Yagul

Yagul is an archaeological site and former city-state associated with the Zapotec civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, located in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. The site was declared one of the country's four Natural Monuments on 13 October 1998. The site is also known locally as "Pueblo Viejo" (Old Village) and was occupied at the time of the Spanish Conquest. After the Conquest the population was relocated to the nearby modern town of Tlacolula where their descendants still live.
Yagul was first occupied around 500-100 BC. Around 500-700 AD, residential, civic and ceremonial structures were built at the site. However, most of the visible remains date to 1250-1521 AD, when the site functioned as the capital of a Postclassic city-state.
The site was excavated in the 1950s and 60s by archaeologists Ignacio Bernal and John Paddock.
Vestiges of human habitation in the area, namely cliff paintings at Caballito Blanco, date to at least 3000 BC. After the abandonment of Monte Albán about 800 AD, the region's inhabitants established themselves in various small centers such as Lambityeco, Mitla and Yagul.
Etymology.
"Yagul" comes from the Zapotec language, it is formed from "ya" (tree) and "gul" (old), hence "old tree".
Location.
Yagul is located just off Highway 190 between the city of Oaxaca and Mitla, about 36 km from the former. The site is situated on a volcanic outcrop surrounded by fertile alluvial land, in the Tlacolula arm of the Valley of Oaxaca. The Salado river flows to the south.
Site history.
Occupation at Yagul dates as far back as the Middle to Late Preclassic. Elaborate Preclassic period burials have been excavated at Yagul, accompanied by ceramic effigy vessels that indicate the increasing influence of Monte Albán upon the local elite.
In the Late Postclassic, immediately prior to the Spanish Conquest, Yagul had a population of more than 6000 people.
Site description.
Yagul is one of the most studied archaeological sites in the Valley of Oaxaca. This important prehispanic centers name literally means "Old Stick" or "Old Tree", The site is set around a hill, and can be divided into three principal areas; the fortress, the ceremonial center and the residential areas. The construction stone at Yagul is mainly river cobbles formed from volcanic rock such as basalt. About 30 tombs have been found at Yagul, sometimes located in pairs. A few of these bear hieroglyphic inscriptions.
Fortress.
Situated atop the cliffs to the northeast of the site and protected by natural and artificial walls, it has an excellent vantage point over the whole Tlacolula Valley. It has several lookout points, including one reached by a narrow bridge.
Residential area.
Unexcavated residential areas lie on terraces to the south, east and west of the hill. Classic Period residences are to the northwest of the excavated ceremonial centre and lower class Postclassic residences are presumed to lie around the site core.
Ceremonial center.
The ceremonial center was excavated in 1974 by Bernal and Gamio. It composes the vast majority of what has been excavated, and what can be seen today. The ceremonial center consists of a number of large patios bordered by monumental architecture, and also includes a ballcourt and an elite residential complex. Some of the structures in this area are:
The site is in the care of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History) and is open to the public.


Arizona Department

The Arizona Department (1865−1867) was a department of the Second Mexican Empire, located in the present day state of Sonora in Northwestern Mexico.
It was established by an imperial decree on March 3, 1865, which specified:
It was directly south of the U.S. Arizona Territory, the present day state of Arizona. It was one among the 50 departments of the Second Mexican Empire and was administered by the prefect José Moreno Bustamante. The population of the department in the year 1865 was 25,603.


Grand Forks, Idaho

Grand Forks was a town in Shoshone County, Idaho which was destroyed by the Great Fire of 1910. Its site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.
It once flourished as a railway town. The site is little-changed since the town was burned. It was deemed "significant as an area that was not reoccupied or altered after that disaster."
It is located east of Avery, Idaho.


Goes Ahead

Goes Ahead (1851 – May 31, 1919) was a Crow scout for George Armstrong Custer’s 7th Cavalry during the 1876 campaign against the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. He was a survivor of the Battle of the Little Big Horn, and his accounts of the battle are valued by modern historians.
Biography.
Born into the Crow tribe, he was also known as the First One, Goes First, the One Ahead, Comes Leading, Man With Fur Belt, and Walks Among the Stars. At age 16, he married Pretty Shield.
Goes Ahead volunteered on about April 10, 1876 to serve as a scout with units of the 7th Infantry of the United States Army against the traditional enemies of the Crow, the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. On June 21, at the mouth of Rosebud Creek, six Crow scouts were detached from the 7th Infantry to go with Custer's Seventh Cavalry following the trail of a large Indian encampment up the Rosebud Creek valley. The six scouts included Goes Ahead, Hairy Moccasin, White Man Runs Him, Curly, White Swan, and Half Yellow Face (leader of the scouts). Custer's 7th Cavalry, about 650 men, were ordered to find and then engage a gathering of Sioux and Cheyenne who were expected to be on either Rosebud Creek or in the Little Bighorn valley. The six Crow scouts were sent with Custer because they were familiar with the Rosebud and Little Big Horn drainage.
On June 24, 1876 the Crow scouts were ranging ahead, and they sent back word to Custer that the trail of the Sioux/Cheyenne encampment had moved from the Rosebud valley toward the valley of the Little Bighorn. At first light on June 25, 1876, the morning of the battle, the Crow scouts were at a high point (later known as the Crows Nest) on the divide between Rosebud Creek, and the Little Big Horn. Looking sixteen miles to the west, the scouts sighted indications of a very large encampment of Sioux/Cheyenne in the valley of the Little Big Horn River near the current site of Crow Agency, Montana, though the village itself was out of sight on the valley floor. Goes Ahead and the other scouts warned Custer of the indications of the very large size of the encampment. However, Custer had also received word that morning that his force of 650 men had been sighted by Sioux/Cheyenne warriors. Custer was concerned that if he did not immediately move to the attack, the village would scatter and disperse, denying the army the armed confrontation it sought with the Sioux/Cheyenne forces.
Goes Ahead and the others took off their Army issued uniforms and put on traditional Crow clothing with eagle feathers to assist their flight to the spirit world should they be killed. When Custer saw this, he was enraged seeing the move as defeatism and he dismissed the scouts. Goes Ahead and the others joined Major Marcus Reno on the ridge overlooking the last stand. Attacked but not overrun, most of Reno’s men survived the engagement. According to Pretty Shield, Goes Ahead fell back and fought alongside some packers shielded by mule carcasses but had been an eyewitness to Custer's death at the sides of Mitch Boyer and a flag-bearer; she narrates among many other details, "My man, Goes-ahead, was with Son-of-the-morning-star when he rode down to the water of the Little Bighorn. He heard a Lacota call out to Two-bodies [i.e. according to Frank Bird Linderman, Boyer], who rode beside Son-of-the-morning-star, 'Go back, or you will die.' But Son-of-the-morning-star went ahead..and he "died" there, "died in the water of the Little Bighorn" [emphasis original]... [He] told me that he was afraid; and yet he did not run away until he saw Son-of-the-morning star fall down from his horse into the water of the Little Bighorn. He told me that Son-of-the-morning star was ahead of his men, and that when he fell, the blue horse-soldiers ran back up the hill. He took me to the place, and showed me exactly where Son-of-the-morning-star fell into the water, with Two-bodies and the flag... .
After the battle, Goes Ahead settled on the Crow reservation, married and raised a family. He was interviewed by historian and photographer Edward S. Curtis in the early 20th century. His book was one of the first to present a balanced account of the battle to the general public, but even then, the more controversial parts of his story were not disclosed. The whole account of Curtis's interviews with Goes Ahead and the other Crow scouts would not become general knowledge until Curtis's notes became public in the 1990s, more than 40 years after his death.
Goes Ahead died in 1919 and was buried in the military cemetery at the Little Big Horn Battlefield. His widow, Pretty Shield, became a sought after source of information concerning the battle late in her life.


Robert Neighbors

Robert Simpson Neighbors (November 3, 1815 – September 14, 1859) was an Indian agent and Texas state legislator. Known as a fair and determined protector of Indian interests as guaranteed by treaty, he was murdered for his beliefs by a Texan who disagreed with giving any rights to the Comanches.
Early life.
Robert Simpson Neighbors was born in Charlotte County, Virginia, on November 3, 1815. He was the sole son of William and Elizabeth (Elam) Neighbours. In later life he chose to drop the u from his last name. He was orphaned at a mere four months old, when both parents died of pneumonia. He was later educated by private tutors, who were retained by his guardian, Samuel Hamner, a Virginia planter.
Immigration to Texas and army service.
Neighbors left Virginia at the age of nineteen, and while he stayed briefly in New Orleans, his intention was always to immigrate to Texas, which he did in the early spring of 1836. He joined the Army of the Republic of Texas on 30 January 1839 as a first lieutenant, commanding Fort Travis on Galveston Island before becoming quartermaster on 5 September, and promoted to captain on 15 July 1840 and served until the end of 1841.
Capture by General Adrian Woll.
On September 15, 1842, as a member of Captain John C. Hays's company of volunteers, Neighbors was in San Antonio attending Judge Anderson Hutchinson's court, when General Adrian Woll made his invasion of Texas and captured the city. Along with approximately fifty-two other individuals, including the officers of the court, he was forcibly marched to Mexico, where he was subsequently imprisoned in San Carlos Fortress.
Indian Agent and the field system.
Neighbors was released on March 24, 1844 and returned to Texas. He briefly operated the Mansion House hotel in Houston before becoming Indian Agent for the Republic of Texas on 12 February 1845. Thomas G. Western, Texas Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and Neighbors as Indian Agent for the Lipan Apaches and Tonkawas, initiated a new policy, the field system; instead of remaining at the agency headquarters and waiting for the Indians to pay him a visit, as was the common practice, Neighbors dealt with them directly in their homelands.
After the annexation of the Republic of Texas by the United States, Neighbors was a party to Treaty 246 between the US, represented by Indian commissioners Pierce M. Butler and M.G. Lewis, and the chiefs of the Comanches, Ionies, Anadarkos, Caddos, Lipans, Tonkawas, Keechies, Tawacanos, Wichitas and Wacos, signed near Waco on 15 May 1846. Neighbors then accompanied the Penateka Comanche chiefs Old Owl and Santa Anna, plus the Anadarko chief Jose Maria, on their visit to Washington, D.C.
He received a federal appointment as special Indian agent, on March 20, 1847, and took part in the treaty between the Comanche and the German colonists on the San Saba River in March 1847, which resulted in the so-called Meusebach-Comanche Treaty.
As a Federal Indian Agent for the Comanches, he continued what was then a most unusual practice, that of actually visiting the Indians in their homes, and learning their language and culture. Called the "field system" it was unique for its time. The ultimate result was that he spent much time far beyond the then frontier and in the opinion of historians exercised greater influence over the Indians in Texas than any other white man of his generation. Indeed, other than Sam Houston he probably was one of the few white men to bother to learn their language and culture, let alone travel to the heart of the Comancheria.
Adoption by the Comanche.
In 1845 as an Indian Agent for the Republic of Texas, Robert Neighbors recorded one of the best known meetings with the Penateka Comanche head Chief Old Owl, while visiting a Tonkawa camp. Chief Old Owl arrived with 40 warriors, and in a manner the Major called "most insolent and domineering" demanded that the Tonkawa feed the war party and their horses, and provide for them entertainment. The Tonkawas "obeyed with alacrity", providing "forty of the best looking Tonkawa maidens". Neighbors, known as a fearless man, took this opportunity to be introduced to the Comanches. Old Owl, introduced to Neighbors, first complimented him on his fine blue coat. Neighbors, understanding the meaning of this compliment, presented the Chief with the coat immediately. Other warriors admired his pants, boots, and other clothing, and soon Neighbors was standing only in a nightshirt.
Old Owl however, took a liking to the fearless Neighbors. He told him though most whites irritated him, he liked Neighbors, and invited him to accompany the war party, and he proposed instead of Neighbors making a civilized man of him, that he would make a fine horse thief out of Neighbors, and adopt him into the tribe. Neighbors, feeling this was an opportunity few men would ever receive, accepted at once. The war party went to Mexico, where Neighbors attempted to buy beef at a rancho. When the Mexicans declined to sell beef to a Republic of Texas official on credit, Old Owl told them two beeves were to be forthcoming immediately, or the rancho would be burned down and all the beeves taken. This proved highly effective, and the food was immediately forthcoming.
Neighbors, having left an indelible impression on Old Owl as the first (and only) Republic of Texas official to ever ride with a Comanche War Party, took his leave of them with thanks, and went home.
Neighbors Expedition.
Early in the spring of 1849, Major General William J. Worth, of the United States Army, who was in command of the Eighth Military Department, which included the former Republic of Texas, was ordered by Secretary of War William L. Marcy to explore a wagon route between San Antonio and El Paso. The General, headquartered in San Antonio, selected Neighbors to lead the expedition to establish the so-called "upper route" to El Paso. His reasoning was that Neighbors was perhaps the only man in Texas who could safely ride into the Comancheria.
Neighbors led a combined military-Ranger force that included his personal friend "Rip" Ford and did in fact map a route that not only became the route used by the Overland Stage Company, but is the same route taken by the highway today. Indeed, Neighbors reported 598 miles between Austin (as the state capital) and El Paso – exactly the same milege listed today between the two cities. In addition to Ford on the expedition, Neighbors was able to convince Buffalo Hump to lead it; Penateka war chiefs Yellow Wolf (Buffalo Hump's cousin) and Santa Anna joined them along the trail. Though the chief later left the party, it remained under his protection, and Nokoni Comanche head Chief Tall Tree, or Guadalupe, led the party the remainder of the distance from the Colorado River to El Paso. Neighbors ability to communicate with the Comanche, and his relationship with them, made the expedition possible.
Brazos Indian Reservation.
In those days, appointments for such posts as federal Indian Agent were determined in great part by the political party in power, and the political affiliation of the agent. Neighbors was a Democrat, so his services as Indian agent were terminated by the elections and subsequent national Whig administration in September 1849. Neighbors stayed in public life however. Appointed as a Texas commissioner, he was sent by Governor Peter Hansborough Bell, to organize El Paso County in February and March 1850. He then attempted, without success, to organize counties in New Mexico as a part of Texas, being opposed by Judge Joab Houghton.
As a member of the Fourth Texas Legislature representing the Bexar and Medina District from 1851 to 1853, he, along with Texas Senator Rip Ford, sponsored a resolution in 1852 to negotiate with the US to settle the Indians in northern Texas. After urging from Secretary of War Jefferson Davis to Texas Governor Peter Hansborough Bell, the Texas legislature passed a law in 1854 granting twelve leagues of land for establishing those Indian reservations.
Neighbors became a presidential elector in 1852, and following the election of Franklin Pierce in 1853, was appointed supervising agent of the Indian service in Texas. In 1854, Neighbors and Capt. Randolph B. Marcy, with an escort of forty soldiers left Fort Belknap in search of recommended sites for the establishment of two Indian reservations in 1855. The Caddo, Shawnee, Anadarko, Waco, Tawacano, and Tonkawa, were located on the Brazos Indian Reservation along the north side of the Salt Fork Brazos River, south of what is now Graham in Young County. The reservation's log buildings included the agent's house, an office, a commissary store, a laborer's house, a school, a blacksmith, interpreter's house, a privy, a spring house plus several dome-shaped thatched native houses.
Camp Cooper and the Comanche Indian Reservation.
The Penateka Comanches were located on the Comanche Indian Reservation located on the Clear Fork Brazos River, about ten miles southwest of what is now Throckmorton in Throckmorton County. The reservation log cabin buildings included the agent's house, commissary store, laborer's house, a school and Chief Ketumse's house plus the tribal member's tents.
Providing defense for the reservation was Camp Cooper, founded on January 3, 1856 by Major William J. Hardee and named in honor of Samuel Cooper. The camp was commanded by Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee of the Second Cavalry from 1856 to 1857. In a letter dated Camp Cooper, 12 April 1856, he wrote:
We are in the Comanche Reserve with the Indian camps below us on the river, belonging to Catumseh's band, whom the Government is trying to humanize. It will be up hill work I fear. Catumseh has been to see me and we have had a talk, very tedious on his part and very sententious on mine. I hailed him as a friend, as long as his conduct and that of his tribe deserved it, but would meet him as an enemy the first moment he failed to keep his word.
Officers serving under Lee's command at the camp included Captain Earl Van Dorn, Captain George Stoneman, and Captain Theodore O'Hara. Major George H. Thomas succeeded Lee as commander and was wounded while pursuing Comanche warriors. The camp of 250 men under the command of Capt. S.D. Carpenter was abandoned to Col. W.C. Dalrymple, Texas Troops on 21 February 1861, after General David E. Twiggs agreed to surrender all federal military posts.
Death.
It was during this period, when settlers began to attack the Indians, that Neighbors became hated among white Texans. Neighbors alleged that the United States Army officers located at the posts of Fort Belknap and Camp Cooper, near the reservations, failed to give adequate support to him and his resident agents, and adequate protection to the Indians and settlers alike.
The military's attitude was shared by the settlers, who believed the reservation Indians were committing continuing raids on white settlements. In spite of continuous threats against his life, Neighbors never faltered in his determination to protect the Indians.
"The main source of opposition to Major Neighbors and the reservation policy was John R. Baylor, the former Comanche agent ... apparently blamed Major Neighbors for his dismissal and resented him bitterly ... arousing public opinion to oust the Major ... destroying the reservation ..."
With the aid of federal troops, Neighbors managed to protect the Indians on the reservations, successfully thwarting an attack on 23 May 1859 by John Baylor and 250 marauders.
Convinced however that the Indians, especially the Comanche, would never be safe in Texas due to the continuing raids of those bands still resisting white settlement of the Comancheria, he determined to move all Indians to safety in the Indian territories.
In August 1859 he, and four companies of troops under Major George H. Thomas, succeeded in moving 1420 Indians, without loss of life, to a new reservation in Indian Territory. Attacked while returning to Texas, Neighbor's party headed for Fort Belknap with Colonel Leeper as a casualty.
Neighbors proceeded to the nearby village of Belknap the next morning to "wind up his accounts as superintendent of Indian affairs", where on September 14, 1859, while Neighbors was speaking with two men, he was shot in the back by Edward Cornett.
Historians believe the assassination was a direct result of Neighbors' actions protecting the Comanche. He was buried in the civilian cemetery at Fort Belknap.
Personal life.
Robert Simpson Neighbors was a Methodist, a Mason, and a leader in the temperance movement. He had married Elizabeth Ann Mays in Seguin, Texas, on July 15, 1851, and their home was on his Salado Creek ranch, now part of San Antonio, Texas. Two sons survived childhood.


Treaty of St. Peters

Treaty of St. Peters may be one of two treaties conducted between the United States and Native American peoples, conducted at the confluence of the Minnesota River (then called "St. Peters River") with the Mississippi River, in what today is Mendota, Minnesota.
1805 Treaty of St. Peters.
The 1805 Treaty of St. Peters or the Treaty with the Sioux, better known as Pike's Purchase, was a treaty conducted between Lieutenant Zebulon Pike for the United States and Chiefs "Le Petit Carbeau" and "Way Aga Enogee" on behalf of the Sioux Nation. The treaty conducted on September 23, 1805, purchases two tracts of land: nine-square miles each at the confluence of the St. Croix River about what now is Hastings, Minnesota and confluence of the Minnesota River with Mississippi about what now is Mendota, Minnesota, for the purposes of establishing military posts at each of the two sites. A military post was not established at the confluence of the St. Croix with the Mississippi, but Fort Snelling was established on the bluffs overlooking the confluence of the Minnesota with the Mississippi. Though the treaty was never proclaimed by the President of the United States, it was ratified by the United States Congress on April 16, 1808.
1837 Treaty of St. Peters.
The 1837 Treaty of St. Peters or the Treaty with the Chippewa (or informally as the White Pine Treaty) was a treaty conducted between Governor Henry Dodge for the United States and representatives from Ojibwa bands located across today's Wisconsin and Minnesota. It was conducted on July 29, 1837, at St. Peters, Wisconsin Territory (known today as Mendota, Minnesota). Signatory tribes commonly call this treaty The Treaty of 1837. The treaty was proclaimed on June 15, 1838, and codified in the United States Statutes at Large as .
Land Cession Terms.
In the treaty, the Ojibwa nations ceded to the United States a large tract of land located from the Mississippi River in east-central Minnesota to the Wisconsin River in northern Wisconsin, using as its southern boundaries the "Prairie du Chien Line" as established by the 1825 First Treaty of Prairie du Chien, between the Dakota and the Ojibwa, and using the Lake Superior watershed as its northern boundaries.
The land cession was conducted to guarantee access to the Wisconsin Territory's lumber resources that was needed to help build housing for the growing populations in St. Louis, Missouri and Cleveland, Ohio. In the sale, the United States obligated itself to payments to the signatory Bands for twenty years and additional provisions for the Metis in the territory. In turn, the signatory Ojibwa bands retained usufructuary rights to continue hunting, fishing and gathering within the treaty-ceded territory.
Signatories.
Commissioner:
Recording Secretary:
Indian Agents:
Interpreters:
Army:
Traders:
Special guests:
Others:
In addition, two other known people were in attendance, but were not signatories:
Establishment of Reservations.
Together with the 1842 and 1854 treaty-ceded territories in determining the locations of Indian Reservations in the 1854 Treaty of La Pointe and the 1855 Treaty of Washington, the 1837 treaty-ceded territory was divided into five zones. Charles Royce in his 1899 report and accompanying map to the United States Congress designated the territory as "Land Cession Area No. 242," thus the area is often called "Royce Area 242." The five zones each with proposed centralized Indian Reservations of approximately each were Mille Lacs Lake (242A), St. Croix (242B), Lac Courte Oreilles (242C), Lac du Flambeau (242D) and Mole Lake (242E), with access accommodations made for Fond du Lac, La Pointe and Lac Vieux Desert.
However, with St. Croix and Sokoagon walking out of the negotiations of the 1854 Treaty of La Pointe, they were excluded from further business, losing their federal recognition until 1934, and the proposed St. Croix Indian Reservation was never established in zone 242B and Mole Lake was never established straddling zone 242E and 1842 treaty-ceded territory. In the case of St. Croix, illness overcame the Chief "Ayaabens" and the United States would not accept a sub-Chief vested with negotiation authority, so St. Croix had no choice but to walk away; oral history of both the St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Minnesota of the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe and the St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin both state if it were not for Chief "Ayaabens"’ illness, the St. Croix Band would have insisted on reaffirmation of treaty rights expressed in both the 1837 Treaty of St. Peters and the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe, so that the Band would not be face with loss of off-Reservation resources access. Shortly afterwards, Chief "Ayaabens" died from his illness. In the case of Mole Lake, their Chief was barred from the treaty council as the United States firmly believed that the initially proposed four Reservations of about each would not be an adequate alternative for a single Reservation of about . The Mole Lake Chief sent his sub-Chief to the Treaty council, with full negotiation authority, but like St. Croix, United States would not accept Mole Lake's sub-Chief, even when fully vested with negotiation authority, leaving the Mole Lake delegation no other choice but to walk away from Treaty council. However, Mille Lacs Lake and Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservations were established in 242A and 242C respectively, and Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservations was established straddling zone 242D and 1842 treaty-ceded territory.
Treaty area boundary adjustments.
In Wisconsin, for regulatory purposes, the southern boundaries of the 1837 treaty-area have been adjusted to follow distinct landmarks such as roads and streams. However, in Wisconsin with consent of the property-owner and with tribally issued license, all treaty rights of hunting, fishing and gathering may be exercised by the members of the signatory bands.
In Minnesota, no boundary adjustments have been made. However, hunting is limited to public lands located within the 1837 treaty-area and requires tribally issued hunting license. For non-public lands within the 1837 treaty-area, hunting is subjectable to state hunting licensing and rules. For fishing and gathering, tribally issued licenses are required in Minnesota's portion of the 1837 treaty-ceded territory.


James Beekman

James Beekman (1732–1807) was a New York City merchant and a member of the prominent Beekman family.
Early life.
James Beekman was born in 1732, the son of William Beekman (1684–1770) and Catharine De Lanoy (1691–1765), niece of Peter Delanoy, the first elected Mayor of New York City after British rule. His paternal grandparents were Gerardus Beekman (1653–1723), the acting Governor of the Province of New York in 1710, and Magdalena Abeel (1661–1731), sister of Johannes Abeel (1667–1711), the second mayor of Albany. His great-grandfather was Wilhelmus Beekman (1623–1707), a Dutch immigrant who came to New Amsterdam from the Netherlands on the same vessel as Peter Stuyvesant. Wilhelmus soon became Treasurer of the Dutch West India Company and later became the Mayor of New York City, Governor of Delaware from 1653 to 1664, and Governor of Pennsylvania from 1658 to 1663.
Mount Pleasant.
He is best remembered for his mansion, known as Mount Pleasant, which he built in Manhattan on the East River in 1763, near the northwest corner of 1st Avenue and East 51st Street. This mansion served as the British military headquarters during the American Revolution, and was the site of the trial of Nathan Hale.
Personal life.
In 1752, he was married to Janneke "Jane" Keteltas (1734–1817), daughter of Abraham Keteltas and Jeanne d'Honneur, and sister of Abraham Keteltas (1732–1798). Together, they had:
Legacy.
Beekman is known to have commissioned portraits of his children from the painter John Durand, and the entry for payment in his account book, dating to 1766, is the first record of the artist in New York. On his death in 1807, Beekman left inherited the family’s country estate and portraits to his son, James Beekman, Jr. Upon his son’s death in 1837, the estate was passed to James Beekman Jr.'s nephew, James William Beekman, the son of Gerard Beekman.
Exhibition.
In 2004, the New-York Historical Society presented an exhibition based around a coach owned by Beekman, one of only three such coaches to survive in its original condition. Beekman had bought the coach in 1771 from Peter Burton, a London sea captain, for £138.


Mandan/Hidatsa/Arikara


Battle of Pumpkin Creek

The Battle of Pumpkin Creek, also known as the Volborg fight, was fought February 7–8, 1880, by United States Soldiers, and Scouts, against Sioux warriors. The Battle occurred near Pumpkin Creek, a tributary of Toungue River, in Montana Territory, in present-day Montana, United States.
Background.
Early in 1880, the Lakota began warring along the Yellowstone River near Fort Keogh. On February 3, Hunkpapa Lakota fought with Gros Ventres, and 15 Lakota Sioux attacked three hay cutters on the Powder River, killing one, and mortally wounding another. The surviving worker reported the incident to Fort Keogh, and Sergeant Thaddeus B. Glover, Corporal Edwards, Private Charles W. Gurnsey, Private George E. Douglass, and four other soldiers of Company B, 2nd United States Cavalry Regiment, and seven Indian scouts were ordered out on February 5, in search of the Lakota responsible.
The battle.
On February 7, 1880, after a pursuit of about , the small detachment of 15 soldiers and Indian scouts under Sergeant Glover located a group of six Lakota Sioux Warriors near Pumpkin Creek. The temperature read 56 degrees Fahrenheit below zero. The soldiers and scouts quietly surrounded the warriors who were in a rock formation. Private George E. Douglass exposed himself too far over the edge of a ridge and was immediately spotted by a warrior who fired, killing him instantly. Both sides then fired shots at each other, and one Sioux warrior was killed, and two were wounded. Private Charles W. Gurnsey of Glover's detachment was wounded. The engagement was decided when Company F, of the 5th United States Infantry Regiment under the command of Captain Simon Snyder arrived the next morning from Fort Keogh. With the now much larger force of over sixty United States soldiers, the four remaining Lakota warriors surrendered. The action as recalled by Sergeant Glover:
Medal of honor.
One Congressional Medal of Honor was awarded for actions during the battle. It was for:
The battlefield.
The Pumpkin Creek Battlefield is at an unknown location near Pumpkin Creek in Powder River County, Montana, or Custer County, Montana. The nearest present-day unincorporated community to the battlefield is Volborg, Montana, and the nearest present-day towns are Broadus, Montana, and Miles City, Montana.
Order of battle.
United States Army, Sergeant Thaddeus Brown Glover, Captain Simon Snyder, commanding.
Native Americans


Salvadoran Mexicans

Salvadoran Mexicans (Spanish: salvadoreño-mexicanos) are people of Salvadorian descent living in Mexico.
Migration history.
The largest wave of Salvadorans arrived in Mexico as refugees during the Salvadoran Civil War.
Demographics.
During the 2010 Census, there were 8,088 El Salvador-born individuals registered as living in Mexico. According to the Salvadoran consul in Mexico José Antonio Domínguez Mena, as of December 2016 only 10% to 15% of Salvadoran nationals were registered with the Instituto Nacional de Migración.


Mitchell Point Tunnel

The Mitchell Point Tunnel was a tunnel located towards the eastern end of the Historic Columbia River Highway in Oregon, United States. It existed from 1915 to 1966.
History.
The tunnel was designed by John Arthur Elliott, who was inspired by a tunnel similarly set into a cliff face above Lake Lucerne in Switzerland. It was built in 1915 and opened late in the year, the first major roadway tunnel in the United States. The tunnel measured long, wide, and tall.
In 1932, the Tooth Rock Tunnel was opened, and some traffic was rerouted to the new alignment, though Mitchell Point Tunnel remained open to vehicle traffic until the early 1950s, when the road was rerouted to the base of Mitchell Point. The tunnel was subsequently blocked off with debris, and remained closed until 1966 when it was destroyed as part of Interstate 80N construction.
As part of the rebuilding of the Columbia River Highway into a network of trails, the Oregon Department of Transportation has considered the possibility of boring a new tunnel on Mitchell Point.


Theodore Roosevelt III

Theodore Roosevelt IV (June 14, 1914 – May 2, 2001), commonly known as Theodore Roosevelt III, was an American banker, government official, veteran of World War II, and a grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt through his father, Brig. Gen. Theodore Roosevelt Jr., a politician and World War II military leader, and Eleanor Butler Alexander. His name suffix varies since President Roosevelt's father was Theodore Roosevelt Sr., though the same-named son did not commonly use a "Jr" name suffix.
Early life.
Roosevelt was born on June 14, 1914 in New York City. He was the second born and the last surviving of four children to Theodore Jr./III and Eleanor Butler Alexander. Theodore had an older sister, Grace Green Roosevelt, who married William McMillan, and two younger brothers, Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt III and Quentin Roosevelt II. Following his father, Ted, and paternal grandfather, T. R., Theodore went to Groton School and graduated from Harvard in 1936, where he was a member of the Hasty Pudding Theatricals and the Owl Club. While at Harvard, Roosevelt played for the Harvard Crimson men's soccer team, and was named a second-team All American in 1934.
When his grandfather, President Theodore "T. R." Roosevelt Jr., died in 1919, his father took on the "Junior" last name suffix. As a result, he was known as Theodore, III rather than Theodore IV. As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, Ted was a descendant of the Schuyler family. His maternal grandparents are Henry Addison Alexander and Grace Green.
Career.
After graduating from Harvard, Roosevelt worked for the DuPont company from 1936 to 1941.
Service in World War II.
Following the Roosevelt tradition of military service during times of national emergency, during World War II, Roosevelt volunteered as a Navy pilot, serving as a flag lieutenant (i.e. an aide to an admiral) in the Pacific theater. For his service as a naval aviator, Theodore was awarded the Air Medal. He was promoted to lieutenant on April 1, 1944 and left the Navy as a lieutenant commander.
Post-war life.
Upon his return from the Pacific Theater, Theodore joined the Philadelphia brokerage firm of Montgomery, Scott, becoming a partner in 1952. Appointed by Governor James Duff, Ted served as Secretary of Commerce of Pennsylvania from 1949 to 1951.
For many years, he was president of the Competitive Enterprise System, Inc., a nonprofit group that promoted free markets in the United States. Roosevelt was a trustee of the Theodore Roosevelt Association (TRA) for many years and a generous supporter of the organization. In recent years, he attended TRA Police Awards ceremonies in Boston and Philadelphia as well as TRA annual meetings in Boston and Norfolk, VA. He was an honorary plank owner in the USS "Theodore Roosevelt", and a strong supporter of the efforts to preserve the Pine Knot site in Virginia, his grandparents' presidential retreat.
Personal life.
On February 3, 1940, Roosevelt married Anne Mason Babcock (December 3, 1917 — January 29, 2001), daughter of George Wheeler Babcock (May 12, 1879 — November 21, 1950) and Anne Mason Bonnycastle Robinson (January 10, 1886 — February 4, 1923). They had one son:
Roosevelt died on May 2, 2001 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. He and his wife are buried near Somesville, Maine.


Cape Bexley

Cape Bexley is a headland in the northern Canadian territory of Nunavut. It is located on the mainland, on the south shore of Dolphin and Union Strait, and bounded on the south by Souths Bay. It was named after Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley.
It is the ancestral home of the Akuliakattagmiut, a Copper Inuit subgroup. Haneragmiut camped here, too, and Nagyuktogmiut were visitors.


Nicholas Roosevelt (inventor)

Nicholas Jacobus Roosevelt or Nicholas James Roosevelt (December 27, 1767, New York City – July 30, 1854, Skaneateles, New York) was an American inventor, a major investor in Upstate New York land, and a member of the Roosevelt family. His primary invention was to introduce vertical paddle wheels for steamboats.
Early life.
Nicholas Roosevelt was born on December 27, 1767 in New York City. He was the son of Jacobus Roosevelt (1724–1777) and Annatje (née Bogart) (b. 1728), who wed on December 2, 1746. His siblings were: Anna (1748–1794) who married Andrew Heermanse, John (b. 1755), Jacobus (1759–1840), Helena (1761–1843), and Maria Roosevelt (b. 1763).
After the death of his mother, his father remarried, on July 14, 1774, to Elenora Gibson, widow of Mr. Thompson. His paternal grandfather was Johannes Roosevelt (1689–1750), a son of Nicholas Roosevelt (1658–1742), himself a son of Dutch immigrant Claes Maartenszen Van Rosenvelt (d. 1659), who established the Roosevelt family in America.
Extended family.
Through his brother, James Jacobus Roosevelt (1759–1840), he was the uncle of James John Roosevelt (1795–1875) and Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt, Sr. (1794–1871), progenitor of the Oyster Bay Roosevelts, and through him, a great-grand uncle of President Theodore Roosevelt. Other members of the Roosevelt family resided in the village of Skaneateles, including Frederick Roosevelt, cousin of the president.
His sister Maria Roosevelt married James Alexander Provoost, the brother of Bishop Samuel Provoost (1742–1815), and his niece through her, Mary Provoost, was married the Scottish born artist Alexander Robertson (1772-1841), and had two children, Catherine Robertson and Andrew Robertson.
Career.
During the American Revolutionary War, Roosevelt lived in Esopus as New York City was evacuated and occupied by the British. After the War's end, Roosevelt returned to New York. While in Esopus, he had made a small wooden boat, across which was an axle projecting over the sides with paddles at the ends, made to revolve by a tight cord wound around its middle by the reaction of hickory and whalebone springs.
Back in New York City, he engaged in manufacturing, and became interested in the Schuyler Copper Mine in North Arlington, New Jersey on the Passaic River. Using a model of Josiah Hornblower's atmospheric machine, he designed a similar one and built engines for constructed for the water works of Philadelphia.
Government commissions.
Around the same time, he was contracted to erect rolling works and supply the government with copper drawn and rolled for six 74-gun ships. In 1797, with Robert R. Livingston and John Stevens, he agreed to build a boat on joint account, for which the engines were to be constructed by Roosevelt, and the propelling agency was to be that planned by Livingston. The experiment failed, the speed attained being only equivalent to about in still water.
On September 6, 1798, Roosevelt described and earnestly recommended to Livingston a vertical wheel, which is the first practical suggestion of the combination that made steam navigation a commercial success, although four years later Robert Fulton believed that chains and floats were alone to be relied on.
Livingston, however, had replied to Roosevelt's proposition on October 28, 1798 saying that "vertical wheels are out of the question." But in the spring of 1802, Livingston having communicated Roosevelt's plan to Fulton, they adopted the former's view, and in January of the next year, they launched a boat that was propelled by Roosevelt's vertical wheels.
During this period, Roosevelt suffered financially, as the government failed to fulfill its contract with him, and he was unable to put his plans in operation.
Partnership with Fulton.
In 1809, he associated himself with Fulton in the introduction of steamboats on the western waters, and in 1811, he built and navigated the "New Orleans," the pioneer boat that descended the Ohio and Mississippi rivers from Pittsburgh to New Orleans in 14 days. He had previously descended both rivers in a flatboat to obtain information.
Patent fight.
In January 1815, Roosevelt applied to the New Jersey Legislature for protection as the inventor of vertical wheels, he had already obtained a patent from the United States in December 1814. The legislature, after discussion, decided that "it was inexpedient to make any special provision in connection with the matter in controversy before the body," and there the matter rested. Roosevelt's papers came into the possession of Richard S. Cox, his executor, from whom they were obtained in 1828, and from these, with others from the papers of Chancellor Livingston, a case was prepared and submitted to Roger B. Taney, which had been already submitted to William Wirt, and, both opinions being favorable, a suit was about to be begun when the consideration of the great expense involved in its prosecution caused the whole matter to be abandoned.
Roosevelt had by this time retired from active life, residing with his family at Skaneateles. In the case submitted for Wirt's opinion, it is said that Fulton never made oath to the application for a patent for vertical wheels over the sides; and that the application itself was signed by another person — a statement that would seem to be corroborated to a great extent by Fulton's own account of his invention in an interview with Benjamin H. Latrobe on February 7, 1809, when the latter was endeavoring to bring about what subsequently took place — a connection between Fulton and Roosevelt in regard to the introduction of steamboats on the western waters. "I have no pretensions," said Fulton, "to be the first inventor of the steamboat. Hundreds of others have tried it and failed. Neither do I pretend to the right to navigate steamboats, except in New York... That to which I claim an exclusive right is the so proportioning the boat to the power of the engine and the velocity with which the wheels of the boat, or both, move with the maximum velocity attainable by the power, and the construction of the whole machine." In the same conversation Mr. Fulton said: "As to Mr. Roosevelt, I regard him as a noble-minded, intelligent man, and would do anything to serve him that I could."
Land speculator.
He and his brother John sold a large tract of land in Oswego County, New York, to George Scriba in 1793 which is now the town of Scriba.
Personal life.
Nicholas Roosevelt married Lydia Sellon Latrobe (1791–1878), daughter of his best friend and business partner, Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1764–1820), a prominent architect. Lydia was thirteen years old when Nicholas began courting her. They married when she was seventeen and he was forty-one years old. Together, they were the parents of:
Nicholas Roosevelt died at Skaneateles, New York, where he had a home, built in 1831 and extant at 101 East Genesee Street. He was survived by his wife, who died in 1878.
Descendants.
His grandchildren included: James Roosevelt Fitch (1840–1878), Montgomery Roosevelt Schuyler (1845–1924), who married Leila Roosevelt, Samuel Montgomery Roosevelt (1858–1920), a noted portrait painter, and Nicholas Latrobe Roosevelt (1847–1892), the father of Henry Latrobe Roosevelt (1879–1936), the Assistant Secretary of the Navy.


James W. Parker

James W. Parker (July 4, 1797 – 1864) was the uncle of Cynthia Ann Parker and the great uncle of Quanah Parker, last chief of the Comanches. A man of English American descent, he was a member of the large Parker frontier family that settled in east Texas in the 1830s.
Parker was present in 1836 during the raid of Fort Parker by Comanches and allied tribes near present-day Groesbeck, Texas. During that raid, his daughter, Rachel Plummer, his grandson, James Plummer, his niece Cynthia Ann Parker, and his nephew John Richard Parker were kidnapped by a Native American raiding party. Parker made the search for his family a lifetime obsession. For nine years he roamed the Comancheria searching for his lost relatives.
Many historians and Hollywood observers believe that Parker was the inspiration for John Wayne's character Ethan Edwards in the John Ford movie, "The Searchers".
Birth and early years.
James W. Parker was born July 4, 1797 in northeast Georgia, probably in Franklin County, Georgia1 or Elbert County, the son of Elder John Parker (1758-1836) and Sally (White) Parker. He had twelve siblings, including younger brothers Silas Mercer Parker, and Benjamin Parker. His older brother Daniel Parker became a famous country preacher. After living his first six years in Georgia, Parker moved with his family to Dickson County, Tennessee in the summer of 1803.
Parker spent most of his youth in Tennessee. At the age of eighteen, Parker moved with his family to the Territory of Illinois in 1815. There, he married Martha (Patsy) Duty on July 14, 1816. From 1816 to 1829, he and his family farmed in Illinois, while considering moving to Texas. In 1830, he and his family moved to Conway County, Arkansas, which they used as a base while they made several exploratory trips into Texas. In 1832, Parker proposed to Stephen F. Austin that the Parker Family be permitted to settle fifty families north of the Little Brazos River, in what was then considered part of the Comancheria. Austin did not reply to this proposal.
Parker claimed to have been one of the men who found Josiah P. Wilbarger in 1833, during one of his early trips to Texas, after Wilbarger had been scalped and left for dead by the Comanches.
Moving to Texas.
In 1834, James Parker and most of the Parker clan moved to Texas. Parker first registered at Fort Tenoxtitlán on January 29, 1834, and applied for legal admission to Robertson's colony. Changing his mind, he then registered on May 22, 1834, for admission under Mexican law to the Austin and Williams colony. But his persistence had interested authorities in awarding him his own grant, and this finally occurred on April 1, 1835.
He joined other Parker family members, including his brothers Silas and Benjamin and their families, in moving to Texas. They moved to their land grant, and built Fort Parker at the headwaters of the Navasota River, near Groesbeck. It was completed in March 1834, before Parker had even been legally awarded the land it was built on. Their father, Elder John Parker, then joined them with his second wife, Sarah ((Duty) born Pinson) Parker. Fort Parker's high pointed log walls enclosed . Blockhouses were placed on two corners for lookouts and to make defense of the fort possible. Six cabins were attached to the inside walls. The fort had one large gate facing south, and a small rear gate for easy access to the spring waters.
Though the families in the Parker group were beginning to build cabins outside the fort, the vast majority still slept inside for protection. Elder John Parker had negotiated treaties with local Indian chiefs, and believed they would protect the little colony. James Parker was not so sure, due to the fact that the Comanche were not a unified tribe as Americans understood the term, and he understood that all bands would not feel bound to accept a treaty made by only one. His brother Silas had raised and become captain of a local Texas Ranger company, which James felt could attract the anger of Indians who felt abused by the Rangers.
Fort Parker Massacre.
On May 19, 1836, a large force of Comanche and allied warriors attacked the fort, killing five men and capturing two women and three children. Parker was working the fields when the attack happened. His daughter, Rachel Parker Plummer was captured along with her three-year-old son, James Pratt Plummer. His brother Silas's children, Cynthia Ann and John Richard were also captured, as well as his stepsister Elizabeth Duty Kellogg.
His sister-in-law Elizabeth Duty Kellogg was ransomed back almost immediately by Sam Houston. His daughter was ransomed back from the Comanche after almost two years of servitude, which she described as being cruel almost beyond the point of belief. (Including the murder of her newborn son by the Comanche, who she claimed felt he interfered with her work). The horrific condition his daughter was in when she was ransomed, and her subsequent death, left James Parker with a lifelong hatred of the Comanche. His determination to find his grandson, niece and nephew became obsessive. Though his daughter had desperately wanted to be rescued, and her son accepted rescue, his niece and nephew most emphatically did not want to leave the Indians. Cynthia Ann spent almost 25 years among the Comanches, and her brother at least 13 years. Cynthia Ann was asked at least twice if she wanted to be ransomed, but refused, asking the tribal council to allow her to remain with the Comanche. Her brother John was given no choice, and was forced to return to the whites after a ransom was paid, but he was allowed to return to the Indians when he ran away to do so.
Search.
Parker had no use for Native Americans even before the Fort Parker massacre. On the first page of his diary and written memories, James Parker dates his feelings about Indians from the War of 1812 and the death of his brother:
This awakened in me feelings of the most bitter hostility towards the Indians, and I firmly resolved, and impatiently awaited, for an opportunity to avenge his death ... though I may despise their treachery, I pity their ignorance and mourn the wrongs I have received at their hands, yet I pray to God to enable me to forgive them, and to sincerely pray for the speedy civilization and Christianization of their whole race.
His hatred intensified after he heard his daughter's account of her captivity and the murder of her second child, writing, "there are no words for how I feel about my daughter's suffering, and the murder of my grandchild." In her account of her life among the Comanche, Plummer wrote that six weeks after giving birth to a healthy son, the warriors decided she was slowed too much by childcare, and threw her son down on the ground. When he stopped moving, they left her to bury him. When she revived him, they returned and tied the infant to a rope, and dragged him through cactuses until the tiny body was torn to pieces. Of her own rape and torture, Plummer said
To undertake to narrate their barbarous treatment would only add to my present distress, for it is with feelings of the deepest mortification that I think of it, much less to speak or write of it.
Parker searched from 1836 to 1845, a period of nine years, for his daughter, his grandson, and his niece and nephew. He saw his daughter ransomed, only to die less than a year after her recovery. Though medically she was listed as dying from complications after childbirth, Parker insisted she died from the mistreatment she suffered at the hands of the Comanche, the murder of one child, and not knowing what happened to her other child. At the time of her death, the twenty-year-old Plummer's fiery red hair had turned grey.
Parker appealed to the then-President of the Republic of Texas, then the Governor of Texas attempting to raise sufficient troops to force the return of his family. Although many sympathized with James Parker and the Parker family for their loss, and some, including Sam Houston, donated money, (Houston paid the ransom for Kellog), no official of the Republic of Texas supported a full-scale military expedition to recover the lost ones. Sam Houston offered to negotiate with the Comanche, but Parker indignantly refused – nothing could have offended him more than offering to negotiate with the people who had murdered his infant grandson. Houston, did, however, pay the ransom for Kellogg. In the end, faced with going alone into the Comancheria, risking torture and death daily, or doing nothing to reclaim his family, Parker chose to go alone into the Comancheria, year after year. On at least five occasions he escaped from the Comanches after they had begun trailing him with the intent to capture and kill him. His many escapes and adventures bordered on the unbelievable, yet sufficient of them were corroborated by Indians or other Anglos that his story is accepted as true.
Parker's relentless pressing for action on the return of Comanche captives did, however, provide some impetus for the 1840 Council House Fight.
James Pratt Plummer.
During Parker's incessant searching, his family lived in relative poverty, often dependent on charity. His son-in-law, on the other hand, remained home and became relatively prosperous. Parker felt extremely strongly that Luther Plummer should have accompanied him on his trips into the Comancheria to search for Rachel Plummer and her son.
If he could not do that, then Parker felt that Luther Plummer should have contributed to the searches financially. Parker claimed that Luther Plummer never even reimbursed him for the ransom and fees he incurred in searching for Rachel. Parker later reclaimed both John Richard Parker and his own grandson, James Pratt Plummer. John Richard was too old to adjust to Anglo life and soon ran away to the Comanche. James Pratt Plummer was younger, more adaptable, and perhaps more importantly, his grandfather watched him a great deal closer. Parker then refused to return his grandson to his father, claiming that Luther Plummer had not even paid his ransom. When the father appealed to the Governor of Texas, who found for him, Parker simply refused to honor the order to return his grandson. Luther Plummer, who had remarried and had a child by his new wife did not pursue the matter, and left his son with his grandfather.
Retirement.
In 1845, Parker's wife Martha could no longer bear his yearly searches. His other five children had grown up without him, and she was tired of living in poverty. Further, rumors of Parker's activities included murder and robbery, and he placed an ad in the paper to deny any involvement in the murder of the Taylor family, or any of the other crimes rumor attached to his name. Parker indignantly pointed out he was in a completely different part of the country from where these crimes were committed.
After the death of his first wife on October 3, 1846, Parker married Lavina E. Chaffin on April 26, 1847. He died in 1864 in extreme northern Houston County and is buried in Pilgrim Cemetery in Anderson County, near Elkhart.
Although he stopped his personal search for his niece and nephew, Parker never stopped giving money to those claiming they had seen Cynthia Ann, his niece. He lived the remainder of his life with his wife and family. His nine-year search for his daughter, grandson, niece and nephew, had led him to adventures so incredible that he admitted in his published diary that he understood people not believing his tales.
another reason for omitting a detail of many of my sufferings and miraculous escapes is, that I am confident, few, if any, would believe them ... what I have narrated is nothing next to the awful reality ... My readers express some surprise that I always went on these tours alone. A moments reflection will convince them of the propriety of my doing so. I was not permitted to take a sufficient number of men to fight the Indians and my only hope was to steal or buy the prisoners from the enemy. The fewer in my company then, the less was the danger of my being discovered by the savages and killed.
Legacy.
The novelist and screenplay writer Alan Le May visited Ben Parker, a descendant of the Parker family in Texas, and viewed Parker family sites before writing a novel called The Searchers. Ben Parker recalled that, to his surprise, LeMay was not so much interested in Cynthia Ann but rather in her uncle James who had searched for her for eight years after her abduction."
Historians and film critics have speculated on the inspiration for the character of Ethan Edwards in the John Ford movie The Searchers, with many saying that the character was based on James Parker. Critics and historians noted that James W. Parker, Cynthia Ann's uncle, spent much of his life and fortune in what became an obsessive search for his niece, like Ethan Edwards in the film. In addition, the "rescue" of Cynthia Ann, during a Texas Ranger attack on the village where she lived, resembles the rescue of Debbie Edwards when the Texas Rangers attack Scar's village.
The Searchers movie inspired a number of American filmmakers and screenwriters, including Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, John Milius, Curtis Hanson, and Paul Schrader, all of whom grew up watching the film and have testified to its influence over their own filmmaking. Glenn Frankel suggests that Martin Scorsese's Taxi Driver (1976) probably comes the closest to re-imagining The Searchers for the modern age. The Travis Bickle (Robert De Niro) character is the obsessed and violent taxi driver whose twisted personal code and use of gun violence mirror those of Ethan Edwards/James Parker. So does the object of the search who refuses to acquiesce to her own rescue, Jodie Foster who mirrors Cynthia Ann Parker.


2005 Vancouver municipal election

The city of Vancouver, along with the rest of British Columbia's municipalities, held its municipal elections on November 19, 2005. Canadian citizens who were over 18 years of age at the time of the vote, and had been a resident of Vancouver for the past 30 days and a resident of BC for the past six months, were able to vote for candidates in four races that were presented on one ballot. In addition, Canadian citizen non-resident property owners were eligible to vote.
The ballot elects one mayor, 10 councillors, nine school board trustees and seven park board commissioners. Each elector may vote for as many candidates as there are open seats (e.g., an elector may vote for ten or fewer councillors).
Elections to City Council.
Overall council results.
All figures include votes cast for both mayor and councillors
Mayoral election.
One to be elected.
Councillor election.
Ten to be elected.
Elections to the Park Board.
Seven to be elected.
Elections to the School Board.
Nine to be elected.


Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad

The Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad (P&LE) , also known as the "Little Giant", was formed on May 11, 1875. Company headquarters were located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The line connected Pittsburgh in the east with Youngstown, Ohio at nearby Haselton, Ohio in the west and Connellsville, Pennsylvania to the east. It did not reach Lake Erie (at Ashtabula, Ohio) until the formation of Conrail in 1976. The P&LE was known as the "Little Giant" since the tonnage that it moved was out of proportion to its route mileage. While it operated around one tenth of one percent of the nation's railroad miles, it hauled around one percent of its tonnage. This was largely because the P&LE served the steel mills of the greater Pittsburgh area, which consumed and shipped vast amounts of materials. It was a specialized railroad deriving much of its revenue from coal, coke, iron ore, limestone, and steel. The eventual closure of the steel mills led to the end of the P&LE as an independent line in 1992.
At the end of 1970 P&LE operated of road on of track, not including PC&Y and Y&S; in 1970 it reported 1419 million ton-miles of revenue freight, down from 2437 million in 1944.
Route of the P&LE.
The P&LE purchased many smaller railroads that operated in the areas of its main train line extending the line north to Youngstown and south to Connellsville. This provided a means of transportation from the steel centers of Pittsburgh to the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway area.
P&LE Division.
The original line ran between Youngstown, Ohio (at Haselton) and 24th Street in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania near the Jones and Laughlin Iron Works, opened in 1879. The P&LE's passenger terminal in Pittsburgh was on the south bank of the Monongahela River, at the foot of the Smithfield Street Bridge.
The P&LE followed the left downstream bank of the Monongahela River past the terminal to the Golden Triangle, where that waterway meets the Allegheny River and becomes the Ohio River. The railroad continued northwest along the left downstream bank of the Ohio to the vicinity of Beaver, Pennsylvania, where it crossed the river on the Beaver Bridge. From there it followed the Beaver River to just south of New Castle, Pennsylvania, where it then followed the Mahoning River west-northwest, crossing into Ohio just east of Lowellville. From there it ran northwest into Youngstown, terminating at a junction with the New York Central known as Haselton.
In the table below, mileage is reckoned westbound from the P&LE Terminal in Pittsburgh. The original line continued east past that station for a little over (listed in Youghiogheny Branch table below) to near 24th Street in the South Side neighborhood of Pittsburgh, where it met the Monongahela Connecting Railroad and the Pittsburgh, McKeesport & Youghiogheny (PM&Y).
Youghiogheny Branch.
The Pittsburgh, McKeesport and Youghiogheny Railroad ran from 24th Street in Pittsburgh, PA to Connellsvile, Pennsylvania, in 1882. The PM&Y followed the Monongahela River to McKeesport, Pennsylvania, then the Youghiogheny River to Connellsville, Pennsylvania.
Mileage on this P&LE branch was reckoned from the passenger terminal back at the Smithfield Street Bridge.
Monongahela Branch.
The Pittsburgh, McKeesport & Youghiogheny Railroad also followed the Monongahela River to Brownsville, Pennsylvania.
History.
The Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad was the creation of William McCreery, a prominent Pittsburgh businessman, merchant, and railroad builder. McCreery had suffered at the hands of Pennsylvania Railroad in a business that had a loss or failed. The Pennsylvania Railroad at the time used discriminatory rates which became a hot issue in Pittsburgh. On May 11, 1870 McCreery and ten other people filed Articles of Association with Pennsylvania Secretary of State. The stated length of the railroad was for . After 2 years the starting group was not very successful at raising the required funds and in 1877 many of the directors were succeeded by a new group of Pittsburgh businessmen. The new group was James I Bennett, David Hostetter, James M. Baily, Mark W. Watson, and James M. Schoonmaker, all influential.
In the spring of 1877, the first rails were laid down in Beaver Falls, which had the largest population other than Pittsburgh. The other reason for this was around February 1877 Jacob Henrici of the Harmony Society had business there. Henrici would also become a director in 1877. On July 6, 1877, McCreery resigned and Bennett was elected to president with Jacob Henrici becoming a director. Henrici was the key due to his Harmony Society ties which was a communal religious group founded in 1805. In 1880, William Henry Vanderbilt's Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway bought stock to the tune of $200,000 in the P&LE. The P&LE would stay in the Vanderbilt's New York Central system until Conrail. Also in 1877, an agreement between the P&LE and the Atlantic & Great Western (Erie) and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway was reached for routing traffic at Youngstown Ohio. The final track laying between Pittsburgh and Youngstown was on January 27, 1879. At the opening in 1879, the P&LE was a poorly built, single track line. Fortunately for the railroad it was an immediate success and money was soon available for improvements.
South Penn and Pittsburgh, McKeesport and Youghiogheny Railroad.
In 1881, the P&LE became linked with the notorious South Pennsylvania Railroad (South Penn). This would lead to William Henry Vanderbilt to control of the P&LE as a link in the South Penn and the building of the Pittsburgh, McKeesport and Youghiogheny Railroad. The South Pennsylvania Railroad was planned to connect to the PM&Y. Vanderbilt did this by buying Henry W. Oliver's and the Harmony Society's stock in the P&LE. Then Vanderbilt, aided by Andrew Carnegie, advanced the PM&Y all of the funds to build to Connellsville, Pennsylvania and then lease it to the P&LE for 99 years. The PM&Y in the end was the only part of the South Penn that was built, but it would be an important part of the P&LE. The PM&Y opened in 1883 and leased to the P&LE in 1884.
Concurrently in 1883, to get the P&LE ready for the expected new business due to the South Penn linkage, the McKees Rocks shops were built.
Vanderbilt and the "Little Giant".
The company came under more formal control in the 1887 by the New York Central Railroad. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway's president, John Newell, took over as president of the P&LE in 1887. Under Newell, Reed and Colonel Schoonmaker; the P&LE would become the "Little Giant". From 1887 to 1927, the P&LE would become a heavy duty railroad, with double track all the way from Pittsburgh to Youngstown.
The P&LE operated as an independent subsidiary, even after New York Central and Pennsylvania Railroad merged to form Penn Central.
PM&Y and the Monongahela Railway.
The making of coke in Connellsville had been a big part of P&LE traffic, but by the early 20th century it had lessened. The development of by-products distillation processing of coke had moved to the Pittsburgh area. The P&LE then extended up the Monongahela River to Brownsville, Pennsylvania in 1901. The Pennsylvania Railroad at the same time had extended to Brownsville. Both the PRR and the P&LE had plans to extend even further up the river into West Virginia coke fields. Most likely due to the South Penn, they decided to work together by using the Monongahela Railway. The Monongahela Railway then was extended south to Martin, Pennsylvania reaching the Kondike Coke fields. Later in 1915 it reached Fairmont, West Virginia.
Conrail and CSX.
When Conrail was formed, the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad again became an independent company because P&LE was owed $15.2 million by Penn Central, and operated as such until its merger into CSX Transportation (CSX).
Starting in 1934, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) bought trackage rights over P&LE from McKeesport to New Castle. The B&O's route through Pittsburgh had excessive grades and curves. In the last years of the P&LE, CSX used the line more than P&LE leading to the merger. Most of the online customers had long been gone, with only the main line still intact. In 1993 the company was purchased by CSX. The CSX designated the P&LE as a new subsidiary, the Three Rivers Railway. However, in 1993, CSX leased the TRR, and there is currently no de facto distinction between the former P&LE and any other portion of CSX's system.
Company officers.
Presidents of the railroad were as follows:
After Newell the presidency would be held by the president of the NYC with the active management of the local vice president.
Vice Presidents:
With Nash the active management went back to the president.
Pittsburgh Terminal and P&LE passenger trains.
The P&LE's Pittsburgh passenger train station (interior seen in the lower right photo) sat adjacent the south bank of the Monongahela River at the foot of the Smithfield Street Bridge. The Pittsburgh Terminal was the railroad's headquarters, passenger train shed, and freight warehouse complex. In the upper photo, the terminal sits along the Monongahela river. The roof of the freight house is to the right of the terminal train shed. The former P&LE headquarters building at the bottom of the Monongahela Incline has been converted into a present-day shopping center, Station Square. The passenger station has been placed on a list of historic edifices, modernized and converted to a restaurant.
During 1910 - 1930, the P & LE operated 50 passenger daily trains on its 65-mile Pittsburgh - Youngstown portion of its system. Ticketing agreements with the Erie RR and the P & LE's parent New York Central, passengers boarding in Pittsburgh could ride coaches or sleepers west to Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, and St. Louis, and north to Cleveland, Buffalo, Toronto, Albany and Boston.
The Baltimore & Ohio RR obtained trackage rights in 1934 on the P&LE, and Chicago-New York trains such as the "Capitol Limited" (Chicago-Washington), "Columbian" (Chicago-Washington) and "Ambassador" (Detroit-Baltimore) operated over the P & LE between New Castle Junction and McKeesport. These trains stopped at the Terminal located in Pittsburgh's South Side. The trackage charing arrangement continued until Amtrak assumed responsibility for the nation's passenger rail service in 1971.
P&LE operated commuter trains into Pittsburgh. In 1964, it ran one round-trip between Youngstown and Pittsburgh as well as one additional southbound and two additional northbound trains on the section between Beaver Falls and Pittsburgh. Latest by 1968, only the section between College Hill, Beaver Falls, Aliquippa and P&LE's Pittsburgh Terminal was served by one single roundtrip commuter train per day. In 1978, P&LE tried to drop that last commuter train, which was met by fierce objections. With state support, P&LE continued to operate the commuter run but eventually ended the service on July 12, 1985, after passenger counts had dropped significantly.
The PATrain commuter operation continued to use some P&LE-trackage until 1989.
Shops and Yards.
The Youngstown Gateway Yard was a major hub location on the railroad, until the creation of Conrail. Gateway Yard was opened in October 1957, to be a modern hump yard. The yard was approximately stretching for a distance of just over from Lowellville, Ohio to Center Street in Youngstown, Ohio. Gateway Yard was made up of three principal yards, and an assortment of smaller, special purpose yards. The principal yards were arranged linearly, with the eastern limits of the Departure Yard in Lowellville. The Hump Yard was located in Struthers in the center of the facility, and the Receiving Yard was to the west. The special purpose yards were "Diesel Servicing Facilities", "Gorilla Park" and "Interchange" yards. The "Interchange" yard was made up of six tracks, four were for interchange to and from the B&O Railroad and two of which were for general use. The other interchange with was with New York Central Railroad which was a direct interchange. The western yard limit was the end of track for the P&LE. Beyond the western end of the Yard was the NYC mainline that continued to Ashtabula, Ohio. The yard was constructed when the P&LE was under the control of the New York Central Railroad. Conrail routing most of the traffic around P&LE facilities in the area. After the 1993 CSX takeover of P&LE, Gateway Yard was closed and most tracks have been removed. The yard tower still stands but has been heavily vandalized. The Gateway Yard Tower November 2008
The McKees Rocks Yard facility was home to a yard, Major Locomotive Rebuilding and general maintenance, as well as Freight Car Repair and Maintenance. On the westernmost end of the McKees Rocks yard, the P&LE interchanged with the PC&Y. However the PC&Y facilities are just behind the P&LE Locomotive facilities in the main yard, and trackage from the PC&Y crosses the P&LE Mainline at this point, servicing several local businesses in the Bottoms section of McKees Rocks, finally making the previously mentioned interchange. Most of the McKees Rocks facilities are now gone. The Locomotive Facility till 2-16/2017 still had the PITTSBURGH AND LAKE ERIE LOCOMOTIVE SHOPS sign proudly displayed on its side, and if you looked close enough, you could see where the old New York Central Ovals were. The entire McKees Rocks Locomotive Facility, Shops and old McKees Rocks yard is to be replaced by a Regional CSX Inter-model Facility.
In 1904, P&LE built the O'Donovan Bridge for easier automobile access from Island Avenue to The Bottoms without crossing the railroad tracks. This was replaced in 1931 by the McKees Rocks Bridge, which extended to Ohio River Blvd. but still provided access to The Bottoms via Helen Street exit.
The McKees Rocks Community Development Corporation has plans to adaptively reuse the building.
The College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls had a small yard located just below Geneva College along the Beaver River. There was also a small roundhouse on the property, plus the College Hill Station. Today, only the station remains.


KNUM-LP

KNUM-LP is a low-power FM radio station broadcasting on 96.7 FM in Portland, Oregon, United States. It is owned by the Community Alliance of Tenants and is known as "96.7 The Numberz", airing a rap and hip-hop format.
History.
On November 15, 2013, the Community Alliance of Tenants, a tenants rights organization, applied to build a new low-power FM radio station on 96.7 MHz in Portland. The Federal Communications Commission approved its application in September 2014 as two of the four applicants for the frequency dropped out and the other two—the Community Alliance and Opal Environmental Justice Oregon—moved their LP facilities to avoid interference with each other.
The station filed for its license to cover on September 20, 2017, having gone on air under the call sign KZRY-LP. Behind the founding of the station were two graduates of Grant High School, one of which was a founder of KXRY (branded as "XRAY.FM"). In its initial months on air as KZRY-LP, it aired a loop featuring audio of speeches by Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy and from the Apollo 11 mission, some music, and programs from XRAY.
A year later, on August 29, 2018, the station began operating normally and changed its call sign to KNUM-LP, reflecting its on-air brand referencing the Portland area to which many Black residents have been displaced as a result of gentrification.


Battle of Oriskany

The Battle of Oriskany was one of the bloodiest battles in the American Revolutionary War and a significant engagement of the Saratoga campaign. On August 6, 1777, a party of Loyalists and several hundred Indigenous allies across several nations ambushed an American military party that was marching to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix. This was one of the few battles in which the majority of the participants were Americans; Patriots and allied Oneidas fought against Loyalists and allied Iroquois in the absence of British regular soldiers. There was also a detachment of Hessians in the British force, as well as Western Indians including members of the Mississauga people.
The Patriot relief force came up the Mohawk Valley under the command of General Nicholas Herkimer and numbered about 800 men of the Tryon County militia plus a party of approximately 60 Oneida warriors. British commander Barry St. Leger authorized an intercepting force consisting of a Hanau Jäger (light infantry) detachment, Sir John Johnson's King's Royal Regiment of New York, Indian allies from the Six Nations, particularly Mohawks and Senecas and other tribes to the north and west, and Indian Department Rangers, totaling at least 450 men.
The Loyalist and Indigenous force ambushed Herkimer's force in a small valley about six miles (10 km) east of Fort Stanwix, near the Oneida village of Oriskany, New York. Herkimer was mortally wounded, and the battle cost the Patriots approximately 451 casualties, while the Loyalists and Indians lost approximately 150 dead and wounded. The result of the battle remains ambiguous. The apparent Loyalist victory was significantly affected by a sortie from Fort Stanwix in which the Loyalist camps were sacked, damaging morale among the Indigenous allies.
The battle also marked the beginning of a war among the Iroquois, as Oneida warriors under Colonel Louis and Han Yerry allied with the American cause. Most of the other Iroquois tribes allied with the British, especially the Mohawks and Senecas. Each tribe was highly decentralized, and there were internal divisions among bands of the Oneida, some of whom also migrated to Canada as allies of the British. The site is known in Iroquois oral histories as "A Place of Great Sadness." The site has been designated a National Historic Landmark; it is marked by a battle monument at the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site.
Background.
In June 1777, the British Army, under the command of General "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne, launched a two-pronged attack from Quebec. Burgoyne's objective was to split New England from the other colonies by gaining control of New York's Hudson Valley. The main thrust came south across Lake Champlain under Burgoyne's command; the second thrust was led by Lt. Colonel Barry St. Leger and was intended to come down the Mohawk Valley and meet Burgoyne's army near Albany.
St. Leger's expedition consisted of about 1,800 men who were a mix of British regulars, Hessian Jägers from Hanau, Loyalists, Rangers, and Indians of several tribes, including the Mohawk and Seneca of the Iroquois. They traveled up the Saint Lawrence River and along the shore of Lake Ontario to the Oswego River, which they ascended to reach the Oneida Carry in Rome, New York. They began to besiege Fort Stanwix, a Continental Army post guarding the portage.
Prelude.
Tryon County's Committee of Safety head Nicholas Herkimer was warned of a possible British attack along the Mohawk River, and he issued a proclamation on July 17 warning of possible military activity and urging the people to respond if needed. Oneida allies warned him on July 30 that the British were just four days from Fort Stanwix, and he put out a call-to-arms. The force raised totaled 800 from the Tryon County militia composed primarily of poorly trained farmers who were chiefly of Palatine German descent. They set out on August 4 and camped near the Oneida village of Oriska on August 5. A number of the militia dropped out of the column due to their lack of conditioning, but Herkimer's forces were augmented by a company of 60 to 100 Oneida warriors led by Han Yerry, a strong supporter of the Patriot cause. That evening, Herkimer sent three men toward the fort with messages for the fort's commander Colonel Peter Gansevoort. Gansevoort was to signal the receipt of the message with three cannon shots and then sortie to meet the approaching column. The couriers, however, had difficulty getting through British lines, and they did not deliver the message until late the next morning, after the battle was already underway.
St. Leger learned on August 5 that Herkimer and his relief expedition were on their way from a messenger that Molly Brant had sent to her brother Joseph Brant, the Mohawk leader who led a portion of St. Leger's "Indian" contingent. St. Leger sent a detachment of light infantry from Sir John Johnson's Royal Yorkers toward the position that evening to monitor Herkimer's position, and Brant followed early the next morning with about 400 Indians and Butler's Rangers. Many of the Indigenous allies were armed with muskets, while others carried only tomahawks and spears.
Battle.
Herkimer held a war council on the morning of August 6. He wanted to wait because he had not heard the expected signal from the fort, but his captains pressed him to continue, accusing him of being a Tory because his brother was serving under St. Leger. He was stung by the accusations and relented, ordering the column to march on toward Stanwix.
About six miles (9.6 km) from the fort, the road dipped more than 50 feet (15 m) into a marshy ravine with a stream at the bottom that was about three feet wide. Seneca chiefs Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter chose this place to set up an ambush; the King's Royal Yorkers waited behind a nearby rise and the Indigenous allies concealed themselves on both sides of the ravine. The plan was for the Yorkers to stop the head of the column, after which the Indigenous troops would attack the extended column. At about 10 am, Herkimer's column descended into the ravine, crossed the stream, and began ascending the other side with Herkimer on horseback near the front.
Contrary to the plan, the Indigenous troops lying in wait opened fire on the rear of the column and taking the column completely by surprise. Colonel Ebenezer Cox was leading the 1st Regiment (Canajoharie district), and he was shot off his horse and killed in the first volley. Herkimer turned his horse to see the action and was struck by a ball that shattered his leg and killed the horse. Several of his officers carried him to a beech tree and urged him to retire from further danger. He defiantly replied, "I will face the enemy", and calmly sat leaning against the tree smoking a pipe and giving directions and words of encouragement to the men nearby.
The trap had been sprung too early and portions of the column had not yet entered the ravine. Most of these men panicked and fled; some of the Indigenous fighters pursued them, resulting in a string of dead and wounded that extended for several miles. Between the loss of the column rear and those killed or wounded in the initial volleys, only about one half of Herkimer's men were likely still fighting 30 minutes into the battle. Some of the attackers who were not armed with muskets waited for the flash of an opponent's musket fire before rushing to attack with the tomahawk. Mohawk Chief Louis Atayataronghta was fighting with Herkimer's men, and he shot one of the enemies whose fire had been devastatingly accurate, noting that "every time he rises up he kills one of our men".
Herkimer's men eventually rallied, fighting their way out of the ravine to the crest just to its west. John Johnson was concerned about the militia's tenacity, so he returned to the British camp and requested some reinforcements from St. Leger, returning with 70 men. A thunderstorm caused a one-hour break in the fighting, during which Herkimer regrouped his militia on the higher ground. He instructed his men to fight in pairs; while one man fired and reloaded, the other waited and then only fired if attacked. They were to keep at least one weapon loaded at all times to reduce the effectiveness of the tomahawk attacks.
Ranger John Butler took time during the thunderstorm to question some of the captives, and thus learned about the three-cannon signal. Johnson and his reinforcements arrived, and Butler convinced them to turn their coats inside out to disguise themselves as a relief party coming from the fort. When the fighting restarted, Johnson and the rest of his Royal Yorkers joined the battle, but Patriot Captain Jacob Gardinier recognized the face of a Loyalist neighbor. Close combat continued for some time, often hand-to-hand between men who were neighbors.
Sortie from Fort Stanwix.
Herkimer's messengers reached the fort at around 11 a.m., and Colonel Gansevoort organized the requested sortie. Lieutenant Colonel Marinus Willett led 250 men from the fort and raided the nearly deserted enemy camps to the south, driving away the few British and Indians left in them (including women) and taking four prisoners along the way. They stole blankets and other personal possessions from the Indigenous camps, and they also raided John Johnson's camp, taking his letters and other writings (including an intercepted letter to Gansevoort from his fiancée).
One of the Indigenous allies guarding the camps ran to the battlefield to alert fellow warriors that their camps were being raided. They disengaged with cries of "Oonah, oonah!", the Seneca signal to retire, and headed for the camps to protect their women and possessions. This forced the smaller number of German and Loyalist combatants to also withdraw.
Aftermath.
Patriots.
Herkimer was seriously wounded and many of his captains were killed, and the battered remnant retreated to Fort Dayton. His men carried him from the battlefield and his leg was amputated, but the operation went poorly and he died on August 16. The Indigenous fighters who died on the battlefield were retrieved by the following day, but many dead and wounded Patriots were left on the field. Benedict Arnold's relief column marched through several weeks later, and the men were moved by the stench and grisly scene.
General Philip Schuyler learned of the retreat from Oriskany and immediately organized additional relief to be sent to the area. Arnold's relief column arrived at Fort Stanwix on August 21, and he sent messengers into the British camp who convinced the British and Indian besiegers that his force was much larger than it actually was. They abandoned their siege and withdrew.
Loyalists.
Loyalist John Butler was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel for his role in the battle, and he was authorized to raise a regiment that became known as Butler's Rangers. After the siege was lifted, some Loyalists returned to Quebec while others joined Burgoyne's campaign on the Hudson, including numerous warriors from various tribes.
Indians.
Brant and Seneca chief Sayenqueraghta proposed the next day to continue the fighting by pursuing the Patriots downriver toward German Flatts, New York, but St. Leger turned them down. This battle marked the beginning of a war among the tribes in the Iroquois Confederacy, as it was the first time that they had fought against one other. The Mohawks, Senecas, Cayugas, and Onondagas were allied with the British, as were some Oneidas, and the Iroquois in St. Leger's camp met in council and decided to send the Patriot-allied Oneidas a bloody hatchet. Brant's Mohawks raided and burned the Oneida settlement of Oriska later in the siege. In retaliation, the Oneidas plundered the Mohawk strongholds of Tiononderoge and Canajoharie. They later raided the Fort Hunter Mohawks, prompting most of the remaining Mohawks in central New York to flee to Quebec.
Some people think that Brant's Indigenous allies tortured and ate some of their prisoners, but modern historians debate this. It is likely that some of the prisoners were ritually killed (as that is what often happens in time battle), but there does not appear to be any evidence of cannibalism.
Winners and losers.
The battle was one of the bloodiest of the war, based on the percentage of casualties suffered. About half of Herkimer's force were killed or wounded, as were about 15-percent of the British force. St. Leger claimed the battle as a victory, as he had stopped the American relief column, but the Americans maintained control of the battlefield after the withdrawal of the opposing Indians.
The British victory was tempered by the discontentment of the Indians after the battle. When they joined the expedition, they expected that the British forces would do most of the fighting, but they were the dominant fighters in this action, and some suffered the loss of their personal belongings taken during the American sortie from the fort. This blow to their morale contributed to the eventual failure of St. Leger's expedition.
Legacy.
Blacksnake, a war chief of the Seneca nation, was interviewed many years afterwards. He recalled, "I thought at that time the Blood Shed a Stream running down on the ground."
A monument was erected in 1884 to commemorate the battle at 43° 10.6′N 75° 22.2′W, and much of the battlefield is now preserved in the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site. The site was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The town of Herkimer (town), New York and Herkimer County, New York were named in Herkimer's honor. The battle was honored by the name of aircraft carrier , launched in 1945, now an artificial reef, and also by the issuance of a postage stamp in 1977.


Sarah Marie Johnson


Reuben Shipley

Reuben Shipley was one of the first Black settlers in the Oregon Territory.
Early life.
Reuben Shipley was born in Kentucky between 1800 - 1807. He was enslaved to Robert Shipley. At some point Robert Shipley moved to Missouri and Reuben was brought along -- at the time he was valued at $1,500.
Later life.
Reuben was married in Missouri and had two sons. His wife and sons were enslaved 30 miles away on a different plantation. Reuben was permitted to visit them one weekend a month. In Missouri, Reuben was the manager of Robert Shipley's plantation.
Approximately ten years before the American Civil War, in 1853, Robert gave Reuben the option of moving with him to the Oregon Territory or being sold for $1,000. In exchange for helping him move to Oregon and build a home, Robert said he would grant Reuben his freedom. Of course, this meant Reuben would have to leave his family behind, because they were enslaved to a different family. However, he left with the hopes that he could eventually buy his own freedom and the freedom of his wife and sons.
In 1853, Reuben traveled to Oregon, driving an oxen team from Missouri approximately 2,000 miles. When he settled in the Oregon Territory, there may have been as few as 50 Black residents, according to an 1850 census. After helping Robert Shipley move and build his home, Reuben was manumitted. After gaining freedom, Reuben began corresponding with the enslaver of his wife in Missouri, in the hopes that he could gain her freedom, but she died before this was possible. Reuben then hoped to free his enslaved sons, but their enslaver refused Reuben's request and his sons whereabouts were lost during the civil war.
Several years after settling in Oregon, Reuben became a landowner four miles west of Corvallis, Oregon.
He married Mary Jane Holmes in 1857. Mary Jane was also enslaved in Oregon (where slavery was prohibited in 1857). After marrying, Mary's enslaver demanded payment for her freedom, or he would not let her leave the property. Although two locals, Reverend T.J. Connor and Eldridge Hartless, advised against it, Reuben paid the "ransom" the same day, which was between $400-$800. Eventually Reuben and Mary had two sons and a daughter.
In 1861 Reuben Shipley donated land to create a cemetery in Philomath, Oregon.
He died in 1872.
Assumed Gravestone Discrepancy.
Though Reuben Shipley was said to have died in 1872 following a visit to Mary Jane's sister, Roxanna in Salem, the circumstances surrounding the name on his gravestone, R. E. Ficklin, gave rise to concern that Shipley's son had donated a headstone with an incorrect name. This was not the case according to the book "Breaking Chains: Slavery on Trial in the Oregon Territory." As many enslaved people at the time did, it is believed that Reuben Shipley had used the name of his most recent enslaver, but Shipley had previously been enslaved by a person by the name of Ficklin.
Reuben Shipley's son Edward would take up the last name Ficklin himself despite the majority of the family having gone by the surname Shipley. There is no documentation to verify why or when Shipley's son Edward began using the last name Ficklin.


Simon Johnson (deacon)

Deacon Simon Johnson (1794 – 1875) was a political and religious leader in Gay Head, Massachusetts throughout the mid-nineteenth century. He also managed the Massachusetts Humane Society Gay Head Lifesaving Station, where he recruited volunteer rescue mission volunteers from a pool of either fishermen or whalers.
Petitions to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Johnson signed onto many petitions to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts alongside other Proprietors
of Gayhead . He is the known author of one such petition concerning premature and unauthorized cranberry harvesting. The petition, signed by Johnson and 77 others Proprietors, asks the commonwealth to enact Penal Laws that would punish anyone who harvests the cranberry bogs without the tribe's permission.
Social status.
Due to his high social stature, Deacon Simon was mentioned by multiple writers who visited Aquinnah. In Harper's Magazine, David Hunter Strother, writing under his pen name "Porte Crayon," describes Simon Johnson as holding "authority by a mixed tenure- uniting the character of the Indian chief with that of the New England Deacon." Additionally, the Gazetter of Massachusetts mentioned Johnson and Zaccheus Howwoswee, listing them as "highly esteemed citizens."
Lifesaving Station.
Johnson also was the manager of the Gayhead based "Massachusetts Humane Society" Lifesaving Station.


Renn Woods

Renn Woods (born Ren Woods; January 1, 1958) is an American film, television and stage actress, vocalist and songwriter. She is best known for her role as Fanta in "Roots", and also for her performance of Aquarius in the film version of "Hair" (1979).
Woods was born in Chicago and raised in Portland, Oregon, where she attracted attention as part of Three Little Souls, a local musical trio she formed at age ten. The group subsequently became known as Sunday's Child, and toured internationally through Wood's adolescent years, appearing on television with such acts as Bob Hope. In adulthood, Woods transitioned into acting, starring as Fanta in "Roots" (1977), and the Aquarius soloist in "Hair" (1979). She also had a supporting role in the comedy "The Jerk" (1979).
She has also appeared onstage as Dorothy in the first national touring production of "The Wiz", and as The Moon in a critically acclaimed stage production of "Caroline, or Change".
Early life.
Woods was born in Chicago, Illinois, one of six children, and was raised in Portland, Oregon by her divorced mother, who was a nurse. Woods described her mother as a "politically conscious and very unusual woman." Woods and her siblings attended private Catholic schools in Portland. At age eight, Woods began singing in a trio with two friends in her neighborhood, performing as the Three Little Souls.
She added an extra "n" to her first name to lessen confusion with a company that used the domain name Renwoods.
Career beginnings.
Renn began singing at the age of six. By age 10, she and two girlfriends began performing under the group name Sunday's Child, and performed on television programs with Jack Benny, Bob Hope, and Bing Crosby. The trio toured the world, performing the very last tour of duty with Bob Hope in Vietnam.
In 1979, she released a solo album, "Out of the Woods", which was produced by Earth, Wind & Fire member Al McKay. A second album, "Azz Izz", was released in 1982. "Azz Izz" was well received. The second album featured a new composition by Prince titled "I Don't Wanna Stop." Woods released a third album featuring jazz standards, "Crazy", in 2015.
Renn is currently recording her first American Songbook CD.
Acting career.
Woods achieved fame as Fanta in "Roots" in 1977, a role for which she won a People's Choice Award. She also sang the opening song Aquarius in Miloš Forman’s movie musical version of "Hair" (1979). She appeared in other American television series, including "What's Happening!!", "Lou Grant", "Hill Street Blues", "The White Shadow," "The Jeffersons", "Roc", "Sabrina, the Teenage Witch", "Beauty and the Beast" and "NYPD Blue". She starred as Edie in the Golden Globe-winning tv series "Beauty and the Beast". She starred as Mrs. McGill in the tv movie "".
In 2015, she appeared in the TVOne documentary series Unsung. In 2016, she appeared in the TruInside tv documentary "The Jerk", about the film she had co-starred in with Steve Martin, exploring what makes the comedy a classic.
She subsequently appeared as Dorothy in the first national Broadway tour of "The Wiz." She created a one-woman autobiographical musical, "A Diva Like Me", in the 1990s, which she expanded into an ensemble version, "Sold: Renn Woods in Concert (A Play in Rhythm and Blues)".
She also appeared in the Tony Award-nominated production of "Caroline, Or Change" (the role of "The Moon") at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles.