Prehistoric Norfolk

The prehistory of the County of Norfolk, England is broken into specific time periods.
Norfolk has a very rich prehistoric past, from the Palaeolithic era 950,000 years ago, to end of the Iron Age 2000 years ago. Indeed, Norfolk has the earliest evidence of human occupation of what is now Britain, and some of the country's best-preserved archaeological sites.
Palaeolithic.
The period from almost three-quarters of a million years ago until around 10,000 years ago.
During the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods the coast of Norfolk would have been 60–70 km further to the north than today, with much of the North Sea a wide, open plain. The size of the habitable land would have varied through the different glacial and interglacial periods up until the end of the Anglian Stage, as would have the climate, flora and fauna, and the general landscape of Norfolk. The Anglian glaciation was the 3rd from last glacial stage and occurred between 400,000 and 500,000 years ago. This stage was the last time the ice sheets reached East Anglia and it resulted in the deposits known as the Corton Formation.
The majority of the evidence for Lower and Middle Palaeolithic occupation in East Anglia survives as redeposited flakes and tools recovered from river gravel deposits. These river gravels were laid by the ancestral Thames and Bytham River systems. Large quantities of artefacts were identified from gravel quarries during the 19th and early 20th century due to the increased demand for gravel in the construction industry and the hand sorting of this gravel.
Lower Palaeolithic.
Bones and flint tools found in coastal deposits near Happisburgh. The artefacts were "in situ" in riverine deposits of the Cromer Forest Bed series. Experts previously thought the earliest humans arrived 700,000 years ago.
The flint assemblage consists of;
The importance of the flint assemblage of Happisburgh is not just to the understanding the prehistory of Norfolk, but to the understanding of prehistoric Europe. This is due to the first mentioned hand axe in the assemblage. The hand axe is an ovate handaxe made from black flint with pale grey coarse-grained inclusions, one face carries two small areas of pebble cortex, and is in near perfect condition. This handaxe is believed to be the earliest tool yet found in Europe; it was probably used as a knife for cutting up carcasses.
The environmental conditions of Happisburgh, shown through pollen analysis, suggests a picture of a temperate woodland with areas of fen carr and aquatic plants growing in a maritime environment of tidal sediments. With evidence showing a preponderance of pine and alder, with oak, elm and hornbeam also present; members of the galingale, buttercup and nettle families point to fen or reedswamp environments, while water-starwort, water lilies and bulrushes are among the aquatic plants present.
Other Lower Palaeolithic sites in Norfolk include:
There is little evidence of human occupation during the subsequent Ipswichian Stage between around 180,000 and 70,000 years ago, lead.
Middle Palaeolithic.
Roughly 60,000 years age to 30,000 years ago.
Well-preserved in-situ Middle Palaeolithic open-air sites are exceedingly rare in Europe and very unusual within a British context.
In-situ mammoth remains and associated Mousterian stone tools and debitage. The artefactual, faunal, and environmental evidence were sealed, in-situ, within a Middle Devensian palaeochannel with a dark organic fill.
Forty-four pristine Mousterian flint handaxes, the remains of at least nine Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoths).
 The assemblage.
Some 590 worked flint artefacts consisting of number of handaxes (pointed, subcordiform, cordiform, ovate and bout coupé forms), three cores and a number of retouched, utilised and waste flakes were individually recorded with over 1,000 pieces of microdebitage recovered from the 0.50 m2 spit units. A number of the handaxes and flakes were found in direct association with bones and/or tusks. The artefacts are generally fresh and relatively sharp with minimal abrasion or post-depositional edge damage. Typologically the assemblage falls within the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA) facies of the Middle Palaeolithic.
The Fauna, flora and environmental evidence.
In total, some 2,079 bones, tusks, antlers, and teeth of Mammuthus primigenius (mammoth), Coelodonta antiquitatis (woolly rhinoceros), Rangifer tarandus (reindeer), Equus ferus (wild horse), Bison priscus (bison), Canis lupus (wolf), Vulpes vulpes or Alopex lagopus (red or Arctic fox), and Ursus arctos (brown bear) were individually recorded and a further 25,000 bone, tooth, and tusk fragments recovered. Feces of scavengers (possibly the spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta) were also recovered from the organic sediments. No articulated skeletons were found. The bone varied in condition with some bones extensively weathered and others exhibiting traces of gnawing by predator-scavengers. Bone fractures characteristic of marrow extraction by hominids have been identified on some of the reindeer and horse bones recovered from the deposit. The faunal remains recovered from the palaeochannel are typical of the Pin Hole Mammal Assemblage Zone of the Middle Devensian.
Through archaeo-environmental analysis, 150 species of insect have been identified. These indicate the presence of standing water, marsh, bare sand and grass. Dung and carcass beetles add to the picture of giant rotting mammals being scavenged by hyenas and Neanderthals. The presence of sub-Arctic plants, insects and snails at this site indicates that the Neanderthals of this time lived in a climate like that of modern Scandinavia.
Interpretation
The mammoths appear to have been butchered but it is unclear whether these beasts were hunted, or their meat simply scavenged from corpses. The site is internationally important due to the rarity of such sites being preserved.
Other sites
There is little evidence from this period. Other sites within modern Norfolk include:
Upper Palaeolithic.
The Upper Palaeolithic period covers the end of the last glaciation Devensian Stage and the immediate post-glacial period Flandrian. At the beginning of this period Britain was a part of the European landmass and settlement in Norfolk was just an extension of the settlement of the North European Plain, while by the end of this period it had become more or less the island that we now know. At the end of the Devensian the sea-level was about 30 m below present with most of the land becoming forested with the ameliorating climate. In the mid-9th millennium BP, with the breaching of the land bridge, East Anglia became cut off from the rest of north-west Europe. Sea levels rose rapidly and peat formation commenced in low-lying areas.
Although material has been recovered from across the region dating to this period, there have been very few large scale excavations, particularly in recent years. The majority of material identified from East Anglia consists of stray artefacts with only a few known stratified sites. Norfolk also lacks the cave sites which have proved to be so important for the preservation of sites in other areas e.g. Kent's Cavern, Torbay, Devon; Creswell Crags, Derbyshire; Gough's Cave, Cheddar Gorge, Somerset. The Earlier Upper Palaeolithic is very poorly represented across the whole region although there is somewhat more known from the Later Upper Palaeolithic.
Early Upper Palaeolithic
Flint leaf points reported at Heacham and Feltwell but it is not certain that they are not products of the later, Neolithic industries which also included leaf points.
List of sites
Healy F., 1996" The Fenland Project No. 11: The Wissey Embayment: evidence for pre-Iron Age
occupation accumulated prior to the Fenland Project", E. Anglian Archaeol. 78, 53
J J Wymer and P A Robins 1994" A long blade flint industry beneath boreal peat at Titchwell, Norfolk " Norfolk Archaeology, Vol XLII, part 1
In general this period is still poorly understood in Norfolk.
Mesolithic.
The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe around 10,000 years ago. Temperatures rose, probably to levels similar to those today, and forests expanded further. By 8,500 years ago, the rising sea levels caused by the melting glaciers cut Britain off from continental Europe for the last time. The warmer climate changed the Arctic environment to one of pine, birch and alder forest; this less open landscape was less conducive to the large herds of reindeer and horse that had previously sustained humans. Those animals were replaced in people's diets by less social animals such as elk, red deer and aurochs which would have required different hunting techniques in order to be effectively exploited. Tools changed to incorporate barbs which could snag the flesh of a hunted animal, making it harder for it to escape alive. Tiny microliths were developed for hafting onto harpoons and spears. Woodworking tools such as adzes appear in the archaeological record, although some flint blade types remained similar to their Palaeolithic predecessors. The dog was domesticated because of its benefits during hunting (see Star Carr) and the wetland environments created by the warmer weather would have been a rich source of fish and game. It is likely that these environmental changes were accompanied by social changes with the groups that inhabited Britain at this time. Evidence from other parts of Britain suggests that during this period the people were becoming more settled rather than solely nomadic see Howich on the Northumbrian coast, Dunbar in East Lothian, although there is no evidence found in Norfolk to date.
Sites
Due to the coast being much further out than the present coast line and the barbed antler point found in the North Sea suggests there are many more Early Mesolithic sites under the North Sea off the Norfolk coast.
Other inland sites
The Breckland district seems to have been attractive to hunter-gatherers during the Late Mesolithic (c. 6000–4000 BC). This may be due to its proximity to the fen-edge and salt marshes, which were rich in wildfowl, and eels. The lighter soils of Breckland, lighter than on the claylands to the north, would have resulted in the wildwoods being less dense thus enabling easier hunting of deer and other species. Two recent excavations in different parts of Thetford are:
Microliths have frequently been found in the Brecks, including along the Little Ouse Valley, and around the edges of the meres (small lakes).
The heavier boulder clay of the Norfolk till plain has a site that has produced more flint tranchet axes than any other in East Anglia
Wymer, J.J. & Robins, P.A.. 1995. A Mesolithic Site at Great Melton IN Norfolk Archaeology. Vol. XLII, pp 125–147. Vol. XLII, p. 125ff.
Neolithic.
The Neolithic period, 4000-2500BC, has produced a larger archaeological record than the previous prehistoric periods due to their impact and changing their surroundings that the Neolithic peoples had on the landscape, from industrial to maybe religious needs. By the time of the Neolithic Norfolk, like the rest of Britain, was cut off from mainland Europe by the North Sea and the English channel.
Norfolk has revealed important information concerning this period in British history.
Neolithic communities seem to have preferred Norfolk's light soils and well-drained river valley tracts, rather than the heavily wooded central claylands, although these were probably occupied to some extent and also exploited for hunting and foraging. Excavation results indicate that the woodland was dominated by oak and pine, see Broome Heath and Colney. The fertile Rich Loam region of north and east Norfolk, with its loess-rich soils, may have been especially congenial, and the number of possible monuments here is striking.
Neolithic settlements
Duncan Garrow, Emma Beadsmoore & Mark Knight. 2005. "Pit Clusters and the Temporality of Occupation: an Earlier Neolithic Site at Kilverstone, Thetford, Norfolk". In VOLUME 71, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
Causewayed enclosures
All of the Norfolk Causewayed enclosure sites appear to be approximately circular, defined by relatively narrow ditches and pit sections, interspersed with narrow causeways. These enclosures are generally defined by single ditches, however the recently published plot of Roughton (Oswald et al., 2001: fig. 6.7), has identified a second, more ephemeral, inner ditch or feature. The three possible Norfolk examples are relatively small and have a marked circularity in comparison to many other causewayed enclosure sites in England
The way in which they were used is not fully understood, but they may have been a meeting point for small, dispersed groups of people living in the surrounding area, a place where the exchange of goods, ritual feasting and other ceremonial activities might have taken place.
All three enclosures, the only sites of this type known from the county, are notable for their small size and circular shape. In national terms their morphology is rather anomalous, a characteristic which can be interpreted in a number of ways. It has been suggested that they may have more in common with hengiform monuments of the later Neolithic and early Bronze Age than with 'normal' causewayed enclosures of the fourth millennium BC. Alternatively, they might represent a regional tradition distinct to this part of the country. In addition, the geographical distribution of the sites is confined to north-east Norfolk. While some allowance can be made for the usual factors associated with the distribution of cropmark sites (soils, geology, etc.), at present it seems that the clustering of the three sites in the north-east of the county may be of archaeological significance. The smaller dimensions of the Norfolk sites may be a reflection of the size and dispersal of the communities creating, maintaining and using them and it may not be necessary to assume that they occurred later than elsewhere in Britain. Although at present no excavation has taken place on any of the Norfolk 'causewayed' enclosures so these questions have yet to be answered.
References.
Henge sites
References.
Long Barrows
In Norfolk there is only rare evidence of the remains of Long Borrows, most of the remains having been ploughed flat over the years.
The barrow, as well as being used for burial, may also have had ceremonial uses.
Neolithic Industry


Tahir Pasha (governor)

Tahir Pasha, (, died 1913) was an Ottoman Brigadier General (mirliva) who originated from the region of Krajë, now in modern Montenegro and he was an Albanian. He served as governor of Mosul and Bitlis toward the latter years of his life.
Background.
Tahir Pasha entered the service of the Ottoman crown prince prior to 1876 and became his confidant. After the prince became sultan Abdul Hamid II he remained with him until the end of his reign. While Abdul Hamid II was in power, Tahir Pasha headed the palace guard and attained the rank of marshall, due to the growth of his protection force and responsibilities. Tahir Pasha served as a "vali" or governor of Mosul in the Ottoman Empire from 1889 to 1891. Then he was the "vali" of Van and Bitlis, Turkey.
Cevdet Bey, his first son, was a leader of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and was also "vali" of Van. Cevdet's brother-in-law was Enver Pasha, who established a department whose mission was to "free all the Islamic lands from foreign influence". Governors of "frontier provinces", like Van and Mosul, were specially picked for their positions and worked in conjunction with this department established as part of the Ministry of War. The goals was to create "free and independent Muslim states".
Prior to 1918, Enver Pasha was the Young Turks political movement leader.
Pasha kept a library of journals, newspapers and books about Islam, Ottoman culture, current affairs, astronomy, mathematics, geology, geography, history, chemistry, physics, and philosophy. He was a mentor or teacher, organizing contests on subjects like mathematics. One of his students, Molla Said, dressed haphazardly and refused Pasha's offer that, if Said would dress as a religious scholar, Pasha would allow him to wed his daughter and give him a house and 1000 gold liras.
Pasha was quite upset by a newspaper article that mentioned his concern about Europe's intentions towards Muslims and a quote that in order to dominate people of the Muslim faith, they must either change their religion convictions or take them away from them.
Career.
Tahir Pasha transferred from Van to Bitlis about the time of the Turkish Tax Revolts of 1906–1907. The previous "vali", Salim Pasha, was considered "able and energetic" and Tahir had made financial decisions that were not previously under the governor's domain. For instance, he was ignoring "depredations" against the Kurdish people. His time was sent on diverting funding from Armenian schools elsewhere. There was also an increase in murders during his rule. Repeated calls to fire Tahir were made to the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) by the Kurdish and Armenian communities, particularly the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), and governmental personnel. Having originally believed that Pasha was a constitutionalist (wanting restoration of the Ottoman constitution of 1876), by March 1910 CUP was in agreement that a change in leadership was necessary. In July it was announced that Tahir's replacement would be Ismael Hakki, who was "vali" of Isgeti.


Great Fire of Turku

The Great Fire of Turku ( and ) was a conflagration in the city of Turku; that is still the largest urban fire in the history of Finland and the Nordic countries.
The city had burned once before, in 1681.
Description.
The fires started burning on 4 September 1827 in burgher Carl Gustav Hellman’s house on the hill slightly before 9 p.m. The house had possibly been lit on fire by sparks flying from the chimney of a neighboring building. The fire quickly swept through the northern quarter, spread to the southern quarter and jumped the Aura River, setting the Cathedral Quarter on fire before midnight. By the next day, the fire had destroyed 75% of the city. Only 25% of the city was spared, mainly the western and southern portions.
The fire destroyed the downtown area of Turku, including Turku Cathedral and the main building of the Imperial Academy of Turku, Akatemiatalo, which were badly damaged. The disaster was made possible by a dry summer preceding the event, a fire-spreading storm rising on the night of the fire, and a lack of extinguishers because a large number of the city's people happened to be visiting a market in Tampere that day. The damage was considerable and was felt for a long period of time in the aftermath of the event. 11,000 people were left homeless, and 27 casualties and hundreds of wounded were recorded.
The night of the fire, Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, Observator at the Imperial Academy of Turku, was in the Vartiovuori Observatory on . Due to the fire, he had to stop what he was doing. In his observation log, he wrote: "Today observation was interrupted by a horrible fire that reduced Turku to ashes”. The observatory, placed on the top of a tall hill, was spared though and work was continued on 9 September. As the rest of the academy has suffered great damage, its indispensable activities such as meetings of the consistory and the Chancellor’s Office, were moved to the observatory. Most Finnish archives, including practically all material from the Middle ages, were destroyed in the fire.
Aftermath.
At the time of the fire, and for some time afterwards, Turku was the largest city in Finland, which is why the Great Fire of Turku was a major national disaster. As a result of the fire, the Imperial Academy of Turku was transferred to Helsinki, which in 1812 had been made the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland.
Governor-General of the Grand Duchy of Finland Arseniy Zakrevskiy was responsible for rebuilding the city after the fire. His proposal resulted in the Senate of Finland selecting Architect Carl Ludvig Engel to create the new city plan for Turku. Downtown Turku is still based on Engel’s grid plan, which was approved on 15 December 1828. The largest buildings in downtown Turku, the cathedral and Akatemiatalo, were refurbished, and some of the other buildings, such as the Old Town Hall and the former sugar factory, were rebuilt. The majority of the city, however, had to be completely rebuilt. Turku’s grid plan design had a significant influence on how other Finnish towns were laid out.
The Cloister Hill area, which was completely spared due to its location on the outskirts of the area hit by the fire, was protected and opened up as an open-air museum in 1940.


Salerno landings


Osmington Oolite

The Osmington Oolite is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.


Territorial evolution of Greece

The borders of Greece from the Protocol of London from March 22, 1829 until the accession of the Dodecanese were changed nine times and its territorial extensions were seven.
First borders of independent Greece.
The Poros Conference in 1828, immediately after the Battle of Navarino, had the primary task of delineating the future borders of the Greek state. John Capodistria presents two plans for the land border:
According to the London Protocol (1829), the land border to the north is established on the Arta–Volos line. The British strongly opposed the border in western Greece due to their interest in keeping the mainland opposite the British protectorate of the Ionian Islands away from Greek hands, lest it encourage irredentionist aspirations in the islands. The subsequent London Protocol (1830), however, returned the land border to the Aspropotamos–Spercheios line.
The Treaty of Constantinople (1832), confirmed at the London Conference of 1832 establishing the new land border of the Kingdom of Greece finally on the Arta–Volos line.


Jogentagana

Jogentagana (Latin: "Jogentagania") was a small landlocked ancient Estonian county in the eastern part of the territory of Estonia. It was conquered by the Teutonic Order in the Estonian Crusade and became part of the Livonian Order.


Architecture in modern Scotland

Architecture in modern Scotland encompasses all building in Scotland, between the beginning of the twentieth century and the present day. The most significant architect of the early twentieth century was Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who mixed elements of traditional Scottish architecture with contemporary movements. Estate house design declined in importance in the twentieth century. In the early decades of the century, traditional materials began to give way to cheaper modern ones. After the First World War, Modernism and the office block began to dominate building in the major cities and attempts began to improve the quality of urban housing for the poor, resulted in a massive programme of council house building. The Neo-Gothic style continued in to the twentieth century but the most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo-Romanesque buildings.
After the Second World War, brutalist tower blocks were adopted as a solution and this period saw the building of new towns, including Glenrothes and Cumbernauld, but the social and building problems of these constructions soon became apparent. The creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches. From the 1980s Scottish architecture began to recover its reputation, with new buildings like that created to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow and more recently the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh. There has also been urban regeneration, involving the replacement and renovation of existing buildings and landscapes. The 1980s saw the growth of speculative house building by developers and the introduction of English brick and half-timbered vernacular styles to Scotland. As the production of state sponsored housing subsided in the 1970s there was a return to conservatism in church design, but there were some original and post-modern designs from the 1980s.
Glasgow style and the early twentieth century.
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century, having a considerable influence on European architecture, was Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928). He mixed elements of the Scottish baronial architecture, Arts and Crafts Movement and the Art Nouveau to produce elegant modern buildings. His major work included The Willow Tearooms in Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow (1903), Glasgow School of Art (1897–1909) and Hill House, Helensburgh (1902–04). The influence of Mackintosh's Glasgow style can be seen in the work of architects like James Salmon (1873–1924), whose designs included the heavily glass-fronted, Art Nouveau "Hatrack" (1899–1902) on Vincent Street and the Lion Chambers, Hope Street (1904–05), an early example of reinforced concrete construction.
Estate house design declined in importance in the twentieth century. An exception was the work undertaken by John Kinross (1855–1955). Beginning with the reconstruction of Thurston House, Dunbar, from 1890, he undertook a series of major country house designs. The most important was Manderston House (1901–03), built for James Miller in the Adam style. Skibo Castle was rebuilt for industrialist Andrew Carnegie (1899–1903) by Ross and Macbeth. English architect C. H. B. Quennell designed a neo-Georgian mansion at Altmore (1912–14) for the owner of a Moscow department store. There was a lull in building after the First World War and social change undermined the construction of rural country houses.
In the twentieth century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as Portland cement, concrete, and mass-production brick. Stone would however be retained as a material for some housing stock in Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dumfries, and would undergo revivals. In the twentieth century private architecture was increasingly client driven. James Robert Rhind (1854–1918), the son of David Rhind, was successful in the competition for new libraries to be constructed in Glasgow following Andrew Carnegie's gift of £100,000 to the city in 1901. His designs were selected for seven libraries, allowing him to demonstrate his individual interpretation of Edwardian Baroque architecture. Rhind's libraries were all built with locally quarried sandstone, which blended in with the existing tenement neighbourhoods. His landmark buildings were greatly enhanced by his liberal use of columns, domes and sculpted features. James Miller (1860–1947) is noted for his Scottish railway stations, such as his 1901–05 extensions to Glasgow Central railway station, and the spectacular Wemyss Bay railway station on the Firth of Clyde.
Early modernism.
After the First World War, Miller and his chief designer Richard Gunn (1889–1933) along with others, adapted to the growing needs of the office block. In Glasgow, with its central gridiron plan, this followed the practice in the United States of filling up entire blocks and building steel framed buildings as high as the fire marshal would allow, as in the heavily American-influenced Union Bank building (1924) at St Vincent Street. From the mid-twentieth century, public architecture became more utilitarian, as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive welfare state. Thomas S. Tait (1882–1954) was among the most important modernist architects of the era, using pyramidal stepped designs for buildings like the St Andrew's House, Edinburgh (1935–39) built for the Scottish Office, and the 1939 "Tower of Empire" for the Empire Exhibition, Scotland 1938, held in Bellahouston Park, Glasgow. There was a lull in building after the First World War and social change undermined the construction of rural country houses. Isolated examples included the houses that combined modern and traditional elements, designed by Basil Spence and built at Broughton Place (1936) and Gribloch (1937–9). After World War Two a shortage of building materials further reduced the number of large luxury houses. Isolated examples included Logan House, designed by David Style in the 1950s. In the 1960s there was Basil Hughes's design at Snaigow for Earl Cadogan and the remodelling of Gask House by Claude Phillimore. This period also saw considerable restoration of existing houses.
During the First World War the government became increasingly aware of Scotland's housing problems, particularly after the Glasgow rent strike of 1915. A royal commission of 1917 reported on the "unspeakably filthy privy-middens in many of the mining areas, badly constructed incurably damp labourers' cottages on farms, whole townships unfit for human occupation in the crofting counties and islands ... groups of lightless and unventilated houses in the older burghs, clotted masses of slums in the great cities". The result was a massive programme of council house building. Many early council houses were built on greenfield sites away from the pollution of the city, often constructed of semi-detached homes or terraced cottages. Knightswood, north-west of Glasgow, was built as a show piece from 1923–29, with a library, social centre and seven shopping "parades". In the 1930s schemes tended to be more cheaply built, like Blackhill, Glasgow, with a thousand houses built as two and three story tenements. These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance, by which thousands of tenements were demolished. However, often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks, they soon became notorious. A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland's houses were still inadequate.
The Neo-Gothic style that had become almost universal for church building in the late nineteenth century continued in to the twentieth, with examples including L. G. Thomson's Reid Memorial Church, Edinburgh (1929–33). However, the most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo-Romanesque buildings. Protestant examples included H. O. Tarbolton's Bangour Village Church (1924–30) and Roman Catholic examples included Reginald Fairlie's Immaculate Conception Church, Fort William (1933–34). The reunification of the Church of Scotland in 1929 removed much of the need for new Presbyterian church-building, which was replaced by a tendency towards renovating nineteenth-century churches. The main tendency in church design in the 1930s was a move towards classicism. There were isolated large classical Protestant commissions, such as Bristo Baptist Church, Edinburgh (1933–35), but the major buildings in this form were in the Catholic Church where there was a movement towards worshipper-centred basilican plans, after the pontificate of Pius X (1903–14). This movement reached its peak in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council. The leading figure in pursuing this style was Giacomo Antonio (Jack) Coia of Gillespie, Kidd & Coia. From the later 1920s he pursued a brick style of Catholic architecture. Coia's first church, St Anne's, Dennistoun (1931), utilised the engineering techniques of Beaux-Arts architecture, resulting in a broad, centralised space, with narrow arcades rather than aisles, with a monumental facade of red-brick. He used a more linear plan in subsequent designs, including St Patrick, Greenock (1934–35). Coia's partner T. Warnett Kennedy's temporary, open-roofed Catholic chapel at the Empire Exhibition (1938) was fronted by a Mackintosh-like grid of metalwork, and with his St Peter in Chains Church, Ardrossan (1938), with austere walls and towers, showed the influence of the "abstract compositions" of contemporary Swedish architecture and pointed to the future influence of modernism.
Post-war brutalism.
In the post-war period Scotland continued to produce important architects, including James Stirling (1926–92), who, with James Gowan (1923–) designed the Flats at Ham Common, London (1955–58), considered a landmark in the development of modernist, brutalist residential planning, a style which would have a profound impact in Scotland. Their later work, almost all of it outside Scotland, would be highly influential on an international scale.
The main thrust of post-war planning would be one of clearance and rebuilding, beginning in Paisley, where from 1955 the populations of districts were decanted, the buildings demolished and rebuilding began, resulting, in the first district, George Street/ Canal Street, in low flats in render and reused rubble around landscaped courtyards, with a 15-storey tower at one end. As the post-war desire for urban regeneration gained momentum it would focus on the tower block, championed in Glasgow by David Gibson, convener of the city housing committee. Projects like the brutalist Red Road Flats originally offered hope of a new beginning and an escape from the overcrowded nineteenth-century tenements of the city, but lacked a sufficient infrastructure and soon deteriorated. They also made extensive use of asbestos as a fire retardant, leading to long term health problems for builders and residents. Robert Matthew (1906–75) and Basil Spence (1907–76) were responsible for redeveloping the Gorbals in Glasgow, for demolitions at the University of Edinburgh and the stark rebuilding typified by the David Hume Tower (1960–63). The new confidence of this period can also be seen in infrastructure projects, of which the Forth Road Bridge (opened 1962) was a key example.
Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like Glenrothes (1948) and Cumbernauld (1956), designed to take excess population from the cities. These used a new low, dense pattern of community design, with terraced cottages and low flats. Cumbernauld was praised for its architecture when first built, but the uncompleted centre and the layout of the town in general, were receiving heavy criticism by the twenty-first century: its modernist architecture described by one resident as "the lego fantasy of an unhappy child". The brutalist tendency in comprehensive Scottish urban planning would be derided by critics for its "tabula rasa planning" and "architect's arrogance".
The creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches. The austerity, shortage of materials and need for rapid building, discouraged the development of innovative design. This was accompanied by the rejection by most architects of traditional forms in favour of International Style, characterised by simple outlines, uncluttered internal spaces, absence of colour, and flat roofs. The Catholic Church, whose traditional membership was most affected by the changes in housing, was the first to react to this situation, creating 76 new parishes between 1845 and 1960 in the west of the country alone. The Baptist and Episcopalian churches followed close behind, particularly in the new towns. Within the Church of Scotland, the closeness of congregation and clergy was expressed in the domestic plainness of 1950s dual-use hall churches, as at Reiach's Kildrum Parish Church, Cumbernauld (completed 1962), a steel framed building, clad in timber and brick with a flat roof. Of 129 buildings erected by the Church of Scotland between 1948 and 1959, 108 were on this basic pattern.
Postmodernism: 1980s to the present.
From the 1980s there was a backlash against the statism and compressive nature of modernist architecture. Instead there was a move towards a form of post-modernism that looked to a clash of styles with a renewed emphasis on visual aesthetics that invoked classicism. There was also a combination of the private and the public. This movement against modernism also included renewed influence by the Scots baronial and Mackintosh-inspired designs; these can be seen respectively in the Scandic Crown Hotel (1988–89) in the Old Town in Edinburgh and the National Library Causewayside Building (1985–87, extended 1993–94). The most significant figure in the development of architecture in Scotland from the 1980s was the academic Charles McKean. He was secretary and treasurer of the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland (RIAS) from 1979 to 1995. He argued against motorway expansion and the production of grey, colourless monoliths. Early private works influenced by these ideas included the D. & D. Warehouse, Centre Street and the Bank of Pakistan in Sauchiehall Street, both in Glasgow. Public structures included the building to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow (1981) and the Glasgow Sheriff Court (1980–86).
Since the 1990s there has been a return to some elements of modernism, particularly in major public building projects. Recent major public buildings include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, Glasgow (1997), designed by Norman Foster (1935–) and known for its segmented, curving roof as "the Armadillo", and the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde, such as the Glasgow Science Centre, IMAX Cinema and Glasgow Tower (2001), which is the highest in Scotland. The most important public building of the early twenty-first century is the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh, designed by Enric Miralles (1955–2000) and opened in 2004, with a design that recalls upturned fishing boats. There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland's architectural heritage, including the great buildings and monuments, but also the classically influenced houses of towns like Edinburgh and Glasgow and the surviving tenements, many of which have been renovated, restored from the black fronts created by pollution to their original pink and honeyed sandstone, and brought up to modern standards of accommodation. Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post-industrial decline, like the Merchant City in Glasgow, which was returned to housing from the 1980s, with warehouse loft conversions, and, more recently, the waterfront in Edinburgh, resulting in a return of resident populations to major urban centres.
The 1980s saw the growth of speculative house building by developers. These introduced English brick and half-timbered vernacular styles to Scotland, which had been largely unknown before this period. Many were small and built to minimum standards with little regard to energy or environmental issues. Sales of council houses were popular in Scotland and until the mid-1990s as, unlike in England, local authorities could use the whole of their capital receipts for development. Under the Scottish Assembly, Scottish Homes was abolished and replaced by Communities Scotland in 2001, which had a responsibility to provide affordable housing and environmental improvement. In 2011 it was in turn replaced by the Scottish Housing Regulator, whose remit includes Scottish local authority landlords.
As the production of state sponsored housing subsided in the 1970s, there was a return to conservatism in church design, which may have reflected a loss of confidence in the churches as attendances rapidly declined. M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie have identified a "post-Coia" style emerging in this period. The limited number of new buildings, some replacing existing churches, tended to be produced by building companies using laminated timber beams, exposed brickwork and pyramidal roofs to produce utilitarian, if aesthetically unadventurous, constructions. From the late 1980s there were some original designs, including St Mary the Virgin, in Port Glasgow (1984) by Frank Burnet, Bell and Partners; St Anthony's Catholic church in Kirriemuir (1987), by James F. Stephen Architects; and the replacement church at St Joseph's Catholic Church, Faifley (1997) by Jacobsen and French. There was also the postmodern design of St John Ogilvie Catholic Church, Irvine (1982) by Douglas Goodwin Malcolm Niven , and the nearby Girdle Toll parish church (1992), which was converted from a farmhouse.


Galve, Teruel

Galve is a municipality located in the province of Teruel, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2006 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 145 inhabitants. There is an important paleontological site.
Paleontological significance.
The Galve area is a productive area full of fossil sites well known for its faunal assemblage of dinosaurs, notably the sauropods and mammals. This region is also noted for its lissamphibians, lizards and turtles, as well as diverse multituberculates, dryolestoids, and spalacotheriids.
Spanish paleontologists have worked this site for years, including José Ignacio Canudo, José Luis Barco, Gloria Cuenca-Bescós, and José Ignacio Ruiz-Omeñaca.
The Galve region sediments date back to the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, with five formations ranging in age from Tithonian to Aptian listed below:
Fauna.
Dinosaurs.
Theropods (spinosaurines), sauropods, and ornithischians have been reported from the Galve region. Fossil teeth belonging to baryonychines, allosauroids, dromaeosaurids and indeterminable coelurosaurs have also been recovered at some of the Galve sites. Those indeterminable coelurosaur teeth are from the Galve outcrops of the El Castellar Formation, and bear some avian resemblance.
Sauropods.
Sauropods from the Galve region include "Aragosaurus ischiaticus", "Galveosaurus herreroi", and "Turiasaurus riodevensis". Isolated remains have also been referred to camarasaurids, brachiosaurids, and diplodocids. "Aragosaurus" has been identified as a camarasaurid, a titanosaur, and recently, a eusauropod of uncertain affinities. "Galveosaurus" was originally described as a cetiosaurid but later argued to be a basal macronarian, and "Turiasaurus" was argued by its describers to represent a new clade close to neosauropod ancestry, Turiasauria. A new study also concluded that "Galveosaurus" was a turiasaur, and not a cetiosaurid or macronarian.
"Galveosaurus" was published in 2005 by Barbara, naming it "Galveosaurus herreroi", in the journal Zootaxa. Late that same year, a team led by José Luis Barco published a less formal article in the magazine "Naturaleza Aragonesa" (Barco et al. 2005), and here they named the same taxon "Galvesaurus herreroi"(a difference of one letter).
A "Camarasaurus"-like taxon is represented only by teeth from the El Castellar Formation. These teeth bear a strong resemblance to the teeth of "Camarasaurus" than the teeth of any other sauropod. However, their younger age (Hauterivian-Barremian) makes them substantially younger than "Camarasaurus", and hence likely to belong to a separate taxon.
Heterodontosaurids.
Heterodontosaurids have also been attributed to the Galve region. Heterodontosaurids are a mostly Early Jurassic clade, best known from southern Africa.
Crocodilians.
Numerous crocodilians have been found in Galve. One particularly notable find is an outcrop of the Villar del Arzobispo Formation at El Cantalar that preserves a trackway produced by a crocodyliform that measures approximately 12 meters in length, comparable in size to "Deinosuchus", "Sarcosuchus", and the unique "Stomatosuchus". Furthermore, teeth, osteoderms, and bones belonging to atoposaurids, "Bernissartia", and possibly pholidosaurids and teleosaurids are all known from the Galve region, illustrating the amount of crocodilian material preserved at the site.
Pterosaurs.
Pterosaur teeth have also been uncovered in the Galve region, although more substantial remains are rare. However, there are enough remains at the sites to determine that the Galve region hosted a wide variety of pterosaurs at one point. Pterosaurs that have been discovered at this site include ornithocheirids, dsungaripterids, possible gnathosaurines, and istiodactylids.


San Leone, Saracena

San Leone is a 12th-century Byzantine church located in Saracena, region of Calabria, Italy.
History.
Built in the Greek Cross layout typical of churches of Byzantine cult (11th century), the church, originally dedicated to St Catherine of Alexandria, was reconsecrated to St Leo in the 13th century by bishop Guglielmo di Bisignano. The layout has elements of both Romanesque and early Gothic architecture. For example, the bell-tower has mullioned windows. In the 17th century during the Sanseverino rule of the region, the church was heavily ornamented in a Baroque fashion. On the ceiling of the central nave are frescoes depicting four episodes of the Old Testament: the "Sacrifice of Abraham", "Judith and Holofernes", the "Good Shepherd", and a "Coronation of the Virgin". The interior houses 12 altars. They include a marble Mannerist style statue of the Virgin and a ciborium (1522) by an unknown Tuscan sculptor.
The portal decorated with yellow stone, was carved in Renaissance style by a local 16th-century artist. To the left of the entrance is the 16th-century baptismal font with stone base with a sculpted lion and foliage. The lion holds the seal of the church with a bishop's mitre, and the words "S. Leo 1592". Above the portal are statuettes depicting a baptism.
The main altar, with a polychrome baroque balustrade, has a 16th-century marble Virgin. The apse is frescoed with angels and a depiction of heaven. At the left in the choir is a fresco of "St Heliodorus". In the right nave, near the secondary door, is the 17th-century altar of Santa Maria degli Angeli, housing the marble statue of "Santa Maria degli Angeli with Child-Jesus". The Virgin wrapped in thick draperies dates back to the seventeenth century and is of Neapolitan manufacture built in Baroque style. The work was transferred to San Leone from its original location in the town's Capuchin monastery, which was suppressed by the French military. The church underwent a major restoration in 1960.


Reformation in Switzerland

The Protestant Reformation in Switzerland was promoted initially by Huldrych Zwingli, who gained the support of the magistrate (Mark Reust) and population of Zürich in the 1520s. It led to significant changes in civil life and state matters in Zürich and spread to several other cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy. Seven cantons remained Roman Catholic, though, which led to inter-cantonal wars known as the Wars of Kappel. After the victory of the Catholic cantons in 1531, they proceeded to institute counter-reformatory policies in some regions. The schism and distrust between Catholic and Protestant cantons would define their interior politics and paralyse any common foreign policy until well into the 18th century.
Despite their religious differences, and despite an exclusively Catholic defence alliance of the seven Catholic cantons ("Goldener Bund"), further major armed conflicts directly between the cantons did not occur. Soldiers from both sides fought in the French Wars of Religion.
In the Thirty Years' War, the thirteen cantons managed to maintain their neutrality, partly because all major powers in Europe depended on Swiss mercenaries, and would not let Switzerland fall into the hands of one of their rivals. The Three Leagues ("Drei Bünde") of the Grisons, at that time not yet a member of the confederacy, were involved in the war from 1620 on, which led to their loss of the Valtellina from 1623 to 1639.
Development of Protestantism.
After the violent conflicts of the late 15th century the Swiss cantons had had a generation of relative political stability. As part of their struggle for independence, they had already in the 15th century sought to limit the influence of the Church on their political sovereignty. Many monasteries had already come under secular supervision, and the administration of schools was in the hands of the cantons, although the teachers generally still were priests.
Nevertheless, many of the problems of the Church also existed in the Swiss Confederacy. Many a cleric as well as the Church as a whole enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle in stark contrast to the conditions of the large majority of the population; this luxury was financed by high church taxes and abundant sale of indulgences. Many priests were badly educated, and spiritual Church doctrines were often disregarded. Many priests did not live in celibacy but in concubinage. The new reformatory ideas thus fell on fertile ground.
The main proponent of the Reformation in Switzerland was Huldrych Zwingli, whose actions during the Affair of the Sausages are now considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland. His own studies, in the renaissance humanist tradition, had led him to preach against injustices and hierarchies in the Church already in 1516 while he was still a priest in Einsiedeln. When he was called to Zürich, he expanded his criticism also onto political topics and in particular condemned the mercenary business. His ideas were received favourably, especially by entrepreneurs, businessmen, and the guilds. The first disputation of Zürich of 1523 was the breakthrough: the city council decided to implement his reformatory plans and to convert to Protestantism.
In the following two years, profound changes took place in Zürich. The Church was thoroughly secularised. Priests were relieved from celibacy and the opulent decorations in the churches were thrown out. The state assumed the administration of Church properties, financing the social works (which up to then were managed entirely by the Church), and also paid the priests. The last abbess of the Fraumünster, Katharina von Zimmern, turned over the convent including all of its rights and possessions to the city authorities on 30 November 1524. She even married the next year.
Over the next few years, the cities of St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Basel, Bienne, Mulhouse, and finally Bern (in 1528) all followed the example set by Zürich. Their subject territories were converted to Protestantism by decree. In Basel, reformer Johannes Oecolampadius was active, in St. Gallen, the Reformation was adopted by mayor Joachim Vadian. In Glarus, Appenzell, and in the Grisons, which all three had a more republican structure, individual communes decided for or against the Reformation. In the French-speaking parts, reformers like William Farel had been preaching the new faith under Bernese protection since the 1520s, but only in 1536, just before John Calvin arrived there, did the city of Geneva convert to Protestantism. The same year, Bern conquered the hitherto Savoyard Vaud and also instituted Protestantism there.
Despite their conversion to Protestantism, the citizens of Geneva were not ready to adopt Calvin's new strict Church order, and banned him and Farel from the city in 1538. Three years later, following the election of a new city council, Calvin was called back. Step by step he implemented his strict programme. A counter-revolt in 1555 failed, and many established families left the city.
In search of a common theology.
Zwingli, who had studied in Basel at the same time as Erasmus, had arrived at a more radical renewal than Luther and his ideas differed from the latter in several points. A reconciliation attempt at the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 failed. Although the two charismatic leaders found a consensus on fourteen points, they kept differing on the last one on the Eucharist: Luther maintained that through sacramental union the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper became truly the flesh and blood of Christ, whereas Zwingli considered bread and wine only symbols. This schism and the defeat of Zürich in the Second War of Kappel in 1531, where Zwingli was killed on the battlefield, were a serious setback, ultimately limiting Zwinglianism to parts of the Swiss confederacy and preventing its adoption in areas north of the Rhine.
After Zwingli's death, Heinrich Bullinger took over his post in Zürich. Reformers in Switzerland continued for the next decades to reform the Church and to improve its acceptance by the common people. Bullinger in particular also tried bridging the differences between Zwinglianism and Calvinism. He was instrumental in establishing the "Consensus Tigurinus" of 1549 with John Calvin and the "Confessio Helvetica posterior" of 1566, which finally included all Protestant cantons and associates of the confederacy. The "Confessio" was also accepted in other European Protestant regions in Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, the Netherlands, and Scotland, and together with the Heidelberg Catechism of 1563, where Bullinger also played an important role, and the Canons of Dordrecht of 1619 it would become the theological foundation of Protestantism of the Calvinist strain.
Religious civil war.
The success of the Reformation in Zürich and its rapid territorial expansion definitely made this religious renewal a political issue and a major source of conflict between the thirteen cantons. The alpine cantons of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, and Zug remained staunchly Catholic. Their opposition was not uniquely a question of faith; economic reasons also played a role. Besides on agriculture, their economy depended to a large degree on the mercenary services and the financial recompensations for the same. They could not afford to lose this source of income, which was a major target of reformatory criticism. In contrast, the cities' economies were more diversified, including strong crafts and guilds as well as a budding industrial sector. Fribourg and Solothurn also remained Catholic.
The five alpine cantons perceived the Reformation as a threat early on; already in 1524 they formed the "League of the Five Cantons" ("Bund der fünf Orte") to combat the spreading of the new faith. Both sides tried to strengthen their positions by concluding defensive alliances with third parties: the Protestant cantons formed a city alliance, including the Protestant cities of Konstanz and Strasbourg ("Christliches Burgrecht"), translated variously as Cristian Civic Union, Christian Co-burghery, Christian Confederation and Christian Federation (in Latin Zwingli called it Civitas Christiana or Christian State); the Catholic ones entered a pact with Ferdinand of Austria.
In the tense atmosphere, small incidents could easily escalate. Conflicts arose especially over the situation in the common territories, where the administration changed bi-annually among cantons and thus switched between Catholic and Protestant rules. Several mediation attempts failed such as the disputation of Baden in 1526.
After numerous minor incidents and provocations from both sides, a Protestant pastor was burned on the stake in Schwyz in 1529, and in retaliation Zürich declared war. By mediation of the other cantons, open war (known as the First War of Kappel) was barely avoided, but the peace agreement ("Erster Landfriede") was not exactly favourable for the Catholic party, who had to dissolve its alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs. The tensions remained essentially unresolved.
Two years later, the second war of Kappel broke out. Zürich was taking the refusal of the Catholic cantons to help the Grisons in the Musso war as a pretext, but on 11 October 1531, the Catholic cantons decisively defeated the forces of Zürich in the battle of Kappel am Albis. Zwingli was killed on the battlefield. The Protestant cantons had to agree to a peace treaty, the so-called "Zweiter Kappeler Landfriede", which forced the dissolution of the Protestant alliance ("Christliches Burgrecht"). It gave Catholicism the priority in the common territories, but allowed communes that had already converted to remain Protestant. Only strategically important places such as the Freiamt or those along the route from Schwyz to the Rhine valley at Sargans (and thus to the Alpine passes in the Grisons) were forcibly re-Catholicised. In their own territories, the cantons remained free to implement one or the other religion. The peace thus prescribed the "Cuius regio, eius religio"-principle that would also be adopted in the peace of Augsburg in the Holy Roman Empire in 1555. Politically, this gave the Catholic cantons a majority in the "Tagsatzung", the federal diet of the confederacy.
When their Protestant city alliance was dissolved, Zürich and the southern German cities joined the Schmalkaldic League, but in the German religious wars of 1546/47, Zürich and the other Swiss Protestant cantons remained strictly neutral. With the victory of Charles V the previously close relations to the Swabian Protestant cities in the Holy Roman Empire were severed: many cities, like Konstanz, were re-Catholicised and many were placed under a strictly aristocratic rule.
Counter-Reformation.
While the official Church remained passive during the beginnings of the Reformation, the Swiss Catholic cantons took measures early on to keep the new movement at bay. They assumed judicial and financial powers over the clergy, laid down firm rules of conduct for the priests, outlawed concubinage, and reserved the right to nominate priests in the first place, who previously had been assigned by the bishoprics. They also banned printing, distributing, and possessing Reformist tracts; and banned the study of Hebrew and Greek (to put an end to the independent study of biblical sources). Overall, these measures were successful: not only did they prevent the spreading of the Reformation into the Catholic cantons but also they made the Church dependent on the state and generally strengthened the power of the civil authorities.
The Catholic cantons also maintained their domination of the Catholic Church after the Council of Trent (1545 to 1563), although they had accepted its positions. They opposed Cardinal Borromeo's plans for the creation of a new bishopric in central Switzerland. However, they did participate in the education program of Trent. In 1574, the first Jesuit school was founded in Lucerne. Others soon followed, and in 1579, a Catholic university for Swiss priests, the "Collegio helvetico", was founded in Milan. In 1586, a nunciature was opened in Lucerne. The Capuchins were also called to help; a Capuchin cloister was founded in 1581 in Altdorf.
Parallel to these efforts to reform the Catholic Church, the Catholic cantons also proceeded to re-Catholicize regions that had converted to Protestantism. Besides reconversions in the common territories, the Catholic cantons in 1560 first tried to undo the Reformation in Glarus, where the Catholics were a minority.
The five Catholic cantons formed a military alliance with the Pope and the Catholic Duchy of Savoy, and had the support of Aegidius Tschudi, the "Landammann" (chief magistrate) of Glarus. But due to lack of money, they could not intervene in Glarus by force. In 1564, they settled for a treaty which prescribed the separation of religions in Glarus. There were henceforth "two" legislative assemblies ("Landsgemeinde") in the canton, a Catholic and a Protestant one, and Glarus would send one Catholic and one Protestant representative each to the "Tagsatzung".
The Bishop of Basel, Jakob Christoph Blarer von Wartensee, moved his seat to Porrentruy in the Jura mountains in 1529, when Basel became Protestant. In 1581, the bishopric regained the Birs valley lying southwest of Basel. In Appenzell, where both confessions coexisted more or less peacefully, the counter-reformatory activities beginning with the arrival of the Capuchin friars resulted in a split of the canton in 1597 into the Catholic Appenzell Innerrhoden and the Protestant Ausserrhoden, which both had one vote in the "Tagsatzung".
Developments in the west.
The Dukes of Savoy had tried already for centuries to gain sovereignty over the city of Geneva, surrounded by Savoyard territory, for the Vaud in the north of Lake Geneva belonged to the duchy. The Reformation prompted the conflicts to escalate once more. Geneva exiled its bishop, who was backed by Savoy, in 1533 to Annecy. Bern and the Valais took advantage of the duke's involvement in northern Italy and his opposition to France. When Francesco II Sforza died in Milan in 1534, the duke's troops were bound by the French engagement there, and Bern promptly conquered the Vaud and, together with the Valais, also territories south of Lake Geneva in 1536.
The alliance of 1560 of the Catholic cantons with Savoy encouraged duke Emmanuel Philibert to raise claims on the territories his father Charles III had lost in 1536. After the treaty of Lausanne of 1564, Bern had to return the Chablais south of Lake Geneva and the Pays de Gex (between Geneva and Nyon) to Savoy in 1567, and the Valais returned the territories west of Saint Gingolph two years later in the treaty of Thonon. Geneva was thus a Protestant enclave within the Catholic territories of Savoy again and as a result intensified its relations with the Swiss confederacy and Bern and Zürich in particular. Its plea for full acceptance into the confederation—the city was an associate state only—was rejected by the Catholic majority of cantons.
Mercenaries of the Swiss cantons participated in the French wars of religion on all sides. Those from Protestant cantons fought on the sides of the Huguenots, supporting Henry of Navarre, while the Catholic troops fought for king Henry III of France. In 1586, the seven Catholic cantons (the five alpine cantons, plus Fribourg and Solothurn) formed an exclusively Catholic alliance called the "Golden League" ("Goldener Bund", named after the golden initials on the document) and sided with the Guises, who were also supported by Spain. In 1589, Henry III was assassinated and Henry of Navarre succeeded him as Henry IV of France, and thus the Protestant mercenaries now fought for the king.
Since 1586, the duke of Savoy, Charles Emmanuel I, had placed Geneva under an embargo. With the new situation of 1589, the city now got support not only from Bern but also from the French king, and it went to war. The war between Geneva and Savoy continued even after the Peace of Vervins and the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which ended the wars in France proper. In the night from 11 to 12 December 1602, the duke's troops unsuccessfully tried to storm the city, which definitely maintained its independence from Savoy in the peace of Saint Julien, concluded in the following summer. The rebuttal of this attack, "L'Escalade", is still commemorated in Geneva today.
Also in 1586, a Catholic "coup d'état" in Mulhouse, an associate of the confederacy, prompted the military intervention of the Protestant cantons, which quickly restored the old Protestant order. Strasbourg, another Protestant city, wanted to join the confederacy in 1588, but like Geneva some twenty years earlier, it was rejected by the Catholic cantons. In the Valais, the Reformation had had some success especially in the lower part of the Rhône valley. However, in 1603 the Catholic cantons intervened, and with their support re-Catholicisation succeeded and the Protestant families had to emigrate.
Thirty Years' War.
During the Thirty Years' War, Switzerland was a relative "oasis of peace and prosperity" (Grimmelshausen) in war-torn Europe. The cantons had concluded numerous mercenary contracts and defence alliances with partners on all sides. Some of these contracts neutralized each other, which allowed the confederation to remain neutral. Politically, the neighbouring powers all tried to take influence, by way of mercenary commanders such as Jörg Jenatsch or Johann Rudolf Wettstein.
Despite the cantons' religious differences, the "Tagsatzung" developed a strong consensus against any direct military involvement. The confederacy did not allow any foreign army to cross its territory: the alpine passes remained closed for Spain, just as an alliance offer of the Swedish King Gustav Adolph was rejected. The sole exception was the permission for the French army of Henri de Rohan to march through the Protestant cantons to the Grisons. A common defence was mounted only in 1647 when the Swedish armies reached Lake Constance again.
The Grisons had no such luck. The Three Leagues were a loose federation of 48 individual communes that were largely independent; their common assembly held no real powers. While this had helped avoid major religious wars during and following the Reformation, feuds between leading clans (e.g. between the "von Planta" and the "von Salis") were common. When such a feud spilled over into the Valtellina in 1619, a subject territory of the Three Leagues, the population there responded in kind, killing the Protestant rulers in 1620 and calling Habsburg Spain for help. For the next twenty years, the Grisons was ravaged by a war known as the Confusion of the Leagues. For the Habsburgs, the Grisons was a strategically important connection between Milan and Austria. The Valtellina became Spanish, and other parts in the north-east of the Grisons were occupied and re-Catholicised by Austria.
France intervened a first time in 1624, but succeeded to drive the Spanish out of the Grisons only in 1636. However, Henri de Rohan's French army had to withdraw following the political intrigues of Jürg Jenatsch, who managed to play the French off against the Spaniards. Until 1639, the Three Leagues had re-acquired their whole territory, buying back the parts occupied by Austria. They even were restituted their subject territories in the south (Valtellina, Bormio, and Chiavenna), yet these had to remain Catholic under the protection of Milan.
The mayor of Basel, Johann Rudolf Wettstein, lobbied for a formal recognition of the Swiss confederacy as an independent state in the peace of Westphalia. Although "de facto" independent since the end of the Swabian War in 1499, the confederacy was still officially a part of the Holy Roman Empire. With the support of Henri II d'Orléans, who was also prince of Neuchâtel and the head of the French delegation, he succeeded to get the formal exemption from the empire for all cantons and associates of the confederacy.
Social developments.
Historians count 13 (Geneva) or 14 (St Gallen) plague surges in Switzerland between 1500 and 1640, accounting for 31 plague years, and since 1580, smallpox outbreaks with an especially high mortality rate (80–90%) amongst children under the age of five occurred every four to five years. Nevertheless, the population in Switzerland grew in the 16th century from about 800,000 to roughly 1.1 million, i.e. by more than 35%.
Absolutism on the rise.
This population growth caused significant changes in a pre-industrial society that could no longer significantly expand its territory. The dependence of the confederation on imports increased, and prices soared. In the countryside, settlements of estates increasingly lead to small and smallest properties insufficient to sustain a family, and a new class of daytalers ("Tauner") grew disproportionally. In the cities, too, the number of poor rose. At the same time, rural subject territories became more and more (financially) dependent on the cities. The political power was concentrated in a few rich families, that over time came to consider their offices as hereditary and tried to limit them to their own exclusive circle. This solicited the response of both peasants and free citizens, who resented such curtailing of their democratic rights, and around 1523/25, also fuelled by the reformatory spirit, revolts broke out in many cantons, both rural and urban. The main objective of the insurgents was the restitution of common rights of old, not the institution of a new order. Although commonly called the Peasants' War, the movement also included the free citizens, who saw their rights restricted in the cities, too. Contrary to the development in the Holy Roman Empire, where the hostilities escalated and the rebellion was put down by force, there were only isolated armed conflicts in the confederation. The authorities, already involved in reformatory or counter-reformatory activities, managed to subdue these uprisings only by granting concessions. Yet the absolutist tendencies kept slowly transforming the democrat cantons into oligarchies. By 1650, the absolutist order was firmly established and would prevail for another 150 years as the Ancien Régime.
Persecution of heretics.
The generally widespread intolerance of the time, as witnessed by the Inquisition, amplified by the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, left no place for dissenters. Anabaptists, who took the idea of deriving new societal rules from the direct study of Biblical sources even further than the Protestant reformers only into conflict not only with the established Churches over the question of baptism but also with the civil authorities because, not having found any Biblical justification, they refused to pay taxes or to accept any authority. Both Catholic and Protestant cantons persecuted them with all their might. Following the forced drowning of Felix Manz in the Limmat in Zürich in 1527, many Anabaptists emigrated to Moravia. Antitrinitarians fared no better; Miguel Servet was burned at the stake in Geneva on 27 October 1553.
There was no individual freedom of religion in Switzerland—or indeed all of Europe—at that time anyway. The maxim of "cuius regio, eius religio" ("whose region, his religion") meant that subjects had to adopt the faith of their rulers. Dissenters who didn't want to convert typically had to (but also were allowed to) emigrate elsewhere, into a region where their faith "was" the state religion. The Bullinger family, for instance, had to move from Bremgarten in the Freiamt, which was re-Catholicised after the second war of Kappel, to the Protestant city of Zürich.
The 16th century also saw the height of witch-hunts in Europe, and Switzerland was no exception. Beginning about 1530, culminating around 1600, and then slowly diminishing, numerous witch trials were held in both Protestant and Catholic cantons. These often ended with death sentences (usually burning) for the accused, who typically were elderly women, crippled persons, or other social outcasts.
Science and arts: the Renaissance in Switzerland.
Humanism and Renaissance led to new advances in science and the arts. Paracelsus taught at the University of Basel. Hans Holbein "the Younger" worked until 1526 in Basel; his high renaissance style had a profound influence on Swiss painters. Conrad Gessner in Zürich did studies in systematic botany, and the geographic maps and city views produced e.g. by Matthäus Merian show the beginning of a scientific cartography. In 1601, an early version of the theodolite was invented in Zürich and promptly used to triangulate the city. Basel and Geneva became important printing centres, with an output equal to that of e.g. Strasbourg or Lyon. Their printing reformatory tracts greatly furthered the dissemination of these ideas. First newspapers appeared towards the end of the 16th century, but disappeared soon again due to the censorship of the absolutist authorities. In architecture, there was a strong Italian and especially florentine influence, visible in many a rich magistrate's town house. Famed baroque architect Francesco Borromini was born 1599 in the Ticino.
Many Huguenots and other Protestant refugees from all over Europe fled to Basel, Geneva, and Neuchâtel. Geneva under Calvin and his successor Theodore Beza demanded their naturalisation and strict adherence to the Calvinist doctrine, whereas Basel, where the university had re-opened in 1532, became a center of intellectual freedom. Many of these immigrants were skilled craftsmen or businessmen and contributed greatly to the development of banking and the watch industry.
Notes and references.
The main sources used are
Other sources:


Palazzo Genovese, Venice

The Palazzo Genovese is a Gothic Revival-style palace located a few meters west of the Church of the Salute along the Grand Canal, the posterior facade abuts the church of San Gregorio in the Sestieri of Dorsoduro, Venice, Italy.
History.
The palace was commissioned in 1892 as a residence by the Genovese family and designed by the architect Edoardo Trigomi Mattei in a style faithful to the Venetian Gothic. The palace has been converted into a luxury hotel. Archeologic work found evidence of 7th and 9th century buildings.


Church of Saint Vigilius of Trent (Pinzolo)

Church of Saint Vigilius of Trent ( is a Roman Catholic church in the town of Pinzolo, in the province of Trentino and the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Italy.


Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach

Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach was a duchy within the Holy Roman Empire. It existed during two fairly short periods: 1572-1596 and 1633-1638. Its territory was part of the modern states of Bavaria and Thuringia.
History.
The duchy was created by the Division of Erfurt in 1572 which implemented a decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1570 to separate Coburg and Eisenach from the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar and give them to John Casimir and John Ernest, the two sons of John Frederick II. However, because the two princes were still minors at the time, the country was at first ruled by Elector August of Saxony.
In 1586 the guardianship and regency ended, and John Casimir and John Ernest began to jointly to rule the duchy. John Ernest soon withdrew and returned to his hunting lodge in Marksuhl. In 1590 he formally renounced all of his participation in the government of the duchy for five years. After the end of this period, the two brothers agreed to split the country. John Casimir kept Saxe-Coburg, while John Ernest received Saxe-Eisenach.
When John Casimir died childless in 1633, John Ernest inherited his possessions and Coburg and Eisenach were combined again for a short period. When John Ernest died childless as well in 1638, the line of the Dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach ended and the country was divided between Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Altenburg, the other two Ernestine duchies existing at that time.
Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Eisenach would not again belong to a common state, until all Ernestine duchies merged to form Thuringia in 1920.


Timeline of Portuguese history (Second Republic)

This is a historical timeline of Portugal.
Second Republic: Dictatorial Estado Novo.
1943.
October 8, Although officially neutral during World War II, Portugal, after considerable pressure from the Allies, allowed the British the use of the ports of Horta on Faial Island and Ponta Delgada on São Miguel Island, as well as the airfields of Lajes on Terceira Island and Santana Field on São Miguel.


Music of Scotland in the nineteenth century

Music of Scotland in the nineteenth century includes all forms of music production in the period, in Scotland or by Scottish people.
The nineteenth century saw the reintroduction of accompanied music into the Church of Scotland. Organs began to be added to churches in large numbers and by the end of the century, roughly a third of Church of Scotland, over 80 per cent of kirks, had both organs and choirs. Similarly, in the Episcopalian Church the influence of the Oxford Movement and links with the Anglican Church led to the introduction of more traditional services, and by 1900 surpliced choirs and musical services were the norm. The Free Church that broke away from the kirk in 1843 in the Great Disruption, was more conservative over music, and organs were not permitted until 1883. Hymns were first introduced in the United Presbyterian Church in the 1850s. The visit of American Evangelists Ira D. Sankey, and Dwight L. Moody to Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1874–75 helped popularise accompanied church music in Scotland.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century there was and an attempt to produce a corpus of Scottish national song, involving Robert Burns and George Thomson, which helped make Scottish songs part of the European cannon of classical music. The bothy ballads, which dealt with the lives of agricultural workers, were mainly written in the period 1820–60 and then adapted and altered along with working life in the later part of the century. Evidence of continued activity in traditional music includes the manuscripts of James Simpson (f. 1820–30). The tradition continued with figures including James Scott Skinner. From the late nineteenth century there was renewed interest in traditional music, which was more academic and political in intent. In the late nineteenth century the revival would begin to have a major impact on classical music, with the development of what was in effect a national school of orchestral and operatic music in Scotland.
The tradition of European concert music in Scotland, which had been established in the eighteenth century faltered towards the end of the century. From the mid-nineteenth century classical music began a revival in Scotland, aided by the visits of Frédéric Chopin and Felix Mendelssohn. Major composers included of the national school that developed in the late nineteenth century included Alexander Mackenzie, William Wallace), Learmont Drysdale and Hamish MacCunn. In the late part of the century, performers emerged who gained international reputations. They included Frederic Lamond, Mary Garden and Joseph Hislop.
Church music.
The nineteenth century saw the reintroduction of accompanied music into the Church of Scotland. This was strongly influenced by the English Oxford Movement, which encouraged a return to Medieval forms of architecture and worship. The first organ to be installed by a Church of Scotland church after the Reformation was at St. Andrews, Glasgow in 1804, but it was not in the church building and was used only for weekly rehearsals. Two years later the city council was petitioned to allow it to be moved into the church, but they deferred to the local presbytery, who decided, after much deliberation, that they were illegal and prohibited their use within their jurisdiction. In 1828 the first organ was controversially installed in an Edinburgh church. Around the same time James Steven published his "Harmonia Sacra: A Selection of the Most Approved Psalm and Hymn Tunes", provocatively printed a frontispiece showing a small organ. The Church Service Society was founded in 1865 to promote liturgical study and reform and a year later organs were officially admitted to churches. They began to be added to churches in large numbers and by the end of the century roughly a third of Church of Scotland ministers were members of the society and over 80 per cent of kirks had both organs and choirs. However, they remained controversial, with considerable opposition among conservative elements within the church and organs were never placed in some churches.
Similarly, in the Episcopalian Church the influence of the Oxford Movement and links with the Anglican Church led to the introduction of more traditional services and by 1900 surpliced choirs and musical services were the norm. The Free Church that broke away from the kirk in 1843 in the Great Disruption, was more conservative over music, and organs were not permitted until 1883. Hymns were first introduced in the United Presbyterian Church in the 1850s. They became common in the Church of Scotland and Free Church in the 1870s. The Church of Scotland adopted a hymnal with 200 songs in 1870 and the Free Church followed suit in 1882. The visit of American Evangelists Ira D. Sankey (1840–1908), and Dwight L. Moody (1837–99) to Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1874–75 helped popularise accompanied church music in Scotland. The Moody-Sankey hymnbook remained a best seller into the twentieth century. Sankey made the harmonium so popular that working-class mission congregations pleaded for the introduction of accompanied music.
Traditional music.
In the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century there was and an attempt to produce a corpus of Scottish national song, involving Robert Burns (1759–96) building on the work of antiquarians and musicologists such as William Tytler (1711–92), James Beattie (1735–1803) and Joseph Ritson (1752–1803). Working with music engraver and seller James Johnson, Burns contributed about a third of the eventual songs of the collection known as "The Scots Musical Museum", issued between 1787 and 1803 in six volumes. Burns collaborated with George Thomson (1757–1851) in "A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs", published from 1793 to 1818, which adapted Scottish folk songs with "classical" arrangements. Thompson was inspired by hearing Scottish songs sung by visiting Italian castrati at the St Cecilia Concerts in Edinburgh. He collected Scottish songs and commissioned musical arrangements from the best European composers, who included Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Ludwig van Beethoven (1732–1809). Burns was employed in editing the lyrics. "A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs" was published in five volumes between 1799 and 1818. It helped make Scottish songs part of the European cannon of classical music, while Thompson's work brought elements of Romanticism, such as harmonies based on those of Beethoven, into Scottish classical music. Also involved in the collection and publication of Scottish songs was Walter Scott (1771–1832), whose first literary effort was "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border", published in three volumes (1802–03). This collection first drew the attention of an international audience to his work, and some of his lyrics were set to music by Franz Peter Schubert (1797–1828), who also created a setting of "Ossian".
The bothy ballads, which dealt with the lives of agricultural workers, who lived in bothys or farm buildings, were mainly written in the period 1820–60 and then adapted and altered along with working life in the later part of the century. Evidence of continued activity in traditional music includes the manuscripts of James Simpson (f. 1820–30), a Dundee flautist, whose music incorporated reels and strathspeys with waltzes and quadrilles. The tradition continued with figures including James Scott Skinner (1843–1927), known as the "Strathspey King", who played the fiddle in venues ranging from the local functions in his native Banchory, to urban centres of the south and at Balmoral.
From the late nineteenth century there was renewed interest in traditional music, which was more academic and political in intent. Harvard professor Francis James Child's (1825–96) eight-volume collection "The English and Scottish Popular Ballads" (1882–92) has been the most influential on defining the repertoire of subsequent performers and the English music teacher Cecil Sharp was probably the most important in understanding of the nature of folk song. In Scotland collectors included the Reverend James Duncan (1848–1917) and Gavin Greig (1856–1914), who collected over 1,000 songs, mainly from Aberdeenshire. In the late nineteenth century the revival would begin to have a major impact on classical music, with the development of what was in effect a national school of orchestral and operatic music in Scotland.
Classical music.
The tradition of European concert music in Scotland, which had been established in the eighteenth century faltered towards the end of the century. The Edinburgh Musical Society gave its last concert in 1798 and was wound up in 1801, with its concert hall sold off to become a Baptist church.
From the mid-nineteenth century classical music began a revival in Scotland, aided by the visits of Frédéric Chopin (1810–49) and Felix Mendelssohn (1809–47) in the 1840s. Mendelssohn was probably the most influential composer of his era and visited Britain ten times, for a total of twenty months, from 1829. Scotland inspired two of his most famous works, the overture "Fingal's Cave" (also known as the "Hebrides Overture") and the "Scottish Symphony" (Symphony No. 3). On his last visit to England in 1847, he conducted his own "Scottish Symphony" with the Philharmonic Orchestra before Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Max Bruch (1838–1920) composed the "Scottish Fantasy" (1880) for violin and orchestra, which includes an arrangement of the tune "Hey Tuttie Tatie", best known for its use in the song "Scots Wha Hae" by Burns.
Major composers included of the national school that developed in the late nineteenth century included Alexander Mackenzie (1847–1935), William Wallace (1860–1940), Learmont Drysdale (1866–1909) and Hamish MacCunn (1868–1916). Mackenzie, who studied in Germany and Italy and mixed Scottish themes with German Romanticism, is best known for his three "Scottish Rhapsodies" (1879–80, 1911), "Pibroch" for violin and orchestra (1889) and the "Scottish Concerto" for piano (1897), all involving Scottish themes and folk melodies. Wallace's work included an overture, "In Praise of Scottish Poesie" (1894). Drysdale's work often dealt with Scottish themes, including the overture "Tam O’ Shanter" (1890), the cantata "The Kelpie" (1891). MacCunn's overture "The Land of the Mountain and the Flood" (1887), his "Six Scotch Dances" (1896), his operas "Jeanie Deans" (1894) and "Dairmid" (1897) and choral works on Scottish subjects have been described by I. G. C. Hutchison as the musical equivalent of the Scots Baronial castles of Abbotsford and Balmoral. Similarly, McEwen's "Pibroch" (1889), "Border Ballads" (1908) and "Solway Symphony" (1911) incorporated traditional Scottish folk melodies.
In the late part of the century performers emerged who gained international reputations. These included the pianist Frederic Lamond (1868–1948), and singers Mary Garden (1874–1967) and Joseph Hislop (1884–1977). The Scottish Orchestra was founded in 1891 and the Glasgow Athenaeum in 1893.