Annan (Tang protectorate)

Annan () was the southernmost province of Tang China from 679 to 866. Annam is the Vietnamese form of the Chinese name Annan, which means "the Pacified South" or "to pacify the South", a clipped form of the full name, the "Protectorate General to Pacify the South" . In 679, the Annan Protectorate replaced the Jiaozhou Protectorate () (), also known as Jiaozhi, with its seat situated in Songping County () (modern Hanoi). Annan was renamed to Zhennan for a brief period from 757-760 before reverting to Annan. After coming under attack by Nanzhao in 864, the Annan Protectorate was renamed Jinghai Military Command upon its reconquest by Gao Pian in 866. Today the same area is sometimes known as Tonkin (), the "eastern capital" of Đại Việt. Locally, the area is known as (), the "northern area".
History.
Predecessors.
The territory was conquered for the Qin dynasty by Zhao Tuo after the death of Qin Shi Huang. In the chaos surrounding the Chu–Han Contention, he declared its independence as Nanyue and ruled from Panyu (modern Guangzhou). Jiaozhou was the Han dynasty country subdivision formed from the annexation of this tributary kingdom in 111 BCE and it initially comprised the areas of modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam.
During the Three Kingdoms era, Eastern Wu split from Liangguang as Guangzhou in 222 CE. Tang rule in northern Vietnam began in 622 after Qiu He, the Chinese warlord recognized Tang authority.
Tang Protectorate.
In 624 the Tang dynasty created the Jiaozhou Protectorate. In 627 the Jiaozhou Protectorate was put under the administration of Lingnan Circuit. In 679, the Annan Protectorate replaced the Jiaozhou Protectorate and was seated in Songping County () in present day Hanoi. The Annan Protectorate was renamed Zhennan Protectorate in 757. It was changed back to Annan Protectorate in 760. The Annan Protectorate came under attack from Nanzhao in 846 and the conflict lasted until 866, after which the Jinghai Army Jiedushi was created.
List of notable events.
In 676, jiedushi and governors of Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiaozhou established a method of selecting local men for administrative positions. Every four years, the "southern selection" would choose aboriginal chiefs to be appointed to fill positions of the fifth degree and above. Taxation was more moderate than within the empire proper; the harvest tax was one-half the standard rate, an acknowledgement of the political problems inherent in ruling a non-Chinese population.
In 687, the new governor of Annan, Liu Yanyou doubled the taxes. The Viet peasants under chief Lý Tự Tiên resisted. Liu Yanyou killed Lý. Đinh Kiến, one of Lý's compatriots, led the people against Yanyou and besieged him in Songping. In the summer, the rebels took Songping and put Yanyou to death. A governor general, Feng Yuanchang, had earlier been called in to help Liu, but Feng hoped to gain influence at Liu's expense and did nothing to help him. Instead Feng established a fortified camp and sent envoys to the rebels telling them to kill their leader and join him. After Liu was killed, Feng abandoned Annan. Another general, Cao Xuanjing, marched into Annan, put down the rebellion, and executed Đinh Kiến.
In 694, Lao tribesmen in Guangxi rebelled. The rebellion was quickly putdown.
In 722, Mai Thúc Loan rebelled in what is now Hà Tĩnh Province and proclaimed himself the "Swarthy Emperor" or "Black Emperor" (Hắc Đẽ). His rebellion rallied people from 23 counties with "400,000 followers". Many were peasants who roamed the countryside, plundering food and other items. He also allied with Champa and Chenla, an unknown kingdom named Jinlin (“Gold Neighbor”) and other unnamed kingdoms. A Chinese army of 100,000 from Guangdong under general Yang Zixu, including a "multitude" of mountain tribesmen who had remained loyal to the Tang, marched directly along the coast, following the old road built by Ma Yuan. Yang Zixu attacked Mai Thúc Loan by surprise and suppressed the rebellion in 723. The corpses of the Swarthy Emperor and his followers were piled up to form a huge mound and were left on public display to check further revolts.
In 767, Srivijaya fleets invaded Annan and were defeated.
In 785, chieftains of the Annamese, Đỗ Anh Hàn, Phùng Hưng and Phùng An rebelled, due to Chinese governor Gao Zhengping's doubling of taxes. Tang forces retook Annan in 791.
In 803,Champa seized southern Annan. Troops working on garrison fortifications also revolted. From 803 to 863, local rebels killed or expelled no fewer than six protector-generals of Annan. In 820, Dương Thanh (Yang Qing) seized Đại La and killed the protectorate general. Dương Thanh was unpopular due to his cruelty and put to death by the locals soon after, however the region continued to experience disorders for the next 16 years.
From 823 to 826, the Nung people (Huang people), aided by raiders from Champa, attacked Yongzhou and seized 18 counties. These raiders, known as the barbarians of the "Nung Grottoes" (Yellow Grotto Barbarians), sought aid from Nanzhao after the Tang retaliated from 827-835.
In 845 Wu Hun tried to get his troops to rebuild the city walls but they rebelled and forced him to flee. The rebellion was put down.
In 846 barbarians raided Annan. Pei Yuanyu counterattacked with soldiers from neighboring provinces.
Rebellion, invasion, and renaming.
In 854 the new Jiedushi of Annan, Li Zhuo, provoked conflict with the mountain tribes by reducing the salt trade and killing powerful chieftains, resulting in the defection of prominent local leaders to Nanzhao. The general Lý Do Độc, as well as others, submitted to Nanzhao. In 858, Nanzhao invaded Annan while new jiedushi, Li Hu, killed the son of a chieftain who was implicated in a mutiny, further alienating powerful clans in Annan and causing them to defect to Nanzhao. While Nanzhao invaded in earnest, the Đỗ clan rebelled with 30,000 men. There was general chaos as Nanzhao ravaged Annan, alienating the locals, and the balance of power see-sawed between Tang and Nanzhao forces. In 864, the experienced Tang general, Gao Pian, led a counterattack that saw the defeat of Nanzhao forces in 866. He recaptured Songping, the capital of Annan, and named the rebuilt capital Đại La. He also renamed the region of Annan to Jinghai Jun (lit. Peaceful Sea Army).
Aftermath.
A campaign against local aboriginals in Annan was conducted from 874-879. In 877, troops deployed from Annan in Guangxi mutined. In 880, the army in Annan mutinied, took the city of Đại La, and forced the military commissioner Zeng Gun to flee, ending de facto Chinese control in Vietnam.
Culture and religion.
During the era of the Annan Protectorate, the people now known as the Vietnamese had no particular name. They were referred to in Chinese writing as the "Wild Man" (Wild Barbarians), the "Li" or the Annamese. Since antiquity they had been noted for their tattooing and cropped hair, wearing line ponchos ("yếm"), wielded wooden spears, and shot boneheaded arrows. They also sacrified men to their agricultural gods. In the north, around Yongzhou (Nanning), near modern-day Guangxi, mountains were the territories of the Huang (Ghwang) people or the "Grotto Barbarians", the Nùng people and the Ning clans.
Revival of direct Tang control over Annan for two centuries resulted in a hybrid Tang-Vietnamese culture, political and legal structures. Local sinicized elites used Chinese script, and ordinary people and tribesmen adopted personal names and name styles that corresponding to Vietnamese personal names until now. A large number of Chinese officers and soldiers were sent to Annan, some of whom married Vietnamese women and settled down. Buddhism thrived in Annan throughout the Tang era. Some of Chinese monks came and taught Chinese Buddhism in Annan. Wu Yantong (d. 820), a prominent Chinese monk in Annan, brought a new sect of Chan Buddhism that survived for about five centuries. Vietnamese women had large roles and status in religious life and society. Buddhist texts were written in Chinese, and recited with Vietnamese pronunciation. Vietnamese temples and monasteries differed with Chinese and other East Asian countries in their role as the "đình", the village spiritual center, where village elders met. The famous Tang Chinese monk Yijing mentioned six Vietnamese monks who went on pilgrimage to India and Ceylon in search of the Dharma. Although Daoism became the dynasty’s official religion, four prominent Tang poets praised Buddhist masters who hailed from Annan. Indigenous Confucianist scholarly elites remained very relatively small. In 845, a Tang official reported to the throne that "Annan has produced no more than eight imperial officials; senior graduates have not exceeded ten." Liêu Hữu Phương was the only recorded Vietnamese student to have passed the classical exams in 816 in the Tang capital of Chang'an. He succeeded on his second attempt and became a librarian at the imperial court.


Sithu Thanbawa

Sithu Thanbawa (, or more commonly, as ; – 1390s?) was a Burmese prince who held in fief the Five Irrigated Districts (centered around present-day Yamethin District) of the Ava Kingdom in the late 14th century. Descended from the Pagan royal lines from both sides, the prince was an ancestor of kings Mingyi Nyo, Tabinshwehti and Nanda of the Toungoo dynasty.
Brief.
Probably born in the late 1360s, Sithu Thanbawa was the elder child of Prince Sithu Min Oo of Pinya and Princess Minkhaung Medaw of Ava. His father was a son of King Uzana I of Pinya (r. 1325–1340) and his mother was a daughter of King Swa Saw Ke of Ava (r. 1367–1400). He had one younger brother Thray Sithu, who later became governor of Myinsaing.
According to the royal chronicles, Sithu Thanbawa held the Five Irrigated Districts (ရေလွှဲ ငါးခရိုင်; present-day Yamethin District and surrounding regions), by 1390. However, unlike most other feudal lords of the day, who were also governors of their fiefs, the prince apparently did not assume administrative duties of his fiefs, since he is not listed as a governor of the Yamethin District, not in 1390 or any time before or after, in the chronicles. (In 1390, his granduncle Gov. Thilawa was governor of the region.) Furthermore, unlike other princes of the day, he went to the front only once, in 1390–1391 when he commanded a regiment during the Forty Years' War.
In all, the prince is not heard from again in the chronicles after 1390–1391, except with regard to his descendants. He had at least one child, Gov. Sithu of Paukmyaing. Through that child, kings Mingyi Nyo, Tabinshwehti and Nanda of the Toungoo Dynasty, were Sithu Thanbawa's descendants.
Ancestry.
Prince Sithu Thanbawa was descended from the Ava–Pinya–Myinsaing royal lines, and ultimately the Pagan royalty from both sides.


Safa Giray of Kazan

Safa Giray (, ; Iske imla: صفا گرای) was three times khan of Khanate of Kazan (1524–31, 1535–46, 1546–49). He was the nephew of the previous Kazan Khan Sahib Giray and brother of Moxammat Giray.
First reign 1524–31: In 1524 a large Russian army approached Kazan and Sahib Giray fled. His 13-year-old nephew Safa Giray took his place. The Russian siege of Kazan failed and they withdrew. In 1530 another Russian army burned part of Kazan and Safa Giray fled to Arsk. The matter was settled when a faction deposed Safa Giray and enthroned the pro-Russian Jan Ali.
Second reign 1535–46: Four years later, in 1535 the Kazan nobility expelled or killed the pro-Russian Jan Ali and Safa Giray returned to the throne. He married Jan Ali's wife or widow Söyembikä of Kazan. The pro-Russian faction wanted to enthrone Jan Ali's brother Shah Ali, but they were unsuccessful. The choice of an anti-Russian khan led to border fighting around Nizhny Novgorod. In 1537 or 1538 Safa Giary burned the outskirts of Murom and withdrew on the approach of a Russian army. In 1546 two Russian armies raided near Kazan and withdrew. In 1546 a Kazan faction revolted and Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law Yusuf of the Nogai horde. He was replaced by the pro-Russian Shahghali (Shah Ali).
Third reign 1546–49: Shah Ali soon found his position impossible and after a few months slipped out of town. Safa Giray returned with a Nogai army but Shah Ali's flight made the army unnecessary. Leaders of the pro-Russian faction fled. In late 1547 Ivan the Terrible in person led a winter campaign against Kazan, but an early thaw made the roads and rivers impassible, so he returned to Moscow. Part of the army continued, won a few battles and withdrew.
Safa Giray died in 1549. Reason of his death is unclear, but it is said that he was poisoned by his enemies. After his death his infant son Utamesh ascended the throne. His wife, Söyembikä became Regent.


Makutawangsa Wardhana

Sri Makutawangsa Wardhana was the king of Medang Kingdom, in East Java, that ruled prior to 990s CE. He was the son and the successor of Queen Isyana Tunggawijaya and King Sri Lokapala. He belongs to the Isyana dynasty, established by his grandfather, Mpu Sindok that ruled Java circa the 10th century CE.
Reign.
Nothing much known from Makutawangsa's reign. The Pucangan inscription mentioned that he was the grandfather of King Airlangga. The inscription mentioned that he was the heir and successor of Queen Isyana and King Lokapala, he also the grandson of Mpu Sindok. The Pucangan inscription also mentioned another king named Dharmawangsa Teguh, however the exact relation between King Makutawangsa and Dharmawangsa was not clearly described. The inscription mentioned that King Makutawangsa Wardhana had a daughter named Mahendradatta also known as Gunapriya Dharmapatni. She was the queen of Bali, betrothed to King Udayana of Balinese Warmadewas. Queen Mahendradatta was the mother of Airlangga. It was known that King Dharmawangsa Teguh began his reign in 991 CE, thus historians believed that Dharmawangsa was the brother of Mahendradatta, thus both are offspring of Makutawangsa Wardhana.


Scottish Cemetery at Calcutta

The Scottish Cemetery at Calcutta was established in 1820 catering to the specific needs of the large Scottish population in the Kolkata area. These Scots, including soldiers, missionaries, jute traders and businessmen, were attached to numerous enterprises in the area such as the headquarters of the East India Company, and the administration of the British Raj, whose capital was here. The cemetery was utilised until the 1940s but was abandoned in the 1950s and neglected following India's independence. Well over 90% of those buried bear recognisably Scots names such as Anderson, McGregor, Campbell and Ross. Around 10% are Bengali.
Description.
Extending to the cemetery lies within the dense urban area on Karaya Bazar Road. It is roughly square in plan and is laid out largely in a grid pattern, but with more random tombs closest to the road, in the oldest, south-west section. It contains over 1809 burial plots, with at least 2000 burials. The entrance, which bears the title "Scottish Cemetery" over an archway is flanked by a gatehouse. The entire cemetery is enclosed by a high wall.
Stones are generally of Scottish sandstone or granite. Since they bear inscriptions of their makers or sculptors, it is possible to assess that almost all have been made in Scotland and transported here for use. Apart from the indigenous Indian plant life, and buildings beyond the perimeter, the cemetery has a strong Scots character.
Almost all original lead (used in lettering) and cast iron, was systematically removed in the second half of the 20th century.
Restoration.
The Scottish Cemetery was laid out in Calcutta (Kolkata) from 1820 over an area of 3 acres. It contains 1,809 headstones and monuments and around 4,000 burials. Although its use continued after Indian Independence (1947) it fell into disrepair in the 1970s. In 2008 the Kolkata Scottish Heritage Trust (KSHT), Scotland, was established to restore the cemetery. The project is run by a board of trustees operating as a registered Scottish Charity via a MoU with the site owner, St. Andrew’s Church. KSHT raises funds from private donors, charitable trusts and foundations.
Conservation of the Scottish Cemetery aims to improve the environment, built landscape, and the quality of lives, of the people connected with it through optimum use of local and sustainable re-sources, maintaining an ecological balance, and preserving history and cultural values. The development processes take into account the current needs of the times without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. The project has at its core the interests of history, ecology, and people.
The Scottish Cemetery is an important repository of memory containing thousands of detailed burial records. This data is providing a rich source for research into the growth and world-wide impact of the Scottish Diaspora in the nineteenth century.
Its urban parkland setting will offer the dense city not only a much needed ‘green lung’ but will also encourage tourism especially related to genealogy and provide an opportunity for research, training, and education, in several fields.
Since the cemetery is surrounded by a neglected urban precinct populated by under-privileged families, the project proposes to continue community development in the neighbourhood.
Conservation of the Historic Precinct:
Encourages a sensitivity to the Indian world view which is formulated on the concept of material impermanence and thus has a different approach towards ‘authenticity’ and ‘originality’ when compared to the Western world. This view encourages ‘continuity’ and accepts ‘change’ which is more resilient, thus sustainable, as a living organism, rather than its monumentalisation as ‘heritage’.
Restoration of monuments using local, simple, and energy saving techniques; local and easily available materials, and traditional methods of construction to suit the local climate and conditions; conducting research and training in the same systems. The use of local materials and techniques not only keeps the budget low but also encourages the continuity of traditional crafts which are very essential for restoration.
Recycle and reuse of materials and debris that are excavated, then collected, and stored for use in the construction and restoration works. This prevents the depletion of natural resources like stone and soil, reduces the garbage of the city, and also saves money for the client, a win win situation for all.
Post industrialisation and the partition of India, the large open areas around historic monuments and precincts often became illegal camps for refugees and factory workers and a degenerate locality of the city, and a nuisance for the city authorities. Development and community regeneration of the urban precinct, to restore its historic value for the city, in tune with the overall development goals of the city, is an integral part of the project.
Ecological Conservation at the Scottish Cemetery
Kolkata lies along the river Hooghly in the eastern Gangetic delta, and supports a segment of Bengal’s diverse ecology. It is categorized by heavy rainfall in a humid, tropical climate and a variety of regional flora & fauna that include remaining sections of monsoon-type forests (or moist, deciduous forests). The city’s landform contains pockets of rainwater collected within dense, clayey soils; old growth trees, bamboo forests, palm plantations and wetland ecosystems together create the designed and natural landscape.Although these landforms are disappearing as a result of development pressures, several important ecological sites - such as the Scottish Cemetery - survive as protected spaces within the urban environment.
Following the cemetery’s disuse in the 1970s the site reverted to a natural state. The city grew and continued to develop around it, but the 3-acre site remained untouched and became a habitat for several indigenous endemic and threatened species which together form a rich biodiversity of microbes, plants and animals along with preserved sections of semi-aquatic grassland and forested ecosystems.In parallel with the conservation of historic monuments, the cemetery’s natural heritage is being preserved as a priority of the landscape plan, as urban parkland and as a biodiversity conservation park. This will provide several conservation benefits such as reduced air and noise pollution, replenishing of groundwater, and the conservation of soil, flora and fauna.
Graves of note.
Towns of origin mentioned on the various stones include Paisley, Broughty Ferry, Sutherlandshire, Fife, Campbeltown, and many from Dundee (the latter largely linked to the jute industry).
Scottish archive material.
A photographic album held in the Dundee archives holds photographs of 25 individual graves, taken in the mid 20th century. These 25 were re-recorded in 2008, giving evidence of the intervening decay.
Recently, Presidency University has created a digital archive of the graves in the cemetery from its foundation to the beginning of the Raj (1858) and this can be accessed at http://scotscemeteryarchivekolkata.com/,
References.
7. James Wilson https://m.economictimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/remembering-james-wilson-founder-of-the-economist-and-standard-chartered-bank/articleshow/4885353.cms


Immaculate Conception Parish Church (Jasaan)

The Immaculate Conception Church (Spanish: "Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Inmaculada Concepción de María") is a Baroque church located in Poblacion, Upper Jasaan in Misamis Oriental, Philippines. It was declared by the National Museum as a National Cultural Treasure in Northern Mindanao due to its artistic design and cultural values.
The church was a provincial attempt to mimic the famous San Ignacio Church of Intramuros in Manila. The Jesuit brothers Francisco Rivera and Juan Cuesta are credited with the construction of the original church. At present, the church is undergoing repair and restoration pursuant to the National Cultural Heritage Act otherwise known as the ""Cultural Properties Preservation and Protection Act".
History.
The first church of Jasaan was built out of lime from 1723 to 1830 under the supervision of Fr. Ramos Cabas, parish priest in "sitio Kabitaugan" in "barangay" "Aplaya. "The first church is currently a ruins and a "cotta" or fortification is visible on the low hill near the highway. In 1859, Jasaan became the base for evangelical activities among the Manobos in Bukidnon. From Jasaan, missionaries fanned out to areas in Bukidnon now known as Malitbog, Siloo, San Luis, Linabo and Sumilao. In 1887, Father Juan Herras, a Jesuit, began the construction of the present Immaculate Conception Church. Father Gregorio Parache, S.J., was the parish priest of Jasaan at that time. It aims to mimic the famous San Ignacio Church of Intramuros in Manila
Features.
The church of Jasaan falls under Barn Style Baroque with originally a tri-partite partition. It spans 150 ft long and 60 ft wide. The brick wall on all sides about 20 ft high and almost 4 ft thick. The portal area leads to two semi-arched openings to the choir loft area. Vertical articulation is rendered through the shallow piers which divide the areas into three. It is further squeezed to the narrow central portion of the facade. The church is flanked by square towers to a level above the apex of the pediment. Significant church portions includes the original brick paving, neo-Gothic retablo, and ceiling woodwork (reminiscent of basket weave).
The original facade of the church has been modified after a series of renovations. The original altar of the church has been moved backward to allow a larger area for the faithful inside the church building. The original sacristy has been moved to the side.
The church has two bell towers containing 4 bells in totality. The oldest of the four bells is dated 1807 while the largest is cast "Nuestra Señora de la Inmaculada Concepcion de Jasaan Año 1854"." The old church bells of the Immaculate Conception Church of Jasaan (four of them, excluding the one that was transferred to San Agustin Cathedral at Cagayan de Oro) bore these inscriptions around its outer rim: ""Para El Pueblo de Jasaan 1860"".
Due to its cultural and historical value, the National Museum declared the Immaculate Conception Parish Church a National Cultural Treasure on July 31, 2001.


Panglong Conference

The Panglong Conference (), held in February 1947, was a historic meeting that took place at Panglong in the Shan States in Burma between the Shan, Kachin and Chin ethnic minority leaders and Aung San, head of the interim Burmese government. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung and Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar representative General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. All these leaders unanimously decided to join the Union of Burma. On the agenda was the united struggle for independence from Britain and the future of Burma after independence as a unified republic.
History.
Burma has been called an anthropologist's paradise. Various groups of people migrated south into the Irrawaddy- Chindwin, Sittang and Salween valleys from the China-Tibet region in the latter part of the first millennium, the Mon followed by the Tibeto-Burman and Tai - Shan races. The main groups were the Mon, Bamar, Shan and Rakhine, establishing their own kingdoms, and the first three groups vying for supremacy. The Bamar under Anawrahta in the 11th century, Bayinnaung in the 16th century, and Alaungpaya in the 18th century unified and expanded their kingdoms establishing the first, second and third Burmese Empires respectively, whilst the Shan were ascendent during the 14th and the 15th centuries. The ancient Mon kingdom in the south was finally overwhelmed by the Bamar into submission only in the mid-18th century, and the Arakan annexed subsequently, establishing a Bamar-dominant nation state approximately within its current boundaries. Although the Arakan and Monlands were under Bamar administration, the Shanlands and the Trans-Salween states of the Karen and Karenni were never under direct control but only under Burmese suzerainty.
The British fought three wars with Burma in 1824, 1852 and 1885, culminating in the loss of Burmese sovereignty and independence. They established a colonial administration 'at least possible cost' according to Lord Dufferin. A distinction between the hills and the plains also developed that evolved during the arduous annexation process and became formalised into Ministerial Burma, formerly Burma Proper, and the Frontier Areas. During the annexation process there was armed resistance not just from the Bamar but from the Shan, Chin and Kachin. The Shan and Karreni Saophas or "Sawbwa"s, and Kachin "Duwa"s were left to continue their feudatory rule in their areas; the Karenni states were never even included within the borders of British Burma. In parliament, seats were reserved for the Karen, immigrant Chinese, Indian and Anglo-Burmese minorities, an arrangement bitterly opposed by many Burmese politicians. The Mon of Lower Burma and the Rakhine included in Ministerial Burma had no representation at all even though the plains Karen (the majority of the Karen population) and the Mon shared the Irrawaddy Delta of Lower Burma.
The draining of the marshes for rice cultivation drew Burman migration into British Burma even before the final annexation of Upper Burma. The Bamar however were virtually excluded from military service, and even as late as 1939 there were only 432 Burmans in the army compared with 1448 Karens, 886 Chins and 881 Kachins. Karen villagers had acted as guides for the British during the Anglo-Burmese Wars, and Karen troops had played a major part in the suppression of rebellions in Lower Burma in 1886 and again in the "Saya San" rebellion of 1930-32.
American, British and other European missionaries had also succeeded in converting the hills peoples to Christianity, the Karen in particular, and also the Kachin and Chin, whereas they made very little headway among the Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Rakhine, Shan and the plains Karen. Once they had benefited from a Christian education, Karen migration to towns in Lower Burma and the Tenasserim also increased. Burman leaders would blame the 'divide and rule' policy of Western imperialists and the 'servile streak' in the ethnic minorities who would look up to them; U Nu, the first prime minister of independent Burma, was later to accuse certain missionaries and writers of 'having deliberately sown the seeds of racial and religious conflict'. The ethnic minorities would, in turn, point the finger at Burman 'chauvinism' and 'oppression'.
The Frontier Areas or Scheduled Areas were divided into Part I or Excluded Areas such as the Kachin state with no right of election to parliament, and Part II or Partially Excluded Areas subdivided into two groups, one with electoral representation such as Myitkyina and Bhamo with Kachin minority and Shan/Burman majorities, and the other group with no electoral representation. A Federal Council of Shan Chiefs was formed in 1922 which gave the Shan and their Sawbwas an important channel for representation. The Burma Frontier Service boasted just 40 members employed in the administration of the entire Scheduled Areas at the outbreak of the World War II.
When the Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, the Karen remained loyal to and fought with the British, and consequently suffered at the hands of the Burma Independence Army (BIA) under Gen. Aung San and the Japanese Army. Villages were destroyed and massacres committed in their areas, and among the victims were Saw Pe Tha, a pre-war cabinet minister, and his family.
First Panglong conference.
In March 1946, the Saophas or Chaofa (Sawbwa in Burmese) of the Shan states sponsored a conference at Panglong in order to discuss the future of the Shan states after independence. It was led by the Saopha of Yawnghwe Sao Shwe Thaik, and the Kachin, Chin and Karen representatives were also invited. They realised that Burma would soon gain independence from the British, and that the Frontier Areas faced a real risk of remaining a British dominion since the hill tracts were deemed backward and not yet ready for self-determination. The pre-war prime minister U Saw and Thakin Nu from the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) gave speeches as the Burman majority representatives, and a message from the British Governor was read out which reiterated the White Paper policy that no decisions would be made on the Frontier Areas and their peoples without their full consent.
The Chin delegates expressed their sense of insecurity stemming from their heavy economic dependence on Burma Proper, hence their weak bargaining position. The Kachins were critical of U Nu's diatribe against the British and sceptical of Burman sincerity as regards equal rights. The Karens wanted a separate state that included the Tenasserim seaboard. The one positive outcome was the formation of a United Burma Cultural Society with Sao Shwe Thaik as chairman and U Saw as secretary.
Relations later improved between the hills peoples and the AFPFL through contacts such as the Sama "Duwa" Sinwa Nawng, a Buddhist Kachin whose father was killed in the fight against British annexation at the turn of the century, and who himself raised Kachin levies and fought with the Burma National Army (BNA) in the World War II, also the Chin leader Vamthu Mawng, and the Sawbwa of the Pa-O substate of Hsihseng (Hsahtung or Thaton) Sao Khun Kyi. In November 1946, a Supreme Council of the United Hills Peoples was formed at the instigation of the AFPFL, and Sao Shwe Thaik was elected as president.
The minority leaders however continued to lobby London and the Frontier Areas Administration (FAA) directly at the same time the AFPFL was in almost continuous consultation with the British authorities for independence. The Karen National Associations (KNA), founded in 1881, had argued at the 1917 Montagu-Chelmsford hearings in India that Burma was not "yet in a fit state for self-government" to the dismay of Burmese nationalists, but 3 years later, after submitting a criticism of the 1920 Craddock Reforms, won for themselves 5 (later 12) seats in the Legislative Council of 130 (later 132) members. Sao Shwe Thaik and Sawbwa of Mong Mit Sao Khin Maung travelled to London to argue for an independent Shan state at the Burma Round Table hearings in 1931, despite the British Governor's disapproval. The Karen Goodwill Mission to London in August 1946 likewise failed to receive any encouragement for their separatist demands from the British government.
H. N. C. Stevenson, the director of the FAA, criticised by both the Burma Office and the AFPFL, lamented the lost opportunities, and the lack of economic data or coordination between the Frontier Areas and Ministerial Burma. He stated,"I believe that the multiplication of and strengthening of the economic relations between the hills and the plains will be the shortest and most inexpensive route to a unified Burma."
In "Blueprint for a Free Burma", composed by the Japanese military but wrongfully attributed to Aung San, the question of minorities is addressed in similar vein:
Panglong Agreement.
A significant breakthrough came when an agreement was signed between the Shan, Kachin and Chin leaders, and Aung San as leader of the Governor's Executive Council at the second Panglong Conference on February 12, 1947. The Karens sent only four observers; also absent were the Mon and Arakanese representatives as they were not considered separately, but within Ministerial Burma. There were 23 signatories in all expressing their willingness to work with the 'interim Burmese government' in order to achieve independence speedily, and agreeing in principle the formation of a 'Union of Burma'.
The British were left in no doubt that Aung San and the Burman dominated AFPFL were able to mediate with the leaders of the hills peoples. Sao Shwe Thaik was appointed Counsellor to the Governor, with Sinwa Nawng and Vumthu Mawng as his deputies. Aung San's assurance on the day, "If Burma receives one kyat, you will also get one kyat", has often been quoted by ethnic nationalists since.
Legacy.
Thanks to the Panglong Agreement, the Union of Burma came into being after independence on January 4, 1948, and February 12 has been celebrated since as 'Union Day'. The spirit of Panglong is often invoked, although many today feel that another Panglong is long overdue. The debate certainly needs to move on from the old black-and-white caricatures of 'imperialist stooges' and 'chauvinist oppressors' for any progress to be made.
Even at the time, there was no representation from the Karen and Karenni, no consideration regarding the Mon and Rakhine as they fell within Ministerial Burma, and the Pa-O, Palaung and Wa were subsumed under the Shan states, although the Saopha of Tawngpeng Palaung substate was among the signatories. The Frontier Areas Commission of Enquiry (FACE) was set up in April/May 1947 as a condition of the Aung San-Attlee Agreement of January 27, 1947, and although the Burmese independence movement was represented by just one united front, the AFPFL, there were 50 often conflicting groups from the hill tracts; the Delta Karen, Mon and Rakhine were still excluded.
The shortcomings of the conference which resurfaced in the Constituent Assembly, and the consequent inadequacies of the Constitution promulgated on September 24, 1947, were to emerge soon after independence, and in fact in the Arakan the veteran monk U Seinda had already started a rebellion in May 1947. The Karen had isolated themselves further by boycotting both the EC and the elections to the Constituent Assembly, notwithstanding seats reserved for them, though persistent in their demand for an independent state similar to the kind their cousins, the Karenni, had enjoyed under their own Sawbwas; their future was as a result left unsettled, deferred till after independence. The Kachin had to make concessions in their representation in parliament in exchange for the inclusion of Myitkyina and Bhamo, towns with Shan and Burman majorities, in the new state, although in the hills the "Duwa"s would continue their rule. The Chin ended up with no state, only a special division. The Mon and Rakhine again were not even considered separately. One Mon group contested unsuccessfully at the elections which they claimed were rigged, but another boycotted; the Mon after independence threw in their lot with the Karen and joined the rebellion.
Rebellion.
The Regional Autonomy Enquiry Commission in October 1948, though now expanded to include six Karens, six Mons, five Arakanese, seven Burmans and four others, did not report until February 1949, by which time the Karen rebellion had already broken out. The Karen had repeated their controversial demand to include Karen majority areas of the Irrawaddy Delta in the independent Karen state as well as a joint Mon–Karen independent state in the areas of the Tenasserim where they could not stake an exclusive claim.
Communal relations turned sour when the AFPFL government deployed Karen and Kachin troops, which proved to be ruthlessly efficient, in suppressing the Burmese Communist rebellion that started in March 1948 centred on their stronghold of Pyinmana. The situation went from bad to worse when U Nu raised the "Sitwundan" auxiliary troops in order to reduce the government's heavy dependence on ethnic troops, and not least in anticipation of a Karen insurrection. They were put under the command of Maj. Gen. Ne Win and not the Army Chief of Staff Gen. Smith Dun, a Karen who was later removed and replaced by Ne Win on January 31, 1949. They soon outnumbered the Karen Rifles and Union Military Police (UMP), and were subsequently used against the Karen National Defence Organisation (KNDO), a paramilitary force formed in July 1947 by the Karen National Union (KNU), and the Karen UMP units.
History repeated itself when the KNU was judged to be a separatist movement as an 'imperialist plot' at the Left Unity talks in July/August 1948 between the AFPFL and the PVO ("Pyithu yèbaw" or People's Volunteer Organisation, a paramilitary force formed earlier by Aung San from BIA veterans) and their allies the Communists. A gun-running plot had been uncovered involving an Anglo-Burmese officer, Capt. Vivian, who was convicted and jailed but later escaped with the Karen; he was linked to U Saw who was in the frame for the assassination of Aung San and six other cabinet members in July 1947. Another plot led by Col. Cromarty-Tulloch, an ex-Force 136 adventurer, and a few other Britons and Anglo-Burmese officers, in the early days of the Karen insurrection, was also uncovered shortly after it started. Naw Seng, a commander of the Kachin Rifles, after being dispatched to suppress the Karen revolt, joined the KNDO whose ranks now swelled from the defection of the Karen Rifles; he then went on to lead the Pawng Yawng rebellion before going into exile to China in 1950, only to make a comeback in 1968 as a Communist commander.
It was not just the Karen and Mon that rose up in rebellion, soon after independence in early 1949. The Rakhine led by the veteran monk U Seinda started an insurrection as early as 1946 followed by the Rakhine Mujahid in December 1947 in northern Arakan along the border of today's Bangladesh, migrants and their descendants from East Bengal. The Karenni revolt however was precipitated by a Baptist-Catholic split in its leadership in August 1948, when the veteran leader Bee Tu Re was brutally murdered, and as a result the Kyebogyi Sawbwa Sao Shwe took up arms against the AFPFL-backed Kantarawaddy Sawbwa Sao Wunna, both ex-Force 136 and erstwhile comrades-in-arms, and Sao Shwe was later aided by Tulloch.
But it was not until 1949 when the Karen attacked Rangoon, triggered by the broken promise of independence. and after a brief battle both sides agreed to a cease fire and after receiving promises that the Burmese government would reconsider their requests, returned home. Nothing was done to implement these promises under Ne Win's interim Government. Then in the early the Kachin rebelled, triggered by the former Marxist U Nu's declaration of Buddhism as state religion, and the Shan rebellion, triggered by Gen. Ne Win's coup d'etat of March 1962, took off. In fact it was the Shan Federal Movement, led by Sao Shwe Thaik and aspiring to a 'loose' federation with Burma, but seen by army hardliners as a separatist movement insisting on the government honouring the right to secession after 10 years provided for by the 1947 Constitution to both the Shan and the Karenni, which precipitated the coup. Ne Win had already stripped the Sawbwas of their feudal powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959 during his caretaker government. His 1962 coup put paid to the 1947 Constitution and what little remained of the Panglong spirit. The Chin launched a rebellion also in the 1960s. The Kayan insurgency in the Shan substate of Mong Pai was triggered by the first 'demonitisation' declaring the 100 and 50 kyat notes illegal in 1964 which wiped out the savings of hill farmers as well as the rest of the country. The Shan rebellion was partially caused by the CIA who armed them in cooperation with the Chinese Kuomintang forces that fought with General Stilwell in the War against Japan and remained in the region. The latter were removed by the USA after being ordered by the UN and flew some of the Kuomintang to Formosa.
Personal journeys.
Aung San was assassinated with several members of his cabinet, including Sao Sarm Htun, the Saopha of Mong Pawng and a signatory of the Agreement, and a Karen member Mahn Ba Khaing, on July 19, 1947, just months after Panglong and before independence; July 19 has been commemorated since as 'Martyrs' Day'. U Saw was convicted and hanged in May 1948 for his role in the crime. The Socialist leader Thakin Nu became the first Prime Minister of independent Burma as a direct consequence of Aung San's untimely death and the earlier expulsion of the Burmese Communists from the AFPFL. Sao Shwe Thaik was elected the first President of independent Burma (1948–52), arrested at the time of the 1962 coup when his youngest son was the one fatality, shot dead, in what was generally described as a 'bloodless' coup, and he himself died shortly afterwards in custody. His wife Mahadevi Sao Nang Hearn Kham and son Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe formed the Shan State Army (SSA) in 1964 taking the Shan rebellion that started in 1958 to a new phase.
Sinwa Nawng and Vamthu Mawng both became cabinet ministers in the first AFPFL government. Brang Seng, the late Chairman of the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO) and former headmaster of Myitkyina Baptist Mission High School, was the nephew of one of the Kachin signatories Lawdan "Duwa" Zau La. Khun Kya Nu, a leader of the SSA and former Rangoon University student, is the son of one of the Shan delegates at Panglong, Kya Bu.


Wichaichan

Krom Phra Ratchawang Bowon Wichaichan () or Phra Ong Chao Yodyingyot (or Yingyot) (พระองค์เจ้ายอดยิ่งยศ) (6 April 1838 – 28 August 1885) was a Siamese Prince and member of the Chakri Dynasty. He was the eldest son of Viceroy Pinklao and Princess Aim, and thus nephew to King Mongkut (Rama IV). Wichaichan succeeded his father by being appointed the Front Palace and "Viceroy of Siam" in 1868, during the reign of his cousin King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). During his tenure the office of Front Palace was extremely powerful and rivalled that of the monarch's own. Inevitably the two forces clashed in the Front Palace crisis. Wichaichan was defeated and the power of the Front Palace was greatly diminished. After his death in 1885, the last vestiges of the title were abolished in favour of a Crown Prince.
Early life.
Phra Ong Chao Yodying Prayurayot Bovorn Rachorod Rattana Rachakumarn (พระองค์เจ้ายอดยิ่งประยุรยศบวรราโชรสรัตนราชกุมาร) was born on the 6 April 1838, the eldest son of Prince Chutamani and Princess Aim. It was said that his father gave him an English name in honour of his personal hero, the first President of the United States, George Washington. Therefore, he is sometimes referred to as Prince George Washington or "Prince George". In May 1851 Prince Yodyingyot's father was elevated as Second King Pinklao or the Front Palace by his older brother King Mongkut (Rama IV). Pinklao also received from his brother all the styles, titles and honour of a monarch, despite never having been crowned himself. During his childhood the Prince received a modern education, including the English language and modern sciences. It was said that he became an extremely skillful engineer.
After King Pinklao's death in 1866, King Mongkut decided not to appoint another Front Palace due to the fact that his own son Prince Chulalongkorn was only 12 years old. This meant that the position which was also that of the heir presumptive was left unoccupied (Siam had no law of succession at the time, but the Viceroy was seen as the strongest claimant). Fearing instability, Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse (Chuang Bunnag) the Kalahom (one of the Prime Ministers of Siam) tried to persuade the King to appoint Prince Yodyingyot to succeed King Pinklao. Si Suriyawongse was a member of the powerful Bunnag family, which had dominated the running of the Siamese government since the reign of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (Rama II). The King refused to appoint Yodyingyot, instead he elevated the Prince to Krom Muen Bowon Wichaichan or Prince Bowon Wichaichan in 1867. This meant Wichaichan was only made "a" Prince of the Front Palace but not the actual title of Front Palace. Since 1865 the Prince was also the commander of the Front Palace's naval forces.
Wichaichan was a great friend of the British Consul-General to Siam: Thomas George Knox, he was originally recruited by Pinklao to modernize the Front Palace's armed forces. Knox greatly preferred the mature and experienced Wichaichan — who was also the son of one of the most westernized member of the elite to ascend the throne — over the young Chulalongkorn.
Reign.
In August 1868 King Mongkut contracted malaria whilst on an expedition to see a solar eclipse in Prachuap Khiri Khan province, six weeks later he died on 1 October. The young Chulalongkorn (who was only 15 years old at the time) was unanimously declared King by a council of high-ranking nobility, princes of the Chakri Dynasty and monks. The council was presided by Si Suriyawongse who was also appointed Regent for the young King.
During the meeting when one of the Princes nominated Wichaichan as the next Front Palace, many in the council objected. The most notable objection of this nomination came from Prince Vorachak Tharanubhab. The Prince argued that the appointment of such an important position was the sole prerogative of the King and not of the council. Furthermore, the position was not hereditary and the appointment of the son of the former could set a dangerous precedent. The nomination of Wichaichan however was supported by Si Suriyawongse who wanted to secure a line of succession by appointing an able and experienced Front Palace (as the second-in-line to the throne). Si Suriyawongse was determined, he retorted by accusing the Prince of wanting to be appointed himself ("ที่ไม่ยอมนั้น อยากจะเป็นเองหรือ"). The Prince replied wearily "If you have ask me to permit it [the appointment], then I will have to permit it" ("ถ้าจะให้ยอมก็ต้องยอม"). As a result, Prince Wichaichan was appointed Front Palace (Krom Phra Rajawang Bovorn Sathan Mongkol) and Viceroy without the full consent of the incoming Monarch. The relationship between Chulalongkorn and the Wichaichan would remain difficult for the rest of the latter's life, based on this fact. On 11 November 1868 Wichaichan's cousin Chulalongkorn was crowned "Supreme" King of Siam at the Grand Palace.
Since the elevation of King Pinklao twenty years earlier the office of Front Palace had gained considerable amount of power and prestige. The Viceroy had his own army of over 2,000 men, western trained and western armed. He also controlled a naval forces of several steam powered gunboats. The Prince also had a large share of state revenues over one-third of which is given directly to him for the maintenance of his officials, retinue, court, concubines and advisors.
Front Palace crisis.
When Chulalongkorn came of age in 1873 he and his western educated brothers were intent on creating a modern absolutist state. Siamese government during previous reigns were dominated by the aristocracy with many elements of feudalism still in existence. In order to modernize and centralize the state Chulalongkorn must consolidate the Royal government's control over finances and the bureaucracy. First he created the Auditing Office and then a year later the Privy Council of Siam. These two reforms quickly drew the ire of the aristocracy and Wichaichan, whose powers were slowly being eroded.
The conflict between Chulalongkorn and Wichaichan over these reforms erupted in open confrontation, after Wichaichan received an anonymous letter threatening his life. On the 28 December 1874 a fire erupted in the Grand Palace, Wichaichan's reluctance to help quell the flames gave Chulalongkorn the excuse he needed to lay siege to the Front Palace. As a result, on the night of 2 January 1875, Wichaichan fled to the British Consulate to the south of Bangkok to seek refuge from the King. Negotiations between the two cousins began, however no clear conclusions were reached, with Wichaichan under the impression that his life was in danger, he refused all reconciliation.
By February the crisis has reached stalemate. Si Suriyawongse decided to advise the British acting-Consul to invite an influential person to intervene and end the crisis. Invitations were made to Sir Andrew Clarke the Governor of the Straits Settlements. Clarke arrived in Bangkok on 18 February, after some deliberations with various factions he decided to support the young King over Wichaichan. On the evening of 24 February Clarke forced the humiliated Wichaichan to accept Chulalongkorn's terms in full.
The terms of the settlement stripped Wichaichan of all of his powers, he was able to keep only 200 guards of small weaponry, he was also forced to abdicate his title of Viceroy. Despite this he was able to remain Front Palace and keep his residence. Chulalongkorn also promised to take responsibility for his finances and safety. He lived the rest of his life quietly as an educated gentleman, being consigned to his palace. The role and influence of the Front Palace and the nobility was greatly diminished and Chulalongkorn was able to continue his reforms in peace without opposition. In 1881 Wichaichan met King Kalākaua of the Hawaiian Islands, who made a stop in Siam on his world tour. The King noted that Wichaichan was well educated and spoke English fluently.
Death.
Wichaichan died on 28 August 1885 at the age of 47. Prince Bovorn Wichaichan was cremated with great ceremony on the field of Sanam Luang on 14 June 1886. The Front Palace compound itself was partly demolished, parts that remain were given to Wichaichan's consorts, daughters and sisters as residences (sons were excluded).
After his death the office of Front Palace was left vacant until On 14 January 1886, when Chulalongkorn's son with Princess Consort Savang Vadhana was made Crown Prince Maha Vajirunhis or Somdet Phra Boromma-orasathirat Sayam Makutrajakuman. The title of Front Palace, which was first created in 1688 by King Petracha of Ayutthaya was thus abolished and replaced with an heir apparent, whose succession is to be based on the principle of male primogeniture. The new invented title brought Siamese succession in line with the European tradition.
Family.
During his lifetime Wichaichan fathered 28 children with various consorts and concubines. With Chao Chom Manda Prik Lek, he had a son, Prince Karnchananophas Rasmi, the Prince of Chanchai Bovornyod, whose descendants use the surname: Kanchanawichai and with Consort Leam: Prince Rajani Chamcharas, the Prince Bidyalongkorn, whose descendants use the surname: Rajani. One of Prince Rajani Chamcharas' descendants is Mom Chao Bhisadej Rajani, the President of the Royal Projects of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), a grandson of King Chulalongkorn.
Royal Titles and Decorations.
Decorations.
Prince Wichaichan received the following honours from the Siamese honour system:


Siege of Eker

The siege of Eker refers to the Bahraini security forces imposing a lockdown of the village of Eker, situated about 20 km south of the capital Manama, Bahrain.
Background.
On the morning of Friday, October 19, 2012, the government announced that a police officer of Pakistani origin had been killed by a homemade bomb in the village of Eker. The government released a video of the alleged bombing. Two days later, the Minister of the Interior stated that the policeman had been killed by shrapnel from an iron rod launched from a distance of 100 meters. A follow-up report issued by the government said that the policeman was hit with a "projectile" in his head. The cause of death was given as "a penetrating injury to the head causing skull fracture, damage and hemorrhage in the brain."
The siege.
In the wake of the alleged explosion, the government deployed police in SUVs and armored vehicles to Eker, and sealed off all routes leading to and from the village. Checkpoints were set up at various locations, and security forces carried out house raids, arresting at least 7 people, who the Ministry of Interior (Bahrain) claims may have been involved in the alleged explosion. Bahraini human rights activists have stated that the raids carried out against citizens' houses are unlawful, and the arrests are arbitrary and without reasonable grounds.
A statement released by Bahrain's largest licensed opposition party, Al Wefaq described the siege as state-sponsored terrorism. The statement also said that extrajudicial raids were carried out on over forty houses in Eker, detailing property damage and harassment during the raids.
Security forces have enforced a blockade, denying entry and exit to the village for over 48 hours. Regular food deliveries have been turned back, and ambulances have been denied access. Within the village, police have prevented residents from attending school.
Al Wefaq and other licensed opposition parties, including National Democratic Action Society (Waad), Ekhaa, Qawmy, and Wahdawy, have collectively announced that they will be sending a joint delegation to Eker on the morning of Sunday, October 21, 2012, to try and peacefully break siege of the village. The opposition parties also plan to hold a protest Sunday afternoon.
See also.
Bahraini uprising (2011–present)
, Al Jazeera English documentary about the uprising.
External links.
May Ying Welsh, "Bahrain: Shouting in the dark ", Documentary, 51 min, Al Jazeera English, 2011.


History of the Jaffna Kingdom

When to date the start of the history of the Jaffna kingdom is debated among historians.
Background.
Sangam period.
The name 'Ko Veta' is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BCE. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan, Ko Putivira and Ko Ra-pumaan occurring in contemporary Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of ancient South India and Egypt.
Potsherds with early Tamil writing from the 2nd century BCE have been found from the north in Poonagari, Jaffna to the south in Tissamaharama bearing several inscriptions, including of the clan name "velir", chieftains and minor Tamil kings also residing in the ancient Tamil country. Sangam literature from the 3rd century BCE-4th century CE illustrate that a section of the island Eelam, known as Nāka-Tivu or Nāka-Nadu at the time, was autonomously ruled by local kings in the northern peninsula. The early emporiums of the north and east such as Manthai, Kandarodai (Kadiramalai), Vallipuram, "Anaikottai" attest Tamil presence through finds of Tamil-Brahmi scripts, coins by the Tamil Three Crowned Kings, Black and red ware pots and beads similar to those found in Arikamedu and Karaikudi.
References in epics.
The twin epics of ancient Tamil Nadu "Silappatikaram" (1st century CE) and "Manimekalai" (6th century CE) speak of Nāka Nadu across the sea from Kaveripoompuharpattinam, and their civilization which was even more sumptuous than those of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. "Manimekalai" speaks of the great Nāka king Valai Vanan who ruled the prosperous Nāka Nadu with great splendour and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition. Cīttalai Cāttanār, the author of the "Manimekalai" reflected Tamilakam's perception at the time that Nāka Nadu was an autonomous administrative entity, kingdom or "nadu" stretching across coastal districts, distinguished from the rest of the island also ruled intermittently by Tamil kings; Eela or Irattina Tivu-Nadu. "Jaffna" is an anglicized rendering of the medieval Tamil name for the northern peninsula, "Yaalpaanam" or "Yaalpanapattinam."
There is scattered literary and archeological evidence from local and foreign sources describing the division of the whole island in the first few centuries of the common era between two kingdoms. The accounts of 6th century Greek merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes who visited the island around the time of King Simhavishnu of Pallava's rule in Tamilakam reveal the presence of two kings, one of whom was based in Jaffna, home to a great emporium, who ruled the coastal districts. In the ninth century CE, as the medieval Cholas regained strength in the region, a Tamil kingdom based in Jaffna was functioning in rivalry to the south, as described in narratives by Arab travellers such as Soleyman (Suleiman), Ibn Vahab and writing sixty years later, Abu-Zeyd. The historian Al-Masudi identifies Yaalpaanam as "Zapage" or "Zabedje" in his 10th century work "The Meadows of Gold" and describes how the island peninsula's Maharaja (Hindu king) wielded sovereignty over islands opposite the kingdom of Kanyakumari, Karativu island (or Kala island, home to the ancient port of Kalam where ships docked for water on their way to the Nicobar islands), the islands Zadig, Sarendib and Rameswaram Island. He visited the Jaffna country and the lands of Ramanathapuram which extended both inland and on sea at the time. Masudi witnessed the funeral of a Tamil Hindu king during his stay in Jaffna. Muhammad al-Idrisi writes in the 10th century that the king of Jaffna (Jabeh) rules his island country of the same name (in an apparent reference to the minstrel Yaalpaanan to whom the kingdom was gifted) and in the neighbourhood of this country are the islands of Karativu and Eluvaitivu which also obey his rule. Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island led to the fall of four kings there, one of whom, Madavarajah, was the king of Jaffna and, according to historian K. Pillay, a usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Inscriptions from the period reveal that the Cholas defeated three Jaffna kings during their conquest of the island.
Founding & early history.
The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians. Among mainstream historians, such as K. M. de Silva, S. Pathmanathan and Karthigesu Indrapala, the widely accepted view is that the Kingdom of the Aryacakravarti dynasty in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called Magha, who claimed to be from Kalinga in modern India. He deposed the ruling Parakrama Pandyan II, a foreigner from the Pandyan Dynasty who was ruling the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern Kerala and Damila (Tamil Nadu) regions in India.
After the conquest of Rajarata, he moved the capital to the Jaffna peninsula which was more secured by heavy Vanni forest and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the Chola empire of Tanjavur, in modern Tamil Nadu, India. During this period (1247), a Malay chieftain from Tambralinga in modern Thailand named Chandrabhanu invaded the politically fragmented island. Although King Parakramabahu II (1236–70) from Dambadeniya was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha. This prompted the Pandyan Empire in modern South India to intervene and Chandrabhanu submitted to Pandya rule in 1258.
Aryacakravarti dynasty.
When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas again came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed Aryacakravarti, a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king. When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to Muslim invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka. All subsequent kings of the Jaffna Kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name. The origins of the Aryacakravarti are claimed in contemporary court chronicles but modern historians offer competing theories as well. The consensus held by historians is that they were a Pandyan feudatory family and the family is connected to the Ramanathapuram Hindu temple and was of Tamil Brahmin origin. C. Rasanayagam investigated why they called of themselves as Arya Chakravarthis; and states that when the Jaffna Kingdom fell into the hands of the Portuguese in 1618, the Jaffna kings claimed to have "descended from two Brahmin kings who were appointed by Rama himself after his conquest of Lanka and establishment of the Rameshwavaram temple". The Jaffna kings also claimed that Lord Rama himself gave them the title of Arya and granted them the parasol and the emblem of Setu. Rasanayagam therefore suggested that the Brahmin connection may have been mythical and adopted by the later kings as they grew in eminence.
The dynasty claimed titles such as "Setukavalan" meaning custodians of the Rameswaram temple in modern India, "Singaiariyan" (from the city of Singai Nagar, another name for their capital Nallur), and "Gangainadan", alluding to their origin from the Ganga dynasty or the Ganges region of modern North India. Politically, it was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it. However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the Vijayanagar empire that ruled from Vijayanagara, southern India, and a rebounding Kingdom of Kotte from the south of Sri Lanka. This led to the kingdom becoming a vassal of the Vijyanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467. The kingdom was re-established with the disintegration of Kotte kingdom and the fragmentation of Viyanagar Empire. It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the Kandyan and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.
Kotte conquest and restoration.
The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom was led by king Parakramabahu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna Kingdom in the Vanni area, namely the Vanniar chieftains of the Vannimai were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful. Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modern South India, occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden with cinnamon. The Tenkasi inscription of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of Tinnevelly 'who saw the backs of kings at Singai, Anurai,' and else where, may refer to these wars; it is dated between A.D. 1449-50 and 1453–4. Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. After the departure of Sapumal Kumara to Kotte, Kanakasooriya Cinkaiarian re-took the kingdom in 1467.
Decline & dissolution.
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in spices that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese. The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in Roman Catholic missionary activities, (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from Sittawaka. The Jaffna Kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the Kandyan kingdom, located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypost for military aid arriving from South India. Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the Dutch landings. It was king Cankili I who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600-700 Parava Catholics in the island of Mannar. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.
Client state.
The first expedition led by Viceroy Constantino of Braganza in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrested the Mannar Island from it. Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 The Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten (10) elephants or an equivalent in cash. In 1591, during the second expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça, king Puvirasa Pandaram was killed and his son Ethirimana Cinkam was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and monopoly in elephant export to the Portuguese, which the incumbent king however resisted. He helped the Kandyan kingdom under kings Vimaladharmasuriya I and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.
Cankili II the unsurper.
With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, Cankili II, a usurper, took control of the throne after killing the regent nominated by the late king. Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship, Cankili II through Migapulle Arachchi invited military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom and allowed corsairs from Malabar to use a base in Neduntivu, hence posting a threat to Portuguese shipping routes through Palk Straight. Cankili II was supported by the Kandyan rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala. Cankili II expectably received military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom. On his part, Raghunatha Nayak of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom for his protege, the Prince of Rameshwaram . However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure.
By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the Malabari corsairs and another expedition by Filipe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II. Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to Goa, where he was hanged to death. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne.
Consequences.
Over the next 40 years, there were six rebellions against the Portuguese rule led by Karaiyar chiefs, one which were led by Migapulle Arachchi and Varunakulattan with the forces of Thanjavur Nayak kingdom after the invasion by the Kandyan king Senarat I until the Dutch capture of Jaffna fort in 1658. During that period, Portuguese destroyed every Hindu temple and the "Saraswathy Mahal" library in Nallur, the royal repository of all literary output of the kingdom. Due to excessive taxation, population decreased and many people moved to Ramanathapuram in India and the Vanni districts further south. External commerce was negatively impacted, though elephants, Jaffna's principle export, were traded for saltpetre with various kingdoms in India and sent to Lisbon. Thus, decline in trade made it difficult to pay for essential imports and such items ceased to be imported. In the words of Fernão de Queirós, the principle chronicler of Portuguese colonial exploits in Sri Lanka, the people of Jaffna were "reduced to the uttermost misery" during the Portuguese colonial era.
Although the Portuguese attempted to completely destroy the Royal family through encouraged celibacy, there are number of families of Sri Lankan Tamil origin who claim descent from the royal family.


Francis Ellis (colonial administrator)

Sir Francis Ellis was an administrator of the English East India Company, and President of Bengal in 1693.


Veluthambi Dalawa (film)

Veluthampi Dalawa is a 1962 Malayalam historical film based on the life of Velu Thampi Dalawa, the Dewan of Travancore during the first decade of 19th century, was one of the first to rebel against the British East India Company's supremacy. The film, directed by G. Viswanath and written by Jagathy N. K. Achary was shot in Newton Studios. Kottarakkara Sreedharan Nair, Thikkurissi Sukumaran Nair, Prem Nawas, Adoor Bhasi, G. K. Pillai, Ragini, Ambika Sukumaran and Sukumari portrayed prominent roles. The dances were choreographed by Chinni and Sampath along with Kalamandalam Madhavan. The film was a box office success.
Plot.
The story begins during the tyrannical regime of Jayanthan Namboodiri (Thikkkurissi Sukumaran Nair), the 'Dalawa' of Travancore. The country was plagued by corruption and mismanagement at all levels. Veluthampi (Kottarakkara Sreedharan Nair) who was in royal service succeeded in exposing the tyranny of Jayanthan Namboodiri and rose to the position of Dalawa. Jayanthan Namboodiri’s ears were cut as punishment and he was banished from Travancore.
Veluthampi resorted to harsh punishments in order to improve the law and order of the kingdom. His overbearing conduct created resentment among his colleagues. The corrupt revenue officer Mallan Pillai (Adoor Bhasi) was punished and terminated from service. The powerful cabinet official Kunju Neelan Pillai (G. K. Pillai) and his group were supporters of the British East India Company. They leaked the defence secrets of the country to the Resident British Officer Macaulay (Satyapal). Veluthampi was vigilant and in his landmark 'Kundara Proclamation' urged the people to fight against the British. This made him popular among the states of Cochin and Kozhikode and they offered their support to him in his fight against the British.
Jagadambika (Ragini) was in love with Veluthampi and supported him in his plans against the British. She entered Macaulay’s bungalow in disguise and managed to recover the defence files, but was shot dead. Before she died, Jagadambika handed over the files to Veluthampi. He took an oath to drive away the British from the country.
The British succeeded in invading and bringing under their control several towns and villages surrounding Thiruvananthapuram. Veluthampi requested the king to release more arms and ammunition including rifles to fight against the British. Kunju Neelan Pillai alleged that it was Veluthampi who provoked the British against Travancore. The king believes the allegation and Veluthampi quit his post as Dalawa. After conducting the marriage of his niece Seethalakshmi (Ambika) and Unni Namboodiri (Prem Nawaz), Veluthampi left to take refuge in the sanctum sanctorum of Mannadi Temple along with his brother Padmanabhan Thampi. The British surrounded the temple, but Veluthampi killed himself before they could enter; Padmanabhan decapitated Veluthampi.
Soundtrack.
The music was composed by V. Dakshinamoorthy and Parthasarathy and lyrics were written by Abhayadev. The tracks "Innu Nalla Laakkaa", "Viral Onnillenkilum", "Enthinu Moham", and "Kaathu Kolka Njangale" were popular during those times.
Legacy.
The film's success and the performance of Kottarakkara Sreedharan Nair as Veluthampi Dalawa prompted Udaya Studio and director Kunchacko to cast him as Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja in their historical film "Pazhassi Raja" (1964), but it did not perform well at the box office.


Hagi Castle

, also known as Shizuki Castle, was a Japanese castle located in Hagi, Yamaguchi Prefecture.
Hagi Castle was built in 1604 at the beginning of the Edo period as the main castle of the Mōri clan, and served as the seat of the Chōshū Domain for over 250 years until 1863. Hagi Castle was demolished in 1874 shortly after the Meiji Restoration.
Hagi Castle's former site has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since July 2015.
History.
Hagi Castle was constructed in 1604 by Mōri Terumoto, the head of the Mōri clan, as his new seat after defeat at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. The Mōri had ruled most of the Chūgoku region by the late Sengoku period, and Terumoto had recently constructed Hiroshima Castle from which to rule it. However, Terumoto had joined the western alliance against Tokugawa Ieyasu and subsequently lost most of his holdings, including Hiroshima Castle, and was forced west into the provinces of Suō and Nagato. Following the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, Terumoto applied to build new castles in present-day Hagi, Yamaguchi, and Mitajiri, with only Hagi being accepted because of its strategic location on the Sea of Japan coast. Hagi Castle was unusual as it was constructed mainly at the base of Mount Shizuki, though a few defences are located on the mountain. As the seat of the Mōri, the castle served as the "de facto" capital of the Chōshū Domain.
In 1863, Mōri Takachika moved the seat of the Mōri to Yamaguchi Castle without permission of the shogunate during the "Bakumatsu".
In 1874, much of Hagi Castle was demolished, leaving little but ruins, as part of a wave of castle demolitions following the Meiji Restoration.
Today.
Hagi Castle is a National Historic site. It was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 5, 2015 as part of the . It is registered as part of Hagi's Castle Town.


Konbaung tombs

The Konbaung tombs are a collection of mausoleums built by Konbaung Dynasty kings. They are scattered throughout the former royal capitals of Mandalay Region, including Mandalay, Amarapura, and Inwa.
Burial traditions.
When a Burmese king died, his royal white umbrella was broken and the great drum and gong at the palace's bell tower (at the eastern gate of the palace), was struck. It was custom for members of the royal family, including the king, to be cremated: their ashes were put into a velvet bag and thrown into the river. King Mindon Min was the first to break tradition; his remains were not cremated, but instead were buried intact, according to his wishes, at the place where his tomb now stands. Before his burial, the King Mindon's body was laid in state before his throne at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors).


Rama Madhav

Rama Madhav is a 2014 Indian Marathi-language historical drama directed by Mrinal Kulkarni, It takes place during the Peshwa era.
Rama Madhav released on 8 August 2014.
Critical response.
Namita Nivas of "Indian Express" praised Kulkarni's direction as well as the cinematography, costuming and set design, but felt that the second half of the film was paced too slowly.


Paku Alam IV

Paku Alam IV - was a ruler of the principality of Pakualaman between 1864 and 1878.
Pakualaman (also written Paku Alaman) became a small hereditary Duchy within the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, as a mirror-image of the Mangkunegaran principality in the territory of the Susuhunanate of Surakarta
The son of Paku Alam III, Paku Alam IV was the last Paku Alam to be buried at Kota Gede, his son Paku Alam V was the instigator of the royal burial ground at Girigondo


Jund al-Aqsa

Jund al-Aqsa ( "Jund al-‘Aqṣā", "Garrison of al-Aqsa"), later known as Liwa al-Aqsa after 7 February 2017, was a Salafist jihadist organization that was active during the Syrian Civil War. Formerly known as Sarayat al-Quds, the group was founded by Abu Abdul 'Aziz al-Qatari as a subunit within the al-Nusra Front. The group later became independent, because al-Nusra was growing too rapidly for its resources and had suffered from fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. On 20 September 2016 the U.S. Department of State designated Jund al-Aqsa as a terrorist organization. The group rejoined al-Nusra Front, by then renamed Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS), in October 2016. However, on 23 January 2017, JFS declared that Jund Al-Aqsa was no longer part of Jabhat Fateh Al-Sham. In early February 2017, some of Jund al-Aqsa's units joined the newly formed Tahrir al-Sham, while the others refused and formed a new splinter group called "Liwa al-Aqsa", and captured many towns in northern Hama and southern Idlib from other rebel groups. Following these attacks, Tahrir al-Sham launched a military operation against Liwa al-Aqsa, accusing them of being an ISIL affiliate. Following intense clashes with Tahrir al-Sham, up to 2,100 Liwa al-Aqsa militants left Idlib Province to join ISIL in Raqqa Province, by 22 February 2017.
History.
The name of the group means "Garrison of Aqsa," referring to Islam's third most important mosque in Jerusalem. They originally called themselves Sarayat al-Quds, which was a brigade operating under the al-Nusra Front, and drew inspiration from numerous Salafi-Jihadist scholars. Their goal was to eliminate the Assad regime and establish a state based on Sharia Islamic law. They did not see Syria as an independent state, rather as part of a larger caliphate, protecting a Sunni nation in Syria, Iraq, and Yemen. They differed from other Militant groups, such as ISIL, in their methodology. They refused to accuse someone of apostasy (pronounced "Takfeer" in Arabic). Such accusations allow rebels to deprive one another of their life and property, in other words, looting and killing. Militarily, they try to attack only areas they can maintain. They also had a strong background in bomb making and mortars. They only opted to use suicide bombings as a last resort, and did not launch attacks against the West.
In early 2014, the group was reportedly composed of mostly non-Syrian Arab fighters. By the end of the year, it had reportedly become a Syrian-majority group, partly because of defections from other Syrian rebel groups. The group worked with local and foreign fighters made up of Salafi jihadists, Palestinian movements, Al Qaeda-aligned groups, and Free Syrian Army groups. Their military expertise was drawn largely from Iraqi, Afghani, and Bosnian Jihad veterans. The group preferred to recruit foreign fighters, as they have greater motivation, stronger connection to their ideology, and have fought in other Miltant groups prior. Their fighting was targeted in the Syrian North.
On 7 January 2014, it was confirmed that 34 foreign ISIL and Jund al-Aqsa fighters had been executed in the previous few days by rebels in the Jabal Zawiya area. ISIL retreated from Mayadin in Deir ez-Zor Governorate, without any fighting with rebel forces. East of Rastan, in Homs Governorate, ISIL attacked a rebel headquarters, killing 15 rebel fighters. During the day, it was revealed that during the previous evening, ISIL executed up to 50 prisoners in the Qadi al-Askar district of Aleppo. The dead included media activists, relief workers, and other civilians. According to the opposition SOHR, 42 people were executed, including, 21 rebel fighters and five media activists.
In February 2014, Jund al-Aqsa captured the town of Ma'an and massacred 21 Alawite civilians, two-thirds of them women and children. They launched another attack in March 2014, via suicide bombings that massacred another 20 civilians. They were also involved in an operation to seize a Hama military airport in July of the same year.
In March 2015, during the capture of Idlib city, Jund al-Aqsa aided its allies in the Jaish al-Fatah coalition by sending at least two suicide bombers of Kuwaiti and Saudi origins, which allowed the rebels to advance by capturing Qal’ah and Ayn Shib checkpoints. In July 2015, the group raided a Sharia court in Kafr Nabl alongside Jabhat al-Nusra. During the raid, al-Nusra and Jund al-Aqsa arrested several judges and seized documents from the court. The two groups also raided a police station in the town and closed several stores next to the court.
SOHR claimed that Jund al-Aqsa joined the 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes and established checkpoints in support of al-Nusra. According to the 13th Division's media wing, their position was overran and 4 of their fighters were killed.
In late August 2016, Jund al-Aqsa announced an offensive in northern Hama Governorate. During this offensive, it used a drone to drop two small bombs on government forces. These bombs were mostly ineffective, but accurate to within 4 meters.
In October 2016, clashes between Jund al-Aqsa and Ahrar al-Sham escalated throughout the Idlib Governorate, with both sides expelling each other from several towns and villages. During the clashes 800 other rebels reportedly defected to Jund al-Aqsa, increasing the group's strength up to 1,600 fighters.
On 25 December 2016, 2 Free Idlib Army commanders were shot and killed in Maarat. Opposition activists accused Jund al-Aqsa of conducting the assassination. The next day, the al-Nusra Front raided houses throughout Idlib and captured 16 FIA fighters from the Mountain Hawks Brigade. The rebels were captured on charges of participating in the Turkish military intervention in Syria.
As a result of the clashes, the group pledged allegiance to Jabhat Fatah al-Sham. This group was a rebranded version of al-Nusra Front, only changing their name in July 2016. The leaders of Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS) and Jund al-Aqsa signed their names in a text agreement to pledge their allegiance. However, shortly after, an agreement between JFS and Ahrar al-Sham was posted on the Syrian opposition website, stating that Jund al Aqsa would be dissolved and completely incorporated with JFS, whereby preventing it from reconstructing independently under any other name or form.
The group has stated its continued loyalty to Ayman al Zawahiri for his eminence as the sheikh of the modern mujahedeen, according to them. Within the past three years, the group has assisted al-Qaeda in toppling the Syrian Revolutionaries Front and the Hazzm Movement, two key Western-backed rebel organizations in Syria, as well as weaken a third called Division 13.
Some sources believe that the original rift from al-Nusra Front was part of a Qatar-led effort to rebrand al-Nusra Front, and provide it with new support, a move that could increase external aid for the terrorist group. Another analysis of Jund al Aqsa's rift and reunification states that it's a reflection of al-Qaeda's strategy of downplaying its official ties to these groups, and a strategy of diversifying its investments, especially with regards to affiliations with Qatar and Kuwait and the lack of political will in their countries to combat terrorism and terror financing.
On 7 February 2017, Jund al-Aqsa attacked the headquarters of Jaysh al-Nasr near the town of Murak in northern Hama. Jund al-Aqsa captured more than 250 fighters from Jaysh al-Nasr. By 9 February, Jund al-Aqsa had captured 17 towns and villages from the Free Syrian Army and Tahrir al-Sham, in the northern Hama Province.
On 13 February 2017, clashes erupted between the Tahrir al-Sham and Liwa al-Aqsa (Jund al-Aqsa's new brand) in northern Hama and southern Idlib. It was rumored that Liwa al-Aqsa pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, sparking the clashes with Tahrir al-Sham, known as a staunch ISIL opponent.
On 14 February 2017, Jund al-Aqsa executed more than 170 prisoners of war, including both HTS fighters, FSA fighters, and civilians. Kafr Nuboudah and Kafr Zita villages were the origin of the Jaysh Nasr members whom Liwa al-Aqsa executed according to Moussa al-Omar. The casualties given for Jaysh Nasr were : fighters: fifty six, media reporters: three, and military chiefs : eleven, according to Moussa al-Omar. After Jund al-Aqsa committed the slaughter at Khan Shaykhun, only one person lived to tell the tale. On the next day, HTS captured the village of Heish from Jund al-Aqsa, and then besieged the retreating Jund al-Aqsa forces in Khan Shaykhun and Murak.
On 19 February 2017, it was reported that 600 Jund al-Aqsa militants would be transported to the Ar-Raqqah Governorate to join ISIL, while the remaining Jund al-Aqsa forces would surrender their heavy weapons and join the Turkistan Islamic Party within 72 hours. It was also reported that over 250 Free Syrian Army and Tahrir al-Sham fighters had been killed in clashes by Jund al-Aqsa. On the afternoon of 19 February, a convoy of Jund al-Aqsa members and their relatives tried to cross from the Idlib Province into the Raqqa Governorate across a Syrian government supply route to Aleppo, stretching from Ithriyah to Salamiyah, in order to escape the rebel infighting in the restive Idlib Governorate. However, they were ambushed by the National Defence Forces, resulting in several deaths, with the rest of the militants surrendering themselves.
On 22 February 2017, the last of Liwa al-Aqsa's 2,100 militants left their final positions in Khan Shaykhun to join ISIL in the Ar-Raqqah Province after a negotiated withdrawal deal with Tahrir al-Sham and the Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria. Afterward, Tahrir al-Sham declared terminating Liwa al-Aqsa, and promised to watch for any remaining cells in northwestern Syria. On 23 February, the relatives of FSA prisoners executed by Liwa al-Aqsa accused the group of treating them worse than the Syrian regime ever did.
On 9 July 2017, Tahrir al-Sham, utilizing over 1,000 fighters, performed raids in Idlib Governorate against alleged ISIL and Jund al-Aqsa sleeper cells, arresting over 100 fighters.
In March 2018, remnants of Jund al-Aqsa in Sarmin, led by Abu Diab al-Sarmini, regrouped under the name of Ansar al-Tawhid. Other Jund al-Aqsa cells would go on to form the al-Qaeda-affiliated Guardians of Religion Organization. Ansar al-Tawhid reportedly consisted of around 300 fighters. It would later go on to form the al-Qaeda-affiliated Alliance to Support Islam, which included the Guardians of Religion Organization, joined by other hardline members of Tahrir al-Sham and other groups.
On 23 March, suspected Jund al-Aqsa-linked gunmen attacked the headquarters of the Sham Legion in Idlib.
Relationship with ISIL.
In 2014, it was reported that the group was receiving continuous funding from wealthy private Gulf donors for their refusal to attack ISIL, part of which was the reason for their rift with al-Nusra Front and Ahrar al-Sham. They reformed after previously fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who hurt the group and also caused them to run into some debt. These Gulf donors, who financed them for this reason, refused to finance groups involved in intra-rebel fighting.
On 23 October 2015, Jund al-Aqsa left the Army of Conquest, because it had misgivings about fighting against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, maintaining a stance that fighting ISIL in an offensive manner was contrary to Islamic law, and it would only fight ISIL defensively if attacked, while reaffirming its loyalty to al-Qaeda. On 17 February 2016, over 400 fighters and senior leaders of Jund al-Aqsa defected to al-Nusra Front.
In the February 2016 Khanasir offensive, Jund al-Aqsa and ISIL temporarily cut off the Syrian government's supply route to Aleppo, sharing war booty captured from Syrian forces before retreating.
In April 2016, fighters from the group sympathetic towards ISIL allegedly gratified the walls outside a girl's school with writings saying "Girls wear Niqabs or we'll cut your necks - soldiers of the Caliphate".
Leadership.
Jund al-Aqsa was known to have significant roots in the Gulf, particularly Qatar. This has raised questions about how much these associated Gulf states have contributed in tackling terrorism and its financing, due to the country's lack of pressing charges or convicting known terrorists and terrorist financiers.
Abu Abdul Aziz al-Qatari was the organization's founder and first emir. He was a Jordanian citizen with Palestinian roots. His real name is Muhammed Yusuf Uthman Abd al Salam, and he was reportedly a longtime al-Qaeda associate. Abdul Aziz changed his name according to his move from state to state. He was reported to have worked for al Qaeda in Afghanistan where he was close to Miltants including Osama bin Laden, Ayman al Zawahiri, and Sheikh Abdullah Azzam. He also fought against the Russian forces in Chechnya, and shortly after helped Abu Musab al-Zarqawi found Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad, which is known to be the precursor to Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI). After the death of Zarqawi, he continued to serve as an official in the Miltant organization.
He was also a co-founder of al-Nusra Front, al-Qaeda's Syrian branch, with Abu Mohammad al-Julani in 2012, after the two were sent to Syria by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi to form terrorist sleeper cells. At this time he also was involved in financing for the Islamic State.
His ties to the Gulf stem from the time period between the 2003 American invasion of Iraq to just prior to the Syrian Revolution, where he transitioned from assisting extremists in Iraq to helping them in Qatar. He believed that in Qatar he could assist jihadists both materially and logistically. He was also associated with the head of a banned extremist group called the Ummah Party after traveling with him to Syria in 2011 to assist and fund insurgent groups in the region, including Ahrar al Sham. This group drew inspiration from a U.S. and UN sanctioned terrorism financier and Kuwaiti cleric, Hamid bin Hammad al Ali. This group was reported by "The New York Times" to be backed by the governments of both Turkey and Qatar. He went on to become one of al-Nusra Front's senior ranking leaders.
His sons are both Qatari ID holders, and are sanctioned by both the UN and the United States for their funding of various al Qaeda branches. His sons have been successful in connecting the Jund al Aqsa group with Iranian financing from al Qaeda's network in Iran.
After Abdul Aziz's death in 2014, one of his sons became a leader of Jund al Aqsa. According to Syrian opposition sources, the group is run by several individuals, one of which is Abu Ahmed al Qatari, who is the son of Abdul Aziz. He is known to be the organization's primary financial official, responsible for recruiting new members and buying up independent militias. He holds direct links with wealthy and ideologically extremist Qatari and Kuwaiti businessmen, who finance terrorist groups via charity fronts. Another noteworthy leader is Abu Dharr al Jazrawi, a Saudi national, who, along with Abu Ahmed al Qatari, are accused of allowing the group to be supported and penetrated by Qatari intelligence services.
The last Emir of the group was Abu Thar al-Najdi I-Harthy, a Saudi Arabian citizen.


Amyotha Hluttaw

The Amyotha Hluttaw (, ; House of Nationalities) is the "de jure" upper house of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, the bicameral legislature of Myanmar (Burma). It consists of 224 members, of whom 168 are directly elected and 56 appointed by the Myanmar Armed Forces. The last elections to the Amyotha Hluttaw were held in November 2015. At its second meeting on 3 February 2016, Mahn Win Khaing Than and Aye Thar Aung were elected Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Amyotha Hluttaw and Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw as a whole.
After the coup d'état on 1 February 2021, the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw was dissolved by Acting President Myint Swe, who declared a one-year state of emergency and transferred all legislative powers to Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services Min Aung Hlaing.
Composition.
House of Nationalities ("Amyotha Hluttaw") consists of 224 members: 168 directly elected and 56 appointed by the Myanmar Armed Forces. Twelve representatives are elected by each state or region (inclusive of relevant Union territories, and including one representative from each Self-Administered Division or Self-Administered Zone).
2016–2021.
2015 results are as of 20 November 2015. Military appointees are not included in the "Amyotha Hluttaw by Regions and States, 2015" table.


San Juan River Bridge

The San Juan River Bridge (Filipino: "Tulay ng Ilog San Juan"), also known as San Juan del Monte Bridge, "San Juan Bridge" and the Old Santa Mesa Bridge, is a bridge that connects San Juan and Manila, spanning the San Juan River. The bridge connects the N. Domingo Street in San Juan and Old Santa Mesa Street in Manila. The location of the bridge served as a battlefield during the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Spaniards and the 1899 Philippine–American War.
On, January 29, 1899, Colonel Luciano San Miguel, Filipino Commander had his first meeting with Colonel John M. Stotsenburg, Commander of the First Nebraska Volunteers on this bridge to discuss the boundaries of their respective forces. On February 4, 1899, an encounter between the Filipino and American forces led to a shooting incident and sparked the Battle of Manila.
On February 5, 2009, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines installed a historical marker on San Juan River Bridge commemorating its role to the start of the Battle of Manila.
History.
After Emilio Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898, at Kawit, Cavite, there still was uneasy peace around Manila. Filipinos revolutionaries felt that Spain simply ceded the Philippines to the United States who were determined to take over from where the Spaniards left off. American forces started to come between June and July 1898 where 8,000 were deployed around Manila and 11,000 more deployed along the Zapote Line.
On December 5, 1898, the First Nebraska Volunteer Infantry under Colonel John M. Stotsenburg, started to camp in Santa Mesa, Manila just near the San Juan River Bridge. Their camp was surrounded on three side by Philippine forces led by Colonel Luciano San Miguel. The Nebraskans were outnumbered so they had to build their defense consisting of a series of outposts. They had regular patrol around the area since they felt restless on their location.
On the evening of February 4, 1899, Private William Walter Grayson, Private Orville Miller and another soldier were patrolling the area when they encountered insurgents. Grayson and Miller asked them to "Halt!" but the armed men continued to advance. This prompted Grayson to fire the first shots and retreated back to their line. This spread to the other parts of the line and sparked an exchange of shots between the Filipinos and the Americans.
The following day, February 5, 1899, General Elwell Stephen Otis deployed his troops to Santa Mesa and later on sparked the Battle of Manila
The Battle of Manila started just two days before the US Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris on February 6, 1899. The war that lasted till 1902 resulted in the death of more than 4,200 Americans and over 20,000 Filipino nationalists.
On September 15, 2018, the bridge was demolished to give way for the construction of Metro Manila Skyway Stage 3 Section 2B, which passes over San Juan River. The barges needed to lay the foundations of the pillar sections of Skyway required the bridge's demolition to gain access to the construction area. The bridge was reconstructed and it reopened on March 11, 2020.


Soviet Civil Administration

The Soviet Civil Administration (SCA) functioned as the occupying government of northern Korea from October 3, 1945 until the founding of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1948; it governed concurrently after the setup of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea in 1946. It was the administrative structure that the Soviet Union used to govern what would become North Korea following the division of Korea. General Terentii Shtykov was the main proponent of setting up a centralized structure to coordinate Korean People's Committees. The setup was officially recommended by General Ivan Chistyakov and headed by General Andrei Romanenko in 1945 and by General Nikolai Lebedev in 1946.


Arikoyama Castle

 is a castle structure in Toyooka, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan.
It was the original base of power for the Yamana clan. Yamana Toyosuke moved their home castle from Konosumiyama Castle in 1576 after his Konosumiyama Castle was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
Current.
The castle is now only ruins, with some stone walls and moats. In 2017, the castle　was　listed as one of　the Continued Top 100 Japanese Castles.