History of North Macedonia

The history of North Macedonia encompasses the history of the territory of the modern state of North Macedonia.
Ancient period.
In antiquity, most of the territory that is now North Macedonia was included in the kingdom of Paeonia, which was populated by the Paeonians, a people of Thracian origins, but also parts of ancient Illyria, Ancient Macedonians populated the area in the south, living among many other tribes and Dardania, inhabited by various Illyrian peoples, and Lyncestis and Pelagonia populated by the ancient Greek Molossian tribes. None of these had fixed boundaries; they were sometimes subject to the Kings of Macedon, and sometimes broke away.
In the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persians under Darius the Great conquered the Paeonians, incorporating what is today North Macedonia within their vast territories. Following the loss in the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the Persians eventually withdrew from their European territories, including from what is today North Macedonia.
In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon fully annexed Upper Macedonia, including its northern part and southern Paeonia, which both now lie within North Macedonia. Philip's son Alexander the Great conquered most of the remainder of the region, incorporating it in his empire, with exclusion of Dardania. The Romans included most of the Republic in their province of Macedonia, but the northernmost parts (Dardania) lay in Moesia; by the time of Diocletian, they had been subdivided, and the Republic was split between Macedonia Salutaris and Moesia prima. Little is known about the Slavs before the 5th century.
Medieval period.
At this period the area divided from the Jireček Line was populated from people of Thraco-Roman or Illyro-Roman origins, as well from Hellenized citizens of the Byzantine Empire and Byzantine Greeks. The ancient languages of the local Thraco-Illyrian people had already gone extinct before the arrival of the Slavs, and their cultural influence was highly reduced due to the repeated barbaric invasions on the Balkans during the early Middle Ages, accompanied by persistent hellenization, romanisation and later slavicisation. South Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day North Macedonia in the 6th century. The Slavic settlements were referred to by Byzantine Greek historians as "Sklavinies". The Sklavinies participated in several assaults against the Byzantine Empire - alone or aided by Bulgars or Avars. Around 680 AD the Bulgar group, led by khan Kuber (who belonged to the same Dulo clan as the Danubian Bulgarian khan Asparukh), settled in the Pelagonian plain, and launched campaigns to the region of Thessaloniki.
In the late 7th century Justinian II organized massive expeditions against the Sklaviniai of the Greek peninsula, in which he reportedly captured over 110,000 Slavs and transferred them to Cappadocia. By the time of Constans II (who also organized campaigns against the Slavs), the significant number of the Slavs of Macedonia were captured and transferred to central Asia Minor where they were forced to recognize the authority of the Byzantine emperor and serve in its ranks.
Use of the name "Sklavines" as a nation on its own was discontinued in Byzantine records after circa 836 as those Slavs in the Macedonia region became a population in the First Bulgarian Empire. Originally two distinct peoples, "Sklavines" and "Bulgars", the Bulgars assimilated the Slavic language/identity whilst maintaining the Bulgarian demonym and name of the empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated the entire region to its domain in AD 837. Saints Cyril and Methodius, Byzantine Greeks born in Thessaloniki, were the creators of the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet and Old Church Slavonic language. They were also apostles-Christianizators of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for "first archbishop in Bulgarian language" with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, he created a flourishing Bulgarian cultural center around Ohrid, where over 3,000 pupils were taught in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic script in what is now called Ohrid Literary School.
At the end of the 10th century, much of what is now North Macedonia became the political and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Samuel; while the Byzantine emperor Basil II came to rule the eastern part of the empire (what is now Bulgaria), including the then capital Preslav, in 972. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. From then on, the Bulgarian model became an integral part of wider Slavic culture as a whole. After several decades of almost incessant fighting, Bulgaria came under Byzantine rule in 1018. The whole of North Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as "Theme of Bulgaria" and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an archbishopric, the Archbishopric of Ohrid.
Dobromir Chrysos rebelled against the emperor and after an unsuccessful imperial campaign in autumn 1197, the emperor sued for peace and recognized Dobromir-Chrysus’ rights to lands between the Strymon and Vardar, including Strumica and the fortress of Prosek.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, Byzantine control was punctuated by periods of Bulgarian and Serbian rule. For example, Konstantin Asen - a former nobleman from Skopje - ruled as tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277. Later, Skopje became a capital of the Serbian Empire under Stefan Dušan. After the dissolution of the empire, the area became a domain of independent local Serbian rulers from the Mrnjavčević and Dragaš houses. The domain of the Mrnjavčević house included western parts of present-day North Macedonia and domains of the Dragaš house included eastern parts. The capital of the state of Mrnjavčević house was Prilep. There are only two known rulers from the Mrnjavčević house - king Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his son, king Marko. King Marko became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire and later died in the Battle of Rovine.
During the period in the 12th, 13th and early 14th century, parts of modern western North Macedonia were under the rule of the Albanian Noble Gropa family, which ruled territories between Ohrid and Debar. The city of Debar and some other territories after the ending rule of Gropa Noble family, were ruled by the Albanian Royal House of Kastrioti which ruled the Principality of Kastrioti during the end of the 14th century and the first half of the 15th century. After the death of the Albanian Prince Gjon Kastrioti in 1437, many parts of his domains were conquered by the Ottoman Empire and shortly after this, during the 15th century were again restored into the Albanian rule of League of Lezhë led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. During this period, western territories of modern North Macedonia became battleground between the Albanian and Ottoman armies. Some of the battles that took place in the territory of Macedonia were the Battle of Polog, Battle of Mokra, Battle of Ohrid, Battle of Otonetë, Battle of Oranik and many others. Skanderbeg's Campaign into Macedonia also took place. With the death of Skanderbeg on the 17th of January 1468 the Albanian Resistance began to fall. After the death of Skanderbeg the Albanian League was led by Lekë Dukagjini, but it didn't have the same success as before and the last Albanian strongholds were conquered in 1479 in the Siege of Shkodër.
Ottoman period.
Conquered by the Ottoman army at the end of the 14th century, the region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for over 500 years, as part of the province or Eyalet of Rumelia. During this in the second half of the 15th century the Albanian Leader of the League of Lezhë, Skanderbeg was able to occupy places in modern western North Macedonia that were under Ottoman rule like the then well known city of Ohrid (Albanian Ohër) in the Battle of Ohrid. Tetovo (Battle of Polog) and many other places. The Albanian forces under Skanderbeg penetrated deep into modern North Macedonia in the Battle of Mokra. But this did not last long and the places were again occupied by the Ottomans. Rumelia (Turkish: "Rumeli") means "Land of the Romans" in Turkish, referring to the lands conquered by the Ottoman Turks from the Byzantine Empire.). Over the centuries Rumelia Eyalet was reduced in size through administrative reforms, until by the nineteenth century it consisted of a region of central Albania and north-western part of the current state of North Macedonia with its capital at Manastir or present day Bitola. Rumelia Eyalet was abolished in 1867 and the territory of North Macedonia subsequently became part of the provinces of Manastir Vilayet, Kosovo Vilayet and Salonica Vilayet until the end of Ottoman rule in 1912.
During the period of Ottoman rule the region gained a substantial Turkish minority, especially in the religious sense of Muslim; some of those Muslims became so through conversions. During the Ottoman rule, Skopje and Monastir (Bitola) were capitals of separate Ottoman provinces (eyalets). The valley of the river Vardar, which was later to become the central area of North Macedonia, was ruled by the Ottoman Empire prior to the First Balkan War of 1912, with the exception of the brief period in 1878 when it was liberated from Ottoman rule after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), becoming part of Bulgaria. In 1903, a short-lived Kruševo Republic was proclaimed in the south-western part of present-day North Macedonia by the rebels of the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising. Most of the ethnographers and travellers during Ottoman rule classified Slavic speaking people in Macedonia as Bulgarians. Examples include the 17th century traveller Evliya Çelebi in his "Seyahatname: Book of Travels" to the Ottoman census of Hilmi Pasha in 1904 and later. However, they also remarked that the language spoken in Macedonia had somewhat of a distinctive character — often described as a "Western Bulgarian dialect" as other Bulgarian dialects in modern western Bulgaria. Evidence also exists that certain Macedonian Slavs, particularly those in the northern regions, considered themselves as Serbs, on the other hand the intention to join Greece predominated in southern Macedonia where it was supported by substantial part of the Slavic-speaking population too. Although references are made referring to Slavs in Macedonia being identified as Bulgarians, some scholars suggest that ethnicity in medieval times was more fluid than what we see it to be today, an understanding derived from nineteenth century nationalistic ideals of a homogeneous nation-state.
During the period of Bulgarian National Revival, many Bulgarians from Vardar Macedonia supported the struggle for creation of Bulgarian cultural educational and religious institutions, including Bulgarian Exarchate.
1912–1944.
The region was captured by the Kingdom of Serbia during First Balkan War of 1912 and was subsequently annexed to Serbia in the post-war peace treaties except Strumica region was part of Bulgaria between 1912 and 1919. It had no administrative autonomy and was called South Serbia (') or "Old Serbia" ('). It was occupied by the Kingdom of Bulgaria between 1915 and 1918. After the First World War, the Kingdom of Serbia joined the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, the kingdom was officially renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and was divided into provinces called banovinas. The territory of Vardar Banovina had Skopje as its capital and it included what eventually became modern North Macedonia.
After World War I (1914–1918) the Slavs in Serbian Macedonia ("Vardar Macedonia") were regarded as southern Serbs and the language they spoke a southern Serbian dialect. The Bulgarian, Greek and Romanian schools were closed, the Bulgarian priests and all non-Serbian teachers were expelled. The policy of Serbianization in the 1920s and 1930s clashed with pro-Bulgarian sentiment stirred by Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) detachments infiltrating from Bulgaria, whereas local communists favoured the path of self-determination.
In 1925, D. J. Footman, the British vice consul at Skopje, addressed a lengthy report for the Foreign Office. He wrote that "the majority of the inhabitants of "Southern Serbia" are Orthodox Christian Macedonians, ethnologically more akin to the Bulgarians than to the Serbs. He also pointed to the existence of the tendency to seek an independent Macedonia with Salonica as its capital." During World War II, the Vardar Banovina was occupied between 1941 and 1944 by Italian-ruled Albania, which annexed the Albanian-populated western regions, and pro-German Bulgaria, which occupied the remainder. The occupying powers persecuted those inhabitants of the province who opposed the regime; this prompted some of them to join the Communist resistance movement of Josip Broz Tito. However, the Bulgarian army was well received by most of the population when it entered Macedonia and it was able to recruit from the local population, which formed as much as 40% to 60% of the soldiers in certain battalions.
1944–1949.
Following World War II, Yugoslavia was reconstituted as a federal state under the leadership of Tito's Yugoslav Communist Party. When the former Vardar province was established in 1944, most of its territory was transferred into a separate republic while the northernmost parts of the province remained with Serbia. In 1946, the new republic was granted federal status as an autonomous "People's Republic of Macedonia" within the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the 1963 Constitution of Yugoslavia it was slightly renamed, to bring it in line with the other Yugoslav republics, as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.
Greece was concerned by the initiatives of the Yugoslav government, as they were seen as a pretext for future territorial claims against the Greek region of Macedonia, which formed the bulk of historical Macedonia. The Yugoslav authorities also promoted the development of the Macedonians' ethnic identity and Macedonian language. The Macedonian language was codified in 1944 (Keith 2003), from the Slavic dialect spoken around Veles. This further angered both Greece and Bulgaria, because of the possible territorial claims of the new states to the Greek and Bulgarian parts of the historic region of Macedonia received after the Balkan Wars.
During the Greek Civil War (1944–1949), many Macedonians (regardless of ethnicity) participated in the ELAS resistance movement organized by the Communist Party of Greece. ELAS and Yugoslavia were on good terms until 1949, when they split due to Tito's lack of allegiance to Joseph Stalin (cf. Cominform). After the end of the war, the ELAS fighters who took refuge in southern Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were not all permitted by Greece to return: only those who considered themselves Greeks were allowed, whereas who considered themselves Bulgarian or Macedonian Slavs were barred. These events also contributed to the bad state of Yugoslav-Greek relations in the Macedonia region.
Independence.
In 1990, the form of government peacefully changed from socialist state to parliamentary democracy. The first multi-party elections were held on 11 and 25 November and 9 December 1990. After the collective presidency led by was dissolved, Kiro Gligorov became the first democratically-elected president of the Republic of Macedonia on 31 January 1991. On 16 April 1991, the parliament adopted a constitutional amendment removing "Socialist" from the official name of the country, and on 7 June of the same year, the new name, "Republic of Macedonia", was officially established.
On 8 September 1991, the country held an independence referendum where 95.26% voted for independence from Yugoslavia, under the name of the "Republic of Macedonia". The question of the referendum was formulated as "Would you support independent Macedonia with the right to enter future union of sovereign states of Yugoslavia?" (Macedonian: Дали сте за самостојна Македонија со право да стапи во иден сојуз на суверени држави на Југославија?). On 25 September 1991 the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted by the Macedonian Parliament making the Republic of Macedonia an independent country - although in Macedonia independence day is still celebrated as the day of the referendum 8 September. A new Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia was adopted on 17 November 1991.
Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the position of ethnic Albanians was uncertain in the early years of the new Macedonian republic. Various Albanian political parties emerged, of which the Party for Democratic Prosperity (PDP) was the largest and most prominent. The PDP called for the improvement of the status of Albanians in North Macedonia, such as extended education rights and Albanian language usage, constitutional changes, release of political prisoners, proportional voting system and an end to discrimination. Discontent with the lack of constitutional recognition of collective rights for Albanians resulted in PDP leader Nevzat Halili declaring his party would regard the constitution as invalid and move toward seeking autonomy, declaring a Republic of Ilirida in 1992 and again in 2014. The proposal has been declared unconstitutional by the Macedonian government.
Bulgaria was the first country to recognize the new Macedonian state under its constitutional name. However, international recognition of the new country was delayed by Greece's objection to the use of what it considered a Hellenic name and national symbols, as well as controversial clauses in the Republic's constitution, a controversy known as the Macedonia naming dispute. To compromise, the country was admitted to the United Nations under the provisional name of "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" on 8 April 1993.
Greece was still dissatisfied and it imposed a trade blockade in February 1994. The sanctions were lifted in September 1995 after Macedonia changed its flag and aspects of its constitution that were perceived as granting it the right to intervene in the affairs of other countries. The two neighbours immediately went ahead with normalizing their relations, but the state's name remains a source of local and international controversy. The usage of each name remains controversial to supporters of the other.
After the state was admitted to the United Nations under the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", other international organisations adopted the same convention. More than half of the UN's member states have recognized the country as the Republic of Macedonia, including the United States of America while the rest use the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" or have not established any diplomatic relations with the country.
In 1999, the Kosovo War led to 340,000 Albanian refugees from Kosovo fleeing into the Republic of Macedonia, greatly disrupting normal life in the region and threatening to upset the balance between Macedonians and Albanians. Refugee camps were set up in the country. Athens did not interfere with the Republic's affairs when NATO forces moved to and from the region ahead a possible invasion of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Thessaloniki was the main depot for humanitarian aid to the region. The Republic of Macedonia did not become involved in the conflict.
In end the war, Yugoslav president Slobodan Milošević reached an agreement with NATO which allowed refugees to return under UN protection. However, the war increased tensions and relations between ethnic Macedonians and Albanian Macedonians became strained. On the positive side, Athens and Ankara presented a united front of 'non-involvement'. In Greece, there was a strong reaction against NATO and the United States.
2000s.
In the spring of 2001, ethnic Albanian insurgents calling themselves the National Liberation Army (some of whom were former members of the Kosovo Liberation Army) took up arms in the west of the Republic of Macedonia. They demanded that the constitution be rewritten to enshrine certain Albanian minority interests such as language rights. The guerillas received support from Albanians in NATO-controlled Kosovo and Albanian guerrillas in the demilitarized zone between Kosovo and the rest of Serbia. The fighting was concentrated in and around Tetovo, the fifth largest city in the country.
After a joint NATO-Serb crackdown on Albanian guerrillas in Kosovo, European Union (EU) officials were able to negotiate a cease-fire in June. The government would give Macedonian Albanians greater civil rights, and the guerrilla groups would voluntarily relinquish their weapons to NATO monitors. This agreement was a success, and in August 2001 3,500 NATO soldiers conducted "Operations Essential Harvest" to retrieve the arms. Directly after the operation finished in September the NLA officially dissolved itself. Ethnic relations have since improved significantly, although hardliners on both sides have been a continued cause for concern and some low level violence continues particularly directed against police.
On 26 February 2004, President Boris Trajkovski died in a plane crash near Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The results of the official investigation revealed that the cause of the plane accident was procedural mistakes by the crew, committed during the approach to land at Mostar Airport.
In March 2004, the country submitted an application for membership of the European Union, and on 17 December 2005 was listed by the EU Presidency conclusions as an accession candidate (as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"). However, accession proceedings were delayed due to opposition by Greece until the 2018 resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute, and later by Bulgaria due to unresolved differences between the two countries on the history of the region and what is perceived as "anti-Bulgarian ideology".
2010s.
In June 2018, the Prespa agreement was reached between the governments of Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia to rename the latter the Republic of North Macedonia, or North Macedonia for short. This agreement, after it had been accepted by the respective legislatures of both countries, came into effect on 12 February 2019, thus ending the disputes.


Kvarner Gulf

The Kvarner Gulf (, or , or ), sometimes also Kvarner Bay, is a bay in the northern Adriatic Sea, located between the Istrian peninsula and the northern Croatian Littoral mainland. The bay is a part of Croatia's internal waters.
The largest islands within the Kvarner are Cres, Krk, Pag, Rab and Lošinj. A portion of the Kvarner Bay, located between Cres, Krk, Rab and Pag is also called "Kvarnerić" (literally "little Kvarner") or or , and the portion east of Krk and Rab is called Senj Channel.
The bay is notable for its depth, which allows for the city of Rijeka at its northernmost point to have a sea port that can accommodate Capesize ships.


Georgios Lassanis

Georgios Lassanis () (1793–1870) was a scholar and politician from Kozani, Greece.
He studied literature and philosophy in Leipzig, then, in 1818, moved to Odessa, where he taught at the Greek community's business school. In Russia he became a member of Filiki Eteria, a secret Greek organisation. In 1820, he abandoned teaching and Odessa, and became the adjutant of Alexander Ypsilantis. Lassanis and Ypsilantis were arrested by Austrian authorities and they were kept in close confinement for seven years in Terezín. In 1827 they were released at the insistence of emperor Nicholas I of Russia. After the death of Ypsilantis, Lassanis returned to Greece. In Greece he took part in the Greek revolution with Dimitrios Ypsilantis. After the establishment of the first Greek state he became general inspector of the army of eastern Greece, and in 1837 he became finance minister.
He died at the age of 77, in 1870.
Georgios Lassanis' mansion is preserved in a square of Kozani, which bears his name ("Plateia Lassani"), and it is used as the Municipal Map Library. In his honor, the municipality of Kozani holds a "Lassaneia festival" every August, with theatre, concerts, athletic events, etc.
References.
kozanh.gr


Marie de Nemours

Marie de Nemours, originally known as Marie d'Orléans-Longueville (1625–1707), was Princess of Neuchâtel from 1694 to 1707. She was the daughter of Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville and Louise de Bourbon. After the death of her brother Jean Louis Charles d'Orléans-Longueville in 1694 she succeeded him as sovereign Princess of Neuchâtel, although she remained a prominent member of the French royal court.
Biography.
Descended from Jean d'Orléans, illegitimate son of Louis I, Duke of Orléans, she was known as Mademoiselle de Longueville prior to her marriage.
By her marriage with Henri of Savoy, she became Duchess of Nemours. The couple were married on 22 May 1657 at Trie. The dukes of Nemours were descendants of the Dukes of Savoy having settled in France in the sixteenth century, where they ranked as "princes étrangers".
At an early age she was involved in the first Fronde, of which her father and stepmother, Anne Geneviève de Bourbon, were leaders. She married Henri II, Duke of Nemours in 1657. When he died in 1659, leaving her childless, the rest of her life was mainly spent in contesting her inheritance with her stepmother. Her Savoyard nieces included Marie Jeanne, Duchess of Savoy and Marie Françoise, Queen of Portugal.
The Dukes of Longueville had acquired the principality of Neuchâtel through marriage to Johanna von Hachberg-Sausenberg. After the death of her brother Jean-Louis-Charles d'Orléans in 1694, she succeeded him as Princess of Neuchâtel.
Legacy.
She left some interesting memoirs, published by C. B. Petitot in the "Collection complete des memoires" (1819–1829).
She was the muse for Jean Loret's "Muse historique" (1650, 1660, 1665), a collection of weekly "gazette burlesque" reporting on the news of Paris society and the court of Louis XIV in the form of letters to Marie d'Orléans-Longueville which are considered an early example of French journalism.
Her childless death in 1707, without close relatives, opened a conflict about her vast inheritance. For example, see Duke of Estouteville.


9th century in England

Events from the 9th century in England.


Marina von Ditmar

Marina von Ditmar (30 October 1914 – 3 September 2014) was a German film actress born in Saint Petersburg of Baltic German descent.
After moving to Germany she studied acting under Lucie Höflich and Ilka Grüning. Her first roles were performed at the "Schauspielhaus", Bremen, and the Altes Theater (Leipzig). In 1937 she started with the ensemble at the "Volksbühne", Berlin. By 1940 she was a permanent actress at this theatre. Her first big movie success came in the operetta "The Csardas Princess" in 1934, alongside Hans Söhnker. In 1943 she starred with Hans Albers in "Münchhausen" with great commercial and critical success. During the Third Reich she was cast in several Nazi propaganda films, such as "Legion Condor" (1939) with Paul Hartmann, and "Stukas" (1941) as a French girl alongside Carl Raddatz.
In 1949 she married Dr. Hans-Georg Dehnhardt (1913–2001) and after having starred in about 24 movies she retired from acting. She died the month before her 100th birthday, in Bad Kissingen, Bavaria, where she is buried in the Parkfriedhof.


Vercelli Cathedral

Vercelli Cathedral (, "Cattedrale di Sant'Eusebio") is the principal church of the city of Vercelli in Piedmont, Italy, and the cathedral of the Archdiocese of Vercelli. It is dedicated to Saint Eusebius of Vercelli, the first bishop.
History.
The present cathedral is built on the site of earlier ones. The construction of the first, in the 4th century, is ascribed to Saint Eusebius himself, who, it is believed, built it over an ancient necropolis containing the remains of Saint Theonestus, to whom Eusebius dedicated it. After Eusebius's death he was buried there himself, and the dedication changed accordingly. This building was destroyed during the Gothic invasions of the 5th century. Its replacement was a large basilica inspired by those of Rome and Ravenna. A major refurbishment was carried out in the 9th century. In the 11th century another major restoration took place, as a consequence of extreme decay and in particular of a serious fire in 997 that threatened the stability of the structure. In the 12th century the present campanile was built, and the main body of the cathedral restored again: it now had five aisles separated by columns, a transept and an imposing portico. The apse was decorated with mosaics, and in the presbytery was an ambo sculpted by Benedetto Antelami.
In the second half of the 16th century Pellegrino Tibaldi of Valsolda was commissioned by the then bishop, Guido Ferrero, to rebuild the cathedral entirely to replace the medieval building, which the bishop had demolished. Tibaldi was able to erect the choir, the side chapels and the two sacristies before lack of funds brought the work to a halt after eight years. In 1682 a chapel to the south was built for the tomb of Blessed Amadeus IX. Between 1702 and 1717 Stefano Negro built the nave, aisles and transept. The remaining parts of the structure, including the west front, were completed in 1757-63 by Benedetto Alfieri and Luigi Barberis, who towards the end of the 18th century also added a chapel off the northern aisle for the relics of Saint Eusebius, which had been discovered during the reconstruction works of the 16th century. This was rebuilt in the late 19th century by Giuseppe Locarni, and the urn containing the remains is now located beneath the high altar. Giovanni Larghi added a dome in 1857-60.
In a chapel off the southern nave are buried not only Blessed Amadeus IX, for whose tomb it was built, but also other members of the ruling house of Savoy, including Charles I, Charles III, Yolande of Valois (wife of Blessed Amadeus) and Victor Amadeus I.
Treasury and library.
The cathedral possesses both an important treasury, now a museum, and an important library, housing the Vercelli Book and the Codex Vercellensis.


David Lewis Jones

David Lewis Jones (4 January 1945 – 15 October 2010) was a Welsh librarian and historian who was the librarian of the House of Lords Library from 1991 to 2006.
Early life and education.
Jones was born in Riversdale, Aberaeron, Cardiganshire, to Gwilym and Joyce Jones. He was educated at Aberaeron Grammar School and read history at Jesus College, Oxford.
Career.
Librarian.
Jones began his career as an assistant librarian at the Institute of Historical Research in London, 1970–72, before returning to Wales for five years as the law librarian at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1972–77.
In 1977, Lord Elwyn-Jones, Lord Chancellor in the Labour Government, recruited Jones to fill the post of deputy librarian of the House of Lords Library. This followed a report by a working group, led by David Eccles, 1st Viscount Eccles, that recommended creating a research service, hiring qualified librarians for the first time, acquiring updated books, and "dipping a toe in information technology". From 1977 to 1991, Jones, the first qualified librarian to serve in the post of deputy librarian, assisted Roger Morgan in transforming the librarian to modern standards.
Working directly with Eccles, Jones oversaw the installation of the Geac ADVANCE multiuser integrated online library system "incorporating acquisitions, cataloguing and serials control features and online access to that catalogue." Jones also create a significant programme for the conservation and cataloguing of the library's historic collections.
Jones succeed Morgan as librarian in 1991 and continued to work to modernise the library. cooperating with the House of Commons Library in developing shared online systems. Over his 15 years as librarian, he oversaw expansion of the library's holdings and tripled its staff from 10 to 30 by bringing highly qualified research clerks, librarians and secretarial staff to meet the increased demand from the Lords for quick access to research and information.
In 1999, Jones contributed to upgrades to the working law library for the Law Lords at the Palace of Westminster's West Front.
Morgan was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2005 Birthday Honours, in anticipation of his retirement.
He retired in 2006 and was succeeded by Elizabeth Hallam-Smith.
Historian.
David Lewis Jones was a prolific historian, biographer and bibliographer. He contributed several entries for the biographical dictionaries "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" and the "Dictionary of Welsh Biography", and authored a book on Eirene White, Baroness White.
From 1994 to 1996, he served as secretary to the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. In 1996, he was admitted to the Gorsedd at the National Eisteddfod of Wales in Llandeilo for his services for Welsh culture.
Personal life.
He died in Chiswick, London, following surgery at age 65.


Eremites Friary, Bristol

Eremites Friary was a friary in Bristol, England. The Brothers Eremites of St. Augustine kept a small convent near Temple Gate, founded by Sir Simon and Sir William Montacute in 1320. No trace of it remains today.


Scottish feudal lordship

A feudal lordship is a Scottish feudal title that is held "in baroneum", which Latin term means that its holder, who is called a feudal lord, is also always a feudal baron. A feudal lordship is an ancient title of nobility in Scotland. The holder may or may not be a Lord of Regality, which meant that the holder was appointed by the Crown and had the power of "pit and gallows", meaning the power to authorise the death sentence.
A Scottish feudal lord ranks above a Scottish feudal baron (being a feudal baron of a higher degree), but below a Lord of Parliament which is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, and below a feudal earldom, which is a feudal barony of still higher degree than a feudal lordship. There are far fewer feudal lordships than feudal baronies, whilst feudal earldoms are very rare.
While feudal barons originally sat in parliament (along with the lords and higher nobility who made up the Peerage), all of the peerage, originally, was within the feudal system. Later, some of what used to be feudal lordships came to be known as peerages (such as that of The Right Honourable The Lord Forrester) while others were sold, inherited by greater peers, or otherwise disqualified from the modern-day peerage. The feudal rights were gradually emasculated and, with the demise of the Scottish parliament in 1707, the right of feudal barons to sit in parliament ceased altogether, unless, that is, a feudal baron was also a Peer (Peerage rights are dealt with elsewhere).
Feudal lordships were all but abolished by Act of Parliament in 1747, following the Jacobite rising. A feudal barony no longer carries any political power as such, although the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 has preserved the baronies themselves, and the quality, precedence and heraldic rights pertaining to these baronies.
Between 1500 and 2000 feudal baronies may have been created, mostly in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, since only about 400 baronies are identified as existing in 1405. Because they fell into disuse, the substantiating paperwork for only a few hundred survives or has been identified. "Burke's Landed Gentry" for Scotland lists only about 130.
A peer is invariably addressed as 'Lord Placename' or 'Lord Such-and-so', whilst those holding a feudal lordship are addressed 'Lord of Placename' or 'Placename' and feudal barons are addressed as 'Baron of Placename' or 'Placename'.
A female feudal baron is usually referred to as 'Lady Placename'. The wife of a Lord receives the courtesy title 'Lady Placename', but the husband of a Lady, who holds a feudal barony in her own right, is just plain Mr. 'Surname'.
Lords of regality, feudal lords, and feudal barons are not to be confused with a manorial lordship.
Order of precedence of Scottish feudal titles.
Wallace states that:
"Lordships, Earldoms, Marquessates and Dukedoms differ only in name from Baronies" but continues "one whose property was erected into a Lordship ranked before a simple Baron" and "A person to whom an Earldom belonged, would be superior to a person who had no more than a lordship ... One, whose lands were incorporated into a Marquessate, was superior to both ... A man, who owned a fief elevated into a Dukedom, was exhaulted above all three."
The inference in terms of superiority from greater to lesser is thus: Feudal Duke, Feudal Marquess, Feudal Earl, Feudal Lord, Feudal Baron. (Note however that Lord Stair states that Lordships or Earldoms are "but more noble titles of a Barony".)
Usage.
The holder of a Scottish feudal lordship, in similar fashion to the holder of a barony ("e.g.", "Inverglen"), may add the title to his existing name ("e.g.", "John Smith, Lord of Inverglen") or add the territorial designation to his surname ("John Smith of Inverglen, Lord of Inverglen"); some of the oldest Scottish families prefer to be styled by the territorial designation alone ("Smith of Inverglen").
According to the UK government, the current policy of using titles on passports requires that the applicant provides evidence that the Lord Lyon has recognised a feudal barony (or in this case feudal lordship), or the title is included in "Burke's Peerage". If accepted (and if the applicant wishes to include the title), the correct form is for the applicant to include the territorial designation as part of their surname (Surname of territorial designation e.g. "Smith of Inverglen"). The Observation would then show the holder's full name, followed by their feudal title e.g. "The holder is John Smith, Lord of Inverglen".
Some barons, especially those resident outside Scotland, may choose to adopt the honorific The Much Honoured (abbreviated to The Much Hon.); Stobo being one such example. When north of the border, this honorific will generally be dropped in favour of the baron’s territorial designation.
List of feudal lordships (created before 1707).
Below is an incomplete list of Scottish feudal lordships created in Scotland before 1707.
a: The creation date is the earliest known date for the Lordship and subject to revision
b: The Barony of Hailes was granted to Adam de Hepburn by Patrick de Dunbar, Earl of March in 1343


Romito Cave

The Romito cave () is a natural limestone cave in the Lao Valley of Pollino National Park, near the town of Papasidero in Calabria, Italy. Stratigraphic record of the first excavation confirmed prolonged paleo-human occupation during the Upper Paleolithic since 17,000 years ago and the Neolithic since 6,400 years ago. A single, but exquisite piece of Upper Paleolithic parietal rock engraving was documented. Several burial sites of varying age were initially discovered. Irregularly recurring sessions have led to additional finds, which suggests future excavation work. Notable is the amount of accumulated data that has revealed deeper understanding of prehistoric daily life, the remarkable quality of the rock carvings and the burial named "Romito 2", who exhibits features of pathological skeletal conditions (dwarfism).
Site.
The "Grotta del Romito" was discovered by Agostino Miglio, then director of the Town Museum in Castrovillari in spring of 1961, who had received curious information from several local people. Excavations started in the summer of 1962 under the direction of Paolo Graziosi of the University of Florence. The Archaeological Park contains a small museum, that presents the documentation and ongoing research.
The site consists of two distinct areas: an outer former rock shelter or overhang with a length of and the inner cave, embedded into the limestone formation with a length of and accessible via a narrow tunnel. The interior is graced with a number of curiously shaped speleothems and prehistoric graffiti.
Stratigraphy.
Excavations in an enlarged trench performed in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2007 exposed a long sequence of strata, that forms seven main archaeological units (A–N) with episodes of intensive human occupation. The succession ranges from the Middle and Late Gravettian (units L-I-H-G) to the Early Epigravettian (unit F), Middle Epigravettian (lower unit E) and Late Epigravettian (upper unit E and units D-C-B). These cultural stages occurred between 26,000 and 10,000 years ago.
Deposits near the entrance are about thick and consist of clastic sediments. Palaeolithic deposits, up to thick, underlie the middle Holocene layers, around thick and contain Middle and Late Neolithic pottery. Locally derived rock blocks up to in size rest on the talus slope in front of, and below, the entrance, indicating that there was originally an overhang that later collapsed.
Deposits of human occupation contain numerous bones and stone tools, rounded out of size-exogenous pebbles and abundant charcoal detritus which is related to fireplaces. About fifty discovered pottery shards are evidence for occupation of the cave during the Neolithic/Iron Age transition.
Rock engravings.
The bull, an Aurochs ("Bos primigenius") is about long located at the mouth of the cave to the west and is engraved on three different levels of profiles. The stylistic scope is characteristic of the Mediterranean and the design of perfect proportions. The feeling of force transmitted from the overall design of the figure and the careful handling of the anatomical details amounts to highest expression of Paleolithic realism in the region. In front of the rock another bovine figure has been cut, much more subtly, showing only the chest, head and part of the back. On the opposite end of the shelter sits another engraved boulder, covered with numerous linear signs. Both engraving are dated to between 14,000 and 12,000 BP.
Obsidian tools.
The presence of large quantities of obsidian in a Neolithic layer suggests that the site was an intermediate base for the obsidian trade - that originated in the Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea to be transferred to the Adriatic Sea.
Burials.
During the first excavations three graves were found, 9,200 years old and each containing a couple of human beings, placed in epipaleolithic layers. One grave was found inside the cave, the other two underneath the adjacent rock shelter near the bull-engraved stone. The specimens were named "Romito 1 - 6" and all were between 15 and 25 years old and not taller than .
P. Graziosi discovered the diminutive remains of "Romito 2" that turned out to be the earliest known case of dwarfism in the human skeletal record. The specimen, known as "Romito 2", exhibits features typical of acromesomelic dysplasia. "Romito 2" was characterized by unusually short forearms and lower legs, resulting in a rather short stature. Abnormal cartilage and bone development also affected other bones of the body, particularly those of the hands and feet. There was likely a limited extension of the elbows and arms and progressively abnormal curvature of the spine.
Besides providing evidence for a greater antiquity of dwarfism than previously known, the fact that this individual reached late adolescence attests to tolerance of Upper Paleolithic groups for severely abnormal individuals and their ability to support members who were of limited economic value to the social group.
To date, nine intact, well preserved burials have been recovered from stratigraphic layers dating from ca. 18,000 to 11,000 BP, the majority of burials corresponding to a period of climatic amelioration from ca. 15,000 to 13,000 cal BP (Final Epigravettian).


Saloniana

Saloniana was an Illyrian settlement of the Delmatae.
The possible location is modern-day Imotski.


Vlahovtsi

Vlahovtsi is a former settlement in Gabrovo Municipality, in Gabrovo Province, in northern central Bulgaria. It has been uninhabited since 1975.


Dutch dialects

Dutch dialects are primarily the dialects that are both cognate with the Dutch language and are spoken in the same language area as the Dutch standard language. Dutch dialects are remarkably diverse and are found in the Netherlands and northern Belgium.
The province of Friesland is bilingual. The West Frisian language, distinct from Dutch, is spoken here along with standard Dutch and the Stadsfries dialect. A West Frisian standard language has also been developed.
First dichotomy.
In the east, there is a Dutch Low Saxon dialect area: in Groningen (Gronings), Drenthe, Overijssel, and major parts of Gelderland, Low Saxon is spoken. The group is not Low Franconian and is very close to its neighbor, Low German.
Holland and the Randstad.
In Holland, Hollandic is spoken, though the original forms of this dialect (which were heavily influenced by a West Frisian substratum and, from the 16th century on, by Brabantian dialects) are now relatively rare. The urban dialects of the Randstad, which are Hollandic dialects, do not diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there is a clear difference between the city dialects of Rotterdam, The Hague, Amsterdam or Utrecht.
In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are still being used, especially north of Amsterdam.
Another group of dialects based on Hollandic is that spoken in the cities and larger towns of Friesland, where it partially displaced West Frisian in the 16th century and is known as Stadsfries ("Urban Frisian").
Minority languages.
Germanic languages which have the status of official regional or minority language and are protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in the Netherlands are Limburgish, Dutch Low Saxon and West Frisian.
Limburgish receives protection by chapter 2 of the charter. In Belgium, where Limburgish is spoken as well, it does not receive such recognition or protection, because Belgium did not sign the charter. Limburgish has been influenced by the Ripuarian dialects like the Cologne dialect Kölsch, and has had a somewhat different development since the late Middle Ages.
Dutch Low Saxon also receives protection by chapter 2 of the charter. In some states of Germany, depending on the state, Low German receives protection by chapter 2 or 3.
West Frisian receives protection by chapter 3 of the charter. (West) Frisian evolved from the same West Germanic branch as Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon and is less akin to Dutch.
Recent use.
Dutch dialects and regional languages are not spoken as often as they used to be. Recent research by Geert Driessen shows that the use of dialects and regional languages among both Dutch adults and youth is in heavy decline. In 1995, 27 percent of the Dutch adult population spoke a dialect or regional language on a regular basis, while in 2011 this was no more than 11 percent. In 1995, 12 percent of the primary school aged children spoke a dialect or regional language, while in 2011 this had declined to 4 percent. Of the three officially recognized regional languages Limburgish is spoken most (in 2011 among adults 54%, among children 31%) and Dutch Low Saxon least (adults 15%, children 1%); West Frisian occupies a middle position (adults 44%, children 22%). In Belgium, however, dialects are very much alive; many senior citizens there are unable to speak standard Dutch.
Flanders.
In Flanders, there are four main dialect groups:
Some of these dialects, especially West and East Flemish, have incorporated some French loanwords in everyday language. An example is "fourchette" in various forms (originally a French word meaning fork), instead of "vork". Brussels is especially heavily influenced by French because roughly 85% of the inhabitants of Brussels speak French.
The Limburgish in Belgium is closely related to Dutch Limburgish. An oddity of West Flemings (and to a lesser extent, East Flemings) is that, when they speak AN, their pronunciation of the "soft g" sound (the voiced velar fricative) is almost identical to that of the "h" sound (the voiced glottal fricative), thus, the words "held" (hero) and "geld" (money) sound nearly the same, except that the latter word has a 'y' /j/ sound embedded into the "soft g". When they speak their local dialect, however, their "g" is almost the "h" of the Algemeen Nederlands, and they do not pronounce the "h". Some Flemish dialects are so distinct that they might be considered as separate language variants, although the strong significance of language in Belgian politics would prevent the government from classifying them as such. West Flemish in particular has sometimes been considered a distinct variety. Dialect borders of these dialects do not correspond to present political boundaries, but reflect older, medieval divisions.
The Brabantian dialect group, for instance, also extends to much of the south of the Netherlands, and so does Limburgish. West Flemish is also spoken in Zeelandic Flanders (part of the Dutch province of Zeeland), and by older people in French Flanders (a small area that borders Belgium).


Central Archaeological Council

The Central Archaeological Council and Museums Council (), commonly known simply by its older abbreviation KAS (Κ.Α.Σ.), is the supreme advisory body for all matters pertaining to the "protection of antiquities and cultural patrimony in general" in Greece.
Its present form and functions are regulated by Law 3028/2002, but its origins date back to 1834, when the Central Committee (Κεντρική Ἐπιτροπὴ) of the Greek Archaeological Service was established. This was renamed to Archaeological Committee (Ἀρχαιολογικὴ Ἐπιτροπὴ) and given broader powers in 1899, to Archaeological Council (Ἀρχαιολογικόν Συμβούλιον) in 1910, and to Central Archaeological Council (Κεντρικό Αρχαιολογικό Συμβούλιο) in 1977.
Its members are selected among scientists, educators, artists, and archaeologists. It is charged with the preservation and restoration of cultural monuments, the management of archaeological sites, the establishment and management of museums, and the supervision of research and excavation activities both by the local ephorates of antiquities as well as by the foreign archaeological institutes active in Greece.


Georgios Sakellarios

Georgios Sakellarios (; 1765–1838) was a chief physician at the court of Ali Pasha.
He was born in Kozani and studied German and French and also Philosophy in Hungary. In addition to his post at the court, he was an associate of Rigas Ferraios and Perraivos.


Out of This Furnace

Out of This Furnace is a historical novel and the best-known work of the American writer Thomas Bell. It was first published in 1941 by Little, Brown and Company.
Description.
The novel is set in Braddock, Pennsylvania, a steel town just east of Pittsburgh, along the Monongahela River. Based upon Bell's own family of Rusyn and Slovak immigrants, the story follows three generations of a family, starting with their migration in 1881 from Austria-Hungary to the United States, and finishing with World War II. The novel focuses on the steelworkers' attempt to unionize from 1889, the first Homestead strike (mentioned by Andrej on p. 38) through the big Homestead Steel Strike of 1892, the Great Steel Strike of 1919 right after World War I, and the events of the 1930s. A common connection of struggle, poverty, and entire need of the characters of forces out of their control come together to tell a story of a tragic depiction of a truly troubled group of people. Shared with unbearable financial adversity, the Rusyns and Slovaks nicknamed "Hunkies" were also exposed to discrimination by other "Americans." The novel's title refers to the central role of the steel mill in the family's life and in the history of the Pittsburgh region.
Reissue.
Long out of print, the novel was rediscovered in the 1970s by David P. Demarest, a professor of English at Carnegie Mellon University, who convinced director Frederick A. Hetzel at the University of Pittsburgh Press to reissue it in 1976. The book quickly became a regional bestseller. By the 1980s, however, it found an even larger readership on American college campuses. "Out of This Furnace" is regularly used as required reading in universities to introduce students to the history of immigration, industrialization, and the rise of trade unionism, as well as to the genre of the American working class novel.
Adaptations.
The novel was adapted into a play by Andy Wolk, and Pittsburgh theatre company Iron Clad Agreement mounted a well-received production of it in 1977. Unseam'd Shakespeare Company mounted successful productions of the play in 2008 (as part of Pittsburgh's 250th anniversary) and 2011.


Earl of Angus

The Mormaer or Earl of Angus was the ruler of the medieval Scottish province of Angus. The title, in the Peerage of Scotland, is held by the Duke of Hamilton, and is used as a courtesy title for the eldest son of the Duke's eldest son.
History.
Mormaers.
Angus is one of the oldest attested mormaerdoms, with the earliest attested mormaer, Dubacan of Angus, known to have lived in the early 10th century, as recorded in the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba". Angus was, according to the doubtful and legendary text "de Situ Albanie", one of the seven original mormaerdoms of the Pictish kingdom of Alba, said to have been occupied by seven brothers, of whom Angus (Oengus) was the eldest. Despite this, the mormaers of Angus are among the most obscure of all. After the death of Mormaer Maol Chaluim, in probably about 1240, the mormaerdom passed through the marriage of his daughter Matilda, to the line of the Norman Gilbert de Umfraville.
Ogilvy Earls.
The lands of Clan Ogilvy, in Angus, was ruled by a mormaer; one of the ancient Celtic nobles of Scotland who became the first earls. The title of Moramer of Angus became Earl of Angus. Gillebride, Earl of Angus, received a Barony from King William the Lion in 1163, and bestowed upon his son, Gilbert, the lands of Wester Powrie, Ogilvy, and Kyneithin. The top left quadrant displays the Ogilvy crest; argent, a lion passant, guardant, Gules, crowned with an imperial crown and collared with an open one, Proper.
Umfraville Earls.
Gilbert de Umfraville inherited the Earldom while in his minority after his father's death in 1245. Gilbert fought on the English side during the first war of Scottish independence until his death in 1308. His heir, second son Robert, also fought on the side of the English and surrendered to King Robert de Brus during the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. He was released by Robert and treated with the Scots for peace with England. He was ultimately disinherited of his titles. Robert's heir Gilbert continued attempting to recover the Earldom and supported Edward Balliol and other disinherited barons and lords in Scotland.
Stewart Earls.
John Stewart of Bonkyll, Berwickshire, obtained the title Earl of Angus in 1329 in a new line after the forfeiture of the de Umfraville line, though the latter family continued to use the title in England until 1381. This Stewart line ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of Thomas, Earl of Mar.
Douglas earls.
An illicit affair between Margaret Stewart, Countess of Mar and Angus, and her brother in law, William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas (married to the sister of her husband) produced George Douglas, 1st Earl of Angus (c. 1380–1403). The Countess secured a charter of her estates for her son, to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill in 1402, and died in captivity in England. Archibald "Bell-the-Cat" (1453–1514) the powerful adversary of James III, was his great-grandson.
William Douglas (1589–1660) 11th Earl of Angus, was created Marquis of Douglas in 1633. He resigned the title of Earl of Angus, having it recreated with the marquessate, so he was the 1st Earl of Angus in the new creation. He outlived his son Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus (c.1609–1655) and was succeeded by Archibald's son James Douglas, 2nd Marquess of Douglas (1646–1699). James' son and heir Archibald Douglas was created Duke of Douglas, Marquess of Angus and Abernethy, Viscount of Jedburgh Forest, and Lord Douglas of Bonkill, Prestoun and Robertoun on 10 April 1703. He died without leaving an heir and the titles acquired with the dukedom became extinct. All his other titles devolved to his distant cousin the 7th Duke of Hamilton, whose descendants hold them still.
Duke of Douglas (1703).
"For later Earls of Angus and Marquesses of Douglas, see the Duke of Hamilton"


Peter A. Boodberg

Peter Alexis Boodberg (Born Pyotr Alekseyevich Budberg; 8 April 1903 – 29 June 1972) was a Russian-American scholar, linguist, and sinologist who taught at the University of California, Berkeley for 40 years. Boodberg was influential in 20th century developments in the studies of the development of Chinese characters, Chinese philology, and Chinese historical phonology. He has been described as "one of the most original and commanding scholars" of the 20th century.
Life.
Peter Alexis Boodberg was born "Pyotr Alekseyevich Budberg" () on 8 April 1903 in Vladivostok, Russia, which was then still a part of the Russian Empire. The was a Baltic German noble family, originally from the district of in Werl, that had lived in Estonia since the 13th century. After Russia annexed Estonia in 1721, they became a prominent diplomatic and military family in Imperial Russia. Boodberg's father, Aleksei Pavlovich Budberg (1869–1945), was a baron and the commanding general of the Russian forces in Vladivostok. His father's position ensured that Boodberg enjoyed a strong education in the Latin and Greek Classics and in the major European languages. Budberg was a cadet at a military academy in St. Petersburg until the outbreak of World War I, when Budberg's parents sent him and his brother to Harbin, Manchuria, out of concern for their safety. Budberg attended the Oriental Institute (now Far Eastern Federal University) in Vladivostok, where he studied Chinese, which he had begun learning as a teenager in Harbin, and learned several other Asiatic languages.
The Budberg family fled Russia in 1920 due to the anti-aristocracy violence of the Bolshevik Revolution. The family emigrated to the United States, changing their surname to "Boodberg", and settled in San Francisco. Boodberg enrolled as a student at the University of California, Berkeley, graduating with a B.A. in Oriental Languages in 1924. Boodberg continued studying at Berkeley as a graduate student, earning a Ph.D. in Oriental Languages in 1930 with a dissertation entitled "The Art of War in Ancient China: A Study Based on the "Dialogues of Li, Duke of Wei"."
In 1932, Boodberg was hired to teach at Berkeley as an instructor in the Oriental Languages department. He was made an associate professor in 1937, Chairman of the department in 1940, and was promoted to full professor in 1948. Boodberg's scholarship won him Guggenheim Fellowships in 1938, 1956, and 1963. In 1963, Boodberg also became President of the American Oriental Society. He continued to teach until his death from a heart attack in 1972. Boodberg influenced several generations of sinologists, notably Edward H. Schafer, who wrote a long obituary article in the "Journal of the American Oriental Society" that was followed by a full bibliography by Alvin P. Cohen.
Boodberg's only child, Xenia Boodberg Lee (1927–2004), was a concert pianist based in the San Francisco Bay area.
Selected works.
Boodberg authored a large number of studies and manuscripts that he did not formally publish, instead simply circulating them primarily among his students and close colleagues. Additionally, he destroyed several manuscripts related to philology and Chinese frontier history in the years prior to his death. The following are some of his better known published works.


2000 German Athletics Championships

The 2000 German Athletics Championships were held at the Eintracht-Stadion in Braunschweig on 29–30 July 2000.


Regierungsbezirk Montabaur

Montabaur was one of the five "Regierungsbezirke" of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany into which the newly founded state was divided until 1968. The others were: Rheinhessen (established 1946, seat in Mainz), Pfalz (established 1945, seat in Neustadt an der Weinstraße), Koblenz and Trier (both established by Prussia in 1816.
History.
"Regierungsbezirk" Wiesbaden, formed in 1866 as part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, had been divided by after the Second World War by the occupying powers as it lay astride a zone boundary. The majority of the "Regierungsbezirk" lay in the American Zone and became part of the state of Hesse in 1945. The "Regierungsbezirk" of Montabaur had to be created for the smaller northwestern part and became part of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate in 1946.
The "Regierungsbezirk" of Montabaur was dissolved on 1 October 1968 and incorporated into Koblenz. The area of "Regierungsbezirk" Montabaur largely corresponds to the modern counties of Rhein-Lahn-Kreis and Westerwaldkreis.
Former administrative divisions.
The "Regierungsbezirk" of Montabaur was divided into the counties of Oberwesterwaldkreis (Westerburg), Loreleykreis (Sankt Goarshausen), Unterlahnkreis (Diez) and Unterwesterwaldkreis (Montabaur).


Meuse-Rhenish

Meuse-Rhenish (German: "Rheinmaasländisch", Dutch: "Maas-Rijnlands", and French: "francique rhéno-mosan") is the modern term for literature written in the Middle Ages in the greater Meuse-Rhine area, in a literary language that is effectively Middle Dutch. This area stretches in the northern triangle roughly between the rivers Meuse (in Belgium and the Netherlands) and Rhine (in Germany). It also applies to the Low Franconian dialects that have been spoken in that area continuously from medieval times up to now.
It includes varieties of South Guelderish (Zuid-Gelders) and Limburgish in the Belgian and Dutch provinces of Limburg, and their German counterparts Low Rhenish (German: "Niederrheinisch") including "East Bergish" in German Northern Rhineland. Although some dialects of this group are spoken within the language area where German is the standard, they actually are Low Franconian in character, and are more closely related to Dutch than to High German, and could therefore also be called Dutch (see also Dutch dialects). With regard to this German part only, Meuse-Rhenish equals the total of Low Rhenish vernaculars.
Low Rhenish and Limburgish.
Low Rhenish (, ) is the collective name in German for the regional Low Franconian language varieties spoken alongside the so-called Lower Rhine in the west of Germany.
Low Franconian is a language or dialect group that has developed in the lower parts of the Frankish Empire, northwest of the Benrath line. From this group both the Dutch and later the Afrikaans standard languages have arisen. The differences between Low Rhenish and Low Saxon are smaller than between Low Rhenish and High German. Yet, Low Rhenish does not belong to Low German, but to Low Franconian. Therefore, it could properly be called "German Dutch". Indeed, "Deutschniederländisch" was the official term under the Prussian Reign of the 19th century.
Today, Low Franconian dialects are spoken mainly in regions to the west of the rivers Rhine and IJssel in the Netherlands, in the Dutch speaking part of Belgium, but also in Germany in the Lower Rhine area. Only the latter have traditionally been called "Low Rhenish", but they can be regarded as the German extension or counterpart of the Limburgish dialects in the Netherlands and Belgium, and of Zuid-Gelders ("South Guelderish") in the Netherlands.
Low Rhenish differs strongly from High German. The more to the north it approaches the Netherlands, the more it sounds like Dutch. As it crosses the Dutch-German as well as the Dutch-Belgian borders, it becomes a part of the language landscape in three neighbouring countries. In two of them Dutch is the standard language. In Germany, important towns on the Lower Rhine and in the Rhine-Ruhr area, including parts of the Düsseldorf Region, are part of it, among them Kleve, Xanten, Wesel, Moers, Essen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Oberhausen and Wuppertal. This language area stretches towards the southwest along cities such as Neuss, Krefeld and Mönchengladbach, and the Heinsberg district, where it is called Limburgish, crosses the German-Dutch border into the Dutch province of Limburg, passing cities east of the Meuse river (in both Dutch and German called "Maas") such as Venlo, Roermond and Geleen, and then again crosses the Meuse between the Dutch and Belgian provinces of Limburg, encompassing the cities of Maastricht (NL) and Hasselt (B). Thus a mainly political-geographic (not linguistic) division can be made into western (Dutch) South Guelderish and Limburgish at the west side, and eastern (German) Low Rhenish and South East Low Franconian at the east side of the border. The eastmost varieties of the latter, east of the Rhine from Düsseldorf to Wuppertal, are referred to as Bergish.
Limburgish is recognised as a regional language in the Netherlands. As such, it receives moderate protection under chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The area in which Limburgish is spoken roughly fits within a wide circle from Venlo (NL) to Düsseldorf (D) to Aachen (D) to Maastricht (NL) to Hasselt (B) and back to Venlo. In Germany, it is common to consider the Limburgish varieties as belonging to the Low Franconian language varieties; in the Netherlands and Belgium, however, all these varieties are traditionally considered to be West Central German, part of High German. This difference is caused by a difference in definition: linguists of the Low Countries define a High German variety as one that has taken part in any of the first three phases of the High German consonant shift.
In German sources, the dialects linguistically counting as Limburgish spoken east of the river Rhine are often called "Bergish" (after the former Duchy of Berg). West of the river Rhine they are called "Low Rhenish", "Limburgish" or "Ripuarian". Limburgish is not recognised by the German government as an official language. Low Rhenish is considered as a group of dialects in Germany. Together all these varieties belong to a greater continuum; this superordinating group is called Meuse-Rhenish. These insights are rather new among dialectologists on both sides of the national Dutch-German border.
German population in the Meuse-Rhine area are used to let the geographic 'Lower Rhine' area begin approximately with the Benrath line, coincidentally. They do mostly not think of the Ripuarian-speaking area as Low Rhenish, which includes the South Bergish or Upper Bergish area east of the Rhine, south of the Wupper, north of the Sieg.
The Meuse-Rhine triangle.
This whole region between the Meuse and the Rhine was linguistically and culturally quite coherent during the so-called Early modern period (1543–1789), though politically more fragmented. The former predominantly Dutch speaking duchies of Guelders and Limburg lay in the heart of this linguistic landscape, but eastward the former duchies of Cleves (entirely), Jülich, and Berg partially, also fit in.
The northwestern part of this triangular area came under the influence of the Dutch standard language, especially since the founding of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. The southeastern part became a part of the Kingdom of Prussia at the same time, and from then it was subject to High German language domination. At the dialectal level however, mutual understanding is still possible far beyond both sides of the national borders.
The close relation between Limburgish of Belgium and the Netherlands and Bergish is paralleled with that between Zuid-Gelders and Kleverlandish-East Bergish, which are even more clearly belonging to Low Franconian. By including Zuid-Gelders-Kleverlandish-East Bergish in this continuum, we are enlarging the territory and turn the wide circle of Limburgish into a triangle with its top along the line Arnhem - Kleve - Wesel - Duisburg - Wuppertal (along the Rhine-IJssel Line). The Diest- Nijmegen Line is its western border, the Benrath line (from Eupen to Wuppertal) is a major part of the southeastern one.
Within the Dutch speaking area, the Western continuance of Low Rhenish is divided into Limburgish and Zuid-Gelders. Together they belong to the greater triangle-shaped Meuse-Rhine area, a large group of southeastern Low Franconian dialects, including areas in Belgium, the Netherlands and the German Northern Rhineland.
Southeast Limburgish around Aachen.
"Southeast Limburgish" is spoken around Kerkrade, Bocholtz and Vaals in the Netherlands, Aachen in Germany and Raeren and Eynatten in Belgium. In Germany it is mostly considered as a form of Ripuarian, instead of Limburgish. According to a contemporary vision, all varieties in a wider half circle some 20 km around Aachen and also the so-called Low Dietsch area between Voeren and Eupen in Belgium, can be taken as a group of its own, which recently has been named "Limburgish of the Three Countries Area" (Dutch: "Drielandenlimburgs", German: "Dreiländerplatt"), referring to the place where the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany meet. This variety still possesses interesting syntactic idiosyncrasies, probably dating from the period in which the old Duchy of Limburg existed. In Belgium, the south-eastern boundary between Meuse-Rhenish or (French) "francique rhéno-mosan" and Ripuarian is formed by the Low Dietsch language area.
If only tonality is to be taken as to define this variety, it stretches several dozen kilometers into Germany. In Germany, the consensus is to class it as belonging to High German varieties. But this is a little over-simplified. In order to include them properly, a more encompassing concept is needed. The combination of Meuse-Rhenish and Ripuarian, including their overlapping transitional zones of Southeast Limburgish and Low Dietsch, will do.


Macartney baronets

The Macartney Baronetcy, of Lish in the County of Armagh, is a title in the Baronetage of Ireland. It was created on 4 January 1799 for Sir John Macartney, Member of the Irish House of Commons for Fore and Naas. He had been knighted in 1796 for promoting inland navigation in Ireland. Macartney was the younger son of William Macartney, who represented Belfast in the Irish Parliament. The family have lived in Australia since the emigration of the third Baronet in the 19th century.


List of rulers of Limburg

The Counts of Limburg ruled a medieval county with its capital at Limbourg-sur-Vesdre, lying between Liège and Aachen. They rose to prominence when one of them was appointed Duke of Lower Lorraine. Though Lorraine was later confiscated, the ducal title was kept within the family, transferred to the county of Limburg, and this was eventually ratified by the Holy Roman Emperor. Thereafter, the dukes of Limburg were one of several claimant lines of heirs to the title of the old duke of Lower Lorraine. Their title was eventually inherited by their competitors the dukes of Brabant, and became part of the large collection of titles of the Burgundian Netherlands, eventually passing to the Hapsburgs.
After the occupation in 1794 by the French, the old Austrian Duchy of Limburg was disbanded and the largest part was absorbed into the département of Ourthe (which became the province of Liège). Only a small northern part belonged to the département of Meuse-Inférieure and thus to the later province of Limburg. The title "Duke of Limburg" was nevertheless revived after the foundation of the new Duchy of Limburg as a result of the Treaty of London in 1839. According to this treaty the new duchy (without the cities of Maastricht and Venlo), was joined to the German Confederation. After the collapse of this confederation in 1866, Limburg as a duchy ceased to exist and became a province of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Dukes of Limburg (1119–1794).
House of Ardennes.
The Duchy of Limburg was lost in 1288 to the dukes of Brabant in the Battle of Worringen.
House of Habsburg.
"After the abdication of Charles II, the Seventeen Provinces went to the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg."
"After the death of Philip VI the Seventeen Provinces returned to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg."


David of Bulgaria

David ( ) (died 976) was a Bulgarian noble, brother of Emperor Samuel and eldest son of "komes" Nicholas, member of the Cometopuli dynasty. After the disastrous invasion of Rus' armies and the fall of North-eastern Bulgaria under Byzantine occupation in 971, he and his three younger brothers took the lead of the defence of the country. They executed their power together and each of them governed and defended a separate region. He ruled the southernmost parts of the realm from Prespa and Kastoria and was responsible for the defence the dangerous borders with Thessalonica and Thessaly. In 976 he participated in the major assault against the Byzantine Empire but was killed by vagrant Vlachs between Prespa and Kostur.


Guy of Namur

Guy of Dampierre, Count of Zeeland, also called Guy of Namur () (ca. 1272 – 13 October 1311 in Pavia), was a Flemish noble who was the Lord of Ronse and later the self-proclaimed Count of Zeeland. He was a younger son of Guy, Count of Flanders and Isabelle of Luxembourg.
In 1302, with his father in prison and Flanders under French occupation, he was sent by his elder brother John I, Marquis of Namur, to take command of the rebellion there. He led the troops from western Flanders at the Battle of the Golden Spurs, and received great acclamation for the victory there. He took the title of Count of Zeeland and invaded Zeeland; but the French raised new armies, and he was beaten at the 1304 naval Battle of Zierikzee and became a captive of the count of Holland. Abandoning his designs on Zeeland, he went on campaign in Italy with his cousin Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor. There he married Margaret, daughter of Theobald II, Duke of Lorraine. He died soon thereafter, without issue.
External links.


Astatic

The Astatic was a French cyclecar manufactured from 1920 to 1922 by Automobiles Astatic, Saint-Ouen, Seine, France.
Built at Saint-Ouen, the car was an attempt to market a vehicle with independent suspension all round. This was done by coupling each wheel to a horizontal coil spring by a right angle link. At the rear the differential housing was fixed to the chassis and drive was taken to the wheels through jointed drive shafts. The engine was an 894 cc or 1100 cc S.C.A.P.


Union of Brussels

There were two Unions of Brussels, both formed in the end of the 1570s, in the opening stages of the Eighty Years' War, the war of secession from Spanish control, which lasted from 1568 to 1648. Brussels was at that time the capital of the Spanish Netherlands.
First Union of Brussels.
The northern counties of Holland and Zeeland rebelled in 1572, when Calvinists took over control of most of the cities. The Spanish army tried to reconquer them but failed during the Siege of Leiden in 1574. In 1575 Philip II had to declare bankruptcy. As a result, the Spanish soldiers did not receive any payment, and they mutinied, pillaging the countryside of Brabant and Flanders and the city of Antwerp, where 10,000 inhabitants in a city with 100,000 people were killed by the Spanish soldiers, who tried to kill all the local Protestants.
This event discredited the Spanish army enormously. The Estates-General of the Netherlands, sitting in Brussels, wanted to end the war in 1577. However, some of the fervently Roman Catholic provincial Estates did not want to invite the Calvinists of Holland and Zeeland to join. The Estates-General, without Holland and Zeeland, founded the first Union of Brussels. King Philip II of Spain agreed with this.
Second Union of Brussels.
The leader of the resistance, William of Orange, went to Brussels in 1577 to try to convince the General Estates to accept the Calvinist provincial Estates of Holland and Zeeland. The population of Brussels celebrated him as a hero, and it was with his urging that the General Estates accepted the two counties. Turmoil broke out in the Netherlands when the news spread throughout the realm. Calvinists took over the cities in Flanders and in other provinces of the Netherlands, but the estates of the eastern provinces did not accept this. The French-speaking provinces in the south started the pro-Spanish Union of Arras in 1579, when the French-speaking Protestants were driven out. The Stadtholder of Groningen and Drenthe supported the king, and the city of Amsterdam did as well. The Calvinists had taken over most of the Netherlands and they created the Calvinist Union of Utrecht the same year. The Union of Brussels came to an end. Most of Brabant including the city of Brussels were neutral. The General Estates, which were dominated by Calvinists, fled from the Spanish army to Antwerp.


Bembridge railway station

Bembridge was the terminus of the branch line that connected it to the main line at Brading. On holiday Saturdays the sector table revolved continuously because the station area was too small to contain points. Opened in 1882, when the area contained the Island's main port, it ran with ever-dwindling passengers until 1953. The station is long since demolished and a new development (Harbour Strand) in place.


Gwalia

Gwalia is an archaic Welsh name for Wales. It derives from the Medieval Latin "Wallia", which in turn is a Latinisation of the English 'Wales'. (For the Germanic etymology of this name see Walha.) Although never as widely used as "Cymru", Gwalia was once popular as a poetic name for the country, akin to Albion.
The name originated in the Middle Ages and there are several instances of it in Late Medieval Welsh poetry. Possibly the best-known is in 'Yr Awdl Fraith', a long poem or "awdl" attributed to Taliesin, and one of the most popular of the period. It imagines "gwyllt Walia" (Wild Gwalia) rising up against the Saxon invaders of Britain.
In the nineteenth century, at the height of Romanticism, the name Gwalia once again became popular among local writers. It has now largely fallen out of use due to its Victorian associations.


Tara (Northern Ireland)

Tara was an Ulster loyalist movement in Northern Ireland that espoused a brand of evangelical Protestantism. Preaching a hard-line and somewhat esoteric brand of loyalism, Tara enjoyed some influence in the late 1960s before declining amid a high-profile sex abuse scandal involving its leader William McGrath.
Origins.
The roots of Tara lay in a group known as "The Cell". This shadowy group, headed by the evangelist William McGrath, was made up of a mixture of his youthful followers and senior Orangemen who met at 15 Wellington Park, McGrath's Malone Road, Belfast base for his mission. Young men such as Fraser Agnew, Roy Garland and Clifford Smyth, became part of this growing but mainly clandestine group. The cell spearheaded a campaign of speeches to Protestant audiences, more political than religious in tone, encouraging unionists to turn away from the relatively moderate Terence O'Neill and to lend their support to his most vocal political opponent, the hardline Ian Paisley.
Development.
In November 1966 McGrath reconstituted the Cell as Tara, choosing the name to reflect his belief in the Irish heritage of his politico-religious mission. It was intended as an outlet for virulent anti-Catholicism. The group endorsed British Israelism as it sometimes claimed that Ulster Protestants were descendants of the Lost tribe of Israel. The group espoused a form of historical revisionism, arguing that the early inhabitants of Ireland had come from modern Scotland before being displaced by the Irish, whilst also utilising Gaelic terms and symbols. An Orange Order lodge attached to Tara and founded by McGrath was named "Ireland's Heritage" as a consequence of these views. Tara adopted as its motto "we hold Ulster that Ireland might be saved and Britain reborn". As a movement Tara sought to establish a Protestant Northern Ireland in which law and order would be paramount and the Roman Catholic Church would be outlawed. Tara viewed Catholics as being in a grand conspiracy with moderate unionists and left-wing groups and felt that a conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism was inevitable. As a result members of Tara were expected to be proficient in weapon use and were encouraged to join the security forces.
A short-lived alliance with the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) was attempted and Roy Garland, a leading Orangeman in the 60s and 70s, and now an author, was one of Tara's members who worked closely with the UVF for a time. The leaders of the UVF initially encouraged their members to also become involved in Tara. With the UVF under the command of Samuel McClelland in the late 1960s, McGrath felt that an alliance with the better-armed group could help advance Tara's aims.
Tara enjoyed a rush of members around 1969 as McGrath's prophecy of a doomsday scenario in Northern Ireland looked like it might come true with the advent of the Troubles and a UVF bombing campaign, which McGrath suggested in a whispering campaign was the work of the Irish Army. Tara soon established their regular meeting place as Clifton Street Orange Hall, one of the most important centres of Belfast Orangeism, although McGrath did not openly tell the Orange Order leadership that he was using the rooms for Tara meetings, rather simply stating that he need them for generic meetings. A more formalised structure was adopted with Garland as deputy leader, Clifford Smyth as Intelligence Officer and leading roles for Frank Millar Jr and "Protestant Telegraph" journalist David Browne, whilst Davy Payne was also associate with the group, albeit at a lower level.
Although initially Tara and the UVF co-operated closely, a number of people contacted McClelland to tell him that McGrath, who secretly pursued homosexual and pederastic relationships, was using the link-up with the UVF as a way to pick up young men who were members of the organisation. McClelland confronted McGrath who fiercely denied the allegations, but following a fiery argument the relationship between the UVF and Tara was ended and McClelland burnt the Tara ledger in which the names of his UVF men had been entered. From that point on the UVF proscribed Tara membership for its volunteers and sought to hamper the work of Tara. On a more practical level a number of UVF members who had become involved in Tara also informed their UVF superiors that Tara did not possess much in the way of weaponry or military know-how and according to Steve Bruce "Tara had a good line in martial rhetoric but even its claims to be ready for martial defence rang hollow". Bruce further adds that, for the most part, UVF members had simply used their attendance at Tara meetings as an opportunity to identify new recruits for their own group.
Decline.
Tara failed to attract much interest as its ideas were too esoteric for most loyalists. By 1971 McGrath's relationship with his deputy Garland had deteriorated, as the two began to differ over ideology, whilst Garland had also been informed by some young members of Tara that McGrath had made passes at them. Garland broke from Tara soon afterwards and confirmed to the UVF that their suspicions about McGrath had been correct. A war of words erupted between the two groups, with McGrath and Tara regularly attacked in the pages of UVF magazine "Combat" and McGrath undertaking a letter-writing campaign to the press accusing the UVF of being a communist organisation. McGrath sought to boost the ailing movement by linking up with John McKeague, a member of the Free Presbyterian Church, leading figure in the Shankill Defence Association and founder of the Red Hand Commando who allegedly shared McGrath's sexual attraction to men and children. The pair met at the Kincora Boys' Home, where McGrath took up a position in 1971, to discuss trading weapons for their respective groups. Around this time McGrath also made contact with another leading homosexual unionist, Sir Knox Cunningham, and secured funding for Tara from him.
By 1974 Tara had an estimated 300–400 members, which was significantly less than the group had at their 1969 peak. In an attempt to inject some life into the group, which unlike the UVF, RHC and UDA was not active in shooting or bombing attacks, McGrath imported a quantity of rifles, machine guns and ammunition from hard-line Protestants in the Netherlands with whom he had close links. The group continued to speak of a coming "doomsday" scenario in which they would have to take the lead in battling the Irish government and returning the island to its pre-Catholic roots, although beyond some drilling Tara undertook no real activity. According to Steve Bruce the group did little beyond releasing occasional threatening statements but was quickly superseded by the UVF/RHC and eventually also the UDA. The group spread rumours about senior unionist figures whom it felt were too moderate.
A 1981 arms find damaged the group whilst McGrath had already been caught up in the Kincora scandal. McGrath pleaded guilty to fifteen charges related to child sex abuse in December 1981 and was sentenced to four years imprisonment, representing the effective end of the by then near-moribund Tara. The name reappeared in 1986, when a leaflet denouncing the Anglo-Irish Agreement and predicting again the onset of the doomsday scenario was circulated, although this seems to have been the work of a handful of die-hards rather than a reorganised movement.


Stanley Bindoff

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Stanley Thomas Bindoff (1908–1980) was an English historian who specialised in the Tudor and Elizabethan periods. He was the first professor of history at Queen Mary College, University of London. He was the editor of The History of Parliament for the parliaments of 1509-58, published in 1982.


Hanoverian prince

This is a list of Hanoverian princes from the accession of George III to the throne of the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814. Individuals holding the title of prince will usually also be styled "His Royal Highness" (HRH). The wife of a Hanoverian prince will usually take the title and style of her husband. Despite Hanover's annexation by Prussia in 1866, male-line descendants of George III continue to style themselves as a prince or princess of Hanover.
The title Prince of Hanover and the use of the style "Royal Highness" has generally been restricted to the following persons:
Since 1953, the head of the House of Hanover and senior male-line descendant of George III of the United Kingdom has taken the title "His Royal Highness The Prince of Hanover". This title has been held by the following:


Mittlerer Erzgebirgskreis

The Mittlerer Erzgebirgskreis is a former district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the west and clockwise) the districts of Annaberg, Stollberg, the district-free city Chemnitz, and the district Freiberg. To the south it borders the Czech Republic (the Karlovy Vary Region).
History.
The district was formed in 1994 by merging the two previous districts Marienberg and Zschopau. On 1 August 2008 it was merged into the new district Erzgebirgskreis.
Geography.
The district was located in the Ore Mountains (German "Erzgebirge"). The highest elevation is the 891 m high "Hirtstein", the lowest elevation with 305 m is located in Witzschdorf. 40% of the area is covered by forests.


Rusidava (castra)

Rusidava was a fort in the Roman province of Dacia.


Court of the clerk of the market

A court of the clerk of the market was an inferior court held at every market for the punishment of minor crimes, and to exercise control over market prices and over weights and measures. These courts were presided over by the relevant clerk of the market.
It was listed by Edward Coke in "Institutes of the Lawes of England" as a type of public court of criminal jurisdiction, and also included by William Blackstone in his "Commentaries on the Laws of England":


Pettingen Castle

Pettingen Castle () is located in the village of Pettingen some 4 km north of Mersch in central Luxembourg. It is one of the best preserved fortified castles in the country.
History.
In the 10th century the fortress was known as Pittigero Mazini but received the name of Pettingen in the 13th century. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the Lords of Pettingen were important members of Luxembourg society. They were present at Ermesinde's wedding, at the coronation of Henri IV and at the signing of John the Blind's marriage contract.
At the beginning of the 14th century Arnold of Pettingen married Marguerite of Rousy, the great granddaughter of Ermisinde. He had a son, Arnold the Young, whose daughter Irmengard, by marrying Jean de Créhange, associated the Lords of Pettingen with his renowned family. Their grandson, also called Jean, fought for René, the Duke of Lorraine in the war against Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. In revenge, Charles completely destroyed the Castle of Pettingen whose treasures were confiscated by the Governor of Luxembourg in 1494. However, as a result of a decree made at the Great Council of Mechelen in 1503, half of the treasures were returned and the castle was reconstructed in its present form. The four corner towers were added in 1571. In 1684 Louis XIV's troops bombarded the castle, leaving it as it stands today. The ruins, which belonged to the house of Créhange, were inherited by the Comtes de Lapérouse whose descendants sold it to the Duke of Arenberg in 1837. In 1910 his descendant, the Prince of Arenberg, removed everything of value from the castle. In 1920 the southern wall collapsed.
In 1947 the castle was acquired by the State of Luxembourg. Consolidation work was carried out on the walls and on the castle's two towers in 1950.
The castle today.
The ruins are open to the public. The ramparts with two round towers on the north-eastern side still stand. The site forms a 30 by 30 metre square surrounded by a former moat 15 metres wide fed by the Weillerbach which flowed into the River Alzette.


Antheia (Thrace)

Antheia () was a town on the western coast of the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) in ancient Thrace, a colony of the Milesians and Phocaeans. It later bore the Latin name Anthium, and was the precursor settlement to Apollonia Pontica (modern Sozopol). It was located on the Gulf of Burgas between the modern cities of Burgas and Sozopol in Bulgaria.
Situation.
The settlement was on the coast of the Gulf of Burgas, located on the peninsula of Atia (), which lies between the bays of Vromos and Atya, about 2 km northwest of the modern town of Chernomorets. About 10 km southeast is Sozopol, the ancient Apollonia, which was the successor settlement to Antheia. Today, the peninsula is occupied by the Atiya Naval Base, thus the site is within a restricted military area. Not far away is the village Atia.
History.
In the course of Greek colonization of the Black Sea in the late 7th and early 6th century BCE. The place was founded by Greeks from Miletus and Phocaea. All finds made in the area of settlement originate from Archaic period leading to the conclusion that the place was abandoned early. The place was apparently just an apoikia and never attained the status of polis, and possibly merged with Apollonia by synoikismos. Pliny, writing in the first century, reports that Antheia was located in the area where Apollonia was in his time - "Astice regio habuit oppidum Anthium, nunc est Apollonia". The interpretation of this passage, that Antheia was a former name of Apollonia, is based on a misunderstanding.
Archaeology.
From Antheia comes the statue of a headless archaic Kouros () and archaic ceramics. In 1927 a hoard of arrowheads of the 5th century BCE was found there, which has been interpreted as showing that arrowheads were a form of pre-monetary medium of exchange. In the Middle Ages, the Atia peninsula was populated again. On its highest elevation are the sparse remains of a medieval fortress.


List of mayors of Pula

This article contains a list of people who have served as mayor of Pula, the largest city in Istria County, and the sixth largest city in Croatia, since the establishment of the Republic of Croatia. For a complete list of all chief magistrates of Pula, see Chief Executive of Pula.


Arthur Lanc

Arthur Lanc (20 March 1907, Vienna, Austria – 20 May 1995, Gmuend, Lower Austria) was medical officer in Gmünd and responsible for the medical care for all Jewish forced laborers in the area of Gmünd. Administering medicine to these people was not allowed. Together with the veterinarian, Dr. Krisch, he set aside medicine for the Jewish forced laborers and helped three of them flee from a camp in Gmünd. Because of this medical care, the Jews managed to survive the NS-Terror in a hideout in the attic of the tawery Weißensteiner in Hoheneich. For that reason Lanc was honored by Yad Vashem by getting the honorary title Righteous among the Nations together with his wife Maria Lanc.


X Corps (German Empire)

The X Army Corps / X AK () was a corps level command of the Prussian and German Armies before and during World War I.
X Corps was one of three formed in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War (the others being IX Corps and XI Corps). The Corps was formed in October 1866 with headquarters in Hannover. The catchment area included the newly annexed Kingdom of Hanover (thereafter the Province of Hanover), the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and the Duchy of Brunswick.
During the Franco-Prussian War it was assigned to the 2nd Army.
In peacetime, it was assigned to the III Army Inspectorate. which became the 2nd Army at the start of the First World War. It was still in existence at the end of the war in "Armee-Abteilung" B, "Heeresgruppe Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg" at the extreme southern end of the Western Front. The Corps was disbanded with the demobilisation of the German Army after World War I.
Franco-Prussian War.
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 the army corps fought under the command of General von Voigts-Rhetz in several battles including the Battle of Mars-la-Tour, Battle of Spicheren, Siege of Metz, Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, Battle of Orléans and Battle of Le Mans.
Flags of the Line Infantry regiments.
Due to the large number of Line Infantry regiments then in existence, on 18 December 1890, Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered that the flag colours were to be the same as that of the uniform epaulettes. This was to ensure that each corps attained uniformity. IX and X Corps wore white epaulettes. Notwithstanding this, the flags of the Jäger Battalions would be green.
Peacetime organisation.
The 25 peacetime Corps of the German Army (Guards, I - XXI, I - III Bavarian) had a reasonably standardised organisation. Each consisted of two divisions with usually two infantry brigades, one field artillery brigade and a cavalry brigade each. Each brigade normally consisted of two regiments of the appropriate type, so each Corps normally commanded 8 infantry, 4 field artillery and 4 cavalry regiments. There were exceptions to this rule:
Each Corps also directly controlled a number of other units. This could include one or more
World War I.
Organisation on mobilisation.
On mobilization on 2 August 1914 the Corps was restructured. 19th Cavalry Brigade was withdrawn to form part of the 9th Cavalry Division and the 20th Cavalry Brigade was broken up. The 17th (Brunswick) Hussars was raised to a strength of 6 squadrons before being split into two half-regiments of 3 squadrons each; the half-regiments were assigned as divisional cavalry to 19th and 20th Divisions. Likewise, the 16th (2nd Hannover) Dragoons formed two half-regiments which were assigned as divisional cavalry to 17th and 18th Divisions of IX Corps. Divisions received engineer companies and other support units from the Corps headquarters. In summary, X Corps mobilised with 25 infantry battalions, 9 machine gun companies (54 machine guns), 6 cavalry squadrons, 24 field artillery batteries (144 guns), 4 heavy artillery batteries (16 guns), 3 pioneer companies and an aviation detachment.
Combat chronicle.
On mobilisation, X Corps was assigned to the 2nd Army forming part of the right wing of the forces for the Schlieffen Plan offensive in August 1914 on the Western Front.
It was still in existence at the end of the war in "Armee-Abteilung" B, "Heeresgruppe Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg" at the extreme southern end of the Western Front.
Commanders.
The X Corps had the following commanders during its existence:


Walter von Boetticher

Walter von Boetticher (1853–1945) was a German historian, genealogist and physician.
Walter von Boetticher was born 11 December 1853 at Riga, the son to the art historian Friedrich von Boetticher (1826-1902) and his wife Eugenie Mitschke (1825-1858). After attending the Dresden Kreuzgymnasium (School of the Cross), he studied medicine at Würzburg, Marburg and Jena from 1873 to 1877, receiving his doctorate in 1878 with the thesis "Über Reflexhemmung" ("On Reflex Inhibition"). He then worked as a general practitioner at Bertelsdorf in Bavaria, and Stolpen and Göda in Saxony.
Boetticher's first works on regional history date to the 1870s. After he moved to Bautzen in 1905 he concentrated exclusively on historical research, which he continued after he moved to Dresden in 1908, and to the Oberlößnitz district of Radebeul in 1912. At Oberlößnitz he lived at "Villa Oswald Haenel", which had been designed by and was home to Oswald Haenel, who had died the year before.
He published numerous essays on the history of Upper Lusatia and its nobility, and, between 1912 and 1923, his life's work the "Geschichte des Oberlausitzischen Adels und seiner Güter 1635–1815" ("History of the Upper Lusatian Nobility and its Estates 1635-1815"), which was published in four volumes. In 1904 Boetticher was entered in the Saxon "Adelsmatrikel" ("Register of nobility"), and in 1905 was made an honorary member of the "Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften" ("Upper Lusatian Society of Sciences"). In 1907 he became an honorary knight of the Order of St John. In 1929 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Breslau, and received the Goethe-Medaille für Kunst und Wissenschaft (Goethe Medal for Art and Science) in 1943 on his 90th birthday.
In 1880 Boetticher married Isabella Wippermann (1859-1943), daughter to the landowner Hermann Anton Wippermann of Weddelbrook in Holstein, with whom he had four children. Boetticher died 3 July 1945 at Radebeul and was interred in the municipal cemetery at Bautzen.
In 1952 his son, Friedrich von Boetticher, bequeathed the Sammlung Boetticher (Boetticher Collection) to the Herder-Institut in Marburg. It contains 230 bibliographical titles, some in several volumes, from his father's original history library, including the complete "Lusatian Magazine" in 25 volumes from 1768, and the "New Lusatian Magazine" from 1822 to 1941.


Mizzi

Mizzi is a surname of Maltese origin. It may refer to: