Robert Moran (shipbuilder)

Robert Moran (January 26, 1857 – March 27, 1943) was a prominent Seattle shipbuilder who served as the city's mayor from 1888 to 1890. Today he is primarily remembered for Moran Brothers Co. shipbuilders, his work as mayor to rebuild after the Great Seattle fire, and his large estate on Orcas Island, which became a resort and Moran State Park.
Biography.
A native of New York City, Moran was 18 when, in 1875, he arrived penniless in Seattle, a frontier outpost in the Pacific Northwest, which had been settled in November 1851, and only incorporated between 1865 and 1869. After years of working on steamboats he earned enough money to send for his family and, by 1882, he and his brothers started a marine repair business at Yesler's wharf. The Moran Brothers Company prospered during the Klondike Gold Rush when, among other projects, they built a fleet of twelve paddlewheel riverboats (hull Nos. 9–20), which were successfully delivered to the Yukon River.
In 1888, 31-year-old Robert Moran was elected the Republican mayor of Seattle. In those early years, the town's mayors were elected in July for a one-year term. Near the end of his service, on June 6, 1889, the Great Seattle Fire destroyed most of the central business district. Moran's leadership in coordinating the recovery activities won him a second term in the following month's election. Through the period of his mayoralty, he was instrumental in the successful rebuilding of businesses, including Moran Bros., which was destroyed in the fire. His political connections were also very helpful in securing government contracts for his shipbuilding company. Among his administration's rebuilding efforts was the public overhaul of Seattle's water system and the establishment of a savings and loan association, which later became Washington Mutual.
Following his mayoral service, Moran devoted all his efforts to his shipbuilding business and, in 1904, climaxed his career with his shipyard's launch of the USS "Nebraska", Washington state's only battleship. He was told in 1905 that he had one year to live, and retreated to Orcas Island in Puget Sound's San Juans, where he built the Moran Mansion—surrounded at that time by of land—that is now the centerpiece of Rosario Resort. He sold the shipbuilding company for an undisclosed price between US$2.5 and 3.5 million in 1906.
Moran spent the remainder of his life in retirement on Orcas Island. In 1916, he had a yacht built called the "Sanwan", though it seems that ship saw little use. Influenced by chance encounters with conservationist John Muir, he donated of Rosario to the state of Washington for preservation, which became Moran State Park in 1921. Following the death of his wife in 1932, he put the estate up for sale, however when he did finally sell it years later, it was at a fraction of its cost. From there he moved into a smaller home on Orcas. He died in 1943 and was buried in the Moran family plot in Lake View Cemetery in Seattle.


Cheslatta Carrier Nation

The Cheslatta Carrier Nation or Cheslatta T'En (pronounced chez-la-ta), of the Dakelh (pronounced ) or Carrier people (Ta-cullies, meaning "people who go upon water", whose traditional lands where originally where the Kitimat Kemano Project I was built, form a large portion of the Central Interior of present-day British Columbia, Canada, is a First Nation of the Nechako River at the headwaters of the Fraser River.
The Nechako (/nəˈtʃækoʊ/) River was once the greatest tributary of the Fraser River, and the watershed was used by the Carrier people. For centuries the Cheslatta T'en hunted, fished and trapped there and were part of an ancient trade network called the Grease Trail. The grease was actually eulachon oil. from the oolichan, or candlefish, a fatty Pacific coast smelt. The oil was a highly prized commodity grease trail and was carried in bentwood boxes that would often leak. It was named the Alexander Mackenzie Voyageur Route, then renamed the Nuxalk-Carrier Grease Trail to honour the guides. with the Nuxalk and Chilcotin.
The Cheslatta village and Cheslatta Lake (Tsetl'adak Bunk'ut - ″Peak Rock Lake″) flooded due to the construction of the Kenney Dam. which created Nechako Reservoir, in 1952.
Most members now live on a dozen small scattered reserves just south of Francois Lake. In 2013 the Cheslatta Carrier Nation (CCN) "are based at Southbank, on the south shore of Francois Lake, south of Burns Lake (Tselhk'azbunk'ut - ″hone lake″). They have eight reserves on , with all reserves located at least apart. They have 340 members, with 125 members living on reserve, although there is no central community. The band office and other community buildings are located on a reserve about two km south of the Southbank ferry dock." The population on reserve is 167 and the population off reserve is 163, with a total of 330 according to the CNN INAC Active Band list reported in the 2011-2012 Language Needs Assessment report.
Language.
Cheslatta, locally called Dakelh, is a dialect of the Carrier language of the Dene (Athabaskan) family of languages. "Carrier is the general term for a complex of Athabaskan dialects in central British Columbia, adjoining (but clearly distinct from) Babine on the northwest and Chilcotin on the south." Of the 330 members of the CCN, 8 are fluent Cheslatta speakers, 18 understand or speak it somewhat and 100 are learning speakers.
Dakelh/Carrier is traditionally divided into Upper and Lower Carrier. Upper Carrier includes communities to the north of Fort St. James, around Stuart and Trembleur Lakes. Lower Carrier is spoken in communities in the south. Linguists argue that Lower Carrier should be split into two dialect groups, the Fraser/Nechako and the Blackwater. The Fraser/Nechako would include Prince George, Cheslatta, Stoney Creek, Nautley, and Stellakoh. The Blackwater group would include the Ulkatcho, Kluskus, Nazko, Red Bluff, and Anahim Lake.
Chief and councillors.
Corrina Leween is Chief, and Hazel Burt and Ted Jack are Councillors (2015–2018). The Cheslatta Carrier Nation is represented by the British Columbia Assembly of First Nations (BCAFN), a Political Territorial Organization (PTO), a branch of the Assembly of First Nations. The BCAFN represents the 203 First Nations in British Columbia.
Treaty process.
The community, which is negotiating independently, has reached Stage 3 in the BC Treaty Process.
History.
"For centuries the Cheslatta T'en hunted, fished and trapped in the Nechako River (Nechakoh - ″Blackwater People's River″) area at the headwaters of the Fraser River (Lhtakoh - ″rivers within one another″), West Road River (Blackwater River) (Tanilhtl'uz - ″muddy water″), and Bulkley Rivers (Wet'sinkwha - "blue and green river", name of the Wetʼsuwetʼen, another branch of the Carrier people) as well as areas around Stuart (Nak'albun - ″Mount Pope Lake″) Babine lakes (Na-taw-bun-kut - "Long Lake") up to the borders of Bear Lake (Sustoobunk'ut, ᙐᔆᗜᗪᐣᗽᐪ - "black bear water lake", or Sustootibunk'ut, ᙐᔆᗜᗠᗪᐣᗽᐪ - "black bear water trail lake"). To the east, Carrier traditional territory extended as far as the Rocky Mountains.″
Long before contact with Europeans, they fished for trout, char, kokanee and whitefish in the freshwater lakes and traded with neighbouring villages for sockeye and chinook salmon. In later years many Cheslatta people had large vegetable gardens and herds of cattle and horses for which they grew fields of timothy and clover. Some worked for local sawmills or ranchers and ran traplines to earn cash to buy supplies they could not produce themselves."
In 1792–93 Nuxalk-Carrier guides led Alexander Mackenzie along the grease trail, a network of trails that were thousands of years old from the Fraser River to Bella Coola.
Flooding of traditional lands.
In a major multi-authored interdisciplinary and multi-institution report entitled "Threats to Water Availability in Canada" published by Environment Canada and researched by National Water Research Institute, an entire section focused on the Nechako - Kemano Diversion as case study.
In 1950 the B.C. government and the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan; Rio Tinto Alcan since 2008) through then-director Ray Edwin Powell entered into an agreement to facilitate the develop of a hydroelectric project that would support Alcan's new aluminum smelting industry at Kitimat, British Columbia. The $500-million project at Kitimat was the largest public-private partnership ever introduced in Canada in 1951. British Columbia "signed over in perpetuity and at a nominal charge a huge area and much of its resource wealth-agricultural and park lands, water, forests and fish. All waters covered by the licence were to be diverted before the year 2000." Phase I "redirected flows of 115 cubic metres per second on average from the Nechako River (Fraser basin) to spill westward by tunnel through the Coast Mountains, a vertical drop 16 times higher than Niagara Falls, into the Kemano River basin."
While the Kenney Dam was under construction and the Nechako Reservoir was filled, there was a 100% loss of flow in the upper Nechako River.
In October 1952 the Nechako Reservoir started to fill. In 1954 the Kenney Dam was completed, creating a body long that covered .
Alcan sent in a crew to build a stone cairn on the highest ground at the site of the village on Ootsa Lake just before it was flooded, and eventually a plaque was attached.
Then Alcan restored 60% to 70% of the flow of the Nechako River "via a spillway that discharged, not from Kenney Dam but down the Cheslatta, a tributary of the Nechako. The comparatively large discharge down this small tributary scoured a deep channel in the unconsolidated sediments and deposited huge volumes of sediment in the upper Nechako. Due to a smaller dam constructed near the mouth of the Cheslatta, homes and a graveyard of the local Indian community were flooded. The community was forced to relocate on short notice to a new area and unfamiliar way of life, which led eventually to demands for redress of their losses." In 1993, the Government of Canada paid the CCN $7.4 million in a settlement for inadequate compensation in 1952.
Demographics.
The Cheslatta Carrier Nation (CCN) now "have eight reserves on , with all reserves located at least apart. They have 340 members, with 125 members living on reserve."
Economic development.
Cheslatta Forest Products 2001-.
In 1996 the CCN were awarded salvage rights to trees submerged by the Kemano power project. In 2001, the CCN, Prince George-based Carrier Forest Products Ltd. and Oosta Resources Ltd. formed Cheslatta Forest Products. This three-way joint venture partnership was owned by a group of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal residents from the Lakes Forest District, including six First Nations. Their $7.5 million sawmill at Ootsa Lake processed underwater salvage timber and timber killed by the mountain pine beetle.
Social, educational and cultural programs and facilities.
The CCN completed a multimillion-dollar innovative water filtration system in 2004. The Cheslatta "worked with engineers on a proposal to pump water out of Francois Lake, run it through a water filtration system up to a water tower, and then gravity feed it to a mainline that would serve not only their community, but also the neighbouring Skin Tyee Band and Nee Tahi Buhn Band, as well as the non-native community."
The Cheslatta Carrier Nation is constructing an online archive (pre- and post- flood).


Covington House (Vancouver, Washington)

The Covington House historic cabin in Vancouver, Washington, was built by Richard and Charlotte "Anna" Covington born, raised and married in London, England who travelled by ship around Cape Horn/South America, stopping at the Sandwich Islands/Hawaii and finally arriving at Fort Vancouver in the Oregon Territory, where they had been hired to teach children of the Hudson's Bay Company employees. The first three "plains" of the area were held by Hudson Bay Fur Trade Co. whereas the fourth "plain" was opened up for public sale as property north of the Columbia River became part of the United States, the government gave newly acquired land to early pioneers, willing to settle and farm the land. The Covingtons taught at the Fort immediately after their arrival, 1846 until 11 April 1848 when they entered "donation land claim" No. 43 in the Fourth Plain area, the community now referred to as Orchards, Wa, where they built their home, House No. 16 and Boarding School, per the 1850 census. Although they never had any of their own children, the couple established a boarding school in addition to operating a large fruit farm, called the Kalsus Farm. The children slept in the cabin loft, as it was an arduous seven – eight-mile trek, one way, north east of the Fort and wrought with danger for small children to attempt to travel alone. The Covington's log cabin soon became known as the social center of hospitality with musical entertainment in the early days of Vancouver on the Columbia River. Besides his guitar, they also brought a violin and the first piano to the Pacific Northwest as well, they also taught music to many of these local children at that time. Richard Covington was extremely talented, in addition to building their log cabin home, and developing an expansive orchard, he served in several offices as a justice of the peace, county clerk, school superintendent, cartographer, artist, musician, vocalist, and briefly as a ranger during an "Indian uprising" First Nations/Native Americans.
The inscription on the marker in front of the cabin: "Erected 1848 by Richard and Anne Charlotte Covington on Fourth Plain. Boarding school was conducted herein in 1850. This building housed first piano in the Oregon Country and was center of social activity in entire region".
U.S. Army Captain (and future President) Ulysses S. Grant was quartermaster at what was then known as Columbia Barracks at Fort Vancouver, for 15 months beginning in September 1852 – 1853. During this time, he was known to ride 7–8 miles by horseback to visit the Covington home, to enjoy some semblance of familial life.
Richard Covington was elected Clark County school superintendent in 1862 and 1863. In 1867 he received an appointment to work in the United States Patent Office, under the administration of their friend and then President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant, so they sold their farm, in January, to William C. Hazard for $2,100 and moved to Washington, D.C. At the time of their departure, they gave their piano to a friend who eventually gave it to Nan Maynard Rice years later. In 1967, Miss Rice, in turn, gave the piano to a local historical society. The Covingtons stayed in Washington, DC through President Grant's term in office, then temporarily spent time in Victoria, British Columbia until retiring to the Sandwich Islands until Richards death. It is believed that Anna returned to England.
The Covington House cabin, which is the oldest (domestic dwelling/home) privately built structure, is also the oldest school building in addition to it being the oldest boarding school built in Clark County, Washington. Circa 1925, it was "rediscovered" by local businessmen, who came together to raise attention, and funds, needed to save and restore the cabin. Which at that time not only was being used to house farm animals, but was "in advanced stage of disrepair – barren and weathered, open windows and doors, and unkempt shingles, dispiritedly in part of a weed-grown lot". Circa 1926–28, the individually adze hewn logs of the cabin were numbered and catalogued, disassembled, and relocated at its present site, 4201 Main Street, where it stands today. At that time that was the northwest corner of Leverich Park, (in an area called Kiggins Bowl due to the shape of the terrain), facing the old Pacific Highway, before being separated from the Park by the development of the "new" freeway, I-5. Several modifications were added during this major restoration and relocation project, including electricity, heat, lights, water and plumbing, wooden floor, a new unique fireplace boasting large local river stones and single piece of local timber for the new fireplace and mantle, new windows, a kitchen, two restrooms and a fully restored roof with wooden rain gutters. The location was distinctive as being on the old Pacific Highway, and facing the old "Vancouver Column" adjacent to the oldest and now the newest (due to removal, restoration and re-dedication of the) Blue Star Memorial Highway Marker, in the state of Washington.
The Covington House itself is currently owned and maintained by the city of Vancouver on land owned by the local school district and managed by the Vancouver Woman's Society affiliated with GFWC The General Federation of Woman's Clubs. The house had served as a home, a farm and a boarding school, and quickly became a social hub. As it was in the beginning, so it is now, the cabin continues to provide a special place for special events as well as being utilized by many local groups as a regular meeting place. Because the cabin is a National Landmark, it is available to view by the public, by appointment.


Curly (scout)

Ashishishe (c. 1856–1923), known as Curly (or Curley) and Bull Half White, was a Crow scout in the United States Army during the Sioux Wars, best known for having been one of the few survivors on the United States side at the Battle of Little Bighorn. He did not fight in the battle, but watched from a distance, and was the first to report the defeat of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. Afterward a legend grew that he had been an active participant and managed to escape, leading to conflicting accounts of Curly's involvement in the historical record.
Life.
Ashishishe was born in approximately 1856 in Montana Territory, the son of Strong Bear (Inside the Mouth) and Strikes By the Side of the Water. His name, variously rendered as "Ashishishe", "Shishi'esh", etc., has been said to literally mean "the crow", however, this may be a misunderstanding as the Crow word for "crow" is "áalihte". Ashishishe may be a transliteration of the word "shísshia", which means "curly". His death record lists his name as being "Bull Half White (Curly)". He resided on the Crow Reservation in the vicinity of Pryor Creek, and married Bird Woman. He enlisted in the U.S. Army as an Indian scout on April 10, 1876. He served with the 7th Cavalry Regiment under George Armstrong Custer, and was with them at the Battle of Little Bighorn in June of that year, along with five other Crow warrior/scouts: White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, Hairy Moccasin, his cousin White Swan, and Half Yellow Face, the leader of the scouts. Custer had divided his force into four separate detachments, keeping a total of 210 men with him. Half Yellow Face and White Swan fought alongside the soldiers of Reno's detachment, and White Swan was severely wounded. Curly, Hairy Moccasin, Goes Ahead and White Man Runs Him went with Custer's detachment, but did not actively participate in the battle; they later reported they were ordered away before the intense fighting began. Curly separated from White Man Runs Him, Hairy Moccasin, and Goes Ahead, and he watched the battle between the Sioux/Cheyenne forces and Custer's detachment from a distance. Seeing the complete extermination of Custer's detachment, he rode off to report the news.
A day or two after the battle, Curly found the "Far West", an army supply boat at the confluence of the Bighorn and Little Bighorn Rivers. He was the first to report the 7th's defeat, using a combination of sign language, drawings, and an interpreter. Curly did not claim to have fought in the battle, but only to have witnessed it from a distance; since this first report was accurate, two of the most influential historians of the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Walter Mason Camp (who interviewed Curly on several occasions) and John S. Gray, accepted Curly's early account. Later, however, when accounts of "Custer's Last Stand" began to circulate in the media, a legend grew that Curly had actively participated in the battle, but had managed to escape. Later on, Curly himself stopped denying the legend, and offered more elaborate accounts in which he fought with the 7th and had avoided death by disguising himself as a Lakota warrior, leading to conflicting accounts of his involvement. The family story is that he was involved, but when he saw Custer fall, he gutted open a horse and hid inside.
After the Crow Agency had been moved to its current site in 1884, Curly lived there, on the Crow Reservation on the bank of the Little Bighorn River, very close to the site of the battle. He served in the Crow Police. He divorced Bird Woman in 1886, and married Takes a Shield. Curly had one daughter, Awakuk Korita ha Sakush ("Bird of Another Year"), who took the English name Dora. For his Army service, Curly received a U.S. pension as of 1920.
He died of pneumonia in 1923, and his remains were interred in the National Cemetery at the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, only a mile from his home.
Curly's story.
Curly's earliest newspaper account as recorded in the "Helena (Montana) Weekly Herald" on July 20, 1876, is as follows:
Custer, with his five companies, after separating from Reno and his seven companies, moved to the right around the base of a hill overlooking the valley of the Little Horn, through a ravine just wide enough to admit his column of fours. There was no sign of the presence of Indians in the hills on that side (the right) of the Little Horn, and the column moved steadily on until it rounded the hill and came in sight of the village lying in the valley below them. Custer appeared very much elated and ordered the bugle to sound a charge, and moved on at the head of his column, waving his hat to encourage his men. When they neared the river the Indians, concealed in the underbrush on the opposite side of the river, opened fire on the troops, which checked the advance. Here a portion of the command were dismounted and thrown forward to the river, and returned the fire of the Indians.
During this time the warriors were seen riding out of the village by hundreds, deploying across his front to his left, as if with the intention of crossing the stream on his right, while the women and children were seen hastening out of the village in large numbers in the opposite direction.
During the fight at this point Curley saw two of Custer's men killed, who fell into the stream. After fighting a few moments here, Custer seemed to be convinced that it was impracticable to cross, as it only could be done in column of fours exposed during the movement to a heavy fire from the front and both flanks. He therefore ordered the head of the column to the right, and bore diagonally into the hills, downstream, his men on foot leading their horses. In the meantime the Indians had crossed the river (below) in immense numbers, and began to appear on his right flank and in his rear; and he had proceeded but a few hundred yards in the direction the column had taken, when it became necessary to renew the fight with the Indians who had crossed the stream.
At first the command remained together, but after some minutes' fighting, it was divided, a portion deployed circularly to the left, and the remainder similarly to the right, so that when the line was formed, it bore a rude resemblance to a circle, advantage being taken as far as possible of the protection afforded by the ground. The horses were in the rear, the men on the line being dismounted, fighting on foot. Of the incidents of the fight in other parts of the field than his own, Curley is not well informed, as he was himself concealed in a ravine, from which but a small portion of the field was visible.
The fight appears to have begun, from Curley's description of the situation of the sun, about 2:30 or 3 o'clock p.m., and continued without intermission until nearly sunset. The Indians had completely surrounded the command, leaving their horses in ravines well to the rear, themselves pressing forward to attack on foot. Confident in the superiority of their numbers, they made several charges on all points of Custer's line, but the troops held their position firmly, and delivered a heavy fire, and every time drove them back. Curley said the firing was more rapid than anything he had ever conceived of, being a continuous roll, as he expressed it, "the snapping of the threads in the tearing of a blanket. The troops expended all the ammunition in their belts, and then sought their horses for the reserve ammunition carried in their saddle pockets.
As long as their ammunition held out, the troops, though losing considerable in the fight, maintained their position in spite of the efforts of the Sioux. From the weakening of their fire toward the close of the afternoon, the Indians appeared to believe their ammunition was about exhausted, and they made a grand final charge, in the course of which the last of the command was destroyed, the men being shot where they lay in their position in the line, at such close quarters that many were killed with arrows. Curley says that Custer remained alive through the greater part of the engagement, animating his men to determined resistance; but about an hour before the close of the fight, he received a mortal wound.
Curley says the field was thickly strewn with dead bodies of the Sioux who fell in the attack, in number considerably more than the force of soldiers engaged. He is satisfied that their loss will exceed six hundred killed, beside an immense number wounded.
Curley accomplished his escape by drawing his blanket around him in the manner of the Sioux and passing through an interval which had been made in their lines as they scattered over the field in their final charge. He says they must have seen him, for he was in plain view, but was probably mistaken by the Sioux for one of their number, or one of their allied Arapahos or Cheyennes.
The most particulars of the account given by Curley of the fight are confirmed by the position of the trail made by Custer in his movements, and the general evidence of the battle field.
Only one discrepancy is noted, which relates to the time when the fight came to an end. Officers of Reno's command, who, late in the afternoon, from high points, surveyed the country in anxious expectation of Custer's appearance, and commanded a view of the field where he had fought, say that no fighting was going on at that time, between 5 and 6 o'clock. It is evident, therefore, that the last of Custer's command was destroyed at an earlier hour in the day than Curley relates.
Thomas Leforge, in his autobiographical narrative, stressed that the Army expected scouts to be non-participant in skirmishes and added this recollection:


San Juan Parangaricutiro


Camelsfoot Range

The Camelsfoot Range is a sub-range of the Chilcotin Ranges subdivision of the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in British Columbia. The Fraser River forms its eastern boundary. The range is approximately 90 km at its maximum length and less than 30 km wide at its widest.
Terrain and location.
The far southeast end of the Camelsfoot is extremely rugged, and dropping to one last point at 7000'-plus before plunging into the gorge of the Fraser Canyon at Fountain, near Lillooet. For 45 km NW from there, the range is rocky and lightly forested with lodgepole pine, breaking into high benchlands and large creek basins draining through benchland country via small canyons.
Beyond that the range's terrain is much more gentle, with high, meadowed ridges running east towards the Fraser Canyon between treed plateaus and small canyons, and a few large, barren domes running further north along the Fraser. The range is bounded on the north and west by a large and impressive benchland-and-hoodoo sand canyon similar to those along the range's east flank - that of Churn Creek, which is a provincial protected area. The historic Empire Valley Ranch is near the mouth of Churn Creek and is provincially protected for heritage and environmental reasons. It is on a high side-valley above the Fraser Canyon; north of it beyond Churn Creek is the historically significant Gang Ranch.
Camels in the Cariboo.
Camelsfoot Peak and the range itself take their name from an odd episode in the story of the Fraser and Cariboo Gold Rushes. Frank Laumeister, a United States veteran of the Camel Corps, bought 23 camels from the US military, which was ending their use. He used the animals to carry freight on the Douglas Road and the Old Cariboo Road from Lillooet to Fort Alexandria, and later on the new Cariboo Wagon Road from Yale. After this, he finally discontinued using the camels. Horses could not stand their smell, the camels' soft feet were hurt by the rocky soils of the BC Interior and the canyon trails, and handlers found them difficult. Many escaped retirement into the wilds.
The last confirmed sighting was in the Ashcroft area in 1905, possibly 1910 by some claims. Barroom stories recount sightings elsewhere in the southern Interior into the 1930s, but these are taken with the same amount of stock as the Sasquatch or the Cariboo Alligator.
The original Log Cabin Theatre in Lillooet, still exists today, originally was used by Laumeister for a camel barn. No one knows if the camels roamed the Camelsfoot. The new highway bridge in Lillooet is named the Bridge of the Twenty-Three Camels to commemorate their role in local history.
The name of the Yalakom River is a simplified version of the Chilcotin word for the ewe of the mountain sheep. Shulaps, the name of the range to the west of the Camelsfoot, is a simplified version of the Chilcotin for the ram.
Peaks.
There have been copper prospects operating on Red Mountain 2445 m (8022 ft), the highest in the range, and on Poison Mountain 2264 m (7428 ft), just south Red, is located where the spine of the Shulaps Range intersects with that of the Camelsfoot, at the apex of the Yalakom valley which runs SE towards Lillooet from this point. Poison Mountain's name comes from the toxic leaching of its orebodies into local streams (and rumours of mercury in the copper ore) while Red's comes from the colour of its cuprous earth. Red's flanks show ziggurat-like scars that are evidence of the scale of ore-sampling that at one time was underway.
There are projected open-pit mine and smelter plans for the Poison Mountain-Red Mountain orebody, using power from the also projected Hat Creek lignite deposits nearby on the other side of the Fraser. These have never been brought forward in the public planning process, nor are they likely to be given the scope (and overlapping) of First Nations land claims in the immediate region.
Red has a twin summit, French Mountain 2231 m (7320 ft), originally named French Bar Mountain after a rich gold-bearing bar on the Fraser just east. North of them is a remote, gentle summit known as Black Dome Mountain 2252 m (7388 ft). China Head 2125 m (6972 ft) and Nine Mile Ridge 2422 m (7946 ft) are southeast of Red and are large, wide ridges covered in meadow; Nine Mile Ridge is a protected area. China Head's name is thought by some to have to do with a conical-shaped hill atop the ridge visible from the Fraser, but the name may have to do with long-established Lillooet entrepreneur Cheng Won, who owned a hog ranch on Leon Creek, another valley south and "Wo Hing General Store" in Lillooet. The term "head" in 19th-century frontier usage was a synonym for mountain or ridge or headland, and not meant as a reference to a head.
Due south of it is the isolated massif of Yalakom Mountain 2424 m (7953 ft), which is one of the highest in the range and remains a redoubt of mountain sheep and other big game, and historically was part of a long-standing wildlife preserve. East of Yalakom Mountain is Hogback Mountain 2149 m (7051 ft), whose name is not descriptive but concerns Cheng Won's hog ranch on its shoulders from which the pigs would run wild onto the mountain.
South of Hogback and Leon Creek the range becomes much more rugged as it narrows. Mount Birch 2232 m (7323 ft), just south of Leon Creek, is named after the Lieutenant-Governor who ran the Crown Colony of British Columbia for most of the alcoholic Frederick Seymour's term as governor. Birch has a twin summit on its short, sharp ridge - Mount Duncan 2182 m (7159 ft) and a southern foreshoulder overlooking the confluence of the Yalakom and Bridge Rivers is named Mount Bishop . From Bishop south to the Fraser the boundary of the range is the very lower stretches of the Bridge River, after its confluence with the Yalakom. A rural farming and ranching community named Moha, also called Yalakom, is located around that confluence, which also is the lower end of the Big Canyon of the Bridge River.
Southeast from Duncan there is Slok Hill (Red Hill) 2081 m (6827 ft) which is a mountain despite its name, which is St'at'imcets for "red". The upper canyon of Applespring Creek nearly bisects the range to nearly connect top Slok Creek, south of which is Camelsfoot Peak 2014 m (6608 ft). Below Applespring Creek along the lower Bridge is the rancherie of the Bridge River Indian Band, Xwisten (which is the name of the river in their language). Their combined reserves extend much further up the Bridge on its south side, almost to Moha, and comprise one of the largest Indian Reserves in British Columbia.
The southeastern shoulders of Camelsfoot Peak overlook the town of Lillooet. The confluence of the Bridge and Fraser Rivers is at the range's southern foot. Just upriver from it is a final unnamed pinnacle of the range, in a locality sometimes referred to as North Fountain (Fountain is south of the Fraser at this point), that is the site of an old forestry lookout, accessed by a decommissioned side road off the "main" road up the west side of the Fraser from Lillooet.
Ranches off that west side road, known as the Slok Creek Forest Service Road or, more traditionally, the West Pavilion Road, access ranches on high benchlands atop cliffs that plunge to one of the Fraser's deepest gorges, plunging in near-desert between Fountain and Big Bar. Although road-access today, these once were accessed only by cable ferry on the river far below Pavilion, or via tortuous horse trails over the southern Camelsfoot. Some of the ranchlands and spreads in this area, which is called Blue Ridge as well as West Pavilion, were part of the Diamond S Ranch holdings at Pavilion founded by American settler Robert Carson and owned in later years by the Martley family and their descendants to this day.
Wildlife.
The range is home to black bear, black-tail deer, moose, mountain sheep, mountain goat, cougar, lynx and smaller creatures. Encounters with grizzlies may occur in this range, but they are not so common here as in the Shulaps Range and west from there. Contrary to media myth there are no rattlesnakes in the Lillooet region, nor west of the Fraser at all except a few near Lytton and Boston Bar. There are, however, many species of lizard and non-venomous snake.
Access.
All of these summits and many other high areas of the range and other nearby ranges are accessible by 4x4 (preferably with a winch) or mountain bike or horseback. The main roads encircle the range via the Yalakom and Fraser Rivers, converging via China Head and northeast via Watson Bar and Big Bar Ferry.
Geographic classification issue.
In some classifications, they are a parallel region to the Pacific Ranges rather than its subdivisions, and in others they are part of the Chilcotin Plateau. That is to say, part of the Interior Plateau, along with the Marble Range and Clear Range on the other side of the Fraser River from it. In such a classification system, the boundary of the Chilcotin Ranges would stop at the Yalakom River, the North Fork of the Bridge River, which is the western boundary of the Camelsfoot.
On the other hand, those ranges, classified as part of the Interior Plateau, are really part of the same geologic system as the Coast Mountains across the Fraser or the Cascade Range south of the Thompson on the near side of the Fraser, which has been riven by the gorges of the Thompson and Fraser Canyons to separate the Pacific Cordillera into different ranges.
The Camelsfoot Range is crammed into the division point of the huge Fraser and Yalakom Faults, which converge south of Lillooet at the south end of Fountain Ridge, and compositionally is more similar to the Marble and Clear Ranges than to the Shulaps Range, which is to the west across the Yalakom.


Hodaka (motorcycle)

Hodaka was a joint Japanese and American company that manufactured motorcycles from 1964 to 1978.
Close to 150,000 motorcycles were produced within that time. Prior to 1964 Hodaka made engines for the Yamaguchi motorcycle brand.
The worldwide distributor of Hodakas was PABATCO, for "Pacific Basin Trading Company". Its headquarters were in the rural town of Athena, Oregon. PABATCO designed and engineered a majority of the motorcycles, and Hodaka in Japan was responsible for the engine and manufacture and assembly. Pabatco was owned by Shell Oil Company from 1965 to 1978. The name "Hodaka" comes from a mountain near the factory and means "To grow taller".
The Oishi brothers, owners of Hodaka, had taken an extended trip to Europe in the late '50s and during that time they purchased close to 50 European and English motorcycles to take back to Japan to study. It is also rumored Hodaka might have indeed designed the complete Yamaguchi SPB50, not just the engine. Hodaka was also a producer of machine tools and it has been said they borrowed the concept of one of their quick-change gear clusters in one of their metalworking lathes to construct the shift mechanism in the Hodaka gearbox, with the resulting spring-loaded shifting mechanism being patented.
Starting to manufacture complete motorcycles in 1964, Hodaka/PABATCO is credited by some with starting the trail bike craze in the United States. This was due mainly to the design by the off-road motorcycle enthusiasts at PABATCO. On the second year of production Hodaka experimented with reed valves and almost brought them to market. But for some unknown reason they dropped the idea. And subsequently Yamaha is credited with being the first to produce this power enhancing feature. Hodaka models are listed below.
In the late 1970s, a combination of events led to the demise of Hodaka. Falling US dollar exchange rates against the Japanese yen, a shift in demand from dirt bikes to larger road bikes, and general economic weakness fatally wounded the company. Shell attempted to purchase the Hodaka company at one point but the offer was rebuffed by Hodaka in Japan. Some of the tooling was later sold to the Korean company Daelim after Hodaka closed in 1978. In 2014, a complete history including in house notes, blueprints, photos etc. was published. The book is called "Hodaka: The Complete Story of America's Favorite Trailbike". The book is authored by Ken Smith from Australia and has the most comprehensive history of the Hodaka motorcycle brand ever written.
Every year the town of Athena, Oregon, holds an event in June entitled Hodaka Days which includes a parade of Hodaka motorcycles, a bike show, observed trials and motocross competition.


West Greenlandic

West Greenlandic, also known as Kalaallisut, is the standard dialect of the Greenlandic language, spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants of Greenland, as well as by thousands of Greenlandic Inuit in Denmark proper (in total, approximately 50,000 people). It is virtually identical to modern standard Greenlandic. It was historically spoken only in the southwestern part of Greenland, i.e. the region around Nuuk.
Tunumiit and Inuktun are regional dialects of Greenlandic, spoken by a small minority of the population. Danish remains an important lingua franca in Greenland and used in many parts of public life, as well as being the main language spoken by Danes in Greenland.
An extinct mixed trade language known as West Greenlandic Pidgin was based on West Greenlandic.


Charles Josiah Wompatuck

Charles Josiah Wompatuck (died c. 1693) was a sachem of the Massachusett tribe in the late 1600s.
Charles' father Wompatuck was sachem of the Massachusetts tribe until his death in 1669. Charles' mother was "Westamoo, the widow of Alexander", who was the son of Massasoit. She was known as the “Squaw Sachem of Pocasset.” After Wompatuck's death, "Squamok, brother of Josiah and called Daniel by the English, acted as regent during the time that Josiah and Westamoo’s son Charles Josiah Wampatuck was a minor." In 1671 Charles Josiah became Sachem. In 1684 and 1685 Charles Josiah Wampatuck signed various deeds and confirmatory deeds affirming his grandfather's transfer of Boston, Stoughton, Dedham and other areas to the colonists decades earlier. According to one source, "Charles Josiah Wompatuck died before 1693, and was succeeded by Abigail Wampatuck Momontaug, the sister of Charles Josiah."


Old Owl

 Old Owl (Comanche, "Mupitsukupʉ") (c. late 1780s – 1849) was a Native American Civil Chief of the Penateka band of the Comanche Indians.
Early life.
Nothing is known of his youth or early years. Older than the two war chiefs, Old Owl was a member of the same band of the Comanche as the more famous Buffalo Hump (Potsʉnakwahipʉ), Yellow Wolf (Saviah) and Santa Anna. Although known as a civil, or peace, Chief, he was known to lead war parties. He was an important chief, though probably less influential than Buffalo Hump during the 1830s and 1840s. He was originally, along with Buffalo Hump and Santa Anna, a leader of Comanche resistance to Anglo settlement in Texas, especially during the period following the Council House Fight.
Council House Fight.
Like most Comanche Chiefs, Old Owl came to white attention following the Council House Fight. He, along with Santa Anna, was part of the Great Raid of 1840 which Buffalo Hump organized to take revenge for what the Comanche viewed as the "utter betrayal of their people at the Council House." But Old Owl was the first among the Comanche Chiefs to recognize that defeating the whites was unlikely. He began advocating peace around 1842, and is best known for his meeting with Robert Neighbors and his subsequent signing of the Meusebach-Comanche Treaty."
Robert Neighbors and Old Owl.
Robert Neighbors recorded one of the best known meetings with Old Owl. While he was a Texas Indian Agent for the Republic in 1845, Major Neighbors was at a Tonkawa camp. Old Owl arrived with 40 warriors, and in a manner the Major called "most insolent," demanded that the Tonkawa feed the war party and their horses, and provide for them entertainment. The Tonkawas, in fear of their lives, provided 40 women, food and shelter, and cared for the horses at once. Neighbors, who had just been appointed Indian Agent for all Texas Indians including the Comanche, took this opportunity to meet some of his new charges, and told them he was hopeful of civilizing them. Old Owl, introduced to Neighbors, complimented him on his fine blue coat. Neighbors, understanding the meaning of this compliment, presented the Chief with the coat immediately. Other warriors admired his pants, boots, and other clothing, and soon Neighbors was standing only in a nightshirt.
Old Owl however, took a liking to the fearless Neighbors. He told him though most whites irritated him, he liked Neighbors, and invited him to accompany the war party, and he proposed instead of Neighbors making a civilized man of him, that he would make a fine Comanche, warrior and horse thief out of Neighbors. The war party with Neighbors, who felt this was no time to decline, went to Mexico, where Neighbors attempted to buy beef on credit to feed the warriors. When the Mexicans declined to sell beef to a Republic of Texas official on credit, Old Owl told them two beeves were to be forthcoming immediately, or the hacienda would be burned down and every living being killed. This proved highly effective, and the food was immediately forthcoming.
Neighbors, having left an indelible impression on Old Owl as the first Republic of Texas official to ever ride with a Comanche War Party, (and the only Republic of Texas official to ever ride with a war party), took his leave of them with thanks, and went home.
Old Owl and the Meusebach-Comanche Treaty.
When the Germans decided a treaty was possible with the fierce Comanche, Old Owl was one of the Chiefs they negotiated with. Geologist Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer was present at those treaty talks, which resulted in the Meusebach-Comanche Treaty, and left an enduring and vivid portrait of the three chiefs who were representing the Comanche bands, including Old Owl (the others being Buffalo Hump and Santa Anna):
The three chiefs, who were at the head of all the bands of the Comanches roaming the frontiers of the settlements in Texas looked very dignified and grave. They differed much in appearance. [Old Owl] the political chief, was a small old man who in his dirty cotton jacket looked undistinguished and only his diplomatic crafty face marked him. The war chief, Santa Anna, presented an altogether different appearance. He was a powerfully built man with a benevolent and lively countenance. The third, Buffalo Hump, was the genuine, unadulterated picture of a North American Indian. Unlike the majority of his tribe, he scorned all European dress. The upper part of his body was naked. A buffalo hide was wound around his hips. Yellow copper rings decorated his arms and a string of beads hung from his neck. With his long, straight black hair hanging down, he sat there with the earnest (to the European almost apathetic) expression of countenance of the North American savage. He drew special attention to himself because in previous years he had distinguished himself for daring and bravery in many engagements with the Texans.
Death.
Like so many of the Comanche, including his compatriot and friend Santa Anna, Old Owl died during the epidemics of 1848-49. It is believed, like Santa Anna, he died of cholera in 1849, but he may have died the previous year during the smallpox epidemic. It is estimated that the overall Comanche population declined from approximately 20,000 to less than 12,000 in those two years.


Julice Mound

Julice Mound is an archaeological site in East Carroll Parish, Louisiana with a Plaquemine culture component dating to 1200–1541 CE and located less than one mile from Transylvania Mounds.
Description.
The site is located less than a mile from Transylvania Mounds and it is extremely likely that Julice is part of that complex. The site has a single platform mound and is located near a channel that feeds into the Mississippi River and right next to Louisiana Highway 581. A survey from 1954 describes it as being in height and having a small platform on its summit. The route for HWY 581 runs over the former location of a large section of the mound, of which only about one third remains and recent measurements of the mound put it at in height and by at its base. Pottery discovered at the site date its occupation to 1200–1541 CE.


Moatfield Ossuary

The Moatfield Ossuary was accidentally discovered during the expansion of a soccer field located in North York, Ontario in the summer of 1997. Upon identifying both Iroquois artifacts and human remains, a team of archaeologists was contracted by the province to conduct an archaeological investigation and recover the human remains. The Six Nations Council of Oshweken, provided consent to analyze the human remains, however the time to do so was limited as the remains were to be reburied December 12 the same year.
Background.
Ossuaries have long been a known burial practice among the Ontario Iroquois. Early ethnohistoric accounts combined with archaeological, osteological research have provided a window into cultural aspects of Iroquoian death and burial as well as the larger social, economical and political context of the time. Based on radiocarbon dates for three early Iroquoian ossuary pits a developed ossuary tradition had arisen by the A.D. 1000-1300 period. It is believed the ossuary tradition developed in response to an increased need for integration of members of different families for the purpose of agricultural production. At the same time, we begin to see evidence of semi-subterranean sweat lodges appear in the archaeological record, and thought to have functioned to integrate men from different families within the community.
It has been argued by Ritchie and Funk, Trigger, Wright, and Williamson and MacDonald that the ossuary burial practice is tied to inter village alliances with socio-political systems based on matrilineal kinship. The need to create and solidify ties within communities can be seen through the evolution of ossuaries and the variation between different affiliated groups, including contemporaneous ones.
Discovery.
The Moatfield ossuary was discovered in 1997 in Toronto, Ontario, during the redevelopment of a soccer field. Artifacts from the site confirmed it to be a Middle Iroquoian village (AD 1280 – AD 1320). Following consultation with the Six Nations Council of Oshweken, the province contracted Archaeology Services Inc. to undertake an investigation of the ossuary located on the periphery of the site.
Archaeological Excavation.
The Six Nations Council agreed to allow a group of archaeologists to excavate the entirety of the ossuary and remove all skeletal remains. Excavation of the site began on September 6, 1997 and was completed on December 12 of the same year. The ossuary itself was found 30 centimetres beneath the surface and was slightly elliptical in shape. The long axis was oriented in an east to west direction and measure 2.4 metres in length; the north-south axis measured 2 metres in length.
The site was impacted through modern anthropogenic modifications of the landscape. Most noticeable was a concrete-filled posthole for a chain-link fence. The auguring of the posthole was the cause for discovery of both the Moatfield village and ossuary. Despite the unearthing of human remains, construction continued and the posthole was filled with concrete; an action that impacted the bones immediately adjacent and below the posthole. Electrical wiring and water pipes also transected the site but had no direct effect on the ossuary.
As the human remains were excavated, the location of each bone was recorded on a map and photographed prior to being removed from the site. Photographs were also taken to document any articulations, pathologies, or groupings of bones. Upon removal, special care was taken to protect any bones that may be lost or damaged. For example, all maxillae bones and mandibles were wrapped to prevent the teeth from falling out and crania were removed with soil still attached (a measure that helps to prevent the bones from fragmenting). These and other large elements like long bones, scapulae, sacra, and innominate bones were bagged individually and assigned their own unique catalogue number. All small elements (e.g. Individual tarsals, carpals, vertebrae, ribs and loose teeth) were placed together in a bag that was representative of the 20 centimetre grid unit they came from. Anything articulated was left intact, bagged intact, and assigned one catalogue number.
Artifacts.
Although the site primarily contained human remains, there were a few artifacts found as well. Items found included a ceramic pipe fragment, a complete ceramic effigy pipe, several ceramic vessel sherds, and a shattered piece of chert. Of the artifacts, the best preserved was the ceramic effigy pipe, which was designed and decorated to symbolize a turtle. A variety of animal bones (both aquatic and mammalian) were also found. The species identified included Atlantic salmon, American eel, mouse (either deer mouse or white-footed mouse), and a bear. There were also several fish bones that were either tentatively identified or unidentifiable.
Taphonomy.
Due to the time restrictions placed on the excavation of the Moatfield Ossuary, an extensive analysis of site taphonomy could not be conducted. Despite the lack of time however, the archaeologists were able to conclude that the human remains had not been exposed to the elements nor did they show evidence of animal activity (with the exception of three bones). They further concluded that the lack of cutmarks or other alterations suggested that the individuals were moved from a primary burial site to the Moatfield ossuary at a later time (secondary burial).
Most of the bones were undamaged and although the skulls may have been cracked, they were not shattered. The remains seemed to have been placed into the ossuary with great care and planning. Until the time of modern construction and subsequent excavation, the remains appeared to have been left undisturbed.
Ossuary Formation.
The remains in the ossuary were placed with great care and were undamaged at the time of burial. In order to maximise the use of space, the remains were packed very tightly together; so tight that it was nearly impossible to identify individual skeletons unless articulated. Due to the tightly compacted nature of this ossuary, bones were broken or bent in the shape of the walls (particularly long bones). These fractures are not consistent with trampling and because the broken ends remained in close proximity, it was interpreted that great care was taken to minimize damage to the bones in the filling and packing of the ossuary.
Main Ideas of Osteobiographical analysis.
The purpose of analyzing the ossuary was to piece together who the Moatfield people were, what happened to them, and what can the archaeologists know about their way of life. This was done by analyzing the bones and bone fragments found in the ossuary.
Difficulties.
There were difficulties matching bones to one another due to the high amount of commingling of remains. Also, many bones in the body mature at different stages and therefore one individual may show maturation of some bones while still developing others. This made piecing together of entire individuals difficult and thus making inferences regarding health of individuals less distinct. Also, the sex of individuals was not clear since the entire skeletons were not able to be articulated.
Data.
The minimum number of individuals represented by the bones found was 87 in total. The number of adults represented was 58, and juveniles was 29. The counts done by the post-cranial remains equalled 78 in total: 52 adults and 26 juveniles. More cranial remains were found than post-cranial in the site.
Health of the Moatfield people.
Based on the extensive osteological (bone) examination, the archaeologists were able to infer the health of the people represented in the ossuary. Although not all health problems show symptoms on bones, the information gathered gives some insight on the health of the society.
There were very few examples of bones showing signs of healing from trauma and none of the bones showed any evidence that there was warfare in the society. A few of the healed fractures imply that long-term care was given to individuals who were injured. Very few bones showed any signs of inflammatory bone changes. However, over half of the juveniles crania (skulls) showed evidence of anemia (iron deficiency). This was represented by what is known as cribra orbitalia. This implies that the society had many young children with chronic illness before their death.
At least four adults showed symptoms of pulmonary or other forms of tuberculosis which is evident by the loss of bone tissue. However this is not a significant number of adults in the sample size, it does show that infections to this degree were present in the society. There was only one adult individual who showed any signs of cancer. This is known by evidence found on the skull of the individual. One individual was bundled relatively completely, separating it from the other bones which enabled the archaeologists to make inferences on the entire skeleton rather than individual bones. The changes noted on the bones showed clear signs of old age. This is important because older individuals are sometimes lost in the archaeological record due to the frailty of their bones.
Isotopic and dental analysis were undertaken to determine what the inhabitants were eating, how food sources were being procured and the effects this had on the health of the population. Results of the isotopic analysis conducted on a sample of teeth form the population evidenced the Moatfield inhabitants had a diet high in maize. Fluctuations observed in the maize consumption over time illustrate a peak period in maize production followed by a subsequent decrease. Individuals who had died and been interred in the ossuary at early, had a diet consisting of approximately 54% maize. Over time this increased to 70%, then dropped to 60%.
The health consequences of a diet as high in maize consumption that was seen in the later years of the ossuary, typically show anemia visible in skeletal remains due to deficiencies in amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan. Additionally, low quantities of metals such as zinc form this diet also lead to delayed skeletal development. Surprisingly however, these pathologies were not observed on the remains of the Moatfield individuals. The most likely explanation for this is the consumption of fish from Lake Ontario and local streams that were identified in the faunal collection of the site.
The dental analysis for the Moatfield population focused on patterns of caries (cavities), abscessing, wear, and antemortem tooth loss. Dental analysis was divided into two study collections due to the disarticulated nature of the remains: maxillary specimens and mandibular specimens. The general patterns observed evidenced greater caries and antemortem loss in the mandibular collection, and more abscessing in the maxillary collection. Caries were found to be significantly lower in women, with an increase in caries corresponding to an increase in age. Men evidenced a higher number in caries with no discernible changes related to age. Attrition was found to be moderate. Abscessing quantification is ambiguous at best as it does not adequately account for areas of antemortem tooth loss.
Factors contributing to poor dental health among the Moatflied include: no evidence of dental hygiene; low fluoride content in local soils; high starch (maize) consumption that adheres to teeth.
No analysis of other factors including ritual removal of teeth, use of teeth as a tool for activities such as hide work was noted. It is unclear if no evidence was found or if time constraints precluded this type of analysis.
Part of the skeletal analysis included findings of maxillary sinusitis. Approximately 60% of the remains recovered from the Moatfield ossuary exhibited skeletal pathology consistent with maxillary sinusitis. Although not all cases of this pathology will leave evidence on bone, the results do provide a significant indicator of living conditions and overall health of the population. The predominance of individuals under the age of 12 showed minimal symptoms, however after reaching adulthood prevalence increases and remains high throughout all age groups.
The primary factors attributed to this pathology are typically diet and living conditions. The present studies attribute the Moatfield population to living conditions, specifically smoke inhalation from closed quarters within longhouses. The maxillary sinusitis as evidenced by the amount of lesions and remodelling on bone are suggestive of chronic infections. Though not generally of cause of death on its own, the prevalence of maxillary sinusitis did predispose the Moatfield inhabitants to other respiratory infections such as tuberculosis, which was found to be a common cause of death.
Discussion/Conclusion.
The Moatfield site provides a rare snapshot into the lives of Iroquonians from the 13th Century. Evidence indicates the ossuary was a cemetery for one community. The key here, is that it served a community, not just a family or a specific kin group, a pattern that is more typically seen in populations from this period. Health patterns observed in the remains evidence a reliance on agriculture, and this reliance changed over time. Regardless of the changes, a continuity in the relationship between the dead and the living was maintained. The socio-political patterns associated with the evolving agricultural subsistence base, are reflected in the bones of Moatfield people.
The remains were reburied less than six month later on December 18, 1997. In the small window of time between the initial finding and reburial, the Six Nations Council and researchers came together and were able to share part of the story of the Moatfield inhabitants with future generations.
References.
Crinnion, C., Merrett, D., and Pfeiffer, S. (2003). "The Dentition of the Moatfield People". In Bones of the Ancestors: The Archaeology and Osteobiography of the Moatfield Ossuary. Eds. R. Williamson and S. Pfeiffer. pp. 223–239.
Johnston, R.B. (1979). Notes on Ossuary Burial among the Ontario Iroquois. "Canadian Journal of Archaeology", 3, pp. 91–104.
Merrett, D. and Pfeiffer, S. (2000). Maxillary Sinusitis as an Indicator of Respiratory Health in Past Populations. "American Journal of Physical Anthropology", 111, pp. 301–318.
Pfeiffer, S. (2003). "Introduction to Osteobiographical Analysis". In Bones of the Ancestors: The Archaeology and Osteobiography of the Moatfield Ossuary. Eds. R. Williamson and S. Pfeiffer. pp. 163–170.
Pfeiffer, S. (2003a). "The Health of the Moatfield People as Reflected in Paleopathological Features". In Bones of the Ancestors: The Archaeology and Osteobiography of the Moatfield Ossuary. Eds. R. Williamson and S. Pfeiffer. pp. 189–204.
Ritchie, W.A. and Funk, R.E. (1973). "Aboriginal Settlement Patterns in the Northeast". New York State Museum and Science Service Memoir 20. University of the State of New York, Albany.
Trigger, B. (1969). "The Huron: Farmers of the North". Holt, Reinhardt and Winston, Toronto.
van der Merwe, N.J., Williamson, R.F., Pfeiffer, S., Thomas, S.C., and Oakberg Allegretto, K. (2003). The Moatfield ossuary: isotopic dietary analysis of an Iroquoian community, using dental tissue. "Journal of Anthropological Archaeology", 22, pp. 245–261.
Williamson, T. and MacDonald (2003).
Williamson, R.F., Thomas, S.C., and MacDonald, R.I. (2003). "The Archaeology of the Moatfield Village Site". In Bones of the Ancestors: The Archaeology and Osteobiography of the Moatfield Ossuary. Eds. R. Williamson and S. Pfeiffer. pp. 19–88.
Williamson, R.F., Clish, A., Clark, G.R., and Pfeiffer, S. (2003). "The Archaeology of the Moatfield Ossuary". In Bones of the Ancestors: The Archaeology and Osteobiography of the Moatfield Ossuary. Eds. R. Williamson and S. Pfeiffer. pp. 133–159.
Wright, J.V. (1966). The Ontario Iroquois Tradition. Bulletin 210. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa.


Isaac Low

Isaac Low (April 13, 1735 – July 25, 1791) was an American merchant in New York City who served as a member of the Continental Congress and as a delegate to the New York Provincial Congress. Though originally a Patriot, he later joined the Loyalist cause in the American Revolution.
Early life.
He was born on April 13, 1735 at Raritan Landing in Piscataway, Province of New Jersey. He was the son of Cornelius Low Jr. and Johanna (née Gouverneur) Low and the brother of Nicholas Low.
His father was a well-established merchant and shipper who built the Cornelius Low House, an extant 1741 Georgian mansion, and brought prominence to the community of Raritan Landing. Low's family was descended from German, Dutch and French Huguenot settlers.
Career.
Low served as a tax commissioner for the New York provincial government during the French and Indian War. Low was a prominent merchant in New York City, with various firms including Lott & Low. He had large real estate holdings, built up sizable trade, and had interests in a slitting mill. Low was chosen as a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress in 1763. Although he accumulated a fortune that placed him in the upper ranks of colonial New York's merchant leaders, he was "nowhere near its absolute pinnacle."
He was an active speaker against taxation without representation and the chairman of New York City's Committee of Correspondence in 1765. He became chairman of New York City's Committee of Sixty in 1774. Low was named one of nine delegates from New York to the First Continental Congress in 1774, and to New York Provincial Congress the following year where he pursued a moderate approach towards the British. In that same year, he was a founder and the first president of the New York Chamber of Commerce.
American Revolutionary War.
Opposed to armed conflict with the British Crown, Low quit the Patriot cause after the Declaration of Independence was announced in 1776 and relocated to New Jersey, where he was imprisoned on suspicion of treason by the New Jersey Convention. He was eventually released after George Washington intervened, but after collaboration with the British occupation forces in New York, his property was confiscated after the New York assembly passed a motion of attainder in 1779. Four years later, Low emigrated to England where he died in 1791.
Personal life.
Low married Margarita Cuyler (1738–1802) in 1760, a scion of the powerful Schuyler and Van Cortlandt families. Both her father, Cornelis Cuyler, and brother, Abraham Cuyler, were mayors of Albany. Another brother, General Cornelius Cuyler, was a British Army officer during the French Revolutionary Wars, who served as Lt. Gov. of Portsmouth, and was created a Baronet of St John's Lodge. Together, Isaac and Margarita were the parents of one child, Isaac Low Jr., who was educated in French and became a British army commissary-general.
Low died in Cowes on the Isle of Wight, Great Britain, on July 25, 1791. Although a family tradition holds that his wife joined him, probate records hold that she died in Albany in 1802.


Lily of the Valley (boat)

Lily of the Valley was a houseboat owned by pioneer John Moore Robinson, who founded the community of Naramata, British Columbia. He and his family traveled across Okanagan Lake to the newly laid out town site in "Lily of the Valley" on April 22, 1907 and Naramata was officially founded. She was moored at the wharf on the west shore of the lake and later hosted festivities such as regatta activities by the Athletic and Aquatic Association, holding 800 people at one point in 1909.


Joseph Willard Roosevelt

Joseph Willard Roosevelt (January 16, 1918 – May 18, 2008) was an American pianist and composer.
Biography.
He was the second son of Kermit Roosevelt and Belle Wyatt Willard. His paternal grandparents were U.S. President Theodore "T.R." Roosevelt, Jr. and First Lady Edith Kermit Carow.
Roosevelt attended, like several of his family members, Groton School and Harvard University and studied piano with Nadia Boulanger in France.
He served in the Pacific during World War II. He was commissioned in the Naval Reserve on August 19, 1940 and was promoted to lieutenant on March 1, 1943. Later in the war, he served as captain of the USS "Greene", (APD-36). With the "Greene" he supported the invasion of southern France in August 1944 and later served on escort duties in the Pacific.
Joseph was first married to Nancy Thayer, daughter of E. E. Cummings and Elaine Orr.
He taught music at The Hartt School, Mannes College of Music, Fairleigh Dickinson University and the Longy School of Music.
Roosevelt's compositions are published by the American Composers Alliance and Merion Music.
Roosevelt died at the age of 90 on May 18, 2008.


Racing to Change

“Racing to Change” is an exhibition organized by the Oregon Black Pioneers that uses a variety of media to highlight the lives and activism of Black Oregonians during the 1960s and 1970s. The exhibition first opened in 2018, in partnership with the Oregon Historical Society, under the name "Racing to Change: Oregon's Civil Rights Years.” In 2019, Oregon Black Pioneers partnered with the University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History (MNCH) and expanded the content to include stories from Lane County, Oregon. The expanded exhibit, “Racing to Change: Oregon’s Civil Rights Years—The Eugene Story” opened at the MNCH in October 2019. Incorporating videos, photographs, and documents, the exhibitions became available to viewers online after the 2020 closing of the physical locations (s"ee “External Links” below").
Exhibition Content.
The content includes a variety of media and historical archives, including interviews, transcripts, video testimony, documents, and photographs. The exhibitions situate Oregon’s history within national and local campaigns for racial justice in the 1960s and 1970s, discussing local community organizers alongside Black icons like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Muhammad Ali. Some of these local activists include Willie C. Mims, one of the first Black residents of Eugene; and Wiley Griffon, the first Black person to work at the University of Oregon. The exhibition also features student activists who fought against racial discrimination in higher education. Students like these worked to diversify Portland State University’s curriculum by establishing Black Studies (see: Africana Studies) degrees. Their stories illustrate civil rights advocacy that historians did not formally document in Oregon’s state archives.
The displays also emphasize that despite the region’s comparative lack of racial diversity, the civil rights movement existed in the Pacific Northwest, affecting Oregon cities like Eugene and Portland. Throughout the late 1960s, Kent Ford and other Oregon activists formed local chapters of the Black Panther Party and the Black Berets in both Eugene and Portland. Although small, these groups forged community movements and programs to organize against racism in their communities and support Black residents. The exhibitions explain these groups’ activism and feature stories highlighting their work, including how the Eugene chapter of the Black Panther Party created a free breakfast program for children and started a liberation school to teach Black history.
The Eugene exhibition includes firsthand accounts of Oregon’s civil rights movement from local activists, members of Eugene’s Black community, like Lyllye Reynolds-Parker, and University of Oregon students. It also features two displays unique to the Eugene location: information on the University’s new Black cultural center and the original Oregon Constitution. The curators featured the 1857 constitution for one month because it contains the Black exclusion clause, which lawmakers upheld until 1926 [2]. Notably, Oregonians did not remove the document’s exclusionary language until 2000.
Curators incorporated interactive experiences in the downtown Portland exhibition. Throughout the displays, speakers played hits by Black artists, like Aretha Franklin’s "R-E-S-P-E-C-T ," that many radio stations and stores refused to play in the 1960s and 1970s. The exhibition also promoted community programs for visitors to engage with, including open discussions between present-day activists and advocates from the 1960s to 1970s.
Exhibition Locations.
"Portland:"
The Oregon Black Pioneers developed the downtown Portland exhibition with the Oregon Historical Society, opening the original “Racing to Change: Oregon’s Civil Rights Years” on January 15, 2018. “Racing to Change” was the Oregon Black Pioneers’ fourth exhibition curated with the Oregon Historical Society, attracting 45,000 viewers by the time it closed on June 24, 2018.
"Eugene:"
In Eugene, the Oregon Black Pioneers curated “Racing to Change: The Eugene Story” with the University of Oregon Museum of Cultural and Natural History. The opening on October 12, 2019 coincided with the opening of the University’s Lyllye Reynolds-Parker Black Cultural Center. The museum celebrated the exhibition’s opening with a performance from the Powerhouse Praise Team, a local gospel choir. Additionally, the opening featured speeches from Oregon Senator James Manning, Jr. and museum exhibition director Ann Craig, among others.
Using the Portland exhibition as a foundation, Oregon Black Pioneers and the MNCH added localized information specific to Eugene and the University of Oregon. Covering 1,100 square feet, the Eugene exhibition won a 2020 Oregon Heritage Excellence Award from the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department before its temporary closure in May 2020.
"Satellite Exhibitions:"
Smaller versions of the exhibition appeared as ten-foot kiosks in several Oregon venues [3]. The Interstate Firehouse Cultural Center Gallery in North Portland hosted one of these pop-up exhibitions between March 12 and April 12, 2020.
"Online:"
The Oregon Historical Society has published an online version of the Portland exhibition, which allows viewers to virtually explore the physical exhibit through 360-degree/3D technology. The University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History also moved the Eugene exhibition online in early 2020 to maintain access for audiences after the COVID-19 pandemic led to Oregon’s state-mandated shut down. The exhibition’s curators expressed that they wanted people to still have access to the information in light of the Black Lives Matter protests in Summer 2020. This was the first virtual exhibit produced by the Museum of Natural and Cultural History. Its online version uses a traditional website format instead of panoramic imaging and includes an educator’s guide for grades 6-12 to help teachers lead their classes through the material.
Curators.
"Intentions:"
The exhibitions’ curators — including Oregon Black Pioneers, directors, and museum leaders — stated their intentions to raise awareness about the contributions of Black Oregonians and for viewers to connect history to their present-day lives. They reported wanting to create a safe space for Black people and an informative space for White people, ultimately inspiring visitors to engage in contemporary activism.
"Contributors:"
The Oregon Black Pioneers is a Salem-based organization dedicated to teaching Oregon’s racial history. It is a branch of the Oregon Historical Society, but also produces exhibits with other organizations. The Oregon Black Pioneers has curated a series of four exhibitions with the Oregon Historical Society, chronologically following Oregon’s racist history (see: Racism in Oregon) and the origins of its Black community. The first installment of this series appeared in 2011 and features historical content as early as 1788. “Racing to Change” is the fourth and final exhibit in this series, focusing on racism and the Oregon Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Two of Oregon Black Pioneers’ prominent board members, Kim Moreland and Gwen Carr, served as the "Racing to Change” exhibit’s co-leaders.


Pigeon Roost, Mississippi

Pigeon Roost is a ghost town in Choctaw County, Mississippi.
Once home to a Chief of the Choctaw people, and an important stop along the Old Natchez Road, nothing remains of the former settlement.
History.
Pigeon Roost was located along the Old Natchez Road where it crossed the Big Black River.
The settlement was named for the millions of passenger pigeons that once roosted there.
Nathaniel Folsom of New England moved there in 1790, and opened "Folsom's Stand and Trading Post", within the Choctaw territory. Pigeon Roost became part of the Natchez-Nashville Mail Route in 1821, which passed "from Nashville to Florence, thence to Columbus, from there to Pigeon Roost, thence to Natchez".
Nathaniel married a Choctaw woman named Ai-ni-chi-ho-yo ("one to be preferred above others"), who was a direct descendant of a long line of Choctaw chiefs. Their son, David Folsom, assisted with the operation of the trading post, and was notable for his many accomplishments.
David Folsom assisted the Americans in the Seminole Wars in Florida, and became a colonel. David also enabled the first wagons to travel from the Tombigbee River in eastern Mississippi, to the navigable waters of the Yazoo River in the Mississippi Delta, by assisting early missionaries clear a wagon road from Pigeon Roost their mission at Elliott. David became influential within the Choctaw people, and met with Chief Mushulatubbee at Pigeon Roost in 1822. Noted Christian missionary Cyrus Byington lived with David Folsom in Pigeon Roost in 1823, where David—a strong believer in Christianity—taught Byington the Choctaw language. In 1826, David Folsom was named Chief of the Choctaw Nation in its northern district.
By the late 1820s, a school for Choctaw children was located at Pigeon Roost, and the community became central to many of the affairs of the Choctaw people. Pigeon Roost Cemetery was also located there.
A post office operated under the name Pigeon Roost from 1842 to 1871.
In 1830, Pigeon Roost ceased to exist following the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, which forced the removed of the Choctaw people from Mississippi.
A marker located at mile 203.5 on the Natchez Trace Parkway near Pigeon Roost Creek recognizes the former community.


Matoonas

Matoonas (? - died 1676 in Boston) (also spelled Matonas) was a sachem of the Nipmuc Indians in the middle of 17th century. He played a significant role in the Native American uprising known as King Philip's War.
Early life.
Matoonas had originally converted to Christianity and became a Praying Indian. He was even made a constable by the colonists of the Praying Indian village of Pakachoog. However, in 1671 his son was accused of murdering an Englishman named Zachariah Smith near the Neponset River in Dedham, and hanged, despite the fact that it was widely known that somebody else was responsible for the crime. After the execution the head of Matoonas' son was placed on display as a warning. Consequently Matoonas was very bitter towards the English although he kept his true feelings hidden until a suitable opportunity would present itself. When Metacom (King Philip) began organizing an armed movement against the English settlers in New England in 1675, Matoonas willingly joined and convinced other Nipmuc sachems to follow him. In July of that year he led a raid on the town of Mendon, which decided Nipmuc participation in the war on the side of Philip. Mendon was the first colonial settlement in the Massachusetts Bay Colony to be attacked during King Philip's War.
Shortly after the raid on Mendon, together with another Nipmuc sachem, Muttawmp, Matoonas successfully ambushed a party of colonial soldiers in what became known as Wheeler's Surprise at Brookfield.
Execution.
Matoonas was betrayed and turned over to the English in Boston in autumn 1676 by another Nipmuc sachem. Most colonial sources list the name of the one who gave betrayed him as "Sagamore John," or "Chief John". In 1677 Rev. Thomas Cobbett wrote an account of the War stating that "Capt. John Jerthoag a Nipmuk Sagamor came in and some with him, and presently after fetched in old Matonas and his son, 120 more, which I think was before the thanksgiving day," and "Jerthoag" has been interpreted by Drake as meaning, "Jethro," possibly a family member of Nipmuc leaders Peter Jethro and Old Jethro. Some sources give the original Native American name of this person as Horowaninit, Schultz and Tougias state in their work on the King Philip's War however, that "...Muttawmp and Shoshonin, who had delivered Matoonas to the English, likewise fell victim to Waldron's treachery and were executed at Boston." Matoonas' betrayer either volunteered to execute him personally, or was forced to do so by the colonists, in order to demonstrate his loyalty to the English. Sagamore John was sold into slavery. Matoonas' head, like his son's before him, was presented on a pole outside of Boston as a way to terrorize other Indians who supported King Philip.
References.
7. p. 462


Bayou Grande Cheniere Mounds

Bayou Grande Cheniere Mounds (16 PL 159) is an archaeological site in Plaquemines Parish near the southeast corner of Louisiana. Built by the Coastal Coles Creek culture, it was inhabited from 875 to 1200 CE, from the Early Coles Creek period to the Coles Creek/Plaquemine period.
Description.
The site is located on a natural levee of Bayou Grande Chenière and has twelve mounds, eleven arranged around a central plaza and one to the south, connected to the main group by a constructed landform. The site was connected by a manmade causeway to Bayou Grande Chenière. The elliptical plaza measures on its north-south axis by east-west. Mound 1, the largest, is a conical mound measuring and located on the eastern edge of the plaza. The southern edge of the plaza is bounded by Mound 10 and the northern edge by Mound 3, both are platform mounds. The western edge of the plaza is a string of interconnected small mounds, Mounds 4 to 9.
The site is unusual in its size and number of mounds. Typically Coastal Coles Creek settlements had three mounds arranged around a plaza. The site's plan and large scale are most like the large Coles Creek settlement in Avoyelles Parish, the Greenhouse Site.
Excavations.
Henry Collins, Jr., an assistant entomologist for the Smithsonian Institution, first excavated the site in 1926. The mound site was mapped by McGimsey in 2000. Dr. Rebecca Saunders, Timothy Schilling, and seven students from Louisiana State University conducted field excavations at the site in January 2003. Pottery found during excavations was dated from 875 to 1200 CE during the "Bayou Ramos (700-875 CE)", "Bayou Cutler (875-1000 CE)" and "St. Gabriel (1000-1200 CE)" phases, spanning the Early Coles Creek period to the Transitional Coles Creek/Plaquemine period for the eastern delta. No material from earlier than the Troyville culture were found, nor were any materials from after the Plaquemine period.
In the late 2000s NASA's Stennis Space Center, in partnership with the US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District and Tulane University, undertook an archaeological survey of the southeastern Louisiana marshes, including the Bayou Grande Chenière site. This survey discovered the manmade causeway leading from the site to the bayou.


Powtawche Valerino

Powtawche N. Valerino is an American mechanical engineer at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. She worked as a navigation engineer for the Cassini mission.
Early life and education.
Valerino was born to a Mississippi Choctaw mother and African-American father. She grew up on the Mississippi Choctaw reservation and is an enrolled member of the tribe. When she was ten, she moved with her family to New Orleans. A few years later she saw the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion on television and became interested in science. Valerino learned cello at age twelve, and still plays in the Pasadena Community Orchestra. During high school, Valerino interned as a mechanical engineer as part of NASA's Summer High School Apprenticeship Research Program, where highly achieving students shadow NASA professionals.
She obtained a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Stanford University, and received her masters and doctoral degrees in mechanical engineering from Rice University. During summers at graduate school, Valerino interned at Johnson Space Center in Houston and Stennis Space Center in Hancock County, Mississippi, where she worked on the X-38 vehicle (International Space Station lifeboat) team. Her dissertation, "Optimizing Interplanetary Trajectories to Mars via Electrical Propulsion," was submitted to Rice in 2005. She was the first Native American to earn a PhD in engineering at Rice University.
Research and career.
Valerino joined the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Mission Design and Navigation Section in 2005. She first worked on the proposed Jupiter Icy Moon Orbiter mission, then transferred to the Cassini mission, where she was a navigator with the maneuver and trajectory team. The Cassini mission far outlived the predicted four-year lifetime, with engineers like Valerino pushing it to thirteen years. Throughout the Cassini mission, Valerino shared the spacecraft status and findings with the public.
Her most recent project was the Parker Solar Probe spacecraft, which launched on August 12, 2018. It became the first satellite to fly as close to the sun as Helios 2 did in 1976.
Public engagement.
Valerino has worked to recruit and encourage the participation of under-represented groups in science. This has included working with Soledad O'Brien to encourage black and Latina young women to pursue careers in STEM at the PowHERful Summit. In 2016 she received the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Education Award for her outreach activities. In 2017, Valerino joined 21st Century Fox in their promotion of the film "Hidden Figures", which tells of the role of outstanding African-American mathematicians and scientists in the Apollo program.
Valerino is a fan of comic books. She has also discussed strong women in graphic novels on podcasts.


Stampede Trail

The Stampede Trail is a road and trail located in the Denali Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska. A paved or maintained gravel road for on its eastern end as far west as Eight Mile Lake, the remainder of the route consists of a primitive, remote, and, at times, dangerous hiking or ATV (All-terrain vehicle) trail following a path where the original road has deteriorated over the years. The route ends at an abandoned antimony mine at along Stampede Creek, a couple miles past Stampede Airport's grass airstrip.
Historically, access to the east end of the trail was gained from the Alaska Railroad. Today, the primary access to the trail is from the George Parks Highway (Alaska Route 3) which opened in the early 1970s. The Parks Highway intersects the trail at milepost 251.1, two miles north of the center of Healy. Though this intersection marks the present-day eastern terminus of the Stampede Road, Lignite Road continues a few miles east from this intersection to the railroad tracks and the Nenana River.
The trail is located near the northern boundary of Denali National Park in a small finger of State of Alaska public land that extends into the national park. The valley, known as the Stampede Valley or the Stampede Corridor, is mostly low-lying tundra and watersheds.
The Stampede Trail has been the subject of international attention since the 1992 death of Christopher McCandless, whose remains were found in an abandoned bus deep inside the wilderness about 28 miles down the trail. The bus was first brought to the public's attention by Jon Krakauer in an "Outside" magazine article; a book in 1996 and a film in 2007 followed. The bus's infamy led to an increase in hikers along the trail as well as complaints of a corresponding increase in unprepared hikers requiring assistance in the backcountry. Many rescues and deaths occurred annually along the trail. The Alaska State Troopers and the Tri-Valley Fire Department (Healy) were primarily responsible for these rescues and assistance. In 2020, citing safety reasons, the bus was removed and shipped to the University of Alaska Museum of the North.
The trail currently receives limited tour traffic. In 2015, Alaska Travel Adventures stopped operating Jeep tours along the trail due to deteriorating trail conditions and frequent mechanical problems. Denali Tundra Tours ceased operations of an Argo tour in 2016. As of 2019, Stampede Excursions continues to operate three daily tours along the trail in Pinzgauer 6x6 military grade trucks as well as Volvo C306 6x6 personnel carriers. This tour is called the Denali Backcountry Safari. While they pick up passengers from all Denali area hotels, the 6x6 tours actually begin at their Eight Mile Lake Base Camp at mile 7.5 of the Stampede Road. Their pavilion and other associated buildings are the last permanent structures along the Stampede Road. All tours turn around a few miles east of the Savage River. Traversing the beaver ponds, "mud flats,” and crossing the Teklanika River are major obstacles preventing most vehicles from continuing more than 5 miles or so down the trail.
During the fall, hunting traffic along the trail is heavy as the area is prime habitat for moose. Many hunters use ATVs or Argos to access hunting camps. Moose hunting in this area generally yields high success rates. Winter travel by snowmobile, dog sled, or tracked vehicle is much easier than summer travel after the boggy tundra, beaver ponds, and rivers freeze.
History.
The Stampede Trail began as the "Lignite to Kantishna" mining trail blazed in 1903 by prospectors drawn to the Kantishna region by the discovery of placer gold. In the 1930s miner Earl Pilgrim used the trail to access his antimony claims on Stampede Creek at , above the Clearwater Fork of the Toklat River. For many years, the mine was accessed through the use of a winter trail. Antimony ore was shipped east to the railroad through the use of “Cat Trains,” sleds loaded with ore and towed by Caterpillar Bulldozers. Fuel and supplies for the mine were backhauled in the same way. The overland cat trains could take 3 or more days of travel time and February was the generally the best month for such winter trail travel.
In 1960, Yutan Construction won a contract from the new state of Alaska to upgrade the trail as part of Alaska's Pioneer Road Program, building a road for trucks to haul ore from the mine year-round for transshipment to the railroad at Lignite (near the present day town of Healy.) Construction was discontinued in 1961 after only of road were built. No bridges were constructed over the several rivers it crossed. In 1963 maintenance was halted and the route promptly became impassable for road vehicles by the soft permafrost and seasonal flooding.
The trail has since been used by backcountry travelers on foot, bicycle, dog sleds, snowmachines, and all-terrain vehicles. The trail's main obstacle is crossing the Teklanika River during the summer months when the river swells with snowmelt. The Alaska State Troopers report that several rescues were necessary every year at the river crossing. In August 2010, high water resulted in the drowning death of Claire Ackermann, a hiker from Switzerland and in July 2019 Veranika Nikanava of Belarus was also swept downstream and drowned. Hundreds of hikers attempted to reach Bus 142 every year, until its removal in June 2020.
Bus 142.
Fairbanks City Transit System Bus 142 was a 1946 International Harvester K-5 bus abandoned in a clearing at along the Stampede Trail near Denali National Park. It was originally one of three buses used by the Yutan Construction Company to provide site accommodations for the construction crew from Fairbanks that worked on road upgrades in 1960–1961. It was towed on location by a Caterpillar D8 bulldozer as the engine had been removed. It contained a couple of beds and a wood-burning stove. When the Stampede Mine ceased operations in the 1970s, the buses were removed from the trail, but Bus 142 was left behind due to a broken rear axle to serve as a shelter for hunters, trappers, and visitors.
The bus gained notoriety in January 1993 when "Outside" magazine published an article written by Jon Krakauer titled "Death of an Innocent" describing the death of Christopher McCandless, an American hitchhiker who lived in the bus during the summer of 1992 while attempting to survive off the Alaskan wilderness only to die of starvation three and a half months later.
The bus, also known as the "Magic Bus" as per McCandless's own writings, became a pilgrimage site for visitors seeking the location where McCandless perished. The 2007 film version of Jon Krakauer's 1996 book about McCandless, "Into the Wild", revived more interest in the bus.
In 2013, Dave Gill from the United Kingdom visited the bus as part of a British documentary publishing project. He discovered that visitors had shot at the bus and caused damage, resulting in its accelerated deterioration.
In September 2017, Circle the Globe Productions filmed a pilot episode for a possible new TV series along the trail and at the bus. Logistics and equipment were provided by Stampede Excursions and Alaska Mountaineering School. The series is hosted by J.J. Kelley, titled "Off the Map,” and was set to premiere on the Travel Channel on July 18, 2018. The full episode is also available online on Vimeo.
Since the death of Christopher McCandless in 1992, two hikers died attempting to reach Bus 142. In 2010, Claire Ackermann of Switzerland drowned in the Teklanika River while attempting to cross by tying herself to a rope spanning the fast-moving river when she lost her footing and drowned before she could be cut free. In 2019, Veranika Nikanava of Belarus also drowned while attempting to cross the river tied to a rope. Subsequently, hikers were strongly urged to avoid tying themselves to ropes as a method of crossing Alaskan rivers. After Nikanava’s death, her husband is attempting to raise awareness and funds for a cable crossing or bridge at this location.
On June 18, 2020, various government agencies coordinated a training mission with the Alaska Army National Guard to remove the bus, deemed a public safety issue after numerous visitor rescue incidents and the deaths of Ackermann and Nikanava. It was flown out of the wilderness by a CH-47 Chinook helicopter to Healy and then by flatbed truck to an undisclosed location. On September 24, 2020, the Museum of The North at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks announced that it had become the permanent home of Bus 142, which will be restored and an outdoor exhibit will be created.


Casqui

Casqui was a Native American polity visited in 1541 by the Hernando de Soto expedition. This group inhabited fortified villages in eastern Arkansas.
The tribe takes its name from the chieftain Casqui, who ruled the tribe from its primary village, thought to be located in present day Cross County, Arkansas near the town of Parkin. The suspected site is the focal point of the Parkin Archeological State Park and it has been determined that the site was continuously occupied for at least 500 years. Information about Chief Casqui and his people comes from journals made during the expedition of Hernando de Soto in 1541.
Hernando de Soto Expedition.
When de Soto's expedition arrived in the area the Casqui walked over a mile from their village to greet the travelers and invite them to stay in the town. The travelers declined the offer and made camp outside of the village. The journals report that de Soto gave a speech to the Casqui about religion and baptized several of the villagers as Christians. The journals report that the villagers helped them erect a large wooden cross on the central mound.
When de Soto determined to press on and visit the nearby tribe called the Pacaha many of the Casqui people followed him. The Casqui and the Pacaha had been at war for some time and the Casqui had raided the Pacaha on previous occasions. When de Soto and the Casqui approached, many of the Pacaha became afraid and attempted to flee to an island in the river and drowned. The Casqui who had followed de Soto proceeded to sack the village, desecrate holy sites, and steal everything they could.
De Soto contacted Chief Pacaha and convinced him that he had nothing to do with the attack and that the expedition's intentions were peaceful. De Soto even assured the Pacaha that the expedition would help the Pacaha attack the Casqui to punish them for their subterfuge.
The Casqui received advance warning of the planned attack and returned the looted items to the Pacaha and issued an apology in order to stave off retribution. De Soto arranged a dinner for the two leaders and arranged a peace treaty between the tribes.
The Hernando de Soto expedition records are the only historical records of Chief Casqui and his tribe. Their later history is uncertain.
In recent years a Spanish trade bead which matches descriptions of the seven-layer glass beads carried by the expedition has been found at the Parkin site as well as two Spanish falconer's bells, and Spanish musket balls.


Big Bug, Arizona

Big Bug is a ghost town in Yavapai County, Arizona, United States. The former settlement is located twelve miles southeast of Prescott and was established in 1862.
History.
Big Bug has a long history of frontier life. The town was founded by Theodore Boggs during the American Civil War. Boggs' father was the former governor of Missouri, Lilburn Boggs, who helped drive the Mormons out during the Missouri Mormon War. When he was ten years old he traveled west to California, accompanied partway by the famous Donner Party. His mother was a granddaughter of the pioneer Daniel Boone.
In 1862, Boggs left California for Arizona and settled along Big Bug Creek and began working a mining claim. A mine was built with a few other buildings of necessity. A town sprang up with an average population of 100. The actual claim where the minerals were mined was a few minutes walk outside of town. In the early years only four men mined the claim, Theodore Boggs and three others.
The town had only been established a month before natives discovered the place, they attacked soon after. A post office was established in 1879 and remained in service until 1910. For a while the post office was actually Theodore Boggs' house. The assistant postmistress, Miss Dawson, delivered the mail herself on horseback throughout the town and surroundings. Gradually the town died when the mines shut down.
In the 1930s, small placer miners returned to Big Bug Creek. The many large boulders in the creek had prevented the use of heavy machinery in the earlier mining, so considerable gold remained. In 1932, some 60 amateur miners were working there, some recovering as much as $300 a week, including some handsome nuggets.
The Big Bug placers produced a recorded 17,000 troy ounces of gold; the total production was around 50,000 ounces, mostly from dredging in the 1930s and 1940s. Big Bug Creek still has some indication of early mining activities, but little if anything remains of the town as of 2010.
Battle of Big Bug.
The Battle of Big Bug was a skirmish during the Apache Wars involving Theodore Boggs and three other miners. It occurred when Apaches attacked the mine one night. Boggs and the three others were sleeping when one awoke to the sound of their crying dog. The miner peered out and witnessed the dog, pierced with an arrow in his side. The Apaches then attempted to crush the dugout with all four of the white men inside. Big boulders were rolled down onto the structure from the mountain above. Two of the miners held a bed frame over their heads to keep the roof from caving in.
The Apaches came close and Boggs with the remaining miner manned their muskets. When the Apaches came close enough, the two stuck their rifles outside a few little portholes just dug and then they fired. Two of the Apaches were killed immediately and dropped to the ground. Caught off guard, the Apaches hastily picked up their shot fellow warriors and retreated up the mountain side. Once at the top, the Apaches cremated their dead in full view of Boggs and the others. They then continued a withdrawal from the area. Later the four went back to the town unharmed and told the alarmed residents what had happened.