Oscar Cook

Richard Martin Oscar Cook (17 March 1888 – 23 February 1952) was a British author of novels, non-fiction works and short stories with a supernatural theme.
Life.
Cook worked as a Government official in British North Borneo from 1911 until 1919. In December 1914 he was Assistant District Officer at Semporna, and it was at this time that he compiled a vocabulary of Bajau words. He later held District Officer posts.
On returning to Britain, Cook wrote an autobiographical account of his time in Borneo. It was suggested that he should approach the Curtis Brown literary agency and the book was allocated to Christine Campbell Thomson, an agent there. It was she who gave the book its title, "Borneo: Stealer of Hearts", and placed it with Hurst & Blackett, who published it in 1924. At the time it was considered one of the most authoritative books on Borneo. Cook was also then writing short stories concerned with supernatural themes, several of which were directly influenced by his time in Borneo. By 1934 an autobiographical note accompanying one of his short stories stated that since his return to England he had been an author, editor, publisher, actor, secretary to a dramatic school, and in business.
Cook married Christine Campbell Thomson, but they were divorced in 1938. He died on the twenty-third of February 1952.


Chandra dynasty

The Chandra kingdom was a Kayastha kingdom, originating from the Indian subcontinent, which ruled the Samatata region of Bengal, as well as northern Arakan. Latet it was a neighbor to the Pala Empire to the north. Rulers of Chandra kingdom were followers of Sanatan dharma.The founder of Chandra Dynasty was king Mahataing Chandra in 327 AD.
The reign of the dynasty was-
History.
Ananda Chandra inscription (729 AD) mentions king Chandrodaya whom Sircar fixes the date of 202-229 AD. The inscription mentions kings prior to King Chandrodaya as "zealous in doing kindness to the world". The ye Dhamma inscriptions of Queen Niti Chandra are dated to early 6th century AD based on paleographic grounds.
The Chandra kingdom was one of the last Buddhist strongholds in the Indian subcontinent. The kingdom flourished as a center of the Tantric schools of Buddhism. It played a role in the diffusion of Mahayana Buddhism to Southeast Asia.
The dynasty was founded by King Mahataing Chandra in 327 AD in Wesali. KingSrichandra led invasions into Kamarupa. The Chandras played an important role in the regional politics and military history of erstwhile Bengal. The Chandras ruled in Arakan and Southeast bengal. But this dynasty was founded by king Mahataing Chandra.
The Chandras were eventually overthrown during an invasion of the South Indian Chola dynasty. Following is the list of Kings from Chandra Dynasty.
Maritime relations.
The coastal kingdom had trade networks with states in what is now Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam. 10th century shipwrecks around the coast of Java provide evidence of maritime links between southeastern Bengal and Southeast Asia. Bronze sculptures may have been imported by the Javanese from the Chandra kingdom in southeastern Bengal. Arab merchants also traded with the kingdom.
King Anandachandra mentions mission he sent to Sinhalese King Silamegha (Aggabodhi IV) (727-766)
Archaeology.
There are numerous inscriptions dating from the period of the Chandra dynasty. The three archaeological sites associated with the dynasty include Bikrampur and Mainamati in Bangladesh and Waithali in Rakhine State, Myanmar (Burma).
Education.
Chandrapur University in Shrihatta was as large as other religious institutions like Nalanda, Taxila, Mahasthangarh or Odantapuri and was established before Oxford, and Cambridge universities or even the Jagaddala Vihara. It was made by king Srichandra. Its exact location has not been found. Chandrapur university was unique in contrast with other universities and the "viharas" established by Buddhist kings in India. Its curriculum included almost all of the subjects from the Hindu Shastra except the grammar of Chandragomin who was Buddhist by religion. Moreover the students of this university were also Hindu Brahmins. The nine monasteries were overseen mainly by Hindu Brahmins. This is because the Buddhist king, Srichandra, granted lands in Paschimbhag in the name of Buddha for nine Brahmin monasteries where the Chaturvedas were mainly taught. Kamalakanta Gupta referred to this grant as "unique among other Buddhist kings" since it implies Srichandra's favouritism towards Brahmins.
Land distribution among 25 classes of people, guests, and students indicates an efficient administration in the universities. According to Zafir Setu, this administrative arrangement is more consistent with the present-day university system.


Sathasi Raj

Satasi Raj was the Kingdom of Raja of Rudrapur covering over half of north and east India in pre-British era.
Background.
Rudrapur is a town and a nagar panchayat in Deoria district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Previously known as Satasi Raj.
Recorded history of the dynasty.
According to one existing version, the founding members of the Satasi royal family are said to have come to Awadh, from the banks of the Rapti river.
Modern Era.
The Maharajah (Emperor) system was abolished by Indian Constitution in 1971 with some acceptable privileges.
Controversy.
Given that royalty was abolished by Indian Constitution in 1971.


Degar refugees in Cambodia

More than 1,000 Degar (Montagnard) refugees have entered Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri, Cambodia, since 2001, raising issues of Cambodia's international law obligations toward refugees and its right to control its border. The government has a policy of deporting Degar refugees to Vietnam, viewing them as illegal immigrants to the country, and has threatened prosecution of Ratanakiri residents who aid them. Human rights organizations have described this policy as a violation of Cambodia's international law obligation of non-refoulement (not forcibly returning refugees to a country in which they will be harmed). Though the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has become involved processing asylum applications, refugees are often forcibly returned before they are able to apply for asylum. Many refugees have hidden in Ratanakiri's forests to avoid deportation.


Paphos Castle

Paphos Harbour Castle is located on the edge of Paphos harbour.
The original Byzantine fortress was at Saranta Kolones, some 600m to the west. This was destroyed in the earthquake of 1222.
The present castle was one of two towers built by the Lusignans in the thirteenth century to protect the harbour. The eastern port tower was destroyed by an earthquake in 1491, although its ruins can still be seen further along the harbour wall.
In the mid-16th century the harbour castle was dismantled by the Republic of Venice. After capturing the island, in 1592 the Ottomans restored and strengthened it. A white marble slab (dimensions: 150 × 40 cm) above the entrance of the tower refers to its reconstruction in 1592 AD, by the Turkish commander of Cyprus Ahmet Pasha (1589–1593).
In 1878 it ceased to be used for military purposes and became a warehouse for salt during the British period. In 1938-9 various cracks in the walls and breakwater were repaired. The castle was damaged in the 1953 earthquake, and repairs were completed by 1969. It was also hit during the bombardment of Paphos harbour in 21 July 1974 by Turkish air and naval forces, but not seriously damaged.
More recently the castle serves as a backdrop to the annual open air Paphos cultural festival which takes place in September.
It was declared a listed building in 1935 and represents one of the most distinctive landmarks of the city of Paphos. Several archaeological excavations have taken place to investigate its past.
Currently the castle is being used as a tourist attraction, and occasionally features thematic exhibitions. Entrance fee is €2.50, visiting hours are 8:30-17:00 on winter and 8:30-19:30 during the summer. The castle is not currently accessible for people who use a wheelchair


Nanadesis

The Nanadesis were a guild of traders who organized themselves into one of the biggest of the trading associations at the time of the Hoysala Empire. They developed significant trade contact with many areas, including foreign countries such as Malaya, Magadha, Kosala, Nepal, and Persia. They were respected in their communities and were generous in their grants to temples and mathas. The term "Nanadesi" means "traders from other kingdoms" while "nagaram" was used for local merchants.


St. Nicholas Church, Novopyshminskoe

St. Nicholas Church is an Orthodox church in Novopyshminskoe village, Sverdlovsk Oblast.
The building was granted the status of regional significance on the 31st of December, 1987 (decision № 535 by the executive committee of Sverdlovsk Oblast Council of People's Deputies). The object number of cultural heritage of regional significance is 661710820990005.
History.
The church is located on the left bank of the Pyshma River where earlier was entrance to the village. The parish was formed in 1752. It consisted of three villages: Sergulovka, Kazanskaya, Zaimskaya.
The wooden church was built in 1752. Only in 1835 the fundamental construction of a stone building started. The main part of the building was consecrated in the name of St. Nicholas. The side-altar was consecrated in the name of John the Evangelist in 1842.
The clergy of the parish consisted of a priest, a deacon and a psalmist. The priest had a public house in the village. The parish included a chapel in Novopyshminskoe village and a chapel in Kazanskaya village. A county school functioned in the village. Since 1893 a literacy school was opened in Sergulovka village.
The peal of bells were banned in 1934. The church was closed since 1937. The Orthodox parish has been organized in 1991. The same year the restoration of the church began. It was completed on the 22nd of May, 1998.
Architecture.
The stone church has a parallelepiped form with small ledges. It is supplemented by the same altar and refectory. The west part of the building is a bell tower.
The northern and the southern parts of the building are represented with four-columned porticos with pediments in Tuscan order style. Behind the columns between rectangular windows constructed pilasters. The dome drum is decorated with arched windows. Above the window openings are small horizontal niches. Altars and a refectory are timbered in a rustic style up to half height. Windows are triple, rectangular at the bottom with archivolt in the upper part.
The base of the bell tower decorated with a porticos the same as the church one. The spire is rising on the bell tower roof.
Arc-shaped gates with two lobbies on the sides stood in its integrity.


David II of Lori

David II succeeded his father to the throne of the Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget. He ruled with his brother Abbas I. Faced with expansion of Seljuq Turks and Bagratid Georgians, he transferred his capital to Matsnaberd in 1111, where he ruled till 1118.
He was succeeded by his son Kiurike III and grandson Abbas II. However, they did not have the prestige or strength of their ancestors. Upon the death of Abbas II, his sister Borin raised her son Agsartan to be heir. He in turn fathered the last member of the family Kiurike IV, who died without being succeeded.


Bombing of Tan Son Nhut Air Base

The bombing of Tan Son Nhut Air Base occurred on April 28, 1975, just two days before the Fall of Saigon. The bombing operation was carried out by the Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) Quyet Thang Squadron, using captured Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) A-37 Dragonfly aircraft flown by VPAF pilots and RVNAF defectors led by Nguyen Thanh Trung who had bombed the Presidential Palace in Saigon on 8 April 1975.
In 1973, by the time the Paris Peace Accords were concluded, South Vietnam possessed the fourth largest air force in the world. Despite their size, however, RVNAF operations were severely curtailed due to cutbacks in U.S. military aid. Furthermore, the RVNAF were prevented from undertaking reconnaissance and ground support missions due to the threat posed by formidable anti-aircraft weapons deployed by North Vietnam. When the North Vietnamese military renewed their offensive early in 1975, the RVNAF was handicapped and many of their aircraft were either lost or captured as formations of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) swept through the Central Highlands of South Vietnam.
Background.
Strategic situation.
Although the Paris Peace Accords of 1973 were supposed to end the war in Vietnam, fighting continued between South Vietnam and North Vietnam and the Viet Cong (VC). Despite a pledge of support from U.S. President Richard Nixon, military aid to South Vietnam was sharply reduced. By the end of 1972 the RVNAF was the fourth largest air force in the world, with 2,075 aircraft and over 61,000 personnel. However, RVNAF operations were severely affected by cutbacks in military aid, flying hours had to be reduced by 51% and bomb loads on fighter aircraft halved from four to two pieces of ordnance.
North Vietnam continued to build up its combat units in South Vietnam. With the threat of U.S. airpower removed, the North Vietnamese military moved anti-aircraft units into South Vietnam, and deployed a sophisticated air-defence network that included the long-range SA-2 surface-to-air missile system, radar-guided anti-aircraft guns and the SA-7 Grail shoulder-launched missile The strong presence of North Vietnamese anti-aircraft units, which covered much of the northern provinces of South Vietnam, forced RVNAF reconnaissance and fighter aircraft to fly at higher altitudes to avoid being hit by surface-to-air missiles. Consequently, when North Vietnam went on the offensive again in 1975, the RVNAF was severely handicapped.
Ho Chi Minh Campaign.
The Ho Chi Minh Campaign commenced on 9 March 1975 and by mid-March the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) had withdrawn from the Central Highlands. The RVNAF 6th Air Force Division had been given only 48 hours to evacuate its aircraft and personnel from Pleiku Air Base leaving 64 aircraft intact, including 36 aircraft in flyable storage, and no attempt were made to put those aircraft into commission. On 27 March with South Vietnamese forces of I Corps facing imminent defeat, Brigadier-General Nguyen Duc Khanh, commander of the RVNAF 1st Air Force Division, was ordered to evacuate all flyable aircraft from Huế and Da Nang.
On 28 March PAVN forces closed in on Da Nang, and they subjected Da Nang Air Base to heavy artillery bombardment. Under adverse conditions, the RVNAF was able to fly about 130 aircraft out of the city, but they had to abandon 180 aircraft, including 33 A-37 Dragonflys, due to chaos, confusion, poor discipline and the breakdown of airfield security. On 29 March, the PAVN captured Da Nang, followed by Quy Nhon on 1 April and Tuy Hòa and Nha Trang on 2 April. At Phan Rang Air Base, the RVNAF 2nd Air Division continued to battle PAVN troops for two days after ground units of the ARVN had given up the fight. Elements of the ARVN Airborne Division were also committed into the fight, but they were overwhelmed by the PAVN and Phan Rang was captured on April 16.
Attack on the Presidential Palace.
On 8 April, a formation of three RVNAF F-5E Tiger fighter-bombers lined up at Bien Hoa Air Base, each armed with four 250-pound bombs, for an attack on PAVN positions in Bình Thuận Province. Before the second aircraft took off, First Lieutenant Nguyen Thanh Trung, who piloted the third F-5, reported his aircraft was experiencing afterburner problems. When the second aircraft departed, Trung also took off, but flew towards Saigon instead of joining the formation. At around 8.30am Trung dived on the Presidential Palace and dropped two bombs; the first bomb landed on the Palace grounds and caused some damage, but the second bomb failed to explode. Trung climbed to over before making a second pass, this time both bombs exploded, causing minor structural damage but no casualties. After the attack, Trung flew out of Saigon and landed at the petroleum storage facility at Nha Be on the outskirts of the city, where he removed the ammunition for the 20mm cannon.
Shortly afterwards Trung took off again and flew out to Phước Long Province, which was occupied by the Provisional Revolutionary Government since PAVN troops had captured it earlier in the year, and he was warmly received by PAVN soldiers. The North Vietnamese claimed that Trung had been a VC agent since 1969, and was infiltrated into the RVNAF where he served with the 540th Fighter Squadron of the 3rd Air Force Division. Trung later revealed that he was originally from Bến Tre Province in the Mekong region, where his father had served as the district secretary of the People's Revolutionary Party. In 1963 Trung's father was killed and his body was mutilated by the South Vietnamese police. Angered by the death of his father, Trung vowed to take revenge on the South Vietnamese Government, so in 1969 he secretly joined the VC after he had been accepted into the RVNAF.
Battle.
Preparation for the mission.
Prior to the bombing of the Presidential Palace, North Vietnamese General Văn Tiến Dũng and his field commanders had been discussing the possibility of deploying units of the VPAF, to attack high-value South Vietnamese targets in support of the PAVN. Use of the Soviet MiG-17 fighter was considered as VPAF pilots already had significant combat experience with the type. However, moving MiGs from their bases in North Vietnam was problematic; South Vietnamese defenses were falling much faster than anticipated, there was simply little time in which to deploy the MiGs in support of North Vietnamese units encircling Saigon. As the North Vietnamese had captured a large number of U.S.-made aircraft from the RVNAF at Pleiku and Da Nang Air Bases, it was decided to use captured aircraft instead.
The decision to use the captured aircraft presented a challenge for the VPAF, because they lacked experience in flying U.S.-made aircraft. Furthermore, VPAF pilots were not proficient in the English language; most had trained on Soviet equipment using the Russian language. Upon receiving news of Trung's actions on 8 April, General Dung decided that Trung would provide conversion training so that a group of VPAF pilots would be able to fly the A-37 Dragonfly, the type selected for an upcoming operation. Trung was sent out to Da Nang Air Base, where he was joined by Lieutenants Tran Van On and Tran Van Xanh, both former RVNAF pilots, captured when Da Nang capitulated on 29 March. Trung, Xanh, and On were tasked with translating manuals from English to the Vietnamese language, as well as translating instructions on board the A-37 into Vietnamese.
On 19 April the VPAF Command was ordered to prepare for an operation in South Vietnam, so a group of pilots from the 4th Squadron of the VPAF 923rd Fighter Regiment was selected to undertake conversion training in Da Nang and form a new squadron for the operation. The selected group was led by Upper Captain Nguyen Van Luc along with Tu De, Tran Cao Thang, Han Van Quang and Hoang Mai Vuong. Together with former RVNAF pilots Trung and On, the group would form the "Quyet Thang" ("Determined to Win") Squadron. On 22 April the VPAF pilots arrived at Da Nang Air Base and they began training on two A-37 aircraft that were restored to flying condition with support from Trung, On, Xanh and a few captured South Vietnamese technicians. In just five days, the VPAF pilots were able to independently fly the A-37 without support from the former RVNAF pilots.
As the VPAF pilots were completing the final phases of their conversion training, the VPAF Command chose to attack Tan Son Nhut Air Base in Saigon. On the afternoon of 27 April, the pilots were flown out to Phù Cát Air Base in Bình Định Province where Major-General Le Van Tri, commander of the VPAF, briefed them on the upcoming operation. Tri also instructed the pilots to ensure that their bombs should not hit civilian areas in Saigon. From the original group of trainees, Luc, De, Quang, Vuong, Trung and On were selected to take part in the attack. Meanwhile, On and Xanh were also instructed to test-fly five captured A-37 bombers, which would be the mainstay of the "Quyet Thang" Squadron. On the morning of 28 April the "Quyet Thang" Squadron became operational with Luc as the squadron's commander, when it was transferred to Phan Rang Air Base.
The attack.
At Phan Rang AB, Luc submitted the squadron's plan of attack to the VPAF Command, Trung would lead the formation in the first aircraft because he was familiar with the skies over Saigon, De would be positioned behind Trung in the second aircraft, followed by Luc in the third, Vuong and On together in the fourth and Quang would pilot the last aircraft in the formation. At around 16:05 on 28 April the five A-37 bombers of the "Quyet Thang" Squadron, each armed with four 250-pound bombs, took off from Phan Rang and each aircraft flew between and apart from each other. The five-aircraft formation flew at a height of just . Their first navigation point was Vũng Tàu, from where the formation would turn towards Tan Son Nhut. When the squadron flew over Bien Hoa Air Base, two RVNAF A-1 Skyraiders were sighted conducting bombing sorties near the area, but they were not allowed to engage.
Shortly after 17:00 the formation was able to approach Tan Son Nhut Air Base unchallenged as they were still wearing South Vietnamese code numbers. From about above the target Trung dived down on the target, but his bombs could not be released from the pylons, so Trung was forced to pull his aircraft up again. Next in line was De, who was able to drop his entire bomb load on the target. Luc dived on the target, but he too experienced problems with the weapons release system, so only two bombs were dropped. After the last two aircraft piloted by Vuong, Quang and On had successfully hit their targets, they strafed aircraft on the ground with gunfire. Trung and Luc made another pass, but again their bombs could not be released from the pylon.
By that stage the South Vietnamese had already responded by firing their anti-aircraft guns, so Luc ordered the squadron to withdraw as Trung made one final attempt at dropping his load using emergency mode. Several RVNAF Force F-5s were scrambled to pursue the attackers, but they escaped without any damage. On the return trip Quang led the formation, followed by Luc, De and Vuong and On. Trung, who had flown back for the third bombing attempt, was trailing the rest of the group. As they flew over Phan Thiết, they had to fly at a lower altitude to avoid mistakenly being hit by PAVN anti-aircraft weapons. When the formation came within of Phan Rang AB, De was granted permission to land first because he only had about of fuel left. Squadron commander Luc was next to land, followed by Vuong and On, then Quang. Trung, who had led the attack during the mission, was the last aircraft to arrive back at base. By 18:00 on 28 April all the pilots of the VPAF "Quyet Thang" Squadron had landed at Phan Rang, after completing North Vietnam's first successful air attack against Saigon during the entire Vietnam War.
Aftermath.
The attack on Tan Son Nhut temporarily closed the airport, but it was soon returned to operation. The true extent of the damage is unknown; the North Vietnamese claimed that 24 aircraft had been destroyed and about 200 South Vietnamese personnel were killed, but U.S. sources state that only 3 AC-119s and several C-47s were destroyed, with no mention of casualties.
By the night of 28 April, North Vietnamese artillery and rockets were hitting Tan Son Nhut. At dawn on 29 April, the RVNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A-37s, F-5s, C-7s, C-119s, and C-130s departed for Thailand, while UH-1 helicopters took off in search of the evacuation fleet of Task Force 76. Some RVNAF aircraft, however, did stay and continue to fight the advancing PAVN. One AC-119 gunship had spent the night of 28/29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN. At dawn on 29 April, two A-1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at until one was shot down, presumably by an SA-7. At 07:00, the AC-119 was firing on PAVN formations to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it too was hit by an SA-7 and fell in flames to the ground. Due to the deteriorating situation at Tan Son Nhut, the fixed-wing evacuation of Saigon was cancelled and Operation Frequent Wind was commenced.


Lela Pandak Lam

Dato Maharaja Lela (died on 20 January 1877) was a Malay nationalist from Perak.
A descendant of Daeng Salili, Pandak Limo was the son of a Bugis king from Luwuk District, Sulawesi. During the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah III, he came to Perak and was appointed Mufti and was awarded the title "Dato Maharaja Lela," granting him the authority to punish by decapitation without question.
Pandak Limo was a leader who later led the struggle against the British in Perak. Together with other leaders such as Dato 'Sagor , he planned an alliance to assassinate James Wheeler Woodford Birch (J. W. W. Birch), the British Resident of Perak. His decision was approved in a meeting at Durian Sebatang, chaired by Sultan Abdullah on 21 July 1875.
Dato Maharaja Lela and his assistants, Sepuntum and Pandak Lam speared Resident Birch to death on 2 November 1875, as Birch was taking his bath by a river near Pasir Salak, which is located somewhere around today's Teluk Intan (Teluk Anson).
There is debate over the reason for Birch's assassination. One view is that he was assassinated was because he outlawed slavery in Perak. Dato Maharajalela, whose income depended on capturing and selling the natives of Perak or Orang Asli as slaves, was then incensed and plotted with some of the slave-traders to kill Birch by spearing him when he was taking his bath in the river.
The more popular view among right-wing Malay historians is that Birch was assassinated because of his disrespect for the local customs and traditions, which raised tensions with local Malay chiefs. This is because modern Malay historians generally refuse to accept that the Orang Asli were being traded as slaves in the pre-Colonial era. Some accounts claim that Birch even entered the palace of the ruler Sultan of Perak without removing his shoes.
The murder of J. W. W. Birch led the British army to attack Pasir Salak, and following several days of battle, the leaders of the rebellion surrendered. In a subsequent trial held between 14 and 22 December in Matang, Perak, Sultan Abdullah and Ngah Ibrahim was deposed and sent to exile in Seychelles. Dato Maharajalela, meanwhile, was found guilty for the murder of Birch and sentenced to death. He was executed by hanging on 20 January 1877 in Taiping. In the wake of the incident, the British administration was shifted to Taiping.
Dato' Maharajalela is generally celebrated as a folk hero by Malay nationalists, and seen as a symbol of the Malay resistance against British colonialism.
The terms "maharajalela" (in Malay language), and "merajalela" (in Indonesian language), stem from his name to describe uncontrollable actions or phenomena.


Binondo Church

Binondo Church, also known as the Minor Basilica and National Shrine of Saint Lorenzo Ruiz and formerly known as Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary Parish (), is located in the District of Binondo, Manila fronting Plaza San Lorenzo Ruiz, in the Philippines. This church was founded by Dominican priests in 1596 to serve their Chinese converts to Christianity. The original building was destroyed in 1762 by British bombardment. A new granite church was completed on the same site in 1852 however it was greatly damaged during the Second World War, with only the western façade and the octagonal belfry surviving.
Saint Lorenzo Ruiz, who was born of a Chinese father and a Filipino mother, trained in this church and afterwards went as a missionary to Japan, where he and his companions were martyred for refusing to renounce Christianity. Lorenzo is the Philippines' first saint, and was canonized by Pope John Paul II in 1987. A large statue of the saint stands in front of the church.
Masses are held in Filipino, Mandarin, Hokkien, and English. At present, the parish priest and rector is Rev. Fr. Andy O. Lim.
Historical background.
Even before the arrival of the Spanish to the Philippines there was already a community of Chinese traders living in Manila. The population of Chinese traders increased with the advent of Spanish colonization of the Philippines, due to increased trade between the islands. The upsurge in their population prompted the Catholic Missionaries to manage the conversion of the Chinese population to the Christian faith.
In 1596, Dominican priests founded Binondo church to serve their Chinese converts to Christianity as well as to the native Filipinos.
Architecture.
It was built by the Dominicans. Founded in 1596, a church had been constructed before 1614. When transferred to its present site in the 18th century, a new church was built to accommodate new churchgoers. In 1778, the roof was replaced with nipa as the wood was destroyed by termites. In 1863, the church was slightly damaged by earthquake. The original structure has sustained damages during wars and various natural disasters.
Domingo Cruz y Gonzales supervised the construction of the dome in 1781.
The current granite church was completed on the same site in 1852 and features an octagonal pagoda-like bell tower which suggests the Chinese culture of the parishioners. The church was burned during the British invasion of 1762. Another one was quickly built following the occupation. Improvements were made in the 18th century but the edifice was again destroyed in the 1863 earthquake. It was rebuilt in the grandeur the remains on which we see today. Before the war, it was considered as one of the most beautiful churches in the country. Its bell tower was composed of five stories, octagonal in shape. At its top was a mirador (viewing window). This roof was destroyed during the 1863 earthquake.
American bombing on September 22, 1944 destroyed the structure. Everything including the archives of the parish were burned. Nothing was left behind except the stone walls of the church and the fire-tiered octagonal belltower. After the war, Binondo parishioners had to make do with a roofless church for several years until it was rebuilt in the 1950s.
The roof behind the pediment and the walls at the left of the facade are additions in the past years. The original facade, with some few renovations, is similar to that of the Italian High Renaissance churches. The facade is buttressed on the sides by pilaster mass terminated by urn-like decorations. A tower is found at the apex of the pediment. At the base of the pediment, along its central axis, is a small circular window framed by smaller columns and pediment which are framed by a foliated scroll. At the right is the huge, octagonal tower characterized by cantons at its angles and pedimented window openings.
The present church and convent was renovated between 1946 and 1971.


Rajpipla State

The Kingdom of Rajpipla or Rajpipla State was a princely state, with full internal jurisdiction, in India ruled by the Gohil Rajput dynasty for over 600 years from around 1340 till 1948. It was the largest State, and the only first-class State, of the Rewa Kantha Agency.. Among Gujarat States (as distinct from Kathiawar or Saurashtra States), Rajpipla State was the second-largest after Baroda (Vadodara) in terms of size and importance. The Gohil Rajput dynasty of Rajpipla survived the onslaught of the Sultans of Ahmedabad and the Mughals during the mediaeval period, and the Gaekwars of Baroda and the British in the modern period, to emerge as a well-administered State with contemporary infrastructure, policies and practices by the time it was merged with the Union of India on 10 June 1948.
The Rajpipla princely State was situated largely between two important rivers of western India—the Narmada and the Tapti, with the Satpura range in the south. Spanning an area of over 1500 square miles (4,000 km2), of which 600 mi2 (1550 km2) were forests and the rest fertile agricultural plains and river valleys, Rajpipla grew to be one of the most prosperous princely states in Gujarat, second only to Baroda. It was also famous for its agate mines.
It is now part of the state of Gujarat. Its capital town of Rajpipla (Nandod or New Rajpipla) is now headquarters of the Narmada district.
History.
Chokrana, a Parmar Rajput prince, originally hailing from the ruling family of Ujjain in Malwa (now the western part of the state of Madhya Pradesh), was in the early part of the fourteenth century ruling over the principality of Rajpipla, with his capital at Dev Chhatra (Abode of the Gods) high up in the western Satpuras and deep inside the forests, overlooking the holy River Narmada. Chokrana Parmar's daughter was married to the legendary Mokhdaji, the Gohil Rajput warrior chief of Ghogha in Gohilwar, Saurashtra. Chokrana, who had no male heir, adopted his grandson Samarsinhji, younger son of Mokhdaji Gohil. Mokhdaji's first wife was a Sarviya princess of Hathasani and their son Dungarsinhji succeeded as chief of Ghogha, part of which later became the princely state of Bhavnagar.
Samarsinhji acceded to the "gadi" (throne) of Rajpipla around 1340, assuming the name Arjunsinhji. From then, Rajpipla was ruled by the Gohil Rajput dynasty. The "Kul Devi" (family deity) of the royal family of Rajpipla is Shri Harsiddhi Mataji, the original temple being in Ujjain. It is said that Maharana Verisalji I of Rajpipla built the temple of Harsiddhi Mataji at Rajpipla in the 18th century.
Gohil Rajput dynasty and clan.
The origin of the Gohil Rajput clan goes back to the sixth century AD when Muhideosur Gohadit or Guhil, born in 542 A.D. after the sack of Vallabhi and the only male survivor of the clan, went on to become chief of an area near modern Idar in Gujarat in the year 556 A.D, and held sway till his death in 603 A.D. His descendant Kalbhoj or Bappa Rawal seized Chittor and became ruler of Mewar in 734 A.D. A little more than centuries later in 973 A.D., Salivahan, the Gohil ruler of Mewar, and 11th in descent to Bappa Rawal, moved away with part of the clan from Chittor to Juna Khergarh (present-day Bhalotra near Jodhpur) on the River Luni in Marwar, leaving behind his son Shaktikumar with the remaining members of his kin. There is still a village there called 'Gohilon ki dhani'. Thus for about two-and-a-half centuries, both Mewar and Marwar were ruled by the Gohil Rajput dynasty.
Later, after Alauddin Khalji ravaged Chittor in 1303, the Gohils of Mewar regrouped and assumed the name Sisodia. The capital was shifted from Chittor to Udaipur in 1559.
Meanwhile, the Gohils who had migrated under Salivahan continued to rule over Marwar. After the formation of the Delhi Sultanate in the early part of the thirteenth century the Rathore clan, pushed out of Kannauj, travelled to Marwar. There were fierce clashes between the Gohils and Rathores in Marwar, which resulted in the death of the respective chiefs Maheshdasji Gohil and Siyaji Rathore. The Gohil clan, under their chief Sejakji, then marched back to Saurashtra, after five centuries, where they became governors of the Solankis, a branch of the Chalukyas. Soon, they carved out their own principalities. The most famous of their chiefs during this period were Sejakji, Ranoji and Mokhdaji, and the princely States their descendants carved out were Bhavnagar State, Rajpipla State, Palitana State, Lathi, and Vallabhipur or Vala State.
Those were turbulent medieval times and it was not easy for the Gohils to retain their hold over Rajpipla. They had to face several invasions from the sultans of Ahmedabad, the Mughal emperors and later the Marathas, even losing their principality for brief periods, each time coming back to power by joining forces with the hill tribes (mostly Bhils) and carrying out guerrilla attacks. In 1730, with the weakening of the Mughal Empire, the 26th Gohil ruler of Rajpipla, Maharana Verisalji I stopped paying tribute to the Mughals, and his son Maharana Jeetsinhji wrested back Nandod taluka and shifted the capital from Junaraj up in the Satpuras to Nandod or new Rajpipla town, in the plains on the banks of the river Karjan, a tributary of the Narmada.
When the Marathas grew powerful in the 18th century, the Gaekwars of Baroda State exacted tribute from Rajpipla. The stranglehold of the Gaekwars was cast aside with the intervention of the British, and accession of the 33rd Gohil ruler Maharana Verisalji II on the "gadi" of Rajpipla. During the 1857 Mutiny, Rajpipla under Verisalji II rebelled, and for many months relieved itself of the sway of the British. It was not surprising, therefore, that the agitated English, having quelled the Mutiny and transferred power to the Crown, forced Verisalji II to step aside and make way for his son Maharana Gambhirsinhji in 1860 AD.
1900s and Maharaja Vijaysinhji.
The golden period of Rajpipla during the modern era began when Maharana Gambhirsinhji's son, Maharana Chhatrasinhji, the 35th Gohil ruler of Rajpipla came to the "gadi" in 1897 A.D. Rajpipla witnessed rapid progress over the next half-century. Knighthood was conferred on Maharana Chhatrasinhji (KCIE) as a result of his efficient administration. This included laying of the 60-mile (90 kilometres) railway line connecting Rajpipla to Ankleshwar on the main Delhi-Ahmedabad-Bombay line, initiated in the first year of his reign, and massive famine relief during the period 1899–1902. Maharana Chhatrasinhji was one of the pioneers of motoring in India, owning cars like the Wolseley 6 hp 1903–04, Armstrong Siddeley 15 hp 1906 and Clement Bayard 16 hp.
But the builder of contemporary, affluent Rajpipla was his son, Maharana Vijaysinhji, who ascended the "gadi" in 1915 A.D. Educated at Rajkumar College, Rajkot and a member of the Imperial Cadet Corp, Dehra Dun, Maharana Vijaysinhji proved to be a great administrator, assisted by his "karbhari" Rasikbhai Dubla. Knighthood was conferred on Maharaja Vijaysinhji (KCSI), and he received the hereditary title of "Maharaja". The gun salute for the ruler of Rajpipla was raised from 11 to 13. During World War I Rajpipla State supplied many recruits. In recognition of his services Maharaja Vijaysinhji received the honorary rank of captain in the British Army.
Maharaja Sir Vijaysinhji built a huge, exquisitely-designed high school where only nominal fees were charged, and introduced free primary education and scholarships. He constructed a civil hospital, maternity hospital, five dispensaries and a veterinary hospital in the State. A criminal-and-civil court was established, pensions were paid to public servants, and the salaries of the police and military were increased. Maharaja Vijaysinhji ordered the laying of extensive public works and good motorable roads. He added the 40-mile (64 kilometres) Jhagadia-Netrang section to Rajpipla State Railway established during his father's reign. He also set up a 19-mile (31 kilometres) steam railroad and tramway connecting the towns along the river Narmada with villages in the interior, and a power house supplying electricity and water to Rajpipla town. His town planning in 1927 was far-sighted, and builders were given permission to construct, conditional to leaving 3 to 4 feet (about 1 metre) space for future widening of roads. The designs of new buildings were well integrated and in harmony with the surroundings.
Even though taxes were reduced in terms of percentage, the revenue of the State increased from Rupees 1,300,000 (Rupees 13 lakhs) to Rupees 2,700,000 (Rupees 27 lakhs) per annum in the period 1915–1930, and rose to Rupees 5,072,613 (nearly Rupees 51 lakhs) in 1945–46, which was the basic year for calculation of privy purse when the State was merged with the Indian Union later in 1948. Maharaja Vijaysinhji regularised the land revenue system, and his relief efforts during droughts and floods drew wide appreciation. With a keen interest in agriculture, he improved the quality of cotton by introducing long-staple cotton known as "1027 A.I.F" in 1919-20 which increased the income of farmers manifold, and also grains and fruits grown in his territory.
Sports were Maharaja Vijaysinhji's passion. He was a keen horseman and maintained one of the finest stables of race horses in India and England, marked by quality and not quantity. Maharaja Vijaysinhji won the first Indian Derby in 1919 when his horse Tipster led the pack at the finish. His horse Embargo won the Irish Derby in 1926 and Grand Prix in Belgium in 1927. Other horses, like Melesigenes, won him nearly all the big prizes in races at Bombay, Poona and other Indian courses, and in 1932-33 he topped the racing events in India. But, doubtlessly, his best horse was Windsor Lad, that won the coveted Epsom Derby of England in 1934. Maharaja Vijaysinhji is still the only Indian owner to have won the English Derby, considered the greatest horse race in the world, cheered on by an estimated quarter to half a million people on the course that day. King George V and Queen Mary of Britain, who watched the race along with other members of the Royal Family, invited Maharaja Vijaysinhji to the Royal Box and felicitated him on this brilliant victory. In the process the Maharaja completed a brilliant hat-trick of Derby wins: the first-ever Indian Derby, the Irish Derby and the coveted Epsom Derby of England, making him arguably the greatest Indian racehorse owner.
After his brilliant victory in the Epsom Derby, Maharaja Vijaysinhji began construction of what became one of the finest palaces of 20th century India, the magnificent Indrajit-Padmini Mahal, also known as Vadia Palace. Built in predominantly Indo-Saracenic style with a few western features, using the finest Italian marble and Burma teak, the exquisite largely centrally air-conditioned Art Deco palace has two huge wooden spiral staircases and 1,000 doors and windows, and beautiful frescoes in various themes on the walls and ceiling. Completed in 1939, this marvel of architecture came to be dubbed as 'The Taj of Gujarat'.
Maharaja Vijaysinhji spent much of the summer sporting season in England, and returned to India in the winter when he encouraged outdoor sports like cricket, football and hockey. Sports were made compulsory for students of Rajpipla State. He equipped Rajpipla with a polo ground and gymkhana club. A unique feature of the Rajpipla royal family was its polo team comprising Maharaja Vijaysinhji and his three sons (then) Yuvraj Rajendrasinhji, Maharajkumar Pramodsinhji and Maharajkumar Indrajitsinhji. Having a passion for cars like his father, Maharaja Vijaysinhji owned twelve Rolls-Royce cars, from the Silver Ghost 1913 to the Phantom III 1937, which were based at his palaces in Rajpipla, and stately homes in Bombay and Windsor. In his garages could be found several makes and models of the finest cars.
Having already gifted an aircraft to the Imperial Aircraft Flotilla during the First World War, Maharaja Vijaysinhji donated three Spitfire fighter planes, named 'Rajpipla', 'Windsor Lad' and 'Embargo', and a Hawker Hurricane aircraft 'Rajpipla II' when the Second World War was at its zenith. He was awarded the Knight Grand Cross (GBE).
Maharaja Vijaysinhji built an aerodrome in Rajpipla on a 125-acre site on the banks of the River Karjan in the late 1920s. This became defunct since merger of Rajpipla State with the Union of India in 1948. But after the building of the Statue of Unity in close proximity to Rajpipla, Government of Gujarat decided to revive this in 2018, and build a new Rajpipla airport there.
The Maharaja also had surveys carried out to build four dams across the Narmada, and also the Karjan, at places where both banks of the rivers fell in Rajpipla territory, to facilitate irrigation and generate electricity, and was in the process of raising investment for them. These were precursors to the present-day gigantic Sardar Sarovar project and Karjan dam.
Seeing the early signs of the winds of change, Maharaja Vijaysinhji formed a legislative assembly in Rajpipla State, which was inaugurated on 10 December 1932, the 17th anniversary of his formal accession to the gadi (or throne) of Rajpipla. He gave a fillip in Rajpipla in the 1940s, to the movement for 'responsible government' which was taking shape in the Indian princely States alongside the freedom movement in British India. After independence of India in 1947, when it came to talks regarding the accession of princely States to the Union of India, the Ministry of States under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel decided that talks with the rulers of Gujarat States would not be held at the Bombay Secretariat. Instead the Ministry requested Maharaja Vijaysinhji to convene the meetings at his own residence 'Palm Beach' at Nepeansea Road, Bombay. There were discussions under the chairmanship of Maharaja Vijaysinhji for three days, which went on till late at night.
At the end of it, Maharaja Vijaysinhji read out the following statement:
"We have the pleasure to inform you that, as rulers of Gujarat States, we believe our Mother Country and particularly Gujarat looks up to us to make all sacrifices in the wider interests of India as a whole. We, therefore, have cheerfully responded to the call of duty and decided to take the first step in forming the province of Maha Gujarat by integrating our States with the province of Bombay. We invoke God's blessings on our decision."
Maharaja Vijaysinhji, thus, readily handed over to the forces of Indian democracy, his beloved Rajpipla State that he had nurtured for nearly 33 years, along with Rupees 2,800,000 (Rs. 2.8 million or Rupees 28 lakhs) that were deposited in the State treasury. With the population around 3,00,000 inhabitants, the State was merged with the Indian Union on 10 June 1948, bringing to an end the 600-year rule of the Gohil Rajput dynasty over Rajpipla.
Maharaja Vijaysinhji passed away at his estate 'The Manor' at Old Windsor in England in April 1951, and was cremated at Rampura on the banks of the holy river Narmada, 18 kilometres from his former capital amid a huge gathering of the people of Rajpipla.
Rajpipla after 1971.
The title of Maharaja of Rajpipla passed on to Maharaja Vijaysinhji's eldest son Rajendrasinhji, and after his demise in 1963 to Raghubir Singh. The Indian princely order was finally abolished in 1971. Raghubir Singh's only son Manvendra Singh Gohil caused a stir in 2006 when he openly declared in the media that he is a homosexual. Raghubir Singh has a daughter Minaxi who married Digvijay Chand of Chenani in 1992. They have a son Ranajay Chand and a daughter, Dharini.
Maharaja Vijaysinhji's second son Maharajkumar Pramodsinhji joined the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and served in the Orissa cadre. He had four daughters Yogeshwari, Maheshwari, Durgeshwari and Krishna.
Maharaja Vijaysinhji's third son Maharajkumar Indrajitsinhji was one of India's finest polo players in the 1950s and a gifted artist whose paintings still adorn the walls of Mayo College, Ajmer. Maharajkumar Indrajitsinhji's two sons are Indra Vikram Singh and Indra Vadan Singh. Indra Vikram Singh is a well-known writer and publisher, and has authored ten books, nine of them on the game of cricket, and one entitled 'A Maharaja's Turf' on the triumph of his grandfather Maharaja Vijaysinhji in the Epsom Derby of 1934. Among his other books are several on the cricket World Cup, and 'Don's Century' which is a biography of the legendary Sir Donald Bradman and also a panorama of batting from the 1860s till the present times. Indra Vadan Singh has inherited his father's artistic talents, and runs his own tea blending, marketing and export business.
The well known cricketer K.S. Duleepsinhji, nephew of the famous H.H. Maharaja Jam Saheb K.S. Ranjitsinhji of Nawanagar or Ranji, married Maharaja Vijaysinhji's cousin Rajkumari Jayaraj Kunverba of Rajpipla.
The major part of the erstwhile princely state of Rajpipla now forms the Narmada district in Gujarat, with Rajpipla town as its headquarters, while some portions fall in Vadodara and Bharuch districts.
List of rulers.
Rulers bore the title Maharana until 1921, thereafter Maharaja.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 296

United Nations Security Council Resolution 296, adopted unanimously on August 18, 1971, after examining the application of Bahrain for membership in the United Nations, the Council recommended to the General Assembly that Bahrain be admitted.


Rose Memorial Auditorium

The Rose Memorial Auditorium (Rose Memorial or Rose) is a large multi-purpose theater (auditorium) on the campus of Central Philippine University in Jaro, Iloilo City. Rose is the largest auditorium in Western Visayas with a seating capacity of 4000 and has hosted over know international and local concerts, conventions and events from known from music groups and singers, and as well as conventions and summits of known public servants and organizations.
It was built as a memorial in honor of Francis H. Rose, one of American founding fathers of Central Philippine University alongside with the Hopevale Martyrs who died during the World War II.
The present day structure was built in the 1990s after the old one was burned down by fire. Recently, the Cultural Center of the Philippines has designated the Rose Memorial Auditorium for three-year Memorandum of Understanding, as one of the first batch of nine Cultural Center of the Philippines Regional Art Centers or Kaisa sa Sining Regional Art Centers in 2014.<ref name="Kaisa sa Sining: The CCP Regional Art Centers & University/College Art Associates">Kaisa sa Sining: The CCP Regional Art Centers & University/College Art Associates. Retrieved 05-01-2015.</ref>
With exception to the concerts that Rose hosts, it is also the venue for religious convocations of Central Philippine University and an biennial convention of the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches.
Notable concerts, summits and conventions.
Since the 1990s when the new Rose Memorial was opened to the public and university use of Central Philippine University, it became a known venue in Iloilo for performances of notable international and local bands (rock, pop, acoustic and group), recording artists/singers, other music groups, and as well as symposiums, summits and conventions of public servants and organizations.
Bands
Singers/Celebrities
Politicians, public servants and known personas in various sectors
Singing groups and others


National Development Party (Turkey)

The National Development Party () was the first opposition party in the multi-party system in Turkey, established by Nuri Demirağ in 1945.


Flag of the United Arab Emirates

The flag of the United Arab Emirates () contains the Pan-Arab colors red, green, white, and black. It was designed in 1971 by Abdullah Mohammed Al Maainah, who was 19 years old at that time, and was adopted on 2 December 1971. The main theme of the flag's four colors is the unity of Arab nations. In 2008, there was a minor change to the Emblem.
Merchant ships may fly the alternative civil ensign, a red flag with the national flag in the canton. Emirates Airlines utilises the UAE flag as part of their livery.
All seven Emirates use the federal flag interchangeably as the flag of the emirate.
Flag of each emirate.
Each of the seven emirates within the United Arab Emirates belonged to either Hinawi or the Ghafiri tribal confederations. Both tribal confederations had a red banner representing the Hashemite dynasty and allegiance to the prophet Muhammad. The Qawasim, although part of the Ghafiri, had their own flag (a green, white, and red banner) which used to distinguish them as a maritime power. In 1820, after the British Empire campaign on Ras Al Khaimah, six out of the seven emirates signed the General Maritime Treaty with the British Empire which compelled them to be under the British Protectorate rule and protection in the region. A white segment was enforced to be added to each emirate's flag. At that time, Fujairah was not recognized as an emirate by the British and hence did not sign the general treaty in 1820 with the British protectorate and therefore continued to use its plain red flag.
On 6 November 1975, Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi took down the British imposed flag, the White Pierced Red flag, from Sharjah and stated:
After defeating the Al-Qawasim tribe, the British occupiers gave the Qawasim this flag to replace their own flag, which used to have three horizontal colours: green, white and red from top to bottom, with a Quranic inscription 'A victory from Allah and an imminent conquest' on the white part. The loss of our national flag occurred on Saturday 8 January 1820. So what I have done now is restore dignity to the citizens of Sharjah of today and to the citizens of Sharjah of past time, all of whom have been obliged to salute the flag of the very aggressors who had removed our own flag, a flag that had symbolized the struggle of Al-Qawasim.
On 15 November 1975, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, and Fujairah followed suit and replaced their flags with the federation flag. Soon after the flags of the other emirates were lowered and the UAE flag was raised.
Abu Dhabi.
The flag of Abu Dhabi is a red flag with a white rectangle at the top-left corner. According to the 1820 General Maritime Treaty with the British, in times of war a full red flag would be used by the Bani Yas (Abu Dhabi and Dubai).
Although per the 1820 General Maritime Treaty with Britain Abu Dhabi was supposed to fly the Truical States flag, the White Pierced Red flag, in practice Abu Dhabi continued to fly a plain red flag. Percy Cox, the British Colonial Office administrator in the Middle East, was unsuccessful in convincing Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan to adopt the Trucial States flag, which, Zayed argued, represented the Al Qawasim tribal federation. Abu Dhabi later adopted a red flag with a top left white rectangle to distinguish it from the surrounding emirates.
Ajman and Dubai.
The flags of Ajman and Dubai are identical. They are both plain red with a white bar at the hoist, i.e. closest to the flag staff. The flag is known as the White Red Halved and was adopted as an alternative to the Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah White Pierced Red by the Emirate of Dubai and Ajman to distinguish their authority from the Al Qawasim in defiance of the bonds of the 1820 General Maritime Treaty with the British. To the British, this flag was titled as Truical Coast Flag No.1 and Abu Dhabi and Umm Al Quwain were also expected to adopt it. According to the 1820 General Maritime Treaty with the British, in times of war a full red flag would be used by the Bani Yas (Abu Dhabi and Dubai) and a full white flag would be used by Ajman.
The Shihuh of Musandam Peninsula (Ruus Al Jibal) also had a similar flag.
Fujairah.
Before 1952, the flag of Fujairah was plain red. Fujairah did not sign the general treaty in 1820 with the British protectorate and therefore is still using its red plain flag. From 1952 to 1961, the emirate's name was added to the flag, and a red flag with a white Arabic calligraphy of the emirate name was adopted as an ensign to distinguish it from the surrounding emirates. From 1961 to 1975, the emirate used a plain red flag again. In 1975, the flag was replaced with the national flag of the United Arab Emirates.
Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah.
The flags of Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah are identical as they are both ruled by two branches of the same house. They show a large red rectangle on a white background. The flag is known as the White Pierced Red and was the intended flag for all the Truical States according to the 1820 Maritime Treaty of the Truical States with the British. It was widely attributed to the Al Qawasim tribal federation. Percy Cox, the British Colonial Office administrator in the Middle East, was unsuccessful in convincing the rest of the emirates Sheikhs to adopt it. To the British, this flag was titled as Truical Coast Flag No.2. According to the 1820 General Maritime Treaty with the British, in times of war the original Al Qassimi flag (green, white and red flag) would be used by the Qawasim.
Umm Al Quwain.
The flag of Umm Al Quwain consists of a red background, a white bar at the hoist similar the flags of Ajman and Dubai, and a large white star and crescent in the center as a symbol of Islam and representing allegiance to the Islamic world. Umm Al Quwain flag was supposed to be the same flag used by Dubai and Ajman, the White Red Halved, but a star and crescent was added to distinguish it from the surrounding emirates.


Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck

Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (, ; born 21 February 1980) is Druk Gyalpo or "Dragon King" of the Kingdom of Bhutan. After his father Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicated the throne in his favour, he became the monarch on 9 December 2006. A public coronation ceremony was held on 1 November 2008, a year that marked 100 years of monarchy in Bhutan.
Early life and education.
Khesar is the eldest son of the fourth Dragon King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, and his third wife, Queen "Ashi" Tshering Yangdon. He has a younger sister, Princess "Ashi" Dechen Yangzom, and brother, Prince "Gyaltshab" Jigme Dorji, as well as four half-sisters and three half-brothers.
After completing his higher secondary studies at Yangchenphug High School, Khesar studied abroad at Phillips Academy Andover with the Class of 1998, then transferred to Cushing Academy, where he finished high school. He then attended Wheaton College before graduating from Magdalen College, University of Oxford, where he completed the Foreign Service Programme and International Relations.
Crown Prince.
The Crown Prince, popularly known to the people of Bhutan as 'Dasho Khesar', accompanied his father on his many tours throughout the Kingdom to meet and speak to the people. He also officially represented Bhutan on several international events.
On 8 May 2002, he represented Bhutan at the 27th UN General Assembly and made his first speech to the United Nations, addressing issues related to the welfare of millions of children around the world.
He attended Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadej's 60th Anniversary Celebrations on 12–13 June 2006 in Bangkok along with royals from 25 countries.
On 25 June 2002 the Crown Prince was awarded the Red Scarf by his father.
Trongsa Penlop.
On 31 October 2004, Khesar was installed as the 16th Trongsa Penlop in Trongsa Dzong. The institution of the Trongsa Penlop, started by "Zhabdrung" Ngawang Namgyal in 1647, signifies the true heritage to the Bhutanese Throne and the investiture ceremony of the Trongsa Penlop is the formal declaration of this status of the Crown Prince.
Ascension to the throne.
In December 2005, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced his intention to abdicate in his son's favour in 2008, and that he would begin handing over responsibility to him immediately. On 9 December 2006, the former King issued a Royal Edict announcing his abdication, and transferred the throne to Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who was officially crowned on 6 November 2008, in Punakha. Religious ceremonies and public celebrations were also held at Tashichho Dzong and Changlimithang Stadium in Thimphu. The coronation ceremony comprised an ancient and colourful ritual, attended by few selected foreign friends of the royal family and dignitaries, including the then-President of India, Pratibha Patil.
To welcome Khesar as King of Bhutan, people painted street signs, hung festive banners and decorated traffic circles with fresh flowers. He received white, yellow, red, green, and blue silk scarves.
Marriage.
Royal wedding.
As he opened the session of parliament on Friday, 20 May 2011, the King announced his engagement to Jetsun Pema, born in Thimphu on 4 June 1990. They were married on 13 October 2011 in Punakha Dzong. The wedding was Bhutan's largest media event ever. The ceremony was held in Punakha, followed by formal visits to different parts of the country. During the ceremony the King also received the Phoenix Crown of the Druk Gyaltsuen (Dragon Queen) from the most sacred Machhen temple of the Dzong and bestowed it on Jetsun Pema, formally proclaiming her Queen of the Kingdom of Bhutan. The wedding was held in traditional style with the "blessings of the guardian deities".
Children.
On 11 November 2015, it was announced that the King and Queen of Bhutan were expecting their first child, a son, early in 2016. They announced the arrival of their son Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck, who was born in Lingkana Palace in Thimphu, on 5 February 2016.
On 17 December 2019, it was reported that they were expecting their second child, to be born in Spring 2020. Their second son was born in Lingkana Palace in Thimphu on 19 March 2020. They formally uploaded the photo of their second son on 31 March 2020, through the official Facebook page. On 30 June 2020, the Royal Family announced that the second Gyalsey had been named Jigme Ugyen Wangchuck, and would be known as His Royal Highness "Gyalsey" Ugyen Wangchuck.
As king.
Democratisation.
The young king began his reign overseeing the democratization of Bhutan by presiding over the last sessions of the parliament where electoral laws, land reform and other important issues were debated. He said that the responsibility of this generation of Bhutanese was to ensure the success of democracy. He traveled extensively to explain and discuss the Draft Constitution of Bhutan with the people and to encourage participation in the upcoming democratic exercises. He continues such visits, speaking mainly to young people on the need for Bhutanese to strive for higher standards in education, business, civil service, and the need for people of a small country to work harder than those of others.
Diplomacy.
The King signed a new treaty of friendship with India in February 2007, replacing the treaty of 1949. Many government initiatives were undertaken by the new King with a view to strengthen the system in preparation for the democratic changes in 2008. The Constitution of Bhutan was adopted on 18 July 2008 by the first elected parliament.
Land reform.
The King's first landmark project after his formal coronation was launching the National Cadastral Resurvey in March 2009, aimed at resolving long-standing issues of excess land that affect every Bhutanese household. A variation of land reform focuses on improving the lives of people living in remote and difficult areas, with the Rehabilitation Project. The pilot Rehabilitation Project at Khinadang in Pemagatshel was initiated in June 2011, and inaugurated by Prince "Gyaltshab" Jigme Dorji Wangchuck on 28 October 2014. The Project resettled people living in less accessible areas to villages, and provided them with basic amenities and services, as well as support in agriculture. The project saw tremendous success, and similar projects are in the pipeline in other parts of Bhutan.
Kidu.
One of the most important and ongoing works of the King involves Kidu, a tradition based on the rule of a Dharma King whose sacred duty is to care for his people. The people can access Kidu in several ways: by applying to the Office of the Royal Chamberlain, which accepts applications during working hours; by sending applications through Dzongkhag Kidu Officers in every district, whose responsibility is to collect such applications as well as identify people who need help; and by appealing to the King directly. To give the people the opportunity for direct appeal, the King on his numerous road trips across the country stops for every potential appellant along the road.
There are several Kidu schemes designed to help certain groups of people, such as students unable to afford even the free education available in the country, elderly citizens, and those requiring medical treatment. The King has also continued the tradition of giving state land to landless farmers around the country. The ongoing project takes him to remote villages and communities. Kidu includes providing immediate assistance to victims of natural disasters. The King personally supervised the rebuilding efforts following major earthquakes and floods in 2009 and 2011.
In 2012, the King granted Nu.100 million from the Armed Forces to the Zhung Dratshang for the Dzong Reconstruction Fund, as on 24 June, the historic Wangduephodrang Dzong was destroyed by fire. As Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, he commanded the armed forces and to the site immediately, and with help from dzongkhag officials and citizens, many things were saved from the fire. The King himself rushed to the scene within hours.
DeSuung Training Programme.
The King initiated military-style training for volunteers known as the DeSuung Training Programme in 2011, on the request of the youth. The programme aims to equip volunteers with the skill to provide assistance during emergencies, and has been hugely successful, with over 3000 volunteers having completed their training and volunteering for public events and emergencies.
Amnesty.
The Constitution of Bhutan empowers the King to grant amnesty to prisoners. In 2014 he pardoned 45 prisoners who had been imprisoned for possessing an excessive amount of tobacco, following an amendment of the Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010 by the Parliament of Bhutan, since the amended law could not be enforced retroactively, and previous offenders who would not be liable now would still be tried under previous laws. The Royal Pardon was granted to those who were not repeat offenders and had good prison records.
Public perception and popularity abroad.
The "People's King", like his father, enjoys exceptionally warm relations with India. He has visited India on several occasions, and was invited as the Chief Guest for India's 64th Republic Day celebrations in 2013.
Following his 2006 visit to Thailand as Crown Prince, the King has been immensely popular in Thailand. The number of Thai tourists visiting Bhutan has increased steadily since the visit.
In November 2011, the King and Queen Jetsun Pema made a state visit to Japan; they were the first state guests to Japan since the 2011 earthquake. It was reported that the Japanese were infatuated with the King and Queen of Bhutan.
In March 2015, the King and Queen were among the foreign dignitaries who attended the funeral of Singapore's former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew.
Also, the King and the Queen attended the funeral of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand in October 2017 and the enthronement ceremony of Emperor Naruhito and Empress Masako of Japan in October 2019.


Princess Lakshmi of Nepal

Princess Lakshmi Rajya Lakshmi Devi (August 11, 1895 - September 4, 1954) was the eldest daughter of King Prithvi of Nepal. As the eldest daughter of King Prithvi, she was made the crown princess and was heiress to the throne until her younger brother, Tribhuvan was born.
Princess Lakshmi was married to Field Marshal Kaiser Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, a son of Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher Rana. The marriage took place at the Narayanhity Royal Palace. The Rana prime ministers, at that time, had most of the political leadership and dominance. They wanted to strengthen their rule and dominance, and wanted heirs of the Ranas to sit in the throne of Nepal; they arranged marriages between members of the Rana family and members of the royal family. King Prithvi had several daughters but no sons, and Chandra Shamsher then passed a new regulation on the law of succession, making it possible for a princess to accede to the throne. Princess Lakshmi thus became Crown Princess Lakshmi and was her father's heiress. However, Princess Lakshmi's younger brother Tribhuvan was born only five years before King Prithvi's death. As such, as King Prithvi's male heir, Tribhuvan acceded to the throne after his father died in 1911.
Princess Lakshmi died in 1954.


Shamsiah Fakeh

Shamsiah Fakeh (1924 – 20 October 2008) was a Malaysian nationalist and feminist. She was the leader of Angkatan Wanita Sedar (AWAS), Malaysia's first nationalist women organisation and a prominent Malay leader of the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM).
Early life.
Shamsiah was born in the village of Kampung Gemuruh near the town of Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan. She had her early education in the Madrasah Aliah Islaiah (also known as the Islamic High School) in Pelangai, Negeri Sembilan and was later sent to the Madrasah Tuddimiah in Padang Panjang, Sumatera in what was then the Dutch East Indies. It was during this time that she came under the influence of Lebai Maadah, an influential scholar and Islamic reformer.
Family life.
Shamsiah was married five times from the age of 17. Her first husband, Yasin Kina, abandoned her while she was pregnant with their second child and both children died in their infancy. Her second husband, J. M. Rusdi, was eventually discovered to be an informer for the Japanese forces then occupying Malaya.
She was also briefly married to Ahmad Boestamam, the leader of PKMM's youth wing, "Angkatan Pemuda Insaf" ("Awakened Youth Organisation"; API). In her memoirs, she claimed that her marriage with Boestamam broke down due to her disagreement with the latter's decision to pay a fine to avoid a jail sentence for publishing a book deemed seditious by government in 1947. Notably the marriage was never mentioned in any of Boestamam's memoirs and writings.
Her fourth husband, Wahi Anuwar, was a fellow CPM member who was captured by British and imprisoned. Shamsiah was told that he had surrendered and thought he was dead. He was, in fact, imprisoned for 15 years and eventually died in 1980.
Her final marriage was to another CPM member, Ibrahim Mohamad, in 1956. They remained married until his death in 2006.
Political activism.
Early involvement.
As a fiery orator, Shamsiah was scouted by both the United Malays National Organisation and the Malay Nationalist Party (, PKMM), the main Malay political parties in the post-war period. She eventually chose to join PKMM because she believed it was more dedicated to the struggle for Malaya's independence whereas she considered UMNO a puppet of the British. In 1946, she was asked to lead PKMM's women's wing, "Angkatan Wanita Sedar" ("Cohort of Awakened Women"; AWAS).
Armed struggle.
With the banning of the PKMM, API and AWAS in 1948 prior to the declaration of the Malayan Emergency followed by the mass arrests of left leaning Malay nationalists, Shamsiah retreated to the jungles and joined the predominantly Malay 10th Regiment of the Malayan People's Liberation Army of the CPM operating from Lubok Kawah near Temerloh, Pahang. When the 10th Regiment was forced to retreat together with the 11th and 12th Regiment to the Thai-Malaya border in 1953 after a series of military defeats beginning with the Battle of Padang Piul in 1949, Shamsiah joined the retreat and continued to fight as a guerilla until she was sent to the China for further education together with her husband, Ibrahim Mohamad, in 1956.
Exile.
The couple remained in China and served as broadcasters with Radio Peking's Malay language service airing propaganda broadcasts via shortwave to Malaya. In 1965, they were assigned by the party to Indonesia to set up a legation office of the Malayan National Liberation League. Their stint was, however, short lived as they were arrested later that year due to the anti-communist purges in Indonesia in the aftermath of the 30 September Movement. They remained imprisoned until 1967 when they obtained their freedom through the mediation of the embassy of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and obtained passage via Vietnam back to China.
As a result of faction politics within the CPM and the chaos that resulted from the Cultural Revolution in China during the period, Shamsiah and her husband became increasingly estranged from the party's Secretary General, Chin Peng. Both Shamsiah and her husband were expelled from the party in 1972. As they were unable to return to Malaysia (established in 1963 with the federation of Malaya, Singapore, British North Borneo, and Sarawak), they settled in the town of Xiangtan, Hunan and were assigned to work in a steel factory. She also served as a Malay language consultant with Radio Beijing and the Beijing Foreign Languages Institute.
Return to Malaysia.
Shamsiah and her family applied to the Malaysian government for permission to return to the country from 1985 onwards. Following the terms of the 1989 peace agreement signed between the CPM and the Government of Malaysia in Haadyai, Thailand, permission was finally granted on 23 July 1994 and Shamsiah returned along with her husband, their three sons and their four grandchildren. Upon their arrival, the family was met by Special Branch officers who took them to a resort and for about 10 days, they were debriefed and briefed on the local customs and political scenario in Malaysia. One of the conditions for the family's return was a bar on participation in politics and for the first few years upon their return, Shamsiah was not even allowed to participate in academic speaking engagements. Her Chinese daughters-in-law were initially barred entry into the country but were eventually granted permanent residency.
Her memoirs were first published in 2004 by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) but was immediately suppressed by the authorities and withdrawn from circulation. A new edition as well as a Chinese language translation was published in 2007 by the Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD) which saw UKM reintroduce their edition into the market.
Death.
Following a stroke in 1999, Shamsiah had generally been in poor health and was bedridden by 2007. She died on 20 October 2008 at the residence of her son, Jamaluddin Ibrahim (father of Jamaliah Jamaluddin), due to respiratory failure and was buried at the Sungai Besi Muslim cemetery at 5.30pm of the same day.
Present at the funeral were some prominent politicians including the deputy president of Parti Keadilan Rakyat, Syed Husin Ali, and Democratic Action Party Member of Parliament, Tony Pua.
Controversies.
In 1981, the defected chairman of the CPM, Musa Ahmad, claimed that Shamsiah had committed infanticide by killing her third child while in the jungle to avoid capture.
She subsequently denied the allegation in her memoirs and explained that she was convinced by fellow guerillas to give the child away to local villagers to be raised upon entering an unfamiliar district. It was only later that she discovered that the child had in fact been killed. The Japanese was raiding the whole village in an attempt to find her child, and threatened to behead everyone in the village if the child is found hidden by one of the villagers. There was no way to hide the crying child, so it was killed by one of the villagers by drowning, and the Japanese never found it.


Naya Muluk

Naya Muluk () is a geographical region of Nepal, which is situated western-south part in Nepal. The Terai land between Kali River to Rapti River called "Naya Muluk" after 1860.
History.
After Anglo-Nepalese War in 1814-1816, Nepal was forced to sign a treaty called Sugauli Treaty in which Nepal lost one third part of geographical territory. The geographical territory was sectioned in five parts as below:
Section: 2 and 3 (whole land from Rapti to Gundak and Gandak to Koshi) restored back to Nepal on December 11, 1816.
Section: 1 (whole low land between the Rivers Kali and Rapti) returned in 1860 called Naya Muluk.
Territory.
Naya muluk contains two district of Sudurpashchim province and two district of Province No. 5. Total area is and total population is 2144,846.


Andrey Sakharov (historian)

Andrey Nikolayevich Sakharov (; 2 June 1930, in Kulebaki – 26 June 2019, in Moscow) was a Soviet historian and specialist in the history of ancient Russia.
Career.
In 1993, Sakharov was appointed Director of the Russian History Institute, affiliated with the Academy of Sciences. He initiated a campaign to purge the institute of his Normanist opponents. It came under much criticism, forcing Sakharov into retirement in 2010.
Sakharov was an active member of the Presidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests that existed between 2009 and 2012.
Works.
His major monographs include "The Diplomacy of Ancient Rus" (1980) and its sequel, "The Diplomacy of Svyatoslav" (1982). For his studies of early medieval diplomacy Sakharov was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991).


Theemuge dynasty

Theemuge dynasty (Maldivian: ތީމު ދަރިކޮޅު) or Homa Dharikolhu (Maldivian: ހޯމަ ދަރިކޮޅު) was one of the early dynasties of the Maldives that reigned from c.1117 (or earlier) until c.1388.
History.
According to the record in the "Isdhoo" (Maldivian: ލޯމާ ފާނު; "copper plates"), which was written in 1194, the first king of the Theemuge dynasty extended his rule to cover the entire Maldives. The writing suggests that the king united the entire country under his rule, bringing to an end a number of fiefdoms throughout the country. The first king of the Theemuge dynasty is known as Siri Mahabarana and he is believed to be Koimala Kalo. Sri Mahabarana was proclaimed king in the year 1117 or 1118. Other sources suggest that the Theemuge Dharikolhu was the new name of the Soma Vansa Lunar Dynastry after the conversion to Islam of King Dhovemi which lasted from c.1153 to c.1388. In this case King Dhovemi, the fifth king of the Lunar Dynastry became the first King of the Theemuge Dynastry.
Svasti Sri Somavamsa Adipati Sri Theemuge Sri Maha Parama Aditya Maha Radun became the first king to rule over the whole of Maldives after reclaiming the northern atolls from the Indian invaders.


Tusi

Tusi (; ; ), often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ethnic minorities in southwest China and the Indochinese peninsula nominally on behalf of the central government. This arrangement is known as the "Tusi System" or the "Native Chieftain System" (). It should not to be confused with the Chinese tributary system or the Jimi system.
It has been described on at least one occasion as sharing similarities with the "U.S. federal government's recognition of some Native American tribes as in some ways sovereign entities." "Tusi" were located primarily in the province of Yunnan and in the regions of Guizhou, Tibet, Sichuan and Chongqing, Xiangxi Prefecture of Hunan, and Enshi Prefecture of Hubei. "Tusi" also existed in the historic dependencies of China in what is today northern Myanmar, Laos, and northern Thailand. Vietnam also implemented a "tusi" system under the Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1945).
In 2015, UNESCO designated three archeological Tusi village sites (Laosicheng, Tangya, and Hailongtun) as part of the "Tusi Sites" World Heritage Site, owing to the unique system of governance.
History.
Yuan dynasty.
The "tusi" system was inspired by the Jimi system () implemented in regions of ethnic minorities groups during the Tang dynasty. It was established as a specific political term during the Yuan dynasty and was used as a political institution to administer newly acquired territories following their conquest of the Dali Kingdom in 1253.
Members of the former Duan imperial clan were appointed as governors-general with nominal authority using the title "Dali chief steward" (, p "Dàlǐ Zǒngguǎn"), and local leaders were co-opted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region. Some credit the Turkoman governor Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar with introducing the system into China. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed as the first local ruler, and he accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. Duan Xingzhi offered the Yuan maps of Yunnan and led a considerable army to serve as guides for the Yuan army. By the end of 1256, Yunnan was considered to have been pacified.
Under the Yuan dynasty, the native officials, or "tusi", were the clients of a patron-client relationship. The patron, the Yuan emperors, exercised jurisdictional control over the client, but not his/her territory itself.
The "tusi" chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the Song and Tang dynasties also received recognition by the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.
Ming dynasty.
In 1364, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered Huguang. Rather than building a bureaucratic system of his own in Huguang, Zhu Yuanzhang chose to keep the native chieftaincy system implemented by the Yuan dynasty. He reappointed many "tusi" to the same posts as they had during the Yuan dynasty. Later, when he reunified China under the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang brought this practice to the entire southern border zone of the empire.
In 1381, the Zhu Yuanzhang sent a force against the last remnant of the forces of the Yuan dynasty, led by the Prince of Liang Basalawarmi, who committed suicide. This left Duan Gong, a successor of Duan Xingzhi, as the last representative of the remaining Yuan forces. He refused to surrender and attempted to have the former realm of the Dali Kingdom recognized as a tributary state. When he was defeated in battle, the surviving Duan brothers were taken captive and escorted to the capital. There they were given an insignificant office in the interior. From then on, "permanent chieftains were replaced by transferable officials," formally appointed by the Ming court.
Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute to Beijing annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was hereditary as opposed to the examination system in China proper, but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Ming administration which required each "tusi" to use a seal and an official charter. To establish legitimate successions, "tusi" were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming dynasty also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489.
"Tusi" chiefs could sometimes be female according to local customs and had full authority over their own tribesmen, but were kept under supervision by the Ming Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. Areas of "tusi" administration tended to explode into violence or turmoil intermittently and would invariably provoke Ming military intervention. However, these incidents are generally attributed to provocations by Chinese settlers or corrupt officials and not the fault of the tribes themselves.
The native chieftain system was a mutual-beneficial cooperation between the central government and native chieftains. For a quite long time after the foundation of Ming, the rulers knew that the central government could only use limited amount of resources. Having a large number of armies stationed in southern borderland, an area with harsh natural environment and large number of Non-Han people, was too costly for Ming rulers. Thus, they decided to transfer part of ruling power to those local political rulers in exchange for their defense of the border zone.
Civil and military tusis.
The Ming "tusi" were categorized into civil and military ranks. The civilian tusi were given the titles of "Tu Zhifu" ("native prefecture"), "Tu Zhizhou" ("native department") and "Tu Zhixian" ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains.
All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners ("Xuanfushi", "Xuanweishi", "Anfushi"). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War.
Throughout its 276 year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 "tusi" titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank, the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both "tusi" titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those "tusi" had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title "Yanhua Chanshi" (), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward.
Power and privileges of Tusi.
After a chieftain was recognized by the central government as a "tusi", he would receive a patent of appointment, a bronze official seal, a belt decorated with gold, and a formal attire as uniform. The title of "tusi" was hereditary and passed down to an heir.
The entire clan of a "tusi" enjoyed privileges within the domain. In Ming China, the clan of a "tusi" was called "Guanzu" ("official clan"). Members of the official clan had higher social ranks than commoners and slaves. Only members of official clan, Han Chinese, and descendants of former officials were allowed to receive education and take examinations.
Each "tusi" could build and live in a "yamen". A "yamen" was the headquarter of local officials that contained infrastructures, such as the courtroom, sacrificial altar, ancestral hall, granary, offices, and the living quarters of official’s family.
The structure of government and way of adjudication varied in each domain because of the diversity of "tusi"'s cultural backgrounds. Normally, there were no statute law in the domain. The will of the tusi was the law. A "tusi" had court and jail in his "yamen" and could imprison or punish his subjects as long as he thought it was necessary. For instance, Li Depu, the native official of Anping subprefecture in Guangxi province, brutally punished a serf for wearing white stockings because according to his dress rule only official clans were allowed to do so. Commoners ruled by tusi often called them "Tu Huangdi" ("local emperor"). This analogy between "tusi" and emperors in some way reflected the almost unfettered judicial power of a "tusi" in his domain.
"Tusi" were given the power of collecting tax in their domain. For seasonal religious rituals or sacrifices, "tusi" had rights to collect rice and copper coins from each local household. As the head of clan, each "tusi" had right to disposal the property of his clan.
Apart from bodyguards, "tusi" were allowed to maintain a private military, the size of which depended on their domain's resources, to better defend the borderland and suppress rebellion.
Responsibilities of native chieftains in Ming time.
The "tusi" were considered vassals of the Ming emperor. They enjoyed autonomy or semi-autonomy in their domains, but were expected to maintain order and defend the border zones for the Ming dynasty. When the Ming court wanted to start any campaign near their domains, the chieftains were required to lead their private armies and assist the Ming army in the battle. Those soldiers supplied by "tusi" were called "Tu Bing" ("native soldier"). In the campaign against Annam, the Ming court recruited a large number of native soldiers from the southern provinces.
Also, "tusi" were required to pay tributes to the Ming court. The periodic tribute goods sent by native chieftains contained various goods:
1.   animals, such as horses and elephants
2.   products made from rare wild animals, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceros’ horns
3.   medicinal herbs
4.   incense
5.   silver utensils
6.   minerals, such as tin
Income of "tusi".
"Tusi" received no regular salary or stipend from the government but they were allowed to collect tax from their subjects. These taxes could be paid with crops, textiles and money. Some "tusi" required their subjects to pay them copper coin and chickens as gifts at some specific events of their clan. For example, in Anping of Guangxi province, each household was required to donate 400 copper coins during weddings and funerals of members of the "tusi"'s family.
"Tusi" could get paid by the government for their assistance in the battles, but this did not happen regularly.
Gaitu Guiliu.
Gaitu guiliu (改土歸流) was a policy of abolishing the rule of local tusi (土司) and replace (gai 改) them by a "mainstream" (liu 流) direct administration. Gaitu guiliu was heavily enforced during the Ming and Qing periods.
During the Ming dynasty, there were 179 "tusi" and 255 "tuguan" (, "native civilian commanders") in Yunnan and titles were generally retained with the exception of punishment for severe crimes. The "tusi" were greatly reduced during the Ming-Qing era. By the time of the Yongzheng Emperor, there were only 22 left: Cheli, Gengma, Longchuan, Ganya (modern Yingjiang), Nandian, Menglian, Zhefang, Zhanda, Lujiang, Mangshi, Mengmao (Ruili), Nalou, Kuirong, Shierguan, Menghua, Jingdong, Mengding, Yongning, Fuzhou, Wandian, Zhenkang, and Beishengzhou.
Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The "tusi" acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as "gaitu guiliu" (), or "turning native rule into regular administration". The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern "tusi" chiefdoms into the province of Guizhou in 1413.
In sum, "gaitu guiliu" was the process of replacing "tusi" with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal.
Conflicts.
In 1388 the Ming–Mong Mao War was fought between the general Mu Ying and the semi-independent "tusi" of Mong Mao, Si Lunfa, located in what is now Tengchong in southwestern Yunnan.
In 1397 the Ming intervened in a Mong Mao succession dispute, known as the Ming–Mong Mao Intervention.
In the late 1300s Đại Việt attacked the tusi on the Guangxi border. This in conjunction with the overthrow of the Trần dynasty by the Hồ dynasty led to the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam.
In 1438 the Mong Mao rebelled again and their leader Si Renfa attacked local tusi along the Yunnan border. Si Renfa was defeated in 1442 and captured by the Ava king, who turned him over to Ming custody, where he died in 1446.
In 1621 the Yi people instigated the She-An Rebellion in Sichuan and Guizhou, which lasted until 1629 and took an astronomical toll on Ming resources before it was quelled.
End.
On 23 January 1953, the P.R. China (PRC) established the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region and ended the Native Chieftain system.
Native Chieftain titles.
The native chieftain system also fit in the Nine Ranks system ("Jiu Pin"; "九品").The Nine Ranks system is a system of gradations used by regimes from post-Han to Qing. Under this system, all the officials in the bureaucracy were put into nine major categories: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-upper, middle-middle, middle-lower, lower-upper, lower-middle, and lower-lower. Each category was given a rank numbered from 1 to 9. The rank 1 is the highest rank and the rank 9 is the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades: upper () and lower ().
The central government gave different titles to native chieftains and these titles had different ranks in the Nine Ranks system:


Sithu Kyawhtin of Toungoo

Sithu Kyawhtin of Toungoo (, ; died 1481) was Viceroy of Toungoo from 1470 to 1481, and a general in the Ava military. He was the maternal grandfather of Mingyi Nyo, the founder of Toungoo Dynasty of Myanmar. He was a son-in-law of Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa of the Forty Years' War fame.
Brief.
In 1470, King Thihathura of Ava assigned Gen. Sithu Kyawhtin to put down a rebellion by Toungoo, which had also called in help from Hanthawaddy Pegu. Sithu Kyawhtin led the army and was accompanied by two of the king's sons. The Ava army defeated Toungoo. The princes carried the rebellious governor of Toungoo off to Ava, and left Sithu Kyawhtin as the head of the troublesome province. Sithu Kyawhtin soon acted like a sovereign king of this remote region. In 1476, Sithu Kyawhtin enlarged the city of Toungoo, raising suspicions of some ministers at Ava. When news of this reached the king's ear, Sithu Kyawhtin was brought to Ava forcibly by pulling on his hair in a humiliating manner to demonstrate his obedience and loyalty to the king.
In 1480, Thihathura died, and the Ava throne was succeeded by his elder son Minkhaung II. The new king was promptly greeted by rebellions by his two brothers. Minkhaung II ordered Sithu Kyawhtin to attack Yamethin, one of the rebellious towns. Sithu Kyawhtin marched straight to Yamethin and without waiting for the reinforcements from Ava engaged the Yamethin troops in a pitched battle. He overcame the first wave of troops sent out of the town walls to meet them but his troops were defeated by the second wave and died in battle.


I Gusti Bagus Jelantik

Gusti Bagus Djilantik (1887-1966) was the raja of Karangasem Regency in Bali. He served under Dutch East Indies colonial rule. He built the Taman Ujung temple garden. He had the title Anak Agung Agung Anglurah K’tut Karangasem. The park was 400 hectares but was reduced by land reform programs to 10 hectares. The Kingdom's main palace of Puri Amlapura is in Amlapura and dates to the 16th century Balinese prime minister Batan Jeruk.


Mirisawetiya Vihara

The Mirisaweti Stupa (, "Mirisavæṭiya") is a memorial building, a "stupa", situated in the ancient city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. King Dutugamunu (161 BC to 137 BC) built the Mirisaveti Stupa after defeating King Elara. After placing the Buddha relics in the sceptre, he had gone to Tissa Wewa for a bath leaving the sceptre. After the bath he returned to the place where the sceptre was placed, and it is said that it could not be moved. The stupa was built in the place where the sceptre stood. It is also said that he remembered that he partook a chilly curry without offering it to the sangha. In order to punish himself he built the Mirisavetiya Dagaba. The extent of this land is about 50 acres (20 ha). Although the king "Kasyapa I" and "Kasyapa V" renovated this, from time to time it was dilapidated.


Matiya Mahal

Matia Mahal located at Hindaun in Rajasthan, India, is an ancient heritage of Hindaun. This magnificent building is about 150 feet long, 150 feet wide. This building is made of red sandstone. This is a three-story building. The people believe that soil and stone have been used in the past and it was constructed by a person named Matia and named after it was Matia Mahal.
But to study the structure inside it, it is known that the building was a horse of the fortress of horses here. The texture is similar to the horse. Here also the signs of binding elephants are clearly visible. The main door is very high but the entrance door is also high so that elephants can get out of comfort. In this case, the living rooms of the sepoys remained. There is a place beside it, which is probably the place of residence of horses and elephants.
it is a very ancient castle. It is a very beautiful palace, but at this time this situation is very bad. This is a focusing building, it can be a good attraction for tourism, the palace is a special thing that it is made of red sandstone.


Jinju Formation

The Jinju Formation is an Early Cretaceous geologic formation in South Korea. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus. It has been dated to the Albian stage. It predominantly consists of black shale, interbedded with sandstone packets, deposited in a fluvial-lacustrine setting.
A diverse spider fauna is known from the formation, including indeterminate mygalomorphs and palpimanoids as well as two species of lagonomegopid belonging to the genera "Koreamegops" and "Jinjumegops". Other compression fossils known from the formation include a species of the zhangsolvid fly "Buccinatormyia" and elaterid beetle "Koreagrypnus."