Larry Cummins (bushranger)

Larry Cummins (1844–1909) was a bushranger in central New South Wales, Australia during the 1860s.
Cummins was from south of Abercrombie, New South Wales and was married to Bridget Francis. Bridget's father had been a supplier of illicit alcohol in Tamborambora Ford, on the Abercrombie River.
His lawless career started when his brother was arrested for horse stealing. Larry was determined to make an attempt to rescue his brother. He got posse of desperate men, and set an ambush against the police who were conveying his brother to the Bigga lock-up. Only two mounted constables had been sent in charge of the prisoner, and they put up a fight. Cummings shot at a constable, who refused to obey the order to ' Bail up!' Instead of hitting the officer, however, the shot struck his brother which killed him.
Cummins was eventually caught, tried, found guilty of manslaughter, and sentenced to life in Berrima gaol. He escaped and made his way back to his old haunts in the vicinity of Mudgee, Crookwell, Binda, and other towns. Linking up with Fred Lowry and John Foley, Cummins robbed the Mudgee mail coach in July 1863. There was rumored to be 5,700 pounds on the coach. He also attempted a robbery of Webb’s store at Mutton Falls. Here he was reported to have been slightly wounded in the face.
On August 29, 1863 at Vardy’s Limerick Races Inn at Cooksvale Creek, north of Crookwell, Fredrick Lowry and Cummins were taken into custody following a shootout in which Lowry was shot in the throat. Lowry died the next day at Woodhouselee north of Goulburn.
Cummins was gaoled for 15 years. He then escaped from Berrima Gaol and returned to bushranging including an attempted robbery at Mutton Falls. He was arrested at Porters Retreat in 1867. Convicted at Goulburn. He was sentenced to a long term of imprisonment in the Parramatta gaol. Later after he served a number of years when with many other convicts, he was released by Sir Hercules Robinson, then Governor of New South Wales, and granted a free pardon in 1874. Frank Gardiner and several other bushrangers were similarly reprieved.
Cummins eventually gave up his wild career, and went to Gippsland, where he became James Long, which name he held till his death. He was often seen about Albury, and attended sheep, cattle and horse sales. He made whips and did jobs of droving for a living. He died in October 1909.


Starbuck Island

Starbuck Island (or Volunteer Island) is an uninhabited coral island in the central Pacific, and is part of the Central Line Islands of Kiribati. Former names include "Barren Island", "Coral Queen Island", "Hero Island", "Low Island", and "Starve Island".
Geography, flora and fauna.
Located at , and measuring east-to-west and north-to-south, Starbuck Island has a land area of . It is a low, dry, coral limestone island with a steep beach backed by a bank composed of large coral fragments. Several hypersaline lagoons form on the island's eastern side. These occasionally dry up, and are said to be dangerous to approach: one worker during the island's guano-mining days sank up to his neck in salty mud before being rescued.
There is no freshwater on the island, which is one of the drier atolls in the Line Island group. Annual yearly rainfall averages approximately .
Little vegetation exists on Starbuck; stunted "Sida fallax" scrub and low herbs and grasses predominate, with a few "Cordia subcordata" bushes and bunch grass rounding out the flora. Recent photos showed a few palm trees growing near the center of the island.
The island boasts a large colony of sooty terns, estimated at 1.5 million pairs, together with Polynesian rats, feral cats, green turtles, and around fifteen other species of seabirds. Other accounts estimate the sooty tern population to be as high as three to six million birds.
History.
James Henderson, merchant captain of the East India Company ship "Hercules", sighted the island in 1819 while sailing from South America to Calcutta, India. Soon after his arrival, a local newspaper<where?> published Henderson's report of three islands (including Starbuck) that he had discovered during his voyage, but the periodical (or Henderson himself) had failed to state the exact date for his discovery of it. Henry Evans Maude's educated guess was that this may have been in early February 1819.
The next captain known to have seen it was Obed Starbuck, captain of the whaler "Hero" out of Nantucket, on September 5, 1823. Obed Starbuck made one attempt to land on Starbuck Island but failed.
The island was sighted again on December 12, 1823 by Obed's first cousin, Valentine Starbuck, the American-born master of the British whaling ship . "L'Aigle" was the carrying King Kamehameha II of Hawaii and Queen Kamāmalu and their retinue to England. Valentine Starbuck is the first person known to have set foot on the island.
The island was finally charted in 1825 by Captain The 7th Lord Byron (a cousin of the famous poet). Lord Byron, commanding the British warship , was returning to London from a special mission to Honolulu to repatriate the remains of the Hawaiian royal couple, King Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu who had died of measles while trying to visit King George IV. Lord Byron also discovered and charted Mauke and Malden Island, which he named after his surveying officer.
Starbuck Island was claimed by the United States under the 1856 Guano Act, but controlled by Britain after 1866, when possession was taken by Commodore Swinburn of . Starbuck Island was mined for phosphate between 1870 and 1893. The island formed a part of the British Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony prior to the independence of Kiribati in 1979. American claims to the atoll were formally vacated in the Treaty of Tarawa, signed that same year.
At its highest point, the island rises to only about 5 meters. Due to its low profile and dangerous surrounding reefs, a number of ships were wrecked at Starbuck Island in the late 19th century. The French transport "Euryale" wrecked there in March 1870 and the crew was marooned on the atoll for 35 days. The experience allowed the captain of "Euryale", future contre-admiral Albert Des Portes, to finally chart the correct geographical location of the island. All members of the crew were eventually rescued and returned to France.
On August 7, 1896 the Norwegian ship "Seladon" was wrecked against the barrier. The crew went into the lifeboats and drifted for 30 days until they landed on the island of Niulakita, Tuvalu. They lived together with a few natives for 10 months until they were rescued by a passing ship.
Starbuck Island has been designated as the "Starbuck Island Wildlife Sanctuary". In 2014 the Kiribati government established a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands: Caroline (commonly called Millennium), Flint, Vostok, Malden, and Starbuck.


Shams al-Muluk Muhammad

Shams al-Muluk Muhammad was the Baduspanid ruler ("ustandar") of Rustamdar from 1312/3 to 1317. He was the son and successor of Kay Khusraw.
A devout ruler, he sought to associate himself with religious scholars, and also laid the foundations to various "khanqahs" and mosques. He died in 1317 and was succeeded by his brother Nasir al-Din Shahriyar.


Qatran Tabrizi

Abū-Mansūr Qatrān-i Tabrīzī (, 1009–1072) was a Persian poet.
He was born in Sahar near Arrah, Tabriz and was the most famous panegyrist of his time in Iran. His full name according to a manuscript that is attributed (although scholars are not sure if this attribution to Anvari is 100% is correct) to the famous poet Anvari Abivardi (529 Hijra about 60 years after the death of Qatran) is "Abu Mansur Qatran al-Jili al-Azerbaijani". The "Al-Jili" would identify his ancestry from Gilan while he himself was born in Shadiabad. He also identifies himself as part of the Dehqan class.
According to Jan Rypka: “He sings the praise of some thirty patrons. His work has aroused the interest of historians, for in many cases Qatran has perpetuated the names of members of regional dynasties in Azerbaijan and the Caucasus region that would have otherwise fallen in oblivion. His best qasidas were written in his last period, where he expressed gratitude to the prince of Ganja, the Shaddadid Fadlun, for the numerous gifts that were still recollected by the famous Jami (d. 1492). Qatran’s poetry follows in the wake of the poets of Khurasan and makes an unforced use of the rhetorical embellishment. He is even one of the first after Farrukhi to try his hand at the Qasida-i Masnu’i, ‘particular artificial qasida’".
According to Jan Rypka:
When Nasir Khusraw visited Azarbaijan in 1046, Qatran requested to him to explain some of the most difficult passages in the divan of Munjik and Daqiqi that were written in “Persian”, i.e. according Chr. Shaffer, in the Persian of Khurasan, a language that he, as a Western Persian, might not be expected to understand, in contrast to the guest from Khurasan.
Kasravi is of the opinion that the text of the Safar-nama has here been corrupted because Qatran, though he spoke Old Azeri was fully acquainted with (Khurasani dialect of) Persian, as his Divan shows. De Blois mentions that:
The point of the anecdote is clear that the diwans of these poets contained Eastern Iranian (i.e. Sogdian etc.) words that were incomprehensible to a Western Persian like Qatran, who consequently took advantage of an educated visitor from the East, Nasir, to ascertain their meaning ".
Qatran Tabrizi has an interesting couplet mentioning this fact:
Qatran’s qasidehs on the earthquake of Tabriz in 1042 CE has been much praised and is regarded as a true masterpiece (Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. 1968).
In his Persian divan of 3000 to 10000 couplets, Qatran praises some 30 patrons.
He is not to be confused with another Persian author: Qatran of Tirmidh, who wrote the "Qaus-nama" one hundred years later.
Qatran's Qasideh on the earthquake.
On the earthquake at Tabriz and an Ode to Amir Abu Nasr Mamlan (Kurdish Rawadi prince) and his son (fragment).


Charles Lilley

Sir Charles Lilley (27 August 1827 – 20 August 1897) was a Premier and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Queensland. He had a significant influence on the form and spirit of state education in colonial Queensland which lasted well into the 20th century.
Early life.
Lilley was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, the son of Thomas Lilley and his wife Jane, "née" Shipley. Lilley was raised by his maternal grandfather and was educated at St Nicholas Parish School. Intending to study law, Lilley became articled to Newcastle solicitor, William Lockey Harle. Lilley was sent to the London office and studied at University College, London for two years. He gave this up, enlisted in the army and, while stationed at Preston, Lancashire, lectured on temperance and industry. This brought him into disfavour with his superior officers. Lilley spent 28 days in cells on a charge of being absence without leave. Friends purchased his honourable discharge. He remained at Preston and worked on the committee that established the Preston Free Library.
Lilley arrived at Sydney on 6 July 1856. Soon afterwards he travelled to Brisbane, joined the Crown Solicitor's Office, and finished his law degree. Thereafter, he took up journalism, acquired an interest in the "Moreton Bay Courier" (later the "Brisbane Courier"), and for two years was its editor.
Politics.
Lilley was prominent in the movement for separation from New South Wales. After Queensland separated, Lilley was elected by a majority of only three votes as the Member for Hamlet of Fortitude Valley to that state's first Legislative Assembly. Lilley held the seat of Fortitude Valley to February 1874, and was then returned for the seat of North Brisbane.
Lilley was called to the bar in 1861. In September 1865 he succeeded John Bramston as Attorney-General in the first Herbert ministry, and held the same position in the Macalister ministry which succeeded it. On 7 August 1866 he was again appointed Attorney-General for a second term before the ministry was defeated in August 1867. On 25 November 1868 Lilley became Premier of Queensland and served concurrently as Attorney-General, and then Colonial Secretary, for part of his premiership. His most important work as Premier was the introduction of free education in January 1870. Queensland was the first of the Australian colonies to adopt this principle.
As a protest against the monopoly of the A.S.N. Company Lilley ordered three vessels to be constructed for the Queensland government at Sydney. One, the ship "SS Governor Blackall", designed by Norman Selfe, was built and as a result the A.S.N. Company reduced its charges. Lilley, however, had acted without reference to his colleagues and was censured by all but one of his followers. In May 1870 his party was defeated at the polls, the Palmer ministry succeeding Lilley's government. He was elected leader of the opposition. In January 1874, Macalister carried a vote of no confidence in the Government, and offered to stand aside so that Lilley could become Premier. He declined office of any kind, but shortly afterwards accepted the position of acting judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland. He became a puisne judge on 4 July 1874; on 24 June 1879, he succeeded Sir James Cockle as Chief Justice, a position he held until 13 March 1893.
Lilley's strong interest in education was a significant factor in the establishment of Brisbane Grammar School where the Lilley Gold Medal and the Lilley Silver Medal are named in his honour. The Lilley Centre opened in 2010 is also named after him. In 1891 he was chairman of a commission investigating the establishment of a university in Brisbane. In 1893, Lilley resigned his position as Chief Justice after Sir Thomas McIlwraith questioned publicly some of Lilley's financial transactions, and stood unsuccessfully against McIlwraith in the electorate of Brisbane North.
Later life.
Lilley had a severe illness in 1896 and died in 1897. He was knighted in 1881.
Legacy.
The Federal electorate of Lilley is named after him.
There is a statue of Sir Charles Lilley at the Speakers' Corner in King George Square in Brisbane.
Family.
Lilley married Sarah Jane Jeays in 1858 and was survived by a large family including:
Sir Charles Lilley is the Great Great Grandfather of Comedian and TV Producer Chris Lilley (Summer Heights High, Angry Boys). Christopher Daniel Lilley's (1974–) father Ian Hugh Arthur Lilley (1939–1997) was the son of Ian Penfold Lilley (1916–1980) and Grandson of Arthur Shipley Lilley. (1866–1948)


Masao Nakayama

Masao Nakayama (Japanese: 中山 利生 "Nakayama Masao") (1941 – November 13, 2011) was a politician and diplomat of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM).
Born in Chuuk to a Japanese father and a native mother from Onoun, Nakayama was the younger brother of FSM's first president, Tosiwo Nakayama. In 1968, Nakayama was elected a member of the Truk District Legislature. In 1969, he was elected to the Congress of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. After Micronesian independence, Nakayama was the Chief of International Affairs in the Foreign Affairs Department of the FSM from 1980 to 1989.
From 1989 to 1997, Nakayama was the ambassador of FSM to Japan. At the same time, he was concurrently the non-resident ambassador of FSM to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Korea and Singapore. In 1998, Nakayama was appointed the Permanent Representative of FSM to the United Nations in New York City.
Nakayama was married to Serlyn Nakayama, with seven children.
He died at the age of 70 in a Nevada hospital days after a stroke.


Marguerite Kamehaokalani Ashford

Marguerite Kamehaokalani Ashford (December 9, 1891 – March 3, 1970) became the first woman attorney to practice in the Territory of Hawaii. At the time of her 1916 admission to the Hawaii bar, she was the only woman attorney in Hawaii. Almeda Eliza Hitchcock had previously practiced law in the islands while Hawaii was still a kingdom, but had ceased her practice before the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The third woman attorney in Hawaii was Carrick Hume Buck who was admitted to the Hawaii bar in 1924, making Ashford and Buck the only two practicing women attorneys in the territory as of that date.
Family background.
She was born December 9, 1891, the youngest child of Jean (Jennie) Eleanor Robertson Ashford (1858–1926) and Clarence Wilder Ashford (1857–1921). Her mother was the first woman regent of the University of Hawaii and credited as securing funding for the original Cooke Field at the University of Hawaii. Her father was an immigrant from Canada, who had replaced Antone Rosa as Kalākaua's Attorney General after the signing of the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii. For his alliance with Liliʻuokalani during the overthrow, he spent seven years in exile in San Francisco, returning to Hawaii after its annexation by the United States. President Woodrow Wilson appointed him First Judge of First Circuit Court, District of Hawaii in 1914, a position he held until his retirement. Her brothers Stanley Haze Healani Ashford (1888–1968) and Huron Kanoelani Ashford (1890–1928) also entered the legal profession.
Education and career.
After graduating from Punahou School in Honolulu, Ashford matriculated at the University of California, where she earned her LL,B in 1914. She then spent several weeks in Hawaii accompanying her father in his judicial duties, before enrolling at the University of Michigan, receiving her JD degree in 1915. Territorial Chief Justice Alexander George Morison Robertson administered the oath to her on January 27, 1916, and authorized her to practice in all courts in the territory. At the time of her admission to the bar, she was the only woman attorney in Hawaii, and the first in the territory to practice. Almeda Eliza Hitchcock (1863–1895) had previously practiced law in the islands while Hawaii was still a kingdom, but had ceased her practice before the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
In February 1916, while still living in her parents' house and being financially supported by them, Ashford acted as the defense in a case in which her father presided over as the judge, raising conflict of interest concerns. By the following month, she had joined the law firm of Castle & Withington.
The third woman attorney in Hawaii, Carrick Hume Buck (1900–1959), was admitted to the Hawaii bar in 1924. At that time, Ashford and Buck were the only practicing women attorneys in the territory. Ashford was appointed First Deputy Attorney General in the territory in 1925, holding the position until 1927.
For nearly two decades, she served as legal council for the territorial legislature. In 1934, she was appointed Deputy Attorney General for the whole legislature, holding that position until 1953. She was appointed attorney for the Territorial House of Representatives in 1935, for the purpose of drafting legislation. When she worked as counsel for the Territorial Senate, the newspaper stated that during the period she served in that position, she earned a higher salary than any other public servant.
Public lands.
The Republic of Hawaii was annexed by the United States on July 4, 1898. On June 14, 1900, the Hawaiian Organic Act officially created the territory and provided the constitutional framework under which it was governed. With the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921, the federal government set aside approximately in the territory as a land trust for homesteading by Native Hawaiians. Ashford held the opinion that the act discriminated against non-native Hawaiians, and, therefore, violated the United States Constitution. When Ashford was chosen as a delegate from Molokai to the 1950 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, she opposed inclusion of the 1921 Hawaiian Homes Commission Act into Hawaii's new constitution. When the convention failed to eliminate the act from the proposed constitution, she refused to sign it. Governor Samuel Wilder King appointed Ashford to his cabinet as Commissioner of Public Lands in 1953, stirring up public controversy. King never wavered in his support of her, but she eventually resigned from the position.
Retirement.
She retired from active law practice, and moved to Molokai in 1946, where she built a home in the Kainalu area. A tidal wave generated by the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake damaged much of the island, and dislodged her new house off its foundation, moving it and her car across the road. In August of that year, she was un-retired by Chief Justice Samuel B. Kemp, who appointed her to fill a District Magistrate vacancy on the island.
Ashford maintained close ties with King, but was able to fully retire as his final term ran out. She moved to the Halekou area of Kaneohe to be near her remaining family, and died March 3, 1970.


Outline of Tonga

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Tonga:
Tonga is a sovereign island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Tonga comprises the Tonga Archipelago of 169 islands, 36 of them inhabited, stretching over a distance of about in a north-south line. The islands lie south of Samoa and are about one-third of the way from New Zealand to Hawaii.
Tonga is the only surviving monarchy among the island nations of the Pacific Ocean, as well as being the only island nation never to have been formally colonized.
The islands are also known as the Friendly Islands because of the friendly reception accorded to Captain Cook on his first visit in 1773. He happened to arrive at the time of the "inasi" festival, the yearly donation of the first fruits to the Tu'i Tonga, the islands' paramount chief, and was invited to the festivities. According to the writer William Mariner, in reality the chiefs had wanted to kill Cook during the gathering, but had been unable to agree on a plan.
Geography of Tonga.
Geography of Tonga
Regions of Tonga.
Regions of Tonga
Ecoregions of Tonga.
List of ecoregions in Tonga
Administrative divisions of Tonga.
Administrative divisions of Tonga
Demography of Tonga.
Demographics of Tonga
Government and politics of Tonga.
Politics of Tonga
Branches of the government of Tonga.
Government of Tonga
Judicial branch of the government of Tonga.
Court system of Tonga
Foreign relations of Tonga.
Foreign relations of Tonga
International organization membership.
The Kingdom of Tonga is a member of:
Law and order in Tonga.
Law of Tonga
Military of Tonga.
Military of Tonga
Local government in Tonga.
Local government in Tonga
History of Tonga.
History of Tonga
Culture of Tonga.
Culture of Tonga
Sports in Tonga.
Sports in Tonga
Economy and infrastructure of Tonga.
Economy of Tonga
Education in Tonga.
Education in Tonga
Health in Tonga.
Nuku'alofa and Neiafu have hospitals equipped with limited emergency and outpatient facilities. Elsewhere, medical facilities and medications are extremely limited. People with serious medical conditions are typically referred to New Zealand for treatment.
See also.
Tonga


Kuniwo Nakamura

 was a Palauan politician who served as the President of Palau from 1993 to 2001. He had earlier served as Vice President of Palau from 1989 to 1993, under Ngiratkel Etpison.
Background and early life.
Nakamura was the son of a Japanese immigrant from Matsusaka, Ise Province and a Palauan chieftain's daughter. He was studying in his second year of primary school when the surrender of Japan ended World War II. He graduated from high school under the U.S. occupation of Palau and went on to study at the University of Hawaii.
Career.
Nakamura began his political career at the age of 28, becoming the youngest person to be elected to the Congress of Micronesia. He served as Vice-President from January 1989 to January 1993. He was first elected president in the 1992 elections; he attracted 3,125 votes, versus 2,084 for one-term incumbent Ngiratkel Etpison and 3,188 for rival Johnson Toribiong, and then went on to defeat Toribiong in the runoff. He served two terms, being re-elected in 1996 by a 64%-36% margin over Ibedul Yutaka Gibbons. He did not run in the 2000 elections, but backed his vice-president Tommy Remengesau, who emerged victorious by a 53%-47% margin against senator Peter Sugiyama.
Awards.
Kuniwo Nakamura was awarded the World Peace Prize Top Honor in 1997 for his leadership in bringing independence and increased democracy to the Republic of Palau, promoting political stability, and preserving the natural environment.


Youtab

Youtab meaning "unique" in Old Persian (4th century BC - 330 BC) was a legendary ancient Persian noblewoman.
She was the sister of Ariobarzanes, Satrap of Persis. She is notable for fighting alongside her brother against Macedonian King Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Persian Gate in the winter of 330 BC.
Iranian legends recall the exploits of the female warrior Youtab who fought ferociously before falling in battle. Hand-to-hand fighting was fierce, and even unarmed tribal refugees joined the fight against Alexander.


UFC 254

UFC 254: Khabib vs. Gaethje was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on October 24, 2020 at the du Forum on Yas Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
Background.
The event proceeded with local timing for prime time hours. The main card began at 10:00 pm (October 24) local time in Abu Dhabi, with a full preliminary card beginning at approximately 6:15 pm Gulf Standard Time.
A UFC Lightweight Championship unification bout between current champion Khabib Nurmagomedov and interim champion Justin Gaethje (also former WSOF Lightweight Champion) served as the event headliner. The bout was briefly linked to UFC 253, but the date did not materialize and instead took place four weeks later. On September 17, the UFC announced the signing of former three-time Bellator Lightweight World Champion Michael Chandler, who served as backup and a potential replacement for this fight.
A middleweight bout between former UFC Middleweight Champion Robert Whittaker and Jared Cannonier was initially scheduled to take place at UFC 248 in March. However, Whittaker pulled out due to personal reasons. The pairing was rescheduled for this event.
Despite never being officially announced, a featherweight bout between featherweight winner Yair Rodríguez and Zabit Magomedsharipov was expected to take place at the event. The pairing had been scheduled on two previous occasions, first at UFC 228 in September 2018 and then at in August. However, Rodríguez pulled out of both events with injury.
Magomed Ankalaev and Ion Cuțelaba first met in a light heavyweight bout at , where Ankalaev won via controversial knockout. Due to the controversy of the stoppage, the UFC booked the rematch for UFC 249, on its original April 18 date. However, Ankalaev was forced to pull out of the event due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. They were later rebooked for UFC 252, but Cuțelaba then pulled out after testing positive for COVID-19 and the bout was rescheduled for UFC Fight Night: Smith vs. Rakić. Cuțelaba tested positive yet again on the day of the event, resulting in another cancellation of this fight. In turn, they were rescheduled for a third time and met at this event. Promotional newcomer Isi Fitikefu weighed in as an alternate for this bout.
Elizeu Zaleski dos Santos was expected to face Shavkat Rakhmonov in a welterweight bout at the event. However, dos Santos pulled out in late September due to a knee injury that would require surgery. He was replaced by Alex Oliveira.
A lightweight bout between former champion Rafael dos Anjos and Islam Makhachev was expected to take place at the event. However, it was announced on October 8 that dos Anjos tested positive for COVID-19 and was pulled from the bout. A replacement could not be found and Makhachev was also removed from the event. The pairing was left intact and rescheduled for November 14 at .
Cynthia Calvillo and former Invicta FC Bantamweight Champion Lauren Murphy were scheduled to meet in a women's flyweight bout at the event. However, Calvillo withdrew from the bout on October 15 after testing positive for COVID-19 and was replaced by promotional newcomer Liliya Shakirova.
A bantamweight bout between Umar Nurmagomedov and Sergey Morozov was expected to take place at the event. However, it was announced on October 18 that Nurmagomedov had been hospitalized due to an illness and the bout was scrapped. Morozov remained as an alternate for the catchweight bout of 140 pounds between Nathaniel Wood and Casey Kenney.
At the weigh-ins, Alex Oliveira and Joel Álvarez missed weight for their respective bouts. Oliveira weighed in at 173 pounds, two pounds over the welterweight non-title fight limit. Álvarez weighed in at 159.5 pounds, three and a half pounds over the lightweight non-title fight limit. Both of their bouts proceeded at catchweight and they were each fined 20% and 30% of their individual purses respectively, which went to their opponents Shavkat Rakhmonov and Alexander Yakovlev.
Bonus awards.
The following fighters received $50,000 bonuses.
Aftermath.
In Khabib Nurmagomedov’s post-fight interview, he announced his retirement from mixed martial arts and explained that he had promised his mother that he would not continue to fight without his late father (who died from complications related to an existing heart condition while positive with COVID-19 in July). "Today I want to say it was my last fight. No way I'm gonna come here without my father," Nurmagomedov said. "It was first time after what happened with my father. When UFC called me with Justin, I talked with my mother three days. She don't (want me) to go fight without father, but I promised her it's gonna be my last fight. And if I give my word, I have to follow this."
Viewership.
Just three days prior to fight night, UFC officials said they had tracked media coverage for the card in more than 50 countries, totaling more than 23 billion impressions.
In Russia, UFC 254 was aired on REN TV, where it drew more than 10.8 million viewers on live television, ranking first place in Russian television ratings. The event was watched by 19.2% of the 25-54 age demographic in Russia, including 25.7% of males in that demographic. In the capital city Moscow, the event was watched by 19.8% of the 25-54 age demographic, including 26.8% of males in that demographic.


Wendy M. Masiello

Wendy Lee Motlong Masiello (born 1958 in Lubbock, Texas) retired as a lieutenant general in the United States Air Force on May 24, 2017. From May 2014 to May 24, 2017 she was the director of the Defense Contract Management Agency, based in Fort Lee, Virginia.
Biography.
Masiello is a 1976 graduate of Lubbock's Monterey High School, where she was a member of the University Interscholastic League Mathematics Team and the National Honor Society and treasurer of the French Club. Masiello is a 1980 marketing alumna of Texas Tech University's Rawls College of Business. She received her commission from Texas Tech's Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) at time of graduation. Her involvement with the Air Force had begun earlier as a member of Angel Flight, a student organization which supported Air Force ROTC at Texas Tech. In addition to training at various military schools, she obtained a master of science from Air Force Institute of Technology at Ohio's Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in 1984 and a second master of science from National Defense University in 1999.
Masiello has held a variety of systems acquisition roles including principal contracting officer for surveillance and reconnaissance systems, weapon systems and test ranges. She was an assistant professor at the Air Force Institute of Technology and Executive Director for the National Reconnaissance Office Inspector General. She has also served several staff tours including Deputy Director of Plans and Programs, and Director of Contracting at two systems acquisition centers.
Masiello commanded the 95th Air Base Wing, and from July 2005 through January 2006, she deployed to Iraq as Principal Assistant for Contracting Forces in Iraq/Afghanistan. Her responsibilities included contracting and acquisition support to forces in both countries, security transition support in Afghanistan, and humanitarian relief following the Pakistani earthquake. Prior to her current assignment, she was Program Executive Officer for Combat and Mission Support.
Lieutenant General Wendy Masiello is married to Thomas Joseph "Tom" Masiello, a retired Air Force Major General. The couple have two sons, who are also in the Air Force.


Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah

Abu Ali al-Mansur ibn al-Musta'li (; 31 December 1096 – 7 October 1130), better known by his regnal name al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah () was the tenth Fatimid Caliph, and the 20th Imam of Musta'li Isma'ili sect of Shia Islam, from 1101 to his death in 1130. Until 1121, he was a "de facto" puppet ruler of his uncle and father-in-law, the vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah. When the latter was murdered, possibly with al-Amir's connivance, the caliph appointed al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi as vizier, but took an increasing role in government, and after 1125 ruled without a vizier. His reign saw the progressive loss of all Fatimid strongholds in Palestine to the Crusaders apart from Ascalon. His assassination in 1130, leaving only his infant son al-Tayyib as heir, threw the Fatimid regime into a succession struggle during which it almost collapsed. Fatimid rule was restored with the succession of al-Amir's cousin al-Hafiz li-Din Allah in 1132, which led to the division of Musta'li Isma'ilism into the rival Hafizi and Tayyibi branches.
Life.
Reign under al-Afdal's tutelage.
The future al-Amir was born on 31 December 1096 to the ninth Fatimid imam-caliph, al-Musta'li (). In December 1101, his father died, and at the age of five he was proclaimed caliph by the all-powerful vizier, al-Afdal Shahanshah, who was the "de facto" ruler of the Fatimid state. Al-Afdal was al-Amir's maternal uncle, and further strengthened the familial ties with the young caliph by marrying him to his own daughter. A decree, dictated by al-Afdal, renewed his appointment as vizier with plenipotentiary powers and ensured his ascendancy over the child-caliph. The first twenty years of al-Amir's reign were thus dominated by al-Afdal, who controlled government and restricted al-Amir to a few ceremonial duties.
During this period, the main preoccupation of the Fatimid state was the conflict with the Crusaders of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. This holy war also served as the main legitimization device for al-Afdal's rule and for the dynasty itself: as the historian Michael Brett writes, following the territorial losses and Nizari schism of the previous decade, that had weakened both the Fatimid state (the ) and the Fatimid Isma'ili mission (the ), the struggle against the Crusaders "had given the dynasty fresh purpose". Despite al-Afdal's continuous campaigns, however, most of Palestine was lost to the Crusaders, along with the coastal cities of Tartus (1102), Acre (1103), Tripoli (1109), and Sidon (1111). Egypt itself was briefly invaded by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1117. The Fatimids largely fell back on the coastal city of Ascalon, which developed into a major fortress and outpost () of the holy war: for the next half-century it was to remain a centre for raids against the Crusader territories, and a guard of the route from Palestine into Egypt. Medieval Muslim historians often blame al-Amir for these disasters, but in reality he played no role in the Fatimid government during those years.
Vizierate of al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi.
Al-Afdal's tutelage ended with his assassination at the hands of Nizari agents in December 1121. Given his own resentment at the subordinate figurehead role in which al-Afdal had relegated him, al-Amir is often suspected of having been complicit in the act. While engaging in a public display of grief for his vizier's death, al-Amir moved quickly to imprison al-Afdal's sons and confiscate al-Afdal's enormous wealth, houses, and estates, while the moveable items were brought to his own palace. So great was the treasure amassed by al-Afdal that it was considered to have been larger than that of any previous king; it took forty days to move it.
As he had been left out of government and was unfamiliar with its intricacies, al-Amir selected al-Afdal's long-time chief of staff, al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi, as vizier. Al-Ma'mun was a capable administrator, but his position was much weaker vis-à-vis the caliph than his old master's: al-Amir resumed many of the old caliphal functions that al-Afdal had arrogated to himself, and he henceforth had a voice in government. As ruler, al-Amir is portrayed in the sources as "unusually intelligent and knowledgeable", and was said to have memorized the Quran.
In the aftermath of the assassination of al-Afdal, the threat of the Nizaris, who were implacably hostile to the rule of al-Amir and his father, was a major concern of the government, in view of the widespread network of agents they had established. In December 1122 al-Amir convened a meeting of officials in Cairo in which the Nizari claims to the imamate were publicly denounced, and the legitimacy of the Musta'li claims affirmed. A proclamation to that effect, the , was issued on this occasion and has been preserved to the present day. Al-Amir also paid attention to court the remaining pro-Fatimid Musta'li communities abroad, especially in Yemen, where he sent rich gifts to the Sulayhid queen Arwa al-Sulayhi in 1123. In the same year, the Zirid emir of Ifriqiya, Abu'l-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali, also sent envoys to Cairo to announce his return to recognizing Fatimid suzerainty, and sought Fatimid assistance in repelling a possible Norman invasion.
In 1123, the Luwata Berbers invaded Egypt and reached as far as Alexandria, before they were driven back by al-Ma'mun. The war against the Crusaders continued with the loss of Tyre in 1124.
Personal rule.
By 1125, al-Amir began to resent al-Ma'mun's attempts to restrict his authority, and in October 1125 had him, his brother, and his chief aides arrested. They were executed in 1128. Instead of appointing a new vizier, al-Amir now ruled in person, relying on the heads of the various administrative departments for governance. One of them, the Christian Abu Najah ibn Fanna, quickly rose to prominence due to his ability to provide the caliph with money through confiscations from Christians, Jews, and eventually Muslims as well. His ascendancy lasted for three years before he was denounced, arrested, and executed. Having ignored the matter for so long, al-Amir's own reputation was left tarnished from the affair, as well as from his extravagance and profligacy: it is said that the palace consumed 5,000 sheep per month, and the rich gifts he made to his favourites were remarked upon.
In February/March 1130, al-Amir finally had a son, who was named al-Tayyib. His birth was celebrated with public festivals, and letters were sent abroad announcing his birth as the designated successor.
Murder and aftermath.
On 7 October 1130, al-Amir was assassinated by Nizari agents. He left only his six-month-old son, al-Tayyib, to succeed him, with no designated regent or serving vizier. Al-Amir's murder not only undid his attempts to once again concentrate power in the caliph's hands instead of over-mighty generals and ministers, but also, given the fragility of succession, endangered the very survival of the Fatimid dynasty.
Al-Tayyib was quickly sidelined, and his fate is unknown; it is unclear whether he died in infancy or was killed. A new regime installed under the regency of al-Amir's cousin, Abd al-Majid, which at first claimed to rule in the name of an unborn son by one of al-Amir's concubines. Within a fortnight, an army mutiny brought al-Afdal's last surviving son, Kutayfat, to power. Kutayfat abolished the Fatimid imamate and imprisoned Abd al-Majid, but was himself assassinated by Fatimid loyalists in December 1131. With no other heir available, Abd al-Majid took over as imam and caliph with the regnal name al-Hafiz li-Din Allah in January 1132, proclaiming that he had secretly received the designation by al-Amir before he had died.
Al-Hafiz' succession broke a continuous line of father-to-son succession of ten generations, something extremely rare in the Islamic world and much remarked upon by medieval authors. Al-Hafiz' accession thus represented an unprecedented departure from the accepted norm, and caused yet another schism in Isma'ilism, as the Musta'li sect was divided into those who accepted al-Hafiz' succession (the "Hafizis") and those who did not, upholding instead the imamate of the vanished al-Tayyib (the "Tayyibis"). The former were mostly concentrated in the Fatimid-controlled territories in Egypt, Nubia, and the Levant, while the latter in the Yemen, where Queen Arwa took up a leading role in forming a separate Tayyibi "daʿwa".


USS Dewey (DD-349)

The first USS "Dewey" (DD-349) was a "Farragut"-class destroyer of the United States Navy, launched in 1934 and named for Admiral George Dewey. "Dewey" served in the Pacific through World War II. After escaping damage during the attack on Pearl Harbor, "Dewey" screened the aircraft carrier until the carrier was lost in the battle of the Coral Sea; then screened through the invasion of Guadalcanal and the battle of the Eastern Solomons. Following overhaul in San Francisco, "Dewey" spent 1943 in Alaskan waters supporting the invasions of Attu and Kiska. "Dewey" spent 1944 supporting raids in the Marshalls, Carolines, and Marianas, including screening carriers during the battle of the Philippine Sea. After being damaged by Typhoon Cobra during the recapture of the Philippines, "Dewey" supported the invasion of Iwo Jima and spent the remainder of the war screening replenishment oilers.
History.
The "Dewey" was launched on 28 July 1934 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, sponsored by Miss A. M. Dewey, great-grandniece of Admiral Dewey. She was commissioned on 4 October 1934, with Commander H. W. Hill in command.
After two training cruises to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and Port-au-Prince, Haiti, the "Dewey" sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, on 1 April 1935 for San Diego, California, arriving on 14 April. Until 1938 she operated principally from this port on local operations as well as engaging in fleet tactics, battle practice, and scheduled exercises. She cruised along the West Coast as far north as Alaska and as far south as Callao, Peru, and made three cruises to the Hawaiian area. From 4 January to 12 April 1939 she returned to the Atlantic for a fleet problem. The "Dewey" arrived at Pearl Harbor 12 October 1939 and participated in tactical exercises, battle practice, fleet problems, and maneuvers until 1941.
World War II.
When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, the "Dewey" was undergoing tender overhaul. She opened fire on the enemy planes and that afternoon got underway to patrol in the Hawaiian area. On 15 December she joined TF 11 sailing to relieve the Navy and Marine garrison on Wake Island, which fell on 23 December. The "Dewey" returned to her patrol assignment.
In February 1942 she rejoined TF 11 for a projected strike on Rabaul. The force was sighted by two enemy patrol planes and the strike was canceled after the "Dewey" aided in downing several of the 18 Japanese bombers directed to the force by the patrol plane' reports. She continued to screen the "Lexington" in the strikes on Lae and Salamaua, New Guinea, on 10 March and returned to Pearl Harbor on the 26th.
TF 11 sortied from Pearl Harbor 15 April 1942 for operations in the Solomon Islands. On 5 May word came that the Japanese were advancing on Port Moresby, and the "Dewey"s group joined the in the battle of the Coral Sea. When the "Lexington" came under intensive attack, the "Dewey" joined in with antiaircraft fire, having five of her crewmen wounded by enemy strafing. The "Lexington" was badly hit, and as fires raged out of control, she was abandoned, with the "Dewey" rescuing 112 of the carrier's survivors. She screened the "Yorktown" into Noumea 12 May, and then returned to Pearl Harbor 25 May in the screen for the .
The "Dewey" sailed three days later in the "Enterprise" task force. The Battle of Midway was joined 2 to 6 June, and throughout this action the "Dewey" screened the . Returning to Pearl Harbor 9 June, The "Dewey" escorted the as the carrier brought an air squadron to Midway between 22 and 29 June. On 7 July she cleared for the initial landings on Guadalcanal, which she bombarded 7 August. On that day of the first assault, the "Dewey" fired on attacking dive bombers, suffering one crewman wounded. She went to the rescue of two ships, aiding the to regain power, and towing the until her damage made it necessary to abandon her. The "Dewey" rescued 40 of the transport's survivors.
The "Dewey" remained in the Solomons to protect supply and communication lines, and screened the "Saratoga" during the battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August 1942. She escorted the "Saratoga", damaged by submarine torpedo 31 August, to Pearl Harbor, arriving 23 September, and 6 days later sailed for overhaul at San Francisco. On 27 December 1942 she got underway for duty in Alaskan waters. When the ran aground at Amchitka, the "Dewey" attempted to tow her off the rocks, then aided in rescuing her survivors when stormy weather forced her abandonment. On 7 April 1943, the "Dewey" sailed for San Pedro to escort an assault group to Attu for the invasion 11 May. She also took part in the landings at Kiska 15 August, before escorting a group of LSTs to San Francisco, arriving 19 September.
1944.
Sailing from San Diego 13 January 1944, the "Dewey" arrived off Kwajalein 31 January and served as escort during the carrier strike on Majuro of 11 February and the invasion landings on Eniwetok on 18 February. She escorted convoys between Eniwetok, Roi, and Majuro, and bombarded Mille Atoll on 17–18 March. From 22 March to 6 June, she operated in the screen of TF 58, taking part in raids on Palau, Yap, Ulithi and Woleai; the invasion of Hollandia on 21 and 22 April; and the strike on Truk of 29 April to 1 May. On 6 June, she sailed to screen carriers in fighter sweeps against Tinian and Saipan on 11 June, then bombarded of Saipan and Tinian on 13 and 14 June, when she fired on enemy barges and started a fire in an oil dump. During the Marianas landings, "Dewey" screened the carriers during the resulting battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 and 20 June, and rescued several pilots and crew members who were forced to ditch.
"Dewey" joined the transport screen 1 July 1944 for the invasion of Guam. She furnished close fire support for reconnaissance groups, covered the work of underwater demolition teams, conducted night harassing fire, and patrolled off the island until 28 July, when she sailed for a brief overhaul at Puget Sound Navy Yard.
"Dewey" put to sea 30 September 1944 to join the logistics group for the 3rd Fleet on 10 October. She screened this group in its refueling operations for the Philippines invasion until the typhoon of 18 December, which heavily damaged the units of the 3rd Fleet. "Dewey" had lost all power by noon, and was rolling more than 75 degrees; her number one stack was torn and thrown against the boat deck. She rejoined her group 8 February 1945, after repairs had been completed at Ulithi, and arrived at Iwo Jima 17 February, where she assisted in putting out fires on . Aiding the Marines who assaulted the island 19 February, she helped break up a Japanese counter-attack by firing star shell illumination on 23 February.
After escorting a convoy to Leyte from 4 to 6 March 1945, "Dewey" rejoined the logistics group for the Okinawa operation, screening the oilers as they refueled the carriers in preinvasion air strikes and the raids in the Far East, which continued until the end of the war.
Fate.
On 21 August, she got underway for San Diego, arriving 7 September. She continued to the east coast, arriving at Brooklyn Navy Yard 25 September. "Dewey" was decommissioned 19 October 1945 and sold 20 December 1946.
Awards.
"Dewey" received 13 battle stars for World War II service.


Operation Hardtack I

Operation Hardtack I was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States from April 28 to August 18 in 1958 at the Pacific Proving Grounds. At the time of testing, the Operation Hardtack I test series included more nuclear detonations than the total of all prior nuclear explosions in the Pacific Ocean. These tests followed the "Project 58/58A" series, which occurred from 1957 December 6 to 1958, March 14, and preceded the Operation Argus series, which took place in 1958 from August 27 to September 6.
Operation Hardtack I was directed by Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). JTF-7 was a collaboration between the military and many civilians, but was structured like a military organization. Its 19,100 personnel were composed of members of the US military, federal civilian employees, as well as workers affiliated with the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).
There were three main research directions. The first was the development of new types of nuclear weapons. This was undertaken by detonating experimental devices created by the AEC's Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and the University of California Radiation Laboratory (UCRL). The DOD performed experiments and tests on these detonations that did not hamper the AEC's research. The second research direction was to examine how underwater explosions affected materiel, especially Navy ships, and was performed by the DOD. The Wahoo test was conducted in the open ocean, whereas Umbrella was in a lagoon. The final avenue of study was to analyze high-altitude nuclear tests to refine the detection of high-altitude nuclear tests and investigate defensive practices for combatting ballistic missiles. This research direction was composed of three individual tests and were the first high-altitude tests. The individual tests in the series were Orange, Teak, and Yucca. Orange and Teak were known collectively as Operation Newsreel and were rocket boosted. Yucca reached its altitude utilizing balloons.
Historical background.
Many events and proceedings leading up to Operation Hardtack I, such as previous nuclear testing results and the global political atmosphere, influenced its creation and design. One such historical circumstance was that nuclear radiation concerns were mounting publicly and abroad by 1956. During the 1956 Presidential Election, ending nuclear testing was a campaign issue and nuclear safety was one part of that discussion. At the same time, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was publicly proposing a moratorium on testing.
In 1956 during June, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) recommended new radiation exposure limits for the general public in a report entitled: "The Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation". The AEC, which was the body that developed nuclear weapons, accepted the NAS recommended radiation exposure limits. Some AEC members asserted that the limits were reached incorrectly and should be reviewed in the future. Charles L. Dunham, AEC Director of the Division of Biology and Medicine (DBM), said that the new limits of nuclear radiation exposure would prevent them from continuing testing in Nevada. Dunham, in association with other AEC offices and officials, made recommendations to move further tests to the Pacific to eliminate the need to determine radiological fallout safety.
Also in 1956, the AEC was designing a test series that included nuclear detonations which would release significant amounts of nuclear fallout. The series came to be known as Operation Plumbbob and took place in 1957 from April 24 to October 7. Operation Plumbbob was followed by Project 58/58A and Operation Hardtack I, respectively. At the time of testing, Operation Plumbbob was the most extensive nuclear test series held at the Nevada Test Site. President Eisenhower was very cautious in approving Plumbbob due to public concern. Consequently, the AEC held brief and ultimately fruitless discussions of moving some of the tests in the Plumbbob series to the next planned Pacific Ocean series, Operation Hardtack I, to minimize radioactive fallout in and around the Nevada Test Site.
When Operation Plumbbob began in the spring of 1957, the planning process of Operation Hardtack I was well underway and the number of nuclear detonations planned were more than those in the Plumbbob series. At the same time, radiation and nuclear proliferation concerns around the world had led to formal discussions between the US, USSR, and other countries on the topic of instituting a global ban on nuclear testing as a path to disarmament. In 1957 on August 9 AEC chairman Lewis L. Strauss proposed to President Eisenhower a preliminary plan of Operation Hardtack I. President Eisenhower objected to the length of the four-month testing period and that the plan called for 25 shots, which was one more than in Plumbbob. As a result of the discussion, Eisenhower consented to yields no larger than , and ordered that the testing period be as brief as possible.
Project 58/58A followed Operation Plumbbob and began almost two months later starting in 1957 on December 6. Project 58/58A was composed of four safety tests; they were not supposed to result in nuclear radiation. All four took place at the Nevada Test Site. The safety tests were intended to ensure that the bombs would not malfunction. However, the test named Coulomb-C which took place in 1957 on December 9 did malfunction. It resulted in an unanticipated blast. The blast released a nuclear radiation fallout cloud that traveled toward Los Angeles and resulted in low levels of nuclear radiation. The bomb failure added to public concern over nuclear testing's safety.
Some tests were cut in an effort to meet Eisenhower's demands for a shorter testing period, but new tests quickly filled their place. AEC chairman Strauss remarked that the large number of shots was due to the "DOD's requirement for an increasing number of different nuclear weapons types". Eisenhower eventually approved the plan for Operation Hardtack I in late January, even though it still contained 25 shots. On March 31 1958, the USSR announced a suspension of all tests and called on the US to do the same. On May 9 the leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, accepted Eisenhower's invitation for technical discussions on a nuclear testing moratorium and negotiations began on July 1 of the same year. Eisenhower announced to the US on August 22, 1958, that the ban would begin October 31. US scientists responded by seeking to add more tests to the Hardtack Series in case it turned out to be the last chance. Consequently Operation Hardtack I consisted of 35 tests.
There was public health concern with the number of shots in Operation Hardtack I. Studies released in March of 1958 indicated that people as far as away could have severe retinal burns from two of the three high-altitude tests: Teak and Orange. It was then decided that they would be moved to Johnston Island, which was from the nearest inhabited island. The high-altitude nuclear tests delivered the first openly reported man-made high-altitude electromagnetic pulses (EMP). Teak, which was detonated at and was , produced an aurora-like effect that was visible from Hawaii, displaced from the detonation. Most radio communications immediately dropped across the Pacific Ocean. The blackout in Australia lasted for 9 hours and Hawaii's lasted for no less than 2 hours.
High-altitude tests.
Operation Hardtack I contained three high-altitude tests that were designed to study many effects that a nuclear explosion would have on materials and electronic systems. They were also used to test the energy of the explosion and what forms of energy they would produce. Yucca was the name of the first high-altitude test and it was performed near the Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The other two high-altitude tests, Orange and Teak, were performed near the Johnston Atoll in the South Pacific Ocean about southwest of the Hawaiian Islands.
Impact on ozone layer.
There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the ozone layer. After multiple underwater tests there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create ozone. Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion. It was agreed that if this theory were wrong, the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.
Yucca.
Yucca was the first high-altitude test performed during Operation Hardtack I and was detonated on April 28, 1958. It was lifted by a balloon to an altitude of and had a yield of .To achieve the altitude needed, the device was attached to a large helium-filled balloon which carried it to the detonation altitude. Due to issues with high winds on Enewetak Island, the balloon launches from ground were unsatisfactory, thus creating the need for a new method. The balloons were then deployed from an aircraft carrier which helped with deployment and the inflation. While the balloons were inflated, they were unable to take too much force from wind or the plastic material of the balloons would tear. While the balloons were inflating on the aircraft carrier, the ship could match and oppose the wind speed allowing for the balloon to be inflated in still air. To make sure the launch would be successful 86 balloon launches were tested.
Due to concerns of failures, many safety measures were employed. While on ground, the bomb used multiple pins to prevent certain safety features of the bomb from being deployed before liftoff. One such pin was used to stop the electrical systems so that the bomb would be unable to be armed. In case of a dud, the bomb would detach from the balloon and be allowed to drop into the ocean where many more safety features would come into action. Some of these features included probes which could detect saltwater which would destroy the electrical system so the conductive seawater could not cause a short which would detonate the bomb. Another concern was a nuclear device floating in the ocean should a misfire occur. To combat this, inserts were created which would dissolve in a few hours, thus scuttling the device.
On the day of the launch many meteorological aspects were taken into account and calculations were done to ensure the bomb would reach the correct altitude. The bomb was loaded onto an aircraft carrier and preparations began. As the balloon was inflated multiple testing devices were connected to the balloon. The readings from these devices would be sent to multiple ships and aircraft so nothing would need to be recovered after the explosion. After all the preparations were done and the balloon was inflated, the device was released and began to climb. After almost three and a half hours of climbing the bomb was detonated at an altitude of . The aircraft carrier which carried Yucca was approximately from the detonation site. The shock wave from Yucca reached the carrier 3 minutes and 16 seconds after detonation.
The Yucca test had many Department of Defense projects attached to it for research purposes. Alongside testing the use of a balloon carrier, the Department of Defense wanted to research the electromagnetic waves emitted from a nuclear explosion. This test would be used to determine the impact a nuclear explosion would have on electronic devices. All of the data from these Department of Defense projects would be stored on recording devices on surrounding islands and in aircraft so data would not have to be recovered after the test. However, Yucca was carrying five different transmitting devices in canisters to help with research. While the balloon proved to be a great success, no data from the canisters were able to be retrieved due to equipment issues onboard one of the aircraft carriers.
Teak.
The Teak test was launched from Johnston Island on July 31, 1958 and carried a payload of . Teak was the second high-altitude test after the success of Yucca. Instead of a balloon, the warhead for the Teak test would be carried by a Redstone missile; a modified Redstone missile had been used to launch Explorer I in January of the same year. Other nuclear weapons had been tested using the Redstone missile, but until this time the highest payload to have been detonated was during Operation Teapot. Teak would be the first high-altitude test to have a payload in the megaton range. The test was scheduled to take place from the Bikini Atoll. Due to the fact that the payloads of Teak and Orange were much larger than previous high-altitude shots, the test was moved to Johnston Island as to protect nearby native islanders from any retinal damage. As both Teak and Orange had been relocated these two tests were named Operation Newsreel. The name Newsreel came from the fact that these two tests were being moved to Johnston Island.
The safety precautions taken by the teams involved were precisely detailed. The day before the launch 187 team members would evacuate Johnston Island with 727 men the day of the test. This was to keep as few men on the island while still being able to operate the airfield and critical data instruments. Another problem the team members were concerned about was the issue of retinal damage. Since the payload of the bomb was so large, aircraft were scheduled to keep any civilian ships out of a radius of Johnston Island. Additionally, the Civil Aeronautics Authority was informed that it would be dangerous for any aircraft to fly within of Johnston Island. On the day of the test only about 175 men remained on Johnston Island to prepare for Teak to be launched and other various duties needed after.
At 11:47 PM on July 31 Teak was launched; after 3 minutes it was detonated. Due to programming issues, the warhead detonated directly above Johnston Island. At time of detonation the rocket had flown to an altitude of . The explosion could be seen from Hawaii away and was said to be visible for almost half an hour. After the explosion, high frequency long distance communication was interrupted across the Pacific. Due to this communication failure Johnston Island was unable to contact their superiors to advise of the test results until about eight hours after the detonation. Thirty minutes after detonation, a crew was sent out to collect the pod which had detached from the missile carrying the warhead. The pod had been irradiated and to handle it the crew members used disposable gloves in an attempt to protect themselves from beta radiation.
During the Teak test all crew on and around Johnston Island were given protective eyewear to prevent flash blindness from the explosion. After the explosion it was found that besides the hazard of blindness, thermal radiation was another concern—even at an altitude of . A crew member who was on Johnston Island at the time was said to have received a slight sunburn from the amount of thermal radiation which had reached the island. While only slight to the crew member it created issues for the local fauna. Many birds were seen on Johnston Island in distress. Unsure if this was caused by blindness or thermal radiation, the project members decided to take precautions to protect local wildlife during the Orange test.
Orange.
Orange was launched twelve days after Teak on August 11, 1958. Orange, like Teak, was launched using a Redstone Missile and had a yield of . The same safety precautions used by Teak were implemented for the Orange launch. Seeing how smoothly the evacuation for the Teak launch went, it was decided that the evacuation did not need to occur the day before the launch and eight hundred and eight men were evacuated on August 11 to an aircraft carrier about northeast of the island. Along with protection for the project crew, it was decided after Teak that Sand Island, a local bird refuge, would need protection from the blast as well. To make sure that most of the wildlife was safe a smoke screen was created over Sand Island. Due to interest in Hawaii, it was announced on August 11 that there would be a nuclear test sometime between 10 PM and 6 AM.
The rocket carrying the warhead was launched at 11:27 from Johnston Island and traveled south. Like Teak, the flight lasted 3 minutes and was detonated at 11:30 PM about south of Johnston Island at an altitude of about .The trajectory of Orange was a major success after the incident with Teak being detonated directly over the island. The recovery crew for the pod that was with Orange was unable to locate the research pod which had been launched with the rocket. Although Orange was visible from Hawaii it was not the great spectacle Teak had been. The light from the blast was visible for about 5 minutes. The explosion had also been slightly obscured to the crew at Johnston Island by cloud coverage. The blast from Orange did not cause the large communication interruption that Teak had caused, but some commercial flights to Hawaii were said to have lost contact with air traffic controllers for a short period of time.
Surface tests.
Of the 35 nuclear tests in Operation Hardtack I, four were surface burst shots: Cactus, Koa, Quince and Fig. These tests took place from May to August 1958, all at the Enewetak Atoll. Surface tests inherently present the potential for more radioactive exposure issues than the high-altitude or underwater detonations. This is because there is more material present to be converted to radioactive debris by excess neutrons due to the proximity to the Earth's surface, and due to the soil and other minerals excavated from the craters created by these blasts. The existence of this extra material allows for larger radioactive particles to be created and lifted into the blast cloud, falling back to the surface as fallout.Though surface and near-surface tests have a higher probability of radioactive exposure problems, the radioactive elements have significantly shorter residence times when injected into the atmosphere. As radioactive clouds from surface-type tests reach heights of around at maximum, and thus cannot extend higher than the lower stratosphere, the residence times can be up to 13 years less than the high-altitude blasts. During original concept planning in 1954, Enewetak was supposed to be the location of the smaller tests conducted during Operation Hardtack I. Due to poor weather conditions and policy changes in 1958, five of the UCRL tests which were planned to be conducted at the Bikini Atoll were moved to Enewetak. This included the later two surface blast devices in the Quince and Fig tests.
Cactus.
The Cactus test took place May 6, 1958 at approximately 0615. An land-surface type shot was detonated on a platform at the northern tip of Runit, Enewetak in the second of the 35 tests for Operation Hardtack I.The initial cloud from the explosion reached as high as within the first ten minutes, and settled at around by 20 minutes after detonation. The nuclear fallout prediction map proved to be accurate in determining the span and the intensity of the resultant fallout.Measured peak intensity of fallout reached at hour three directly above blast site on the North end of the Atoll. At mid-island the radiation was measured to be . The southern tip received a very small amount of radiation, due to the easterly winds.
Out of the eight Programs listed, DOD-affiliated Projects 1.4, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 2.8, 3.2, 5.2, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 involved the Cactus test.
One of the goals of this test was to study the physical characteristics of the crater and the surrounding area pre- and post-detonation associated with Project 1.4. A camera was mounted to a RB-50 aircraft and the resultant crater was mapped using photogrammetry. Measurements were taken from down to ground zero for both pre- and post detonation. Survey measurements of the Cactus test could not be made until the resultant radiation amounts had lowered to safer levels. Along with photogrammetric radial measurements, Airblast measurements were also recorded near surface zero for Cactus in accordance with Project 1.7. Similar to Project 1.8, Project 1.9 sought to determine transmission of blast pressure through the ground soil. Forty-three drums were buried at varying depths from ground zero of the Cactus detonation. Individuals from the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division – TRW Space Technologies Laboratory sought to the Shock Spectra Studies of Project 1.12. Measurement gauges were located between from the blast site. Fallout measurements and samples were taken by aircraft in the aftermath of the detonation, as part of Project 2.8. These surveys were designed in part to determine the impact of specific radionuclides to overall nuclear fallout. Samples were taken early post-blast using a new rocket sampler, the UCRL, which were then followed by B-57D and WB-50 aircraft. Between four and twenty-four hours post-detonation, the WB-50 collected several samples at in altitude. Project 3.2 involved structural tests of corrugated steel arches. One of these arches was placed away from the Cactus blast site. Eight days after the test, a crew of 13 men were allowed near the surface zero in order to extract the arch. The extraction took around twelve hours, and the radioactivity levels reached a maximum at during this time. Project 5.2 sought to determine the effects of the blast on two A4D-1 aircraft, both in thermal radiation and pressure. Nine film badges were placed throughout each aircraft in order to measure radiation. The Gamma dosimeter worn by the pilot in aircraft 827 indicated a neutron exposure level of . There is not information available for the dosimeter worn by the pilot in aircraft 831. Radiation recorded by six of the nine film badges ranged from . Information from the remaining three film badges, located at the Pilot's right leg, left sleeve, and left vest is not available. The pilot's exposures were both greater than . Project 5.3 was very similar to 5.2, focusing on the effects of the blast on the structure of two test FJ-4 aircraft. Radiation from film badges on aircraft 467 ranged from , and for aircraft number 310. In Project 6.4, the Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory (SRDL) investigated the electromagnetic pulses post-detonation, utilizing two instruments, one at Wotho (roughly from Enewetak) and one at Kusaie (around from Enewetak). Though Cactus is mentioned in Project 6.5, whose goal was to study the radar echoes from the fireball, it is not clear what destroyers were involved if any. Destroyers for the Teak, Fir and Yucca tests are explicitly stated. Project 6.6, the lasts of the projects that involved the Cactus test, sought to measure the physical properties of the stabilized radioactive cloud following the blast.
Koa.
At 0630 on May 13, the Koa surface device was detonated at the western side of Dridrilbwij. The size of the blast was , around 76 times larger than the yield of the previous surface test, Cactus. The test was conducted in a large water tank. Within 17 minutes of the blast, surface clouds reached approximately . Nuclear fallout predictions for Koa were larger and covered a broader range than Cactus, with significantly higher radiation levels, an order of magnitude larger, in the immediate region surrounding the blast. There had been a larger nuclear barge detonation, the Apache test, off the island of Dridrilbwij two years prior in 1956, during which the island survived. The detonation of the Koa device, however, caused complete destruction of the island.
The Department of Defense (DOD) sponsored a series of experiments for Koa: Projects 1.4, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 2.9, 3.2, 3.6, 5.1, 5.3. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.9. and 6.11. Project 1.4, which sought to study land craters post detonation for several shots, took ground survey measurements from surface zero out to . Detailed measurements could not be made until four days after the blast due to radiation levels. Using a boat, the majority of the crater was mapped, though some measurements could not be made until 1959 due to radioactivity levels around the Koa blast site. In Project 1.9, the blast-induced pressure through the soil was measured by burying 43 drums at depths ranging from and around feet from the Koa blast site. The early radioactive cloud samples, normally collected post-shot as a part of Project 2.8 using a UCRL rocket sampler, were not collected after the Koa test due to technical difficulties. Fallout at high and low altitudes utilizing B-57D and WB-50 aircraft were measured with no technical problems. Project 3.6, which was conducted only on Koa, tested the effects of the blast on reinforced-concrete slabs buried close to surface zero. One station was located at from the blast site, and the other was located away. Project 5.2 was designed to measure the radiation levels using film badges on different areas of the aircraft and on the pilot directly. Koa had the lowest average radiation measurements of the eight shots on this project, with aircraft 827 ranging from 0.01-0.02R and aircraft 831 reporting levels between 0.03-0.19R. Unlike in the Cactus test, all nine film badges from both aircraft were successfully recovered and reported.
Quince and Fig.
Quince and Fig were a series of surface shots that occurred in early August at the center of Runit. They were the last of the Hardtack tests conducted at the Enewetak Atoll. Quince was detonated at 2:15pm on August 6, 1958. Twelve days later, the Fig device was detonated on August 18, 1958 at 4:00pm. Quince and Fig were UCRL devices with co-sponsorship through the DOD and the AEC, though the main focus of these tests was weapons development. One of the main differences between these two tests was that over 130 tons of soil from the Nevada Test Site had been shipped in and was placed at surface zero of the Fig test. The radioactive cloud from the Quince blast rose to . As Runit was to also be the detonation site for Fig, the area had to be decontaminated after the Quince test. Around of contaminated topsoil was removed from an area upwind of ground zero. An area of at the blast site was scraped to remove the top three inches of soil as well. Even with these precautions, the measured alpha activity was around 20,000 counts per minute (CPM), and the area closest to surface zero was roped off to prevent personnel from entering. Upon detonation, the mushroom cloud produced by the Fig device rose to approximately , with a base of roughly . Thirty minutes post detonation, radiation measurements at the blast site reached over 10,000 R/hr.
The DOD experiments for Quince and Fig included Projects 1.4, 1.7. 2.4, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.14. and 8.7.
Barge tests.
Barge mounted test detonations was a technique first used in 1954, and also compensated for the lack of land at the HP. When testing returned to Bikini atoll the use of barges as the shot point had begun, with one notable advantage, no radioactive surface zero areas were developed. Two large underwater craters were formed in 1954 and these were used as subsequent surface zeros for detonations fired from barges. This allowed the available land area to be used for the placement of measurement instrumentation and reuse of the same burst point without the long delays required for radiological cooling by natural decay or expensive and long decontamination procedures. Reuse of zero points also allowed reuse of instrument locations and recording shelters for several tests saving construction costs and time and Increasing test-scheduling flexibility. In HARDTACK the 26 barge events used only five detonation areas.
Fir.
FIR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship position, and aircraft participation. FIR was the first Bikini detonation of the Hardtack series. Detonated at 0550 on May 12, 1958. FIR was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater, producing a yield range. After detonation, the cloud rose to . The FIR detonation was shortly followed by BUTTERNUT detonation on Enewetak 25 minutes later. DOD-sponsored experiments for FIR included Projects 3.7, 5.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 and 6.11.
Butternut.
BUTTERNUT predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion areas (radex), ship positions, and aircraft participation. Butternut was detonated at 0615 on May 12, 1958, 25 minutes after FIR had been detonated at Enewetak. BUTTERNUT was detonated on a barge west of Runit, producing a yield range of . The cloud rose to , stabilizing at . The DOD-sponsored experiments for BUTTERNUT were Projects 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.9.
Holly.
HOLLY predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. HOLLY was detonated at 0630 on May 21, 1958 on a barge west of Runit, from the nearest edge of the island, producing a yield range. The detonation produced a cloud that stabilized at an altitude of at the top and at its base. Project 6.6, was the only DOD-sponsored experiment for HOLLY, and was conducted on Enewetak Island.
Nutmeg.
NUTMEG predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion area (radex), ship positions, and aircraft participation. The second Bikini shot, NUTMEG, was detonated at 0920 on May 22, 1958. NUTMEG was detonated on a barge in the ZUNI crater, and produced a yield range. The detonation cloud stabilized at by 0926. DOD-sponsored experiments for NUTMEG were Projects 6.3, 6.3a, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.11. Projects 6.3 and 6.3a had stations near the burst point on Eneman Island.
Yellowwood.
YELLOWWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological (radix) exclusion area, and ship positions. YELLOWWOOD was detonated at 1400 on May 26, 1958. YELLOWWOOD was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi, and produced a yield range. The DOD sponsored 13 experiments for YELLOWWOOD: Projects 2.4, 2.8, 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.8, 6.9, 6.11, and 8.1. Instrument stations for Project 2.4 were located on buoys in the lagoon. The remaining projects had more distant stations or were primarily airborne.
Magnolia.
Predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radix) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. MAGNOLIA was detonated at 0600 on May 27, 1958. MAGONLIA was detonated on a barge southwest of the center of Runit, and produced a yield range. The detonation produced a cloud that stabilized at with its base at . The DOD-sponsored experiments for MAGNOLIA were Projects: 3.7, 5.2, and 5.3. Instruments for Project 3.7 were on Boken, Enjebi, and Runit.
Tobacco.
TOBACCO predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radix) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. TOBACCO was detonated at 1415 on May 30, 1958. TOBACCO was detonated on a barge northwest of Enjebi, and produced an yield range. The detonation produced an cloud that stabilized at by 1430. The DOD-sponsored experiments for TOBACCO were Projects 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 6.8. The project activity for Project 3.7 was on Boken, Enjebi, and Runit. Project 6.8 simply monitored TOBACCO from stations off Enewetak and Parry islands.
Sycamore.
SYCAMORE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. SYCAMORE was detonated at 1500 on May 31, 1958. SYCAMORE was detonated on a barge moored in the BRAVO crater, and produced a yield range. DOD-sponsored experiments for SYCAMORE were Projects: 3.7, 5.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.11. Only Project 6.11 had an instrument site at the Bikini Atoll.
Maple.
MAPLE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. MAPLE was detonated on June 11 at 0530 1958. MAPLE was detonated on a barge just south of Lomilik, and produced a yield range. The cloud produced by the detonation was tracked by radar from Benner. The DOD-sponsored experiments for MAPLE were Projects 5.1, 6.3, and 6.3a. Projects 6.3 and 6.3a shared the same, rather close-in sites on Lomilik.
Aspen.
ASPEN predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. ASPEN was detonated on 15 June 58 at 0530. ASPEN was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater of Bikini, southwest of Nam. ASPEN produced a yield range. The detonation produced a cloud as measured by radar from Benner. No experiments were sponsored by the DOD for this shot.
Walnut.
WALNUT predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. WALNUT was detonated on June 15, 1958 at 0630, 1 hour after the ASPEN event at Bikini. WALNUT was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi Island in Enewetak. The detonation produced a cloud, and produced a yield range. The DOD-sponsored experiments for WALNUT included Projects 2.4, 2.8, 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 8.1.
Linden.
LINDEN predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. LINDEN was detonated on June 18, 1958 at 1500. LINDEN was detonated on a barge west of the center of Runit Island at Enewetak. The detonation produced a cloud with a base, and produced an yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were conducted during LINDEN.
Redwood.
REDWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. REDWOOD was detonated on June 28, 1958 at 0530. REDWOOD was detonated on a barge south of Lomilik in Bikini. REDWOOD was followed by the ELDER detonation at Enewetak Atoll one hour later. The detonation cloud base was at and the top stabilized at , and produced a yield range. The only DOD-sponsored experiment for REDWOOD was Project 5.1.
Elder.
ELDER predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. ELDER, detonated on June 28, 1958 at 0630. ELDER was the second of a tandem shot with REDWOOD (detonated an hour earlier on Bikini). ELDER was detonated on a barge southeast of Enjebi Island in Enewetak. Initial cloud height had been well over , and produced an yield range. The only DOD-sponsored experiment for ELDER was project 5.1.
Oak.
OAK predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, and ship positions. OAK, one of the largest detonations at Enewetak Atoll, and was fired at 0730 on June 29, 1958. OAK was detonated on a barge moored on the reef southwest of Bokoluo Island. It was followed at noon by the HICKORY shot at Bikini. The Initial height of the cloud was estimated to be , and produced an yield range. Two DOD-sponsored experiments were included for OAK: Projects 2.8 and 5.1.
Hickory.
HICKORY predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. HICKORY was detonated on June 29, 1958 at 1200. HICKORY was detonated on a barge off the west end of Enema at Bikini, 4½ hours after the OAK shot at Enewetak Atoll. The detonation cloud rose to with an estimated base, and produced a yield range. Projects 6.3 and 6.3a were the only DOD-sponsored experiments for HICKORY.
Sequoia.
SEQUOIA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. SEQUOIA was detonated on July 2, 1958 at 0630. SEQUOIA was detonated on a barge west-northwest of Runit Island at Enewetak. The cloud stabilized at , and produced a yield range. SEQUIA had no DOD-sponsored experiments.
Cedar.
CEDAR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. CEDAR was detonated on July 3, 1958 at 0530. CEDAR was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater southwest of Nam, from the edge of the island at Bikini. The CEDAR detonation produced a cloud, and produced a yield range. The only DOD-sponsored experiment for CEDAR was Project 5.1.
Dogwood.
DOGWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. DOGWOOD was detonated on July 6, 1958 at 0630. DOGWOOD was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi, from the edge of the island at Enewetak. The cloud rose to , stabilizing at with a base, and produced a yield range. The only DOD-sponsored experiment for DOGWOOD Was Project 5.1.
Poplar.
POPLAR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. POPLAR was detonated on July 12, 1958 at 1530. POPLAR was detonated on a barge southwest of Nam, at Bikini. The detonation cloud quickly rose above the tracking radar limits of , and the base was established at at 1540, and produced a yield range. The only DOD-sponsored experiment for POPLAR was Project 3.7.
Scaevola.
SCAEVOLA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. Scaevola was detonated on July 14, 1958 at 1600. Scaevola was detonated on a barge west of Runit Island at Enewetak. Its yield was low and the explosion did not destroy the shot barge but only damaged it, producing a yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for Scaevola.
Pisonia.
PISONIA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. PISONIA was detonated on July 18, 1958 at 1100. PISONIA was detonated on a barge west of Runit Island at Enewetak. The cloud rose immediately to , and produced a yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for PISONIA.
Juniper.
JUNIPER predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. JUNIPER, the last nuclear detonation to occur at Bikini, was detonated on July 22, 1958 at 1620. JUNIPER was detonated on a barge from the west end of Eneman in the ZUINI crater at Bikini . The detonation cloud rose to with an estimated base, and produced a yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for JUNIPER.
Olive.
OLIVE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. OLIVE was detonated on July 23, 1958 at 0830. OLIVE was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi Island, at Enewetak Atoll. from the nearest land at Enewetak. The cloud rose to with an estimated base, and produced a yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for OLIVE.
Pine.
PINE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. PINE was detonated on July 27, 1958 at 0830. PINE was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi Island, from the nearest land, at Enewetak. The cloud rose quickly to with an estimated base as measured by radar, and produced a yield range. No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for PINE.
Underwater tests.
Underwater tests were conducted to assess the damages to Navy boats and materials. The location for these tests was Enewetak due to the uniformity of the sea bottom in the area. This is critical for the tests so that proper moorings of the target ships can be secured on the sea floor. The underwater explosions create a bubble from the expended energy of the blast. This bubble is due to the vaporization of water that directly absorbs the heat of the blast. This bubble may break the surface depending on how much energy is dispersed and the depth of the nuclear device. The bubble displaces large amounts of water that then collapses in on the bubble after all the energy is expended. The water collapsing in on the cavity is called the "radioactive pool" and has the highest concentration of radioactive material.
Many different projects were put in place to test the two underwater blasts. Wave generation, hydrodynamic variables, and energy released were all studied using multiple sensors. These sensors were placed in multiple areas such as target ships and floating balloons. Oceanographic, seismographic and hydrographic surveys were completed after each nuclear blast. A project that used a nuclear blast to clear minefields was studied using the Umbrella blast. One hundred and twenty inert mines were placed at different distances ranging from . These mines were then picked out of the water to study the effects of the blast at each interval.
Radiation preparations.
Another reason for underwater tests was to detect radiation contamination of ships after an underwater nuclear explosion. This meant that the contaminated ships required unique "radsafe" preparations so that the data could be quickly accounted for. After the data on the damage and radiation was recorded, the ships needed decontamination work completed before repairs could be completed. The Radiological and Decontamination Unit consisting of 200 enlisted and one officer was created for the task of decontamination. After decontamination, the target ships were repaired for use in a second underwater nuclear weapons test. The amount of radiation exposure was debated for the safety of the crews. Roentgens ( = ca 0,01 Gy in soft tissue) were used to gauge the gamma radiation that affected the units working on the nuclear tests.
For the underwater test crew, a limit of per blast along with per operation was referenced as the limit for exposure. These initial limits were rejected and maximum permissible exposure standards (MPE) were solidified by commanders for the crews working on the decontamination unit. Due to the fast recovery of ships, high contamination values were expected by commanders and set the standard to four roentgens per hour (R/hr). An excess of was designated off limits of recovery units. Personnel were given special breathing equipment to work in the interior of ships with an R/hr higher than one. High numbers of personnel working the tests were used to keep individuals within the MPE. Times were calculated to keep the total exposure below two roentgens for the personnel working on the ships. A floating decontamination facility was created on board a transport ship for the Wahoo and Umbrella nuclear tests. This allowed important data analysis and an increase in recovery efficiency.
Wahoo preparation.
The nuclear explosion was carried out in open ocean outside of Enewetak. This nuclear test codenamed Wahoo was the first underwater test in the Operation Hardtack series. This test could be considered a continuation of the Wigwam nuclear blast (a deep water nuclear test off the coast of San Diego). Like its predecessor, the Wahoo shot was a scientific program that studied the effects of an underwater nuclear blast on Navy systems. The nuclear device was positioned deep in the Pacific Ocean. This deep water test required precise targeting arrays to be set up around the blast location, which presented unique problems for the arrays as the winds, sea currents and tides needed to be within certain limits for the data to be accurate. Testing arrays were placed at depths of around the nuclear device. The deep water mooring systems needed for the test proved to be difficult to position, leading many analysts to believe the data skewed. The target ships to be used for this program consisted of three destroyers, an active submarine, a submarine mockup used in Wigwam tests, and a merchant marine ship. It was predicted that no air blast or thermal effects would be presented from the underwater blast. The fallout from the blast was also predicted to stay within the target array due to the southwest surface winds.
Wahoo blast.
The test conditions were met on May 16 allowing for the nuclear device to be detonated. Within a second of detonation, a spray dome was created that reached a height of after seven seconds. The overall shape of the spray dome resembled a cone with 45 degree sloped sides. Plumes were seen breaking through the spray dome after six seconds in every direction. The vertical plume continued rising until 12 seconds after the blast while the lateral plumes traveled for 20 seconds before collapsing. The diameter of the spray dome was approximately at the 20 second mark. The base surge reached a radius of in the downwind direction after 1.7 seconds. The downwind surge aided by a wind reached speeds of . This base surge could be seen for three and a half minutes and for longer from the air as it continued to move across the ocean. When the spray dome and base surge had dissipated, a foam patch could be seen spreading from the surface zero water to reach over . The nuclear blast was calculated to be . All fallout stayed within the predicted fallout area with a maximum of . The target ship at was directly hit by the shockwave, vibrating the entire ship and shaking it violently. The Moran merchant marine ship moored at away was immobilized due to shock damage to its main and auxiliary equipment while also suffering minor hull damage. One hour and ten minutes after detonation, a five-gallon water sample was taken directly above the blast location showing . The retrieval team entered a field after an hour and thirty five minutes.
Umbrella preparation.
The second underwater explosion of the Operation Hardtack series was code-named Umbrella. This test was conducted in the lagoon inside Enewetak. This test could be considered a continuation of underwater test Baker, which was conducted in Bikini Lagoon. Explosions in shallow water can create an underwater crater if close enough to the bottom. The target ships from the Wahoo test were towed into the lagoon to be used again for the Umbrella test. The damage from Wahoo was minor in all cases with the exception of the Moran which required extra refurbishing of the hull. These ships had to be washed down and have the measuring equipment replaced before being put into use. The mooring for Umbrella was considerably easier than for Wahoo due to the location and depth of the lagoon. Information gathered from the Wahoo shot directly affected the Umbrella plans with regard to target array placement and decontamination times. The device was placed with a buoy at a depth of .
Umbrella blast.
June 9 saw the second underwater nuclear test of the Hardtack I series. The detonation occurred at 11:15 AM (local time) with clear skies and a wind from the east-northeast. Within one-tenth of a second, the spray dome had broken through the surface. The overall shape of the spray dome resembled a vertical column with the plumes helping create the shape. Within 20 seconds of detonation, the maximum height of the column reached . The base surge reached a distance around downwind, reaching out approximately in all directions. This base surge could be seen from the air for about 25 minutes and the foam patch over the blast location lasting even longer. The blast yield of the nuclear device was measured to be . The Umbrella blast created a crater in diameter and in depth in the lagoon. The maximum radiation reading was found to be by an aircraft flying over the blast location. Radiation was reported to be of small portions, and re-entry was granted 30 minutes after detonation. Out of the major target ships, the highest radiation reading was logged at of the stern of the "Moran". After all scientific data had been gathered from the target ships, they were restored to be seaworthy and towed back to Pearl Harbor. The "Moran" was concluded to be unseaworthy due to the blast and was sunk by naval gunfire near Ikuren Island.
The underwater nuclear tests (Wahoo and Umbrella) gathered scientific data that helped the Department of Defense understand the effects of nuclear weapons on Navy ships. Some of the key points found were that underwater nuclear blasts create less fallout due to the absorption of radioactive material in the water and vaporized droplets. Direct gamma radiation was found to be extremely low, but the base surge was found to be highly radioactive as it passed measurement devices. Smaller radiation concentrations followed in waves mimicking the initial base surge. Almost all free-field radiation activity was found to disappear after fifteen minutes allowing for return to normal operations. The impact of shock waves was less than previously expected. The damage from the shockwave was found to be negligible on the destroyers at the ranges tested, but equipment failure from the blast could immobilize the ships. The preliminary tests of explosive tapered charges were proven to simulate the shock waves of a nuclear device according to the data gathered.


Kiya Husayn II

Kiya Husayn II (), was the last ruler of the Afrasiyab dynasty, ruling from the late 15th-century till his death in 1504. He was the grandson and successor of Luhrasp.
Biography.
He ruled over a large part of western Mazandaran, and districts of Firuzkuh, Damavand, and Hari-rud. During the dissolution of the Aq Qoyunlu confederation, Kiya Husayn II expanded his rule from western into central Iran, where he captured Ray and Semman. He also defeated Mohammad Hosayn Mirza, who was the Timurid governor of Astarabad. It was probably around this period that Kiya Husayn II married the Aq Qoyunlu princess Tajlu Khanum.
He later became the enemy of the Safavid shah Ismail I (r. 1501-1524), whom he may have seen as a rival for the command over the Shi'ites in Iran. In 1504, Kiya Husayn II's territories was invaded by Ismail I, who seized the strongholds of Gol-e Khan and Firuzkuh, and surrounded Kiya Husayn II in Osta, who was shortly captured. However, the latter commmited suicide—his body was burned at Isfahan in front its inhabitants, whilst his followers in Mazandaran were slaughtered. Ismail I took Tajlu Khanum into his harem, where she became his favorite wife.