Welsh surnames

Fixed surnames were adopted in Wales from the 15th century onwards. Until then, the Welsh had a patronymic naming system.
History.
In 1292, 48 per cent of Welsh names were patronymics and, in some parishes, over 70 per cent. Other names were derived from nicknames, a few non-hereditary personal names and, rarely, occupational names.
Patronymic names changed from generation to generation, with a person's baptismal name being linked by "ap", "ab" (son of) or "ferch" (daughter of) to the father's baptismal name. For example, Evan, son of Thomas, would be known as Evan (ap) Thomas; Evan's son, John, would be John (ab) Evan; and John's son Rees would be Rees (ap) John.
Patronymics could be extended with names of grandfathers and earlier ancestors, to perhaps the seventh generation. Names such as Llewelyn ap Dafydd ab Ieuan ap Gruffudd ap Meredydd were not uncommon. Those extended patronymics were essentially a genealogical history of the male line. The "Encyclopaedia of Wales" surmises that the system may have been Welsh law, in which it was essential for people to know how people were descended from an ancestor. These laws were decaying by the later Middle Ages, and the patronymic system was gradually replaced by fixed surnames, although the use of patronymic names continued up until the early 19th century in some rural areas.
In the reign of Henry VIII surnames became hereditary amongst the Welsh gentry, and the custom spread slowly amongst commoners. Areas where England's influence was strong had abandoned patronymics earlier, as did town families and the wealthy.
New surnames retained the "ap" in several cases, mainly in reduced form at the start of the surname, as in Upjohn (from ap John), Powell (from ap Hywel), Price (from ap Rhys), Pritchard (from ap Richard), and Bowen (from ab Owen). Alternatively, the "ap" was simply dropped entirely.
The most common surnames in modern Wales result from adding an "s" to the end of the name, as in Jones, Roberts and Edwards. Patronymic surnames with the short "-s" form are recorded in various parts of England dating back to the Middle Ages. As most Welsh surnames are derived from patronymics and often based on a small set of first names, Welsh communities have families bearing the same surnames who are not related. It cannot be assumed that two people named Jones, even in the same village, must have inherited the surname from a common ancestor.
Present day.
The stock of Welsh surnames is small. This is partly attributable to the reduction in the variety of baptismal names after the Protestant Reformation. Typical Welsh surnames – Evans, Jones, Williams, Davies, Thomas – were found in the top ten surnames recorded in England and Wales in 2000.
An analysis of the geography of Welsh surnames commissioned by the Welsh Government found that 718,000 people in Wales, nearly 35% of the Welsh population, have a family name of Welsh origin, compared with 5.3% in the rest of the United Kingdom, 4.7% in New Zealand, 4.1% in Australia, and 3.8% in the United States. A total of 16.3 million people in the countries studied had a name of Welsh origin.
It is not uncommon for five or more of the starting fifteen for the Wales international rugby team to be named Jones (all of the following played in the same period and are not immediately related to any of the others: Adam R. Jones, Dafydd Jones, Ryan Jones, Stephen Jones, Mark Jones, Adam M. Jones, Alun Wyn Jones, Duncan Jones).
The prevalence of names such as Jones, Williams and Thomas brought a need for further distinction and in the 19th century a trend started for double surnames, created by prefixing the name of a house, parish or the mother's surname, as in "Cynddylan Jones". A hyphen was sometimes later introduced, for example "Griffith-Jones".
Revival of patronymics.
Although the vast majority of Welsh surnames are family names, there has been a limited revival of patronymics in modern Wales, especially among Welsh speakers. Alternatively, given surnames are used, as in the case of the folk singer and political figure Dafydd Iwan (Dafydd Iwan Jones), opera singer Bryn Terfel (Bryn Terfel Jones), classical singer Shân Cothi, and the late actress Myfanwy Talog.


Gebroth

Gebroth is an "Ortsgemeinde" – a municipality belonging to a "Verbandsgemeinde", a kind of collective municipality – in the Bad Kreuznach district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the "Verbandsgemeinde" of Rüdesheim, whose seat is in the municipality of Rüdesheim an der Nahe. Gebroth is a state-recognized tourism community and a member of the Soonwald-Nahe Nature Park sponsorship association.
Geography.
Location.
Gebroth lies on the upper reaches of the Ellerbach in the southern Hunsrück between the Soonwald and the Gauchswald at an elevation of some 360 m above sea level. The municipal area measures 236 ha, of which 18 ha is wooded. Gebroth lies in the middle of the Soonwald-Nahe Nature Park.
Neighbouring municipalities.
Clockwise from the north, Gebroth’s neighbours are the municipalities of Spall, Allenfeld, Winterburg and Winterbach, all of which likewise lie within the Bad Kreuznach district.
History.
In 1211, Gebroth had its first documentary mention in the directory of holdings kept by Eberbach Abbey in the Rheingau when Hermann Brucho transferred to the Church land that he had acquired from two vassals from "Gebehardisrodte". It can be assumed that this swathe of land had already been settled in Roman times, bearing witness to which are several archaeological finds. An old Roman road led through the village, coming from Kreuznach and leading onwards to Trier and Simmern. Beginning in 1226, Gebroth belonged to the “Hinder” County of Sponheim and passed in 1437, together with the tradition-rich "Amt" of Winterburg, to the Margraviate of Baden. From the Reformation onwards, Gebroth was the parish seat for several surrounding municipalities. In the middle of the village, on a rocky knoll, a church was built in 1580 and was girded by a defensive wall. In 1906, this church, which had fallen into disrepair, was replaced with a new one. Next to the church stands the old rectory, which dates from 1760. Today, the parish is known as Gebroth-Winterburg, and is currently tended by a woman pastor who lives in Bockenau. Towards the end of the 16th century, there was already a school in Gebroth that was attended almost exclusively by boys. On the occasion of a visit by the then school inspector, named Jakobi, in 1592, he reported that a fine school had been established in Gebroth and that it was a joy to see it. Until 1968, the municipality had a primary one-room schoolhouse, whereafter it was dissolved. The building was then sold and torn down. Quite early on, the municipality sold its forest and grazing rights in the Soonwald to the state so that it could build its own water supply system, which with additions and renovations to some parts is still in use today. The sewer network with mechanical sewage treatment plant was built in 1960. Gebroth is nowadays linked to the Ellerbachtal sewage treatment plant. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate, Gebroth was grouped into the "Verbandsgemeinde" of Rüdesheim in 1970.
Population development.
Gebroth’s population development since Napoleonic times is shown in the table below. The figures for the years from 1871 to 1987 are drawn from census data:
Religion.
As at 30 September 2013, there are 162 full-time residents in Gebroth, and of those, 93 are Evangelical (57.407%), 39 are Catholic (24.074%), 2 (1.235%) belong to other religious groups and 28 (17.284%) either have no religion or will not reveal their religious affiliation.
Politics.
Municipal council.
The council is made up of 6 council members, who were elected by majority vote at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
Mayor.
Gebroth’s mayor is Manfred Metzler, and his deputies are Harald Andrae and Joachim Sprenger.
Coat of arms.
The municipality’s arms might be described thus: Chequy of twenty gules and argent two hoes in saltire, the blades to chief, sable.
Culture and sightseeing.
Buildings.
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Church.
From the Reformation onwards, Gebroth was the parish seat for a number of surrounding villages. Built in 1580 on a rocky knoll in the middle of the village was a church, ringed by a defensive wall. In 1906, this old round church, which had fallen into disrepair after being damaged in a fire, was replaced with a new one.
Clubs.
The following clubs are currently active in Gebroth:
Regular events.
At the one farm in Gebroth that has given itself over to riding, a riding club has arisen, and each year there are riding and show jumping tournaments that are well known and popular far and wide.
Economy and infrastructure.
Economic structure.
Gebroth is a small municipality with fewer than 200 inhabitants. Nonetheless, it has all the necessary public institutions, although unfortunately there are no longer any shops. Villagers can be supplied with everyday needs by mobile dealers in such things as baked goods, groceries, fruits, vegetables and meat. Over the years, the municipality has undergone a shift from a purely agricultural orientation to a more residential one. There are only three farms left that are run as main sources of income, but one of these has dedicated itself wholly to equestrianism. A great number of the inhabitants who are in the workforce must commute to work each day, mostly to Bad Kreuznach or Mainz, but a few even go as far as Frankfurt.
Education.
There is no longer a school of any kind in Gebroth. The old school was dissolved in 1968. Primary school pupils now go to school in Wallhausen, as do older students, as that municipality has a Regionalschule. There are also other schools in Hargesheim and Bad Kreuznach. The kindergarten in Winterbach is also intended for children from Gebroth.
Transport.
Running through Gebroth are "Kreisstraßen" 26 and 27. These are part of a road network that links the village to main highways, but these lie quite far away, with "Bundesstraße" 41 running by some 7 km to the south and "Bundesstraße" 50 meeting the Autobahn A 61 at Rheinböllen some 13 km to the north. Serving nearby Bad Sobernheim is a railway station on the Nahe Valley Railway (Bingen–Saarbrücken).


John Childs (historian)

John Charles Roger Childs FRHS (born June 1949) is emeritus professor of military history at the University of Leeds.
Early life.
John Childs was born in June 1949. He studied at the University of Hull (BA) and at King's College London, from where he received his doctorate on the standing army of the Stuart Restoration.
Career.
Childs first worked in the defense industry before becoming Sir James Knott Research Fellow at Newcastle University. From 1976 to 2009 he taught at the University of Leeds, where he was professor of military history and head of the Center for Military History. He subsequently became Emeritus Professor.
His research interests include the history of the British Army from 1660 to 1702 (published as a trilogy), the Stuart Restoration, and European military history of the early modern period. Childs has published numerous monographs and contributions, in particular the Glorious Revolution (1688/89). He is co-author with André Corvisier of "A dictionary of military history and the art of war".
Childs is chairman of the Battlefields Panel of Historic England, chairman of the Royal Armouries Development Trust, and a former trustee of the Royal Armouries.


Lands of Blacklaw

The Lands of Blacklaw formed a small property of five merks worth, in the Lordship of Stewarton at the eastern extremity of Strathannick, between the hamlet of Kingsford in East Ayrshire and the East Renfrewshire boundary, Scotland. It was first recorded in 1484 in the Acta Auditorum. Black Law is a prominent whinstone crag lying above Blacklaw Hill Farm.
History.
The Estate and farms.
Timothy Pont described the property in the early 17th century as ""A pretty extensive range of land, now divided into several farms bearing the names of "Blacklaw", one of which is distinguished as Blacklaw-hill. It is situated in the north-east extremity of the parish of Stewarton, on the confines of Renfrewshire.""
A prominent feature is described as "On the farm called Blacklaw-hill is a mount, or small hill, of a conical shape, covered with a beautiful verdure, at the base of which are to be found some fine old trees, indicating the site of a Mansion in former times."
In 1820 the lands of Whitelaw and Blacklaw amounted to 700 acres and the proprietors "live also together in townships". The valued rent of the three properties at Blacklaw were William Gray at £62; John Brown at £62 and Thomas Wallace at £52.
Black Law has had a number of whinstone quarries for local use, such as the steadings, drystone dykes and the Old Blacklaw Bridge. A track led up from Blacklaw Hill Farm to the site.
Laird's house.
A prominent feature is described by Timothy Pont in the early 17th century "On the farm called Blacklaw-hill is a mount, or small hill, of a conical shape, covered with a beautiful verdure, at the base of which are to be found some fine old trees, indicating the site of a Mansion in former times." The small conical hill remains in situ, much as described here. Given the early seventeenth century date of Pont's survey any previous "mansion house" would date from the time where buildings would have some form of defensive fortification as in a typical Scottish tower castle. The site was once surrounded by a drystone dyke, possibly recycling stone from an old building, to exclude grazing animals and a few old beech trees remain.
The conical hill is not listed as a site of archaeological interest and appears never to have been surveyed or excavated, so no information exists as to whether it is entirely natural and if it was used as a motte, a defensive site of some sort or as a Moot Hill, Court Hill or Gallows Hill. The Lands of Blacklaw were part of the Lordship of Stewarton in 1484 and in 1685 the lands are referred to as a 'Lairdship', defined as "A barony or lordship; from an early date, the estate or territory under the jurisdiction of a laird or small baron or freeholder." A Laird's dwelling would have been one of the Blacklaw dwellings. The lands passed into the hands of the Cunninghames of Corshill until they were granted to John Brown in Gabrochhill in 1687.
Old Blacklaw Bridge.
The Annick Water lies to the south of the lands of Blacklaw with a bridge (NS465494) carrying a datestone on the upstream side with the initials 'I.Brown' and the dates 1770 and 1881 implying construction and later renovation although the style, execution and weathering of the carving on soft sandstone suggests that the dates, etc. are contemporary with each other and therefore the actual carving is no older than 1818. The 'I' stands for Iohannes which is now written as 'John' and the surname indicated the Brown family, originally of Gabrochhill where they had resided for many generations. The date '1770' has an odd first numeral shaped almost as a 'J'. The bridge is constructed of whinstone, wide enough for horse-drawn vehicles and has mostly lost its low side walls. The datestone is not located as a keystone on the arch of the bridge and therefore could have been inserted at any time, in addition, as stated, it is made of red sandstone.
The head waters of the Annick Water are comparatively shallow and, even in winter, a ford might have sufficed. Blacklaw farm tenants are shown to have had fields here as indicated by the field boundaries marked on Roy's map of 1747 and a track leads up on to Glenouther Moor where the common grazings were located and peats may have been dug. The same map shows a sheep ree on a field boundary, used as a permanent stone sheep-pen where sheep could be confined during poor weather, for shearing, etc.
The Blacklaw Lairds, tenants, etc..
In 1484 the tak of the three merks worth lands of Cockilbie and the five merks worth lands of Blacklaw were in dispute and a special writ by the king awarded the tak to "Dauid Lindissa and his spous the wif of umquhile Jenkin Stewart". David Lindsay's dispute was with John Ross of Montgreenan.
The 10 merk land of Blacklaw and Blacklawhill passed into the hands of the Cunninghames of Corshill and on 23 September 1687 Sir Alexander Cuninghame and his mother, Lady Corshill, Dame Mary Stewart, granted a charter of the 2.5 merk land of Blacklawhill to John Brown in Gabrochill (sic). Dobie comments that all the eldest sons were called John, not commonplace outside of the aristocracy.
This John married Elizabeth Brown and had five offspring, John, the eldest. inheriting and marrying Jean Allison of Milton, East Kilbride and having four offspring. Their eldest son John inherited and married Janet Cuthbertson of Carswell, Neilston. They had seven offspring and the eldest, John, inherited in 1750, marrying Grizel Mitchel of Langreen, Loudoun parish. In 1778 their only son John inherited, marrying Elizabeth Deans of Peacockbank and having six children, followed by a second marriage to Margaret Gray of Irvine and the couple having three children. John, the eldest, inherited in 1846 and married Mary Kerr of Stewarton. The couple had offspring, John, William, Andrew, James and four daughters.
In 1747 Jean, only daughter of John Brown of Blacklawhill married William Mackie of Fulwood and Easter-house of Corshill.
John Brown of Gabrochhill's only daughter, Mary, married Mathew Arnot Stewart, representing the Stewarts of Newton and the Arnots of Lochridge. He died in 1796 and his son Mathew (sic) succeeded him.
The court book of the Barony of Corshill and Cocklbee in 1666 lists the occupiers of the Lands of Blacklaw as William Fultoune (thair); Alexander Fultoune; Alexander Thomsoune; Robert Faullis; Robert Walker; James Faullis and Robert Waker.
In May 1685 the tenants of the lairdship beneath the Black Law were pursued by the Barony Court for "cutting of young root grown trees within the parkes of Corshill"
In December 1701 John Brown and Robert Faullis of Blacklaw were requested by the Barony Court judge to assess how many swine could be grazed on the common pasturage of Hareshaw and Corshouse. They were to assess also which of the two farmers involved suffered most by the overgrazing by the other.
In May 1707 Sir Alexander Cunninghame of Corshill claimed against Janet Thomsone, John Brown and Andrew Faullis of Blacklaw at the Barony court for continuing to eat and destroy ""the wast grassis of the maillen of Blacklaw". They were instructed to cease eating "the said wast grass with bestial, goodes, and gear" immediately and informed that the "bestial, goodes, and gear" would be "poyndit"", that is confiscated and possibly sold if found breaking this sentence of the court. Despite being warned and informed the defenders did not attend the court held in Stewarton.
The Ayrshire Ordnance Survey name book of 1855 to 1857 records Midtown of Blacklaw as a" farmhouse with outbuildings garden etc. the property of Dr. Brown Stewarton; Townhead of Blacklaw as a "farmhouse with outbuildings garden - the property of Allen Brown Esqr. Brom"; Lowtown of Blacklaw as a "farmhouse with extensive outbuildings etc. The property of Mr. Thomas Wallace - Stewarton" and Blacklawhall aka Blacklawhill as a "neat farmhouse with very extensive outbuildings, the property of the Occupier Mr. J. Brown.""
The Moor of Machirnock (Glenouther).
This was a very large and valuable area of common grazing immediately to the south of Blacklaw, then known as Machirnock or Maucharnock, now known as Glenouther Moor. The Cunningham and Mure families were often in dispute over their rights regarding grazing, etc. and a royal letter of 1534 states that the Cunninghams had not been invested in the moor and it was decided that the souming was split between Polkelly and Rowallan.
The souming was the number or proportion of cattle which each tenant was entitled to keep on the common grazing. In 1594 William Mure of Rowallan complained of the excess of Polkelly's grazing cattle and geese on the moor, despite having obtained a caution of lawburrows on May 20, 1593. Lawburrows was a letter in the monarch's name under the signet seal to the effect that a particular person had shown cause to dread harm from another, and that therefore this other complained of was commanded to find "sufficient caution and surety" that the complainer would be free from any violence on his part.
The Barony Court records show that some local farms had access to the common grazing and that may have included the Blacklaw farms.
The Robertland Estate was put up for sale in 1913, consisting of , with as woodland and as moss, 26 farms were present and shooting rights were held for Glenouther Moor. The moor is now mainly afforested with pine trees.
Cartographic evidence.
Roy's map of 1747 shows a well laid out grouping of three dwellings below Blacklaw Hill and Blacklaw Townhead above to the north-east. Corshouse and Hareshaw farms lay on the Glenouther Moor side of the Annick Water. In 1856 Blacklawhill, Lowtown of Blacklaw and Midtown of Blacklaw are shown with Townhead of Blacklaw to the north-east. A Blacklaw Cottage stands on the driveway to Blacklawhill. In 1895 a track ran up to the Glenouther Moor crossing the Annock Water by a bridge. A sheep ree is shown on a field boundary below the moor edge.


Battle of Orewin Bridge

The Battle of Orewin Bridge (also known as the Battle of Irfon Bridge) was fought between English (led by the Marcher Lords) and Welsh armies on 11 December 1282 near Builth Wells in mid-Wales. It was a decisive defeat for the Welsh because their leader, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was killed, and this effectively ended the autonomy of Wales.
Background of the War.
Llywelyn had already fought a war against Edward I of England in 1277. Edward had organised a large full-time army with which he overran all North Wales as far west as the Conwy River, and a fleet with which he captured Anglesey, depriving the Welsh of much of their grain. Llywelyn was forced to come to humiliating terms, and ceded large areas of Wales to England.
Over the five years which followed, there was continued tension between Llywelyn and Edward over various lawsuits, and increasing unrest between the Welsh people and their English administrators in the newly transferred areas. The revolt was actually begun in 1282 by Llywelyn's brother Dafydd, who had sided with Edward five years earlier but now captured Hawarden Castle and slaughtered its garrison. This was followed by uprisings in many parts of Wales, and Llywelyn declared war on Edward on behalf of all Welsh.
Campaign up to December.
Edward repeated his tactics of the previous war, laboriously occupying North Wales as far as the Vale of Conwy and occupying Anglesey, while sending armies into southern and central Wales to overawe or subdue Llewelyn's allies and potential supporters. At the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr the English army attacking south Wales was ambushed and destroyed by the southern Welsh. On 6 November, Edward's lieutenant in Anglesey, Luke de Tany, launched a premature attack across a bridge of boats which spanned the Menai Strait. His force was ambushed, cut off and slaughtered at the Battle of Moel-y-don.
These unexpected reverses undoubtedly set Edward back several months. He was forced to pause to raise fresh armies and supplies. Llywelyn took advantage of the respite by making an expedition into mid-Wales, to inspire and rally support. This was the territory nominally ruled by Marcher Lords, who enjoyed considerable independence from Edward. Some were wavering and prepared to support Llywelyn. However, three of them, Roger l'Estrange, John Giffard and Edmund Mortimer were staunch supporters of Edward, and were in the field in mid-Wales with an army consisting mainly of archers from Shropshire and some heavy cavalry, as well as troops donated to them by the Welsh lord Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn, who was an old enemy of Llywelyn. The English are thought to have had an army consisting of around 5000 infantrymen and 1300 heavy cavalry.
The battle.
On 11 December, Llywelyn's army occupied a hillside north of the Irfon River near the village of Cilmeri, placed to repel any attack from the south across Orewin Bridge. The army is thought to have consisted of a few thousand spearmen and javelinmen from North Wales, with some men-at-arms from Llywelyn's own "teulu" (household), and some local archers from Brecon (who had betrayed their former English allies and joined Llywelyn, having been disappointed in the English failure at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr). Altogether, the army is thought to have added up to around 7000 infantry and 160 Cavalry (Llywelyn's Teulu). Llywelyn himself was not present, having gone to speak with local leaders (possibly at Builth Castle).
A local inhabitant had told the Marchers about a ford across the Irfon two miles downstream, near its confluence with the River Wye, and they sent most of their archers across it to attack the Welsh in the flank. The Welsh army turned to face them, and the English mounted men-at-arms charged across the now undefended bridge.
Meanwhile, the English archers shot into the Welsh spear schiltrons, weakening and disorganising the troops. The English heavy cavalry then charged the rear of the army. The leaderless and demoralised Welsh were routed.
As the Welsh army fled, Llywelyn returned in haste. On the outskirts of the fighting, he was attacked and cut down by an English man-at-arms named Stephen de Frankton, an English centenar from Ellesmere, Shropshire.
Aftermath.
Llywelyn's body was not recognised until the next day (he had probably gone in secret or incognito to his meeting, and would therefore not have worn any surcoat or other heraldic device). His head was cut off, and taken to London to be exhibited. He left only an infant daughter, Gwenllian of Wales. Leadership of the Welsh fell to Dafydd, who led a guerrilla resistance for some months but was soon betrayed, captured and executed as a traitor. Edward was able to formally end the existence of an organised resistance to English rule in the Welsh regions.


Communist League (West Germany)

The Communist League (, KB) was a radical left-wing organisation active in West Germany from 1971 until 1991. The KB emerged from the protests of 1968 and initially had a Maoist orientation. Later in the 1980s it became a leading organisation of the "undogmatic left" "(undogmatische Linke)". It was one of several rivaling minor communist groups in West Germany collectively called "K groups".
History.
The KB was created by the merger of the Hamburg Socialist Workers' and Apprentices' Center ("Sozialistisches Arbeiter- und Lehrlingszentrum"; SALZ) with the Communist Workers' Confederation ("Kommunistischer Arbeiterbund", KAB) of Hamburg, SALZ Bremerhaven, SALZ Frankfurt, the Communist Construction Group ("Kommunistische Aufbaugruppe", KAG) Oldenburg and the Communist League/Marxists-Leninists ("Kommunistischer Bund/Marxisten-Leninisten", KB/ML) in Flensburg and Eutin.
The KB originated from the late sixties' youth movement, with early Marxist-Leninist forces that developed from the banned Communist Party of Germany (KPD) like the small cadre group KAB Hamburg led by Knut Mellenthin merging with the SALZ that had emerged from the Hamburg apprentices' movement. They were joined by a majority of the Communist League of High School Students (KOB), but only a minority of the SALZ's sympathisers among university students while most of them joined the Socialist Students' Group that became part of the Communist League of West Germany (KBW), a rivaling Maoist organisation. This split can be seen as a reason for the bitter enmity between KB and KBW that competed for a similar circle of supporters, first in Northern Germany and after c. 1975 in all of West Germany.
Structure.
The KB dissociated itself strictly from the Communist League of West Germany (KBW) and the Communist Party of Germany/Marxists–Leninists (KPD/ML) and used a less dogmatic diction than the two latter groups. The Hamburg Green-Alternative List (GAL or AL) was essentially supported by KB activists after 1984. With the rise of the GAL, KB lost its importance. A spin-off was the Group Z that later joined The Greens and included many future Green politicians like Thomas Ebermann, Rainer Trampert, and Jürgen Trittin.
The KB's newspaper "Arbeiterkampf" (AK; "workers' struggle") reached its highest circulation numbers during the heyday of anti-nuclear protests in the late 1970s. At this time, the KB had an estimated 2,500 members, 1500 of them in Hamburg. "Arbeiterkampf" differed from other left-wing parties' papers as it did not only propagate the KB's party line, but was open to controversial discussions and presented a variety of standpoints. Therefore AK played the role of a left-wing counter-press in Hamburg.
In the field of legal assistance, the KB briefly cooperated with the Hamburg "Rote Hilfe" ("Red Aid"), but stopped collaboration as KB (unlike the "Rote Hilfe") distanced itself clearly from the Red Army Faction's (RAF) terrorist violence. Instead, KB started its own legal office, called "Initiative Committee Workers' Assistance Hamburg" ("Initiativkomitee Arbeiterhilfe Hamburg", IKAH).
Positions.
The theoretical core of KB's positions–and a pivotal difference vis-à-vis other "K" groups' ideologies–was the assumption of a "fascisation" of the West German state and society. While other Marxist–Leninist groups assumed that the growing economic crisis of capitalism would lead to a leftist politicization of the population and a revolutionary mass movement, the KB held the view that—because of Germany's historical peculiarities—the crisis would rather trigger a swing to the right and lead to a resurgence of fascism. This view was rebuked as "pessimistic" and "defeatist" by rivaling leftists.
Another distinction from other Maoist organizations was that the KB conceded that the Soviet Union and its allies had a rather progressive role on a global scale (despite criticism of their domestic policies) and rejected the Chinese theory of "Soviet social imperialism". Thus the KB defended the existence of East Germany, while many other Maoists demanded the German reunification. It strongly rejected rivaling organisations' line of "fatherland defencism" against the purported "social imperialism". On the contrary, in 1972 the KB accused West Germany to seek domination over its European neighbours under the guise of European integration. The KB claimed that the West German-dominated European Economic Community (EEC) was designed to antagonise Eastern European and developing countries of the Global South (which they called the "Tricont") as well as rivalry with the United States. KB's claim of the "particular level of aggressiveness" of West German imperialism was a significant determiner of KB's fascisation theory.
After an intensive discussion of China's foreign policy, the KB renounced its former ideological reference model. Moreover, the group criticised the internal developments in China after Mao's death as a "right-wing coup".
Schisms and decline.
Over the 1980s differences within the shrinking group became manifest, first concerning the Arab–Israeli conflict. The Anti-Zionism of large portions of the radical left, including parts of the KB, that even compared Israel's policies with those of the Nazis (AK once headlined: "Final Solution to the Palestinian Question", alluding to the Nazi term of "Final Solution to the Jewish Question") was opposed by some, particularly by Jewish KB members. KB's Frankfurt chapter was especially vocal in this position, warning of subtextual Antisemitism within the left.
After the 1989 Peaceful Revolution in East Germany and in view of the looming German reunification, the differences within the KB turned out to be irreconcilable. The majority of KB concluded that given the inevitability of German reunification, it should focus on the social question arising from the restoration of capitalism in East Germany, and sought collaboration with the East German Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS). The minority, on the other hand, went for fundamental opposition against the restoration of the German nation state, participated in the "Radical Left Alliance", and supported the "Germany Never Again" demonstration in Frankfurt in May 1990. This minority formed the "Gruppe K" publishing the anti-German "Bahamas" magazine.
Dissolution.
The KB disbanded in April 1991. The "Arbeiterkampf" newspaper continued to be published monthly until mid-1992, serving as a last link between the two opposing currents of KB. Then it renamed itself to "analyse & kritik" ("Analysis and Criticism"), keeping the acronym "ak". It carried on the pro-PDS line of KB's former majority. It still exists, with younger editors, having evolved towards a pluralist debate organ of the undogmatic radical left without party affiliation.


Schleiden

Schleiden is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It lies in the Eifel hills, in the district of Euskirchen, and has 12,998 inhabitants as of 30 June 2017. Schleiden is connected by a tourist railway to Kall, on the Eifel Railway between Cologne and Trier. The town consists of 18 settlements, the largest of which are Gemünd and Schleiden proper.
Education.
There are the following schools in the city:


Claudius Crigan

Claudius Crigan (5 April 1813) was an Anglican clergyman who served in the Church of England as the Bishop of Sodor and Man from 1784 to 1813.
A native of Omagh, County Tyrone, Ireland, he became the chaplain to an infantry regiment stationed in the West Indies, and whilst there, he married Mary, widow of John Harmon of Antigua. After retiring from the army, he became the Rector (or Chaplain) of St Anne's Church in Liverpool.
He was nominated Bishop of Sodor and Man by Charlotte Murray, Duchess of Atholl on 1 March 1784 and received royal assent on 27 March 1784. He was consecrated on 4 April 1784 and enthroned on 5 May 1784.
He died in office on 5 April 1813, aged 74. He had become a Doctor of Divinity (DD).
References.


Nieder-Isenburg

Nieder-Isenburg (often called Lower Isenburg) was a small mediaeval County in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It was located to the east of the town of Neuwied, due north of Vallendar.
Roughly speaking, territories of the Archbishops of Trier were located to the south, and territories of the Counts of Wied to the north.
Nieder-Isenburg emerged in 1218 as a partition of the County of Isenburg-Isenburg. Nieder-Isenburg was partitioned twice: between Isenburg-Grenzau, Isenburg-Neumagen and itself in 1502, and between Isenburg-Grenzau and Isenburg-Neumagen in 1503.
Following the death of Count Ernst of Isenburg in Brussels in 1664 without direct heir, the territories of Nieder-Isenburg were claimed back as a feudal tenure by the Archbishopric of Cologne, the Archbishopric of Trier and the core tenure of Isenburg and Grenzau by the Archbishopric of Fulda. The Fulda part was eventually passed on to the Counts of Walderdorff who had to share them with the Counts of Wied, at that stage a cadet branch of the Isenburgs, following a later agreement. Eventually the Walderdorff estates were distributed to the Nassovian state in the Napoleonic era.
Counts of Nieder-Isenburg (1218–1664).
"reversion to Fulda, Cologne, and Trier.


Gatt (surname)

Gatt is a surname of Scottish as well as Southeast German origin, which can also be found in Malta.
In Bavarian speaking areas of Germany and Austria the name may derive from the Middle High German word gate (cf. German Gatte: "husband", "male spouse") for "companion", whereas in Scotland a derivation from the surname Gault or the Middle English gate meaning road, thoroughfare or passage, referring to a family's residence near a main road, is possible. As a Maltese surname it may be derived from the Italian ″gatto″ (engl.: cat) or the female given name Agata.
Notable people with the name Gatt include:


North Macedonia under the Ottoman Empire

Vardar Macedonia, the area that now makes up North Macedonia, was part of the Ottoman Empire for over five hundred years, from the mid-14th century to 1912. However, the Ottomans themselves did not keep any "Macedonia" as an administrative unit. Instead Vardar Macedonia was part of the Ottoman province or Eyalet of Rumelia. The name Rumelia (Turkish: "Rumeli") means "Land of the Romans" in Turkish, referring to the lands conquered by the Ottoman Turks from the Byzantine Empire.
History.
Conquests.
In the Battle of Maritsa of 1371, the King of Lordship of Prilep Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his brother Jovan Uglješa led 70,000 men against the Ottomans. Despite having smaller numbers, the Ottomans managed to kill Vukašin and his brother and win the Battle of Maritsa.
After the battle, most of Serbia broke into smaller principalities. One of those principalities is known as the Kingdom of Prilep, led by Vukašin's son Marko. Like most regional rulers in the Macedonian region, Marko accepted vassalage under Sultan Murad I to preserve his position.
The Battle of Kosovo of 1389 sealed the fate of the region of Macedonia for the next 500 years. While both armies lost leaders and large numbers of soldiers, the Ottomans could easily assemble another army just as large while the locals could not.
Marko died alongside Konstantin Dragaš at the Battle of Rovine in 1395 and the territory of his realm became the Sanjak of Ohrid.
All of Vardar Macedonia was under Ottoman control by the early of the 15th century, with Skopje falling under Turkish rule on January 19, 1392.
Aside from conflict with Skanderbeg's forces, in which areas of western part of the region of Macedonia became a battleground of Ottoman–Albanian war for more than 20 years (1444–1467), the Ottoman Empire ultimately succeeded in taking the region, incorporating it into Rumelia Eyalet.
Rumelia Eyalet.
From its foundation, the province of Rumelia encompassed the entirety of the Ottoman Empire's European possessions. The first capital of Rumelia was probably Edirne (Adrianople), which was also, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans' capital city. In the 18th century, Monastir (present day Bitola) emerged as an alternate residence of the governor, and in 1836, it officially became the capital of the "eyalet". At about the same time, the "Tanzimat" reforms, aimed at modernizing the Empire, split off the new "eyalets" of Üsküb, Yanya and Selanik and reduced the Rumelia Eyalet to a few provinces around Monastir. The rump "eyalet" survived until 1867, when, as part of the transition to the more uniform "vilayet" system, it became part of the Salonica Vilayet.
The reduced Rumelia Eyalet, centred at Manastir, encompassed also the "sanjaks" of Iskenderiyye (Scutari), Ohri (Ohrid) and Kesrye (Kastoria). In 1855, according to the French traveller A. Viquesnel, it comprised the "sanjaks" of Iskenderiyye, with 7 "kazas" or sub-provinces, Ohri with 8 "kazas", Kesrye with 8 "kazas" and the "pasha-sanjak" of Manastir with 11 "kazas".
Vilayets.
After administrative reform in 1860s, the Ottoman Empire was divided into vilayets which were subdivided into sanjaks.
Kosovo Vilayet.
The northern part of the Macedonian region was included in the Kosovo Vilayet. Sanjaks located in this vilayet that contained territory now within the Republic of North Macedonia were:
Monastir Vilayet.
The southwestern part of the region was located in the Monastir vilayet. Sanjaks located in this vilayet that contained territory now within the Republic of North Macedonia were:
Salonika Vilayet.
The southeastern part of the region was located in the Salonika vilayet. Sanjaks located in this vilayet that contained territory now within the Republic of North Macedonia were:
According to the Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 the population of the region's Kazas are as follows:
Balkan Wars.
The Balkan Wars consisted of two wars that occurred in 1912 and 1913. The first began on 8 October 1912 when the nations of the Balkan League, who had large parts of their ethnic populations under Ottoman rule, attacked the Ottoman Empire. It lasted seven months with the Balkan League nations coming up victorious, ending 500 years of Ottoman rule in the Balkans.
Vardar Macedonian cities under Ottoman rule.
During the Ottoman rule of the Balkans, cities experienced many changes with regards to the demographic makeup of their population and the look of their cityscapes. With laws that prohibited Christian buildings from being higher than Islamic ones, the skylines of cities like Üsküp (Skopje) and Manastır (Bitola) were dominated by minarets.
Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi visited the city of Manastır in 1661. He wrote that of the seven mosques in the city at the time, six were built in the 16th century. Most of the mosques constructed on the territory of today's Republic of North Macedonia were square in shape with a three-domed portico and a minaret on the building's right side.


Balbridie

Balbridie is the site of a Neolithic long house in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, situated on the south bank of the River Dee, east of Banchory. The site is one of the earliest known permanent Neolithic settlements in Scotland, dating from 3400—4000 BC. This is the largest Neolithic long house to be excavated in Britain. In a European context, Whittle has indicated the rarity of such large Neolithic timber houses, citing Balbridie, a hall in Cambridgeshire, and Fengate as a small set of such finds.
Neolithic features found in a later excavation at Dreghorn included post holes indicating a large rectangular structure comparable to Balbridie.
Discovery.
The Balbridie site was discovered in 1976 by aerial photography carried out by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland. The unusually dry summer revealed previously undetected cropmarks suggesting a very large structure. Subsequent archaeological work on site allowed the conceptual reconstruction of an enormous timber structure including the identification of large timber postholes.
Relationship to other very early features.
The vicinity of Balbridie includes a number of other notable archaeological features including the Neolithic site of Bucharn. Watt has pointed out that this local area attracted an unusual density of very early settlement in Scotland. Balbridie is not only close to the River Dee but also to the Elsick Mounth trackway, the route of early crossings inland through the lower Grampian Mountains.
References.


Mary Josephine Bedford

Mary Josephine Bedford (1861 – 22 December 1955) was a philanthropist in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, who was involved in family welfare and children's development through her involvement with the Playground Association and the Crèche and Kindergarten Association. She was awarded the Order of St Sava for her services as an ambulance driver in World War I.
Early life.
Mary Josephine Bedford was born in 1861 in England. In her student days, she shared accommodation with Lilian Cooper, who became her lifelong friend and companion. They immigrated to Brisbane together in 1891.
Philanthropy.
The Playground Association in Queensland was formed with the practical intention of promoting the establishment of children's playgrounds and recreation centres in districts of poverty and high density. Also the Association worked towards assuming the administration of the parks and providing trained supervisors who were to direct play and, through this, to instil the values of courage, honesty and consideration in the children. The supervisors were also to look after the playground libraries, teach hand work and also to liaise with the children's homes. The Association was interested in the full social development of the child and saw the lessons learnt during play as an adjunct to the lessons the children studied in their classrooms.
The Crèche and Kindergarten Association was formed in 1907 with the purpose of instituting and maintaining day nurseries and free kindergartens for the children of the poor in Brisbane. Like the Playground Association, the Crèche and Kindergarten Association were successful in achieving local and Queensland Government sponsorship and funding as well as funding from various national philanthropic trust funds. The success of these two organisations can be rightly said to be due to the tireless and strategic work of Mary Josephine Bedford.
Bedford, who is also remembered as the lifelong companion of Dr Lilian Violet Cooper, worked toward alleviating the stress and poverty afflicting urban dwellers. On her many study tours with Cooper, Bedford researched successful methods and programmes on the provision of family welfare in America and Europe and she is known to have attended lectures at Berkeley University on public recreation parks in about 1911, just two years before the Playground Association was established. Ms Bedford was associated with many of the early efforts in Brisbane to establish welfare; she was instrumental in increasing the scope of the Brisbane Children's Hospital in 1905, she was involved with the establishment of the Queensland branch of the National Council of Women also in 1905; she and Cooper were delegates at the International Council of Women in Stockholm in 1912.
World War I.
In 1916 both Bedford and Cooper served in Serbia during World War I with the Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service as the Australian Army would only accept women as nurses. Bedford served as an ambulance driver for which she received the 5th class Order of St Sava.
Later life.
Ms Bedford remained an active participant of both the Crèche and Kindergarten Association and the Playground Association until her death in December 1955. It is clearly through her extensive letter writing, evident in archival files on both organisations, that they achieved their successes.
Mary Josephine Bedford died on 22 December 1955 and is buried next to her long-time companion Lilian Violet Cooper at Toowong Cemetery, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
Legacy.
To commemorate Bedford's instrumental role in the provision of playgrounds in Queensland a memorial tree was planted on 22 March 1956 at the Spring Hill Playground by Lady Lavarck, wife of Lieutenant-General Sir John Dudley Lavarack, Governor of Queensland. In 1959 the Brisbane City Council agreed to the suggestion of the Playground and Recreation Association to rename the park, the Bedford Playground. The Bedford Playground was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 9 May 1998.
References.
Attribution.
This Wikipedia article was originally based on "The Queensland heritage register" published by the State of Queensland under licence (accessed on 7 July 2014, archived on 8 October 2014). The geo-coordinates were originally computed from the "Queensland heritage register boundaries" published by the State of Queensland under licence (accessed on 5 September 2014, archived on 15 October 2014).


Tolmin Castle

Tolmin Castle (, ), also known as the Castle on Kozlov Rob above Tolmin ("Grad na Kozlovem Robu nad Tolminom"), is a fortress ruin on the ridge of Kozlov Rob ('Billy-goat's Edge') above the town of Tolmin in southwestern Slovenia.
History.
The castle was first mentioned in 1188, and its chapel of Saint Martin in 1194. The east and north towers appear to have formed the original core of the fortress; another two hexagonal towers were added later. The north tower had an extensive basement for the storage of provisions, which along with two wells and rainwater cisterns allowed for the withstanding of sieges.
The castle was held in fief by a long series of masters: the Patriarchate of Aquileia, the Counts of Gorizia, the city of Cividale del Friuli, the Venetian Republic, and finally the Habsburgs. It appears to have functioned as a dedicated fortress rather than a residence, and had no permanent civilian population in peacetime, only a large garrison; it also housed a prison. The structure was severely damaged in the earthquakes of 1348 and 1511, but was repaired each time. It was finally abandoned in 1651 by its last owners, the Coronini family, for a new manor in Tolmin itself, though it remained sufficiently intact by 1713 to play a role in the great peasant revolt of that year. The castle is currently in ruins, though parts of it have been restored.


Torra di Capu di Muru

The Tower of Capu di Muru () is a Genoese tower located in the commune of Coti-Chiavari (Corse-du-Sud) on the west coast of the Corsica. The tower sits at an elevation of on the Capu di Muru headland.
The tower was built in around 1600. It was one of a series of coastal defences constructed by the Republic of Genoa between 1530 and 1620 to stem the attacks by Barbary pirates. In 1994 the tower was listed as one of the official historical monuments of France.
The tower is owned and maintained by the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse in an agreement with the French government agency, the Conservatoire du littoral. The agency plans to purchase of the headland and as of 2017 had acquired .


Branik Castle

Branik Castle (, ), also known as Rihemberk Castle ("Grad Rihemberk", ), is a 13th-century castle above the village of Branik, near the city of Nova Gorica in southwestern Slovenia.
History.
Fortified settlements have been present on the hill above what is now the village of Branik since prehistoric times; the site was once occupied by a Roman castrum. The date of the founding of the castle is unclear, but the noble house of Rihemberk () is first recorded in 1230, originating from Riffenstein in Tyrol, now the castle of Reifenstein in Freienfeld, northern Italy. The name "Rihemberk" derives from the name of the family's former castle, and is a compound of the German words "Riffe" ("ridge") and "Berg" ("mountain"). The family received substantial properties in fief from the Counts of Gorizia, including estates in the Vipava Valley, the Karst Plateau, in the outskirts of the town of Gorizia and elsewhere. The Rihemberg male line died out in 1371. In the 14th and 15th centuries the lordship contracted to the immediate surroundings of Rihemberk, a small part of the Vipava Valley, and the Kras Plateau. After the Counts of Gorizia died out in 1500, the castle passed to the Habsburgs. In 1528 both it and the surrounding lands were acquired by the noble house of Lanthieri, who added a residential palacio in 1649. The Lanthieris retained the castle for a full 417 years, until World War II. On the night of 22 July 1944, the Partisans burned and dynamited the castle. All of its furnishings were destroyed. In 1945, the castle was nationalized. Since the 1980s, it has since been gradually restored, though all prewar structures have not yet been fully rebuilt.
In 1999, the castle was declared a cultural monument of national importance.
Architecture.
The Romanesque foundations of the castle are still evident in some places. The castle complex is centered on a prominent 13th-century round keep, around which a substantial Baroque residential tract was later developed, all surrounded with Renaissance defensive walls and 16th century corner turrets. The older structures contain some Gothic elements, notably the castle chapel.
The building took its current shape in the 17th/18th centuries, when it was turned into a Baroque residence. Significant remodeling was carried out in the 19th century as well, notably the romantic crenellations of the walls.
A partially preserved walled garden once occupied the south slope below the castle. The design of the entrance gate suggests the garden belongs to the Baroque period of the castle.


Taube family

Taube is an ancient Baltic noble family, originally from Denmark, Jutland. The family historic references: Engelke Tuve (Taube) 1373 Danish vassal in Estonia. Another branch is known to have existed on the feudal estate of Wedewes. The other historic persons: vassals Tuvi Leos and Tuve Collae, 1240 in Estonia.
In the 17th century, during Swedish Empire period, several members of the family joined Swedish kings. Berndt Taube was recognized a Baron (friherre) of Carlöö in Österbotten in 1652.
Edvard Taube, was introduced at the Swedish House of Nobility in 1668 and became the ancestor of the untitled noble family Taube (adliga ätten Taube no 734). Also, Edvard's son Fredrik Evert Taube was made a Baron (friherre) in 1692 (Taube of Odenkat) and Fredrik Evert's son Edvard Didrik Taube was made a Count in 1734, becoming the ancestor of the counts of Taube (grevliga ätten Taube no. 112).
Another line of counts (grevliga ätten Taube no. 62) is descended from the Governor General of Narva, Ingermanland and Kexholm Jakob Johan Taube of Kuddinge (Livonia) and Sesswegen (Latvia) (1624–1695), whose son, Gustaf Adam Taube|Gustaf Adam (1673–1732), became a count in 1719.
Evert Taube and Sven-Bertil Taube belong to the untitled noble family Taube (no 734).


Palazzo Carignano

Palazzo Carignano is a historical building in the centre of Turin, Italy, which houses the Museum of the Risorgimento. It was a private residence of the Princes of Carignano, after whom it is named. Its rounded façade is different from other façades of the same structure. It is located on the "Via Accademia delle Scienze".
History.
The construction of the Palazzo Carignano was ordered by Prince Emmanuel Philibert, son of Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano and his French wife Marie de Bourbon. The Prince commissioned architect Guarino Guarini to design a suitable residence for his home and the cadet house of the reigning House of Savoy.
Guarini designed the structure in the shape of a square, with a straight and restrained east façade and an elliptical façade on the west. Guarini also added a forecourt at the center of the palace. Construction began in 1679, when the Prince was 51 years old.
The decorations over the windows of the piano nobile recall the campaign of the Carignano family with Carignan-Salières Regiment against the Iroquois in 1667. The interior has always been described as lavish and has splendid frescoes and stucco decorations.
Among the frescoes are some by Stefano Legnani, called il "Legnanino". The main stairwell is decorated with busts by Pietro Somazzi.
The building, constructed in brick in a typical Baroque style, has an elliptical main façade. This façade represents the only example of civic architecture making use of the undulating 'concave – convex – concave' rhythm established by Francesco Borromini in the church of S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome.
The Palazzo was the birthplace of Marie-Louise, princesse de Lamballe in 1749 – confidant of Marie Antoinette and for whom she died in 1792. Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Carignano was born there in 1770. It was also the birthplace of the first King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel II in 1820.
From 1848 to 1861 the palace was used as the House of Deputies of the Subalpine Parliament. In 1861, with the creation of the parliament of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, the room was not large enough to host the House of Deputies, which was moved elsewhere.


Libida

Libida or Ibida was an ancient settlement in Scythia Minor, today's Dobruja region of modern Romania. It is within the commune of Slava Cercheză, in the village of Slava Rusă.
The settlement existed in Getic times (4th century BC). Its growing importance as a centre of commerce led to the construction of the fortified town during the reign of the Tetrarchy and Constantine the Great.
It was tentatively identified by V. Pârvan as polis Ibida, a town briefly mentioned by Procopius as one of those repaired by Justinian (De aed. IV,7). A. Aricescu identified it as Libida, based on a short passage from Theophylactus Simocatta. The town and area around was abandoned in the 7th cent. AD after the Bulgar invasions.
Archeological history.
In 1875 an inscription found on the site was published. In 1885 Dimitrie C. Butculescu executed a first archeologic sondage. Requested
by Grigore Tocilescu, the town was described by topograph Pamfil Polonic in 1897, who identified 33 towers and 3 gates, but
there was not publication. In 1908 Raymund Netzhammer published a description of the town similar to the 1897 version. Vasile Pârvan identified the settlement in 1911 as Ibida. Constantin Moisil names the town in 1916 when a treasure of drachmes was found. In 1917 the Bulgar lieutenant Iconomof performed excavations and found the remains of a Basilica with 3 naves. In 1926, George G. Mateescu performed new excavations with unpublished results. Research in 1953 by a team exploring Histria, north and west of the town, of led to the discovery of Getic and Roman-Byzantine bricks and pottery and bronze coins from the Justinian I era. In 1977 Al. S. Stefan with a photogrammetry process restored the plan of the archaeological area. In 1988 A. Opait observed seven levels of living, three from the early Roman and four in the Roman-Byzantine period. From 2001 onwards ICEM (Institutul de Cercetări Eco-Muzeale Tulcea) started systematic excavations.


Conmaicne Cuile

The Conmhaícne Cúile or Conmaicne Cuile Tolad () were an early people of Ireland. Their tuath comprised, at minimum, most of the barony of Kilmaine, in County Mayo.
Origin.
The Conmhaicne or Conmaicne were a people of early Ireland, perhaps related to the Laigin, who dispersed to various parts of Ireland. They settled in Connacht and Longford, giving their name to several Conmaicne territories. Other branches of Conmaicne were located in County Galway, Roscommon, Mayo, and Leitrim.
Cuile means woods or forest. Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh linked "Cúile" with Cullagh townland ("An Choilleach", the woods). ("plain of a lament") is the place where the 1st battle of Moytura was fought. Tuiredh translates as "a lament". "Moytura" is a corruption of . Some Latin texts reference them as "Conmacgneculy" and "Conmacniculy".
Territory.
Knox said their territory comprised the baronies Ross and much of Kilmaine (except parts east, and north of the Robe). East Kilmaine was occupied by the Muinter Crechain. To the north was "Maigh Ceara", now the barony of Carra, County Mayo.
The alternative name for the barony of Kilmaine, Coolagh, probably reflects the ancient population group named Conmaicne Cuile. Their territory was bounded by lakes, and native Irish forests in places.
Septs.
The chief Conmaicne Cuile family was Ó Talcharain. The primary septs were:-
Conmaicne Cuile Tolad was invaded by Anglo-Normans about the middle of the thirteenth century, and granted to Maurice Fitzgerald. Another deed calls the district the cantred of 'Keneloch', probably Kinlough north-east of Moyne, a chief manor of the area. In later times the Burkes controlled the territory.
Patrican churches.
In the original Vita tripartita Sancti Patricii, Tírechán said Saint Patrick travelled through Conmaicne Dunmore to Conmaicne Cuile Tolad and established Christian churches here. Knox identified these new churches as Kilmaine-beg, Shrule, and perhaps the Church of Cross. Earlier Patrician churches already existed at Kilmainemore, Kilbennan, Donaghpatrick, and perhaps Templepatrick at "Inchanguill".


Master of the cupbearers

The master of the cupbearers or master of the cup-bearers (, , and ) was one of the high officials of the royal household in the Kingdom of Hungary. Masters of the cupbearers were included among the "true barons" of the realm from around 1220.


Lord William Douglas

Lord William Robert Keith Douglas (1783 – 5 December 1859) was a British politician and landowner. He was the fourth son of Sir William Douglas, 4th Baronet of Kelhead and younger brother of both Charles Douglas, 6th Marquess of Queensberry and John Douglas, 7th Marquess of Queensberry. He represented the Dumfries Burghs constituency between 1812 and 1832 and served, on a number of occasions, as one of the Lord Commissioners of the Admiralty. He owned sugar plantation estates in Tobago which had formerly belonged to Walter Irvine, whose daughter, Elizabeth, he married on 24 November 1824. They had three sons, the second of which, Walter, went on to continue the Douglases of Grangemuir.
According to the "Legacies of British Slave-Ownership" at the University College London, Douglas was awarded a payment as a slave trader in the aftermath of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 with the Slave Compensation Act 1837. The British Government took out a £15 million loan (worth £ in ) with interest from Nathan Mayer Rothschild and Moses Montefiore which was subsequently paid off by the British taxpayers (ending in 2015). Douglas was associated with three different claims he owned 576 slaves in Tobago and received a £10,907 payment at the time (worth £ in ).
In May 1837, some time after William Douglas's eldest brother succeeded to the Marquessate of Queensberry, he was granted a patent of precedence which gave him the rank and style of a Marquess's younger son ("Lord" William Douglas).
Lord William is buried at Dunino, Fife, a village close to his family seat at Grangemuir, near Pittenweem.


Arnold I, Lord of Egmond

Arnold I of Egmond, in Dutch Arnoud, Arend, or Arent van Egmond, ( – 9 April 1409) was Lord of Egmond and IJsselstein.
He was the son of John I of Egmond and his wife, Guida of IJsselstein. From 1372, he was a member of the ministerial council of Albert of Bavaria. In 1394 he founded a Cistercian monastery outside the walls of IJsselstein. In Egmond aan den Hoef he renovated the chapel at the ancestral castle, surrounded the castle with a moat, and had a canal dug to connect it with Alkmaar. In 1396, he participated in the military campaign in West Friesland. In 1398, he was enfeoffed with the Lordships of Ameland and De Bilt. He was commander of the Dutch troops who were tasked with stabilizing Frisia. There was a dispute with Count William VI of Holland, because Arnold supported the Cod side in the Hook and Cod wars.
Arnold died at the age of 72 and was buried in the monastery at IJsselstein.
Arnold married Jolanthe of Leiningen (d. 24 April 1434, the daughter of Frederick VII of Leiningen-Dagsburg and Jolanthe of Gulik). They had two surviving sons:


Henry Man

Henry Man (died 19 October 1556) was an English clergyman who served as the Bishop of Sodor and Man in the 16th century.
Until the English Reformation he was a Carthusian monk who had been appointed the Prior of Witham, Somerset (1534–35) and then the Prior of Sheen, Surrey (1535–39). Following the dissolution of the monasteries, he was briefly a chaplain to King Henry VIII. He was appointed the Dean of Chester in 1541, also holding the rectories of St Mary on the Hill, Chester and Fyningley, Nottinghamshire.
He was nominated Bishop of Sodor and Man in January 1546 and consecrated at Old St Paul's Cathedral on 14 February 1546 by bishops Bonner, Chetham and Hodgkins. He continued to hold the deanery of Chester "in commendam" for another year before resigning the post by 31 May 1547. After the accession of Queen Mary I, he was deprived of the see and his predecessor Thomas Stanley was restored in 1555 or 1556.
Henry died on 19 October 1556 and was buried at St Andrew Undershaft, London. He had become a Doctor of Divinity (DD).
References.


Richard de Redvers, 2nd Earl of Devon

Richard de Redvers, 2nd Earl of Devon (died 1162) was Earl of Devon from 1155 until his death and was feudal baron of Plympton in Devon. He married Denise, one of the daughters and coheiresses of Reginald, Earl of Cornwall. He was High Sheriff of Devon from 1154–1157. He was the son of Baldwin de Redvers, 1st Earl of Devon and brother of William de Reviers, 5th Earl of Devon.
He was succeeded by his son Baldwin de Redvers, 3rd Earl of Devon (died 1188).


Young Socialists (Poland)

The Young Socialists ("Młodzi Socjaliści") was a Polish political organisation formed in 2005 and dissolved in 2015. Membership was open to those aged 16–35 (35+ could join as supporters).
The organisation was defined by its argument that there was no authentic left-wing party in the Polish Parliament.
It was an observer member of the European Left. In 2015 members and former members of Young Socialists participated in the foundation of Razem.


International Marxist Group (Germany)

The International Marxist Group (, GIM) was the name of two German Marxist groups. The first was formed in 1939, as a breakaway from the Communist Party Opposition (KPO), and was linked to the centrist Marxist International Workers Front.
The second was a Trotskyist group in West Germany, formed in 1968 by the International Communists of Germany (IKD) and a faction of the Socialist German Student League (SDS). The GIM served as the German section of the reunified Fourth International. In the 1950s, the IKD had entered the Independent Workers' Party (UAP) and later the Social Democratic Party (SPD). The group was involved in the Extraparliamentary Opposition (APO) movement through the early 1970s. In 1986, the GIM joined with the Communist Party of Germany/Marxists-Leninists to form the Unified Socialist Party (VSP). The VSP changed its name to the Association for Solidarity Perspectives (VsP) in 1993.


St Helier railway station (Jersey Railway)

St Helier railway station was a railway station in Saint Helier, the capital of Jersey in the Channel Islands. Opened in 1870 by the Jersey Railway, it was situated on the western side of the Weighbridge area, now Liberation Square. The station was referred to as "St. Helier (Weighbridge)" to distinguish it from another railway terminus opened by the Jersey Eastern Railway in 1873 in St Helier at Snow Hill. The station was in passenger operation until the line closed in 1936.
History.
The Jersey Railway first opened in 1870, running services between Saint Helier and Saint Aubin with trains stopping at the three intermediate stations, First Tower, Millbrook and Beaumont. The first trial service ran on 28 September, and on the following day a train carrying 300 invited guests departed from Saint Helier. The line was formally opened to passengers on 17 October with a grand ceremonial opening followed by a banquet at Noirmont Manor, the residence of the contractor, Mr E. Pickering. On the opening day, 4000 single journeys were made on the line.
The station was originally built with a single platform under a curved trainshed. in March 1884 this platform was replaced with an island platform with two lines and two additional outer lines, and in 1893 the trainshed was replaced.
The original station building was a single-storey structure which remained in use for 30 years until the Jersey Railways & Tramways Limited (JR&T) took over the line in 1896. A new two-storey station building was built by the Jersey architect Adolphus Curry and opened in 1901. It included a new booking office, refreshment rooms, company offices and a board room, and shop spaces on the ground floor. A large abattoir development was begun in 1888 adjacent to the station site.
During the summer months, the arrangement of the tracks at Saint Helier station was inadequate to cope with the frequency of trains and to speed up the turnaround of locomotives, a special "slewing table" was installed in 1902. This unusual mechanism was a moving track on wheels at the end of the line in front of the buffers. Station porters could move a locomotive sideways by disconnecting the section of track on which the locomotive was standing and slide it onto the adjacent headshunt track, allowing the engine to perform a turnaround.
Closure.
In 1936 the Jersey Railway closed to passengers after a devastating fire at Saint Aubin's train shed destroyed most of the company's rolling stock. The company sold all of its land and stations to the States of Jersey for £25,000 in 1937. The platform at Saint Helier Weighbridge was removed and the train shed was turned into a bus depot for the Jersey Motor Transport Company to serve the Weighbridge Bus Station. The bus depot remained in operation on the site of the old station until it was demolished in the 1970s. The 1901 station building remained and was used as the Jersey tourist office until 2007. The station site and adjacent abattoir buildings were redeveloped and re-opened in 2010 as the Liberty Wharf shopping centre.
Occupation.
During the Occupation of the Channel Islands by Nazi Germany in World War II, the German organisation Organisation Todt re-opened most of Jersey's defunct railway lines for military purposes, re-laying tracks to 1-metre gauge. The railways did not carry passengers, but were used to transport equipment and building materials as the occupying forces built fortifications using slave labour. Saint Helier Weighbridge station did not re-open, but the railway line was extended to the harbour, bypassing the station.


Capel Celyn

Capel Celyn was a rural community to the north west of Bala in Gwynedd, Wales, in the Afon Tryweryn valley. The village and other parts of the valley were flooded in 1965 to create a reservoir, Llyn Celyn, in order to supply Liverpool and Wirral with water for industry. "Capel" is Welsh for chapel, while "celyn" is Welsh for holly.
History.
In 1960, a private bill sponsored by Liverpool City Council was brought before Parliament to develop a water reservoir in the Tryweryn Valley. The development would include the flooding of Capel Celyn. By obtaining authority via an Act of Parliament, Liverpool City Council would not require planning consent from the relevant Welsh local authorities and would also avoid a planning inquiry at Welsh level at which arguments against the proposal could be expressed. This, together with the fact that the village was one of the last Welsh-only speaking communities in the area,
ensured that the proposals became deeply controversial. Thirty-five out of thirty-six Welsh Members of Parliament (MPs) opposed the bill (the other did not vote), but in 1962 it was passed. The members of the community waged an eight-year effort, ultimately unsuccessful, to prevent the destruction of their homes.
When the valley was flooded in 1965, the village and its buildings, including the post office, the school, and a chapel with cemetery, were all lost. Twelve houses and farms were submerged, and 48 people of the 67 who lived in the valley lost their homes. In all, some 800 acres (3.2 km2; 320 ha) of land were submerged. A new reservoir, Llyn Celyn, was formed. Many of the stones from the original chapel were re-used in the construction of the new Memorial Chapel.
The water in the reservoir is used to maintain the flow of the River Dee (Afon Dyfrdwy) so that water may be abstracted downstream, and additionally to improve the quality of white-water sports on Afon Tryweryn.
A full list of the submerged properties (broadly from west to east) is as follows:
Families who had relatives buried in the cemetery were given the option of moving them to another cemetery. Eight bodies were disinterred and the remainder left. All headstones were supposed to be removed, and the cemetery was to be covered in layers of gravel, then concrete, but this was not done.
When the reservoir dried due to a drought in the 1980s and early 1990s the village became visible. The whole of the walled cemetery next to where the chapel stood was completely covered in concrete. There were no gravestones left standing. The removed headstones can be seen at the new chapel at the Bala end of the lake.
Hafod Fadog.
One of the farmsteads covered was Hafod Fadog, a Quaker meeting place. It is recorded on a bronze plaque in a lay-by near to the dam:Under these waters and near this stone stood Hafod Fadog, a farmstead where in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Quakers met for worship. On the hillside above the house was a space encircled by a low stone wall where larger meetings were held, and beyond the house was a small burial ground. From this valley came many of the early Quakers who emigrated to Pennsylvania, driven from their homes by persecution to seek freedom of worship in the New World.
Political effects.
Almost unanimous Welsh political opposition had failed to stop approval of the scheme, a fact that seemed to underline Plaid Cymru's argument that the Welsh national community was powerless. At the subsequent General Election the party's support increased from 3.1% to 5.2%
Of perhaps greater significance, however, was the impetus the episode gave to Welsh devolution. The Council of Wales recommended the creation of a Welsh Office and Secretary of State for Wales early in 1957, a time when the governance of Wales on a national level was so demonstrably lacking in many people's eyes. By 1964 the Wilson Government gave effect to these proposals.
The flooding of Capel Celyn also sharpened debate within Plaid Cymru about the use of direct action. While the party emphasised its constitutional approach to stopping the development, it also sympathised with the actions of two party members who (of their own accord) attempted to sabotage the power supply at the site of the Tryweryn dam in 1962.
A more militant response was the formation of Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru ("Wales Defence Movement") or MAC, which blew up a transformer on the dam construction site in February 1963. MAC went on to carry out a number of other bombings in the next six years.
In October 1965 the Llyn Celyn reservoir opened, and there was a sizeable Plaid Cymru-organised demonstration. A year later, Gwynfor Evans won Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat in Carmarthen. But according to some commentators, Capel Celyn did not play a major part in Gwynfor Evans's victory: in addition to Carmarthen's long distance from Tryweryn, they claim that Plaid Cymru's victory owed as much to an anti-Labour backlash in the constituency's mining communities as it did to Plaid's successful depiction of Labour's policies as a threat to the viability of small Welsh communities.
On 19 October 2005, Liverpool City Council issued a formal apology for the flooding. Some in the town of Bala welcomed the move, though others said the apology was a "useless political gesture" and came far too late.
Cultural references.
The flooding of the village inspired a Manic Street Preachers song "Ready for Drowning" and Enya's song "Dan y Dŵr" ("Under the water"). It is referenced in the Los Campesinos! song "For Flotsam" on their album "No Blues". To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the event, English composer Michael Stimpson released an album entitled "Dylan & The Drowning of Capel Celyn", which featured a work for solo pedal harp, inspired by the flooding.
The events provide inspiration for the eleventh episode "Achub Y Morfilod" ("Saving the whales") in Season 6 of the American animation series "Archer". Guest-starring Matthew Rhys, a native Welshman, the episode was the result of a story told by Rhys on a night out with the show's creators (earning Rhys a writing credit).
"Reservoirs" by R. S. Thomas appeared in "Not That He Brought Flowers", published in 1968. It was written soon after the opening of Llyn Celyn and Llyn Clywedog.
Electronic musician Bibio released a song called "Capel Celyn" on his 2017 album "Phantom Brickworks".
"Capel Celyn" (1997) is a floor piece made up of five thousand cast wax nails inspired by the discovery of one rusty five inch nail which Welsh artist Tim Davies reclaimed one rainless summer from the dried up bed of the Tryweryn reservoir.
In the 2010 British-Argentine drama film "Patagonia" by Welsh director Marc Evans, Capel Celyn is the place of origin of one of the film's protagonists. Scenes near the end of the film include a visit to the reservoir.
Capel Celyn and the reservoir also play a part in the 2016 Welsh film "Yr Ymadawiad" ("The Passing", in English). The flooding of the valley seems to provide inspiration for the film's plot, and the movie is better understood and takes on a deeper level of poignancy when the history of the flooding is known.
It is referenced in "The Crown", Season 3 Episode 6 ‘Tywysog Cymru’. A young Prince Charles stays in Wales to learn the Welsh language at University of Wales, Aberystwyth. His tutor, Edward Millward and his wife Silvia, are members of Plaid Cymru and briefly tell him about the village.
"Cofiwch Dryweryn".
"Cofiwch Dryweryn" ("Remember Tryweryn") is a motto referring to the drowning of Capel Celyn in 1965. It urges Welsh speakers to remember the destruction of a Welsh-speaking community and to safeguard the language. The most famous instance of this motto is a graffito on the wall of a ruined stone cottage by the A487 at Llanrhystud, outside Aberystwyth which has come to be regarded as a "national landmark". Meic Stephens claimed to have been the first to paint the wall in the 1960s, with the slogan "Cofiwch Tryweryn" ("sic", without the initial soft mutation and therefore grammatically incorrect). Since then, a number of people have repainted the wall, and the word "Tryweryn" has been corrected to "Dryweryn".
In 2010, a fundraising campaign was launched to preserve the wall by Llanrhystud Community Council. £80,000 was needed, with Cadw declaring that it would contribute £30,000 to the fund.
The wall has been painted over on a number of occasions. In May 2008, the words were altered to "Angofiwch Dryweryn" (forget Tryweryn). The monument was defaced in April 2010, and a spokesperson for the Welsh Government said they were "disappointed" by the incident. Incidents of vandalism also occurred throughout the years, e.g. in 2013 and 2014. In 2017, the words "Cofiwch Aberfan 1966" ("Remember Aberfan") were added underneath the original message. This message was referring to the Aberfan Disaster which happened in 1966, were the collapse of a colliery spoil tip led to the deaths of 144 individuals.The original message was repainted in August 2018 but was again defaced in February 2019 when the motto was painted over with the name 'Elvis'; a reference to the famous American singer, Elvis Presley, known as the King of Rock and Roll. After the memorial was repainted, vandals had knocked over parts of the wall. In response to the vandalism a wave of 'Cofiwch Dryweryn' memorials were painted throughout Wales and further afield also.
The monument is featured in the music video for the Manic Street Preachers single "Distant Colours".


Bernhard II, Margrave of Baden-Baden

Bernhard II of Baden (1428 or 1429 at Hohenbaden Castle in Baden-Baden – 15 July 1458 in Moncalieri, Turin), was the second son of Margrave Jacob of Baden and his wife, Catherine of Lorraine. He was born in the late 1420s at Hohenbaden Castle in Baden-Baden. His exact birth date is unknown. He was beatified by the Roman Catholic Church in 1769.
Life.
Bernard II of Baden grew up in a deeply religious family. His father, for example, founded Fremersberg Abbey and expanded the Collegiate Church in Baden-Baden.
Bernard II received a careful education, which would prepare him for his later role as a sovereign. The intent was that he would be Margrave of Pforzheim, Eberstein, Besigheim and several districts in the northern part of the Margraviate.
Bernard II was related to the Habsburg dynasty via his older brother Karl I, who had married Catherine of Austria, a sister of Emperor Frederick III. This relationship should give Bernard access to the imperial court. But first, he assisted his uncle René of Anjou in an armed conflict in northern Italy. According to contemporary sources, he fought bravely. After his father's death in 1453, he returned to Baden, where he agreed with his brother to give up his claim to part of the margraviate. Instead, he became Frederick III's personal envoy, despite his young age.
Bernard II saw a number of disgraceful situations and tried to alleviate hardship and poverty wherever he could. He spent most of his income assisting the poor and those in need. Even during his lifetime he impressed his contemporaries with his unusual piety.
Under pressure, after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, the imperial Habsburg family began preparing a crusade against the expanding Ottoman Empire. Bernard II was sent to the European princely houses to promote this project. He died of the plague during one of these visits, on 15 July 1458 in Moncalieri in northern Italy. "Bernardo", as they call him, is revered to this day by many people in this region.
Aftermath.
His grave in the St. Mary's Church in Moncalieri quickly became the destination of pilgrimages by devout Christians. Allegedly, many miraculous healings occurred at his grave. He was beatified in 1769. On the occasion of Bernard's beatification, Margrave August Georg Simpert constructed the "Bernhardus" fountain in Rastatt. Allegedly, having Bernhard canonized was considered too expensive.
After his beatification, the Catholic Margraviate of Baden-Baden chose him as its patron saint and celebrated this event on 24 July 1770; the Archdiocese of Freiburg still reveres him today as its patron. At least one miracle is said to have taken place in Freiburg. His feast day is 15 July.
His great-niece, Sibylle of Baden, who was married to Count Philipp III of Hanau-Lichtenberg, founded a high altar in the St. Nicholas church in Babenhausen on which Bernhard is shown on its left wing on the inside.
His canonization is still being pursued. On 16 May 2011, Archbishop Robert Zollitsch of Freiburg published a public appeal in the official journal of his archdiocese. Public discussion started on 17 June 2011. On 8 November 2017 Pope Francis authorized the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to issue a decree recognising Bernhard's heroic virtue.


Principality of Peremyshl

The Principality of Peremyshl was a medieval petty principality centred on Peremyshl (now Przemyśl, Poland) in the Cherven lands ("Red Rus'").
First mentioning.
The Rus' Primary Chronicle, writing for the year 981, gives the first mention of Peremyshl relating the wars of Saint Vladimir:
It is possible that the Lyakhs here are the Poles. Cross argued that "Lyakh" was the early term for a Polish person. Franklin and Shepard argued that these people are the same as the Ledzanians, mentioned in the 10th century "De Administrando Imperio" as tributaries of the Rus. Peremyshl may have been one of the Cherven towns captured by the Polish prince Boleslaw I in 1018, towns recaptured by Rus in 1031.
Rostislavichi.
Peremyshl was ruled initially by the descendants of Vladimir Yaroslavich — who had helped recapture the towns of Cherven Rus in 1031 — and his only son Rostislav Vladimirovich; they are hence known as the "Rostislavichi". The earliest known Prince of Peremyshl is Ryurik Rostislavich, who was occupying the city when the murderers of Yaropolk Izyaslavich fled to him in 1087. Vsevolod I Yaroslavich, Grand Prince, is alleged to have apportioned Volhynian territories, distributing Vladimir-in-Volhynia (modern Volodymyr-Volynskyi) to Davyd Igorevich, Terebovl to Vasilko Rostislavich and Peremyshl to Volodar Rostislavich, grants confirmed at the Council of Liubech of 1097. The city, defended by Prince Volodar, was besieged in 1097 by Yaroslav Svyatopolkovich, allied to King Coloman of Hungary. However Davyd Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov, and his Polovtsy ally Bonyak defeated the Hungarians.
Peremyshl, although originally subordinate to the Principality of Vladimir-in-Volhynia, remained a semi-independent principality into the middle of the 13th century and beyond. Although the details are not always available, it formed part of the orbit of the emerging Principality of Halych. During the conflict between Rostislav Mikhailovich and Daniil Romanovich (formerly its prince), it was one of the former's strongholds; its bishop supported Rostislav, and when Rostislav occupied Halych, he appointed Konstantin of Ryazan to oversee Peremyshl. Peremyshl is known to have been the main fort of Boleslaw-Yuri, King of Rus, going into Polish hands after his death.


The Cloister of Martins

The Cloister of Martins () is a 1951 West German drama film directed by Richard Häussler and starring Willy Rösner, Gisela Fackeldey and Heinz Engelmann. It is based on the novel of the same title by Ludwig Ganghofer. The film is part of the postwar tradition of heimatfilm in German cinema.
The film's sets were designed by the art directors Willi Horn and Carl Ludwig Kirmse.


Rabi Lenke

György Károlyné Rabi Lenke (1954 – 13 June 2020) was a Hungarian historian and librarian.
The city of Naszály published on their official page that she died on 13 June 2020.


Robert Waldby

Robert Waldby (died 1397) was a native of York and friar of the Order of Saint Augustine who followed Edward, the Black Prince into Aquitaine. After studying at Toulouse, he became professor of theology there.
There is a possibility Waldby was Bishop of Sodor and Man in 1381, although at the time John Dongan was the bishop from 1374 to 1391. He definitely became Bishop of Aire in Gascony in 1387, and translated to the archbishopric of Dublin in Ireland on 14 November 1390. Five years later he translated to the bishopric of Chichester in England on 25 October 1395, and finally became Archbishop of York on 5 October 1396.
Waldby died on 29 December 1397 with his bishopric being "sede vacante" on 6 January 1398. He was buried in the Chapel of St. Edmund in Westminster Abbey, where his monumental brass still remains.


List of Baltic Germans

This is a list of notable Baltic Germans.


Baron of Menstrie

The Baron of Menstrie (Baron of Menstry) was a title in the peerage of Scotland.


Giovanni Pippan

Giovanni Pippan (also known as Giovanni Pipan and Ivan Pipan) (16 December 1894, Trieste - 31 August 1933, Cicero, Illinois) was an Italian labor leader and socialist, active in Italy, Croatia and the United States of America.
Early life.
Giovanni Pippan was born to Valentino Pippan and Maria Brissek in Trieste. His family may have been of Friulian origin. He was married and widowed some time before 1921.
The Albona Republic.
In the spring of 1921 Pippan was sent by the Italian Socialist Party to organise the striking miners of Labin on the Istrian peninsula. On March 1 he was caught by a group of fascists at the railway station in Pazin, where he was beaten. The news reached Albona the following day and on 3 March the miners assembled and decided to occupy the mine works in response.
The miners proclaimed the Albona Republic in the occupied mines on 7 March with the slogan "Kova je nasa" ("The mine is ours"). They organized a government and the so-called red guard as a protection from the Italian law enforcement and started to manage the production of mines by themselves with the support of a section of farmers. On April 8, 1921 the Italian administration in Istria, responding to requests for intervention from the mine owners, decided to suppress the republic using military force. 52 of the rebellion’s leaders were indicted for various crimes, with Pippan being first on the charge sheet. Lawyers Edmondo Puecher, Guido Zennaro and Egidio Cerlenizza successfully defended the accused, and the jury issued an acquittal. Shortly afterwards, because of the threat to his life from fascists if he remained in Italy, he left for the United States.
Chicago.
In the United States, Pippan helped organise the silk workers of Paterson, New Jersey. He was also active in the campaign to save Sacco and Vanzetti and fought against fascist elements in the Italian immigrant community. and became a member of the American Communist Party (1926-1931). In 1931 he went to Chicago where he became involved in the unionisation of bread delivery drivers.
In the 1920s and 1930s bakeries in Chicago were controlled by criminal racketeers and delivered bread from door to door on horse-drawn carts. The drivers wanted to reduce their long hours and increase their pay, so in 1933 they approached the Socialist Federation to ask for help in forming a union. Pippan not only formed a drivers’ union, but also began trying to persuade the bakers themselves to unionise and free themselves of racketeer control. He was assassinated in Cicero, Illinois. The date is variously given as 29 or 31 August 1933.


Brokmerland

The Brokmerland is a landscape and an historic territory, located in western East Frisia, which covers the area in and around the present-day communities of Brookmerland and Südbrookmerland. The Brokmerland borders in the east on the Harlingerland and in the north on the Norderland. The historic Brokmerland is usually written with only one "o". Occasionally one also finds the spelling "Broekmerland" ("oe" pronounced as a long "o"), while today's communities have chosen to spell the name with a double "o".
Etymology.
The name comes from the Old Frisian and Old Low German word "brōk", which meant a moor-like carr landscape that had been very sparsely settled. It stretched from the western edge of the East Frisian geest ridge, from the Ley (Norder Tief) to the Flumm (Fehntjer Tief), and was characterised by numerous shallow lakes from the Großes Meer to the Sandwater. The suffix "mer" is derived from "mann" (i.e. "man") with the possessive suffix "-er".
History.
Until the early Middle Ages the Brokmerland was largely uninhabited and provided a natural boundary between the Federgau and the Emsgau on one side and the provinces of Norditi (Norderland) and Östringen on the other side. This boundary also played a role in church history because it was the dividing line between the Diocese of Münster (Federgau and Emsgau) and the Archdiocese of Bremen (Norderland and Östringen).
Archaeological finds suggest a sparse population in the period up to 800 AD. The population grew from about 1100, firstly because the construction of dykes in the region was completed and, secondly, because the "Julian Flood" of 1164 forced many people to flee inland from the coast. In addition, the population increased in the High Middle Ages, which resulted the sparsely populated or unsettled areas of East Frisia being opened up by land development, a process known as internal colonization. As a result of this, the Brokmerland was reclaimed for agriculture by settlers from the Krummhörn Marsh as well as the Norder and Aurich Geest. In the 11 and 12th centuries new settlements and the first churches were built here on the edge and the outliers of the geest. The result of this process were the ribbon villages ("Reihendörfer") with their right (called "Upstrecken") to claim land into the moor until they reached someone else's land.
The "Brokmers" are mentioned for the first time in the Östringen (Rastede) chronicles of 1148, which may indicate that by this time they had attained a certain importance. From 1251 the "Brokmänner" then appear as inhabitants of an independent territory, the Brokmerland, which was initially divided into three intermediate districts, each with two mother churches: Marienhafe and Engerhafe, Wiegsboldsbur and Burhafe (now isolated farms in the Victorbur Marsh), Bedekaspel and Südwolde (Blaukirchen). The church districts belonged to the Diocese of Münster. The main place of assembly of the "Brokmann" to begin with was probably the Wiegboldsbur Church.
In the course of the 13th century the Brokmerland experienced its heyday. The construction of great churches was carried out during this time, of which the (formerly three-aisled) Marienhafe Church is the largest. At that time she was even the largest church in northwest Germany and even in 1462 Pope Pius II paid an indulgence for visiting the church, for donations towards furniture, as well as monetary donations for the preservation of the Church "curia beate Marie". The Bishop of Münster acknowledged the growing importance of the area in the middle of the 13th century by granting the church its own diocese. Previously, it had been assigned to the dean's office of Uttum and Hinte. In addition, the bishop built a castle in Fehnhusen in the parish of Engerhafe, later called the Oldeborg and which formed the nucleus of the modern village.
The Frisian territories had a consulate constitution under which the consuls and judges were elected by the people for one year. Political leadership and the judiciary were directly in the hands of the population. Every year, meetings were held by the representative of the seven Frisian maritime territories ("Seelande"). The Upstalsboom from that period is still a popular meeting place today. The Brokmerland had its own jurisdiction and, in the "Brokmerbrief", its own constitution as well. This document acts as the most detailed source of Frisian law from the territorial and judicial constitution in Brokmerland, whose law was based on the collective will of the people.
At the end of the 13th century, Auricherland joined the Brokmerland and formed the fourth region in its territory. After the end of the reign of the tom Brok chieftains in 1450, the Auricherland separated again from Brokmerland.
Chieftain rule.
This consulate constitution lasted until the middle of the 14th century. It then disintegrated and was gradually replaced, as the powerful families took over the chieftainship. In the Bokmerland this was the family of Kenesma, which in the second half of the 14th century was awarded the chieftainship in the Brokmerland. Later, they renamed themselves into the tom Broks and built the castle of Brooke next to the existing episcopal castle in Oldeborg. Later, the tom Broks built a second castle in Aurich.
The capital, Marienhafe, developed at this time to an important trading centre. After severe floods in 1374 and 1377 it even became the seaport. Thus the possibility arose of goods from the Brookmerland being transported by water to the Münsterland. The "Wadden" mudflats of Leybucht and Kuipersand in front of Marienhafe take their name from the old three-aisle Marienhafe mother church. Its roof was covered on its north side with copper ("Kuiper" = Frisian-Dutch for copper) and on the south side with slate ("Ley" = old German for slate), so that, from the sea, the changing view of the church with its copper and slate sides acted as a seamark to guide the experienced sailor along the permanently navigable tidal inlet and other stretches of waterway, even at low tide. Without this local knowledge, the place and its tide-dependent harbour were virtually unapproachable from the sea.
In the late 14th Century pirates under Klaus Störtebeker were sheltered in Marienhafe. As a result he returned the favour in the battle for East Frisia by the chieftains of Brookmerland. Widzel tom Brok had opened the then relatively new port to the "Likedeelers" or "Victual Brothers" under Klaus Störtebeker. They used the place as a safe haven for stashing their booty and for selling it. This was finally stopped by several punitive expeditions by Hamburg, which took action against the pirates and those chieftains sympathizing with them. Marienhafe was saved from destruction because of its safe harbour. Faldern and Larrelt near Emden and other East Frisian buildings were destroyed however.
The tom Broks initially tried with some success to establish a territory across Frisia on both sides of the River Ems. Ocko II finally inherited such a large domain, that he could be titled the Chieftain of East Frisia. In the period that followed there were disputes between Focko Ukena and Ocko tom Brok, however, that spilled over into open conflict. After Ukena's initial victory over Ocko II at Detern in 1426 Focko allied himself with the Bischop of Münster and numerous East Frisian chieftains against Ocko who was now confined to the Brokmerland and finally defeated him on 28 October at the Wild Fields. He was taken to Leer and was imprisoned there for four years. In 1435 he died, powerless, as the last of his line in Norden.
The reign of Focko Ukena in the Brokmerland that followed turned out to be only a short-term interlude. Having just escaped from the yoke of tom Brok, many of the people felt betrayed by the new rulers, because, like the tom Broks, they appeared not to honour Frisian freedom. As a result there was a revolt around 1430 in the Brookmerland (today's spelling), which after an unsuccessful attack by Focko on the town of Bremen by the Lower Weser, spread into a general uprising by the East Frisia people.
On 14 November 1430 after the conquest of Oldersum and Aurich, the East Frisian territorial alliances ("Landesverbände") and lesser chieftains, led by Chieftain Edzard Cirksena from Greetsiel, formed the Freedom League of the Seven East Frisian States. In 1440, the Cirksena, then judges and "guardians", became the chieftains of the Brookmerland and Auricherland and had finally begun there, after Ukena's brief reign, the line of the tom Broks. They had, however, to take into consideration municipal freedom ("Gemeindefreiheit") and provincial law. The country's municipalities had reconstituted themselves. For example, there was once again a Brookmerland, an Auricherland and even a separate (Bangsted, Ochtelbur, Riepe and Simonswolde).
in 1464, when the Cirksena were elevated to imperial counts, they turned the areas controlled by their castles into districts ("Ämter"): from then on the Brookmerland, along with the Auricherland, belonged to district ("Amt") of Aurich and was divided into the "Vogtei" of Nordbrookmer, with Osteel, Marienhafe and Siegelsum, and the "Vogtei" of Südbrookmer with the parishes of Engerhafe, Victorbur, Wiegboldsbur, Bedekaspel and Forlitz-Blaukirchen. Subsequently Brookmerland shared the fate of the County.


Montenegro (province)

Province of Montenegro () was a temporary province in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It existed in the period from Yugoslav unification at the end of 1918 to the implementation of the new territorial organization, which began in 1922. The abolition of the temporary provinces and the introduction of the area as new administrative units were envisaged by the Vidovdan Constitution of 1921 and the relevant regulations, which were adopted in 1922, after which the constitutional provisions were drafted in practice.
History.
By the decision of the Podgorica Assembly of 28 November 1918, the Executive Committee was elected, which had the role of a provisional government in the territory of the previously abolished Kingdom of Montenegro. The board consisted of: Stevo Vukotić, Spasoje Piletić, Lazar Damjanović, Risto Jojić and President Marko Daković. In April 1919, the power in the province was taken over by the royal commissioner Ivo Pavićević. The reorganization of the administration was carried out after the adoption of the Decree on the division of the country into areas from 1922, which prescribed the creation of Zeta Banovina, with a wider spatial scope. District Chiefs was Ljubomir Glomazić for Cetinje, Risto Vujačić for Bar and Mujo Sočica for Nikšić.
Administrative divisions.
Territory of Montenegro was divided into six areas, with centers in Cetinje, Andrijevica, Bar, Kolašin, Nikšić and Podgorica.