Mustafa Pasha Bushatli

Mustafa Pasha Bushatli (, 1797 – May 27, 1860), called Işkodralı ("from Scutari"), was a semi-independent Albanian Ottoman statesman, the last hereditary governor of the Pashalik of Scutari. In 1810 he succeeded Ibrahim Bushati and ruled Scutari until 1831.
History.
Mustafa was the brother of the powerful Kara Mahmud Bushatli. He succeeded his uncle, Ibrahim Pasha in 1810 and received the rank of Vizier in 1812 and continued to rule the Pashaluk of Shkodra as an independent ruler.
In 1820, the sanjak of Berat was appropriated to him.
Mustafa led Albanian contingents Greeks in the Greek War of Independence. In 1823 a campaign of 8,000 Albanian troops (according to Finlay), in Western Greece was led by Mustafa Pasha and Omer Vrioni; On August 24, 1823, Markos Botsaris and 350 Souliots attacked the army of Mustafa Pasha near Karpenisi, attempting to stop the Ottoman advance. The battle ended in Ottoman defeat, and Botsaris was killed in action.
In 1824 the sanjaks of Ohrid and Elbasan were appropriated to him, and he received the title of "serasker".
As his father, Mustafa aimed at greater independence, and when Mahmud II's Ottoman military reform efforts threatened to deprive him of his hereditary rights and privileges, he became hostile to the sultan and maintained friendly relations with Serbian Prince Miloš Obrenović, the discontented Bosniaks and Muhammad Ali of Egypt. Thus, he was passive in the early stage of the Russo-Turkish War (1828–29), only in May 1829 he appeared with his Albanians on the Danube (Vidin, Rahovo), then continued to Sofia and Philippopolis, without taking active part in the fighting.
Informed in 1831 that his rule had been termed, Mustafa Pasha gathered an Albanian Muslim alliance against the Ottomans and he invited the Serbs to fight in return for Nis.
With the conclusion of peace, the Porte, in 1831, demanded that Mustafa hand over the districts of Dukakin, Debar, Elbasan, Ohrid and Trgovište to Grand Vizier Reşid Mehmed Pasha, and to implement certain reforms in Scutari. Mustafa resisted, and with the financial and moral support of Prince Miloš, he led an army against the Grand Vizier in mid-March 1831. He was joined by other pashas of northern Albania and Kosovo who objected the reforms. The rebels had some success, including occupying Sofia, but they were routed at Skopje by the Grand Vizier's regular troops in the beginning of May 1831. Mustafa retreated via Skoplje and Prizren and fortified himself in Scutari. After a six-month long siege, he surrendered on 10 November 1831. On Metternich's petition, he was pardoned and taken to Constantinople.
After 15 years, he was again a governor, in the Ankara Eyalet (from 1846).
Next, he was appointed the governor of the Herzegovina Eyalet, and appeared on May 22, 1853. According to Serbian sources, he was fair, and if someone wronged, he could let it pass. During his office, the hajduk bands multiplied to the extent that he was afraid that he would be captured in the night in Mostar and killed.
His last office was in Medina where he died on May 27, 1860.
Annotations.
He was often called by the demonym "Işkodralı". In modern historiography, he is known in English-language works as "Mustafa Pasha Bushatli". In Serbian, he is known as Mustafa-paša Bušatlija (Мустафа-паша Бушатлија). Robert Elsie calls him by the Albanian neologism "Mustafa Reshiti Pasha Bushatlliu".


Boxgrove Man

Boxgrove Man is a fossil thought to belong to either a female or male "Homo heidelbergensis", an extinct relative of modern humans ("Homo sapiens"), and dated to roughly half a million years old. The fossil was discovered in 1993 in Boxgrove, West Sussex, near the south coast of England, by archaeologist Mark Roberts and his team of the Institute of Archeology at University College London. Only two pieces of the tibia (shinbone) and two teeth were found, so little is known about the characteristics of the human to whom the fossil belonged. It may be that this was a strongly-built woman, the gender cannot be determined and the species was robust in adaptation to the cold. The subject was about 40 years old, 1.8 m (5 foot 11 inches) tall, and weighed roughly . It is thought to be the oldest human fossil ever discovered in Britain.
Boxgrove's life.
This particular fossil of an approximately 40-year-old dates back to the Middle Pleistocene era (ca. 500 ka BP). The tibia of the subject is very sturdy indicating that it belonged to a strongly-built adult around tall, weighing about . The exceptional structural strength suggests a cold-adapted body with proportions paralleling those of the Neanderthals. Archaeological evidence indicates that these early humans had the ability to hunt or at least scavenge with stone tools as the team discovered hundreds of Acheulean flint tools at the site. The two teeth found show scratches, suggesting an eating technique in which food was cut with a tool whilst gripped between the jaws.
Wildlife found at the site.
Also present at the site where the human fossil was discovered, were the remains of now extinct species of rhinoceros, bears, and voles. It is most likely that "H. heidelbergensis" hunted these animals for sustenance with the aid of the stone tools also discovered at this site. There is clear evidence on the animal remains that they were butchered, but it cannot be proven that the species whose fossil was found in association with them hunted these animals or scavenged them. Teeth marks on the tibia fossil may be evidence that he or she was scavenged as well, either by cannibalism or scavenging by another animal.


Annaniterna


Kingdom of Dardania

The Kingdom of Dardania was a polity formed in the central Balkans in the region of Dardania during classical antiquity. It is named after the Dardani, a Paleo-Balkan tribe which formed its population and formed the core of the Dardanian polity. Dardania included present-day Kosovo, northwestern North Macedonia, parts of the Sandžak region and area of Naissus in Serbia and the Kukës County in Albania. The eastern parts of Dardania were at the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone.
History.
Dardania was first mentioned in the 4th century BC, after king Bardylis united Dardani tribes into a single state. He defeated Macedonians and Molossians several times. At this time they were strong enough to rule Macedonia through a puppet king in 392-391 BC. In 385-384 they allied with Dionysius I of Syracuse and defeated the Molossians, killing up to 15,000 of their soldiers and ruling their territory for a short period. Their continuous invasions forced Amyntas III of Macedon to pay them a tribute in 372 BC. They returned raiding the Molossians in 360. In 359 BC Bardylis won a decisive battle against Macedonian king Perdiccas III, whom he killed himself, while 4,000 Macedonian soldiers fell, and the cities of upper Macedonia were occupied. Following this disastrous defeat, king Philip II took control of the Macedonian throne in 358 and reaffirmed the treaty with the Dardani, marrying princess Audata, probably the daughter or niece of Bardylis. The time of this marriage is somewhat disputed while some historians maintain that the marriage happened after the defeat of Bardylis. This gave Philip II valuable time to gather his forces against those Dardani who were still under Bardylis, defeating them at the Erigon Valley by killing about 7,000 of them, eliminating the Dardani menace for some time.
In 334 BC, under the leadership of Cleitus, the son of Bardylis, the Dardani, in alliance with other Illyrian tribes attacked Macedonia held by Alexander the Great. The Dardani managed to capture some cities but were eventually defeated by Alexander's forces.
Celts were present in Dardania in 279 BC. The Dardanian king offered to help the Macedonians with 20,000 soldiers against the Celts, but this was refused by Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos.
Dardani were a constant threat to the Macedonian kingdom. In 230 under Longarus they captured Bylazora from the Paionians and in 229 they again attacked Macedonia, defeating Demetrius II in an important battle. In this period their influence on the region grew and some other Illyrian tribes deserted Teuta, joining the Dardani under Longarus and forcing Teuta to call off her expedition forces in Epirus. When Philip V rose to the Macedonian throne, skirmishing with Dardani began in 220-219 BC and he managed to capture Bylazora from them in 217 BC. Skirmishes continued in 211 and in 209 when a force of Dardani under Aeropus, probably a pretender to the Macedonian throne, captured Lychnidus and looted Macedonia taking 20.000 prisoners and retreating before Philip's forces could reach them.
In 201 BC, Bato of Dardania (along with Pleuratus the Illyrian and Amynander, King of Athamania) cooperated with Roman consul Sulpicius in his expedition against Philip V. Always being under the menace of Dardanian attacks on Macedonia, Philip V made an alliance with the Bastarnae at around 183 BC and invited them to settle in Polog, the region of Dardania closest to Macedonia. A joint campaign of the Bastarnae and Macedonians against the Dardanians was organized, but Philip V died and his son Perseus of Macedon withdrew his forces from the campaign. The Bastarnae crossed the Danube in huge numbers and although they didn't meet the Macedonians, they continued the campaign. Some 30,000 Bastarnae under the command of Clondicus seem to have defeated the Dardani. In 179 BC, the Bastarnae conquered the Dardani, who later in 174 pushed them out, in a war which proved catastrophic, with a few years later, in 170 BC, the Macedonians defeating the Dardani. Macedonia and Illyria became Roman protectorates in 168 BC. The Dardanian Kingdom retained its sovereignty until 28 BC, when the Romans conquered the region (and consequently it).
The Romans created the province of Moesia from parts of Dardania, but later made it a separate province.
Culture.
The eastern parts of the region were at the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania (present-day Kosovo), while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania (present-day south-eastern Serbia). Thracian names are absent in western Dardania; some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a "thracianization" of parts of Dardania. Strabo in his geographica mentions them as one of the three strongest Illyrian peoples, the other two being the Ardiaei and Autariatae.
Rulers.
The Kingdom of Dardania was ruled by various kings.


Eurovision Dance Contest 2007

The Eurovision Dance Contest 2007 was the inaugural edition of the Eurovision Dance Contest, a dance competition co-production between the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster BBC. The first ever pan-European dance competition was held on 1 September 2007 in London, United Kingdom with the participation of 16 countries.
Viewers cast their votes by telephone and SMS text message voting on each couple's two dances – the first being ballroom or Latin with the second being freestyle, with a "national" flavour. Professional dance couples were allowed to enter the competition. Comedian Graham Norton and Claudia Winkleman presented the 2007 contest from the BBC Television Centre in London.
The first ever winners of the contest were Katja Koukkula and Jussi Väänänen of Finland who received a total of 132 points. 2nd place went to Ukraine, 3rd to Ireland, 4th to Poland and 5th place to Austria following a tie with Portugal, who also received 74 points.
Location.
The host venue was the BBC Television Centre, White City, London, which opened in 1960. It is one of the most readily recognisable facilities of its type having appeared as the backdrop for many BBC programmes. It remained to be one of the largest such facilities in the world until it closed in March 2013.
Format.
Running order.
The running order for the 16 participants was announced on 6 August 2007 and had been determined in two steps. In the first round, the participating countries were drawn into groups, under supervision of an auditor. In the second round, the producers of the contest determined the final running order within the drawn groups to assure variety in the live show.
Visual design.
The logo of 2007 Contest features the word Eurovision written in the same way as it is on the Eurovision Song Contest logos without the heart and the silhouette of a dancing couple in front of a star that contains the flag of the host country, the United Kingdom.
Host broadcaster.
The contest was hosted by the BBC, and was a co-production by Splash Media – run by the developers of its successful "Strictly Come Dancing" format – and sports production house Sunset + Vine – with help from the International DanceSport Federation and in association with the European Broadcasting Union.
The contest was broadcast in English and French languages, although France did not take part. Each broadcaster also had the option of providing its own commentators at the event. UK commentators were Len Goodman and Bruno Tonioli.
Participants.
The Croatian broadcaster HRT had expressed an interest in taking part, but pulled out due to costs and scheduling problems.
Due to the forest fires in Greece, the Greek national broadcaster ERT did not air the show live and therefore used a back-up jury instead of televoting.
Austria and Portugal both finished with the same number of points, however, Austria received points from every other participating nation thus receiving points from more countries than Portugal, hence Austria took 5th place.
Scoreboard.
The following 16 countries took part, and received the scores shown below.
12 points.
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the contest:
International broadcasts and voting.
Voting and spokespersons.
The order in which each country announced their votes was done in order of performance. The spokespersons are shown alongside each country.
Commentators.
Most countries sent commentators to London or commentated from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, provide voting information.
Non-participating countries.
As well as those countries that took part, Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Iceland, Israel and Macedonia also broadcast the contest without sending representatives, with possibility to join it in 2008.


Vaiga

Vaiga was a small landlocked ancient Estonian county in the eastern part of the territory of Estonia.


Prehistoric Slovenia


Opolans

Opolans (; ; ) were the West Slavic tribe that lived in the region of upper Odra. Their main settlement (gord) was Opole. They were mentioned in the Bavarian Geographer, under the name Opolini, as one of the seven tribes living in Silesia (Silesian tribes). The other six were: Dziadoszanie, Golęszyce, Ślężanie, Trzebowianie, Bobrzanie and Lupiglaa (often identified with Głubczyce).
The name Opolans derives from a Slavic term "opole", that meant a specific form of self-governing used among the West Slavs. Early medieval "opole" transformed into an administrative governing form used in Early Medieval Poland mainly to collect taxes.
According to the Geographer Opolans possessed 20 gords in what was later known as Upper Silesia such as Opole and Toszek. Presumably their place of cult was the Saint Anna mountain. Opolanie's territories were conquered by Great Moravia in 875 and were probably incorporated into the Přemyslid Bohemia in the first half of the 10th century. In 990 Opolans' territories were incorporated into the first Polish state. Due to this fact they are usually treated as part of the Polish tribes.


Lulworth Formation

The Lulworth Formation is a geologic formation in England. It dates from the late Tithonian to the mid Berriasian. It is a subunit of the Purbeck Group. In Dorset, it consists of three members, which are in ascending order, the Mupe Member, the Ridgway Member, and the Warbarrow Tout Member. The Mupe Member is typically 11 to 16 m thick and largely consists of marls and micrites with interbeds of calcareous mudstone. The Ridgeway Member is about 3 to 7 m thick and consists of in its western portion carbonaceous muds, marls and micrites, in the east the muds are replaced by micritic limestone. The Warbarrow Tout Member is 17 to 39 m thick and consists of limestone at the base and micrite and mudstone for the rest of the sequence, this member is the primary source of the vertebrate fossils within the formation. Elsewhere the unit is undifferentiated.


Huesca

Huesca (; ) is a city in north-eastern Spain, within the autonomous community of Aragon. It is also the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and of the comarca of Hoya de Huesca. In 2009 it had a population of 52,059, almost a quarter of the total population of the province. The city is one of the smallest provincial capitals in Spain.
Huesca celebrates its main festival, the "Fiestas de San Lorenzo", in honor of Saint Lawrence, from the 9th to the 15th of August.
History.
Huesca dates from pre-Roman times, and was once known as Bolskan in the ancient Iberian language. It was once the capital of the Vescetani, in the north of Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco (modern Tarragona) and Ilerda (modern Lleida) to Caesaraugusta (modern Zaragoza). During Roman times, the city was known as Osca, and was a Roman colony under the rule of Quintus Sertorius, who made Osca his base. The city minted its own coinage and was the site of a prestigious school founded by Sertorius to educate young Iberians in Latin and Roman customs. After Sertorius, it is thought that it was renamed Ileoscan () by Strabo. It appears to have been situated on silver mines.
Eighteenth-century Spanish historian Enrique Flórez has pointed out the impossibility of one city supplying such vast quantities of minted silver as has been recorded by ancient writers under the terms "argentum Oscense", "signatum Oscense"; and is of the opinion that "Oscense" meant "Spanish", being a corruption of "Eus-cara". The Romanised city was made a "municipium" by decree of Augustus in 30 BC.
The Arabs conquered the city in the late 8th century, and the city came to be called "Washqah" (وشقة in Arabic), falling within the Upper March of the Emirate of Córdoba. It was ruled by a local governor appointed from Córdoba, but was repeatedly subject to political turmoil, rebellion and assassination as the Banu Qasi, Banu Amrus and Banu al-Tawil clans, as well as the Arista dynasty of Pamplona, struggled for control, autonomy and independence from the Emirate. In the mid-10th century, Wasqah was transferred to the Banu Tujib, who governed the Upper March from Zaragoza, and it became part of the Taifa of Zaragoza in 1018 when they successfully freed themselves from the disintegrating Caliphate. In 1094 Sancho Ramirez built the nearby Castle of Montearagón with the intention of laying siege to Wasqah but was killed by a stray arrow as he reached the city's walls. It was conquered in 1096 by Peter I of Aragon.
In 1354, King Peter IV of Aragon founded the , which initially had a faculty of theology. The school expanded, but by the end of the 16th century was eclipsed by the University of Zaragoza. The university was abolished in 1845.
During the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) the "Huesca Front" was the scene of some of the worst fighting between the Republicans and Franco's army. The city was besieged by the Republicans, George Orwell among them, but didn't fall.
Modern Huesca.
Huesca celebrates its most important annual festival in August: the festival (or fiesta) of San Lorenzo (Saint Lawrence), a native of Huesca martyred in 268 AD. The anniversary of his martyrdom falls on August 10. The fiesta starts on 9 August and finishes on the 15. Many of the inhabitants dress in green and white for the duration.
San Lorenzo, born in Huesca, was a deacon in Rome and a martyr who, according to legend, was burned on a grille by the Romans. The grille is the symbol of San Lorenzo and can be seen in a number of decorative works in the city.
Huesca is also the birthplace of film director Carlos Saura and his brother Antonio Saura, a contemporary artist. There is an international film festival held annually.
The writer Oscar Sipan, winner of several literary prizes, was born in Huesca in 1974. The celebrated illustrator Isidro Ferrer, though born in Madrid, lives in the city.
Various streets in the centre of Huesca have recently been pedestrianised.
Geography.
Huesca lies on a plateau in the northern region of Aragón, with an elevation of 488 m (1,601.05 ft) above sea level. Close to the city lie the Sierra de Guara mountains, which reach 2,077 m. The geographical coordinates of the city are: 42° 08´ N, 0° 24´ W.
Its municipal area is 161.02 km ² and borders the municipalities of Almudévar, Vicién, Monflorite-Lascasas Tierz, Quicena, Loporzano, Nueno, Igriés, Banastás, Chimillas, Alerre, Barbués and Albero Bajo.
The city lies 71 kilometres (44 mi) from Zaragoza, 160 kilometres (99 mi) from Pamplona, 118 kilometres (73 mi) from Lleida, 380 kilometres (236 mi) from Madrid and 273 kilometres (169 mi) from Barcelona.
Coat of arms.
Both the modern Coat of Arms of Huesca () (which date from the 16th century) and its mediaeval predecessor (from the 13th) include at their top the device of a block having a V-shaped notch. It is commonly said that it symbolises Salto de Roldán ('Roland's Leap'), a natural rock formation about north of the city. Some writers have suggested that the official Spanish name of Huesca () derives from a Latin, Basque and Catalan word "osca", meaning notch or indentation, referring to the Salto de Roldán.
Climate.
Huesca has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cfa"). with semi-arid influences. Winters are cool (with normal maximums from 8 to 16 °C and minimums from -2 to 6 °C) and summers are hot, with daily maximums reaching up to , while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring. The average precipitation is 480 mm per year. Frost is common and there is sporadic snowfall, with an average of 3 snowy days per year.
Main sights.
A double line of ancient walls can still be seen in present-day Huesca.
Nearby, in the territory of Quicena, lie the ruins of the Castle of Montearagón Monastery.
Popular references.
Huesca is notable for the saying "Tomorrow we'll have coffee in Huesca", a running joke among militiamen of the Spanish Civil War. In February 1937, George Orwell was stationed near the falangist-held Huesca as a member of the POUM militia. In "Homage to Catalonia", Orwell writes about this running joke, originally a naïvely optimistic comment made by one of the Spanish Republican generals:
Huesca is also famous for the legend of the Bell of Huesca.
Twin towns - sister cities.
The following are Sister cities of Huesca:
Transportation.
The Autovía A-23 runs through Huesca, connecting the city with Zaragoza. While under construction as of 2018, the Autovía A-22 also connects Huesca to Lleida. The two highways will eventually connect.
Huesca has been served by Huesca–Pirineos Airport since 1930, but the airport does not currently have any scheduled commercial passenger services.
Huesca railway station is served by regional and AVE trains to destinations including Zaragoza, Canfranc, Madrid and Jaca.
Sports.
In 2018, SD Huesca, became the town's first football team to be promoted to La Liga. They became the 63rd team to play in the league, and their stadium's maximum capacity was the smallest in the 2018–19 La Liga.


Kamai, Belarus

Kamai () is a village in Belarus. It is located in the Pastavy Raion of Vitebsk Region, near the border between Belarus and Lithuania.
The village is famous for its fortified church of St. John the Baptist.
History.
The village is mentioned for the first time in the beginning of the 16th century, when it was a part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1550 it is a populated place in Ashmiany paviet of Vilna Voivodeship. In 1603-1606 Jan Rudomin Dusiacki built here a stone catholic church, dedicated to Saint John the Baptist. In 1643 a hospital for men and women was created.
In 1795 it became a part of the Russian Empire. In 1863-1864 inhabitants of the village took action in the national movement for independence against Russia.
In the Interwar period Kamai was part of Poland and after the World War II became part of Belarusian SSR.
After Belarus gained independence, it's a village in Pastavy Rajon. In 2000s it joined the state program for rural development and became an agrotown.


Napoca (castra)

Napoca was a Roman castra (fort) in the province of Dacia.


Bruiden

In Gaelic Ireland, a bruiden was a building offering shelter, drink and food, often translated as "hostel", "banqueting hall" or "inn."
A description in The Tale of Mac Da Thó's Pig (c. AD 800) describes one "bruiden": "There were seven doors in each hall, seven roads through it, and seven fireplaces therein. There were seven cauldrons, with an ox and a salted pig in each. The person who came that way would thrust the fleshfork into the cauldron, and whatever he obtained with the first thrust he ate, and if he did not obtain anything with the first thrust he ate nothing."
The host ("brugaid") was required to show "welcome to all" and "refusal to none."
List.
According to The Tale of Mac Da Thó's Pig, there were five or six major "bruidne" in Ireland:
However, Fled Bricrenn (8th century) mentions the "briuga" Bricriu Nemthenga ("Poison-tongue").
Bruiden Blai Brugad or Bruiden Brúadaig is another, located in Ulaid, hosted by Blai. Bruiden of Moda Minadhmadadh is another.
The idea of having six "bruidne" may have been chosen to mirror the six "cities of refuge" in the Hebrew Bible.
Sean's Bar in Athlone is located in a building parts of which have been dated to c. AD 900, with wattle and wicker walls. Located near a crossing-point on the River Shannon, it claims to be Ireland's oldest pub and may be the site of an ancient "bruiden".


Roman Catholic Diocese of Augsburg

Diocese of Augsburg is a diocese of the Catholic Church in Germany. The diocese is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Munich.
Early period.
According to the acts of the martyrdom of St. Afra, who with her handmaids suffered at the stake for Christ, there existed in Augsburg early in the fourth century a Christian community under Bishop Narcissus. St. Dionysius, uncle of St. Afra, is mentioned as his Successor.
History.
After the Congress of Vienna, where the diocese was restored, Franz Karl von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst (d. 1819) was appointed bishop and Joseph Maria von Fraunberg was soon called to the archdiocese of Bamberg. There, they devolved upon their successors the important task of rearranging the external conditions and reanimating religious life, which had suffered sorely. Ignatius Albert von Riegg (1824–36) was successful in his endeavors to further the interests of souls, to raise the standard of popular education through the medium of numerous ordinances and frequent visitations. He assigned the administration and direction of studies in the Lyceum to the monks of the Benedictine Abbey of St. Stephen in Augsburg, founded by King Ludwig I of Bavaria (1834).
Petrus von Richarz (1837–55) displayed energy and persistent zeal in promoting the interests of his diocese and the Catholic Church in general, and encouraged the giving of missions to the people, the establishment of many religious institutions for the care of the sick and for educational purposes, and carefully superintended the training of the clergy. The same spirit characterized the labours of the succeeding bishops: Michael von Deinlein (1856–58), who after a short episcopate was raised to the Archbishopric of Bamberg; Pankratius von Dinkel (1858–94), under whom both seminaries and the deaf and dumb asylum were established in Dillingen, and many monastic institutions were founded; Petrus von Hotzl (1895-1902) whose episcopate was marked by the attention paid to social and intellectual pursuits, and the number of missions given among the people as well as by the solemn celebration of the beatification of the pious nun Crescentia Hoss. He was succeeded by Maximilian von Lingg.


List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula

This is a list of the Pre-Roman people of the Iberian peninsula (the Roman Hispania, i. e., modern Portugal, Spain and Andorra). Some closely fit the concept of a people, ethnic group or tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
External links.
[[Category:Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula| ]]
[[Category:Lists of ancient people|Pre-Roman]]


9th century in Wales

This article is about the particular significance of the century 801–900 to Wales and its people.
Events.
830
878
893
Births.
854
Deaths.
808
809
844
855
871
878


Prince Wolfgang of Hesse

Prince Wolfgang of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) ("Wolfgang Moritz"; 6 November 1896 – 12 July 1989) was the designated Hereditary Prince of the monarchy of Finland (with the irredentist pretension to Estonia), and as such, already called the Crown Prince of Finland officially until 14 December 1918, and also afterwards by some monarchists.
Wolfgang was born at Castle Rumpenheim, Offenbach am Main. He was the second-born of a pair of twins, the fourth child and son born to Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse (1868–1940) and Princess Margaret of Prussia (1872–1954). His maternal uncle was the German Emperor William II. Wolfgang's father Frederick Charles of Hesse was elected King of Finland on 9 October 1918, to replace his first cousin once removed, the deposed Russian emperor, Nicholas II, who was titled "Grand Duke of Finland". However, Frederick Charles renounced the throne on 14 December 1918, and the title was never actually held by the family.
Wolfgang would have been his father's heir as King of Finland instead of his elder twin Prince Philipp of Hesse (1896–1980), who was the next heir of the rights over the defunct Electorate of Hesse, but apparently because Wolfgang was with his parents in 1918 and ready to travel to Finland (where a wedding to a Finnish lady was reportedly being prepared for the coming Crown Prince). Philipp was on active service and incommunicado at the time.
Wolfgang married on 17 September 1924 Princess Marie Alexandra of Baden (1902–1944), daughter of Prince Maximilian of Baden and Princess Marie Louise of Hanover; they had no children.
, elder son of his younger brother Christoph who was killed in action in 1943.
At the time of his death in Frankfurt at the age of 92, Wolfgang was the last surviving descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom who had been born in her lifetime. Victoria died in 1901 when Wolfgang was four years old.


Act of Mediation

The Act of Mediation () was issued by Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of the French Republic on 19 February 1803 establishing the Swiss Confederation. The act also abolished the previous Helvetic Republic, which had existed since the invasion of Switzerland by French troops in 1798. After the withdrawal of French troops in July 1802, the Republic collapsed (in the "Stecklikrieg" civil war). The Act of Mediation was Napoleon's attempt at a compromise between the "Ancien Régime" and a republic. This intermediary stage of Swiss history lasted until the Restoration of 1815. The Act also destroyed the statehood of Tarasp and gave it to Graubunden.
End of the Helvetic Republic.
Following the of 1798, the decentralized and aristocratic Old Swiss Confederation was replaced with the highly centralized and republican Helvetic Republic. However the changes were too abrupt and sweeping and ignored the strong sense of identity that most Swiss had with their canton or city. Throughout the following four years, French troops were often needed to support the Helvetic Republic against uprisings. The government of the Republic was also divided between the "Unitary" (supporting a single, strong central government) and the "Federalist" (supporting a Federation or self-governing cantons) parties. By 1802 a draft constitution was presented, but was quickly defeated in a popular vote in June 1802. In July Napoleon withdrew French troops from Switzerland, ostensibly to comply with the Treaty of Amiens, but really to show the Swiss that their best hopes lay in appealing to him.
Following the withdrawal of French troops in the summer of 1802, the rural population (which was strongly Federalist) revolted against the Helvetic Republic. In the Canton of Léman, the Bourla-papey revolt broke out against the restoration of feudal land holdings and taxes. While this rebellion was quieted through concessions, the following Stecklikrieg, so called because of the "" or "wooden club" carried by the insurgents, led to the collapse of the Republic. After several hostile clashes with the official forces of the Helvetic Republic, which were lacking both in equipment and motivation (Renggpass at Pilatus on 28 August, artillery attacks on Bern and Zürich during September, and a skirmish at Faoug on 3 October), the central government at first capitulated militarily (on 18 September, retreating from Bern to Lausanne) and then collapsed entirely.
Act of Mediation.
With Napoleon acting as a mediator, representatives of the Swiss cantons met in Paris to end the conflict and officially dissolve the Helvetic Republic. When the Act of Mediation was produced on 19 February 1803 it attempted to address the issues that had torn the Republic apart and provide a framework for a new confederation under French influence. Much of the language of the Act was vague and unclear, which allowed the cantons considerable room for interpretation.
In the preamble of the Act of Mediation Napoleon declared that the natural political state of the Swiss was as a Federation and explained his role as a mediator.
The next 19 sections covered the 19 cantons that existed in Switzerland at the time. The original 13 members of the old Confederation were restored and 6 new cantons were added. Two of the new cantons (St Gallen and Graubünden or Grisons) were formerly "associates", while the four others were made up of subject lands (i.e. controlled by other cantons) that had been conquered at different times — Aargau (1415), Thurgau (1460), Ticino (1440, 1500, 1512), and Vaud (1536). Five of the six new cantons – Graubünden was the exception – were given modern representative governments. However, in the 13 original cantons many of the pre-revolutionary institutions remained in place. The "landsgemeinden", or popular assemblies, were restored in the democratic cantons, the cantonal governments in other cases being in the hands of a "great council" (legislative) and the "small council" (executive). Overall, the powers granted to the state were extremely broad.
The following 40 articles, which were known as the "Acte fédéral" or Acts of Confederation, defined the duties and powers of the federal government. The responsibilities of the Confederation included: providing equality for all citizens, creation of a Federal Army, the removal of internal trade barriers and international diplomacy. There were to be no privileged classes, burghers or subject lands. Switzerland was mentioned throughout the Act. Every Swiss citizen was now free to move and settle anywhere in the new Confederation. The cantons guaranteed to respect each other's constitutions, borders and independence. The highest body of government was the "Tagsatzung" or Diet which was held in one of the six "vororten" (or leading cities, which were: Fribourg, Bern, Solothurn, Basel, Zürich and Lucerne) each year. The Diet was presided over by the "Landammann der Schweiz" who was the chief magistrate of the "vorort" in which the Diet met during that year. In the Diet, six cantons which had a population of more than 100,000 (Bern, Zürich, Vaud, St Gallen, Graubünden and Aargau) were given two votes, the others having but one apiece.
Two amendments to the Act, containing 13 and 9 articles, addressed the transition from the failed Republic to the new Confederation. Louis d'Affry, the appointed "Landammann der Schweiz" during the transition, was given extensive powers until the Diet could meet. Within the cantons, the local governments were run by a seven-member commission until new elections could be held.
The closing statement of the Act declared that Switzerland was an independent land and directed the new government to protect and defend the country.
End of the Act of Mediation.
The Act of Mediation was an important political victory for Napoleon. He was able to stop the instability of the Swiss from spreading into his emerging empire or weakening his army. The Act of Mediation created a pro-French buffer state with Austria and the German states. He even added the title "Médiateur de la Confédération suisse" (Mediator of the Swiss Confederation) to his official titles in 1809.
While the Act of Mediation remained in force until the end of Napoleon's power in 1813 and was an important step in the development of the Swiss Confederation, the rights promised in the Act of Mediation soon began to vanish. In 1806 the principality of Neuchâtel was given to Marshal Berthier. Ticino was occupied by French troops from 1810 to 1813. Also, in 1810 the Valais was occupied and converted into the French department of the Simplon to secure the Simplon Pass. Swiss troops still served in foreign campaigns such as the French invasion of Russia which undermined their long-held neutrality. At home the liberty of moving from one canton to another (though given by the constitution) was, by the Diet in 1805, restricted by requiring ten years' residence, and then not granting political rights in the canton or a right of profiting by the communal property.
As soon as Napoleon's power began to wane (1812–1813), the position of Switzerland became endangered. The Austrians, supported by the reactionary party in Switzerland, and without any real resistance on the part of the Diet, crossed the border on 21 December 1813. On 29 December under pressure from Austria, the Diet abolished the 1803 constitution which had been created by Napoleon in the Act of Mediation.
On 6 April 1814 the so-called Long Diet met to replace the constitution. The Diet remained deadlocked until 12 September when Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva were raised to full members of the Confederation. This increased the number of cantons to 22. The Diet, however, made little progress until the Congress of Vienna.


Angria

Angria or Angaria (, ) is a historical region in the present-day German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. The chronicler Widukind of Corvey in his "Res gestae saxonicae sive annalium libri tres" denoted it as the central region of the medieval Duchy of Saxony lying along the middle reaches of the Weser river between Westphalia and Eastphalia. Its name was derived from the Germanic Angrivarii tribe which had joined the Saxon tribal confederation, and it was centered on the town of Minden, see of a bishopric since 803.
The Angrivarii lands were conquered by Charlemagne during the Saxon Wars; according to the "Royal Frankish Annals" the Angrian commanders concluded a separate peace agreement with the Carolingian Empire near Bückeburg in 775.
In 1180, the Emperor Frederick I deposed the duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, and divided the duchy into two parts through the so-called Gelnhausen Charter. The Duchy of Westphalia was granted to the Archbishopric of Cologne, while Angria was given to Bernhard of Anhalt, who used the Saxon ducal title. The name Angria thereafter became obsolete. In the 13th century the central area on the Weser became the nucleus of the County of Hoya, which in 1582 was inherited by the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.


Pope Leo XIII and Poland

The relationship between Pope Leo XIII and Poland was marked by the German-led Kulturkampf, which led to the persecution of ethnic Poles in Prussia and German Catholics in Germany.
Germanisation under Bismarck.
In Prussia, Polish Catholics were persecuted as Poles and, during the Kulturkampf, together with German Catholics, as Catholics as well: The Kulturkampf, which Otto von Bismarck began in 1871, insinuated a Polish-Catholic-Austrian connection. It was a vehicle for germanisation, as everything Polish including the language were banned from schools and offices.
Jailing of Polish priests.
Polish priests, who taught Catholic religion in Polish were punished and jailed. Like their German counterparts, their sermons were observed and led to jail sentences as well. In 1874, Cardinal Mieczyslaw Ledochowski was jailed.
Political allies among German bishops.
Unlike in Russia, they had powerful allies among German Catholic hierarchy and Catholic politicians like Matthias Erzberger, the most prominent Catholic politician during World War I, who often functioned as go-between with the Vatican. (Erzberger 41 ff) Indeed, after Vatican communications, Erzberger promoted a Polish kingdom to be proclaimed in Krakow with loose ties to Austria-Hungary, for which he had support in the Vatican and even Germany(Erzberger, 173) but not from the Hungarian Prime Minister Tisza in Vienna, who was afraid of losing ethnic influence.
Political association with Austria-Hungary.
According to Erzberger, Germany proposed on one hand a large Poland to be associated with Austria-Hungary and Germany in a central-European economic union. On the other hand, German fiscal policies continued discriminating against Polish interests. Largely due to the British blockage against Germany, Polish populations suffered from hunger during German occupation, with the result, that Prussian popularity reached all time lows during World War I.
Polish veto at Papal conclave.
During the conclave of 1903, according to its Secretary Rafael Merry del Val, Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko of Krakow came to see him, demanding to announce his veto against Cardinal Rampolla in the name of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria of Austria-Hungary. Merry Del Val protested and refused to even accept the document, which, in the heat of the debate fell on the floor and was picked up by Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko. The College of Cardinals, was outraged. Rampolla, according to Merry del Val, actually gained votes after the veto. Later, he opined to Ludwig von Pastor that Rampolla never had a chance, because the cardinals wanted a new direction after the pontificate of Pope Leo XIII. After his election, the new Pope Pius X decreed automatic excommunication on anyone who should try to influence a conclave with a threat or veto.


Sagres Point

Sagres Point ("", , from the Latin "Promontorium Sacrum" ‘Holy Promontory’) is a windswept shelf-like promontory located in the southwest Algarve region of southern Portugal. Only 4 km to the west and 3 km to the north lies Cape St. Vincent (), which is usually taken as the southwesternmost tip of Europe. The vicinity of Sagres Point and Cape St. Vincent has been used for religious purposes since Neolithic times, to which standing menhirs near Vila do Bispo, a few miles from both points, attest.
History.
The promontory of Sagres has always been important for sailors because it offers a shelter for ships before attempting the dangerous voyage around Cape St. Vincent (could be Belixe Bay, between Sagres Point and the Cape, or Sagres Bay, to the east). Given the dangers of being blown onto the coastal rocks, captains preferred to wait in the lee of the point until favourable winds allowed them to continue.
Strabo.
There is some question whether Sagres Point, whose name derives from "Sacrum Promontorium", or neighboring Cape St. Vincent, was the ancient sacred promontory. Strabo believed the promontory was the most westerly point of the "whole inhabited world." In fact Cape St. Vincent is more westerly, but because it is further north, and Strabo's map of the Iberian Peninsula is rotated clockwise, bringing the Pyrenees into a north-south line, it could have been taken as further east. The most westerly point of the Iberian peninsula and of the European continent is Cabo da Roca, near Sintra; the southernmost, Punta de Tarifa, in Andalusia. The rocks at the base of the Cape St. Vincent lighthouse are called "fim do mundo", or "end of the world".
Strabo reports (Book 3.1.4) as follows:
No part of Cape St. Vincent fits this description, but on the eastern side of Sagres Point is a harbor, Baleeira, port of the modern town of Sagres, protected by four small islands in a line (the tiny Martinhal Islets) visible in satellite imagery. At the far eastern end of the beach of Martinhal, erosion of the cliffs has exposed a series of Roman pottery kilns for fabricating transport amphoras and roof tiles.
Henry the Navigator.
When Infante Dom Henry the Navigator commenced his explorations, which would initiate the Portuguese Age of Discoveries, at his "Vila do Infante", Sagres peninsula lacked the necessary requirements for such large undertakings. Fresh water was scarce, agriculture was minimal, there was a shortage of wood for shipbuilding, no deep-water landing site, and the population was small. Henry re-populated a village called Terçanabal, which had been deserted due to continuous pirate attacks on the coast. The village was situated in a strategic position for his maritime enterprises and was later called "Vila do Infante".
Henry the Navigator employed cartographers, such as Jehuda Cresques, to help him chart the coast of Mauretania in the wake of voyages he had caused to be made to there. He also engaged an expert map and instrument-maker, Jayme of Majorca, so that his captains might have the best nautical information. This probably led to the legend of the Nautical School of Sagres (although a "school" also means a group of followers). There was no centre of navigational science or any supposed observatory, if compared to the modern definition of "observatory" or "navigational centre". The centre of his expeditions was actually at Lagos, further to the east along the Algarve coast. Later Portuguese voyages left from Belém, just west of Lisbon.
This was a time of many important discoveries: cartography was being refined with the use of newly devised instruments, such as an improved astrolabe and improved sundial, maps were regularly being updated and extended, and a revolutionary type of vessel known as the caravel was designed.
Prince Henry built a chapel next to his house in 1459, as he began to spend more time in the Sagres area in his later years. He died at Sagres on 13 November 1460.
The exact location of Henry's School of Navigation is not known (it is popularly believed to have been destroyed by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake).
Fortress history.
The 16th century bulwark-like fortress was severely damaged during the Great Earthquake of 1755. It was restored in the mid 20th century, but there is still a 16th-century turret present. After passing through the thick tunnel entrance, one sees a giant pebble compass rose ("rosa dos ventos") of 43 m diameter. Normally compass roses are divided into 32 segments, but strangely this one has 40 segments (probably an error of the 20th-century restorers). It is unlikely to date back to the time of Henry the Navigator.
The much-restored church "Nossa Senhora da Graça" dates from 1579. It replaced the original church of Infante Dom Henrique of 1459. It was also damaged by the earthquake of 1755. Some alterations to the church were made, such as the building of a new bell tower over the old charnel house of the cemetery. There are still a set of tombstones present. Inside this unpretentious church, the 17th century Baroque retable above the altar originates from the "Capela de Santa Catarina do Forte de Belixe" (St. Catherine's Chapel in Belixe Fortress), while the polychrome statues of St. Vincent and St. Francis were once part of the Franciscan convent on the Cape St. Vincent.
Next to the church stands a replica stone standard ("padrão"), used by the explorers to claim a newly discovered territory.


Pljevlja

Pljevlja (, ) is a town and the center of Pljevlja Municipality located in the northern part of Montenegro. The city lies at an altitude of . In the Middle Ages, Pljevlja had been a crossroad of the important commercial roads and cultural streams, with important roads connecting the littoral with the Balkan interior. In 2011, the municipality of Pljevlja had a population of 30,786, while the city itself had a population of about 19,489 making it the third largest urban settlement in Montenegro. The municipality borders those of Žabljak, Bijelo Polje and Mojkovac in Montenegro, as well as Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to the east and west respectively. With a total area of , it is the third largest municipality in Montenegro.
History.
Prehistory and antiquity.
The first traces of human life in the region date between 50,000 and 40,000 BC, while reliable findings show that the Ćehotina River valley was inhabited no later than 30,000 BC. The oldest traces of human presence in the town area, a flint tool, had been found in the cave under Gospić Peak. The traces of settlements in the later stages of the Stone Age were found in two large archaeological sites called "Mališina Stijena" and "Medena Stijena" (around 10,000 stone tools and arms), dating to 12,000–8,000 BC. During the Bronze and Iron Age, since around 2,000 BC up until the Roman conquests, a large number of necropolises with tumuli, as well as fortified settlements rose along the Ćehotina valley, especially around villages of Mataruge, Kakmuža, Hoćevina and Gotovuša. The tumuli found in Ljutići, Gotovuša and Borovica have been archeologically researched.
Roman era.
The first attested tribe in the region was called the Pirustae, an Illyrian Pannonian tribe, existed until the Roman invasion in the 1st century AD. The Romans had a town built on the ruins of their town, and it was called "Municipium S", located in the Komini neighbourhood.Several hundred artifacts from the Komini necropolis including a unique not damaged Pljevlja diatreta are kept in the Heritage Museum Pljevlja the richest museum in Montenegro.The Roman house was found in the necropolis Within the borders of present-day Montenegro, Municipium S
was located in the Byzantine Empire it's clear indicates the Pljevlja diatreta inscription "VIVAS PANELLENI BONA".The most valuable object is the "diatreta" or cage cup, a glass vase trimmed with blue glass threads which is considered to be priceless.
Middle Ages.
In the Middle Ages, the region of Pljevlja was also a part of nucleus of the Serbian state under the Nemanjić dynasty, until the end of the rule of the Emperor Stefan Dušan. After his death, Pljevlja was under the rule of Serbian autonomous rulers Vojislav Vojinović and Nikola Altomanović. After the defeat of Altomanović 1373 by the joint forces of Serbian lord Lazar Hrebeljanović and Bosnian Ban Tvrtko I, the region of Pljevlja became part of the eastern section of the Kingdom of Bosnia, subsequently part of Sandalj Hranić's province and later the Duchy of Saint Sava.
Ottoman Empire.
In 1465, the Ottoman Empire conquered Pljevlja. During the Ottoman offensive, the fortress of Kukanj, the residence of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, was destroyed. Fearing an onslaught, many merchants, almost all feudal land owners and wealthier population fled from Pljevlja, seeking refuge in the Republic of Venice, Republic of Ragusa, or further north into the Kingdom of Hungary or Austrian Empire. In Turkish, the town was known as Taslıdja ("rocky").
In the Ottoman "defter" (census book) of 1475/76, the majority of local inhabitants were Eastern Orthodox Christian, numbering some 101 households. The town was expanded into a "kasaba", a larger Ottoman city without a fortress. The 15th and 16th centuries were a period of much construction in the city: in 1465 the Holy Trinity Monastery was founded, in 1569 Husein-paša's mosque was built and during the 16th century the city got a sewage system. When the center of Sanjak of Herzegovina was moved to Pljevlja from Foča in 1572, the city started to change rapidly: urban housing increased: 72 houses in 1468, 150 in 1516, 300 in 1570; in the 17th century Pljevlja had around 650 houses in the city center and over 400 in the surrounding area. The first Muslim religious school (madrasa), was built in the 17th century; water-works were constructed in the 18th century. The Russian consul visited Pljevlja in the 19th century and wrote that Pljevlja was a very beautiful oriental city with gardens and fountains, mosques and churches and over 800 houses in the city center (7,000 citizens) which made Pljevlja the second largest city in the Herzegovina Sanjak besides Mostar. After two big fires that burned the city center to the ground, the city's economy was ruined. That was the reason for displacing the center of Herzegovina to Mostar in 1833. After 1833 the city stagnated in both an economic and cultural sense.
In 1875, after a failed uprising, mass emigration took place around Pljevlja in the direction of Užice, Valjevo and the Drina river basin.
Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman control after the Berlin Congress.
As a result of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Pljevlja and the rest of the Sandžak region were given to Austria-Hungary, interrupting Ottoman rule in the area for the first time in four centuries. However, by 1879, a special convention between Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire transferred western parts of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar into dual jurisdiction between Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In 1880, Pljevlja was named the capital of the newly formed Sanjak of Pljevlja (in Turkish: "Taşlıca Sancağı"). Administration remained in Turkish hands, with Austro-Hungarian military presence in the cities of Pljevlja, Prijepolje and Priboj. Some 5,000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers and their families came to Pljevlja. As a result, Austro-Hungarian businesses expanded in Pljevlja; the first modern drug store was opened in 1879, a photo store in 1892, and a hospital in 1880. The Austro-Hungarian Army built the first brewery in Pljevlja in 1889. The Pljevlja brewery's annual production was limited to 2,000 hectoliters, and demand was greater than what the brewery could produce. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian garrison in Pljevlja consumed most of the beer produced there.
In 1901, the Pljevlja Gymnasium was built by the Serbian Orthodox Church, with the approval of the Ottoman administration. As a result of the Bosnian crisis, Austria-Hungary withdrew its forces from Pljevlja in 1908. From 1908 to 1912, Pljevlja remained under the control of Young Turks.
In the first days of the First Balkan War Pljevlja was freed on October 26, 1912.
Incorporation into Montenegro and Yugoslavia.
On October 8, 1912, Montenegro was the first of the Balkan states to declare war on the Ottoman Empire, starting the First Balkan War. As a result, territories with significant populations of Serbs and Montenegrins were subject to conflict between the Ottoman occupation and incoming armies of Serbia and Montenegro. This was particularly the case with Sandžak, in which Pljevlja had been wedged in an Ottoman Sanjak between Montenegro and Serbia. By October 28, 1912, Ottoman forces had been completely removed from Pljevlja when the Royal Serbian Army's "Javorska" brigade arrived, which was accompanied by 150 soldiers from Montenegro. With the departure of Ottoman forces, Montenegro and Serbia eliminated the Ottoman "wedge" in the Sandžak and now shared a border. On November 13, 1913, a formal border agreement between Serbia and Montenegro was signed by Serbian general Miloš Božanović and Montenegro's Minister of Education and Religious Affairs, Mirko Mijušković. As a result of this agreement, Pljevlja was formally incorporated into the Kingdom of Montenegro.
From 1929 to 1941, Pljevlja was part of the Zeta Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. At the beginning of the Second World War Pljevlja, like the rest of Sandžak, was occupied by NDH Ustaše forces. Notable Muslims from Pljevlja, Bijelo Polje and Prijepolje wrote to Pavelić and expressed their loyalty to the Independent State of Croatia allegedly in the name of all Muslims of Sandjak. By September 1941 Ustaše left Sandžak which was occupied by Italian forces within Italian governorate of Montenegro. The Battle of Pljevlja, fought on 1 December 1941 between attacking Partisans and the Italian Pljevlja garrison, was the biggest battle of the Uprising in Montenegro. In April 1942 Italians established a battalion of Sandžak Muslim militia in Metaljka, near Čajniče, composed of about 500 Muslims from villages around Pljevlja and Čajniče. A little later a command post of Sandžak Muslim militia was established in Bukovica, near Pljevlja.
In February 1943, over five hundred civilians were killed during the Bukovica massacre.
Since the end of 1943 Pljevlja belonged to the German occupied territory of Montenegro and after the war to Yugoslav Socialist Republic of Montenegro.
Breakup of Yugoslavia.
During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Pljevlja was the site of intense tension, with its Muslim community subject to intimidation and violence. On August 6, 1992, a local warlord named Milika "Čeko" Dačević walked into Pljevlja's police headquarters to ask that a vehicle which was seized be returned to his personal envoy, threatening to "declare war" on Pljevlja. Over half of the police force turned themselves over to Dačević during his custody in what was essentially a coup d'état on a municipal level. In addition to the stand-off with Dačević, his militia included forces of the Kornjača brothers from Čajniče, who helped blocked off the town from a garrison of the Yugoslav People's Army. Duško Kornjača threatened to kill all of the Muslims in Pljevlja unless Dačević was released. The militia's control over Pljevlja was strong enough that the Yugoslav People's Army garrison in Pljevlja, composed of only 73 soldiers, refused to confront them. On August 7, 1992, Momir Bulatović and Yugoslav President Dobrica Ćosić came to Pljevlja to negotiate with all parties involved. As a result, Bulatović along with Ćosić promised the Islamic community in Pljevlja that they would attempt to disarm the paramilitaries and add reinforcements of the Yugoslav People's Army to patrol the town. To satisfy the militia, Bulatović and Ćosić asked the local Muslims not to seek autonomy, although they had not done so over the course of the meeting. In spite of the resolution, Pljevlja's Muslim community suffered various incidents up to 1995, particularly in the village of Bukovica where 6 Muslim inhabitants were killed from 1992 onwards.
Contemporary history.
In 2008, some members of the municipal assembly of Pljevlja threatened a secession from Montenegro following the Montenegrin recognition of Kosovo. On 2 September, glass was broken on the door of the Islamic Community of Pljevlja and a message was left saying "The black bird has taken off, Pljevlja will be Srebrenica."
Geography.
The city lies at an altitude of . The municipality borders those of Žabljak, Bijelo Polje and Mojkovac in Montenegro, as well as the republics of Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. With a total area of , it is the third largest municipality in Montenegro.
Culture.
Culture and education are all present throughout history of Pljevlja and its region. The first educational life,churches and monasteries,as well as in the mosques some time later. The Holy Trinity Monastery (Pljevlja) is the richest treasury of cultural and spiritual life of the Orthodox Serbs from the Middle Ages to the present times. The school in the Holy Trinity Monastery has been working continuously since the 16th century. In 1823, a primary school in Pljevlja started working. The school in Dovolja monastery worked since the 18th century. The very important date in the history of education in Pljevlja is the opening of the Pljevaljska Gymnasium in 1901. The Heritage Museum Pljevlja is a treasure trove of rich historical and cultural heritage of the city and region.
Main features of the town include:
Economy.
Pljevlja is also one of the main economic engines of Montenegro. The only thermal power plant in Montenegro, which provides 45% of the electric power supply for Montenegro, is situated outside Pljevlja as well as the biggest coal mine with 100% of the coal production in Montenegro. Zinc and lead can be found in "Šuplja stijena mine". The richest municipality with forest in Montenegro is Pljevlja and its lumber industry. Agriculture is widespread in the whole municipality. "Pljevaljski sir" ("Pljevlja's cheese", from Пљеваљски сир) is considered a delicacy.
Demographics.
Pljevlja is the administrative center of Pljevlja municipality, which has a population of 35,806. The town of Pljevlja itself has 19,136 citizens, and is the only town in the municipality with a population of over 1,000.
The municipality has a majority of Serbs.
Population of Pljevlja (Town):
Ethnicity in 2011
Sports.
The main football team is "FK Rudar Pljevlja", which play in the country's top tier. They share their Gradski stadion with lower league side "FK Pljevlja 1997". The town's basketball team is "KK Rudar Pljevlja" and the handball team is "RK Rudar Pljevlja".
Transport.
The main transit road connections are:
Twin towns – sister cities.
Pljevlja Municipality is twinned with:
Symbols.
The "coat of arms of Pljevlja" has three lines near the bottom that represents the three rivers that run through the cities: Breznica, Ćehotina, and Vezičnica. First layer is clock tower from the center of Pljevlja and in the back are town-hall and the largest arc of bridge over Tara river which connects municipality of Pljevlja with the rest of the Montenegro. Colours are blue, red and white which represent the pan-Slavic tricolour system.


Timeline of Reggio Emilia

The following is a of the history of the city of Reggio Emilia in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy.
See also.
Timelines of other cities in the macroregion of Northeast Italy:()
References.
"This article incorporates information from the Italian Wikipedia."


San Francesco, Cagli

San Francesco is a Gothic-style, Roman Catholic, Franciscan church in Cagli, province of Pesaro e Urbino, region of Marche, Italy.
History.
Construction of this church began in 1234 and was completed in 1240; at the time, it was outside the city walls. The polychrome marble portal (1348) with its inlaid lintel and spiral columns is sculpted with animal and vegetal motifs. The lunette above has a much repainted fresco of the "Madonna del Soccorso with Saints Francis and John the Baptist", attributed to Guido Palmerucci. The entire structure including the bell-tower are tall, as is typical for Gothic architecture.
At one period, the choir displayed a polyptych (1465) by Niccolò Alunno; but that was looted by the Napoleonic forces and now is called the "Polyptych of Cagli" and housed in Milan at the Pinacoteca di Brera. An original altarpiece by Simone Cantarini was also looted, and now houses a "Miracle of the Snow" (1617) by Ernst van Schayck.
In 1579, frescoes in the apse were covered over with stucco. In the 19th century, the cycle of frescoes, dating to the 1340s, were recovered. For example, one (1438), one depicting a "Saint Antony of Padua and the Eucharistic Miracle of the Mule in Rimini" once attributed to Antonio Alberti of Ferrara, now attributed to the Secondo Maestro of the Oratory of St John the Baptist, Urbino. Others are attributed Mello da Gubbio and show influences of the Sienese painter Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Two fragments of 14th century frescoes on the counter façade are attributed to the circle of the Maestro of Montemartello. On the side altars the principal works (counterclockwise from the right) are: paintings by Gaetano Lapis (1730); a processional wooden crucifix (after 1750) from the Northern European school. The late-16th-century organ is attributed to Baldassarre Malamini . Beside it, on the left, is one of three wash drawings by Battaglini da Imola from 1529 (the other two are beside the main altar).
The second altar on the right was made in 1598 by Taddeo Bonaventura from Città di Castello. It once held a canvas by Federico Barocci that moved to Rome. It is replaced by the 1938 painting depicting "Jesus appears to Santa Rita".
The 3rd altar on the left has a canvas depicting the "Miracle of the Madonna of the Snows" (1730) by Gaetano Lapis. Beside the altar is the tomb (1372) of the Blessed Giovannino by Antonio da Cagli. The lateral walls has canvases depicting an "Enthroned Madonna and Child with the Magdalen, and Saints Chlare and Monica, Ludovico, and Anthony of Padua" (1529) by Francesco Battaglini. In the center of the apse above the wooden choir is the 17th-century altarpiece of the "Stigmata of St Francis".
The second altar (1622) to the left was created by Elpidio Finale. The bas-reliefs depict scenes from the life of Franciscan Saints.
The first altar on the left houses an altarpiece depicting "Madonna and Child with Saints Roch, Francis, Geronzio, Stefano e Sebastiano" (1540) by Raffaellino del Colle.
In the piazza in front of the church is a bronze statue of Angelo Celli, by Angelo Biancini, erected in 1959, in front of the loggia built in 1885.


Nemanjina Street

Nemanjina Street ( / "Nemanjina ulica", ) is a very important thoroughfare in downtown Belgrade, Serbia, in the Savski Venac municipality. After the completion of the construction of the Railway station in 1884, it became one of the city's main infrastructure links. The street got its name in 1896, when it was named after a Serbian ruler from the 12th century, Stefan Nemanja.
Location.
The street stretches from the Slavija Square, downhill to the Savamala neighborhood. It passes through the neighborhood of West Vračar, next to the parks of Manjež and Park Gavrilo Princip and numerous administrative buildings including the government, ministries, army headquarters and hospitals. On the lower end it finishes at the Belgrade Main railway station. It crosses several other important city streets, like Kneza Miloša street and Balkanska street.
History.
Originally, direction of the future street, due to its steepness, was a creek through which the pond on Slavija drained down into the Gypsy Pond in Savamala. The stream was named "Vračarski potok".
One of the first permanent cinemas in Belgrade, in the "kafana" "Crna Mačka" (Black Cat), was opened in the Nemanjina Street after 1909.
2005-2006 reconstruction.
In the winter of 2005, the reconstruction of the street began. It was one of the most important projects for the City of Belgrade. Not only did it have to close one of the most populous streets, but workers had to work at great speeds to complete the projects. It was an unprecedented case that such a massive work was done during the winter. The closing of the Nemanjina caused a major disturbance in the traffic, especially in the routes of the public transportation lines. After 5 months, when the project was finished in the spring of 2006, the new tram rails have been put in, the new pathways constructed, a new parking lot was opened in the street, and the drainage underneath the street was changed and modernized.
Features.
Nemanjina Street is located in one of the most important places in Belgrade. It connects Belgrade's main railway station with the popular Slavija Square. Many of the most important administrative buildings in Belgrade are located in Nemanjina Street. The Yugoslav Ministry of Defence building that was bombed in 1999 during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, as well as the new building of the National Bank of Serbia are placed here. The building of Serbian Government in front of which Serbian prime minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated March 12, 2003 is also located in this street.
Buildings.
Home of the Workers Chamber (1928)
A massive building at No. 28 was built in 1928. It was designed by Svetislav Putnik, in the style of Academism. It was declared a cultural monument in January 2019.
Railway Museum (1931)
At No. 6, on the corner with the Hajduk Veljkov Venac, there is another massive building, location of various railway companies, Railway Museum and Institute of Transportation CIP. Section of Savamala on which the building was built was called Old Šivara ("Old Sewing Place"). Decision on building new government buildings was made during the government of Nikola Pašić and the first project was drafted in 1921 by architect Svetozar Jovanović. Minister of Transportation Svetislav Milosavljević acquired funding. and construction lasted from 1927 to 1931. Construction was immediately halted as the land was full of groundwater springs. Project was changed to include draining of the terrain, deep foundations of reinforced concrete and, construction-wise, division into 8 independent blocks.
The object is built of bricks, artificial stone and load-bearing construction of reinforced concrete. Façade is ornamented with stone sculptures, authored by Toma Rosandić, Lojze Dolinar, Dragomir Arambašić, and Risto Stijović. The most distinctive architectural detail is the tower-clock above the central section of the main façade, with sculptures of Atlases. Base covers , while the total floor area of 860 rooms covers .
The building was described as one of the supreme architectural works in Belgrade during Interbellum. It was declared a cultural monument in 2007, as part of the protected complex "Area along the Kneza Miloša Street". Reconstruction of the façade began in September 2019, and will be finished in 2021.
Monument to Stefan Nemanja.
In December 2015, prime minister Aleksandar Vučić asked, as a "citizen", for a monument to Stefan Nemanja to be erected in the Manjež park, which is located at the central part of the street. Promptly, in less than two weeks, city hall voted to construct the monument and even formed a committee for this specific monument. Dedication was scheduled for 2016 or early 2017. In April 2017 it was announced that the monument will be located down the street, in the clearing in front of the demolished Yugoslav Ministry of Defense building. International design competition was also announced. In September 2017 city administration decided that the monument will be located at the lower ending section of the street, on the square of Savski Trg across the Main railway station which is envisioned as the future Museum of the Medieval Serbia. International design competition was finished only in March 2018 and the winner was Russian sculptor . The monument should be dedicated in the first half of 2019.


Zvejnieki burial ground

The Zvejnieki burial ground is an archaeological site consisting of a large Stone Age (i.e. Mesolithic and Neolithic cemetery with over 400 burials and associated grave goods. It is located along a drumlin on the northern shore of Lake Burtnieks in northern Latvia.
The site had been known among archaeologists since the nineteenth century. However, it was first explored archaeologically through excavations led by Francis Zagorskis between 1964 and 1978. Before the discovery of a human skull in 1964, the site was used primarily for quarrying gravel. Archaeologists estimate that the site originally contained over 400 burials.
The cemetery contains 330 recorded burials, with roughly equal numbers of male and females. About one third of the burials are children. The principal grave goods are animal tooth pendants, occurring in both adult and child graves. A smaller number of male and female graves contain hunting and fishing equipment, including harpoons, spears, arrowheads and fish-hooks. The earliest burials are dated to the Middle Mesolithic, 8th millennium BCE, but they continue throughout the Stone Age, extending over at least four millennia.
Two sites representing settlements have been identified close to the cemetery: Zvejnieki I (Neolithic) and Zvejnieki II (Mesolithic).
Archaeogenetics.
In 2017, researchers successfully extracted the ancient DNA from the petrous bone of six adult individuals buried at Zvejnieki. DNA analysis showed that Burial 121, which was previously thought to be female, was actually male, and that Burials 221 and 137, which were previously thought to male, were actually female.
DNA analysis shows that the people from Zvejnieki appear to have maintained genetic continuity from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic and likely adopted Neolithic practices through cultural diffusion, as the populations showed little genetic affinity for the Anatolian farmers that migrated to large parts of Europe during the Neolithic. However, a late Neolithic individual from Zvejnieki, Burial 137, appears to show some genetic affinity for the Caucasus hunter-gathers typified by an ancient DNA sample from Satsurblia Cave.
In 2018, Mathieson et al. published an analysis of a large number of individuals buried at the Zvejnieki burial ground from ca. 7500 BC to 2700 BC. The Y-DNA of 15 males was extracted, with 8 carrying haplogroup R1b1a1a, 6 carrying I2a1 and various subclades of it (particularly I2a1a1), and one carrying Q1a2. With regards to mtDNA, every individual successfully analysed (both male and female) carried subclades of haplogroup U (particularly subclades of U2, U4 and U5).
Burials.
The burials at Zvejnieki include evidence for secondary burial: that people were intentionally using remains left by previous generations in their graves. The most typical way of burying their dead was in an oval shaped pit with grey fill. There were instances of darker soil from previous graves and burials that cut into other ones. This could be because of the want for the dead to be connected to their ancestors in the afterlife. By being dug into a previous grave, they can remain with their loved ones forever. The darker soil from other graves can be an indication that they were of higher status. It can also mean that this grave is not to be disturbed any further (see Burial 316 and 317). Disturbing previous graves at Zvejneiki was done more often than not. This could be in part due to the fact that they did not build permanent buildings. By incorporating their dead, or the past, into their burials, they were making it as permanent as it could be.
The most recent burials are listed here with what is known about them. Due to looting that has taken place, many do not have confirmations on what gender or age they were. Artifacts appear in some, as well as what was once clothing in a few. Some graves have multiple individuals within them, but it is still hard to say whether they were related or just buried together.
Burial 309.
This was a secondary burial. The individual had been disturbed, and there is no conclusion on gender or age. Only the skull and upper part of the thoracic cage was present.
Burial 310.
This burial had been disturbed, and there is no conclusion on what gender or age the individual was. Only lower limbs and the pelvis were preserved.
Burial 311.
This burial had been greatly disturbed but with the placement of the vertebrae, as well as help from the presence of phalanges from the left hand they know that it was a primary burial.
Burial 312.
This burial was found in the first excavation but could not be completed. Before they got back to it, it was looted. From the first excavation they determined that it contained four individuals, three adults and one child. There were also flint artifacts found, but it is unclear what their use was.
Burial 313.
This burial was 33 to 37 years old, and a female. They found a full skeleton that was placed on its back. She was a primary deposit, and the space was filled. There were a few animal bones found, but these may have just been a coincidence.
Burial 314.
This burial was over 35 years old, and a female. This was a primary deposit, and the space was filled.
Burial 315.
There was no gender or age determined for this burial. While they know that the individual was placed on their back, the remains were not well preserved.
Burials 316 and 317.
The most well-known is the double burial of 316 and 317. Archaeologists have determined it to be one female (on the left) and one male (on the right). Their grave was dug into five older burials on the site. They were then covered with a darker, older soil which would have been from an ancestors’ grave nearby, roughly 20 to 100 meters away. The darker soil may have been an indication of higher status or a way to show the grave should no longer be disturbed.
The female, Burial 316, was 36 to 40 years old. She was found with a plethora of grave goods. She had 120 amber pendants that went from the upper part of her body to just above the knees, two amber rings that were near her jaw, and 40 bone beads that were near the knees as well as other places. The collection she was buried with makes her one of the richest amber graves in the Baltic area.
The male, Burial 317, was 25 to 30 years old. He shows signs of being wrapped tightly when buried. His bones had limited movement, and are compressed.1 Around his cranium, they found a large presence of ochre which they believe could be from a clay mask that was painted. This individual was laying on top of a stone that was 15 cm. It was situated under his pelvic bone.
Burial 318.
This burial only yielded a forearm and hand, and so no age or gender has been determined. They think that this might have been disturbed when Burials 316 and 317 were dug.
Burials 319 and 320.
This double burial was of young children, neither of the genders were determined though. Burial 319 was around five years old, and Burial 320 was around two and a half years old. Eleven tooth pendants were found around them, and they were covered in ochre.
Burial 321.
This individual was between 16 and 17 years old, but the gender is undetermined. It was a primary deposition.
Burial 322.
This individual was between 35 and 40 years old, and a female. This burial was a primary deposit, but there have been disturbances from secondary burials around and on top of it.
Burials 323 and 325.
This burial also consists of two individuals but is not as lavish as the previous. Burial 323 is of a child around the age of four. The sex cannot be determined for this young individual.
Burial 325 is of a male that was 30 to 35 years old. This double burial was a primary deposit, and there were no artifacts found with them in the grave. While there is no obvious reason to think they were deposited at the same time, there has been no disturbances after placement. There was also little movement of the bones for Burial 325 which could indicate that it was wrapped or covered.
Burial 324.
This burial has two individuals, but they were believed to be immature. 324a was a newborn and 324b was between two and three years old. Neither have a determined sex.
Burial 326.
This burial does not have a determined age or gender. They have determined that it was a primary deposit, and most likely was disturbed by the building of a house.
Burial 328.
This individual was a male between the ages of 20 and 25. It was a filled-in burial and no artifacts were found with him.
Burial 329.
This individual has no confirmed sex or age, but from their fully erupted third molars we know that it is an adult. It was a primary burial.
Burial 330.
This burial was found while excavating Burial 323-325. They concluded that this grave was dug into while depositing 323-325.


All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions

The All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (, OPZZ) is a national trade union center founded in 1984.
History.
Following the decisions of the Polish government declaring the Solidarity trade union illegal, the OPZZ was created on 24 November 1984 according to the 1982 trade union act which made trade union pluralism illegal. The OPZZ inherited all of Solidarity's property, and also that of the former Association of Trade Unions. It was part of the pro-government Patriotic Movement for National Revival ("Patriotyczny Ruch Odrodzenia Narodowego" - PRON). In 1985 it joined the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). Until 1990 the OPZZ was tied closely to the Polish United Worker's Party (PZPR). Following the end of communist rule in Poland the federation aligned with various post-communist and social-democratic parties (e.g. Democratic Left Alliance, SLD).
In 2006 the OPZZ affiliated to the European Trade Union Confederation and the International Trade Union Confederation.
In the summer of 2006, Roman Giertych, the Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland and a stalwart of the ultra-right-wing and chauvinistic League of Polish Families, voiced his support for the confiscation of OPZZ property and the dissolution of the organization, branding it a mouthpiece of the Social-Democratic Union (SLD) and the heir of the Communist PZPR.
Activities.
The mission of OPZZ is stated as the defence of social and worker's right of the trade unions. OPZZ has strongly supported the demands of state owned industry sector.
The OPZZ is governed by Congress (Kongres), Council (Rada) and Presidium (Prezydium).
OPZZ associates 90 nationwide trade union organisations (uniform trade unions and federations) grouped in 12 branches:
OPZZ also has its internal territorial structures, with territorial range corresponding to the administrative division of the country. These are voivodship (regional) councils (16) and powiat (district) councils (240).
In 2013, the OPZZ was estimated to have 500,000 members.


Oenotrians

The Oenotrians ("tribe led by Oenotrus" or "people from the land of vines - Οἰνωτρία") were an ancient people of Greek origin who inhabited a territory in southern Italy from Paestum to southern Calabria. By the sixth century BC, the Oenotrians had been absorbed into other Italic tribes.
According to Pausanias and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Oenotria was named after Oenotrus, the youngest of the fifty sons of Lycaon who migrated there from Arcadia in Peloponnese, Greece. According to Antoninus Liberalis and Hellanicus, their arrival triggered the migration of the Elymians to Sicily. The settlement of the Greeks with the first stable colonies, such as Metapontum, founded on a native one (Metabon), pushed the Oenotrians inland. From these positions a "wear and tear war" was started off with the Greek colonies, which they plundered more than once. From the 5th century BC onwards, they disappeared under the pressure of an Oscan people, the Lucanians. Virgil mentions them as the settlers of Hesperia whose descendants now call their land Italy. They are generally depicted as belonging to the Pelasgians.
A likely derivation of the ethnonym Oenotrian would be the Greek οἶνος ("oinos"), "wine", as the Oenotrians inhabited a territory rich in vineyards, with Oenotria (or Enotria) being extended to refer to the entirety of Southern Italy. Hesychius mentions the word οἴνωτρον ("oinōtron"), a kind of a vine stake.
According to a traditionalist view, the Oenotrians represent the southern branch of a very old and different ethno-linguistic layer from the proto-Latin one, which would have occupied the Tyrrhenian sea area from Liguria to Sicily ("Ligurian/Sicanian" layer).


Magnosaurus

Magnosaurus (meaning 'large lizard') was a genus of basal tetanuran theropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of England. It is based on fragmentary remains and has often been confused with or included in "Megalosaurus".
History and taxonomy.
In 1923, Friedrich von Huene named "Megalosaurus nethercombensis" from a partial skeleton (OUM J12143) from the Bajocian age Middle Jurassic Inferior Oolite, found in the nineteenth century by W. Parker near Nethercomb, north of Sherborne, in Dorset, England. The material included partial dentaries, dorsal and caudal vertebrae, a partial ilium, a partial right pubis, internal casts of the femora, and tibiae, from a possible juvenile individual. Huene interpreted it as a more primitive species of "Megalosaurus".
In 1926, he named the tooth species "Megalosaurus lydekkeri" for a specimen, BMNH 41352, from the Lower Lias (Lower Jurassic) of England that Richard Lydekker had first described in 1888. Finally, in 1932, he created the genus "Magnosaurus" for "M. nethercombensis", referred "M. lydekkeri" to it, and created a third species, "M. woodwardi", for the genus. "M. woodwardi" was based on a tibia (BMNH R.3542) from the Lower Lias, which he simultaneously and accidentally also named "Sarcosaurus andrewsi"; in 1956 the latter name was given priority by von Huene. Even more confusing, in the same 1932 publication von Huene renamed "Sarcosaurus woodi" into "Magnosaurus woodi".
Until the 1990s, the genus had been ignored as a species of "Megalosaurus". However, with growing concern over what exactly is constituted by "Megalosaurus", "Magnosaurus" has been generally separated as its own genus. Also, there are morphological differences: for example, possible "Megalosaurus" tibiae are compressed at the far end, unlike those of "Magnosaurus". Rauhut (2003) considered it and "Eustreptospondylus" to be the same genus, because the two share a similarly expanded front tip of the dentary and enlarged third dentary tooth. He therefore renamed "Eustreptospondylus oxoniensis" a "Magnosaurus oxoniensis" but this has not been generally followed. Reviews have found it to most likely be a basal tetanuran, probably a megalosaurid. A detailed redescription by Roger Benson in 2010 concluded "Magnosaurus" was valid taxon, a megalosaurid megalosauroid, and at about 175 million years old the oldest certain known member of the Tetanurae.
Species.
"Magnosaurus" is known from many species, most of were originally named as a different genus.
The type species of "Eustreptospondylus", "Megalosaurus" and "Sarcosaurus" are also sometimes assigned to "Magnosaurus". In such cases the combinations are:
Description.
Because the remains are sparse and fragmentary, most details about its anatomical features are unknown. It would have been a bipedal carnivore of moderate size for a dinosaur. The most similar animals to it would probably be "Eustreptospondylus", "Dubreuillosaurus", and "Afrovenator". Paul (1988) roughly estimated the mass of the type individual as around 175 kg (386 lb), which would correspond to a length of roughly four metres (13.1 ft), judging by his estimates for the sizes of other theropods. Benson however, in 2010 gave a higher estimation of about half a tonne; the animal would have stood at over a metre at the hip.
Classification.
The phylogenetic position of "Magnosaurus" according to Carrano "et al." (2012) is shown by this cladogram:


Rhenopterus

Rhenopterus is an extinct prehistoric eurypterid. Fossils of "Rhenopterus" have been recovered from deposits of Lower Devonian age in Germany.
Description.
Rhenopterids were small, characterized by scattered tubercules and knobs on the outer surface of the exoskeleton. Their first two (or possibly three) pairs of walking legs had spines; the last two pairs were long and powerful, without spines. The prosoma (head) was subtrapezoidal, with arcuate compound eyes on parallel axes. The male genital appendages were short with two distal spines.
Species.
"Rhenopterus" contains three valid species, with other named species now seen as invalid or part of other genera.
Invalid or reassigned species are listed below:


2009 in Croatia

Events from the year 2009 in Croatia.


Morta (queen)

Morta (died c. 1263) was wife of Mindaugas, the first known ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was the Grand Duchess of Lithuania (until 1253) and later Queen consort of Lithuania (1253–1262). Very little is known about her life. Probably, Morta was Mindaugas' second wife as Vaišvilkas, the eldest son of Mindaugas, was already a mature man active in international politics when Morta's sons were still young and dependent on the parents. After her death, Mindaugas married her sister, the wife of Daumantas. In revenge, Daumantas allied with Treniota and assassinated Mindaugas and two of Morta's sons in 1263.
Origin.
Her pagan name is unknown. The only clue into her origin or birthplace is a short mention in the comments following the treaty signed in 1219 between the Lithuanian dukes and Galicia–Volhynia. It says that Mindaugas killed many members of the Bulaičiai family, including Vismantas whose wife Mindaugas took for himself. The Hypatian Codex elaborates that Vismantas was killed in 1251–1253 during an attack against Vykintas' castle (often assumed to be in Tverai). It is generally assumed that Morta was Vismantas' wife. Lithuanian historian Edvardas Gudavičius analyzed toponyms and determined that the Bulaičiai family most likely hailed from the Šiauliai region. Based on this extrapolation, residents of Šiauliai call the city home of Morta.
Life.
Her life is briefly described in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle. The Chronicle paints an image of a capable woman who advised her husband in political affairs and even provides several colorful dialogues between her and Mindaugas. According to the Chronicle, she supported Lithuanian conversion to Christianity, opposed Treniota, and defended the Christians when Mindaugas relapsed to his pagan faith. Taking into account her support to the Christians and the fact that her pagan name is unknown, Rimvydas Petrauskas proposed that perhaps Morta was baptized earlier than Mindaugas (he was baptized c. 1252 by the Bishop of Chełmno).
Family.
The written sources contain little information on Morta's family and it is not entirely clear how many children she had. Two sons, Replys and Gerstukas, are mentioned once in an act dated August 7, 1261. The act, by which Mindaugas granted all of Selonia to the Livonian Order, could be a medieval forgery by the Order. According to the Hypatian Codex, two sons, Rūklys and Rupeikis, were assassinated together with Mindaugas in 1263. This is the only information available and historians disagree on whether these were the same two sons, whose names were distorted by medieval scribes, or whether there were four sons.
References.


Stuart England


United Nations Security Council Resolution 34

United Nations Security Council Resolution 34, adopted on September 15, 1947, removed disputes between Greece and Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, from the Council's agenda.
The resolution was approved by nine votes to two (Poland and Soviet Union).


Tapinoma minutissimum

Tapinoma minutissimum is an extinct Oligocene species of ant in the genus "Tapinoma". Described by Emery in 1891, specimens of the species were found in Sicilian amber, whence a fossilised male of the species was described.


Trasimene Line

The Trasimene Line (so-named for Lake Trasimene, the site of a major battle of the Second Punic War in 217 BC) was a German defensive line during the Italian Campaign of World War II. It was sometimes known as the Albert Line. The German Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C), "Generalfeldmarschall" Albert Kesselring, used the line to delay the Allied northward advance in Italy in mid June 1944 to buy time to withdraw troops to the Gothic Line and finalise the preparation of its defenses.
Background.
After the Allied capture of the Italian capital of Rome on 4 June 1944 following the successful breakthrough at Monte Cassino and Anzio during Operation Diadem in May 1944, the German 14th and 10th Armies fell back: the 14th along the Tyrrhenian front and the 10th through central Italy and the Adriatic coast. The 10th had escaped because General Mark W. Clark had ordered Lucian Truscott to chose "Operation Turtle" towards Rome rather than "Operation Buffalo" as ordered by Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander, which would have cut route 6 at Valmonte. There was a huge gap between the armies and with the Allies advancing some 10 km per day, the flanks of both armies were exposed and encirclement was threatened.
Two days after Rome fell, General Alexander, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), received orders from his superior, General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, the Allied Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), to push the retreating German Army north to a line running from Pisa to Rimini (i.e. the Gothic Line) as quickly as possible to prevent the establishment of any sort of coherent enemy defense in central Italy.
Battle.
On Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark's U.S. Fifth Army front, the U.S. VI Corps, under Major General Lucian Truscott, was pushed up the coast along highway 1 and U.S. II Corps, under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, along highway 2 towards Viterbo. To their right the XIII Corps, under Lieutenant General Sidney Kirkman, part of the British Eighth Army under Lieutenant General Sir Oliver Leese, headed up highway 3 towards Terni and Perugia whilst V Corps, under Lieutenant General Charles Walter Allfrey, advanced up the Adriatic coast.
Between 4 June and 16 June, whilst maintaining contact with the advancing Allies, Kesselring executed a remarkable and unorthodox maneuver with his depleted divisions, resulting in his two armies aligning and uniting their wings on the defensive positions on the Trasimene Line. Remarkable though this was, he was probably helped by the confusion caused in the Allied advance by the relieving of the U.S. II and VI Corps (substituted by Major General Willis D. Crittenberger's U.S. IV Corps and Lieutenant General Alphonse Juin's French Expeditionary Corps). The British X Corps, under Lieutenant General Richard McCreery, had also been brought into the line on XIII Corps' right whilst V Corps had been relieved by the Polish II Corps, under Lieutenant General Władysław Anders.
By the last week of June the Allies were facing the Trasimene positions. Joachim Lemelsen's 14th Army had Frido von Senger und Etterlin's XIV Panzer Corps facing the U.S. IV Corps on the west coast and Alfred von Schlemm's 1st Parachute Corps facing the French Expeditionary Corps beside them. On 22 June, a U.S. armored attack near Massa Marittima was defeated by a German tank platoon under "Oberfähnrich" Oskar Röhrig from Heavy Tank Battalion 504. The German Tiger I's knocked out 11 Sherman tanks, while the terrified American tank crews abandoned another 12. The Germans suffered no losses. Röhrig was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for this action. Four Shermans were knocked out by two Tigers from 508th Heavy Panzer Battalion on 12 July near Collesalvetti.
Heinrich von Vietinghoff's 10th Army had Traugott Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps facing XIII and X Corps and Valentin Feurstein's LI Mountain Corps facing the Polish II Corps on the Adriatic. The toughest defenses were around the lake itself with XIII Corps' British 78th Infantry Division experiencing fierce fighting on 17 June at Città della Pieve and 21 June at San Fatucchio. By 24 June they had worked their way round to the north shore and linked with X Corps' 4th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions as the German defenders withdrew towards Arezzo. On 8 July, the 2nd Company of the German 508th Heavy Panzer Battalion knocked out four British Shermans near Tavarnelle Val di Pesa southwest of Florence.
The U.S. IV Corps also found progress slow but by 1 July had crossed the river Cecina and were within of Livorno. Meanwhile, the French Corps had been held up on the river Orcia west of Lake Trasimene until the parachutist defenders withdrew on 27 June allowing them to enter Siena on 3 July.