Anuradhapura Kingdom

The Anuradhapura Kingdom (Sinhala: , translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil: ), named for its capital city, was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka and Sinhalese people. Founded by King Pandukabhaya in 377 BC, the kingdom's authority extended throughout the country, although several independent areas emerged from time to time, which grew more numerous towards the end of the kingdom. Nonetheless, the king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler of the country throughout the Anuradhapura period. Buddhism played a strong role in the Anuradhapura period, influencing its culture, laws, and methods of governance. Society and culture were revolutionized when the faith was introduced during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa; this cultural change was further strengthened by the arrival of the Tooth Relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage extended by her rulers.
Invasions from South India were a constant threat throughout the Anuradhapura period. Rulers such as Dutthagamani, Valagamba, and Dhatusena are noted for defeating the South Indians and regaining control of the kingdom. Other rulers who are notable for military achievements include Gajabahu I, who launched an invasion against the invaders, and Sena II, who sent his armies to assist a Pandyan prince.
Because the kingdom was largely based on agriculture, the construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably Vasabha and Mahasena, built large reservoirs and canals, which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the "Rajarata" area throughout the Anuradhapura period. These constructions are an indication of the advanced technical and engineering skills used to create them. The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya; the Ruwanwelisaya, Jetavana stupas, and other large stupas; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya; and religious works (like the numerous Buddha statues) are landmarks demonstrating the Anuradhapura period's advancement in sculpting.
The city of Anuradhapura.
In 543 BC, prince Vijaya (543–505 BC) arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished from his homeland in India. He eventually brought the island under his control and established himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country. One of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama.
In 377 BC, King Pandukabhaya (437–367 BC) made it his capital and developed it into a prosperous city. Anuradhapura (Anurapura) was named after the minister who first established the village and after a grandfather of Pandukabhaya who lived there. The name was also derived from the city's establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura. Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled the country in the Anuradhapura Kingdom, with the exception of Kashyapa I (473–491), who chose Sigiriya to be his capital. The city is also marked on Ptolemy's world map.
History.
King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, fixed village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village headmen. He constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. He brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, it was not until the reign of Dutthagamani (161–137 BC) that the whole country was unified under the Anuradhapura Kingdom. He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he killed Elara, the South Indian ruler who was occupying Anuradhapura, and ascended to the throne. The chronicle "Mahavamsa" describes his reign with much praise, and devotes 11 chapters out of 37 for his reign. He is described as both a warrior king and a devout Buddhist. After unifying the country, he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base, and built several monasteries and shrines including the Ruwanweli Seya and Lovamahapaya.
Another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is Valagamba (103, 89–77 BC), also known as Vatthagamani Abhaya, who was overthrown by five invaders from South India. He regained his throne after defeating these invaders one by one and unified the country again under his rule. Saddha Tissa (137–119 BC), Mahaculi Mahatissa (77–63 BC), Vasabha (67–111), Gajabahu I (114–136), Dhatusena (455–473), Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggabodhi II (604–614) were among the rulers who held sway over the entire country after Dutthagamani and Valagamba. Rulers from Kutakanna Tissa (44–22 BC) to Amandagamani (29–19 BC) also managed to keep the whole country under the rule of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Other rulers could not maintain their rule over the whole island, and independent regions often existed in "Ruhuna" and "Malayarata" (hill country) for limited periods. During the final years of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, rebellions sprang up and the authority of the kings gradually declined. By the time of Mahinda V (982–1017), the last king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, the rule of the king had become so weak that he could not even properly organize the collection of taxes.
During the times of Vasabha, Mahasena (274–301) and Dhatusena, the construction of large irrigation tanks and canals was given priority. Vasabha constructed 11 tanks and 12 canals, Mahasen constructed 16 tanks and a large canal, and Dhatusena built 18 tanks. Most of the other kings have also built irrigation tanks throughout "Rajarata", the area around Anuradhapura. By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, a large and intricate irrigation network was available throughout Rajarata to support the agriculture of the country.
Arrival of Buddhism.
One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was the introduction of Buddhism to the country. A strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BC) and Ashoka of India, who sent Arahat Mahinda, four monks, and a novice being sent to Sri Lanka. They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale. After this meeting, Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism and the order of monks was established in the country. Devanampiya Tissa, guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country.
Soon afterwards, the bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived from India in order to establish the "Bhikkhuni sasana" (order of nuns) in the country. She brought along with her a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi, the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, which was then planted in Anuradhapura. Devanampiya Tissa bestowed on his kingdom the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi. Thus this is the establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Arrival of the Sacred Tooth Relic.
During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328), Sudatta, the sub king of Kalinga, and Hemamala brought the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their country. Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named "Datadhatughara". He ordered this procession to be held annually, and this is still done as a tradition in the country. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country, and a symbol of kingship. The person who was in possession of the Tooth Relic would be the rightful ruler of the country. Therefore, it was often enshrined within the royal palace itself.
Invasions.
Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura Kingdom, all of which were launched from South India. The first invasion recorded in the history of the country is during the reign of Suratissa (247–237 BC), where he was overthrown by two horse dealers from South India named Sena and Guththika. After ruling the country for 22 years, they were defeated by Asela (215–205 BC), who was in turn overthrown by another invasion led by a Chola prince named Elara (205–161 BC). Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani (Duttugamunu) However, the Mahavamsa records that these foreign kings ruled the country fairly and lawfully.
The country was invaded again in 103 BC by five Dravidian chiefs, Pulahatta, Bahiya, Panya Mara, Pilaya Mara and Dathika, who ruled until 89 BC when they were defeated by Valagamba. Another invasion occurred in 433, and the country fell under the control of six rulers from South India. These were Pandu, Parinda, Khudda Parinda, Tiritara, Dathiya and Pithiya, who were defeated by Dhathusena who regained power in 459. More invasions and raids from South India occurred during the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Udaya III (935–938). The final invasion during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, which ended the kingdom and left the country under the rule of the Cholas, took place during the reign of Mahinda V.
However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to "Ruhuna", the southern part of the country, and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to regain their throne. Throughout the history of Sri Lanka, "Ruhuna" served as a base for resistance movements.
Fall of Anuradhapura.
Mahinda V (981-1017) distracted by a revolt of his own Dravidian mercenary troops fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana. The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak, and the country was suffering from poverty by this time. It further mentions that his army rose against him due to lack of wages. Taking advantage of this internal strife Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself. Rajendra Chola I son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. The Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. The capital was at Polonnaruwa which was renamed "Jananathamangalam".
A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son the Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle "Mahavamsa", the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large an prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.
The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that the capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom, was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and become the new center of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. There is practically no trace of chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent provence of Rohana much easier.
Government and military.
Monarch.
The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, under the influence of Ashoka of India. The whole country was brought under the rule of a single monarch by Dutthagamani for the first time. Before this, it had several principalities independent of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The succession of the throne was patrilineal, or if that cannot be the case, inherited by the eldest brother of the previous king. The king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it.
Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya to Subharaja (60–67) are generally considered as the Vijayan dynasty. Pandukabhaya was the first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom belonging to this dynasty. The Vijayan dynasty existed until Vasabha of the Lambakanna clan seized power in 66 AD. His ascension to the throne saw the start of the first Lambakanna dynasty, which ruled the country for more than three centuries. A new dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455. Named the Moriya dynasty, the origins of this line are uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka. The last dynasty of the Anuradhapura period, the second Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V.
Officials.
Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the "purohita", the advisor of the king. The king also had a board of ministers called "amati paheja". In central administration, "senapati" (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a position second only to the king, and held by a member of nobility. This position, and also the positions of "yuvaraja" (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the king.
The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. "Rajarata", the area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the "Ruhuna" (southern part of the country) and the "Malaya Rata" (hill country) were governed by officials called "apa" and "mapa". These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called "rata". Officials called "ratiya" or "ratika" were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit was the "gama" (village), under a village chief known as "gamika" or "gamladda".
Buddhist priesthood.
A close link existed between the ruler and the "Sangha" (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659).
Law.
Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted. "Samantapasadika", a 5th-century commentary, gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known as "viniccayamacca" and there were several judicial officers under him, known as "vinicchayaka". Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions.
Initially, the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as "dasagam", was responsible for upholding justice in that area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death.
Military.
During the early stages, the Anuradhapura Kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions; an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry. This combination was called "Chaturangani Sena" (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen, spearmen and archers.
When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The Commander-in-Chief of the army was usually a member of nobility. The King and his generals led the army from the front during battles, mounted on elephants. The major cities of the kingdom were defended with defensive walls and moats. Sieges, often lasting several months, were common during warfare. Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders, mounted on elephants, often decided the outcome of the battle.
South Indian mercenaries were often employed in the armies of the Anuradhapura Kingdom during its latter stages. Manavanna and Moggallana I (491–508) obtained the assistance of the Pallavas during succession disputes to secure the throne. However, the Anuradhapura kingdom appears to have had strong armies during some periods, such as when Sena II sent his armies to South India against the Pandyan king. Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India to rescue 12,000 captives, and brought back 12,000 prisoners as well as the freed captives. Surprisingly however, a navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and one was rarely maintained. This would have been the first line of defence for the island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India.
Trade and economy.
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture. The main agricultural product was rice, the cultivation of which was supported by an intricate irrigation network. Rice cultivation began around the Malvatu Oya, Deduru Oya and Mahaweli Ganga and spread throughout the country. Shifting cultivation was also done during the rainy seasons. Rice was produced in two main seasons named "Yala" and "Maha". Due to the extensive production of rice, the country was mostly self-sufficient. Cotton was grown extensively to meet the requirements of cloth. Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical literature to these agricultural products. Finger millet was grown as a substitute for rice, particularly in the dry zone of the country. Surpluses of these products, mainly rice, were exported.
The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are gemstones, spices, pearls and elephants, while ceramic ware, silks, perfumes and wines were imported from other countries. The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial center as the residence of many foreign merchants from around the world.
From very early times was a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at the University of Peradeniya, writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but were men who, just two decades ago at the most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.”
By the fifth century one of Persians in addition to Tamil and Arab merchants. These foreign merchants, mainly Arabs, often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports. By the ninth century these Muslim traders had established themselves around the ports of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, they would soon form the still extant Muslim community of the island. Luxury cloth was also imported from Eastern India and China. A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city. Trade was limited in villages since they were mostly self-sufficient, but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained from outside. The country's position in the Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of international trade transit. Ports such as "Mahatittha" (Mannar) and "Gokanna" (Trincomalee) were used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura Kingdom.
Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue. The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as "kahavanu". These eventually became circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.
The primary tax of this period was named "bojakapati" (grain tax) and charged for land used for cultivation. A water tax, named "dakapati" was also charged for the water used from reservoirs. Customs duties were also imposed in ports. Those unable to pay these taxes in cash were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs. The administration of taxes was the duty of "Badagarika", the king's treasurer.
Culture.
Culture in the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of buffalo and cattle, was uncommon. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded . Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields. Dairy products formed an important part of people's diets while Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from the cow: milk, curd, buttermilk, ghee and butter. Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for transport.
Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced in large scale for the military. A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya, which had been roofed entirely with copper.
Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production. A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall, a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir. Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura Kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs. Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland.
Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period. Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign. Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters.
Religion.
The religion of the ruling elite was Brahmanism until the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa. It spread rapidly throughout the country under his patronage becoming the official religion of the kingdom. Despite this status the tolerance of Buddhist society ensured the survival of Hinduism with only a minor loss of influence. After this, the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana. Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to the country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established after Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after the Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism.
Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs. Rulers such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V (914–923) and Mahinda IV (956–972) promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha. Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya (249–262) expelled several monks from the order for supporting such views. A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and the authority or kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine.
Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the 2nd century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as "Mahatittha" and "Gokanna" were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, large Hindu temples such as the Konesvaram temple had been constructed. Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba.
Literature.
From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the Brāhmī script. This gradually developed into the modern sinhala script, but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier. The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya. Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhaura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed to the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya. The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries.
Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, "Siyabaslakara", was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on the Sanskrit "Kavyadarsha". "Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya" is another, and is a glossary for the Pali "Dhammapadatthakatha", providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is "Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda", a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period.
During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali "Tripitaka" was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries on Buddhism, known as "Atthakatha" have also been written during the reign of Mahanama (406–428). Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country.
Art.
The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are "apsaras" (celestial nymphs), others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear some similarity to the paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art.
Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of "stupas" and "vahalkadas" were also painted. Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Dutthagamani wanted to see it on his death bed.
Statue making, most noticeably statues of the Buddha, was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD. Standard postures such as "Abhaya Mudra", "Dhyana Mudra", "Vitarka Mudra" and "Kataka Mudra" were used when making these statues. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan art, shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, and is sculpted from dolomitic marble and is datable to the 4th century. The Toluvila statue is similar to this, and dates to the later stages of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period include the ones at Avukana, Maligavila and Buduruvagala. The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country, standing at . All these statues are carved out of rock.
The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that Jettha Tissa II (328–337) was himself skilled in stone and ivory carving.
Architecture and engineering.
Architecture.
The construction of stupas was noticeable not only during the Anuradhapura Kingdom but throughout the history of Sri Lanka. Stupas were built enshrining an object of worship. The stupa of Thuparamaya, built by Devanampiya Tissa, is one of the earliest built and was constructed immediately after the arrival of Buddhism. The construction of large stupas was begun by King Dutthagamani with the construction of the Ruwanweli Seya, standing high with a circumference of .
The Abhayagiri stupa in the Abhayagiriya monastic complex is another large stupa of the Anuradhapura period the original height of which was . The Jetavana stupa, constructed by Mahasen, is the largest in the country. Stupas had deep and well constructed foundations, and the builders were clearly aware of the attributes of the materials used for construction. Suitable methods for each type of material have been used to lay foundations on a firm basis.
All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large stone columns. These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as the Lovamahapaya (brazen palace). Drainage systems of these buildings are also well planned, and terra cotta pipes were used to carry water to drainage pits. Large ponds were attached to some monasteries, such as the Kuttam Pokuna (twin pond). Hospital complexes have also been found close to monasteries. Buildings were constructed using timber, bricks and stones. Stones were used for foundations and columns, while brick were used for walls. Lime mortar was used for plastering walls.
Irrigation and water management.
Rainfall in the dry zone of Sri Lanka is limited to 50-75 inches. Under these conditions, rain fed cultivation was difficult, forcing early settlers to develop means to store water in order to maintain a constant supply of water for their cultivations. Small irrigation tanks were constructed at village level, to support the cultivations of that village. The earliest medium-scale irrigation tank is the Basawakkulama reservoir built by King Pandukabhaya. Nuwara wewa and Tissa Wewa reservoirs were constructed a century later. These reservoirs were enlarged in subsequent years by various rulers.
Construction of large scale reservoirs began in the 1st century AD under the direction of Vasabha. The Alahara canal, constructed by damming the Amban river to divert water to the west for , was constructed during this period. Among the reservoirs constructed during the reign of Vasabha, Mahavilacchiya and Nocchipotana reservoirs both have circumferences of about . During the reign of Mahasen, the Alahara canal was widened and lengthened to supply water to the newly constructed Minneriya tank, which covered and had a long and high embankment. He was named "Minneri Deiyo" (god of Minneriya) for this construction and is still referred to as such by the people in that area. The Kavudulu reservoir, Pabbatanta canal and Hurulu reservoir were among the large irrigation constructions carried out during this period. These constructions contributed immensely to the improvement of agriculture in the northern and eastern parts of the dry zone. Reservoirs were also constructed using tributaries of the Daduru Oya during this period, thereby supplying water to the south western part of the dry zone. This conservation and distribution of water resources ensured that the water supply was sufficient throughout the dry zone. James Emerson Tennent described the ancient irrigation network as:
The water resources of the dry zone were further exploited during the times of Upatissa I and Dhatusena. The construction of the Kala wewa, covering an area of with an embankment long and high, was done during Dhatusena's reign. A canal named the Jayaganga carries water from the Kala wewa to the Tissa Wewa and feeds a network of smaller canals. The construction of this network is also attributed to Dhatusena. The Jayaganga supplied water to 180 square kilometres of paddy fields. By the end of the 5th century, two major irrigation networks, one supported by the Mahaweli river and the other by Malvatu Oya and Kala Oya, were covering the "Rajarata" area. The Mahavamsa records that many other rulers constructed a number of irrigation tanks, some of which have not yet been identified. By the 8th century, large tanks such as Padaviya, Naccaduva, Kantale and Giritale had come into existence, further expanding the irrigation network. However, from the 8th century to the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, there wasn't much activity in construction of irrigation works.
Technology.
Advanced technology was required for the planning and construction of large reservoirs and canals. When constructing reservoirs, the gaps between low ridges in the dry zone plains were used for damming water courses. Two different techniques were used in construction; one method involved making an embankment using natural rock formations across a valley and the other involved diverting water courses through constructed canals to reservoirs. All the reservoirs and canals in an area were interconnected by an intricate network, so that excess water from one will flow into the other. The locations of these constructions indicate that the ancient engineers were aware of geological formations in the sites as well, and made effective use of them. Underground conduits have also been constructed to supply water to and from artificial ponds, such as in the Kuttam Pokuna and the ponds at Sigiriya.
The long Jayaganga has a gradient of six inches to the mile, which indicates that the builders had expert knowledge and accurate measuring devices to achieve the minimum gradient in the water flow. The construction of "Bisokotuva", a cistern sluice used to control the outward flow of water in reservoirs, indicates a major advancement in irrigation technology. Since the 3rd century, these sluices, made of brick and stone, were placed at various levels in the embankments of reservoirs.


Assertive Nationalism in India

Assertive (Extremists/Aggressive) Nationalism was the period (1905–1916) in success to Early Nationalists or Moderates. The Early Nationalists failed to attain their objectives, giving rise to Extremist/Assertive Nationalism. The Last and final years of the nineteenth century saw the radical sensibility emerge among some Indian intellectuals like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal Bal Pal ). They all were together known as Assertive Nationalists. They rejected the former notions of the moderates of prayers, petitions and protest or the 3P's. Instead, they began adopting aggressive measures like Swadeshi and Boycott and openly accused British for the 'economic crisis of India' and for gaining freedom from the British rule in India. They played a key role in the independence of India (modern day India, Myanmar, Pakistan and Bangladesh)
Use of the name "Moderates"
Came to an end in 1907.
Causes for the Rise of Assertive Nationalism
Recognition of the True Nature of the British Rule
 The work of the early nationalists had exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British.
Political developments such as the passing of the Vernacular Press Act and reduction in the number of
Indian members in the Calcutta Corporation convinced the Indians that the British would never work in
the interest of Indians and its people and the latter will have to fight for their rights.
Failure of the Early Nationalists
 The young members of the Indian National Congress were not happy with the progress made by the
early nationalists. They criticized the methods of peaceful agitations.
 The assertive nationalists believed that the early nationalists were loyal to the crown, and hence, their
main objective was to improve their chances of getting seats in the Central Provincial Legislatures and
judicial services.
 The failure of the early nationalists in receiving concrete reforms for the country led to the increasing
demands for taking a radical approach for Indian nationalism.
Deteriorating Economic Condition
 There were recurrent famines in the country from 1896 to 1900. Millions of people died in these
famines. Nothing was done on the part of the government to provide relief to the people during
famines.
 While on one hand, people were dying of hunger, Lord Lytton held a grand durbar at Delhi for
proclaiming Queen Victoria as ‘the Empress of India’. This agitated the people and provided conditions
favorable for the growth of assertive nationalists.
Influenced by International Events.
 The assertive nationalists were inspired by many international events which were taking place in the
world. In 1904–05, Japan defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War. It was for the first time that a
European nation was defeated by an Asian nation.
 The Boers fought for three years in South Africa against the British Empire. These events made the
people realize that the European nations were not invincible and the British could be thrown out of the
country through united efforts.
Nationalist School of Thought
 Since the beginning of the nationalist movement, many nationalists believed that no sacrifice is
adequate for the independence of the country. These nationalists were Rajnarain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Dutta and Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar.
 The other assertive nationalists were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandra Pal and
Lala Lajpat Rai. They wanted nothing less than complete independence and were ready to follow any
means to achieve the same.
Repressive Policies of Lord Curzon
 Lord Curzon was known for his repressive policies. He passed the Act of 1898 which made it an
offence to provoke people against the English, the Calcutta Corporation Act which reduced the
strength of Indian elected members and the Indian Universities Act of 1904 which imposed strict
official control over Indian universities.
 All these measures created resentment in the Indians and they began to believe that equality would be
granted to them only if the British would leave India.
Partition of Bengal
 The Partition of Bengal provided a congenial environment for the growth of assertive nationalism. Lord
Curzon partitioned Bengal into East Bengal and West Bengal.
 Although the government said that the province of Bengal was partitioned for administrative
convenience, it was clearly visible that it wanted to create a rift between the Hindus and the Muslims
as East Bengal was a Muslim majority region and West Bengal was a Hindu majority region.
 The protests of the people were suppressed brutally by the government which gave rise to assertive
nationalism in India.
The main aim of the assertive nationalists was the attainment of Swarajya or complete independence and
not just dominion status in India.
References.
Article by Jaanesh Aadil Sethna


Heisenji Hakusan Jinja

 is a Shinto shrine in the city of Katsuyama, Fukui Prefecture, Japan. In the former Modern system of ranked Shinto Shrines, it was a prefectural shrine of Fukui Prefecture. Noted for its mossy gardens, the shrine gardens were designated a National Place of Scenic Beauty (名勝) in 1930 and a National Historic Site of Japan in 1935. Its main festival is held annually on April 20. The area of the shrine is within the boundaries of Hakusan National Park.
History.
A Tendai sect Buddhist temple, Heisen-ji, was founded in 717 AD by the Japanese Shugendō monk Taichō, who is said to have been the first person to ascend the sacred mountain Hakusan (2,702m) It became a centre for mountain worship involving amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn from local folk-religious practices, pre-Buddhist mountain worship, Shinto, Taoism and Vajrayana and ascetic practices involving climbing the mountain by various routes. The temple was mentioned in the "Heike Monogatari", and was the site of the 1183 Battle of Kurikara during the Genpei War between Kiso Yoshinaka and the Taira clan. The temple was destroyed in 1338 by the forces of Shiba Takatsune for its support of the Southern Court of Emperor Go-Daigo during the Nanboku-chō period and again in 1440. It was rebuilt with the support of the Muromachi shogunate, which levied a special tax on the seven provinces of the Hokuriku region for its reconstruction. As a result, the temple expanded to a powerful religious city consisting of 48 shrines and 36 temples, along with an urban complex of over 6000 living quarters for priests or shrine personnel. The temple precincts governed a domain yielding revenues of 90,000 "koku", giving it a "kokudaka" which rivalled that of a "daimyō", and it could field an army of 8000 "sōhei" warrior-monks.
However, the whole temple was destroyed again in 1574 by Asakura Kageaki during the Echizen Ikkō-ikki uprising. Despite subsequent effort of reconstruction, the temple precincts were reduced to less than one tenth its former area, and its "kokudaka" was reduced to 330 "koku"; many ruins of temples were buried under forests and fields.
Due to the Ordinance Distinguishing Shinto and Buddhism issued at the beginning of Meiji Period, the temple abandoned Buddhism and became a Shinto shrine.


Kota Batu, Brunei

Kota Batu is a historical as well as populated area in Bandar Seri Begawan, the capital of Brunei. It is home to the Kota Batu archaeological site, a few of the country's museums and two mausoleums of the earliest Sultans of Brunei. However, the place is still populated and at present it is a neighbourhood of the capital.
Name.
"Kota Batu" is the Malay term which literally means "Stone Fort".
History.
Kota Batu was believed to be the ancient capital of Brunei, before the emergence of Kampong Ayer, which is further inland, and over the Brunei River, during the Brunei Civil War in the 17th century. According to Brunei source Silsilah Raja-Raja Brunei, Kota Batu was founded by Sharif ‘Ali ibn ‘Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad. Among the founding workers were Chinese people. The palace, masjid and educational institutions were built in the quickly developing center of the Sultanate. During the reign of Muhammad Hassan, there were "two palaces within a square compound surrounded by a wall" in Kota Batu.
Administration.
As Kota Batu is still a populated area, it is primarily gazetted as a village, the third- and lowest-level administrative division of Brunei. It is one of the villages under the mukim of the same name, which a subdistrict of Brunei-Muara District. Kota Batu is also a designated postcode area with the postcode BD1517. However, the archaeological site in Kota Batu as well as its vicinity, which includes the mausoleums and the museums' area, have also been gazetted under the Antiquities and Treasure Trove Act of 1967 and thus managed by the government's Museums Department.
Since 2007, Kota Batu has also been incorporated into Bandar Seri Begawan municipal area and thus, becomes a neighbourhood of the capital.
Historical places.
Kota Batu is home to among the most important historical places in Brunei, which also serve as the country's tourist attractions.
Archaeological site.
The archaeological site in Kota Batu was discovered in the 1950s and it was the first one in the archaeological history of the country. Kota Batu archaeological site has since become the largest and most prominent, which has since yielded important artifacts, most notably Chinese porcelain which are datable to the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD). The site has also unearthed remains of stone structures from the place eventually obtained the name. The site has now been made into an 'archaeological park' where it is opened to the public.
Royal mausoleums.
Kota Batu is also home to two royal tombs which belong to the third and fifth Sultans of Brunei, Sharif Ali and Bolkiah. The official history dates the Sultans to had lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively. Mausoleums have been built in the modern time to house the tombs.
Museums.
In regards to the historical importance of Kota Batu, a few museums have been established in the area. The Brunei Museum is the national museum of Brunei and the current building was inaugurated in 1972, although it is temporarily closed since 2014 until further notice. The Malay Technology Museum was opened in 1984 and has galleries mainly dedicated to depicting the traditional lifestyle and technology which had been practiced by the Kampong Ayer residents throughout history. The most recent museum in Kota Batu is the Brunei Darussalam Maritime Museum; it was inaugurated in 2015 and mainly exhibits the artifacts from the Brunei Shipwreck which was discovered off the coast of Brunei in 1997.


Sai River (Thailand)

Sai River (; ; ), formerly known as the River of Lawa (; ), is a river that forms the natural border between Thailand and Myanmar at Tachileik and Mae Sai Districts. Mae Sai town, where the bridge crossing the international border is located, is named after this river. It is a tributary of the Ruak River, itself a tributary of the Mekong.
Course.
The river has its sources in the Daen Lao Range, in Shan State, Myanmar. Then it flows southeastwards, bending eastwards at the feet of the northern end of the Doi Nang Non ridge before flowing through the Tachileik/Mae Sai urban area, where there is a sign marking the northernmost point of Thailand just east of the border-crossing bridge —at the meeting point of Thailand Route 1 and National Highway 4 (Burma)— over the river. Finally it flows northeastwards before joining the right side of the Ruak River, a tributary of the Mekong, less than southeast of Tachileik Airport.


History of Singapore General Hospital

Singapore General Hospital (SGH) is Singapore's first general hospital and also its oldest and largest hospital. It is located along Outram Road, in the heart of a medical hub known as the Outram Campus (comprising several medical institutions including the Health Promotion Board and Health Sciences Authority). The hospital's history spans nearly two centuries and can be traced back to the British colonial era of 19th century Singapore.
19th century: The origins of the general hospital.
The origins of Singapore General Hospital can be traced back to a wooded shed erected in the cantonment for British troops located near the Singapore River in 1821, shortly after Sir Stamford Raffles' landing in Singapore. The urgent need for medical care among European soldiers, the seafaring population and natives prompted the building of the first General Hospital at the same site. The hospital was relocated in the following year- a second General Hospital was built in the vicinity of the European soldiers' barracks in the cantonment. It was functional until February 1827 when it collapsed due to the decay of the temporary constructional materials with which it was originally built. The hospital was subsequently rebuilt and the third General Hospital- renamed as the 'Singapore Infirmary'- was opened in 1828.
By the 1830s, however, the hospital was riddled with problems such as a failing infrastructure and a shortage of staff- the medical establishment had consisted of just one assistant surgeon and physician, and a few medical subordinates. Convict labour was enlisted to resolve the lack of nursing staff. The need for better hospital facilities propelled the proposal for the building of a fourth General Hospital. Following initial opposition from authorities, construction of the fourth General Hospital finally commenced in 1843 at Pearl's Hill. The hospital was opened to patients in 1845. After a decade of service, the need for relocation surfaced yet again in 1856, following proposals to reorganise the land defence and fortifications of Singapore. Pearl's Hill had been demarcated as a military zone to be fortified.
Construction of a fifth General Hospital was subsequently designated at the Kandang Kerbau district and commenced in the same year. The hospital opened in 1860 and had expanded in scope to treat female patients, unlike its predecessors. Following the introduction of gynaecological treatment in 1865, wards were set up on the basis of gender and economic standing, instead of specific lines of treatment for diseases. In 1873, a cholera outbreak, intensified by the hospital's unfavourable location on low-lying land, forced an immediate relocation of hospital premises. It was temporarily housed at Sepoy Lines. After the outbreak was contained, it was proposed that the hospital should permanently remain at Sepoy Lines on the grounds of its central location and elevated land. Subsequently, the sixth General Hospital was constructed at Sepoy Lines along Outram Road and was opened in 1882.
Early 20th century: Official Establishment of Singapore General Hospital.
At the turn of the 20th century, overcrowding prompted the construction of a bigger General Hospital at the same site. This seventh General Hospital was officially named Singapore General Hospital and was opened on 29 March 1926 by Sir Lawrence Nunns Guillemard (the then Governor of the Straits Settlements). It was heralded as a landmark in Singapore's medical history for igniting the systematic development of hospital services: the hospital was furnished with 800 beds and comprised three separate blocks accommodating male and female wards. More significantly, the hospital was distinguished from its predecessors by its emphasis on provision of medical care for locals (it had served mainly seafarers, the Europeans and the military in preceding decades). However, the hospital was still plagued by several constraints. Patients were still segregated on the basis of gender and economic status. Consequently, patient treatment was greatly impeded; doctors had to travel long distances to various wards scattered throughout the hospital to treat patients. Specialization of medical services was also not feasible due to the small medical establishment and high doctor-to-patient ratios.
1942– 1945: Impact of the Japanese occupation.
The hospital's premises were seized by Japanese forces on 18 February 1942. The General Hospital subsequently functioned as the Japanese military's primary surgical centre in Southeast Asia until the end of the war- the upper block was used by the Japanese army; the lower by the navy. During the Japanese Occupation, the hospital faced severe water shortages after its water supply was cut. Consequently, hundreds of patients and staff- both locals and expatriates- perished and were buried in a mass grave on hospital grounds. Following the Japanese surrender and liberation of Singapore in 1945, the three main blocks of the hospital- previously known as the Upper, Middle and Lower blocks- were renamed Bowyer, Stanley and Norris blocks in memory of three doctors who were intimately involved in hospital administration and perished during the Occupation. The Occupation had severely crippled both manpower and medical supplies infrastructure- the hospital faced a dire shortage of trained doctors, nurses and paramedical personnel. The hospital also faced the daunting task of treating a severely malnourished population and curbing the spread of Malaria and other diseases that had become rampant during the Occupation.
1946-1950s: Institution of the unit system and outpatient services.
The years following the Japanese Occupation saw a surge in the demand for medical treatment as a result of Singapore's rapid growth and the post-war baby boom. The hospital therefore shifted its focus to expanding its facilities and services, and rebuilding its manpower infrastructure. In 1947, the Unit System- widely practised in Europe- was formally instituted in the hospital. All medical and surgical wards were divided into units, each of which was helmed by its own specialist chief. The patients of each specialist and his staff were then grouped into adjacent wards according to ailments. Under this system, patients were no longer segregated according to gender or economic status; hence treatment efficiency was improved.
By the 1950s, the prolific rise in patient load had overstretched both the manpower and facilities in the hospital. The hospital subsequently addressed this constraint by introducing a system of early patient discharge coupled with an outpatient clinic service. The establishment of outpatient clinics- each specialising in a specific discipline- facilitated the treatment of a large number of patients without having to admit them directly to the hospital. Consequently, the manpower burden was alleviated slightly as fewer doctors were required to man 24-hour watches on patients.
1960s: Decentralization of outpatient services and establishment of the emergency unit.
In the 1960s, outpatient services were decentralised to further lessen manpower and infrastructural strains on the hospital. Outpatient dispensaries were built in outlying areas of Singapore, closer to patients' homes. This helped to significantly reduce the outpatient load at the hospital, allowing it to focus instead on providing emergency care. Subsequently, casualty services were reorganised into the Emergency Unit in 1964. The unit focused on providing treatment to trauma victims, especially casualties of traffic and industrial accidents.
1970s: Medical specialisation.
By the 1970s, rapid industrialisation and social progress in Singapore had fuelled the demand for specialised medical services. In 1970, a committee appointed by the government to look into medical specialisation proposed that SGH should channel its resources into five specialist areas: neurosurgery, cardiothoracic surgery, paediatric surgery, nephrology and plastic and reconstructive surgery. In subsequent years, several departments and units were established to develop specialisation in the aforementioned areas. Following a shift towards genetic and metabolic diseases, paediatric surgery was introduced as a subspecialty in the Department of Surgery in 1972. In the same year, the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive surgery was officially opened. The department specialised in the treatment of congenital abnormalities, facial and hand injuries and burns. 1972 also saw a major reorganisation of the earlier established Emergency Unit to handle the treatment of both trauma and non-trauma cases. Two years later, the Unit was transformed into the Accident and Emergency Department which subsequently provided 24-hour support for all emergency cases. The Department of Renal Medicine was also established in 1974. Its establishment made dialysis and renal transplant services accessible to the public. In 1975, a Surgical Intensive Care Unit was set up in response to the establishment of several new surgical departments. The Unit, in conjunction with the earlier established Department of Anaesthesia, provided intensive care for patients that underwent surgery.
1980s: Expansion of tertiary medical services.
The prolific growth of specialised medical treatment in the 1970s fuelled the need for an expansion of existing medical infrastructure. Consequently, the construction of a new SGH complex was commenced in the late 1970s. Built at a cost of S$180 million, the new eight-block complex housing over 1,500 hospital beds and 300 specialists was integrated into the site of its 1926 predecessor and was officially opened by the then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew on 12 September 1981. The new hospital complex was designed to serve as a tertiary referral centre for specialised medical services at the national level. In addition, it also facilitated the introduction of several tertiary medical services. Ambulatory services for outpatient care were established to reduce reliance on infrastructure such as hospital beds, thereby cutting costs for both SGH and its patients. The new complex was also equipped with sophisticated laboratory facilities to accommodate clinical research. In 1981, the Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery which had been transferred to Tan Tock Seng Hospital was re-established in the new SGH complex. In the same year, paediatric surgery was designated as a separate department. The department introduced its first paediatric bone marrow transplant in 1983. Bolstered by advances in reconstructive microsurgery, the Department of Hand Surgery was instituted in 1985 to provide specialised treatment for hand injuries. Two additional departments- Obstetrics and Gynaecology and Neonatology- were introduced in 1986. The former galvanised an in-vitro fertilisation programme while the latter provided intensive care for the newborn.
1990s: Restructuring and the introduction of new clinical services and research infrastructure.
Amid the rapid growth of medical facilities at SGH in the 1970s and 1980s, it was necessary for the hospital to ensure that its services remained affordable to the public; and at the same time maintain the long-term sustainability of its subsidies. Consequently, the hospital underwent restructuring in 1989. SGH was removed from the civil service and was corporatised as a wholly state-owned company under the Health Corporation of Singapore, a government holding company. Through restructuring, the hospital gained operational and managerial autonomy. Subsequently, the existing departments in the hospital were reorganised into three divisions- the Division of Surgery, Division of Medicine and Division of Ambulatory and Clinical Support services.
To further improve patient care, hospital admission and administrative procedures were simplified; SGH was also given a physical face-life to improve its aesthetic outlook. In the same year, two new research and treatment facilities- the Centre for Assisted Reproduction and the SGH Oncology Centre- were inaugurated. In 1991, the Department of Clinical Research was opened to cultivate emerging Life Sciences research. Additionally, the Department of Oncology was established, and three new digital cardiac laboratories were built to support cardiological research. Between 1992 and 1995, four new medical centres were incorporated into SGH, namely: the Urology, Endoscopy and Diabetes centres, and the Singapore Heart Centre. In 1993, a new Department of Neurology was established. Subsequently, SGH became the first Asian hospital to successfully use virtual reality surgery to remove brain tumours.
1994 was also a milestone for SGH: it pioneered the establishment of a local Postgraduate Medical Institute (PGMI) that year. The PGMI serves as a central co-ordinating body providing clinical training and research education opportunities. Through the PGMI, SGH has also forged ties with premier medical institutions around the world, including Stanford University Hospital in the US and the Royal Melbourne Hospital in Australia. In February 1997, the Alice Lee Institute of Advanced Nursing was established to provide training opportunities in nursing education and management for SGH nurses. By the end of the decade, two additional centres- the Centre for Obstetrics and Gynaecology and the Haematology Centre- were established to provide specialised clinical services and treatment for patients.
2000– Present: Current developments.
In early 2000, a major reorganisation of the public healthcare sector initiated by the government placed SGH under the management of Singapore Health Services (SingHealth). Through these managerial changes, SGH gained access to better infrastructural and professional support. The dawn of the new millennium also saw the advancement of medical procedures in SGH. In 2000, SGH carried out its first lung transplant together with personnel from the National Heart Centre Singapore and National Cancer Centre Singapore. The first minimally invasive surgical procedure for backache relief was also successfully performed in the same year. 2001 was a significant milestone for SGH: the hospital successfully separated a pair of cranially conjoined twins from Nepal in a historic 97-hour-long surgery. In 2002, SGH pioneered a modified jaw advancement technique for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea in Asians. In the same year, the Postgraduate Allied Health Institute- the second such postgraduate institution in SGH- was established to provide postgraduate study and advanced clinical skills training opportunities for healthcare professionals. Two new departments- the Department of Behavioural Medicine and Department of Rheumatology & Immunology- were established the following year. SGH also commenced a liver dialysis programme in 2003 for patients with acute liver failure.
Singapore was afflicted by the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in March 2003. SGH, together with Tan Tock Seng Hospital, was instrumental in curbing the epidemic. Apart from establishing a SARS Taskforce to contain hospital-wide infection, the hospital also mobilised its Department of Internal Medicine as well as several laboratories in its Virology Section and Pathology Department to actively diagnose the SARS virus.
2005 saw the opening of the SGH museum in the Bowyer block by President S R Nathan. The museum serves as a repository of hospital photos and documents preserved from the late 19th and 20th centuries. It also traces the evolution of medical equipment in SGH through its exhibits of various medical equipment and instruments from different segments of the hospital's history. In 2007, construction of the Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School commenced in Outram. The campus is slated to open in 2009. Once functional, the school will integrate/ incorporate SGH's medical facilities into its postgraduate programmes to train physician-scientists to support Singapore's thrusts into the biomedical industry. By 2007, the hospital was also involved in several research initiatives including stem cell therapy, regenerative medicine, and neurological medicine.
Proposed future development.
It is envisioned that SGH will form the nucleus of a proposed Medical Park development in the Outram region. The park is aimed at promoting Singapore as a regional medical hub. SGH will provide the core tertiary medical services and will synergise with other institutions slated for development in the Medical Park in the areas of clinical research and training. The master plan for SGH includes a proposed new Pathology Building. A new Postgraduate Medical Institute is also slated to be built to reflect SGH's greater overall emphasis on teaching. The current referral centres in SGH are also slated for future development to meet the needs of changing disease trends of the future.


Raj Darbhanga

Darbhanga Raj, also known as Raj Darbhanga and the Khandwala dynasty, was a Maithil Brahmin dynasty and the rulers of territories, not all contiguous, that were part of the Mithila region, now divided between India and Nepal.
The rulers of Raj Darbhanga were Maithil Brahmins and their seat in the town of Darbhanga became the core of the Mithila region as the rulers were patrons of Maithil culture and the Maithili language. The dynasty emerged after the fall of the Oiniwar Dynasty.
History.
The Khandaval dynasty was one of many Brahmin dynasties to rule in India, doing so in the Mithila/Tirhut region from the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar until the 1960s. They became known as the Raj Darbhanga. The extent of their lands, which were not contiguous, varied over time, and their area of ownership was smaller than the area that they were granted under sanad arrangements. A particularly significant reduction occurred when the influence of the British Raj caused them to lose control of the territories that were in Nepal but, nonetheless, their holdings were considerable. One estimate suggests that when their rule came to an end, the territories comprised around , with around 4500 villages.
Formation.
The area that now comprises the northern part of the Indian state of Bihar was under a state of lawlessness at the end of the empire of the Tughlaq Dynasty. Tughlaq had attacked and taken control of Bihar, and from the end of the Tughlaq Dynasty until the establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526 there was anarchy and chaos in the region. Akbar (ruled 1556–1605) realised that taxes from Mithila could only be collected if there was a king who could ensure peace there. The Brahmins were dominant in the Mithila region and Mithila had Brahmin kings in the past.
Akbar summoned Rajpandit Chandrapati Thakur to Delhi and asked him to name one of his sons who could be made caretaker and tax collector for his lands in Mithila. Chandrapati Thakur named his middle son, Mahesh Thakur, and Akbar declared Mahesh Thakur as the caretaker of Mithila on the day of Ram Navami in 1557 AD.
The Raj Darbhanga used its military to help the Nawabs in suppressing rebellions from Bettiah, the chieftains of the Terai and Banjaras.
The first king of this dynasty helped Mughals to uproot Oiniwar dynasty from Mithila.
The Raj Darbhanga also made the Sena chiefs of Makwanpur in Nepal their subordinates with the Sena's having to pay tribute to the Rajas of Darbhanga.
Consolidation.
The family and descendants of Mahesh Thakur gradually consolidated their power in social, agrarian, and political matters and came to be regarded as kings of Madhubani. Darbhanga became the seat of power of the Raj Darbhanga family from 1762. They also had a palace at Rajnagar Bihar situated in Madhubani district. They bought land from local people. They became known as a "Khandavala" family (the richest landlord).
For a period of twenty years (1860–1880), Darbhanga Raj was placed under the Court of Wards by the British Raj. During this period, Darbhanga Raj was involved in litigation regarding succession. This litigation decided that the estate was impartible and succession was to be governed by primogeniture. Zamindari estates in the region, including Darbhanga, actually sought intervention of the Court of Wards from time to time because the stewardship of the British authorities, who invested funds wisely, had a tendency to boost their economic position. The estate had in any event been badly run prior to this time: a complex system influenced by both nepotism and sycophancy had dramatically affected the family's rental income. The bureaucratic system introduced by the Court, whose appointed officials had no ties to the area, resolved the issue although, being focussed entirely on what was best for the owners, it did so without considering the consequences for the tenants.
Towards the end of the 19th century, 47 percent of the cropped area of the Darbhanga estate was used for the cultivation of rice. Three percent of total cultivation was given over to indigo at that time, making the estate one of the most important centres in the region for this crop prior to the introduction of chemical dyes.
Demise.
After the independence of India from British rule in 1947, the Government of India initiated several land reform actions and the Zamindari system was abolished. The fortunes of Darbhanga Raj dwindled.
The last ruler of Raj Darbhanga was Maharaja Bahadur Sir Kameshwar Singh. He died in 1962 without naming a successor.
Controversy over royal status.
The origin of the royal family of Darbhanga is traced to a grant of the Sarkar of Tirhut to Mahesh Thakur by Akbar. The supporters of the theory that Raj Darbhanga was a kingdom argue that it was held by privy council, that the rulership was a hereditary one with succession governed by primogeniture. The supporters argue that by the end of the 18th century, the Sarkar of Tirhut was practically an independent kingdom until the conquest of Bengal and Bihar by the British.
The opponents of the theory argue that Raj Darbhanga was never a kingdom but rather a zamindari with all the trappings of princely state. The rulers of Raj Darbhanga were the largest landowners in India, and thus were called Raja, and later Maharaja and Maharajadhiraja. They were given the status of ruling prince. Further, after conquest of Bengal and Bihar, the British Raj initiated the Permanent Settlement, and the Raja of Darbhanga was recognised only as a Zamindar. Raj Darbhanga also paid yearly lagan (land tax) to old existing Zamindar of Darbhanga, Kachari at Khan Sahib ki deaorhi.
Palaces.
Darbhanga has several palaces that were built during the Darbhanga Raj era. They include Nargona Palace, which was constructed after the 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake and has since been donated to Lalit Narayan Mithila University, and Lakshmivilas Palace. which was severely damaged in the 1934 earthquake, rebuilt and later donated to Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University and Darbhanga Fort.
Dharbanga Raj also had several palaces in other towns in India, including the Rajnagar Palace Complex at Rajnagar, in Madhubani District of Bihar.
Indian Independence Movement.
Lakshmeshwar Singh was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885. Raj Darbhanga was one of the major donors to the party despite the family maintaining its proximity to the British Raj. During British rule, the INCy wanted to hold their annual convention in Allahabad but they were denied permission by the Government to use any public place for this purpose. The Maharaja of Darbhanga bought an area and allowed Congress to hold their annual convention there. The annual convention of Congress of 1892 was held on 28 December on the grounds of Lowther Castle, purchased by the then Maharaja. The area was leased to the INC by the Maharaja to thwart any attempts by British officials to deny the party a place to hold their annual conventions. National flag hosting was done on the Darbhanga Kila gate by Mithila Student Union after 57 years in 2018.
Mithila society and Maithili language.
The Raj Darbhanga royal family was looked upon as the embodiment of Mithila and the Maithili language by people in the region. The incumbent maharaja was hereditary head of Maithil Mahasabha, a writers' organisation, and they played a prominent role in the revival of the language and its literature.
Religion.
The Maharajas of Darbhanga were devoted to Sanskrit traditions and were supporters of orthodox Hindu practices in both caste and religion. Shiva and Kali were the main deities of the royal family. Even though they were deeply religious, they were also secular in their outlook. The palace area in Darbhanga has three tombs of Muslim saints and a small mosque. The walls of fort at Darbhanga was designed to leave an area so that the mosque is not disturbed. The tomb of a Muslim saint is located next to Anandbagh Palace.
As part of their attempt to reintroduce old Hindu customs such as the study of Vedas and Vedic rites, the Maharaja reintroduced Samavedic study by inviting a few well-versed Samavedins from south India to teach there.
Maharaja Rameshwar Singh established and was general president of Sri Bharat Dharma Mahamadal, a neo-conservative Hindi organisation that sought to make Hindu scriptures available to all castes and women. He was one of the main patrons of Agamanusandhana Samiti, an organisation with the objective of publishing Tantric texts in English and other languages.
Promotion of education.
The royal family of Darbhanga played a role in the spread of education in India. Darbhanga Raj was a major donor to Benaras Hindu University, Calcutta University, Allahabad University, Patna University, Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University, Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Aligarh Muslim University, and many other educational institutions in India.
Maharaja Rameshwar Singh Bahadur was a major donor and supporter of Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya for starting Banaras Hindu University; he donated Rs. 5,000,000 start-up funds and assisted in the fundraising campaign. Maharaja Kameshwar Singh was also the Pro-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.
Maharaja Rameshwar Singh donated Darbhanga House (Navlakha Palace) at Patna to Patna University. The Maharaja played an important role getting Maithili introduced as a subject in Patna University, and in 1920, he donated Rs. 500,000.00 to establish Patna Medical College Hospital, the single highest contributor.
Maharaja Kameshwar Singh donated his ancestral house, Anand Bag Palace, on 30 March 1960, along with a rich library and land surrounding the palace to establish Kameshwar Singh Sanskrit University. Nargona Palace and the Raj Head Office were donated in 1972 to the Government of Bihar. The buildings are now part of Lalit Narayan Mithila University. Raj Darbhanga donated 70,935 books to Lalit Narain Mithila University for its library.
Raj School in Darbhanga was founded by Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh Bahadur. This school was established to provide the English medium of education and to introduce modern teaching methods in Mithila. Several other schools were also opened throughout Raj Darbhanga.
Raj Darbhanga was a major donor to Calcutta University, and the central library building of Calcutta University is called the Darbhanga Building.
In 1951, Mithila Snatkottar Shodh Sansthan (the Mithila Post-Graduate Research Institute), located at Kabraghat, was established on the initiative of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, first President of India. Maharaja Kameshwar Singh donated a building along with of land and a garden of mango and litchi trees located beside the Bagmati river in Darbhanga to this institution.
The Maharajas of Darbhanga were the main patrons, trustees, and financiers of Mahakali Pathshala, a school established by Mst. Gangabai in 1839 for promoting education for women. Similarly many colleges like Bareilly College, Bareilly received substantial donations from Maharajas of Darbhanga.
Maharani Rameshwari Bhartiya Chikitsa Vigyan Sansthan at Mohanpur is named after the wife of Maharaja Rameshwar Singh.
Music.
Darbhanga became one of the prominent centres of Hindustani classical music from the late 18th century. The kings of Raj Darbhanga were great patrons of music, art, and culture. Several famous musicians were associated with Raj Darbhanga. Prominent amongst them were Ustad Bismillah Khan, Gauhar Jaan, Pandit Ram Chatur Mallik, Pandit Rameshwar Pathak, and Pandit Siya Ram Tiwari. Raj Darbhanga was a main patron of Dhrupad, a vocal style in Hindustani classical music. A major school of Dhrupad today is known as Darbhanga Gharana. Today there are three major gharanas of Dhrupad in India: Dagar Gharana, Mishras of Bettiah Raj (Bettiah Gharana), and the Mallicks of Darbhanga (Darbhanga Gharana).
According to S. M. Ghosh (quoted in 1896) Maharaja Lakshmishwar Singh was a good sitar player.
Ustad Bismillah Khan was a court musician of Raj Darbhanga for several years. He had spent his childhood in Darbhanga.
Gauhar Jaan gave her first performance before the Maharaja of Darbhanga in 1887 and was appointed as court musician. Pandit Rameshwar Pathak, one of the foremost Sitar players of the early 20th century, was court musician in Raj Darbhanga.
Raj Darbhanga supported Murad Ali Khan, brother of Nanhe Khan of Gwalior. Murad Ali Khan was one of the foremost sarod players of his time. Murad Ali Khan is credited with being the first person to use metal strings and metal fingerboard plates on his sarod, which has today become the standard.
Kundan Lal Sehgal was a friend of Raja Bisheshwar Singh, younger brother of Maharaja Kameshwar Singh. Whenever the two met the Bela Palace at Darbhanga witnessed long sessions of conversations and renditions of ghazals and thumris. K. L. Sehgal attended the marriage of Raja Bahadur, and took out his harmonium and sang "Babul Mora Naihar Chhuto Hee Jaye" at the wedding.
Raj Darbhanga had its own symphony orchestra and police band. There was a circular structure in front of Manokamna Temple, which was known as the Band Stand. The band used to play music there in the evening. Today the floor of bandstand is the only part still extant.
Sports.
Raj Darbhanga actively promoted various sports activities. The Polo Ground in Laheriasarai was a major centre for polo in pre-independence times in Bihar. The winner of a major polo tournament in Calcutta is awarded the Darbhanga Cup.
Raja Bishweshwar Singh was one of the founding members of the All India Football Federation, the prime governing body for football in India. Raja Bahadur, along with Rai Bahadur Jyoti Prasad Singh of Hariharpur Estate, were the Honorary Secretaries of the federation upon its inception in 1935.
The first flight over Mount Everest in took place in 1933. This expedition was organised by military officers, supported by public companies, and hosted by the Maharajah of Darbhanga Kameshwar Singh Bahadur along with the Raja of Banaili.


No Muong

No Muong was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1811 to 1813.


Thanyavong Savang

Prince Thanyavong Savang (born 17 April 1964) is a surviving member of the now deposed royal family of the Kingdom of Laos. He was born at the Royal Palace, Luang Prabang, Laos. His father is Crown Prince Vong Savang and his mother is Princess Mahneelai.
Biography.
In 1981, he escaped from Luanprabang to Vientiane then to Thailand with his older brother Crown Prince Soulivong Savang, arriving in France as political refugees.
He is currently exiled and living in Florida, USA, and is active in Lao communities abroad to help preserve and promote Lao culture.


Nisanit

Nisanit () was the largest Israeli settlement in the northern tip of the Gaza Strip in a mini-settlement bloc including Elei Sinai and Dugit. While Nisanit was under the municipal authority of the Hof Aza Regional Council it was not physically in the Gush Katif bloc where the bulk of the 'Gush Katif' settlements were located.
History.
The village was established as a Nahal military outpost in 1980 and demilitarized when turned over for civilian residential purposes in 1984 to 15 pioneer families. In 1993, its status was changed to 'urban community'. Nisanit also served as a satellite municipal branch of the regional council for the three northern Gaza Strip settlements. The name of the town is the Hebrew translation of the hawksbeard flower which is widespread in the area's sand dunes in spring.
Nisanit, which numbered about 300 families (around 900 people), was one of the few 'mixed' Gush Katif settlements with Orthodox and non-religious Jews living together.
Unilateral disengagement.
Nisanit's residents were evicted on 21 August 2005 by Israeli Army and Israeli Police personnel as part of the unilateral disengagement plan. The houses were destroyed and the area was abandoned.
Drive to rebuild.
On July 26, 2007, some 500 activists, including former residents, attempted to return to the ruins as a beginning to rebuilding the community. Police attempted to stop the march before it reached the Gaza border but did not succeed though several arrests were made. Organizers vowed to continue plans for a future return to Nisanit.


List of burial places of Ottoman sultans

The following is a list of burial places of Ottoman sultans in Istanbul, Turkey.


Shiv Niwas Palace

Shiv Niwas Palace is a former residence of the Maharana of Udaipur, Rajasthan, located on the banks of Lake Pichola.
Guesthouse.
Located to the south side of and part of the City Palace complex, work on this building was begun by Maharana Sajjan Shambhu Singh (1874 to 1884) and finished by his successor Maharana Fateh Singh at the beginning of the 20th century as a royal guesthouse.
During its time as a guesthouse it hosted a number of royal gatherings and VIP visits from all over the world, including George V of the United Kingdom in 1905, and Edward the Prince of Wales.
By the time that Bhagwat Singh succeeded to the throne of Mewar in 1955, it was becoming increasing difficult for the royal family to afford the cost of maintaining the large numbers of royal residences that they owned, in particular the city palace. Following his success in converting the Lake Palace into an income generating hotel he decided to also convert the Shiv Niwas and the smaller Fateh Prakash Palace into luxury heritage hotels. After a 4 year long period of conversion the Shiv Niwas opened as a hotel in 1982.
Hotel.
The 3 levels of the palace are arranged in a semicircular arc around an internal courtyard in the middle of which is a marble pool. Balconies and rooftop terraces opening off different rooms enjoy views to the south of the gardens laid below the dam wall of Lake Pichola; while to the west, the island resorts of Jag Mandir and the Lake Palace. The building is of ancient Rajput architectural styles. The interior features ivory and mother-of-pearl inlay work, glass mosaics and frescoes, many of them produced by Khaja Ustadh and Kundan Lal, whom the Maharana had sent to England to learn the art of glass-mosaic design and to study fresco painting.
When first built the palace had nine suites, all on the ground floor. During its conversion into a hotel, eight apartments were added in a new second story so that the hotel now has 36 guest rooms consisting of:
Since its conversion into a hotel it has played host to, among others, Queen Elizabeth II, the King of Nepal, the Shah of Iran, and Jacqueline Kennedy.
The hotel is run by the HRH Group of Hotels, itself owned by the current Maharana.
The palace was featured in the James Bond movie "Octopussy".


Fort Amsterdam, Ambon

Fort Amsterdam (also formerly known as "Blokhuis Amsterdam") is a fort and a blockhouse in Hila town, Leihitu Subdistrict, Central Maluku Regency, Ambon Island, Indonesia. The blockhouse was built in 1637 by the Dutch East Indies Company.
Building.
The blockhouse is a three-floored structure. It is roughly square in plan with area 16 x 16 m with 47 cm thick walls. The interior is 4.57 x 5.3 m in size. Each side of the building contains a window, with a door on the eastern wall. The ground floor is covered with bricks, and contains a prison and a gunpowder magazine. The upper floor is wooden. The uppermost storey is roofed. The buildings contains two bastions in the northeast corner and southwest corner (seaward). One of the corner of the building contains a watchtower.
The blockhouse is surrounded by a square-shaped defensive wall measuring 52 x 52 m. There are remnants of wall foundation measuring 62 x 35 m. The main gate is on the east side, while two smaller doorless gates is located to the north and to the south.
History.
Before the fort was built, a trade lodge was established here by Francisco Serrão in 1512, a Portuguese explorer and a cousin of Ferdinand Magellan.
In the 17th-century, the Dutch East Indies Company was formed and the Dutch colonize the entire island of Ambon. The lodge was converted into a defensive post. It is located in the northern coast of Ambon Island. Because of the local uprising led by Kapitan Kakialy between 1633 and 1654, the governor-general Jaan Ottens converted it into a defensive post in 1637 and was expanded by Gerrad Demmer in 1642 and by governor-general Anthony Caan in 1649. The fort was finalized by Arnold de Vlaming van Oudsthoorn from 1649 until 1656 and was named Fort Amsterdam. Rumphius, a great German botanist, lived in the fort from 1660 to 1670.
The fort was left neglected by the Dutch in the early 20th century. A large tree had grow around it before the Indonesian Department of Education and Culture decided to restore it in July 1991. The restoration was based on a picture from François Valentijn's "Beschreiving van Amboinan".
The fort is not yet enacted as cultural heritage by the Directorate of Archaeological Heritage.