Erica Vaal

Erica Vaal (1927 in Vienna – 17 October 2013 in Staatz) was an Austrian actress, writer, radio host and presenter. She was born in Vienna of Austrian parents. She was best known for her work as an Austrian radio host. She was also a photographer.
Education.
She finished high school and her studies in acting at the Academy of Music and Expressive Arts in Vienna, the Reinhart Seminar.
Career.
Acting and Eurovision.
She then moved to Rome where she performed in various theaters, TV plays, and international films such as "The Journey" (1959) directed by Anatole Litvak, "Thunderstorm" (1956) and various Italian films such as "The Firemen of Viggiù" (a film with Toto) and "Adam and Eve" (1949 film) as Ricky Denver. Acting engagements in Mexico, Spain, and Germany followed thereafter.
When she returned to Vienna, the Austrian Television chose her to host the “Grand Prix d’Eurovision de la Chanson 1967”, the Eurovision Song Contest 1967, speaking in seven languages. Erica Vaal continued her acting career in theaters throughout Germany and Austria.
Following the successful Eurovision broadcast, Ö3 the Austrian Television contracted Vaal to create and present programming, which included the radio hit “Musik aus Lateinamerica” among others. “Musik aus Lateinamerica” went on air to span 25 years. During her research for content, Vaal traveled frequently to Latin America and the Caribbean islands. She grasped and documented the mentality of the people, their customs, their music and their religions in depth and detail. Her radio show made her the unofficial coordinator and cultural representative of most Spanish speaking countries in Austria, mostly by the Embassies and Cultural Centers. Many Spanish speaking music related personality at that time were in her company throughout their Austrian stay - interviewed, escorted by, and translated for - by Vaal. She compiled an extensive body of research on Latin American culture and all music and religion related knowledge - ranging across the Latin American Countries, the Islands, and including Africa. In 1992 and 1993, she studied the dances of the African Gods at the University of Havana (“Instituto Superior de Arte”).
She is known for her deep and unique voice.
Vaal also wrote and moderated the international "Evergreens," "Musicals,""Stars von Druben," and 1 hour shows on Pop Musik for the Austrian Radio. "Evergreens" featured extensive German/Austrian. Her shows were broadcast in Austria, Germany, partly in the CH, and probably in northern Italy
Writing.
Her experience took the literary form of “Where the sun dances”, ("Wo Die Sonne Tanzt") which was published by Austria Press. Her second book “Jineteras, a New Form of Prostitution in Cuba,” was published in Austria and Germany.
Photography.
Vaal's first exhibition of photography, “The Flowers of the Fifth Avenue” (in black & white) was exhibited in the Museum of Ethnology (the “Völkerkundemuseum”) in Vienna, from December 1999 to February 2000. In November 2000, she created a calendar in color, featuring Cuban Art which she named “Sabor Cubano”.
She devoted 2000-2010 to her experiences of Cuba.
Personal life.
Vaal married Victor Pahlen, a film producer. They have a daughter, Kyra Pahlen. Vaal then divorced Victor Pahlen.
Vaal married Robert Roberts (aka Paul Roberts), an actor.
On October 17, 2013, Vaal died in Staatz, Austria, at the age of 86, 7 months before Austria's Eurovision Song Contest victory in Copenhagen.


Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War

The Reich Plenipotentiary for the Total War Effort ("Reichsbevollmächtigter für den totalen Kriegseinsatz") was a position created by Adolf Hitler, the "Führer" ("leader") of Nazi Germany, on 23 July 1944 for Joseph Goebbels, who was also at the time the regime's Propaganda Minister. The purpose of the new office was to rally the German people behind an effort to achieve "total war", in which all civilian resources and all aspects of civilian infrastructure are subordinated to the needs of the military and the war effort. The idea to create the new office, and to appoint Goebbels to it, had come from Goebbels himself. Hitler had acceded to it because of the rapid deterioration of the German military position in the war in the East against the Soviet Union; he had finally been convinced that only a total war effort could counter what Hitler felt was the constant undermining of his military strategies by his generals.
As Plenipotentiary, Goebbels was empowered to issue directives to all civilians and all parts of the civilian sector, as well as to the heads of even the highest agencies of the Reich, although in practical terms, his power was restricted by the complexities of the Nazi power structure. Goebbels and his staff endeavored to bring about a "structural transformation in the entire state apparatus."
Background.
Goebbels had been pushing for a total war effort for some time. He was convinced that everyone, from the Nazi elite to Germany's privileged classes, must be prepared to sacrifice for the war effort and was supportive of measures that restricted hunting, the prohibition of the use of alcohol at Nazi functions, and the scarcity measures of one-course meals that Hitler had in mind. As early as 4 January 1943, he told his ministerial conference that "we are confronted in the east with a brutal opponent who can only be defeated by the most brutal methods. In order to achieve this, the total commitment of all our resources and reserves is necessary," and he attempted to get Hitler to agree to a complete mobilization of the civilian population, for instance using women for work, and closing shops and cafes he considered to be luxuries. Hitler agreed, but little progress was made to put these measures into effect, besides the appointment of a "Committee of Three" to be in charge of the total war effort, which included Martin Bormann, the head of the Nazi Party Chancellery and Hitler's personal secretary, Hans Lammers, the head of the Reich Chancellery, and "Wehrmacht" General Wilhelm Keitel. Keitel, in particular, was aware of the military manpower shortage, and had complained in December 1941 that unnecessary personnel should be eliminated from the Reich government bureaucracy, from private corporations and even from within the non-fighting portion of the "Wehrmacht" itself, but attempts to achieve this had only managed to generate more red tape.
As Propaganda Minister, Goebbels understood that pressure could be brought to bear to push these initiatives along by way of a major propaganda campaign. On 18 February 1943, he made a nationally broadcast speech from the Berlin Sportpalast before a hand-picked audience of 14,000 Nazi die-hards, in which he extolled the necessity of a Spartan way of life in order to achieve total war. Throughout the speech the crews filming the event panned in and out on prominent people for added dramatic effect. Goebbels roused his audience with rhetorical questions; he was interrupted more than 200 times by shouts, slogans and wildly enthusiastic applause:
Are you and the German people determined, if the Leader orders it, to work ten, twelve, and, if necessary, fourteen and sixteen hours a day and to give your utmost for victory? "[Loud shouts of 'Yes!' and lengthy applause]" ... I ask you: Do you want total war? "[Loud cries of 'Yes!' Loud applause]" Do you want it, if necessary, more total and more radical than we can even imagine it today? "[Loud cries of 'Yes!' Applause]"
One remarkable passage from the speech included Goebbels's ironic description of onrushing Russian invaders that near perfectly described the Nazi operations in the Eastern theater. To this end, Goebbels stated, "Behind the oncoming Soviet Divisions we see the Jewish liquidation commandos, and behind them, terror, and the specter of mass starvation and complete anarchy." He also proclaimed that it was "time to remove the kid gloves and use our fists." After finishing, Goebbels was triumphantly carried shoulder-high from the hall. Millions of people listened on the radio, both live and when the speech was re-broadcast the following Sunday. The speech contained an admonition that all shirkers from the work measures necessary for total war would be subject to the death penalty. One of the reasons the speech had such potency and resonated with the German people was it played on their fears of another military defeat like that of 1918, which they assumed would mean social and political collapse, the "bolshevization" of German society, and it represented the struggle for existence that the regime had so religiously promulgated. The entire text was printed in the newspapers the morning after the speech. The event was later described as "a feat of mass hypnosis."
Hitler, who had given his general approval of Goebbels' plan in advance, had not known the specifics of what was going to be proposed, but when he read the text of the speech, he fell in behind the plan; however, within the Nazi Party, the speech was seen as a power move by Goebbels and Armaments Minister Albert Speer to displace the Committee of Three, which had accomplished little. Hitler, in his usual manner, preferred to keep his underlings in competition with other, and would not give either Goebbels and Speer or the committee the full authority necessary to achieve the goals that Goebbels saw as necessary, although by Autumn 1943, the Committee of Three—which had concentrated on trivial issues and got caught up in the bureaucratic nightmare of trying to eliminate overlap between the German government and the Nazi Party—had effectively ceased to be a factor. Its last meeting was held in August.
Goebbels continued to pressure Hitler to commit more fully to the total war concept. He met with Hitler on 21 June for three hours, having used Hitler's "Wehrmacht" adjutant, General Schmundt, to lay the groundwork. Before speaking to Hitler, Goebbels met with Speer, who advised him on the severe problem with the supply of fuel caused by American attacks on fuel plants. He also learned that, due to failures of the "Luftwaffe" to protect German cities from Allied air attacks, Hermann Göring had fallen out of Hitler's favor. This was important to Goebbels, as Göring was a potential rival for control of any total war effort.
In his meeting with Hitler, Goebbels pulled out all the stops, painting the darkest possible picture of the situation, demeaning his possible rivals, such as Göring and Keitel, and making elaborate promises for the benefits of a total war effort, such as a million new soldiers for the "Wehrmacht". He offered a Germany teetering on the brink of doom that only total war could save it from, and he averred that the people were behind the changes he proposed: they wanted and expected tough measures in a severe crisis.
Hitler, however, did not think the time was yet ripe for the kinds of measures that Goebbels proposed, and wanted to keep things as they were for the time being. Goebbels reported "The Führer does not regard the crisis so serious and compelling that it could persuade him to pull out all the stops." But Hitler held out the promise that when he did think such measures were necessary, he would give the necessary powers to Goebbels, and nobody else.
Appointment of Goebbels.
The factor which, more than anything, changed Hitler's mind about going ahead with total war was the attempt by officers of the "Wehrmacht" to assassinate him in the July 20 plot. This reinforced his feelings that his generals were undermining his efforts to win the war. This, in Hitler's mind, had led to the steady worsening of the German military position in the East, in the war against the Soviet Union. At about the same time, Goebbels and Speer both sent the "Führer" lengthy memos about the necessity of total war. All these factors come together to finally convert Hitler to the idea that only a full-out total war effort could turn the tide, and he appointed Goebbels as "Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War" on 23 July 1944; in theory with full authority, thus freezing out both the Committee of Three and Göring, who saw himself as the natural choice for that role, as both a military leader—he was the head of the "Luftwaffe"—and, at least on paper if no longer in actual fact, the czar of the German economy as Plenipotentiary in charge of the Four Year Plan. However, the creation of the position of Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War gave Goebbels the power lead the mobilization effort and made him responsible for maximising both the Wehrmacht's manpower and the armaments industry at the expense of economic sectors considered non-essential to the war effort.
Although the public announcement of the creation of the new office implied that the idea had come from Göring, who was still at the time Chairman of the Ministerial Council for the Defense of the Reich, it was in fact Goebbels' idea, and the decree had been drafted by Lammers. Göring's reaction to not having been appointed to the position was to take to his hunting estate in East Prussia; he refused to visit Hitler at his Wolf's Lair headquarters for weeks. Goebbels, on the other hand, told his staff that he had achieved "practically full dictatorial powers" with the new appointment.
"Modus vivendi".
While Goebbels' new position had, in theory, extensive authority over both the civilian sector and the Reich government, in actuality his power was limited in certain ways. While he could direct Reich Ministers and other "highest Reich authorit[ies]" to take the actions he deemed necessary, only the ministers and other authorities could actually issue the decrees and ordinances to put these into effect, so if the ministers and authorities did not agree with Goebbels, they could easily drag their feet and, for all practical purposes, stop Goebbels' intended actions from being put into effect. Further, decrees and ordinances issued at Goebbels' direction had to be agreed to by Lammers, Bormann, and Himmler, who was both Interior Minister and Plenipotentiary for Reich Administration. Directives which concerned the Nazi Party had to have the support of Bormann, representing Hitler, and disputes among these various satraps had to go to Hitler via Lammers. Also excluded from Goebbels' direct control were any authorities who reported to Hitler directly, such as Speer in his capacity as the designated re-builder of Berlin, and those responsible for re-building Munich and Linz, as well as the staffs of the three chancelleries: the Reich Chancellery, Presidential Chancellery and Party Chancellery. The Wehrmacht as well was not under Goebbels Plenipotentiary authority.
Notwithstanding the practical limitations on his authority, Goebbels plunged into the total war effort with great energy. He quickly assembled as staff from various ministries, including many from his own Propaganda Ministry, and his new staff of 50 prided itself on its non-bureaucratic approach to putting Goebbels' ideas into effect, improvising when necessary, and making quick decisions. Goebbels contacted the leaders of the Reich and the Nazi Party to persuade them that every action of the agencies and organizations under their control should be measured by how they would be received by front-line soldiers and armaments workers.
On 3 August, at a meeting of all the Nazi Party "gauleiters" ("regional leaders") in Posen, Goebbels explained that the total war effort was necessary to counter treasonous activity among the leaders of the military which had surfaced with the July 20 plot to kill Hitler. The "gauleiters" were essential to Goebbels, since he intended to put into effect the sweeping changes he had in mind not through the German government, but by using the machinery of the Nazi Party, which the "gauleiters" were each in charge of in their areas. For this reason, he allied himself with Martin Bormann, the Party Chancellor and, as Hitler's person secretary, tremendously influential within both the Party and the Reich. The "gauleiters" cooperated with Goebbels as long as their own powers were not diminished, and Bormann acted as their protector.
Goebbels also needed to assure that he continued to have Hitler behind him, and to this effect issued frequent progress bulletins to Hitler ("Führer-Informationen") printed in the special type face used so that Hitler could read it without his glasses. The bulletins were carefully written to present Goebbels' successes and recommendations in such a way that Hitler was almost assured of approving them. Despite this, Hitler blocked certain initiatives proposed by Goebbels when they were brought to his attention by Bormann as having a potential negative effect on military and civilian morale.
Actions taken.
Goebbels concentrated at first on drafting more men into the armed forces, which brought him into conflict with Speer, who was constantly looking for more labor for the armaments industry. Concerned with output, Speer believed the changes being instituted by Goebbels were presenting "major disruptions" to armaments production. Speer appealed to Hitler, who decided in Goebbels' favor, and Speer was told by Goebbels and Bormann that henceforth he was under their command, and that he was not to make any more personal appeals to Hitler.
As Plenipotentiary for Total War, Goebbels instituted numerous labor cutbacks both within the government and in the private sector, raised the age for women to be drafted into war work from 45 to 55, moved 400,000 women from domestic service to war work, and cut down on the number of men exempt from the draft in reserved occupations, among other measures. However, even though these steps brought more men into the armed forces, it was not sufficient to keep up with the number of soldiers killed, wounded or captured.
Goebbels also attempted to bring control of the newly organized "Volkssturm" ("People's Defense") units into his total war effort, only to be out-maneuvered by Bormann and Himmler, who had come to an agreement with each other to split the responsibility. Hitler signed the decree formalizing the arrangement on 26 September, freezing out Goebbels.
Effect.
Ultimately, even though he achieved some of his goals in the short-term, Goebbels' efforts were in vain, for reasons outlined by historian Richard J. Evans:
Germany's economic resources were never adequate to turn [German fantasies of imperial domination of Europe] into reality., not even when the resources of a large part of the rest of Europe were added to them. No amount of "mobilization for total war", no degree of economic rationalization, could alter this fundamental fact of life.
Sharing the assessment made by Evans, historian Michael Burleigh prefaced his discussion of Goebbels and the fanatical pursuit of "Total War" in his work "The Third Reich: A New History" with a review of the state of German morale caused by negative reports from the front and the relentless Allied bombing campaign, which immediately after the short-lived fever of total war mobilization, was further drained by "military disasters and the persistence of wartime inequalities"; all of which contributed to a progressive isolation of the Nazi leadership. Burleigh also highlights how the "exhortations of heroic death and sacrifice bore scant resemblance" to the German people's mood and that the "population shrank from anything tainted with ideology" but preferred the solace they found in the Church to deal with their loss and grief.
References.
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography


Hibernia

Hibernia () is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. The name "Hibernia" was taken from Greek geographical accounts. During his exploration of northwest Europe (c. 320 BC), Pytheas of Massalia called the island "Iérnē" (written ). In his book "Geographia" (c. 150 AD), Claudius Ptolemaeus ("Ptolemy") called the island "Iouerníā" (written , where "ου"/"ou" stands for "w"). The Roman historian Tacitus, in his book "Agricola" (c. 98 AD), uses the name Hibernia.
 "Iouerníā" was a Greek rendering of the Q-Celtic name *"Īweriū", from which eventually arose the Irish names "Ériu" and "Éire". The name was altered in Latin (influenced by the word "hībernus") as though it meant "land of winter", although the word for winter began with a long 'i'.
Post-Roman usage.
The High King Brian Boru (c. 941–1014) based his title on being Emperor of the Scoti, which was in Latin "Imperator Scottorum", emperor of the Gaels. From 1172 Lordship of Ireland gave the King of England the additional title "Dominus Hibernie" ("sic", for "Hiberniae"; also "Dominus Hybernie"), 'Lord of Ireland'. The Kingdom of Ireland created the title "Rex Hiberniae", King of Ireland, for use in Latin texts. Gerard Mercator called Ireland "Hybernia" on his world map of 1541. In 1642 the motto of the Irish Confederates, a Catholic-landlord administration that ruled much of Ireland until 1650, was "Pro Deo, Rege et Patria, Hibernia Unanimis" (English: 'For God, King and Fatherland, Ireland is United').
By the classicising 18th century the use of Hibernia had revived in some contexts, just as had the use of Caledonia, one of the Latin terms for Scotland, and Britannia for Britain. "Hibernia" was used on Irish coins in the 1700s, and on a 2016 2-euro coin. Companies such as the Hibernian Insurance Company were established (later renamed the Hibernian Group). The name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party. At a time when Palladian classical architecture and design were being adopted in northern Europe, Hibernia was a useful word to describe Ireland with overtones of classical style and civility, including by the prosperous Anglo-Irish Ascendancy who were taught Latin at school. "Hibernian" was used as a term for people, and a general adjective. The Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769–79 with the carved inscription "SPQH" for "Senatus Populusque Hibernicus" 'the senate and people of Ireland'. The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823.
The 18th Century Spanish Regiment composed of Irish exiles was known as the Regiment of Hibernia.
Hibernia is a word that is rarely used today with regard to Ireland, except in long-established names. It is occasionally used for names of organisations and various other things; for instance: Hibernia National Bank, Hibernian Insurance Group, Ancient Order of Hibernians, "The Hibernian" magazine, Hibernia College, Hibernian Orchestra, Hibernian Football Club, , and modern derivatives, from Latin like "Respublica Hibernica" (Irish Republic) and "Universitas Hiberniae Nationalis" (National University of Ireland). In Canada, Hibernia lends its name to the Hibernia oil field off Newfoundland, and to a large offshore oil platform, "Hibernia".
Another occurrence is in familial Hibernian fever or TRAPS (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome), a periodic fever first described in 1982 in a family of Irish and Scottish descent, but found in all ethnic groups.
The compound form 'Hiberno-' remains more common, as 'Hiberno-Norse', 'Hiberno-English', 'Hiberno-Scottish', 'Hibernophile', etc.
The Scottish football clubs Hibernian FC and Dundee Hibernian (now Dundee Utd) have adopted the name.


2004 European Parliament election in Poland

Elections to the European Parliament were held in Poland on 13 June 2004. 20.87% of eligible citizens voted; of these, 97.33% of the votes cast were valid. The elections resulted in a heavy defeat for the governing Alliance of the Democratic Left and Labor Union parties, although the very low turnout makes a direct comparison with national election results difficult. As expected the most successful party was the Civic Platform. Second place was taken by the strongly anti-EU League of Polish Families.
The radical populist Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, which some opinion polls had predicted would come second, came fourth after the Law and Justice party. The election results were a success for Social Democracy of Poland, which managed to cross the required 5% threshold, and the Freedom Union, which got over twice the expected percentage of votes.


Balsamgau

The Balsamgau (or Belcsem, Balsami) was an early medieval Gau (shire) in the Eastphalia region of the Duchy of Saxony. It was centered on Stendal and located on the West bank of the River Elbe. Other towns in the Balsamgau include Arneburg, Döbbelin, Elversdorf, Windberge. It was bordered by the following shires: Osterwalde, Liezizi, Morazani, Nordthüringgau.
By the 12th century, the Balsamgau had become a part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Together with Osterwalde, it formed the westernmost part of Brandenburg, which later came to be known as the Altmark.


Maria Santissima Immacolata, Longuelo

Maria Santissima Immacolata is a Modern style, Roman Catholic church located on Via Guglielmo Mattioli 57 in the neighborhood of Longuelo in Bergamo, region of Lombardy, Italy.
History.
The church was erected in 1961-1965 to designs by Giuseppe (Pino) Pizzigoni. The shape has been described as a "Hyperbolic-paraboloid shell".
The church is built with reinforced cement. The geometrical arrangement is described as four autonomous volumes, knitted together by five roofs, also made with thin 6 cm cement. Four of the roofs have double curvatures, while the main central roof is a steep parabolic tent like design.
Monsignor Andrea Spada, director of the journal L'Eco di Bergamo, said of the building in 1966:"The architect wanted to lay it on the edge of the road with all the naked violence of his architectural motifs, as able of blocking the attention of passersby. If that was the case, it is undoubtedly successful. That tangle of tormented, baroque, and immense empty sockets; of sails that stretch out like monstrous auricles; can lend themselves to the easy irony and jokes, but undoubtedly no passes without feeling a shock. Even the outside of this church speaks without doubts, indeed it cries, possessing its mighty voice, though also cavernous, harsh and hard".
The interior has stain glass windows 91992) by Mino Marra and a tabernacle by Claudio Nani. The sole sculpture is a large bas-relief in the presbytery depicting the Virgin. To loosely quote Spada again:"Here we are under reinforced concrete in an atmosphere that deprives us of indulgence. Its sincerity is absolute, we must acknowledge this but also its aridity and coldness. It is difficult to avoid the impression of being in a splendid monumental bunker."
In 2015-2016, the church underwent restoration.


Bank of Issue in Poland

Bank of Issue in Poland (, , also translated into English variously as the "Bank of Issue", "Issue Bank", "Issuing Bank" or "Emitting Bank in Poland") was a bank created by the Germans in the General Government (occupied Poland) in 1940.
Creation.
After the German invasion of Poland, the Reichsbank decided not to introduce German currency there, as it did not want to increase the money supply. Instead, it introduced a system of Reichskreditkassen ("credit offices of the German Reich"), which issued temporary bonds. This system, intended to be temporary from the beginning, was to be replaced by a new German controlled currency and central banks in occupied territories. In the meantime, various Polish banks and credit institutions were temporarily closed, while some of their assets were nationalized by the German government. Many people lost their savings. In particular, institutions with Jewish ownership were targeted, as well as Jewish customers. At the same time, German banks began opening their offices in the newly available territories. The plans for a complete takeover of the Polish financial system by the Germans was never finished before the war ended.
On 15 December Hans Frank, the governor of the General Government, passed a decree creating the Bank Emisyjny, which began operating in April. Bank Emisyjny was located in Kraków. It was the only institution in occupied Poland with the name Poland in its title.
It was headed by Polish economist, Feliks Młynarski. His German supervisor, and representative of the Reichsbank, was Fritz Paersch.
Operations.
Bank Emisyjny "de facto" replaced the independent central bank of Poland, the Bank of Poland, which managed to evacuate most of its assets, including gold, and part of the mint, before the invasion. Officially, however, the Bank of Poland still existed, as the Germans unsuccessfully tried to use it on the international scene to regain the assets evacuated and under the control of the Polish government in exile.
The bank's main functions were: issuing currency, discounting promissory notes and cheques, issuing short term loans, and taking deposits.
The official exchange rate was set as 2 złoty = 1 reichsmark. This system, favoring the German currency, was one of the ways of boosting the German economy by pillaging that of the conquered country. A black market exchange rate varied between three and four złotys to a reichsmark.
From 1940 until 1945 it financed the German economy. The Bank, as well as other financial institutions in occupied Poland, were tasked with gathering as much capital as possible, to be invested in the German economy. Approximately 11 billions złotys (5.5 billions reichsmarks) were transferred to the German army. It printed new currency (unofficially named after the Bank headquarters "złoty krakowski" - Złoty of Kraków - or after director Młynarski "the młynarki") with no backing which resulted in increasing inflation (market prices rose by three to six times and the exchange rate with the American dollar doubled over the war period).
In January 1945, the remaining assets and German personnel of the Bank were evacuated into Germany proper. It was officially liquidated by the Polish communist government in 1950.
Resistance connections.
Młynarski was in fact connected to the Polish Underground State which allowed widespread falsification of the new currency by the Polish underground. His very nomination to the post of the director was made in consultation with and approved by the Polish government in exile. The mint's printing presses were also used for falsification of other documents.


Urasterella

Urasterella is an extinct genus of sea stars that lived from the Ordovician to the Devonian. Its fossils are known from Europe, North America and southern Africa.
Species.
There have been a number of species assigned or transferred to the genus since its description in 1851.


Opici

The Opici were an ancient italic people of the Latino-Faliscan group who lived in the region of Campania. They settled in the area in the late Bronze Age but their territory was later conquered during the Iron Age by the Osci, another Italic people but of the Osco-Umbrian group.


Michael Willmann

Michael Leopold Lukas Willmann (27 September 1630 – 26 August 1706) was a German painter. The Baroque artist became known as the "Silesian Rembrandt", "Silesian Apelles" or "Silesian Raphael" and has been called the greatest Silesian painter of the baroque period.
Life.
Willmann was born in Königsberg (Królewiec; today Kaliningrad), Duchy of Prussia a fief of Kingdom of Poland. He was educated by his father, the painter, Christian Peter Willmann. His family was impoverished Calvinist nobility. Michael went to the Dutch Republic in 1650 to learn from the masters, and he was inspired by the works of Rembrandt, Peter Paul Rubens, and Anthony van Dyck. For financial reasons he was unable to afford studying at the studio of a well-known painter. He therefore studied on his own, often copying works of the artists he was inspired on. His early style was particularly influenced by the style of Rembrandt. While he is often described as self-thought, he studied for a time under Jacob Adriaensz Backer.
After two years in the Netherlands, mostly spent in Amsterdam, in 1653 Willmann returned to Königsberg, passed his master's examination, and began to travel. After visiting Danzig (Gdańsk), Willmann went to Prague, where he stayed from 1653–55. He then spent about a year in Breslau (Wrocław). Willmann's first known painting, "Landscape with John the Baptist", commissioned by Abbot Arnold Freiberger of the Abbatia Lubensis abbey in Leubus (Lubiąż), Lower Silesia, dates from 1656. Leubus, a village in the Silesian part of the Holy Roman Empire, would become the setting of much of Willmann's creativity.
From 1657–58 Willmann was in Berlin as the court painter of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. He painted mythological scenes for the elector, presumably for his residence at Königsberg Castle. In 1660 Willmann returned to Leubus, which allowed him a large workshop.
Willmann's workship, modeled after those of the Dutch painters, quickly spread his fame. The extensive family studio included his son , his daughter Anna Elisabeth, and Anna Elisabeth's husband Christian Neuenhertz and son . Willmann's studio also counted Johann Kretschmer from Glogau (Głogów), from Breslau, the Cistercian from Grüssau, and Willmann's stepson Jan Kryštof Liška.
Willmann became the leading painter of Silesia through his expressiveness, technical dexterity, and speed. Willmann worked on orders from the patriciate of Breslau, as well as churches and monasteries throughout Silesia, Bohemia and Moravia. He received contracts for the Cistercian monasteries in Grüssau, Heinrichau, Kamenz, Rauden, and Himmelwitz. With the assistance of his students and assistants, Willmann produced 500 paintings and frescos during his life; about 300 or so have survived till modern day. Most of his frescos were created after the 1680s.
On 26 November 1662 Willmann married Helena Regina Lischka (Liška) from Prague. In May 1663 he converted from Calvinism to Roman Catholicism and took the baptismal names "Leopold" (after the emperor) and "Lukas" (after the patron saint of painters). Willmann's prosperity allowed him in 1687 to acquire a manor near Leubus and sponsor the educations of his son and stepson in Italy. Willmann was detailed in "Academia", the 1683 Latin edition of Joachim von Sandrart's "Teutsche Academie der edlen Bau-, Bild und Malereikünste".
Willmann died in Leubus in 1706, and was buried in the abbey's crypt alongside the abbots. Because his son died shortly before his father, the studio passed to Willmann's stepson J. K. Liška until 1712, and to Willmann's grandson Georg Wilhelm Neunhertz until 1724, after which it closed. Willmann's house was destroyed in a fire in 1849.
Works.
Willman's style was inspired by artists such as Rembrant, Rubens, van Dyck and Pietro da Cortona. His distinctive style comes from background sketching technique and the adjustment of details. This style has been continued by his students.
Painters influenced by Willmann include Wenzel Lorenz Reiner, Petr Brandl, Johann Michael Rottmayr, and Franz Anton Maulbertsch.
Perhaps his most famous work is the series of paintings from "The Martyrdom of the Apostles" cycle.


2020 in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Events in the year 2020 in Bosnia and Herzegovina.


Holophragma calceoloides

†Holophragma calceoloides is an extinct species of rugose coral known from Silurian layers mainly on, but not limited to, the northwestern coast of Gotland, where it is very common. The species was recognised in 1866 by Gustaf Lindström. It was small and benthic, and always solitary.
Etymology.
The specific name, calceoloides comes from the word calceola that can be translated as a slipper or small shoe from Latin. This refers to the species flat underside.
Taxonomy.
The species was originally named Hallia caceoloides by Gustaf Lindström in 1866, which he later changed to its current name. It was also called Pycnactis rhizophylloides by Ryder in his 1926 publication.
Description.
Holophragma calceoloides specimens are generally small, only a couple of centimeters in length. One of the sides is usually flattened, giving the coral a shoe-like shape. This side was the animals underside in life as it lived lying down. The horn is normally curved to a varying degree. The calyx is generally facing upwards, and can sometimes have a slight heart-shape. The centre septa is more distinguished than the other.


Timeline of Turin

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Turin, Piedmont, Italy.
See also.
Timelines of other cities in the macroregion of Northwest Italy:()
References.
"This article incorporates information from the German Wikipedia and the Italian Wikipedia."
Bibliography.
in other languages.
"See also: " (in Italian)


Gylon

Gylon (), also known as Gylon of Cerameis, was a Greek military official and the maternal grandfather of Demosthenes. He is known for his role in the capture and ultimately turning over of Nymphaeum to the Bosporans, for which he was punished.
Nymphaeum fell under Athenian rule when Gylon captured the city and established a garrison there, along the strategically important grain route. Until that time, the city was influenced by the Scythians. He was said to have lived in Ancient Crimea (Bosporan Kingdom). Gylon is said to have betrayed Nymphaeum to "the enemy" when in 405 BC, he handed it to the Bosporan King Satyros in exchange for needed grain. One theory is that it was no longer feasible for the Athenians to maintain the outpost. but Glyon was punished for his role in letting go of Nyphaeum. He was first sentenced to death, but the punishment was later changed to a fine that Demosthenes paid off.
Gylon married a woman of nobility from Scythia. They had a daughter Cleobule () who married Demosthenes Senior and they had a son Demosthenes.


Pachycondyla parvula

Pachycondyla parvula is an extinct species of ant in the formicid subfamily Ponerinae described by from a fossil found in Europe. "P. parvula" is one of six Lutetian "Pachycondyla" species.
History and classification.
When described "Pachycondyla parvula" was known from six fossil insects which are compression-impression fossils preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock. Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the "P. parvula" specimens were collected from layers of Lutetian Messel Formation rock in the Messel pit World Heritage Site. The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and bituminous shale, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable lagerstätten. The area is a preserved maar lake which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.
At the time of description, the holotype specimen, number SMF MeI 10638, along with the paratype and four additional ants were preserved in the Senckenberg Research Station Messel fossil collections. The fossils were described by Gennady Dlussky and Sonja Wedmann in a 2012 paper on the poneromorph ants of Messel. In the type description Dlussky and Wedmann named the species "P. minuta", with the specific epithet chosen in recognition of small size of the adults. However the combination "Pachycondyla minuta" had already been used by W. MacKay and E. MacKay in 2010 for a living ant species from Mexico, now named "Rasopone minuta". Due to "P. minuta" being a junior homonym, a new name combination, "Pachycondyla parvula" was proposed for the species in a 2015 paper, with the species name "parvula" coming from the Latin for small or tiny.
The species is one of six "Pachycondyla" which have been described from Messel Formation fossils. All six of the species were described by Dlussky and Wedmann in the same 2012 paper, the other five being "P. eocenica", "P. lutzi", "P.? messeliana", "P. petiolosa", and "P. petrosa". Another eight fossil species have been described from fossils in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Description.
The small "Pachycondyla parvula" queen has a body length of approximately and the head is , while the alitrunk is . The antennae scape extends towards the rear margin of the head but does not extend past it. The eyes are noted to be rather small and placed slightly forward of the heads midpoint. Where preserved the mandibles are subtriangular in outline had each has seven teeth. The petiole is rounded in side view, with a high, thick scale.


Governorates of the Grand Principality of Finland

The governorates of the Grand Principality of Finland were the administrative division of the Grand Principality of Finland as part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917.
The administrative division of Finland followed the Russian imperial model with governorates (, , ) headed by governors. However few changes were made and as the language of the administrators was still Swedish the old terminology from during the Swedish time continued in local use. The Vyborg Governorate was not initially part of the Grand Principality, but in 1812 it was transferred from Russia proper to Finland.
Governorates.
After 1831 there were eight provinces in the Grand Principality.
History.
The Vyborg Governorate was established in territories ceded by the Swedish Empire in the Great Northern War. By the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden formally ceded control of the parts of the Viborg and Nyslott County and the Kexholm County located on the Karelian Isthmus to Russia. The governorate was extended in 1743 when Sweden ceded control of the rest of Viborg and Nyslott, now called the Kymmenegård and Nyslott County, by the Treaty of Åbo. In the Swedish kingdom the ceded territories was also known as Old Finland (, ), and between 1802 and 1812 it was named the "Finland Governorate".
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Sweden had allied itself with the Russian Empire, United Kingdom and the other parties against Napoleonic France. However, following the treaty of Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, Russia made peace with France. In 1808, and supported by France, Russia successfully challenged the Swedish control over Finland in the Finnish War. In the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on September 17, 1809 Sweden was obliged to cede all its territory in Finland, east of the Torne River, to Russia. The ceded territories became a part of the Russian Empire and was reconstituted into the Grand Duchy of Finland, with the Russian Tsar as Grand Duke.
In 1812 the Vyborg Governorate was transferred from Russia proper to the Grand Principality. The transfer, announced Tsar Alexander I just before Christmas, on December 23, 1811 O.S. (January 4, 1812 N.S.), can be seen as a symbolic gesture and an attempt to appease the sentiment of the Finnish population, which had just experienced Russian conquest of their country by force in the Finnish War.
In 1831 the Nyland-Tavastehus Governorate (, , ) was divided into the Nyland Governorate and the Tavastehus Governorate.
On the death of Tsar Nicholas I in 1855, a small group of citizens in the city of Vaasa tendered a petition to change the name of the city after him. The name of the city came from the Royal House of Vasa and despite that only 15 citizens were backing the proposal the name of the city was changed to Nikolaistad (, ). This also meant that the Vasa Governorate (, , ) was called Николайстадская губерния (Nikolaistadskaya gubérnija) in Russian, after 1855. The official Swedish, and later the Finnish, name for the province did not change.
After being a part of Sweden for seven centuries, the first half century of Finland as a Russian Grand Grand Principality meant a period of consolidation into the Russian Empire, where the authorities managed to convince the imperial court of the loyalty of the Finnish population and the officials to Russia. This resulted in the re-establishment of the Diet of Finland and an increased autonomy, an example of which was the elevation of Finnish from a language for the common people to a national language equal to Swedish.
The period of liberalisation came to an end in 1899 when a campaign of attempted russification was initiated, and attempt that ultimately would prove unsuccessful and detrimental for Finland's relationship with Russia. The policy of russification, coupled with Russian defeat in World War I and the Tsar no longer in power paved the way for Finland's declaration of independence on December 6, 1917. The former Swedish counties, that for a century had been ruled as governorates of a Russian Grand Principality would now become provinces (, ) of an independent Republic of Finland.


Ants Laikmaa

Ants Laikmaa (5 May 1866 – 19 November 1942) was an Estonian painter.
Life.
Ants Laikmaa (until 1935 Hans Laipman) was born in Paiba farm, Araste village, Märjamaa Parish. He was the 13th child of a poor Estonian family. He attended schools in Velise, Haapsalu and Lihula. His mother died when he was a child. Laikmaa discovered early his interest in painting. He studied from 1891 to 1893 and 1896/97 at the Düsseldorf Art Academy. From 1897 to 1899 he was working in Düsseldorf. He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting. In autumn of 1899 he returned to Tallinn. From 1900 to 1907 Laikmaa worked as an artist in Tallinn and Haapsalu. Study led him to Belgium, France, Austria, Finland and the Netherlands. 1901 he organized the first ever Estonian art exhibition in Tallinn, 1906 followed by the first art exhibition in Tartu. 1903, he founded a studio in Tallinn. 1907 he founded the Estonian Art Association (Eesti Kunstiselts).
In 1904 the 38-year-old Laikmaa met the great love of his life, the 21-year-old Marie Under, one of the best-known poets of the time. In the same year he painted two portraits of her, counted as the most famous of Laikmaa paintings.
From 1907 to 1909 he was mainly in Finland. 1909 to 1913 he traveled to the major art cities in Europe. He lived from 1910 to 1912 in Capri and Tunisia. From 1913 to 1931 Laikmaa worked as a freelance artist and art teacher in Tallinn. Among others, his pupils included the young Alfred Rosenberg. 1927 his only daughter Aino Marie (later Anu Kilpiö, died 1969) was born, a child of his model nicknamed "Miku". In 1932 Laikmaa settled in the vicinity of Taebla in Lääne County, on his farm in Kadarpiku village designed with a 7-hectare park, where he remained and worked until the end of his life.
Ants Laikmaa died in November 1942 in Kadarpiku, where he is also buried. Laikmaa remained unmarried all his life. His farm was opened in 1960 as a museum to his life and work.
Work.
Ants Laikmaa is best known for his watercolor painting. He brought impressionism to Estonia, and often painted landscapes, mostly with sharp colors. His portraits of the intellectual and artistic elite of Estonia are also well known. He was also politically active. Above all, he promoted the training and promotion of Estonian art and was one of the founders of the Estonian National Museum (Eesti Rahva Muuseum) in Tartu.


Evi Rauer

Evi Rauer (29 October 1915 – 17 September 2004) was an Estonian stage, film and television actress and television director whose career spanned more than sixty years.
Early life.
Evi Rauer was born in Tallinn to Kustav Rauer, who was an Estonian champion wrestler, and Johanna Katariina Rauer ("née" Wisel). She spent most summers with family in Haimre, Märjamaa Parish, Rapla County. At age four, her mother was diagnosed with a severe lung ailment and died a year later. Her father would later remarry and emigrate to Sweden following the Soviet occupation of Estonia in 1940. She attended schools in Tallinn, graduating from the Elfriede Lender Girls' Private Gymnasium in 1935. From 1936 until 1939, she studied acting at the Tallinn Töölisteater.
Stage career.
Shortly after graduation in 1939, she became engaged as an actress at the Ugala theatre in Viljandi. She would leave the Ugala in 1942, but return for engagements from 1945 until 1952 and again, from 1969 until 1973. From 1942 until 1945, she was engaged at the Endla Theatre in Pärnu, and from 1952 to 1958 at the Tallinn National Drama Theatre (now, the Estonian Drama Theatre). During her years on the stages of Estonian theatres, she would appear in notable productions of works by: Shakespeare, Eugene O'Neill, Hella Wuolijoki, Aleksei Arbuzov, Anton Hansen Tammsaare, August Mälk, Alexander Ostrovsky, August Kitzberg, Oskar Luts and Anton Chekhov, among others.
Film career.
In 1951, Rauer made her film debut as Roosi in the Herbert Rappaport directed drama "Valgus Koordis" for Lenfilm. The film is notable as being the second Estonian feature film made following the annexation of the country by the Soviet Union (the first being 1947's "Elu tsitadellis"), and starring Estonian singer Georg Ots. The plot of "Valgus Koordis" follows the struggle of a small village to set up a collective farm after the end of World War II. The film was based on a story of the same name by author Hans Leberecht.
Rauer would follow up her role in "Valgus Koordis" with a small role in the 1955 Mikhail Yegorov directed drama "Jahid merel". In 1960, she had a starring role as Maali in the Aleksandr Mandrõkin directed drama "Perekond Männard". In 1967, she appeared in the Lilli Promet penned, Veljo Käsper directed drama "Tütarlaps mustas" for Tallinnfilm. The following year, she had a small role in the Leida Laius directed film adaptation of the August Kitzburg play "Libahunt"; in the early 1950s, Rauer had already performed in both a stage adaptation and radio play as Mari, one of the play's main characters. In the film, the role of Mari was played by actress Malle Klaassen.
Following her role in "Libahunt", Rauer would return to the stage as an actress. She would not return to film until appearing in a small role in the 1993 Hungarian drama film "Senkiföldje", directed by András Jeles. In 1998, she appeared in the family film "Kallis härra Q" as the character Julius' mother.
Television.
From 1958 until 1968, Evi Rauer worked as a broadcast and programming director at Eesti Televisioon (ETV). She retired from acting in 1973.
She had also appeared in a number of roles in feature-length television films, including the 1960 Virve Aruoja directed "Näitleja Joller", starring Voldemar Panso, for Eesti Telefilm.
In 1997, at age 83, she was approached by film and television director Tõnis Kask about appearing as a regular cast member on the long-running ETV drama series "Õnne 13". Rauer agreed, and debuted on the television series later that year as Maie; a role she would play until 2000.
Personal life.
Evi Rauer was married to actor Arnold Sikkel, who died in 1974. The couple had one daughter, actress Piret Sikkel, born in 1941. Evi Rauer died in Tallinn at age 88.


Ajet Sopi Bllata

Ajet Sopi Bllata (1861–1938) was an Albanian rebel from the village of Jabllanica, in present-day Bujanovac municipality, then part of the Ottoman Empire. From the age of 17 to that of 53, he fought as a kachak against Serbian interests in the Kosovo Vilayet. He spend his later life in the Kavajë area where many Kosovo Albanian refugees settled after Serbia annexed Kosovo in 1912.
Life.
He was from the same family as rebel Ahmet Sopi. When he was 17, control of Jabllanica was transferred to the Principality of Serbia, which had gained it after the Congress of Berlin. His village was burnt and looted and the villagers turnt into refugees during the expulsion of Albanians from the newly acquired areas. For Ajet Sopi, this was the formative event of his life. He would spend much of his life after these events as a kachak against Serbia.
Sopi fought as a Kachak for many years against Serbs together with Idris Seferi until he was expelled by Chetniks to Turkey. Eventually he moved to Albania where he was killed by two villagers who had been paid by Serb authorities.
As the family traveled to the village of Topanci, close to Gjilani, modern day the municipality of Dardane, they had difficulties setting up a new home. Although the region of was under Serb administration, they worked the lands. Sopi, having secured his family, proceeded to meet up with Vesel Kosovice and Idris Seferi in order to continue his patriotic struggle. As they continued, they met regions which had been attacked by Serbs, the commander being Stojan Domoroc, who ordered the atrocities. He stole the Albanians cattle, which angered Sopi and he proceeded to return the cattle which the Serbs now had stolen. Sopi demanded that the Serbs pay for the costs to which Sopi engaged in hostilities with the Serbs but particularly with Stojan. Vesel Kosovic had been told by Stojan that he was going out to hunt in the mountains of Marec, near the lake Krivareka. Stojans men, consisting mostly of Albanians, proceeded while Kosovic and Sopi discussed how to encounter them. Sopi and Kosovice managed to find a location in order to ambush them. Sopi opened fire as soon as he saw Stojani, hitting him in the chest, throwing him off the horse. Stojans men, now panicked, began opening fire. Ajet however signalized with his rifle that if the Albanians continued to fire on their fellow Albanians, they too would meet the same fate as Stojan.
Life as Kacak.
The killing of Stojan Domorci became widely spread in Gallap and Karadak. The Serbs, terrified, saw as the Albanians proceeded to live in freedom. The men of Stojan however decided to avenge their killed leader and proceeded to track down Vesel Kosovice and they killed him. Ajet Sopi, now much angered for the death of his comrade, decided to avenge him. The Serbs however, seeing their chance, decided to surround him in his house as he slept. When Ajeti woke up, much angered by the masses outside, opened fire, killing two Serb members of the gender armies. He then proceeded to pick up their weapon, killing another two Serbs in the mountains of Lugu i Thanave. From that day, Ajeti began his life as a Kachak. One night, as he was traveling in Rogane, close to Tyrbes, he noticed Serb soldiers guarding the road. He proceeded to open fire at them, killing them all, and returning backwards. He returned to Bllatë, where met with three other Kachaks: Rama, Kadria and Emini, although he did not work together with them. As he returned home, Sopi married a girl from his village. But when the family of the girl found out that Ajeti was a Kachak, they took back their daughter and gave her to someone else, fearing that she would suffer the consequences. Ajeti was much angered by this treacherous deed and much disappointed. As the woman was getting married, Ajeti ambushed the groom, killing him and a secondary person and proceeded to steal the newly wedded girl, also called ”nuse”. The family of the woman decided to avenge them. A cousin of Ajeti, named Aliu, met up with Ajeti to help him.
Treason.
The angry mass, numbering 30, captured Aliu outside his house, while Ajeti was inside sleeping and he had left his arms in the closet of his nuse. ”Bride”. The masses broke into the house and captured Ajeti and proceeded to take them to the nearby station in Gradec. Ajeti however escapes custody. The next morning, three gendarmes find Ajeti and capture him. His cousin Aliu was also released the next day. The gendarmes, who previously had heard of his patriotic deeds, decide to lower their weapons when Ajeti tells them who he is. As they approach him with cigarettes, Ajeti however grabs a rifle from one of the soldiers, and catches them off-guard, saying:
"You are granted mercy tonight, for i will not end you, but if i find you sneaking behind my back, i will shoot you the way I shot Stojan and those traitors! Take your cigarettes, and continue down the road. If you turn back to look, i will shoot you!"
Ajeti continued to Karadak, where met up with Idris Seferi to fight with him against the Ottomans. At this time, the head of the Chetniks, Kojice Popovic, kidnapped two Albanian women. Ajeti himself took on the task to retrieve the two girls and avenge the Albanian ”honor”. He sought the Chetnik commander and killed him along with other Serbs in the house. When he returns, he is much disturbed that his fellow friends accuse him for having committed crimes such as steal a bride and collect other peoples cattle. He proceeds to kill the accusers, once again leaving death behind him. Sickened by all the treason, he proceeds once again to join Idris Seferi.
Refugee.
The Serb plan for the occupation of Kosovo was much appreciated by the Chetniks Miladin Kollolec. They ordered Ajeti to throw down his guns and move away from the village of Bllata. His family decided to obey the Chetnik orders and to move to Turkey. In the year of 1912, August, Ajeti, with his wife and four children, decided to follow the family for Turkey. The Chetniks followed them to the border of Greece and paid for their tickets. Ajeti handed over his rifle, his gun and belt to the commander. He then proceeded to speak with the Chentik saying:
"I intended to kill you with this rifle, but I will surrender it today. I will never grant you this opportunity, but I will give up this time, and this time only."
According to Milosav Jelic, a Serb writer who published the "Chronicles of the South", Ajeti decided, with six other comrades, to stay in Adana, Turkey. He worked as a farmer, but because having never worked as one, he found it much difficult. In his madness, he proceeded to attack the landlord and was arrested. He requested to be transferred to Albania which was granted, but he lost contact with his family. In 1916, he began a new life in Karp, close to Kavaja, in Albania.
Death.
He was killed in Karp in 1938. At that time, he was building a new well in the village and had brought in two workers from Anamorava in Kosovo. At the last day of work, they killed him for unclear reasons. Personal affairs or an attack by Yugoslav agents have been put forward as possible explanations.


William A. Baillie-Hamilton

Sir William Alexander Baillie-Hamilton (6 September 1844 – 6 July 1920) was a Scottish civil servant, who became Private Secretary to the Chief Secretary for Ireland and to the Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1886 and 1892. In his youth, he was a keen sportsman who played for the Scottish side in the first football match against England in March 1870.
Family and education.
Baillie-Hamilton was born at Brighton, the son of Admiral William Alexander Baillie-Hamilton (1803–1881) and Lady Harriet Hamilton (1812–1884). His father was Second Secretary to the Admiralty from 1845 to 1855; his mother was the daughter of James Hamilton, Viscount Hamilton M.P. (1786–1814).
He was educated at Harrow, leaving there in 1863.
On 21 June 1871, he married Mary Aynscombe Mossop, daughter of Reverend John Mossop (rector at Hothfield, Kent). They had two sons:
Sporting career.
In 1870, he was selected together with his younger brother Charles by fellow civil servant, James Kirkpatrick, to represent Scotland in a football match to be played against England at the Kennington Oval on 5 March 1870. The match ended in a 1–1 draw, with the Scottish goal being scored by fellow Harrovian, Robert Crawford.
Baillie-Hamilton also represented Harrow School at cricket; he later represented M.C.C. between 1877 and 1881.
Military career.
He was a member of the East Lothians and Berwickshire Imperial Yeomanry, being promoted to the rank of captain in June 1878. He ultimately gained the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel and Honorary Colonel of the regiment.
Civil Service career.
On leaving Harrow, he entered the Colonial Office in 1864, reaching the rank of First Class Clerk in 1879. He was secretary to the Colonial Conference in 1887; he was Private Secretary to the Chief Secretary for Ireland and to the Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1886 and 1892. He became a Principal Clerk in 1894 and Chief Clerk in 1897. He was Chief Clerk of the Colonial Office between 1896 and 1909, when he retired.
He also qualified as a barrister and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1871.
In 1884, he published a novel, "Mr. Montenello: a romance of the civil service".
He died on 6 July 1920, aged 75.
Honours.
In May 1887, he was invested as a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George and in August 1892 as a Companion of the Order of the Bath (C.B.). He was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (K.C.M.G.) in the 1897 Diamond Jubilee Honours; the investiture took place at Windsor Castle on 9 December 1897.
In November 1901, he was appointed an Officer of Arms of the Order of St. Michael and St. George by King Edward VII. In May 1911, the title was changed to Gentleman Usher of the Blue Rod, a position held by Baillie-Hamilton until his death.


Susanna Mountfort

Susanna Mountfort (1690-1720) was a British stage actress.
She was the daughter of the actors William Mountfort and his wife Susanna Mountfort. In 1692 her father was killed in a duel and her mother remarried and became known as Susanna Verbruggen. Her daughter took to the stage as a child actor in 1703, the year of her mother's death, and acted for many years at the Drury Lane Theatre appearing frequently in comedies as an ingénue. She also played Ophelia in Shakespeare's "Hamlet".


Alexander Nelke

Sergei Alexander Nelke (December 14, 1894 — August 8, 1974) was an Estonian-American artist in the mid to late 20th century. He is primarily known as marine and landscape artist specializing in square rigged sailing vessels.
Early life.
Nelke was the middle of three sons to Karl and Anna Nelke. His father was a carriage maker and worked on the ceremonial carriage that was built for Queen Victoria when she visited Russia in 1894. After completing his secondary education in 1910, Nelke began his career as a seaman working as a ships carpenter, eventually rising to the rank of 2nd Mate. Nelke became an expert ships carpenter and rigger and acquired a thorough knowledge of the sea and sailing vessels from all over the world. Nelke would spend over fifteen years at sea before finally settling in Brooklyn, NY, near his brother Waldemar. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1945.
Career as an artist.
Nelke was primarily self taught as an artist and began painting by using cut up sails as canvas while out at sea. After settling in America, Nelke continued working as a carpenter and painted out of his studio on Baltic Street in Brooklyn. He studied for a time under fellow marine painter .
His background as a seaman and ship builder allowed him to produce highly detailed and accurate paintings of seascapes and nautical vessels. He was considered an authority in the field of maritime art and also in the detail of sailing ships (especially rigging) and their construction. He was often consulted on high-end ship models. This attracted interest in the commercial market and Nelke was commissioned to paint several pieces which would be reproduced on items such as prints, playing cards and jigsaw puzzles to be sold to the public.
Nelke sat on the committee for the Washington Square Outdoor Art Exhibit, which was started by Vernon Carroll Porter in 1931 and was also a former director of the Brooklyn Outdoor Art Show. He was a member of the Salons of America, and exhibited his work with them in 1934 and 1936. He also exhibited with The Society of Independent Artists in 1934, 1936, 1938, 1940 and 1944.
At the age of 79, Nelke died in his Brooklyn, NY apartment on August 8, 1974. He is buried near his brother Waldemar in Wappingers Falls, NY.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 4

United Nations Security Council Resolution 4, adopted on April 29, 1946, condemned the Francoist State in Spain and formed a sub-committee to decide whether or not his rule was leading to international friction, and if so, what to do about it.
The resolution was adopted with 10 votes, while the USSR abstained.


Timeline of Ancona

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Ancona in the Marche region of Italy.
See also.
Other cities in the macroregion of Central Italy:()
References.
"This article incorporates information from the Italian Wikipedia."
Bibliography.
in Italian.
"See also: " (in Italian)


Lady Mary Fox

Lady Mary Fox (née FitzClarence; 19 December 1798 – 13 July 1864) was an illegitimate daughter of King William IV of the United Kingdom by his mistress Dorothea Jordan. In later life she became a writer.
Marriage.
Mary FitzClarence was born in Bushy House as the fourth child and second daughter of the then Prince William, Duke of Clarence, and actor Dorothea Jordan. She was "a fine looking, brown girl with a pleasant countenance and manners". In 1820, her younger sister Elizabeth was courted by Charles Richard Fox, the eldest but illegitimate son of Lord Holland and Lady Webster, later Lady Holland. His parents did not consent to the match, but four years later approved of his relationship with Mary.
The couple married on 19 June 1824 in St George's, Hanover Square, London. Lady Holland worried that she might be "a sickly subject" and wished that the "roturier blood of the mother might have mitigated the royal constitutions". Her mother-in-law wrote on 31 August that her son, "though fond of her, he only considers her as an auxiliary to his medals and other possessions, not as a principal", but concluded that "it will all do well; as she is very winning, and very firm, and sincerely fond of him." The pair established their household in Little Holland House by 1827. They moved to Canada in September 1829 when Charles resumed active army service.
Father's accession.
Mary Fox received from her father the second part of the Anthony Roll, which had been in the possession of the royal family since the reign of King Henry VIII, though she was probably not interested in the history of the Royal Navy. The death of her uncle, King George IV, in 1830 led to her father's accession to the thrones of the United Kingdom and Hanover as William IV. The new king was anxious to see his daughter return home and had her husband transferred. He granted her the rank of a marquess's daughter on 24 May 1831.
Authorship and Anthony Roll.
William IV died in January 1837 and Lady Mary's cousin, Victoria, ascended the throne. Later that year, Lady Mary published a utopian feminist Gothic fiction narrative titled "An Account of an Expedition to the Interior of New Holland". Lady Mary's treatise is the most representative example of the portrayal of New Holland (Australia) as a mysterious and "unreal" place. In January 1857, Sir Frederic Madden, custodian of the manuscripts at the British Museum, learned that Lady Mary wished to sell the roll she had been given by her father in order to raise funds for building a church "or something of that kind".
For a large part of her later life, Lady Mary served as housekeeper at Windsor Castle. She died childless on 13 July 1864. She is buried with her husband at Kensal Green Cemetery.


Mene oblonga

Mene oblonga is a species of ray-finned fish that first appeared in the Monte Bolca Lagerstatten during the Lutetian epoch of the Eocene. For a menid, it has a very shallow body, especially in comparison with the sympatric "Mene rhombea". Its fossils are very rare in Monte Bolca. A single fossil from the early Oligocene, referred to as ""Mene oblonga" var. "pusilla"," was found in Chiavon, Italy.


Bernhard Saarsoo

 Bernhard Saarsoo (8 July 1899 – 29 June 1964) was an Estonian and Swedish physician and botanist.
Saarsoo was born in Aaspere, Haljala Parish in northeastern Estonia. He published a number of notable papers on his studies in the 1930s including "Uus robiheinaliik Eestis" (1933) and "Floristilisi märkmeid IV" (1938).
He lived and worked in exile in Växjö, Sweden since 1944 when he fled the Soviet occupation of Estonia.


William Augustus Barron

William Augustus Barron ("fl". 1777) was a British landscape painter.
Life.
He was a pupil of William Tomkins and younger brother of Hugh Barron.
In 1766, he gained a premium at the Society of Arts.
He practised as a landscape painter, and also as a drawing master.
Like his brother, he excelled as a performer upon the violin; like him, also, he reached no more than a moderate excellence in his proper profession.
His skill upon the violin gained him an introduction to Sir Edward Walpole, who gave him a situation in the exchequer, which in 1808 he still held.
A view of Wanstead House by this artist was engraved by Picot in 1775; also after him are a set of views of castles and other subjects taken in different parts of Essex.
In the print-room of the British Museum, there is a large pen drawing by him of Richmond Bridge in 1778.


Mount Venus

Mount Venus (or "Cill an Véineas" in "Irish") is a sacred megalithic site in Edmondstown, County Dublin, Ireland on the Mount Venus Road. It is a national heritage site.
It has been described by Borlase as one of the most magnificent in the world. It encompasses a massive cap stone weighing in at 44 tons. It is partly collapsed on its supports and overgrown, and it has been suggested that this was a result of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, as well as the 1690 Caernarfon earthquake. The capstone lies against a single large upright megalith.
When it was complete it would have been a . high chamber entrance.
Only one of the two great portal stones survives upright. The capstone has fallen and leans on this portal stone. The other portal stone (15 feet long) lies next to the monument. A third dressed stone 4 metres long by 1 metre wide lies in front.
Borlase believed this to be a distinct class of tomb - an "earth-fast" dolmen, so-called from the capstone's contact with the ground at the back (another example being Howth dolmen).
Access to this megalith is through a gap in a hedge beside the DSPCA on a site which was once a golf course.


Hisar Hill

The Hisar () is a hill near the town of Leskovac in southern Serbia. A town's symbol, the hill is known for the remains of the large, fortified Bronze Age settlement and has been declared a nature park. The evidence confirm the almost continuous habitation from the Neolithic to the Ottoman period, and as the town of Leskovac engulfs the hill, until today.
With numerous remains of the equipment for iron processing (grinders, furnaces, charcoal piles), iron ore itself and high quantities of discovered slag, dated from the 14th to the 11th century BC, indicates that this was the oldest known occurrence of ferrous metallurgy in Europe and one of the oldest in the world. A nicely preserved needle, discovered on the site in 2001, is considered to be one of the oldest surviving metallic objects on the planet.
Location.
The hill is located within the urban area of Leskovac, in the valley of the Veternica river, which passes east of the hill. Almost from all sides it is surrounded by the town's urban tissue, with only southwest and, partially, south side remaining unurbanized. On the north, there is a Park "Devet Jugovića".
Characteristics.
The hill makes the westernmost extension of the Goljak mountain, sloping into the Morava valley.
Name of the hill comes from the Turkish word "hisar", which means citadel. Smaller forts were called "hisardžik" and fortresses above several cities in southern Serbia were in time named "hisar" (Leskovac, Prokuplje).
In its itinerary "Serbia - land and population", published in 1904, Austrian traveler Felix Kanitz wrote:
The nature park covers an area of . The Monument to the Unknown Soldier was erected on the hill in 1922, in honor of the anonymous captain who was killed on 26 October 1915 during the Morava Offensive, part of the warfare with the occupational Bulgarian army during World War I. A memorial park was built on the eastern slope in 1971, based on the preliminary design by architect Bogdan Bogdanović. There is also a memorial plaque, commemorating the first gathering of workers in the Leskovac area in 1897.
A transmitter of the local TV Leskovac is situated on the hill.
Archaeology.
The archaeological works began in 1999, they have been continuous ever since and until today covered an area of . Head of the excavations is archaeologist Milorad Stojić from the Archaeological Institute in Belgrade. Remains of the multilayered settlement were discovered in 2001.
Older periods.
There are remains from the Neolithic and Copper Age. Over 7,000 artifacts from the prehistoric period were discovered.
Bronze Age.
Hisar is a multilevel settlement which spawned through several periods, at least from 1350 and 1000 BC, during the Late Bronze Age. It was a large fortified settlement, located on the highest plateau of the hill. It was protected with the defensive, deep moat and surrounded by the wooden piles palisade on the inner side. The fortification extended into the slopes, where the suburbs on the foothills of Hisar were located. The fortification is similar to the one discovered on the Gradac locality in Novo Lanište, in the Velika Morava basin, though Gradac is much younger, originating in the 8th century BC. The settlement belonged to the Brnjica culture.
The settlement occupies the southeast part of the hill. The Brnjica layers are discovered at the depth of , and consist of 4 strata which mark the 4 development phases (Brnjica I-a, I-b, II-a, II-b). Several thousand of objects were discovered, mostly pottery fragments.
People lived in a small houses or in the half-dugouts. Houses were mostly made of wood, so they are not preserved, and the reconstruction was based on the imprints of the wooden piles, remains of the "lep", a wall plaster made of mud which contains remains of the paling and woven wattles and remaining parts of the floors made of compacted earth. Underground sections of the half-dugouts had a rectangular base with the floor made of the compacted earth. Section above the ground was made of wattle covered with mud with the tent-like hipped roof covered with the straw or the wood bark.
A furnace was located at the entrance into the house and the discovered pottery includes pots, bowls, cups, etc. House utensils included leverages, weights, flint tools and both parts of millstones: bedstones and runner tones. Even some three-legged wooden stools have been preserved. Next to the furnace there was a "piranos", the pot with the firebox and an outer handle, so the food was obviously prepared in the entry section of the house. Several food storages were discovered. Results of the archaeo-botanical researches showed that, concerning grains, the inhabitants cultivated mostly millet, but also barley, rye, oats and some type of today extinct wild wheat. They also cultivated many legumes: peas, lentils, fava beans, bitter vetch and today in Serbia extinct ervil ("urov"). A diet consisted of barley, millet and, to the lesser extent, wheat. The chaff was separated from the grain seeds by heating the seeds in the "piranos" until they become brittle so that they would separate easily in the mortar and pestle. The grains ware grinded by hand with the millstones. Due to the predominance of the millet, it is concluded that the most important and everyday meal was a millet porridge. They also made some kind of "pogača" of wheat and rye, while the legumes were cooked like today. The food was prepared and served in the clay dishes and the numerous complete objects were discovered: pots, jugs, pitchers, cups, etc. Large use of legumes is due to the climate as the Leskovac region is even today known for the production of this type of vegetables.
The inhabitants also grew the wild flax ("lanak"). The stems were used to make fabric, for which the hand-operated looms were used. The seeds were used for the oil production.
In September 2017, experts from the National Museum in Leskovac reconstructed one Bronze Age house and exhibited it in front of the museum. They also placed a stand where, among other things, visitors can try the meals, which are made in the way it is believed they have been prepared, like the millet porridge. Today, Leskovac is the most famous place in Serbia for the grilled meat and especially, for "pljeskavicas", or hamburgers. To add a humorous note, the "pljeskavicas" are also prepared, but instead of meat, they are made from peas and millet, with added soybeans.
Metallurgy.
It is estimated that the metallurgy center in the settlement was operational at least between 1350 BC and 1100 BC and the remains have been found in the layer up to thick. Iron ore, amorphous iron and vast amount of slag were discovered, but also remains of the grinding stones for crushing the ore ("pogača"), furnaces, charcoal piles, blowers and metal objects.
Archaeo-metallurgy expert Radomir Pleiner pointed out that the Hittite ferrous metallurgy, until recently considered the oldest on the planet, is known exclusively from the archive in the remains of their capital Hattusa, near Boğazkale in Turkey and not from the discovered objects or the smelting equipment. Archives mention iron and gifts made from it, calling it a "royal metal" because only the royal court had rights to produce it. Further importance of iron in that, and later periods, can be seen from Homer's labeling of iron as a "metal, more expensive than gold", because it was harder to find it and process it.
Turović needle.
A nicely preserved needle, discovered on the site in 2002, is considered to be one of the oldest surviving metallic objects on the planet. Amateur archaeologist Šćepan Turović discovered it, so it was named after him, the Turović needle.
It was made from the stainless iron, without any hollows. It is long and dated to the 14th century BC (c.1300 BC). It considered a technological wonder even by modern standards as iron of such purity hardly can be produced even today. It is 98,86% pure iron and apparently can't rust. Research labs in Sartid steel factory in Smederevo and the Vinča Nuclear Institute and Institute for physics in Belgrade showed that the needle was not made of pure iron which makes it "globally exquisite". Technologists stated that for such compactness and purity, it will take millions and millions of strokes. It has greater purity than the iron standard forged in space, which was brought from the United States to compare it to the needle.
In 2005, another needle-shaped object was discovered, also dated to the 14th century BC.
Dorian hypothesis.
Stojić hypothesizes that the development of metallurgy confirms the theory of the Dorian Invasion from the northern route. The discovery of iron and bronze objects from the 12th century BC, coincides with the invasion. The Dorians lived in the basin of the South Morava and the surrounding Central Balkans regions in the 13th century and, producing the iron weapons, with ease conquered the southern people in Greece.
Iron Age.
A later Iron Age settlement existed at Hisar from the 6th to the 4th century BC. Besides Greek fibulae and pottery, in 2005 a rare example of the silver buckle was discovered which, with other discovered artifacts, points to the existence of the necropolis of the old Balkan people, either the Thracian Triballi or the Thraco-Illyrian Dardani.
Later periods.
The fortress was active during the later Roman, Byzantine, medieval Serbian and Ottoman periods.
The Roman remains include the parts of a rampart, which was dug into the remains of the old, 14th century BC fortification. The object is decorated with frescoes and a mosaic and probably was port of a sacral complex. An ebony tablet, with the visible inscription "reddeta" ("return gift"), is also discovered. It is dated to the 4th century.
During the Byzantine period, the hill hosted a crafts and metallurgy center.
The "most beautiful 12th century archaeological findings in Serbia" have also been discovered. It most probably originated from the period of Grand Župan Stefan Nemanja, who included the Dubočica region and the basin of the South Morava in the Serbian state. Artifacts include the complete dishes and vessels and medieval colored glass ornamented in the multi-color technique. Remains of the settlement from c.1400 are also found, and silver coins minted by Stefan Lazarević, before he obtained his title of a despot.


Battle of Trautenau

The Battle of Trautenau () or Battle of Trutnov was fought on 27 June 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War. It was the only battle of the war that ended in an Austrian victory over the Prussians, but at a large cost.
Background.
The Prussian Second Army invading Bohemia had to split up in order to negotiate the difficult passes of the Giant Mountains. As they emerged on the Bohemian side, they met Austrian forces. At Nachod the Austrians were soundly beaten, but on the same day, as Adolf von Bonin’s I Corps emerged from the passes it was caught in the open on its way through Trautenau towards Pilníkov, where it hoped to link up with the First Army.
The battle.
Bonin's vanguard cleared the passes during the late morning and entered Trautenau at 10:00. The Austrian X Corps, led by Ludwig von Gablenz, had broken camp at 8:00 and marched towards Trautenau to stop Bonin's advance. The Austrian troops arrived piecemeal with the Mondel brigade – which had started its march before the bulk of the Corps – being in position on the heights behind Trautenau at 7:45.
The advance guard of the Prussians was attacked by skirmishing Austrian Jäger when resting in the town square. Mondel, who had been ordered to avoid a general engagement until the whole Corps had assembled, pulled back his troops to the heights. Mondel's rear guard managed to hold up the Prussians until noon. By 12:00 Bonin's 1st division had driven off Mondel and pushed up to the town of Neu-Rognitz (Novy Rokytnik), his 2nd division had taken the heights and was scouting in the direction of the town of Alt-Rognitz (Stary Rokytnik). This gave the Prussians the time to move troops and guns up the commanding heights.
As the Austrian brigades started arriving, Gablenz ordered a second brigade (Wimpffen) to pass Mondel and take the Johannesberg, while a third brigade (Grivicic) was to envelop the Prussian left and storm the Hopfenberg. To prepare the attack, Gablenz ordered a grand battery of 40 guns to open up fire on the Prussian held heights. Upon this heavy bombardment Bonin panicked and started to withdraw back towards the passes. Before this retreat could be enacted, the Austrians attacked in half-battalion masses. The Austrian attacks of Grivicic and Wimpffen were uncoordinated and stalled against the Prussian fire from the Dreyse needle gun. Four Prussian battalions from the rear guard thus managed to hold up the Austrian brigades. By 17:00 Gablenz fourth brigade (Knebel) had arrived and was originally placed in reserve. When he saw Grivicic's and Wimpffen's brigades struggling, Knebel disregarded orders and attacked and took the heights in conjunction with Wimpffen, losing 900 men in the process, to drive off Bonin's rear guard.
Outcome.
Although an Austrian victory, the cost had been high. The Austrians lost about 5,000 men to the Prussians 1,400. Although the Prussian I Corps had been driven back, Gablenz's position had become untenable. To his left Steinmetz's V Corps had broken through at Nachod and to his right the Prussian Guard Corps was nearing Eipel (Upice), threatening both his flanks (distance map). The following day Gablenz tried to evade encirclement by the Prussian Guards but he had to sacrifice most of Grivicic's brigade, which was nearly destroyed, at Burkersdorf and Rudersdorf, to enable his retreat.


Bonnanaro culture

The Bonnanaro culture is a protohistoric culture that flourished in Sardinia during the 2nd millennium BC (1800–1600 BC), considered to be the first stage of the Nuragic civilization. It takes its name from the comune of Bonnanaro in the province of Sassari where in 1889 the eponymous site was discovered.
Chronology.
The Bonnanaro culture is divided chronologically into two main phases:
Origin.
According to Giovanni Lilliu the people who produced this culture probably originated in Central Europe and the Polada culture area. From a material culture point of view, the Bonnanaro culture shows influences of the preceding pan-European Bell Beaker culture and of the post-Beaker ("epicampaniforme") Polada culture from northern Italy.
Description.
Bonnanaro sites, mostly burials, are scattered throughout Sardinian territory, with a higher concentration in the mining regions of Nurra and Sulcis-Iglesiente and in the Campidano. Ceramics were smooth and linear without decorations and characterized by handles. Numbers of metal objects increased and the first swords of arsenical bronze appeared.
Only four settlements of this culture are known: "Su Campu Lontanu" Florinas, "Sa Turricula" Muros, "Costa Tana" Bonarcado and "Abiti" Teti. The houses had a base of masonry while the roof was made of wood and branches.
It is still uncertain whether the first "protonuraghi" or "pseudonuraghi" were built at this time, or in the successive "Sub-Bonnanaro culture" (or "Bonnanaro B") of the middle bronze age (1600–1330 BC), although c14 analysis on organic finds from the Protonuraghe Bruncu Madugui suggest that it was built sometime around 1820 BC. The Proto-Nuraghi were megalithic edifices which are considered the precursors of the classic Nuraghi. They are horizontal buildings characterized by a long corridor with rooms and cells.
The Bonnanaro grave typologies include the "domus de janas", caves, cists and allée couvertes.
Physical anthropology.
About 200 human skeletons of the period show that the Bonnanaro population (phase A1) was composed mainly of dolicochepalic individuals (67%) with a minority of brachycephalics (33%), the latter concentrated in the north-western portion of the island. The average height was 1.62 m for men and 1.59 m for women. The Bonnanaro population suffered from osteoporosis, hyperostosis, anemia, caries and tumors. Cranial trepannation was practiced.


German Autumn (book)

German Autumn (original title: "Tysk höst") is a book published in 1947 collecting a series of journalistic essays by Swedish novelist Stig Dagerman. Written during the fall of 1946 while he was on assignment by the Swedish newspaper Expressen in Germany, it depicts life in the war-torn country in the immediate aftermath of World War II. It was not published in America until 2011 (translated by Robin Fulton Macpherson, with a foreword by Mark Kurlansky). The 2010 Swedish edition has an introduction by Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Elfriede Jelinek. It was adapted into the 2008 French documentary film "1946, automne allemand" that uses archival footage from post-war Germany to illustrate Dagerman's text.


Alvito Nunes

Alvito Nunes or Aloyto Núñez (died 1015) was an 11th-century Count of Portugal. Following the death of Menendo González in 1008, he governed the county jointly with Toda, count Menendo's widow.
Alvito Nunes was killed by Vikings during a bloody assault on Vermoim Castle, located around Vila Nova de Famalicão.
He is believed to be descended from the first family Portuguese counts, that of Vímara Peres, through one Nuno Alvites (or Aloytez), probable grandson of Lucídio Vimaranes. He was followed in the county by his son Nuno Alvites who died in 1028.
Marriage and issue.
He married Gontina with whom he had at least four children:


Abbey of San Guglielmo al Goleto

The Abbey of San Guglielmo al Goleto is a Benedictine monastery in Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi, province of Avellino, region of Campania Italy.
The monastery was founded by Saint William of Vercelli in the year 1114. It was started as a female cloister, with a small attached monastery for the spiritual guidance and economic assistance of the nuns.
The period 1135-1515 was known as the "Age of the Nuns." The cloister became wealthy from 1135 to 1348 until the black death struck and the cloister began to decline. On January 24, 1506, Pope Julius II declared that, upon the death of the last abbess, the cloister would be closed, which occurred in 1515.
The age of the nuns was followed by the "epoch of the monks" from 1515 to 1807. When the cloister closed, the monastery merged with that on Montevergine and began to grow. Pope Sixtus V, who was also superior of the Franciscan Convent of S. Angelo dei Lombardi, accelerated this growth. The monastery reached its peak between the mid-seventeenth century and the mid-eighteenth century.
In 1807, the king of Naples, Joseph Bonaparte, ordered the Abbey closed. St. William's body was moved to Montevergine and the furnishings of the abbey were looted.
The abbey remained abandoned until 1973 when a monk of Montevergine, Lucio M. De Marino, obtained permission to relocate to Goleto, reoccupying the abbey and beginning its restoration.
In 1989, the Abbey was entrusted to the Little Brothers of Jesus.


John Peyton (Royal Navy officer)

John Goodwin Gregory Peyton (1752 – 2 August 1809) was an officer in the Royal Navy during the American and French revolutionary wars. As a lieutenant, he fought alongside his father Joseph Peyton, at the Moonlight Battle off Cape St Vincent, and later, in 1798, commanded at the Battle of the Nile. He retired a Rear admiral in 1800 and died in 1809 at the age of 56.
Early life and career.
John Goodwin Gregory Peyton was born in Ardingly, Sussex in 1752 to Joseph Peyton and his wife Katherine. The Peytons were a naval family; at least five generations served and both his grandfather, Edward Peyton and his father attained the rank of admiral.
John was one of seven children, five boys and two girls, and of his four brothers, all but one entered the Royal Navy: The eldest, named after his father, also became an admiral, the younger brother, William was an administrator, the youngest, Thomas, died while in command of in 1801.
Peyton's early career is not well documented, and he is sometimes confused with other family members, but it is most likely that he is the Peyton registered aboard his father's ship, , in 1766. Promoted to lieutenant in 1772, he remained with his father, fighting in at the first Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1780.
Command.
Peyton's first command was the 12-gun cutter, , in which he captured the privateer, "Fantasque" off Dunkirk in March 1782. He made Post on 21 January 1783 when he commissioned the newly-launched . Peyton was assigned to another new ship in July 1794, the 38-gun , in which he served on the Irish Station.
At some point in 1795, Peyton took command of , sailing her to the Mediterranean in December.
Peyton was destined to become one of Nelson's Band of Brothers at the Battle of the Nile, when he took command of in 1798. Having returned to England, Peyton shared a coach journey with Fanny Nelson in March 1798 while on his way to join Horatio Nelson in for a journey out to the Mediterranean, where Peyton was to take command of his next ship. Later, despite his seniority by 15 years, Peyton was not consulted by Nelson, prior to the search for the French fleet, leaving the naval historian, Peter Hore to wonder whether those encounters, which undoubtedly would have given Nelson an opportunity to appraise one of his captains, might have influenced that decision.
"Vanguard" left England on 9 April 1798 and joined the Mediterranean Fleet off Cadiz twenty days later but Peyton did not join his new command until June. Both the ship and crew were in a poor condition; "Defence" was overdue a refit and had one of the longest sick lists in Nelson's fleet. Scurvy, ulcers and fever were common aboard and within a month, Peyton had succumbed to sickness himself, writing so in a letter to Nelson on 3 July. Despite these problems, "Defence" fought hard at the Nile, engaging "Peuple Souverain" on 1 August for three hours before bringing down her masts and moving on to attack "Franklin".
On 13 August, Peyton wrote a letter to his wife which gives one of the few surviving first-hand accounts of the Nile battle.
Later life.
Peyton retired to Lymington in 1800, where he bought Priestlands, a large house with extensive grounds. He lived there with his wife, Susanna Gurnell, whom he had married in 1793, until his death, at the age of 56, on 2 August 1809. There is a memorial to him at All Saints Church, Milford on Sea.


Innichen Abbey

Innichen Abbey (German: "Stift Innichen") is a former Benedictine monastery in Innichen, South Tyrol in northern Italy. Founded in the 8th century, its collegiate church dedicated to Saint Candidus, rebuilt in the 12th–13th centuries, is considered the most important Romanesque building in Tyrol and the Eastern Alps. It is home to a 13th-century sculpture and a fresco cycle from the same age in the dome.
History.
The original nucleus of the complex was established in 769, when Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria gave to Abbot Atto of Scharnitz extended estates lands in the Puster Valley stretching from the Gsieser Bach at current Welsberg eastwards down the Drava to Anras, called "India", provided that a Benedictine convent would be founded here to convert the pagan Slavs who had settled in the principality of Carantania. When Atto became Bishop of Freising in 783, he added Innichen to his episcopal territories. Of the original abbey construction, however, no certain traces have been found.
When the monastery was turned into a college of canons, the church was entirely rebuilt from about 1140; of this edifice today the external walls, the piers, the apses and the crypt remain. A second reconstruction was carried out from around 1240, when the vaults of the crypt and the nave, the transept and the dome at the crossing were added, including the frescoes with the "History of Creation". Once finished, the new church in 1284 was consecrated to Sts. Candidus and Corbinian, patron saint of the Diocese of Freising, to which the abbey still belonged at the time. The large bell tower was built later, from 1323 to 1326.
The edifice did not undergo any substantial modification. In 1969 a restoration was held, removing the few minor additions it had received during the centuries (especially in Baroque times), in particular re-discovering the crypt's frescoes, which had been covered with a layer of plaster.
Description.
Exterior.
The church has a simple façade, in crude stone blocks. Over the central portal are two small mullioned windows, surmounted by a small frame dividing the façade in two and a rose window. On the left is the massive bell tower, also in stone, with a square plane: each of the sides has a row of thin mullioned windows, except for the top floors, which have a larger single- and double- mullioned windows. The top is pyramidal in shape.
The rear area is more complex. The crossing is the background of a descending sequence of blocks, started by the presbytery, and followed by the nave's apse, the roofs of the aisles' apses and finally the apses themselves. Another block on the left is the sacristy. The apses' exterior is decorated by Lombard bands.
On the right side are a pilaster-shaped tabernacle, frescoed in the 15th century, and the Museum of the Collegiate.
Interior.
The interior has a nave and two aisles, the latter smaller in height, with a transept, a presbytery and three aisles. At the crossing is a crypt. This houses a 13th-century wooden sculpture portraying on the two patron saints of the church.
The dome is frescoed with the "Stories of Creation", painted in the 13th century.