fiancé, Eric Ayre, was stationed with the Newfoundland Regiment. Janet and Eric were married in Edinburgh on June 19, 1915. A little more than a year later, Eric was killed at Beaumont-Hamel.
In England.
After Eric's death, Janet, together with her mother and her mother-in-law, Janet moved to the south of England. She served with the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) of the British Red Cross in the 1st Berkshire Association and also trained as an ambulance driver.
In Newfoundland.
After the war, she returned to Newfoundland, but did not return to study law. Instead, she joined her sister, Agnes Miller Ayre, to become a leading player in the suffragette movement in the early 1920s, helping to win Newfoundland women the right to vote. She helped found the Child Welfare League the Art Society and NONIA. On April 30, 1924, she married Andrew H. Murray, a St. John's businessman, and they had one daughter. Janet died at St. John's on April 5, 1946 after a short illness.
Posthumous recognition.
On October 14, 2016, Janet became an honorary lawyer, along with four members of the Newfoundland Regiment who died in World War I. Law certificates bearing their names were displayed to the court alongside five of their modern-day counterparts.


George Byron, 7th Baron Byron

Admiral George Anson Byron, 7th Baron Byron (8 March 1789 – 1 March 1868) was a British nobleman, naval officer, peer, politician, and the seventh Baron Byron, in 1824 succeeding his cousin the poet George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron in that peerage. As a career naval officer, he was notable for being his predecessor's opposite in temperament and lifestyle.
Parentage and ménage.
He was the only son of Honorable George Anson Byron and Charlotte Henrietta Dallas, and grandson of the admiral and explorer The Hon. John Byron, who circumnavigated the world with George Anson in 1740–44.
He married Elizabeth Mary Chandos Pole on 18 March 1816. She was the daughter of Sacheverell Pole Esq., of Radbourne Hall, b. 16 June 1769. During this man's lifetime, he became of representative of Sir John Chandos, K.G., and by sign manual, or deed poll assumed the additional surname of Chandos. Elizabeth was descended from a well documented long line of the Pole family, including Cardinal Pole, who at the time of Henry VIII, was the last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury and the son of the last Yorkist heiress, Margaret, countess of Salisbury. Elizabeth's mother, Mary, was the daughter of the Rev. Henry Ware, D.D., Rector of Balrothey. The couple had seven children:
Naval career.
Byron joined the Royal Navy as a volunteer in December 1800, serving in the Napoleonic Wars, and attaining the rank of captain in 1814. In 1824 Byron was chosen to accompany homewards the bodies of Hawaiian monarchs Liholiho (known as King Kamehameha II) and Queen Kamāmalu, who had died of measles during a state visit to England. He sailed on in September 1824, accompanied by several naturalists and, amongst his lieutenants, Edward Belcher.
He toured the islands and recorded his observations. With the consent of Christian missionaries to the islands, he also removed wooden carvings and other artifacts of the chiefs of ancient Hawaii from the temple ruins of Puuhonua O Hōnaunau.
On his return journey in 1825, Lord Byron discovered and charted Malden Island, which he named after his surveying officer; also the island of Mauke which he named "Parry Island" in honour of Sir William Edward Parry, and Starbuck Island. Starbuck was named in honour of Capt. Valentine Starbuck, an American whaler who had sighted the island while carrying the Hawaiian royal couple to England in 1823–1824, but had probably been previously sighted by his cousin and fellow-whaler Capt. Obed Starbuck in 1823. Malden may have been the island sighted by another whaling captain William Clark in 1823, aboard the "Winslow".
Byron became a rear-admiral in 1849 and a vice-admiral in 1857. Byron retired as admiral in 1862.


Aquinnah, Massachusetts

Aquinnah is a town located on the western-end of Martha's Vineyard island, Massachusetts. From 1870 to 1997, the town was incorporated as Gay Head. In the 2010 U.S. census, the population was 311. Aquinnah is known for its beautiful clay cliffs and natural serenity, as well as its historical importance to the native Wampanoag people. In 1965, Gay Head Cliffs were designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.
Aquinnah is celebrated as a center of Wampanoag culture and a center of pride and tradition among members of the federally recognized Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head. They make up about one-third of the town's voters and are one of two federally recognized tribes of Wampanoag people in Massachusetts. This area is one of the earliest sites of whaling. The Wampanoag harvested whales from small boats and the shore, using harpoons, long before the 19th-century industry of whaling became the major maritime industry of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, and New Bedford, Massachusetts.
History.
Before the arrival of English colonists, Martha's Vineyard and Aquinnah were inhabited by the Wampanoag, a Native American people, related to the larger Algonquin Nation of Southern New England. Historically they spoke an Algonquian language, part of a large language family that extended down the Atlantic Coast. Based on archeological testing, scientists estimate the earliest signs of human occupation in what is now Aquinnah date back 10,000 to 7,500 years.
The Wampanoag have a separate history; their creation myth tells that their ancestors reached the island after traveling on an ice floe from the far North. They sided with the English settlers in King Philip's War. They performed whaling from small boats. The character Tashtego in Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick" is a Native American harpooner from Aquinnah.
This area was first settled by English colonists in 1669. Later colonists officially divided the town of Aquinnah from Chilmark and incorporated it in 1870 as Gay Head, Massachusetts. Gay Head was a descriptive name referring to the brilliant colors of the cliffs and was frequently noted on lists of unusual place names.
In 1997, by popular vote of 79 to 21, the town changed its name to "Aquinnah," Wampanoag for "land under the hill." Throughout the town's history, a Wampanoag community has been among its residents. The people gained federal recognition as the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head in 1987 and controls sovereign tribal lands within the town boundaries.
In 2015, erosion at the town's western end led to a $3.5 million, 129 feet (39 m) move of its prominent, red brick Gay Head Light..
In February 2019, the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head announced it will begin construction of the Aquinnah Cliffs Casino in March 2019. The tribe is scheduled to proceed with construction despite opposition from the towns of Aquinnah and Chilmark, and a request from the Martha's Vineyard Commission for the Wampanoag tribe to work with the commission to "preserve the unique values of the Vineyard." The Wampanoag tribe says the commission has no jurisdiction over the project.
During the Island's earliest tourist booms of the late 19th century, ferries brought tourists directly to the Cliff's shores. Today, there is no direct transit between Aquinnah and the mainland. Visitors to the island use commercial planes serving Martha's Vineyard Airport, located in nearby West Tisbury, while others travel by car and ferry.
Moshup's Beach.
At the foot of the cliffs is Moshup's Beach, named after a great Aquinnah Wampanoag sachem who is said to have been at least partially responsible for many of the features of the island's physical landscape. The ocean is a rare aqua color here, with wave heights that are above average for the area. The water sometimes takes on a red, white or grayish tinge resulting from clay eroding from the cliffs above.
Protection of the cliffs is aggressively enforced by ATV patrols conducted by police and Wampanoag Conservation Rangers, who explain to visitors about the importance of the cliffs to the tribe. Under Massachusetts General Law Ch 272 Sec 59, a person may be fined or arrested for disturbing the clay.
Though not officially designated a "nude beach," nudity is tolerated on Aquinnah Beach several hundred yards northwest of the footpath. The beach has a long history of attracting nude sunbathers who delighted in "clay baths," the baths of which are now strictly prohibited.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and (86.85%) is water. Aquinnah ranks 334th in area out of 351 communities in the Commonwealth, and is the smallest town by land area on the Vineyard. To the north and northwest is the Vineyard Sound and Devil's Bridge an underwater rock reef most noted for causing the wreck of the City of Columbus in 1884. To the east is the town of Chilmark, its only land border. To the south and west is the Atlantic Ocean. Within viewing distance to the west is the chain of Elizabeth Islands and Nomans Land.
Aquinnah is separated from the town of Chilmark by Menemsha Bight, Menemsha Pond, and Squibnocket Pond. The only road into Aquinnah lies between the ponds. (Squibnocket Beach, which lies between the ocean and Squibnocket Pond, also connects to the town, but is often washed out during storms. No road crosses it.) Squibnocket Point, just east of this beach, is the southernmost point on Martha's Vineyard. Aquinnah has four accessible beaches for residents and the public: Philbin and Moshup (public) Beaches off Moshup Trail; Lobsterville Beach on the northern shore at Dogfish Bar, and Red Beach on Menemsha Pond. Other stretches of beach remain under private ownership.
Aside from Aquinnah's famed clay cliffs, the landscape is noted for its rolling terrain, coastal heathlands, deciduous woods, high sand dunes and beach roses. At the 'head' of the island is the Aquinnah Headlands Preserve which provides sweeping coastal views for walkers.
Aquinnah's geography also lends itself to outdoor activities including surf fishing at Lobsterville Beach and Dog Fish Bar, surfing off the beaches of Moshup Trail, and jogging and cycling the State Road and Moshup Trail loop.
Aquinnah is rare in that it is one of the few western-facing coastlines on the east coast. Even so, it still faces the challenge of coastal erosion like the rest of Martha's Vineyard, Chappaquiddick, and nearby Nantucket. Dunes are fortified with healthy grasses but the southwest shoreline has faced an annual reduction in its beaches for decades. The cliffs have also faced higher and stronger seas, leading to a 129 foot inland move of the Gay Head Lighthouse in 2015.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 344 people, 141 households, and 88 families residing in the town. The population density was 64.1 people per square mile (24.8/km). There were 463 housing units at an average density of 86.3 per square mile (33.4/km). The racial makeup of the town was 53.49% White, 0.29% African American, 36.63% Native American, 0.87% from other races, and 8.72% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.16% of the population.
There were 141 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.9% were non-families. 30.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $45,208, and the median income for a family was $46,458. Males had a median income of $37,917 versus $26,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,420. About 8.6% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.0% of those under age 18 and 14.3% of those age 65 or over.
Government.
On the national level, Aquinnah is a part of Massachusetts's 9th congressional district, and is represented by William Keating. The state's senior member of the United States Senate is Elizabeth Warren. The junior Senator is Ed Markey.
On the state level, Aquinnah is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket district, which includes all of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, as well as a portion of Falmouth. The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a portion of the Cape and Islands district, which includes all of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and most of Barnstable County (with the exception of the Towns of Bourne, Sandwich, and Falmouth). All of Dukes County is patrolled by the Fifth (Oak Bluffs) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police.
Aquinnah is governed on the local level by the open town meeting form of government. It is led by an executive secretary and an elected board of selectmen. The town operates its own police and fire departments, near the Town Hall at the town center. The Aquinnah Public Library, a former one-room schoolhouse of less than , is also nearby. The nearest post office is located away in Chilmark.
In 2001, Aquinnah passed a bylaw requiring archaeological reviews of proposed building sites due to the 10 millennia of Wampanoag history in the town. This bylaw has unearthed scores of significant discoveries.
Education.
Aquinnah is served by Martha's Vineyard Regional School District. Chilmark Elementary School and Up-Island School in West Tisbury, serve the town's elementary and middle–school students. Martha's Vineyard Regional High School, located in Oak Bluffs, serves the entire island's high–school population. MVRHS's teams are nicknamed the Vineyarders, and their colors are purple and white. The school has a longstanding rivalry with Nantucket High School, and the annual Island Cup between the football teams attracts a strong following.


Ellen Maria Colfax

Ellen Maria Wade Colfax (July 26, 1836 – March 4, 1911) was the second wife of Schuyler Colfax, who became the first House Speaker to be elected Vice President when he ran on a ticket headed by Ulysses S. Grant in 1868. She was born in Andover, Ohio in 1836.
On November 18, 1868, just two weeks after the election, Ellen Maria Wade married the man who had defeated her uncle, Senator Benjamin Franklin Wade of Ohio, in the race for the Republican vice presidential nomination. They had one son, Schuyler Colfax III, in April 1870.
Her husband, Schuyler Colfax was inaugurated as the 17th Vice President on March 4, 1869, and served until March 4, 1873. Likewise, Ellen Maria Colfax became the Second Lady of the United States.
She died at her home in South Bend, Indiana in 1911 after a period of poor health, on the 42nd anniversary of her husband's assumption of the vice-presidency. She was survived by her son Schuyler Colfax III. Her funeral was held March 7, 1911 at the Colfax home, and she was buried next to her husband.


George A. Gordon

George A. Gordon (November 19, 1885 – May 11, 1959) was an American attorney and diplomat who served as United States Ambassador to Haiti and as United States Ambassador to the Netherlands.
Life and career.
George Anderson Gordon was born in Huntsville, Alabama on November 19, 1885. He was the son of Percy Gordon, son of George Anderson Gordon, and Nancy Reed French.
He graduated from Harvard University in 1906 and taught at St. Paul's School until 1909. In 1912 he received his law degree from Columbia University School of Law, and he became an attorney in New York City.
In 1916 Gordon joined the United States Army and served in the Pancho Villa Expedition. During World War I he was assigned as a Captain in France, and after the war he served on the staff that supported the U.S. commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Versailles.
Gordon became a career foreign service employee in 1920, and served at embassies in Paris, Budapest, Berlin, and Rio de Janeiro. In 1930 he married Alice Vandergrift Garrett.
In 1935 he was appointed as Ambassador to Haiti, where he served until 1937.
In 1937 he became Ambassador to the Netherlands, serving until the Nazi invasion in 1940, after which he closed down the embassy and departed.
Upon returning to the United States Gordon spent the rest of World War II working on foreign policy issues at the State Department, including reorganization and formal re-recognition of Czechoslovakia following its occupation by the Nazis. He retired in 1945.
Gordon died in New York City on May 11, 1959.


Dixie, Grant County, Oregon

Dixie is an unincorporated historic community in Grant County, Oregon, United States. It was a station on the Sumpter Valley Railway near Dixie Summit. The station was named for Dixie Creek, a tributary of the John Day River near Prairie City. The creek was named for the many gold miners from the U.S. South (nicknamed "Dixie") who worked claims on the creek.


Carrie Cornplanter

Carrie Cornplanter (1887–1918) was a Native American artist of the Seneca tribe.
Little is recorded of Cornplanter's life save that she was the elder sister of Jesse Cornplanter, had a sister named Anna, and had children of her own, and that her native name was "dédon". The three were descendants of Chief Cornplanter and the daughters of Edward Cornplanter. Carrie's paintings are among the earliest known by an American Indian woman to depict traditional aspects of native life. Most were created during the last decade of the 19th century or the first decade of the 20th, and she was thus at a relatively young age when she made the paintings. One such work, "Indian Squaws Pounding Corn", is owned by the National Museum of the American Indian. Dating to around 1900, it was donated to the museum in 1922 by Joseph W. Keppler, a friend of the principal benefactor of the museum George Gustav Heye. Keppler likely purchased the piece directly from the artist or from a member of her family.
Carrie died in the 1918 flu pandemic. Her sister Anna and two of Carrie's daughters were the only members of the family other than Jesse to survive; the children were left destitute by the loss of their mother and were placed in Jesse's care when he returned home from Europe.


Wagon Box Fight

The Wagon Box Fight was an engagement on August 2, 1867, in the vicinity of Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, during Red Cloud's War. A party of 26 US Army soldiers and 6 civilians were attacked by several hundred Lakota Sioux warriors. Although outnumbered, the soldiers were armed with newly supplied breech-loading Springfield Model 1866 rifles and lever-action Henry rifles, and had a defensive wall of wagon boxes to protect them. They held off the attackers for hours with few casualties, although they lost a large number of horses and mules driven off by the raiders.
This was the last major engagement of the war, although Lakota and allied forces continued to raid European-American parties along the Bozeman Trail. The area has been designated as a Wyoming State Historic Site and is marked by a memorial and an historic plaque.
Background.
In July 1867, after their annual sun dance at camps on the Tongue and Rosebud rivers, Oglala Lakota warriors under Red Cloud, other bands of Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and a few Arapaho resolved to attack the soldiers at nearby Fort C.F. Smith and Fort Phil Kearny. These would be the first major military actions of 1867 against government forces in the area, following up the Native American successes in 1866, including the Fetterman Fight. Unable to agree where to attack first, the Sioux and Cheyenne force — variously estimated at between 300 and 1,000 men — split into two large bodies, moving against Fort C.F. Smith, and a similar number, mostly Sioux and possibly including Red Cloud, headed toward Fort Phil Kearny.
In addition to guarding emigrants on the Bozeman Trail, major tasks occupying the 350 soldiers and 100 civilians at Fort Phil Kearny included gathering wood and timber from a pine forest about five miles from the Fort and cutting hay for livestock in prairie areas. These jobs were performed by civilian contractors, usually armed with Spencer repeating rifles and accompanied and guarded by squads of soldiers. The hay cutters and wood gatherers had been a favorite target of the local Indian warriors since Fort Kearny was established one year earlier. The Indians had conducted dozens of small raids, killing several dozen soldiers and civilians, and driving off hundreds of head of livestock for their own use.
The soldiers were on the defensive, suffering a lack of horses and trained cavalrymen, and limited by their old weapons, muzzle-loading Springfield Model 1861 muskets. But, the soldiers had recently been issued breech-loading rifles that could fire about three times faster than muzzle-loaders and could be more easily re-loaded from a prone position.
The native population were poorly armed, probably possessing only about 200 firearms and fewer than two bullets per gun. Bows and arrows were their basic weapon. While the Indians used these effectively at short range in a fight against a mobile opponent, whether on horseback or on foot, they were ineffective weapons against a well entrenched or fortified enemy.
To protect against raids near the pine forest, the civilian contractors had constructed a corral. It consisted of 14 wooden bodies of wagons, which were removed from the chassis and placed on the ground in an oval long and wide. Both soldiers and civilians in the wood-cutting details lived in tents outside the corral of wagon boxes but could retreat to it for defense. On July 31, Captain James Powell and his command of 51 troops departed the walls of Fort Kearny on a 30-day assignment to guard the wood cutters. Until then, the summer had been quiet, with few hostile encounters with the local Native Americans.,
The fight.
On the morning of August 2, Captain Powell's force was divided. Fourteen soldiers were detailed to escort the wood train to and from the fort; 13 soldiers guarded the wood-cutting camp, about one mile from the wagon box corral. The Indian plan of attack on the woodcutters and soldiers was tried-and-true, similar to the plan used the previous year to kill Fetterman's force, a total of 81 lost. A small group of Indians would entice the soldiers to chase them, leading the men into an ambush by a larger hidden force. Crazy Horse was among the members of the decoy team.
The plan broke down when a number of fighters attacked an outlying camp of four woodcutters and four soldiers, killing three of the soldiers. The other soldier and the woodcutters escaped and warned the soldiers near the corral. The pursuing force halted at the woodcutter's camp to loot and seize the large number of horses and mules there, which gave the soldiers taking refuge in the corral time to prepare for the attack. There were 26 soldiers and six civilians in the corral.
The first assault on the wagon box corral came from mounted warriors from the southwest, but the raiders encountered heavy fire from the soldiers using the new breech-loaders. The attackers withdrew, regrouped, and launched several further attacks on foot. They killed Powell's second-in-command, Lt. Jenness, and two soldiers. The battle continued from about 7:30 a.m. until 1:30 pm. The defenders had plenty of ammunition, and were well-defended from arrows behind the thick sides of the wagon boxes.
The garrison at Fort Kearny learned of the fight from its observation station on Pilot Hill. About 11:30 a.m., Major Benjamin Smith led 103 soldiers out of the fort to the wood camp to relieve the soldiers in the wagon boxes. Smith took with him 10 wagons, driven by armed civilians, and a mountain howitzer. He proceeded carefully and, when he neared the wagon box corral, began firing his cannon at long range. The attackers were forced to withdraw. Smith advanced without opposition to the corral, collected the soldiers, and returned quickly to Fort Kearny. Additional civilian survivors, who had hidden in the woods during the battle, made it back to the fort that night.
Aftermath.
The Wagon Box Fight is prominent in the folklore and literature of the Old West as an example of a small group of well-equipped professionals holding off a much larger but poorly equipped force. The new, faster-shooting rifles are cited as the principal reason for their success.
Estimates of casualties among the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors range from "an unlikely low of two to an absurd fifteen hundred." Captain Powell estimated that his men killed 60, a "wildly exaggerated" estimate in the opinion of historian Keenan.
The Wagon Box Fight was the last major engagement of Red Cloud's War. Possibly the results of this battle, and the similar Hayfield Fight near Fort C.F. Smith a day earlier, discouraged the native warriors from attempting additional large-scale attacks against government forces. "This was the last large charge Crazy Horse ever led against whites occupying a strong defensive position. He had learned that Indians with bows and arrows could not overwhelm whites armed with breech-loaders inside a fortification." For the remainder of 1867, the Lakota and their allies concentrated on small-scale, hit-and-run raids against parties along the Bozeman Trail.

Al-Zafir

Abu Mansur Isma'il al-Zafir bi-Amr Allah, February 1133 – April 1154), was the twelfth Fatimid caliph, reigning in Egypt from 1149 to 1154, and the 23rd imam of the Hafizi Ismaili sect.
Life.
The future al-Zafir was born in late February 1133 as the fifth son of the eleventh Fatimid imam-caliph, al-Hafiz li-Din Allah (). As all his older brothers predeceased their father, al-Zafir was appointed heir-apparent. Al-Zafir was proclaimed caliph immediately after his father's death, on 10 October 1149.
To calm the rival military factions of the Turks and Black Africans, who were clashing in the streets of Cairo, a generous donative was distributed and promises were made to look after them. The situation was brought under control in November, when the vizier, Ibn Masal, executed the faction leaders. Al-Zafir then turned to the pleasures of his harem, but a revolt by the governor of Alexandria, Ibn al-Sallar, overthrew Ibn Masal. After being recognized as vizier by the caliph, Ibn al-Sallar had his predecessor executed.
The imam-caliph al-Zafir was murdered by his vizier, Abbas ibn Abi al-Futuh and his son Nasr, who succeeded Ibn al-Sallar. Al-Zafir never exercised power in his own right, with his viziers exercising real power. Instead of devoting himself to the administration, al-Zafir exceedingly inclined to a life of pleasure. He was murdered at the age of 21 years in 1154 and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, al-Faiz.


Badr al-Din Tabrizi

Badr al-Din Tabrizi (fl. 1250–1275) was an Iranian architect and scholar in medieval Anatolia. He is credited with the creation of the tomb of Rumi in Konya.
In all likelihood, like other Iranian craftsmen and scholars, Bad al-Din Tabrizi had come to Anatolia in order to seek safety after the Mongol invasion of Iran in the mid thirteenth century. According to the "Manāqeb al-ʿārefīn", a contemporary source written by Shams al-Din Ahmad Aflaki, Badr al-Din Tabrizi also had knowledge of numerous other matters, including "astrology, mathematics, geometry, spells and magic, alchemy, philosophy, and the cultivation of citrus". Aflaki, himself a disciple of Rumi, praised Badr al-Din Tabrizi as "the second Socrates and Greek Plato".


Runfire Cappadocia Ultramarathon

Runfire Cappadocia Ultramarathon, shortly RFC, () is an international multiday ultramarathon event of desert concept that takes place mostly across the historic Cappadocia region in central Turkey. The event is run in the provinces Nevşehir and Aksaray in six days. The Runfire Cappadocia Ultramarathon was established in 2012 taking place on July 7–15. It is considered a race of high-degree difficulty. The event is organized by Argos Culture & Arts.
The route starts in front of the Uçhisar Town Hall in Nevşehir. Following the Valley of Pigeons (Güvercinlik Vadisi), Ortahisar, Acıgöl, Damsa Dam, Analipsis Monastery (Yüksekli Kilise), Güzelyurt, Avanos, Ihlara Valley, Mount Hasan and around Lake Tuz before crossing through Çavuşin and the Ürgüp and Göreme valleys, the marathon ends in Üçhisar, where it started. The longest daily stage is on salt flats around Lake Tuz with . The route features elevations between , valleys, salt lake flats, spectacular rock formations and UNESCO World Heritage sites as well as cave churches and galleries, historic underground cities that made Cappadocia a world-famous tourism destination.
The event is accredited by Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc, one of the world’s most prestigious marathons. Finishers are awarded four points, which entitle them to participate at the world’s major ultramarathons. The International Association of Ultrarunners (IAU) included the RFC in its competition calendar, and titled it a bronze-label event in 2013.
At the first race in 2012, some 60 local and foreign athletes of both gender took part, among them ultra runners from Denmark, France, Italy, Russia and South Africa.
Winners.
Key:


Battle of the Litani River

The Battle of the Litani River (9 June 1941) was a battle of the Second World War that took place on the advance to Beirut during the Syria-Lebanon campaign. The Australian 7th Division, commanded by Major-General John Lavarack, crossed the Litani River and later clashed with Vichy French troops.
Battle.
During the first hour of 8 June 1941, as part of Operation Exporter, Australian forces in northern Palestine crossed the border into southern Lebanon. Initial resistance from Vichy forces south of the Litani River was scattered and generally disorganised.
The 21st Australian Brigade advanced along the coast road heading for Beirut and attempted to cross the Litani River. A surprise night time landing by the British No. 11 (Scottish) Commando, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel R.L. Pedder (Highland Light Infantry), was attempted in order to seize the bridge near the mouth of the river, but was delayed by rough seas on the proposed landing beach. This gave the Vichy French defenders enough time to destroy the bridge. When the commandos eventually landed in daylight, in three separate places, the initial landing was almost unopposed due to the defenders being in combat against the Australian troops, subsequently in the fighting they took heavy casualties, among them Pedder, who was killed in an assault on the French barracks. He was succeeded in command by Geoffrey Keyes, whose party was ultimately able to secure the crossing by getting over the river in canvas boats with the help of some of the Australian troops.
A Vichy counterattack using armoured cars was driven off. A pontoon bridge was quickly completed. The Australians came under inaccurate fire from two Vichy French destroyers, the "Guépard" and the "Valmy". Australian artillery had to drive off the warships which had come close inshore to shell the advancing troops.
Aftermath.
Following the fighting around the Litani, the 21st Brigade advanced north towards Tyre, as part of the wider move towards Beirut. From Tyre, several minor actions were fought as part of the drive to capture Sidon, which fell on 13 June. Further inland, on the 21st Brigade's right flank, the 25th Brigade advanced towards Merdjayoun, which was temporarily secured on 11 June. A small force from the 25th was subsequently left to hold Merdjayoun, while the remainder was sent north to capture Jezzine, which also fell on 13 June. However, on 15 June, a heavy counterattack fell on Merdjayoun, and heavy fighting followed until 27 June.