Georgetown, Seattle

Georgetown is a neighborhood in Seattle, Washington, United States. It is bounded on the north by the mainlines of the BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad, beyond which is the Industrial District; on the west by the Duwamish River, across which is South Park; on the east by Interstate 5, beyond which is Beacon Hill; and on the south by Boeing Field.
Despite being surrounded on all sides by industry and major transportation corridors, Georgetown retains a sizeable number of residences and businesses.
History.
Georgetown is arguably the oldest neighborhood of Seattle. Georgetown's first settlement was founded on September 27, 1851, when Luther Collins, Henry Van Asselt, and the Maple family arrived with their household goods with the intention of farming the rich alluvial lands of the Duwamish delta. Although the Denny Party arrived at Alki Point two days prior to the Collins Party arrival, the Collins Party was able to complete permanent structures and build a successful farming community within a year. The Denny Party suffered in relative squalor in an unfinished cabin and encampment until their move in 1852 to the future downtown Seattle area. The Collins farm was located in the vicinity of the present-day First Avenue Bridge, running north to the vicinity of South Idaho Street, on the east bank of the Duwamish River.
Farms in the Duwamish Valley supplied the lumber-based settlement in Seattle. Boatwrights set up shop along the Duwamish estuary as land was cleared for farming. Before land transport links with Seattle were established, the economic hub of the Duwamish was a boat landing at the approximate location of the South Lucille Street/East Marginal Way junction. In 1869 a Seattle saloon and brothel keeper rented a portion of the Collins homestead from Luther's widow Diana (Borst) Collins to run a horse track, making the area a destination for all sorts of manly fun. Developer Julius Horton, brother of Seattle banker Dexter Horton, purchased a portion of the Collins homestead in 1871 and began to plat the lots that would become the community of Georgetown.
The Duwamish community's transition towards a rail-centered economy began on March 7, 1877, with the first run on a new rail line between Steele's Landing on the Duwamish and coal mines in Renton. In 1878 the line was extended to Newcastle (east of Lake Washington) and it was later extended to other coal sites in south King County. Although rail lines connecting Georgetown to Seattle had been constructed as early as 1878, Steele's Landing retained its importance for commerce with Seattle until a reliable, permanent rail connection was established in October 1885. In 1884 the rail line got connected to the Northern Pacific line to the south, and by 1889 transcontinental service came to Georgetown. With an abundance of flat land that Seattle lacked, Georgetown became the site of the rail yard servicing the new freight traffic. The freight hub in Georgetown fostered the development of industries capitalizing on its access to resources and rail-to-market, including breweries, lumber mills, brickyards, and foundries. Reconstruction of Seattle after the fire of 1889 and its rapid growth in the following decade boosted demand for building materials supplied by Georgetown. With fill provided by waste from an early regrade attempt on Beacon Hill, the industrial area grew northward across the former tideflats.
With access to good hop-growing areas in the valleys of the Duwamish drainage and a large contingent of German immigrants, Georgetown became the sixth-largest beer producing district in the world. A Georgetown brewing company began operations in 1882 and in 1888 acquired the Seattle Brewery with its Rainier brand. The holdings were incorporated as the Seattle Malting and Brewing Company in 1892. The old Seattle Brewery was reopened and expanded after Prohibition ended. The red brick brewery, home to artists and small businesses, dominates the commercial district along Airport Way S. The old Georgetown brewery was used as a warehouse and cold storage facility. Recent years have seen the opening of several microbreweries with pubs in Georgetown, in a nod to the neighborhood's roots fitting with its revival as an entertainment and cultural district.
The unincorporated community was named Georgetown by Julius Horton, after his son, in 1890. In 1890 a County Poor Farm was established along the Duwamish in the southern part of Georgetown. In 1893 Seattle streetcar service came to Georgetown and the King County Hospital was built near the corner of Orcas Street and Corson Avenue, east of the Poor Farm. In 1898 Georgetown's first local school was established. In 1902 the Seattle-Tacoma interurban line came through Georgetown, which became the site of its car barns. In 1906 the Georgetown Steam Plant brought electric power to Georgetown as well as providing power for Seattle streetcars and the Seattle-Tacoma interurban line.
Georgetown existed as an independent city from 1904 to 1910, when it was annexed by Seattle. Georgetown incorporated in 1904 largely as a defense against the prospect that Seattle would adopt local Prohibition, which could impact Georgetown's ability to keep operating saloons and breweries as an unincorporated area adjoining a dry city. With Seattle increasingly cracking down on public sinfulness within its boundaries, Georgetown caught the windfall with its twenty-four 24 hour saloons, some of which advertised lodging arrangements, and horse racing track. Once Seattle rejected local-option Prohibition, a movement for annexation gained widespread support. Following presentation of a petition for an annexation vote in 1909, a special election was held on March 29, 1910. The annexation proposition passed with 389 votes in favor and 238 opposed. The City of Georgetown, with its 4000 residents, was officially consolidated with Seattle on April 4, 1910. The Old Georgetown City Hall (1909) is now on the National Register of Historic Places as is the Georgetown Steam Plant (1906).
Statewide Prohibition, enacted in 1914, closed Georgetown's brewing industry, but the district remained a growing industrial and transportation center for Seattle. Straightening and deepening of the Duwamish waterway completed in 1916 made it more accessible for maritime commerce, bringing more waterfront business to the area. A meander loop of the Duwamish through the center of Georgetown was cut off and filled; the old channel and interior of the loop became a new warehouse district served by rail spurs. The Duwamish waterway attracted the Boeing Company, who set up shop in a former shipyard across the Duwamish from Georgetown to manufacture seaplanes. Boeing expanded through the 1920s; its land plane testing airstrip in a field south of Georgetown became a public airport in 1928 and Boeing constructed a new aircraft assembly plant west of the airport in the mid-1930s. The main north-south automotive route through the Puget Sound region was established through the western part of Georgetown in 1928.
Following the burgeoning industry and trade came a steep decline of the residential neighborhood. Dated and downscale housing stock, congestion, and the worst air and noise pollution in the city made it an unattractive place to settle. The library branch was closed in 1948, the neighborhood movie theater closed in 1952, and neighborhood stores closed. Business strips along the thoroughfares expanded onto the cheap land in the struggling neighborhood. The neighborhood population was increasingly divided between elderly long-term residents and short-term renters. During the 1960s the Georgetown elementary school experienced a turnover rate among students of over 90% some years and enrollment declined to less than one third of what it had been during its peak. The school was closed in 1971. As of the 1990s only scattered remnants of the old residential neighborhood remained, housing approximately 1500 residents with a poverty rate of 25%.
21st-century revival.
Georgetown has had a certain degree of a "scene" since the 1990s. In 2001, Industrial Coffee and Stella Pizza were both hosting live musical performances. The former folded, and the latter stopped hosting shows and changed its name to Stellar Pizza. Since that time, however, quite a few new bars and coffeehouses have opened in the neighborhood, plus a record store, a beer store, a barber shop, a circus school (SANCA), a bakery, a scooter shop, a "skin sanctuary" (waxing salon), a web design company, and an art gallery/recording studio. Laura Cassidy of the "Seattle Weekly" described the prevailing aesthetic: "Creatively employing the open, airy brick-walled spaces left behind by industry and manufacturing, and augmenting them with local art and 20th-century detritus, Georgetown's merchants consistently fashion warm, imaginative interiors: places you want to visit and never want to leave. Just walking through the streets you witness post-squat, industrial bohemian chic." Recent years have seen multiple-unit housing built in some of the remaining residential blocks near the old red brick commercial and industrial district.


Battle of Placito

The Battle of Placito or Battle of the Placito was an engagement between ethnic Mexican settlers, Confederate soldiers and Apache warriors. It took place at the now abandoned village of Placitas in Confederate Arizona. The action is a part of the Apache Wars of the mid to late nineteenth century.
Battle.
Following the Gallinas Massacre, Lieutenant John Pulliam of the Confederate garrison at Fort Stanton, returned from his patrol in the Gallinas Mountains where he searched for the three dead soldiers, massacred a week earlier.
He arrived at Fort Stanton on September 8, 1861. That same evening a dispatch arrived from the Placito, a Spanish era settlement, occupied by Mexican settlers.
The dispatch detailed a current Apache assault on the town, ten miles below the fort. Pulliam was ordered to proceed to the village with fifteen men to help protect its citizens.
After arriving, at night, Pulliam, his fifteen men and an unknown number of Mexican men, drove the Apaches out of town and then fought off the Apaches all night at a further range. Eventually the natives gave up and retreated back into the surrounding desert.
Casualties are unknown, except for the Apaches who suffered at least five men killed by Pulliam's squad. An unknown number of Apache wounded escaped the fighting. The Lieutenant and his men arrived back at Fort Stanton the following afternoon.


Hamilton Fish

Hamilton Fish (August 3, 1808September 7, 1893) was an American politician who served as the 16th Governor of New York from 1849 to 1850, a United States Senator from New York from 1851 to 1857 and the 26th United States Secretary of State from 1869 to 1877. Fish is recognized as the "pillar" of the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant and considered one of the best U.S. Secretaries of State by scholars, known for his judiciousness and efforts towards reform and diplomatic moderation. Fish settled the controversial "Alabama" Claims with Great Britain through his development of the concept of international arbitration.
Fish and Grant kept the United States out of war with Spain over Cuban independence by coolly handling the volatile "Virginius" Incident. In 1875, Fish initiated the process that would ultimately lead to Hawaiian statehood, by having negotiated a reciprocal trade treaty for the island nation's sugar production. He also organized a peace conference and treaty in Washington D.C. between South American countries and Spain. Fish worked with James Milton Turner, America's first African American consul, to settle the Liberian-Grebo war. President Grant said he trusted Fish the most for political advice.
Fish came from both prominence and wealth, his family being of Dutch Americans heritage long-established in New York City. He attended Columbia College, and later passed the bar. Initially working as New York's commissioner of deeds, he ran unsuccessfully for New York State Assembly as a Whig candidate in 1834. After marrying, he returned to politics and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843. Fish ran for New York's Lieutenant Governor in 1846, falling to a Democratic Anti-Rent Party contender. When the office was vacated in 1847, Fish ran and was elected to the position. In 1848 he ran and was elected Governor of New York, serving one term. In 1851, he was elected U.S. Senator for the state of New York, serving one term. Fish gained valuable experience serving on the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. During the 1850s he became a Republican after the Whig party dissolved. In terms of the slavery issue, Fish was a moderate, having disapproved of the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery.
After traveling to Europe, Fish returned to America and supported Abraham Lincoln as the Republican candidate for president in 1860. During the American Civil War, Fish raised money for the Union war effort and served on Lincoln's presidential commission that made successful arrangements for Union and Confederate troop prisoner exchanges. Fish returned to his law practice after the Civil War, and was thought to have retired from political life. When Ulysses S. Grant was elected president in 1868, he appointed Fish as U.S. Secretary of State in 1869. Fish took on the State Department with vigor, reorganized the office, and established civil service reform. During his 8-year tenure, Fish had to contend with Cuban belligerency, the settlement of the "Alabama" claims, Canada–US border disputes, and the "Virginius" incident. Fish implemented the new concept of international arbitration, where disputes between countries were settled by negotiations, rather than military conflicts. Fish was involved in a political feud between Senator Charles Sumner and President Grant in the latter's unsuccessful efforts to annex the Dominican Republic. Fish organized a naval expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to open trade with Korea in 1871. Leaving office and politics in 1877, Fish returned to private life and continued to serve on various historical associations. Fish died quietly of old age in his luxurious New York State home in 1893.
Historically, Fish has been praised for his calm demeanor under pressure, honesty, loyalty, modesty, and for his talented statesmanship during his tenure under President Grant, briefly serving under President Hayes. The hallmark of his career was the Treaty of Washington, peacefully settling the Alabama Claims. Fish also ably handled the "Virginus" incident, keeping the United States out of war with Spain. Fish's lesser known, but successful South American détente and armistice, has been forgotten by historians. Fish, while Secretary of State, lacked empathy for the plight of African Americans, and opposed annexation of Latin race countries. Fish has been traditionally viewed to be one of America's top ranked Secretaries of State by historians. Fish's male descendants would later serve in the U.S. House of Representatives for three generations.
Early life, education, and career.
Hamilton Fish was born on August 3, 1808 at what is now known as the Hamilton Fish House in Greenwich Village, New York City, to Nicholas Fish and Elizabeth Stuyvesant (a daughter of Peter Stuyvesant and direct descendant of New Amsterdam's Director-General Peter Stuyvesant). He was named after his parents' friend Alexander Hamilton. Nicholas Fish (1758–1833) was a leading Federalist politician and notable figure of the American Revolutionary War. Colonel Fish was active in the Yorktown Campaign that resulted in the surrender of Lord Cornwallis. Peter Stuyvesant was a prominent founder of New York, then a Dutch Colony, and his family owned much property in Manhattan.
Fish received his primary education at the private school of M. Bancel. In 1827, Fish graduated from Columbia College, having obtained high honors. At Columbia, Fish became fluent in French, a language that would later help him as U.S. Secretary of State. After his graduation, Fish studied law for three years in the law office of Peter A. Jay, served as president of the Philolexian Society, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1830, practicing briefly with William Beach Lawrence. Influenced politically by his father, Fish aligned himself to the Whig Party. He served as commissioner of deeds for the city and county of New York from 1831 through 1833, and was an unsuccessful Whig candidate for New York State Assembly in 1834.
Marriage and family.
On December 15, 1836, Hamilton Fish married Julia Kean (a descendant of a New Yorker who was a New Jersey governor, William Livingston). The couple's lengthy married life was described as happy and Mrs. Fish was known for her "sagacity and judgement". The couple had three sons and five daughters. Hamilton Fish had multiple notable descendants and relatives.
New York political career.
U.S. Representative.
For eight years after his defeat as a Representative in the New York State Assembly, Fish was reluctant to run for office. However, Whig party leaders in 1842 convinced him to run for the House of Representatives. In November, Fish was elected to the House of Representatives; having defeated Democrat John McKeon and serving in the 28th Congress from New York's 6th District between 1843 and 1845. The Whigs at this time were in the minority in the House; however, Fish gained valued national experience serving on the Committee of Military Affairs. Fish failed to win a re-election bid for a second term in the House.
Lieutenant Governor.
Fish was the Whig candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1846, but was defeated by Democrat Addison Gardiner who had been endorsed by the Anti-Rent Party. Leasing farmers in New York refused to pay rent to large land tract owners and sometimes resorted to violence and intimidation. Fish had opposed the Anti-Rent Party for the use of illegal tactics not to pay rent. Gardiner was elected in May 1847 a judge of the New York Court of Appeals and vacated the office of lieutenant governor. Fish was then in November 1847 elected to fill the vacancy, and was Lieutenant Governor in 1848. Lieut. Gov. Fish had a favorable reputation for being "conciliatory" and for his "firmness" over the New York Senate.
Governor.
In November 1848, he was elected Governor of New York, defeating John A. Dix and Reuben H. Walworth, and served from January 1, 1849, to December 31, 1850. At 40 years of age, Fish was one of the youngest governors to be elected in New York history. Fish advocated and signed into law free public education facilities throughout New York state. He also advocated and signed into law the building of an asylum and school for the intellectually disabled. During his tenure the canal system in the state of New York was increased. In 1850, Fish recommended that the state legislature form a committee to collect and publish the Colonial Laws of New York. None of the bills that Governor Fish vetoed were overturned by the New York legislature. In his annual messages Fish spoke out against the extension of slavery from land acquired from the Mexican–American War, including California and New Mexico. His anti-slavery messages gave Fish national attention and President Zachary Taylor, also a Whig, was going to nominate Fish to the Treasury Department in a cabinet shakeup. However Taylor died in office before he could nominate Fish. Despite his national popularity Fish was not renominated for Governor.
U.S. Senator.
After Governor Fish had retired from office he did not openly seek the nomination to be elected U.S. Senator. However, Fish's supporters, the William H. Seward-Thurlow Weed Whigs, in January 1851 nominated him as a candidate for U.S. Senator. A deadlock ensued over his nomination because one New York legislature Whig Senator was upset about Fish not publicly supporting the Compromise of 1850. Before the election Fish had only stated government should enforce the laws. Although Fish did not favor the spread of slavery he was hesitant to support the free soil movement. Finally, when two Democratic Senators who were against Fish's nomination were conspicuously absent, the Senate took action and voted. On March 19, 1851, Fish was elected a U.S. Senator from New York and he took his seat on December 1, serving alongside future Secretary of State William H. Seward.
In the United States Senate, he was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations until the end of his term on March 4, 1857. Fish became friends with President Franklin Pierce's Secretary of State William L. Marcy and Attorney General Caleb Cushing. He was a Republican for the latter part of his term and was part of a moderately anti-slavery faction. During the 1850s, the Republican Party replaced the Whig Party as the central party against the Democratic Party. By 1856, Fish privately considered himself a Whig although he knew that the Whig Party was no longer viable politically. Fish was a quiet Senator, rather than an orator, who liked to keep to himself. Fish often was in disagreement with Senator Sumner, who was firmly opposed to slavery and advocated equality for blacks. His policy was to vote for legislation on the side of "justice, economy, and public virtue." He strongly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Fish often voted with the Free Soil faction and was strongly against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. In February 1855, merchants represented by Moses H. Grinnell, criticized Fish's bill on immigration and maritime commerce. Fish's bill was designed to protect Irish and German immigrants who were dying on merchant ships during oceanic passage to America. The merchants believed that Fish's bill was oppressive to commercial interests over human interests.
During his tenure, the nation and Congress were in tremendous political upheaval over slavery, that included violence, disorder, and disturbances of the peace. In 1856, pro-slavery advocates invaded Kansas and used violent tactics against those who were anti-slavery. In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner was viciously attacked by Preston Brooks in the Senate Chamber. At the expiration of his term, he traveled with his family to Europe and remained there until shortly before the opening of the American Civil War, when he returned to begin actively campaigning for the election of Abraham Lincoln. While in France, Fish studied foreign policy with diplomats and distinguished Americans; having gained valuable experience that would eventually benefit his tenure as Secretary of State.
American Civil War.
Fish had several important roles during the American Civil War. Fish's private secretary was involved in the attempt of the merchant ship "Star of the West" to bring relief supplies to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. During this period, Fish often met with General Winfield Scott, commander-in-chief of the US Army. Fish was dining with Scott in New York when a telegram reported that Confederates had fired on "Star of the West". Fish said that this meant war; Scott replied "Don't utter that word, my friend. You don't know what a horrid thing war is."
In 1861–1862, Fish participated in the "Union Defense Committee of the State of New York", which co-operated with the City of New York in raising and equipping Union Army troops, and disbursed more than $1 million for the relief of New York volunteers and their families. The committee included chairman John A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York men. Fish was appointed chairman of the committee after Dix joined the Union Army.
In 1862, President Lincoln appointed Fish and Bishop Edward R. Ames as commissioners to visit Union prisoners in Richmond, Virginia. The Confederate government, however, would not allow them to enter the city. Instead, Fish and Rev. Ames started the prisoner exchange program which continued virtually unchanged throughout the war. After the war ended, Fish went back to private practice as a lawyer in New York.
From 1860 to 1869, Fish was trustee of The Bank for Savings in the City of New-York stepping down from that role when he became US Secretary of State.
U.S. Secretary of State.
Hamilton Fish was appointed Secretary of State by President Ulysses S. Grant and served between March 17, 1869 and March 12, 1877. He was President Grant's longest-serving Cabinet officer. Upon assuming office in 1869, Fish was initially underrated by some statesmen including former Secretaries of State William H. Seward and John Bigelow. Fish, however, immediately took on the responsibilities of his office with diligence, zeal, and intelligence. Fish's tenure as Secretary of State was lengthy, almost eight years, and he had to contend with many foreign policy issues including the Cuban insurrection, the "Alabama" Claims, and the Franco-Prussian War.
During Reconstruction, Fish was not known to sympathize with Grant's policy to eradicate the Ku Klux Klan, racism in the Southern states, and promote African American equality. Fish complained of being bored at Grant's cabinet meetings when Grant's U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman told of atrocities of the Klan against black citizens.
Throughout Fish's tenor during Grant's first term in office, Fish periodically threatened to resign. After Fish's and Grant's "high-water mark" accomplishment of settling the Alabama Claims, Fish told Grant he would resign on August 1, 1871. Grant, however, needed Fish's professional advise and pleaded with Fish to remain in office. Grant told Fish he could not replace him. Fish remained in office, 13 years Grant's senior, even under ill health.
Reformed U.S. State Department 1869.
When Fish assumed office he immediately began a series of reforms in the Department of State. After appropriations were given to his office by Congress, Fish cataloged and organized 700 volumes of miscellaneous State Department documents and created the "Bureau of Indexes and Archives". Fish introduced indexing of State Department files so subordinates could easily find documents. Fish implemented civil service reform by having State Department applicants be required to pass an entry examination before being appointed consultant. This policy was sometimes hampered, since President Grant could appoint any person to office without the person having to take an examination. However, the policy of testing overall improved the staff at the State Department. Fish's methods of organization included disciplined staff and prompt copying of dispatches.
The method of record keeping, however, was cumbersome, having remained the same since John Quincy Adams. Rather than world regions, countries were listed in alphabetical order; the correspondence was embedded in bound diplomatic and consular category archives, rather than by subject matter. Added to countries' information was a miscellaneous category filed chronologically. This resulted in a tedious and time-consuming process to make briefings for Congress. Diplomatic ministers, only 23 in 1877, were not kept informed of current world events that took place in other parts of the world.
Cuban belligerency and insurrection 1869–1870.
By 1869, Cuban nationals were in open rebellion against their mother country Spain, due to the unpopularity of Spanish rule. American sentiment favored the Cuban rebels and President Grant appeared to be on the verge of acknowledging Cuban belligerency. Fish, who desired settlement over the "Alabama" Claims, did not approve of recognizing the Cuban rebels, since Queen Victoria and her government had recognized Confederate belligerency in 1861. Recognizing Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized settlement and arbitration with Great Britain. In February 1870, Senator John Sherman authored a Senate resolution that would have recognized Cuban belligerency. Working behind the scenes Fish counseled Sherman that Cuban recognition would ultimately lead to war with Spain. The resolution went to the House of Representatives and was ready to pass, however, Fish worked out an agreement with President Grant to send a special message to Congress that urged not to acknowledge the Cuban rebels. On June 13, 1870 the message written by Fish was sent to Congress by the President and Congress, after much debate, decided not to recognize Cuban belligerency. President Grant continued the policy of Cuban belligerent non recognition for the rest of his two administrations. This policy, however, was tested in 1873 with the "Virginius" Affair.
Dominican Republic annexation treaty 1869–1870.
After President Grant assumed office on March 4, 1869 one of his immediate foreign policy interests was the annexation of the Caribbean island nation of the Dominican Republic, at that time referred to as Santo Domingo, to the United States. President Grant believed the annexation of Santo Domingo would increase the United States' mineral resources and alleviate the effects of racism against African Americans in the South. Hamilton Fish, though loyal to President Grant, racially opposed annexation of Latin American countries, saying "the incorporation of those peopled by the Latin race would be but the beginnings of years of conflict and anarchy." The divided island nation, run by mulatto leader President Buenaventura Báez, had been troubled with civil strife. Báez had controversially imprisoned an American citizen, Davis Hatch, for speaking out against the Báez government, susceptible to a Haitan military take over.
Fish told Grant that the Senate would not be ready to pass a Santo Domingo annexation treaty. In April 1869, Fish gave Grant's private secretary Orville Babcock "special agent" status to search the island. Babcock, a military aide, who had served with merit in the Civil War, was a proponent of annexation, and racially open to annexing a Latin American mixed race country, by the United States. In September 1869, Babcock made a preliminary treaty that would annex Santo Domingo to the United States and give it the opportunity to apply for statehood. In October 1869, Fish drew up a formal treaty that included: a $1,500,000 payment of the Dominican national debt; Samaná Bay would be leased to the United States for $150,000 yearly payment; Santo Domingo would eventually be given statehood.
In a private conference with President Grant, Fish agreed to support the Santo Domingo annexation if President Grant sent Congress a non-belligerency statement not to get involved with the Cuban rebellion against Spain. Charles Sumner, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, was against the treaty, believing that Santo Domingo needed to remain independent, and that racism against U.S. black citizens in the South needed to be dealt with in the continental United States. Sumner believed that blacks on Santo Domingo did not share Anglo-American values. On January 10, 1870, Grant submitted the Santo Domingo treaty to the United States Senate. Fish believed Senators would vote for annexation only if statehood was withdrawn; however, President Grant refused this option. The Senate took its time deliberating, and finally rejected the treaty on June 30, 1870. Eighteen Senators led by Charles Sumner defeated the treaty. Pres. Grant, angered at Sumner's refusal to support the treaty, fired Sumner's friend J. Lothrop Motley, Grant's ambassador to England, for disregarding Fish's instructions regarding the "Alabama" Claims. Grant believed that Sumner had in January 1870 stated his support for the Santo Domingo treaty. Sumner was then deprived of his chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1871 by Grant's allies in the Senate.
Colombian inter-oceanic canal treaty 1870.
President Grant and Secretary Fish were interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal through Panama. Secretary Fish organized a treaty signing on January 26, 1870 in Bogota between the United States and Colombia that established a Panama route for the inter-oceanic canal. The Colombian Senate, however, amended the treaty so much that the strategic value of the inter-oceanic canal construction became ineffective. As a result, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty.
Treaty of Washington 1871.
During the previous administration of President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State Seward attempted to resolve the "Alabama" Claims with the Johnson-Clarendon convention and treaty. The "Alabama" Claims had arisen out of the American Civil War, when Confederate raiding ships built in British ports (most notably the C.S.S. "Alabama") had sunk a significant number of Union merchant ships.
The Johnson-Clarendon treaty, presented to Congress by President Ulysses S. Grant, was overwhelmingly defeated by the Senate and the claims remained unresolved. Anglophobia led by Charles Sumner was at an all-time high when Fish became Secretary of State. Sumner had demanded Britain cede Canada to the United States as payment for the "Alabama" Claims. In late 1870, an opportunity arrived to settle the "Alabama" Claims under Prime Minister William Gladstone. Fish, who was determined to improve relations with Britain, along with President Grant and Senate supporters, had Charles Sumner removed by vote from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and the door was open for renewed negotiations with Britain.
On January 9, 1871, Fish met with British representative Sir John Rose in Washington and an agreement was made, after much negotiations, to establish a Joint Commission to settle the "Alabama" Claims to be held in Washington under the direction of Hamilton Fish. At stake was the financing of America's debt with British bankers during the Civil War, and peace with Britain was required. On February 14, 1871, both distinguished High Commissioners representing Britain, led by the Earl of Ripon, George Robinson, and the United States, led by Fish, met in Washington D.C. and negotiations over settlement went remarkably well. Also representing Britain was Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. After 37 meetings, on May 8, 1871 the Treaty of Washington was signed at the State Department and became a "landmark of international conciliation". The Senate ratified the treaty on May 24, 1871. On August 25, 1872, the settlement for the "Alabama" claims was made by an international arbitration committee meeting in Geneva and the United States was awarded $15,500,000 in gold for damage done by the Confederate warships. Under the treaty settlement over disputed Atlantic fisheries and the San Juan Boundary (concerning the Oregon boundary line) was made. The treaty was considered an "unprecedented accomplishment", having solved border disputes, reciprocal trade, and navigation issues. A friendly perpetual relationship between Great Britain and America was established, with Britain having expressed regret over the "Alabama" damages.
South American détente and armistice 1871.
On April 11, 1871, a peace-trade conference, presided over by Hamilton Fish, was held in Washington D.C. between Spain and the South American republics of Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia, which resulted in an armistice between the countries. These countries had been in a "technical" state of war since 1866, and the United States in 1871 served as mediator under the direction of Hamilton Fish. Representing Spain was Mauricio Lopez Roberts; Manuel Freyer represented both Peru and Bolivia; Joaquín Godoy represented Chile; and Antonio Flores represented Ecuador. President Grant gave Fish full powers to control negotiations at the détente meeting between the five countries. The signed armistice treaty consisted of seven articles; hostilities were to cease for a minimum of three years and the countries would allow commercial trade with neutral countries.
Korean expedition and conflict 1871.
In 1871, Korea was known as the "Hermit Kingdom", a country determined to remain isolated from other nations, specifically from commerce and trade from Western nations, including the United States. In 1866, U.S. relations with Korea were troubled when Christian missionaries were beheaded by the Korean "tacwongun", regent to King Kojong, and the crew of the "General Sherman", a U.S. trading ship, were massacred. Secretary William H. Seward, under President Andrew Johnson, demanded redress for what was perceived as the outrageous actions of the Korean government. U.S. Naval warships were ordered to the Orient, however, when Seward's term ended in 1869, he was unable to organize a naval expedition. When Fish took office he organized the Korean naval expedition and broadened the purposes. In April 1871, Fish ordered Frederick F. Low, minister to China, to take the Asiatic Fleet and voyage to Seoul. The purpose of the expedition was to seek retribution for the assaulted sailors and to open up a commercial treaty with the King of Korea. Fish had told the fleet not to use force unless the honor of the U.S. Flag was infringed by the Koreans.
On May 8, 1871, Low and Rear Admiral John Rodgers, commander of the Asiatic Squadron, voyaged to Korea with five warships, eighty-five guns, and 1,230 sailors and marines. On May 16, the naval squadron reached Nagasaki Bay and a week later lowered anchor near the mouth of the Han. The Koreans sent unofficial representatives to stall for time and hope the American squadron would leave. In June, the American fleet while doing nautical survey was fired upon by the Korean forts on the Han River leading to Seoul. The American fleet fired back, damaging the forts. The Americans demanded an apology on the grounds that the honor of the American flag had been violated. On June 10, a U.S. military expedition was launched after the Koreans failed to apologize for the attack; the objective was to destroy the Korean forts on Kanghoa Island. The U.S.S. "Monocacy" pounded the forts with 9 inch guns while 546 sailors and 105 marines landed on the island and captured and destroyed the Korean forts. The "Citadel" fortress, on a steep 115-foot hillside, put up the stiffest resistance to the American troops, who fought in hand-to-hand combat with the Korean Tiger Hunters. All of the Korean forts taken were destroyed and leveled on June 11. Three hundred fifty Korean Tiger Hunters were killed, compared with only one American officer and two American sailors. Lieut. Hugh W. McKee was the first U.S. Navy officer to die in battle in Korea.
The Asiatic Squadron remained on the Han River for three weeks, but the Koreans would not open negotiations for a commercial treaty. As the American squadron left, the Koreans believed that they had won a great victory over the Americans. The attempt to open Korea up to trade was similar to how Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 had approached the opening of Japan. Korea, however, proved to be more isolated than Japan. In 1881, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt, without using a naval fleet, went to a more conciliatory Korean government and made a commercial treaty. The U.S. was the first Western nation to establish formal trade with Korea.
"Virginius" affair 1873.
During the 1870s, Cuba was in a state of rebellion against Spain. In the United States, Americans were divided on whether to militarily aid the rebel Cubans. Many jingoists believed the United States needed to fight for the Cuban rebels and pressured the Grant Administration to take action. A privately owned ship, the "Virginius", was used to run guns, ammunition, and vital supplies to the Cuban rebels. The captain of the "Virginius" was Joseph Fry, former officer of the Confederate and Federal Navies. On October 31, 1873, the "Virginius" was run down in neutral waters by the Spanish warship, the Tornado, off of Morant Bay, Jamaica. After being hit, the "Virginius" took on water and was forced to surrender to the Spanish authorities. The 103 crew members consisted of Cuban rebel recruits and 52 American and British citizens. The Spanish hauled down and trampled the American flag, and brought the prisoners to Santiago. A total of 53 "Virginius" crew members were executed by the Spanish authorities. The Spanish finally stopped the carnage as a British warship appeared with guns ready to fire on Santiago. The American Navy, at this time, although formidable worldwide, was in decline after the American Civil War.
When news reached the United States of the executions, President Grant and Secretary Fish were forced to make an immediate response. Many Americans demanded a full-scale war with Spain. Fish found out that the registration was falsified under American ownership, however, the executions of Americans demanded action. Fish, coolly handled the situation, called upon Spanish minister, Admiral José Polo de Bernabé in Washington D.C. and held a conference. A settlement was made where Spain relinquished the severely damaged "Virginius" to the U.S. Navy, while survivors were released that included 13 Americans. The Spanish Captain who ordered the executions was censured, and Spain paid $80,000 reparations to American families whose family members were executed in Santiago. The national honor of both Spain and the United States was preserved and it was chiefly due to the restraint and moderation of Fish and Bernabé that a satisfactory settlement of the "Virginius" Affair was reached by the United States and Spain.
Hawaiian reciprocal trade treaty 1875.
Fish also negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the Kingdom of Hawaii under the reign of King Kalākaua. Hawaiian sugar was made duty-free, while the importation of manufactured goods and clothing was allowed into the island kingdom. By opening Hawaii to free trade the process for annexation and eventual statehood into the United States had begun.
Liberian-Grebo war 1876.
The U.S. settled the Liberian-Grebo war in 1876 when Hamilton Fish dispatched the USS "Alaska", under President Grant's authority, to Liberia. Liberia was in practice an American colony. U.S. envoy James Milton Turner, the first African American ambassador, requested a warship to protect American property in Liberia. Turner, bolstered by U.S. naval presence in harbor and support of the USS "Alaska" captain, negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and the ousting of foreign traders from Liberia.
Republican convention 1876.
As the 1876 Republican convention approached during the U.S. Presidential Election, President Grant, unknown to Fish, had written a letter to Republican leaders to nominate Fish for the Presidential ticket. The letter was never read at the convention and Fish was never nominated. President Grant believed that Fish was a good compromise choice between the rival factions of James G. Blaine and Roscoe Conkling. Cartoonist Thomas Nast drew a caricature of Fish and Rutherford B. Hayes as the Republican Party ticket. Fish, who was ready to retire to private life, did not desire to run for president and was content at returning to private life. Fish found out later President Grant had written the letter to the convention.
Nicaragua inter-oceanic canal negotiations 1877.
President Grant at the close of his second term, and Secretary Fish, remained interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal treaty. Fish and the State Department negotiated with a special envoy from Nicaragua in February 1877 for an inter-oceanic treaty. Negotiations, however, failed as the status of the neutral zone could not be established.
Later life and health.
After leaving the Grant Cabinet in 1877 and briefly serving under President Hayes, Fish retired from public office and returned to private life practicing law and managing his real estate in New York City. Fish was revered in the New York community and enjoyed spending time with his family.
Fish resided in Glen Clyffe, his estate near Garrison, New York, in Putnam County, New York, in the Hudson River Valley. His health remained good until around 1884, having suffered from neuralgia.
Death, funeral, and burial.
On September 6, 1893, Fish had retired from the evening having played cards with his daughter. The following morning on September 7, Fish, at the age of 85, suddenly died. His death was attributed to advanced age.
On September 11, 1893, Fish was buried in Garrison at St. Philip's Church-in-the-Highlands Cemetery under waving trees on the hills along the Hudson River shoreline. He was buried next to his wife and oldest daughter. Fish was buried near the grave of Edwards Pierrepont, President Grant's U.S. Attorney General. Many notable persons attended Fish's funeral, while Bishop Potter conducted services. Julia Grant, widowed wife of Ulysses S. Grant, attended Fish's funeral.
Historical reputation.
Charles Francis Adams described Fish as "a quiet and easy-going man; but, when aroused, by being, as he thought, 'put upon', he became very formidable. Neither was it possible to placate him." Fish's 20th Century biographer, A. Elwood Corning, stated that Fish was free from "petty jealousies and prejudices which so often drag the reputation of statesmen down to the level of politicians" and that Fish "used the language and practiced the manners of a gentleman." As an invaluable member of the Grant Administration, Fish commanded "men's confidence, and respect by his firmness, candor, and justice."
A survey of scholars in the December 1981 American Heritage Magazine ranked Fish number 3 on a list of top ten Secretary of States noting his settling of the "Alabama" Claims in 1871, for his peaceful settlement of the "Virginius" Incident obtaining Spanish reparations, and for his Hawaiian treaty, ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1875, starting the annexation process leading to the eventual statehood of Hawaii.
There is a memorial to Fish at the Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York). The Hamilton Fish Newburgh-Beacon Bridge, which spans the Hudson River 50 miles north of New York City between Dutchess and Orange Counties, is named after Fish.
Society of Cincinnati.
Fish was a long time member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati by right of his father's service as an officer in the Continental Army. Fish succeeded to his father's "seat" in the Society upon his father's death in 1833. In 1848, Fish became the Vice President General of the national Society and, in 1854, he became its President General. In 1855 Fish was elected President of the New York Society. Fish served as both President General of the national Society and President of the New York Society until his death in 1893. His 39-year tenure in office as President General is by far the longest in the Society's history.
Notable descendants.
Three of Fish's direct descendants, all named Hamilton, served in the U.S. House of Representatives for the state of New York. Hamilton Fish II, Fish's son, served one term as U.S. Representative from 1909 to 1911. Fish II also served as assistant to Secretary of State Hamilton Fish. Hamilton Fish III, Fish's grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1945. Hamilton Fish IV, Fish's great-grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1969 to 1995. Another son Stuyvesant Fish was an important railroad executive. Another son, Nicholas Fish II, was a U.S. diplomat, who was appointed second secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was chargé d'affaires at Berne in 1877–1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882–1886, after which he engaged in banking in New York City. Hamilton Fish, Fish's grandson by Nicholas, was an 1895 graduate of Columbia College, saw service in the Spanish–American War as one of the storied Rough Riders. He was the first member of that regiment to be killed in action, at the Battle of Las Guasimas, Cuba.


Kung (Haida village)

Ḵung (Qañ or Dream Town) is a Haida village, located on the west side of Alexandra Narrows on Graham Island, the largest and northernmost island of Haida Gwaii (X̱aayda gwaayaay) alongside British Columbia, Canada. Alexandra Narrows, known on some old maps as Mazzaredo Sound, connects Naden Harbour and Virago Sound. An earlier village located at the current village site was named ‘Nightasis’ by the fur trader John Work, and records that in 1840 there were 15 houses with 280 residents.
Clans.
The Ḵung village was populated by four main clans: the Staastas Eagles, Those Who Left The West Coast, the Up-inlet Town People and a single Saganusili Raven clan. The east of the village was home to the Up-inlet Town People, who were the original occupants, and Those Who Left The West Coast. The Staastas Eagle clan were the residents of the west side of Ḵung, with the exception of one Rose Spit Raven family known as Saganusili. Guulas was village chief and member of the Up-inlet Town People clan.
Houses from west to east.
In 1899, John Swanton interviewed a number of elderly people living in Massett about the village of Ḵung. He recorded information on the last stage of occupation:
Migration.
In 1853 residents from Kiusta village migrated to Ḵung. Chief Albert Edward Edenshaw (7idansuu, One that can hold Crowds) of Kiusta moved his people to Ḵung as part of the larger Haida migrations occurring in the late 1800s, related to massive population decimation resulting from disease. The Haida were hit with a series of smallpox epidemics resulting in population decline from 20,000 prior to 1770 to less than 600 by the late 1800s. The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic alone killed over 70% of the Haida people. The surveyor and geologist, George Mercer Dawson visited the village in 1878 and describes 8 to 10 decaying homes some of which were still inhabited, facing long the bank towards the water. After Dawson’s visit to the village, residents moved from Ḵung to the larger area of G̲aaw (Old Massett). Provincial government surveyor Newton Chittenden visited Ḵung in 1884 and it had been left as a permanent village, but the site continued to be utilized as a halibut fishing camp with more temporary structures built.
Anthropologist George A. Dorsey collected ancestral remains from many Haida grave sites in Ḵung, which were stored at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Dorsey recorded details about the grave sites of former chiefs and spiritual healers (shamans) in his journal, while pillaging the grave sites for human remains. The Haida Repatriation Committee with the Haida Heritage Centre at Ḵay 'Llnagaay have been actively working on repatriating the ancestral remains of over 500 Haidas from provincial, federal and international museums back to Haida Gwaii for traditional burial.
There were proposals put forward by the Haida Heritage and Repatriation Society in 2010, to take canoes to the village sites of Yan, Ḵung and Kiusta to hold ceremonies to honour the Haida people that died from smallpox epidemics. Similar ceremonies have been done at sites like Bones Bay, to honour the "kuuniisii" (ancestors) that died during disease epidemics.
Reserve.
Kung Indian Reserve No. 11, or Kung 11 in official registries, is located at the site of Ḵung. The Kung Indian Reserve is under the administration of the Haida Nation (Old Massett Village Council) and is 28.7 ha in size.


Scott Place Mounds

Scott Place Mounds is an archaeological site in Union Parish, Louisiana from the Late Coles Creek-Early Plaquemine period, dating to approximately 1200 CE. The site is one of the few such sites in north-central Louisiana.
Description.
The site a five-mound complex located near the confluence of Corney Bayou and Lake D’Arbonne. Mound A is the largest mound at in height with a square base measuring by and its summit by . Mound B is the second largest at in height and in diameter and is located to the northeast of Mound A. The three remaining mounds (Mounds C, D and E) are approximately in height and range from to in diameter. All of the mounds were built in single stages. Charcoal samples taken from underneath Mound B have been dated to approximately 1200 CE.


Uniflite

Uniflite (United Boat Builders) was founded in Bellingham, Washington, by Art Nordtvedt in October 1957. Although the company is best remembered as a maker of recreational powerboats, its initial products were small fiberglass runabouts. The company also supplied river patrol craft to the US Navy Patrol Boat - River between 1965 and 1972 for use in the Vietnam War.
Uniflite was acquired by Chris-Craft Boats in 1984 who continued to build the boats under their brand until they ceased production in 1989.
After the company's demise, Art's son, Gary Nordtvedt, went on to found Norstar Boats.
History.
Uniflite (United Boat Builders) was started in Bellingham, WA, by Art "Papa" Nordtvedt in October 1957.
The first Uniflite boat an all fiberglass 17' outboard. Uniflite soon added a 14', an 18' and a 20' outboard and inboard/outboard boats, followed by a 25' express cruiser followed by a 31' and a 34' boat. Uniflite was the only boat builder exclusively using fire-retardant resins in the production of pleasure boats.
In January 1959, the plant and office moved into the old plywood plant in Fairhaven, Washington (in Bellingham). This became Uniflite's permanent home.
In 1962, Uniflite became a public company trading on the New York Stock Exchange, thus becoming eligible for Navy contracts.
In 1965, the Navy awarded Uniflite with a contract to build Patrol Boat, Rivers (PBRs). The PBRs were powered by twin Detroit 6V53's with water jets and they cruised between 25 and 31 knots. There were approximately 718 PBRs built, at least 418 of which were built by Uniflite. At the height of production two PBRs were rolling off the assembly line along with one 36' landing craft each day. In addition to the Navy contracts, in the 1960s and early 1970s Uniflite had numerous other military contract building 14' and 50' boats: patrol craft, landing craft, and personnel boats. Uniflite also built commercial fishing boats, and sailboats besides the more widely recognized pleasure boats.
In 1977, Uniflite acquired boat molds from Pacemaker Boat Co. Pacemaker Boat company was founded in 1949 by Charles Platt (C.P.) Leek in New Jersey from his company C.P. Leek & Sons, Inc. who also later established Egg Harbor boat company. It was at this time that Uniflite started a second Uniflite plant in Swansboro, North Carolina.
In 1980, a fire almost totally destroyed the Uniflite plant in Bellingham. However, since they had molds in Swansboro, NC, they were able to continue production of their boats.
In 1984, Uniflite was acquired by Chris Craft for $10 per share. Chris Craft built many of the identical boats under the Chris Craft label until they stopped production in 1989.


Philipse family

The Philipse family was a prominent Dutch family in New Netherlands and the British Province of New York. It owned both the vast hereditary estate in lower Westchester County, New York, Philipsburg Manor, the family seat, and the roughly Highland Patent, later known as the "Philipse Patent", in time today's Putnam County, New York.
Loyalists during the Revolutionary War, the family had its lands seized in 1779 by the Revolutionary government of the Province of New York and sold by its Commissioners of Forfeitures. Though never compensated for their losses by the Colonial government, various family members did receive payments from the British government in following years.
History.
The family is of partial Bohemian origin on its paternal side. Frederick Philipse (1636-1702), first Lord and founder of Philipsburg Manor, had eleven children with his first wife, Margaret Hardenbrook de Vries. She died in 1691. A year later, Frederick married the widow Catharine Van Cortlandt Derval, who survived him for many years.
She was the sister of Stephanus Van Cortlandt, an adviser to the provincial governor. Her brother Jacobus Van Cortlandt married Frederick's adopted daughter Eva and their son Frederick Van Cortlandt later built the Van Cortlandt House in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx, New York. Jacobus and Eva's daughter, Mary, was the mother of John Jay by her marriage to Peter Jay.


Indian Reservation Roads Program

The Indian Reservation Roads Program (IRR) is part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and is meant to meet the transportation needs of American Indians in the United States, American Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives. These roads, also known as BIA Roads are given to tribes by providing funds for planning, designing, construction, and maintenance activities.
The program is jointly administered by the Federal Lands Highway Program and the BIA. These roads are public that provide access to and within Indian reservations, Indian trust land, restricted Indian land, and Alaska native villages. Approximately are under the jurisdiction of the BIA and tribes and another are under State and local ownership.
The authorizing legislation is the highway authorization act (currently the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act – A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU)) and codified in Title 23 U.S.C. and 25 C.F.R. Part 170.
The IRR program funds can be used for any type of Title 23 transportation project providing access to or within Federal or Indian lands and may be used for the State/local matching share for apportioned Federal-aid Highway Funds.


Provisional Political Bylaws of the Mexican Empire

The Provisional Political Regulation of the Mexican Empire were political regulations that governed the early days of the nation of Mexican Empire. It granted effect to the laws, orders and regulations promulgated until February 24, 1821 with the Plan of Iguala; as well as the laws, orders and decrees issued in consequence of the Independence of Mexico with the triumphant entry of the Trigarante Army in Mexico City.
The Regulation consisted of a preamble and an article divided into eight sections, which in turn were divided into chapters and further into articles, with the exception of article 25, which hosted the 15 bases contained of the imperial decree of November 2, 1822.
Territorial organization.
At the time of the promulgation of the Provisional Regulation in 1822, the nation of New Spain was composed of 12 municipalities (Arizpe, San Luis Potosi, Durango, Zacatecas, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Veracruz, Valladolid, Mexico, Puebla, Antequera of Oaxaca and Mérida of Yucatán) and 4 governments (Nueva California, Vieja California, Nuevo México and Tlaxcala), so after the proclamation of the Mexican Empire, the General Captaincy of Guatemala was annexed to the national geography, leaving finally 26 provinces.


Ward Weaver III

Ward Francis Weaver III (born April 6, 1963) is an American convicted murderer. He is serving a life sentence without possibility of parole for sexual assault, rape, attempted murder, and the murders of Ashley Pond and Miranda Gaddis in Oregon City, Oregon.
Raised in Northern California by his mother, Weaver had a tumultuous childhood; his father, Ward Weaver Jr., was convicted in 1984 of a double-murder. After a stint in the U.S. Navy Reserve, Weaver was convicted of assaulting two teenage girls in Fairfield, California in 1988.
In January 2002, twelve-year-old Ashley Pond disappeared en route to her bus stop in Oregon City, near Weaver's residence. Three months later, Pond's classmate, thirteen-year-old Miranda Gaddis, also vanished under mysterious circumstances. The disappearances received international media attention, and were profiled on various television programs, including "Unsolved Mysteries". The remains of both girls were discovered on Weaver's property in August 2002 during an investigation into the rape of his son's girlfriend, also committed by Weaver. In 2004, Weaver was sentenced to life without parole for the sexual assault and murder of both girls.
Early life.
Weaver was born April 6, 1963 in Humboldt County, California to Trish and Ward Weaver Jr. In 1967, Weaver's father abandoned the family; several years later, Weaver's mother Trish married Bob Budrow, an abusive alcoholic, and the family relocated to Portland, Oregon.
Weaver first exhibited antisocial behavior as a teenager; his sister, Tammi, later said that he physically and sexually abused at least one family member by the time he was twelve years old, and his half-brother, Robert Budrow, claimed that Weaver frequently beat him during their childhood.
In 1981, a teenaged relative reported that he had repeatedly raped and beat her. Police investigated allegations of abuse in 1981, but Multnomah County prosecutors decided not to pursue charges because Weaver had enlisted in the armed services and would be leaving Portland. Shortly thereafter, Weaver graduated from Marshall High School in Portland, and joined the US Navy Reserve. He was discharged the following year on May 17, 1982 for heavy drinking and dereliction of duty. During his tenure in the Navy, he met his future wife, Maria Stout, a native of the Philippines. The couple moved in with Weaver's parents and she was soon pregnant. Five months into her pregnancy, she was physically assaulted by Weaver and hospitalized, but refused to press charges. Their son, Francis, was born in December 1982, though it was later determined that he was not Ward Weaver's biological son.
In 1981, Weaver's father murdered a young couple whose car had broken down in Tehachapi, California, and buried them in his backyard; he was sentenced to death for the crime in 1984.
Marriage and early crimes.
Weaver married Maria Stout in 1984, and the couple relocated to Bakersfield, California. On June 15, 1986, Weaver attacked the teenaged daughters of a friend in Fairfield, California, striking one of the girls—fifteen-year-old Jennifer Ordonoa—with a block of concrete. He was sentenced to three years in prison for the assaults. After his release, Weaver and wife Stout relocated to Canby, Oregon, where they operated a store. There, the couple gave birth to their fourth child, Mallori, in 1989.
In 1993, Maria Weaver filed a restraining order against her husband, and their marriage ended in divorce. In July 1995, Weaver beat his new girlfriend, Kristi Sloan, with a cast-iron skillet. He was jailed for the incident, but Sloan refused to testify against him. By October they were back together and, in February 1996, they married. The marriage lasted four years.
Murders of Ashley Pond and Miranda Gaddis.
Disappearances.
In August 1997, Weaver began an affair with a woman he met at work. The couple moved into a rented house on South Beavercreek Road in Oregon City. Weaver's then-12-year-old daughter Mallori became friends with Ashley Marie Pond (born March 1, 1989) and Miranda Diane Gaddis (born November 18, 1988); the three girls were students at Gardiner Middle School, and were also members of the same dance class. In August 2001, Pond accused Weaver of attempting to rape her at his home, and the incident was reported to police; however, charges were not formally filed by law enforcement.
On the morning of January 9, 2002, Pond left her home at the Newell Creek Village apartments to walk to the nearby bus stop; she never arrived. Friends and family, including Gaddis, began to search for her; Gaddis resided in the same apartment building as Pond. The dance team which both girls were a member of organized a fundraiser to help assist the search for Pond, which they scheduled for March 23, 2002.
On the morning of March 8, Gaddis disappeared under similar circumstances to Pond. After Gaddis's disappearance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation instated a task force to search for the girls; FBI spokeswoman Beth Anne Steele stated during a press interview: "There is a growing belief that the cases are related, and while there's a slight hope that they have run away, there is a growing belief that there was some kind of criminal activity involved."
After both girls vanished, Weaver (with the help of his son) dug a hole in his yard and covered it with concrete; Weaver told his son it was a pad for a hot tub. KATU television news reporter Anna Song conducted an interview with Weaver prior to his arrest, during which he stood on top of the concrete slab where Ashley Pond was buried. When asked about the slab, Weaver told "The Oregonian": "I'm putting in a Jacuzzi. The last time I checked that wasn't against the law." "Portland Tribune" reporter Jim Redden got two tips early on – one from Linda O'Neal, a private investigator and a relative of Pond – which prompted him to interview Weaver. Weaver told Redden that he was the FBI's prime suspect, at a time when it was generally believed there was no such suspect. During a July 9, 2002 interview with "Good Morning America", Weaver commented:
Discovery.
On August 13, 2002, Weaver's stepson, Francis, called police claiming that Weaver had attempted to rape his nineteen-year-old girlfriend. When speaking to authorities, Francis suggested that his father had been involved in the murders of Pond and Gaddis. Weaver was arrested for the attempted sexual assault, and law enforcement subsequently initiated a warrant to investigate his property. Pond's stepmother, who had suspected Weaver in both disappearances, erected a sign next to the concrete slab on his property which read: "Dig Me Up."
The FBI began a search of Weaver's property on South Beavercreek Road on August 24, 2002. That day, FBI agents discovered Gaddis's remains inside an empty microwave box in a storage shed behind Weaver's home. On August 25, the remains of Pond were unearthed from beneath the concrete slab in Weaver's backyard, where they had been stored in a 55-gallon barrel.
Media coverage.
The disappearances of Pond and Gaddis drew international media attention, receiving coverage in "The Oregonian", "People", "The Los Angeles Times", "The New York Times", and the BBC. The disappearances were also profiled in an episode of "Unsolved Mysteries", which aired on September 20, 2002 after the girls' bodies had been discovered.
Journalist Linda O'Neal went on to co-write a book about the case, entitled "The Missing Girls", published in 2006. The book was somewhat fictionalized, featuring composite characters and reconstructed conversations. O'Neal contended that the substance of the book was accurate, but the FBI criticized the book, and took exception to O'Neal's characterization of how the case was solved.
Conviction and aftermath.
In 2002, Governor John Kitzhaber launched a multi-agency investigation into the handling of the first report of Weaver's abuse of Pond. Weaver remained under arrest for the attempted rape of his son's girlfriend until October 2, 2002, when he was indicted and charged with six counts of aggravated murder; two counts of abuse of a corpse in the second degree; one count of sexual abuse in the first degree; one count of attempted rape in the second degree; one count of attempted aggravated murder; one count of first degree attempted rape; one count of sexual abuse in the first degree; one count of sexual abuse in the second degree; and two counts of sexual abuse in the third degree. In September 2004, Weaver pleaded guilty to two charges and no-contest to the rest. A plea bargain allowed him to avoid the death penalty. He was sentenced to two life sentences without parole.
On March 4, 2007, Weaver was walking to the barber shop at the Snake River Correctional Institution for a haircut when the barber – another inmate – revealed a makeshift knife and attacked him, causing neck and shoulder injuries. He was treated at the prison. The barber was placed in the disciplinary unit.
In 2009, Gaddis's younger sister, Miriah, visited Weaver in prison on two separate occasions: "I had to know what happened. It was the only way I could put it behind me," she told reporters. During the visits, Weaver admitted to murdering Pond and Gaddis "with his bare hands," and told Miriah that he had planned to murder her next.
On February 17, 2014, Weaver's son Francis was arrested and charged with murder. He and three others had allegedly robbed and killed a drug dealer in Canby, Oregon the day prior.


Backspace (Portland, Oregon)

Backspace (sometimes Backspace Cafe) was a coffee shop, gallery, Internet café, and all-ages music venue located in the Old Town Chinatown neighborhood of Portland, Oregon, in the United States. The venue opened in mid 2003 and closed in 2013.
Description and history.
Owner and painter Eric Robison opened Backspace, which was located at 115 Northwest 5th Avenue in Portland's Old Town Chinatown neighborhood, as a coffee shop in July 2003. He was inspired by two nearby stores within the same neighborhood, operated by Katsu Tanaka: Compound, a gallery, and Just Be Toys, a Japanese-themed toy and DVD rental store. Robison and his brother Kris had considered operating the business in the Pearl District, but were "attracted to the edginess" of the building. He recalled, "People said, 'Dude, you're insane,' when I told them where it was. I saw the exposed brick, and the whole cyberpunk feel that we could pursue. It was a little too frou-frou in the Pearl." Robison also recalled fending off drug activity outside the store by barring dealers and users from entry. The building that housed Backspace was renovated by the city and Portland Development Commission.
The establishment had been described as a gallery, a computer gaming and Internet café, and an "oft-beleaguered" all-ages music venue. It was one of several businesses in the neighborhood, including Ground Kontrol, geared towards young people who worked in the technology industry. According to "Willamette Week" Matthew Singer, Backspace "[evolved] into the epicenter of Portland's underage music culture" because of a one-off Thermals performance in 2007. The space hosted a variety of events, including Portland Development Commission meetings (2007), an anti-bullying event called "Frank Conversations: Speaking Out on Bullying" (2010), and a concert by Dustin Ruth, the Battle Ground, Washington-based singer-songwriter and frontman of the band Ruth (2011).
Closure.
Beginning in the late 2000s, Backspace had a string of financial difficulties. The business almost closed in 2008, but was able to continue operating after the Oregon Liquor Control Commission permitted Backspace to serve beer and wine while hosting all-ages events and performances. In 2012, Robison began raising funds to help eliminate $10,000 in "delinquent late fees for past-due rent and licensing" from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI). Robison decided to relocate when the city pass an ordinance requiring nightclubs in older buildings to install sprinkler systems. One of the property investors said the building's owners elected not to renew the cafe's lease because "music [was] not compatible with rest of tenants in the building".
In September 2013, Robison confirmed that he wanted to relocate the business to a larger space before its lease expired in November. He originally planned to move Backspace to a building along Northeast Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard. When plans fell through, he considered relocating to a different location in northeast Portland. However, this plan meant Backspace would not be able to reopen until the spring season of 2014 because of ongoing renovation efforts. In October, Robison said Backspace would stop hosting live performances after its Halloween celebration and would remain open temporarily as a coffee shop. He told "Willamette Week": "The one thing we want to do is build it right. Backspace was all patchwork and chewing gum. We want to build something that will last." Robison hoped to host one final concert in Backspace's original location on New Year's Eve, 2013, featuring a "big-name local act, pending landlord approval".
In his 2014 article "RIP: 11 Shuttered PDX Bars and Restaurants We'll Miss", Thrillist contributor Drew Tyson wrote, "We'll miss dancing in this boisterous bar/gallery that was decked out like a geeky Internet cafe with a photo booth, pinball machines, a treehouse, and... wait! It was a geeky Internet cafe that whole time?!"
After sitting vacant for over a year, the location was remodeled to accommodate an expansion of the Ground Kontrol video game and pinball arcade and bar located in the same building.


William Colfax

William Colfax (July 3, 1756 – September 9, 1838) was a revolutionary war figure who served as Captain of George Washington's Life Guard beginning on March 18, 1778.
William was the fifth child born to George Colfax (born: December 25, 1727) and Lucy Avery (married April 13, 1749), who had a total of ten children. Colfax was about 5'-10" tall and weighed about 190-200 lbs. He had blue eyes, dark hair, and was clean shaven. His hair was powdered and worn in a queue, tied with a black ribbon, till his later years. He was married to Hester Schuyler, cousin of Philip Schuyler, of Pompton on August 27, 1783, together they had six children. Together they lived in Hester's inherited Schuyler-Colfax House in Wayne, New Jersey, which today is a museum. Their grandson was Schuyler Colfax, the 17th Vice President of the United States.
Military career.
When Colfax was 17 years old, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Continental Army leading him to be present at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. Colfax was wounded three times in battle during the war, one of those times was at the Battle of White Plains in October 1776. Another was on July 3, 1781, four miles from Valentine's Hill north of New York City near Kingsbridge. Upon one occasion, when he was in the act of giving the word of command to his men, a bullet struck his uplifted sword, shattering the blade, and glancing, skinned one of his fingers. On another occasion, also while riding on horseback in an exposed position a bullet was sent through his body, just above the hip and below the bowels, entering in front and coming out behind. The long buff waistcoat he wore at the time is preserved by his grandchildren, and the hole is apparent, made by the almost fatal shot.
In the excitement of the battle the Colfax did not notice the wound, but still galloped from point to point over the field delivering orders. Some Hessian soldiers, who had been taken prisoners, saw the blood streaming from his side and into his boot, and gleefully exclaimed, "Mein Gott! de Captain is wounded again." As he kept on in the fight some of his own men saw the blood flow and cried to him, "Captain! the blood is running out of your boot!" Looking down, he noticed his condition for the first time and recognized that it must be serious, and rode over toward the field hospital. Dr. Ledyard looked at the wound and bade him go at once into the hospital, and stay in, the latter order being needed to keep Colfax indoors. The excitement over, the wounded Colfax succumbed to the loss of blood and grew faint and weak as a child. After hurriedly examining and dressing the injury, Dr. Ledyard subsequently asked, "Do you want to be cured quickly, or to let this thing linger along?" To which the Captain replied, "As quickly as possible." The surgeon promptly applied the bistouri, tore tho wound open and dressed it, whereupon it soon healed. However, recovery was attended by an eruption of boils, covering Colfax from head to heels. Washington, seeing the state of his captain, told him, "You are in a deplorable condition; I will give you a furlough that you may go home till you recover." Colfax persisted in staying with the army till they went into winter quarters at Morristown, in the winter of 1779–1780. During that season he went home to Connecticut on horseback through snow in March so deep that he rode over the fence-tops. He returned greatly improved in health, and was with the army till the close of the war.
American Revolution.
While the American army was encamped at Valley Forge, Washington issued an order, dated March 17, 1778, directing that "one hundred chosen men are to be annexed to the Guard of the Commander in-Chief, for the purpose of forming a corps, to be instructed in the manoeuvres necessary to be introduced into the Army, and to serve as a model for the execution of them." Colfax succeeded Caleb Gibbs on January 1, 1781, as captain (by Washington's appointment) of his Life Guard until September 5, 1783, having gone on furlough in July. During his service in the Life Guard, Colfax was promoted from second lieutenant to first lieutenant, and then finally to captain in April 1783. Colfax was present at the Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown and permitted by Washington to occupy a prominent position, on horseback, near Washington. According to Connecticut records, he served in the Continental Army until January 1, 1780. Colfax retired from the army on November 3, 1783.
He was appointed by the legislature to be a Justice of the Peace for the Court of Common Pleas of Bergen County for many years. He served in the New Jersey legislature from 1806–13, in the General Assembly (1806, 07, 09, 10, and 11) and the Legislative Council (1808, 12, and 13). In 1811 he was Brigadier-General of the Second Division of Infantry, Bergen Brigade where in the War of 1812 he had a command at Sandy Hook.
Death.
William Colfax died after couple days of illness on September 9, 1838. The services were held in the Reformed Dutch Church at Pompton and were led by Reverend Isaac S. Demarest. He received full military honors, the Militia of Paterson and the whole town showed up. General Abraham Godwin and Colonel Cornelius G. Garrison commanded the martial music. Colfax was buried at his estate in Wayne, New Jersey.


Celilo Canal

Celilo Canal was a canal connecting two points of the Columbia River between the states of Oregon and Washington, U.S. just east of The Dalles.
In the natural state of the Columbia River, there was an stretch from The Dalles to Celilo Falls that was impassable upstream and navigable downstream only at high water and at great risk. Celilo Canal was built in the early part of the 1900s to allow steamboat and river-borne traffic to bypass that stretch.
History and construction.
In 1858, a -long wagon road, the Oregon Portage Railroad, had been built around the falls on the south side of the river. This was replaced in 1863 by a -long portage railway owned by the Oregon Steam Navigation Company. A number of studies and false starts were made towards building a canal around the falls, but construction on what was to become known as the Celilo Canal did not begin until 1905, and then took ten years to complete. In 1909, "Scientific American" summarized the status of the work and its objectives:
"Scientific American" was also optimistic about the prospective economic value of the canal:
The federal government spent 5 million dollars on its construction. For an inaugural cruise, the steamer "Undine" left Portland April 29 and arrived in Lewiston, May 3, 1915.
Effect on navigation.
Boosters of the Celilo Canal organized the Open River Navigation Company, and put the "Charles R. Spencer" and "J.N. Teal" on the run from Portland to The Dalles, "Twin Cities" and "Inland Empire" on the route up the Snake River, and "Relief" on the run from Celilo to Pasco, Washington. "Mountain Gem" supported "Relief" above Celilo
Once the canal was complete, navigation was open on the Columbia from the mouth of the river all the way to Priest Rapids, and, up the Snake River, to the mouth of the Grande Ronde River near Rogersburg. However, completion of the canal came too late to fend off competition from railroads had taken away most of the steamboat's business. Riverine transportation above Celilo never reached the hopes of the proponents of the canal. Only in the late 1930s did the development of wheat barge traffic, eventually driven by diesel towboats, become an important transport method on the Columbia River.
Current state.
The canal and all related works were flooded following the completion of The Dalles Dam in 1957.


Maxville, Oregon

Maxville is an unincorporated community and former company town in northern Wallowa County, Oregon, USA. The town was built in 1923 by the Bowman-Hicks Lumber Company, a large Southern firm with timber and mills in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi. Bowman-Hicks hired experienced loggers, regardless of race, from the Southern United States. In keeping with the Jim Crow practices common in the South at that time, Maxville had segregated neighborhoods, schools and baseball teams.
History.
Creation of the town.
The southern Bowman-Hicks Lumber Company was looking to profit from the abundant logging opportunity in the Pacific Northwest. To ensure a reliable workforce, workers from the south were brought in to create a railroad company town. The name "Maxville" evolved from its original name, "Mac's Town", based on the superintendent of the lumber company, J.D. Macmillan. Before logging and timbering, most black people were encouraged to work in the coal mines but, as the coal supply was depleted, many African Americans were hired to work with lumber.
Logging industry.
The logging and timber industry in Oregon was at its peak in the early 1900s. While many of the towns that cropped up around the logging sites were known to overwork employees, those in Oregon were known to help the loggers to sustain their livelihoods. As the timber industry grew in and around Maxville, Oregon, local business looked to support the workers. Food and services were provided to everyone who contributed to the industry, regardless of race. The consistent logging and timber harvesting was eventually difficult to sustain and many investors, such as those in Maxville, encouraged the federal government to increase logging efforts.
Life in Maxville.
African American involvement.
Maxville was the only town in Wallowa County to have African American citizens, the total being around 40 to 60 out of a total population of 400. The African Americans who came to Maxville from the south were be the first that most of the white citizens met. Due to Jim Crow laws, the town segregated African Americans from Caucasians, including schools, homes and baseball teams. However, the baseball teams came together and won against other counties. The schools in Maxville were the first segregated schools in the state of Oregon. White and black workers were segregated into different jobs, but they worked together at times when logging in the forest. Even though the town had separated race for the most part, the members of Maxville got along with each other.
Town life.
Maxville was work-centric, having many job opportunities for the locals within the woods, mills, farms, ranches and more. The town had very few leisure facilities, the most common form of entertainment and time spent off work being to hunt and fish. The town was rugged due to its location and the conditions of the work for the area. Most buildings had no plumbing or heating, and were infested with bedbugs. The logging conditions were very dangerous, leading to many men being injured from a range of minor to extremely severe. It was common for men to lose their lives while logging, mainly from tree parts falling on top of them.
Contemporary life.
Maxville, while once a populated logging town, has since been abandoned. No buildings remain except the offices of the Bowman-Hicks Lumber Company. Each year at the beginning of August, the Annual Maxville Gathering is held at the Wallowa County Fairgrounds, aiming to raise awareness of the town's history. Guest speakers tell personal stories to educate others about Oregon black exclusion laws. There are logging demonstrations, performances and auctions held at the event. The Maxville Heritage Interpretive Center, located in Joseph, Oregon, works to preserve the local history of the town through exhibits, photographs and oral history. It is a non-profit organization and operates with the help of volunteers who have extensive knowledge of Maxville's history.
Maxville is a historically significant location and a resource for students studying archaeology and rural studies. Educational tours of the surrounding wildlife are available for students and the area is being studied by archaeologists. Projects are underway to keep the history alive. In 2012, a grant was awarded to Marv and Rindy Ross to create the fictional musical project, "On Higher Ground", based on Maxwell's history. It delves into how the logging town was segregated. Although unpopulated, Mazwell continues to be a landmark and a tool for educating others in various fields.


Republic of New Granada

The Republic of New Granada was a centralist unitary republic consisting primarily of present-day Colombia and Panama with smaller portions of today's Costa Rica, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. It was created after the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, with the secession of Ecuador (Quito, Guayaquil and Azuay) and Venezuela (with Orinoco, Apure and Zulia). In November 1831, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country was officially renamed "New Granada", but had no official currency, iconography, coat of arms or flag upon establishment. Older flags of Gran Colombia were confirmed as provisional by the National Convention of 17 December 1831. It is not clear which flag was chosen: Restrepo believes that it was the flag with the two cornucopias of Gran Colombia. While new flags were being discussed, some proposals were issued. On 9 May 1834, the national flag was adopted and was used until 26 November 1861, with the Gran Colombian colors in Veles' arrangement. The merchant ensign had the eight-pointed star in white.
In 1851, a civil war broke out when conservative and pro-slavery groups from Cauca and Antioquia departments, led by Manuel Ibánez, Julio Arboleda, and Eusebio Borrero, revolted against liberal president José Hilario López, in an attempt to prevent emancipation of disenfranchised groups and abolishment of slavery, in addition to a number of religious issues.
Colombian constitution of 1832.
One of the prime features of the political climate of the republic was the position of the Roman Catholic Church and the level of autonomy for the federal states. In 1839, a dispute arose over the shutting down of monasteries by the Congress of New Granada. This soon escalated into the War of the Supremes, which raged for the next two years and transformed into a conflict about regional autonomy.
New Granada was transformed in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation as an answer to demands for a decentralized country.
Provinces.
The territory of the republic was divided into provinces. Each province was composed of one or more cantons, each canton was divided into several districts.
The republic also included some territories in the peripheries of the country.