Treaty of Chicago

The Treaty of Chicago may refer to either of two treaties made and signed in the settlement that became Chicago, Illinois between the United States and the Odaawaa (anglicized Ottawa), Ojibwe (anglicized Chippewa), and Bodéwadmi (anglicized Potawatomi) (collectively, Council of Three Fires) Native American peoples. The first was in 1821 and the second in 1833.
Background.
In 1795, in a then minor part of the Treaty of Greenville, a Native American confederation granted treaty rights to the United States in a six-mile parcel of land at the mouth of the Chicago River. This was followed by the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis, which ceded additional land in the Chicago area, including the Chicago Portage.
1821 Treaty of Chicago.
The first treaty of Chicago was signed by Michigan Territorial Governor Lewis Cass and Solomon Sibley for the United States and representatives of the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi (Council of Three Fires) on August 29, 1821, and proclaimed on March 25, 1822. The treaty ceded to the United States all lands in Michigan Territory south of the Grand River, with the exception of several small reservations. Also ceded by the Native Americans was a tract of land, easement between Detroit and Chicago (through Indiana and Illinois), around the southern coast of Lake Michigan, while specific Native Americans were also granted property rights to defined parcels.
Potawatomi chief Metea gave the following speech in defense of his land at the signing of the Treaty of Chicago:
My Father,—We have listened to what you have said. We shall now retire to our camps and consult upon it. You will hear nothing more from us at present. [This is a uniform custom of all the Native Americans. When the council was again convened, Metea continued.] We meet you here to-day, because we had promised it, to tell you our minds, and what we have agreed upon among ourselves. You will listen to us with a good mind, and believe what we say. You know that we first came to this country, a long time ago, and when we sat ourselves down upon it, we met with a great many hardships and difficulties. Our country was then very large; but it has dwindled away to a small spot, and you wish to purchase that! This has caused us to reflect much upon what you have told us; and we have, therefore, brought all the chiefs and warriors, and the young men and women and children of our tribe, that one part may not do what others object to, and that all may be witnesses of what is going forward. You know your children. Since you first came among them, they have listened to your words with an attentive ear, and have always hearkened to your counsels. Whenever you have had a proposal to make to us, whenever you have had a favor to ask of us, we have always lent a favorable ear, and our invariable answer has been 'yes.' This you know! A long time has passed since we first came upon our lands, and our old people have all sunk into their graves. They had sense. We are all young and foolish, and do not wish to do anything that they would not approve, were they living. We are fearful we shall offend their spirits, if we sell our lands; and we are fearful we shall offend you, if we do "not" sell them. This has caused us great perplexity of thought, because we have counselled among ourselves, and do not know how we can part with the land. Our country was given to us by the Great Spirit, who gave it to us to hunt upon, to make our cornfields upon, to live upon, and to make down our beds upon when we die. And he would never forgive us, should we bargain it away. When you first spoke to us for lands at St. Mary's, we said we had a little, and agreed to sell you a piece of it; but we told you we could spare no more. Now you ask us again. You are never satisfied! We have sold you a great tract of land already; but it is not enough! We sold it to you for the benefit of your children, to farm and to live upon. We have now but little left. We shall want it all for ourselves. We know not how long we may live, and we wish to have some lands for our children to hunt upon. You are gradually taking away our hunting-grounds. Your children are driving us before them. We are growing uneasy. What lands you have, you may retain forever; but we shall sell no more. You think, perhaps, that I speak in passion; but my heart is good towards you. I speak like one of your own children. I am an Indian, a red-skin, and live by hunting and fishing, but my country is already too small; and I do not know how to bring up my children, if I give it all away. We sold you a fine tract of land at St. Mary's. We said to you then, it was enough to satisfy your children, and the last we should sell: and we thought it would be the last you would ask for. We have now told you what we had to say. It is what was determined on, in a council among ourselves; and what I have spoken, is the voice of my nation. On this account, all our people have come here to listen to me; but do not think we have a bad opinion of you. Where should we get a bad opinion of you? We speak to you with a good heart, and the feelings of a friend. You are acquainted with this piece of land—the country we live in. Shall we give it up? Take notice, it is a small piece of land, and if we give it away, what will become of us? The Great Spirit, who has provided it for our use, allows us to keep it, to bring up our young men and support our families. We should incur his anger, if we bartered it away. If we had more land, you should get more; but our land has been wasting away ever since the white people became our neighbors, and we have now hardly enough left to cover the bones of our tribe. You are in the midst of your red children. What is due to us in money, we wish, and will receive at this place; and we want nothing more. We all shake hands with you. Behold our warriors, our women, and children. Take pity on us and on our words.
1833 Treaty of Chicago.
The second Treaty of Chicago granted the United States government all land west of Lake Michigan to Lake Winnebago in modern-day Wisconsin. The treaty included lands that are part of modern-day Illinois, as well. The treaty Native Americans (Potowatomi) in return received promises of various cash payments and tracts of land west of the Mississippi River.
At the concluding ceremony for the treaty in 1835, just prior to the evacuation of the Native Americans, five-hundred warriors gathered in the then nascent city (town founded 1833). In full dress, and brandishing tomahawks, they danced the last recorded war dance in the Chicago area.


Hyacinth (Jacek) Gulski

Hyacinth Gulski (November 28, 1847 – December 24, 1911) was a pioneer Polish-American Roman Catholic priest.
Biography.
Gulski was born in Chełmno, then part of West Prussia in 1847, son of Antoni Gulski (musician) and Anna Schewa, his birth name was Franciscus Joannes . In 1866 he joined the Franciscans and was ordained at Laki, German partition of Poland, entering the priesthood on September 21, 1873. That same year, his friary was closed as a result of the "Kulturkampf". Gulski spent two years in hiding and eventually fled in 1875 via Antwerp to the United States, where he was offered a pastorship in Berlin, Wisconsin. The following year, he was transferred to St. Stanislaus Catholic Church in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the principal Polish parish in the city.
Under Gulski's guidance, "St. Stan" grew; a new US$4000 pipe organ was added to the church and its spires covered in copper. During his pastorate, in 1882 a record 96 marriages were performed in the church. The church was now serving 400 families, an increase from the original 30. A new rectory was built that same year. Eventually, even this large church could no longer cope with the numbers wishing to attend mass.
Gulski left St. Stanislaus to organize the new St. Hyacinth parish, which was located just west of St. Stanislaus. Many were surprised by this move, as obviously St. Stanislaus was a prestigious posting for a priest. However, Father Gulski had a missionary zeal to build houses of worship for his beloved Polish community in Milwaukee. A location was chosen on West Becher and South 15th Streets to construct the new church with the support of Archbishop Michael Heiss. In addition, a school, hall, rectory, and convent were built on the site. Although not as elegant as St. Stanislaus, the parishioners felt the austere lines were conducive to prayer and meditation. The church, seated 800 worshipers, was blessed on April 1, 1883.
Gulski was a gifted orator, and many of Milwaukee's south side residents preferred to attend mass at St. Hyacinth because of his beautiful homilies. Gulski's gift for singing earned him the nickname of the "Polish Nightingale". By 1888, the two parishes on the south side could no longer cope with the increased population. Gulski was instrumental in organizing the new parishes of St. Vincent's in 1888, and SS. Cyril and Methodius in 1893, to accommodate the rising number of Polish speaking worshipers.
Gulski convinced the Polish Sisters of St. Felix of Cantalice to come to Milwaukee and establish an orphanage there. Ground was broken in 1907, and the following year 46 boys and 39 girls were welcomed at St. Joseph Orphan Asylum. Other Polish parishes in Milwaukee offered shelter to orphans, as well as to young ladies with unplanned pregnancies who were often rejected by their families. It was felt that a Polish orphanage was necessary to preserve the ethnic heritage of the children so that they would not be lost to the American cultural "melting pot". For his efforts, Gulski was honored with the title of Monsignor.
Gulski presented the city of Milwaukee with a large statue of Tadeusz Kościuszko for Kosciusko Park that was paid for by private donations. Eventually internal problems emerged in his parish. Discord in his beloved "Jackowo" in 1909 lead to his transfer to St. Hedwig's (Milwaukee) for two years. He was replaced at St. Hyacinth by Boleslaus Goral. Death claimed Gulski in 1911. Many believed that by having been forced to leave his beloved St. Hyacinth parish, which he had built from the ground up, Gulski died of a broken heart.


Franklin Hughes Delano

Franklin Hughes Delano (July 27, 1813 – December 23, 1893) was an American merchant, diplomat and society man.
Early life.
Delano was born in Dartmouth, Massachusetts on July 27, 1813 and grew up in Fairhaven. He was a son of Captain Warren Delano and Deborah Perry (née Church) Delano. Among his siblings was brother Warren Delano Jr. After his mother's death in 1827, his father, who was involved in the New England sea trade, remarried to Elizabeth Adams, a widow of Captain Parker of the United States Navy.
A descendant of Philip Delano (a Pilgrim who arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621), Franklin's paternal grandparents were Ephraim Delano and Elisabeth (née Cushman) Delano, and his maternal grandparents were Joseph Church and Deborah (née Perry) Church. Through his brother Warren, Franklin was the uncle of Warren Delano IV, Frederic Adrian Delano, and Sara Delano Roosevelt (the mother of Delano's grand-nephew and namesake, Franklin Delano Roosevelt).
Career.
Delano was involved, and partners, in a number of financial ventures, including shipping ventures, with his brothers Warren, Frederick, and Edward. In January 1839, he became a partner in the New York shipping firm of Grinnell, Minturn & Company. He served as U.S. Consul for Chile at New York, from 1840 until 1851, when he resigned that office and also retired as an active partner in Grinnell, Minturn & Co. After his marriage, Delano joined his father-in-law in the Astor family business, located on Pearl Street in New York City, and assisted in control the large piece of property in New York City which his wife had inherited.
After his retirement in 1851, Delano and his wife traveled to Europe, and later, spent much of their time in Italy and Monte Carlo.
In the 1850s, Delano, along with his brother Warren and Asa Packer (the builder of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and founder of Lehigh University), headed a land company that purchased several thousand acres and established the town of Delano, Pennsylvania. Delano also served as the company president of the Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad, the largest railroad in Alabama, due to the Astor family's ownership of a large block of stock. The Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad was formed by the consolidation of Alabama and Tennessee River Rail Road Co. (incorporated in 1848), the Georgia and Alabama Rail Road Co. (incorporated in 1854), and the Dalton and Jacksonville Railroad Co. (incorporated in 1854) on August 6, 1866. Delano handed over day-to-day management of the railroad to Captain E. G. Barney.
Personal life.
In September 1844, Delano was married to heiress Laura Eugenia Astor. Laura was a daughter of William Backhouse Astor Sr. and Margaret (née Armstrong) Astor, and a sister, among others, of John Jacob Astor III and William Backhouse Astor Jr. (husband of "the" Mrs. Astor). Reportedly, Laura was the favorite granddaughter of John Jacob Astor, the founding Astor family patriarch who was America's first millionaire who died in 1848, four years after their marriage. Her maternal grandparents were John Armstrong Jr. (a U.S. Senator, U.S. Minister to France under Thomas Jefferson and U.S. Secretary of War under James Madison) and Alida (née Livingston) Armstrong.
In New York City, the Delanos lived at 190 Madison Avenue, and where he was a member of the Union Club (which he joined in 1839, three years after its founding in 1836), the Knickerbocker Club, the Century Club, the New-England Society, ad the American Geographic Society.
Around 1890, due to failing health, Delano moved abroad and after traveling for a year, took up residence in Monte Carlo, Monaco, where he died on December 23, 1893. His widow died in 1902.
Steen Valeitje.
As a wedding gift, Laura's father gifted the couple the southernmost 100 acres of his Rokeby estate. The estate came to be known as "Steen Valetje" (which means "little stone valley" in Dutch). The Tuscan-style mansion, designed by Frank Wills, was completed in 1851. In 1866 William Astor Sr. conveyed the adjoining 142 acres of Rokeby to his son, Henry. Henry Astor built a brick dwelling on this land, but in 1873 conveyed the property to Laura, thus expanding "Steen Valetje". A gatehouse, designed by Walter Schickles & Co. was added in 1874. The mansion was expanded in 1881 by architect Thomas Stent.
The Astors and the Delanos commissioned German born landscape gardener Hans Jacob Ehlers to improve the grounds at Rokeby and Steen Valetje. Ehlers converted an old farm track into a woodland path called the Poet's Walk in honor of poets Washington Irving and Fitz-Greene Halleck, who are said to have strolled there. It is now Poets' Walk Park, managed by the not-for-profit Scenic Hudson.
As Delano and his wife both died childless, he left Steen Valetje to his nephew, coal baron Warren Delano IV. Warren IV was very involved in horse breeding, with over sixty saddle, driving, and draft horses at his stables at "Steen Valetje". He died September 9, 1920, when, while picking up a trunk at the Barrytown Train Station, his carriage horse was frightened by an approaching northbound New York Central express, and dashed onto the tracks with the buggy carrying Delano, who was killed instantly. His funeral was held at "Steen Valetje" and was attended by his nephew Franklin, then the Democratic vice presidential candidate.
Jennie Walters Delano, died two years later in 1922. Their son Lyman inherited "Steen Valetje" and his family kept the home until 1966 when it was sold. In the late 20th century the mansion was remodeled in the Georgian style; and the estate's name was changed to "Mandara".


Randall Woodfield

Randall Brent "Randy" Woodfield (born December 26, 1950) is an American serial killer, rapist, kidnapper, and robber who was dubbed the I-5 Killer or the I-5 Bandit by the media due to the crimes he committed along the Interstate 5 corridor running through Washington, Oregon, and California. Before his capture, the I-5 Killer was suspected of multiple sexual assaults and murders. Though convicted in only one murder, he has been linked to a total of 18, and is suspected of having killed up to 44 people.
A native of Oregon, Woodfield was the third child of a prominent Newport family. He began to exhibit abnormal behaviors during his teenage years, and was arrested for indecent exposure while still in high school. An athlete for much of his life, Woodfield played as a wide receiver for the Portland State Vikings, and was drafted by the NFL in 1974 to play for the Green Bay Packers, but was cut from the team during training after a series of indecent exposure arrests.
In 1975, Woodfield began a string of robberies and sexual assaults on women in Portland, which he committed at knifepoint. Between 1980 and 1981, he committed multiple murders in cities along the I-5 corridor in Washington, Oregon, and California; his earliest-documented murder was that of Cherie Ayers, a former classmate whom he had known since childhood, in October 1980. After committing numerous robberies, sexual assaults, and murders, Woodfield was arrested in March 1981, and convicted in June of the murder of Shari Hull and attempted murder of her co-worker, Beth Wilmot, and sentenced to life imprisonment plus 90 years. In a subsequent trial, he was convicted of sodomy and improper use of a weapon in a sexual assault case, receiving 35 additional years to his sentence.
Woodfield has never confessed to any of the crimes of which he has been accused or convicted. Though he has only been convicted of one murder and one attempted murder, he has been linked via DNA and other methods to numerous unsolved homicides in the ensuing decades. Authorities have estimated his total number of killings to be as many as 44, and CBS News named him one of the deadliest serial killers in American history. He is currently incarcerated at the Oregon State Penitentiary.
Early life.
Childhood.
Woodfield was born December 26, 1950, in Salem, Oregon, the third child of an upper-middle-class family. His mother was a homemaker, and his father was an executive at Pacific Northwest Bell. He has two older sisters, one of whom went on to become a doctor, and the other an attorney. The Woodfield family was "well-known and respected" in their community.
Woodfield was raised in Otter Rock, Oregon, a small seaside town on the central Oregon coast, approximately north of Newport. Popular among his peers, Woodfield was a football star at Newport High School. Though his childhood was by all accounts stable, Woodfield began to exhibit sexually dysfunctional behaviors during junior high school, particularly exposing himself in public. While in high school, Woodfield exposed himself to a group of teenage girls on Yaquina Bay Bridge, and was arrested for indecent exposure. His football coaches helped conceal the incident to prevent him from being ousted from the team, though his parents forced him to attend therapy over the incident.
College years and football career.
After graduating high school, Woodfield's criminal record was expunged, and he attended Treasure Valley Community College in Ontario, Oregon, later transferring to Portland State University in Portland in 1970, where he played for the Portland State Vikings as a wide receiver. At Portland State, he was active in Campus Crusade for Christ, a Christian student group, and lived in an apartment located on the South Park Blocks.
Gary Hamblet, Woodfield's football coach, recalled: "When he was with me, he was the nicest, most gentlemanly kid I ever knew. He was quiet and polite, hard-working and real coachable. " Other teammates and peers of Woodfield recalled him as "soft-spoken" and "kind of a loner" who "didn't have a lot of friends," but noted his athleticism.
Despite his thriving in college, Woodfield was arrested on several occasions for petty crimes: first in 1970 for vandalizing the apartment of his ex-girlfriend, and later in 1972 for public indecency in Vancouver, Washington. In 1973, he was arrested again for public indecency in Multnomah County.
Woodfield chose to drop out of college three semesters shy of graduating with his B.S. in physical education, and was selected as a wide receiver in the 1974 NFL Draft by the Green Bay Packers in the 17th round (428th pick). Woodfield tried to establish himself with the Packers during Coach and General Manager Dan Devine's last season, but could not shake his problems with a trip across the country. He signed a contract in February 1974 but was cut during training camp, failing to make the team's final roster.
After being cut by the Packers, Woodfield played the 1974 season with the semi-pro Manitowoc Chiefs and worked for Oshkosh Truck. A similar arrest, in Portland, earned him more suspended time in June 1973. In 1974, after a dozen "flashing" incidents called unwelcome attention to Woodfield, the Packers formally cut him from the NFL.
First crime spree.
Woodfield left Wisconsin in late 1974 and returned to Portland, disgraced by his failure to maintain his football career. In early 1975, several Portland women were accosted by a knife-wielding man, forced to perform oral sex and then robbed of their handbags. Law enforcement responded to the string of crimes by having female police officers act as decoys.
On March 3, 1975, Woodfield was arrested after being caught with marked money from one of the undercover officers. Upon interrogation, he confessed to the crimes, blaming poor sexual impulse control, which he claimed was a result of his use of steroids. In April 1975, he pled guilty to reduced charges of second-degree robbery. Woodfield was sentenced to ten years in prison. He was freed on parole in July 1979, after having served four years.
Murders and subsequent crimes.
First murders.
On October 9, 1980, Cherie Lynn Ayers, an X-ray technician and former classmate of Woodfield, was raped and murdered in her apartment in the 9000 block of SW Ninth Place in downtown Portland. Her body was discovered on October 11 by her fiancé. She had been bludgeoned and stabbed repeatedly in the neck. Ayers, a University of Oregon graduate, had known Woodfield since second grade, having attended the same schools in Newport.
During Woodfield's prior four-year imprisonment, he and Ayers had corresponded via letters. Suspecting Woodfield's involvement, Ayers' family provided his name to law enforcement. He was questioned but refused to sit for a polygraph test. Homicide detectives found his answers generally "evasive and deceptive" but, because his blood type did not match semen found in the victim's body, no charges were filed.
One month later, on the morning of November 27 (Thanksgiving Day), Woodfield arrived at the north Portland home of Darcey Renee Fix, 22, planning to assault her. Woodfield had known Fix during college as an ex-girlfriend of one his close friends. Douglas Keith Altig, 24, was at Fix's home when Woodfield arrived. Both Fix and Altig were subsequently bound and shot to death execution-style in the home, and Fix's .32-caliber revolver was missing from the scene. Due to his acquaintance with Fix, Woodfield was questioned about the murders, but law enforcement found no concrete evidence pointing to his involvement.
I-5 Bandit robberies.
After committing the murders of Fix and Altig, Woodfield began a series of robberies throughout the northwest: On December 9, 1980, Woodfield, wearing a fake beard, held up a Vancouver, Washington gas station at gunpoint. In Eugene, Oregon four nights later, on December 13, he raided an ice cream parlor. On December 14, he robbed a drive-in restaurant in Albany. During one of the robberies, Woodfield wore what appeared to be a Band-Aid or athletic tape across the bridge of his nose, similar to nasal strips worn by football players. On December 21, Woodfield (again wearing a false beard) accosted a waitress in Seattle, trapping her in a restaurant bathroom and forcing her at gunpoint to give him a handjob.
By January 1981, law enforcement had dubbed the robber the "I-5 Bandit", given his apparent preference for committing crimes along the Interstate 5 corridor. On January 8, he held up the same Vancouver gas station he had robbed in December, this time forcing a female attendant to expose her breasts after he emptied the cash register. Three days later, on January 11, he robbed a market in Eugene. The next day, January 12, he shot and wounded a female grocery clerk at a store in Sutherlin, Oregon.
On January 14, a man matching the description of the I-5 bandit and wearing a false beard invaded a home occupied by two sisters, aged eight and ten. He forced the girls to undress and sexually assaulted them. Four days later, in Salem, a man matching the same description entered an office building and sexually abused two women, Shari Hull and Beth Wilmot, after which he killed Hull and wounded Wilmot, leaving her for dead. On January 26 and 29, he traveled to southern Oregon and committed robberies in Eugene, Medford and Grants Pass. In the latter location, two females, a clerk and customer, were assaulted by the robber.
Later murders.
On February 3, 1981, the bodies of Donna Eckard, 37, and her 14-year-old daughter were found together in a bed in their home at Mountain Gate, California, north of Redding. Each had been shot several times in the head. Forensic tests showed that the girl had also been sodomized. The same day in Redding, a female store clerk was kidnapped, raped and sodomized in a holdup. An identical crime was reported in Yreka on February 4, with the same man robbing an Ashland, Oregon motel that night.
Five days later in Corvallis, a man matching the I-5 Bandit's description held up a fabric store, molesting the clerk and her customer before he left. On February 12, 1981, robberies committed by a man matching the I-5 Bandit's description occurred in Vancouver, Olympia, and Bellevue, Washington. The Olympia and Bellevue incidents included three sexual assaults.
Upon an impending visit to Portland, Woodfield planned a Valentine's Day party at the city's downtown Marriott Hotel, inviting friends and acquaintances from college. After no guests came, Woodfield drove to the Beaverton home of 18-year-old Julie Reitz, whom Woodfield had met while working as a bouncer at The Faucet, a bar in Portland. He arrived at her home around 2 a.m. on February 15. Around 4 a.m., he raped and then shot Reitz in the head, killing her. Police investigating the scene determined that Reitz had had a glass of wine with her attacker, and had also begun to prepare coffee: A package of instant coffee was discovered on the kitchen counter, and water in a kettle had been left to completely boil down.
Arrest and trials.
By February 28, the investigation was now focused on Woodfield, but by then the I-5 Bandit had struck three more times — in Eugene on February 18 and 21, and with another sexual assault in Corvallis on February 25. Detectives in Marion County assembled a call log showing Woodfield had placed calls via calling cards at pay phones near the murder sites around the times they were committed.
On March 5, 1981, Woodfield was brought into the Salem Police Department for an interrogation after Lisa Garcia positively identified him in a photo lineup. His apartment in Springfield, Oregon was subsequently searched two days later by warrant; inside, law enforcement discovered a spent .32 shell casing inside a racquetball bag, as well as a roll of tape that matched the tape found on the victims. On March 7, Woodfield was taken into custody after being positively identified by several Oregon robbery victims. On March 16, indictments for murder, rape, sodomy, attempted kidnapping, armed robbery, and illegal possession of firearms were initiated from various jurisdictions in Washington and Oregon.
In the summer of 1981, Woodfield was tried in Salem for the murder of Hull, as well as charges of sodomy and attempted murder (of Wilmot). Wilmot testified against him in the trial, and was key in the prosecution's conviction. Chris Van Dyke, son of actor Dick Van Dyke, was the Marion County, Oregon District Attorney at the time and prosecuted the case. Van Dyke would later characterize Woodfield as "the coldest, most detached defendant I've ever seen." On June 26, 1981, after three-and-a-half hours of deliberation, Woodfield was convicted on all counts and sentenced to life in prison plus 90 years.
In October 1981, a second trial was held in Benton County, Oregon, in which Woodfield received sodomy and weapons charges tied to one of the attacks in a restaurant bathroom. Prior to this trial, his counsel attempted to move the trial from Willamette Valley; he felt that, owing to the publicity the case received, Woodfield would not get a fair trial there. The judge in the case denied counsel's request, along with a request to hypnotize a prosecution witness in an effort to determine if that witness had been influenced by the media coverage. Woodfield was convicted by the jury, and had an additional 35 years added to his already-instated sentence.
Despite the apparent links with countless other crimes and homicides, Woodfield would not be prosecuted for the majority of the crimes he was believed to have committed. Unable to afford multiple trials, the State of Oregon was satisfied with Woodfield's existing life sentence.
Post-conviction.
Woodfield is serving his sentences at the Oregon State Penitentiary in Salem. In October 1983, he was injured by a fellow inmate during a prison disturbance. In April 1987, Woodfield filed a $12 million libel suit against author Ann Rule, the author who had written "The I-5 Killer". The account of Woodfield's life and crime spree became a best-selling book in 1984. The Federal Court in Oregon dismissed the lawsuit in January 1988, citing that the statute of limitations on such a lawsuit had expired.
By 1990, after the discovery of more victims, Woodfield was suspected in as many as 44 homicides. In 2001 and 2006, DNA testing linked Woodfield to two additional murders in Oregon that occurred from 1980 and 1981.
During his time in the penitentiary, Woodfield has married three times and divorced twice. Some letters he wrote from prison were sold online as a collection titled "The Serial Killer Letters" and published by The Charles Press. In one of these letters, he wrote to journalist Jennifer Furio:
"Modus operandi" and victim profile.
The majority of Woodfield's victims were petite white women in their twenties, many of middle-class backgrounds. A great many of his victims—particularly in instances of robbery and sexual assault—were young employees of restaurants and convenience stores located along Interstate 5, which Woodfield traversed in his 1974 Champagne Edition gold Volkswagen Beetle. In some instances, Woodfield's attacks were undertaken entirely at random, while in others, the murders were incited by rejected sexual advances. His level of acquaintance with his victims varied; some he knew personally, while others were complete strangers.
During his robberies, assaults, and killings, Woodfield typically concealed his identity by wearing a hoodie, a fake beard, and most curiously, a strip of athletic tape across his nose. Police believe Woodfield may have done so to obscure his features and prevent victims from identifying him in a police lineup. Woodfield's victims were typically killed via gunshot, and his crimes were sexually-motivated.
Jim Lawrence, a detective for Portland's cold case unit, noted Woodfield's lack of remorse or responsibility in his crimes, saying: "If you’re talking about somebody moving toward some form of rehabilitation, they had to at some point acknowledge they are responsible for their own behaviors. That is not Randy Woodfield." Lawrence also noted Woodfield's egotism during his early interrogations: "When he was interviewed, he'd tell detectives that he'd never rape a girl. He said he didn't have to. They wanted him." Ann Rule, who documented Woodfield's crimes in her book "The I-5 Killer", suggested that rejection and feelings of inadequacy were factors that drove him to violence, particularly against women. She also characterized Woodfield as a "smooth ladies' man" whose good looks and disposition aided his ability to trap victims.
Unlike many serial killers, whose killing patterns are characterized by intervals, or "cooling off periods," Woodfield's murders and other crimes escalated rapidly, increasing in successive frequency.
Victims.
Woodfield never confessed to any of the murders of which he has been accused or linked to. Though convicted only in the murder of Shari Hull, Woodfield has been linked to numerous other murders via DNA and other methods; criminologists and detectives have provided estimated total numbers of killings ranging from 25 to as many as 44 unsolved homicides. Woodfield is also estimated to have committed at least 60 unsolved rapes. The following is a list of Woodfield's confirmed victims:
Other possible victims.
Retracing Woodfield's movements along Interstate 5, law enforcement have identified at least 25 other potential murders, while other estimations suggest up to 44. Notable is Martha Morrison (17), who disappeared in Eugene, Oregon in September 1974, and was found murdered the following month near Vancouver, Washington; her remains were unidentified until 2015. Both Woodfield and Ted Bundy have been considered suspects in her murder.
During the spring of 1980, Marsha Weatter (19) and Kathy Allen (18) vanished while hitch-hiking from the Spokane, Washington area to their hometown of Fairbanks, Alaska. Their bodies were found in May 1981. Suspected serial killer Martin Lee Sanders was later connected to their murders, but as of 2018 the case remains unsolved.
In popular culture.
In 2011, Woodfield was the subject of a Lifetime television film "Hunt for the I-5 Killer". The film was based on the book "The I-5 Killer" by Ann Rule. In the film, Woodfield is portrayed by Canadian actor Tygh Runyan.
On February 14, 2021, Stephanie Hollman, subject of reality series "The Real Housewives of Dallas", revealed her husband Travis had been babysat by Woodfield as a child.


R v Gonzales

R. v. Gonzales (1962), 37 C.R. 56, was a landmark decision by the British Columbia Court of Appeal holding that Section 94(a) of the "Indian Act" did not violate the respondent's equality before the law, guaranteed under section 1(b) of the "Canadian Bill of Rights", because all Indians were treated in the same way. "Gonzales" is particularly famous for employing the similarly situated test, which was not used in "R. v. Drybones" and was explicitly rejected by the Supreme Court of Canada in "Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia".


Box Elder Treaty

The Box Elder Treaty is an agreement between the Northwestern Shoshone and the United States government, signed on July 30, 1863. It was adopted after a period of conflict which included the Bear River Massacre on January 29, 1863. The treaty had little effect until 1968, when the United States compensated the Northwestern band for their land claim at a rate of about 50¢ per acre.
Background.
Of the large and disparate Shoshone nation, about ten villages of people lived in the "Northwest" area and followed Chief Bear Hunter. They understood how to live in the desert and followed a pattern of seasonal migrations.
Incursions by the California Trail, the Oregon Trail and the Mormon pioneers created conflict between the Shoshone and the white settlers. The Shoshone attacked and killed a relatively small proportion of white immigrants—usually people who encroached far into Shoshone lands.
The 3rd California Volunteers, led by Patrick Edward Connor, initiated military contact with the Shoshone around October 31, 1860, when they executed "about 14 or 15 Indians" in retaliation for a reported attack on a wagon train. More were taken hostage and then killed when they did not produce Indians culpable for the wagon attack. Violent conflict between the two groups continued. Although the Mormon settlers generally disapproved of these actions by the U.S. military, they also became fearful of violent Indians, and executed an Indian resident of Brigham City after a dispute over payment. Conditions for the Shoshone deteriorated quickly.
The U.S. military launched an attack of unprecedented size on the Indian groups. On January 29, 1863, they encountered a number of Indians at Bear River. The exact intensity of the battle that followed is not fully known. The U.S. troops used howitzers, rifles, and pistols to kill several hundred Indians (including women and children), in an incident now called the Bear River Massacre. After the Indians were militarily defeated, the U.S. soldiers raped and violently attacked the survivors. According to Shoshone oral histories, Chief Bear Hunters was captured and tortured before he was killed.
This killing had a devastating effect on the indigenous people of the Great Basin, and compelled many groups to accept treaties in 1863. White settlers in the Great Basin accused the Shoshone band led by Chief Pocatello of ongoing hostility. According to one story, Pocatello had been hostile to White people since around 1860, when his father was hanged by settlers in wagon train.
James Duane Doty and General Patrick Edward Connor were the lead negotiators for the United States. Pocatello was the lead negotiator for the Indian groups. Some of the bands who agreed to the treaty had been reduced to just a few members after the events of January.
Terms.
The treaty calls for peaceable relations between the two groups. It contains a promise by the U.S. to pay the Shoshone $5,000 yearly as compensation for the "utter destitution" inflicted by war. It also recognizes the claim of Chief Pocatello and his people to the land "bounded on the west by the Raft River and on the east by the Porteneuf Mountains".
Ratification.
The U.S. Congress ratified the treaty, amending an additional article:
Article V: Nothing herein contained shall be construed or taken to admit any other or greater title or interest in the lands embraced within the territories described in said treaty in said tribes or bands of Indians than existed in them upon the acquisition of said territories from Mexico by the laws thereof.
This amendment counteracted the Shoshone's land claim, which had never been incorporated into Spanish or Mexican law. Lincoln announced the treaty publicly on January 17, 1865.
Outcome.
After the treaty was signed, most of the Northwestern Shoshone gathered in the Cache Valley and Box Elder County. The U.S. successfully moved many of them to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation in Idaho after establishing it in 1868. Others converted to Mormonism and assimilated into Utah settler culture.
Indians were forcefully ejected from areas they attempted to settle within their supposed territory. Continuing white immigration destroyed the ecosystems upon which they relied and made their nomadic life impossible. They were resettled on a 500-acre tract in Box Elder County, which was owned and administered by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Later, they were encouraged to move to the Fort Hall Reservation.
Outside humanitarian assistance to the Shoshone came not from the U.S. government but eventually from the LDS Church headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah.
Chief Pabawena wrote Utah Senator Arthur V. Watkins in 1949 to report:
We are the northwestern band of the Shoshone pretty poor conditions and their childrens starving there fathers no work everything pretty hard for us no money.
And later in 1949:
We are have received no anything from the Government since the treaty was made in Box Elder treaty on July 30, 1863.
Action in U.S. legal system.
In 1927–1929, the U.S. Congress passed a law allowing the United States Court of Claims to hear arguments from the Northwestern Shoshone.
The Northwestern Shoshone brought a lawsuit in 1930 alleging that the U.S. had reneged on promises made in the Treaty. In 1942, the Court of Claims denied their claim. The U.S. at first told the Shoshone that they were owed $10,800.17; this decision was reversed after the U.S. invoked previous monies it had spent on Indian affairs.
"Northwestern Shoshone v. United States".
The Supreme Court took the case and ruled in "Northwestern Shoshone v. United States" that the Box Elder Treaty was a non-binding "treaty of friendship".
The Court split 5–4 on its decision. Stanley F. Reed wrote in the majority opinion that the signatories of the treaty "did not intend" to respect the Shoshone's right to the land in question. The majority opinion says that, as the original signatories were dead and the situation of their descendants was hopeless, white people had a "moral obligation" to address the "sociological" problem, but not a legal obligation under a treaty.
Robert H. Jackson wrote in a concurring opinion that the 1929 law did not envision legal damages paid directly to indigenous groups.
William O. Douglas and Frank Murphy wrote two dissenting opinions. Douglas argued that by 1863 standards, the territory agreement described by the Box Elder Treaty "could hardly have been plainer".
The American Civil Liberties Union condemned the ruling as a restriction of rights based on "dubious technical grounds".
Indian Claims Commission.
The Indian Claims Commission later acknowledged the validity of the claim, by way of the 1868 Fort Bridger Treaty. The Commission found on 13 February 1968 that 38,319,000 acres had been wrongfully taken from the northwestern Shoshone. Subtracting acres awarded by the Fort Hall Reservation and Wind River Reservation, it awarded $15,700,000—a price of slightly less than $0.50 per acre.
Attempted termination.
Watkins and other members of Congress sought to "terminate" the special relationship with the Northwestern Shoshone in 1957. The group was persistent in arguing that it should retain its sovereignty, and avoided the termination of status which befell other groups.


Theodore Roosevelt IV

Theodore Roosevelt V (born November 27, 1942), commonly known as Theodore Roosevelt IV, is an American investment banker and managing director at Barclays Capital Corporation. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Economic Club of New York, and the Foreign Policy Association, and serves on the Advisory Council of Represent.Us, a nonpartisan anti-corruption organization. Roosevelt is also a prominent conservationist. His name suffix varies since President Roosevelt's father was Theodore Roosevelt Sr., though the same-named son did not commonly use a "Jr" name suffix.
Early years.
Theodore Roosevelt IV was born on November 27, 1942. He is the only son of Theodore Roosevelt III (1914–2001) and Anne Mason Babcock (1917–2001). He earned his bachelor's degree from Harvard University in 1965. At Harvard, he was a member of the Porcellian Club. In 1972, he earned an MBA from the Harvard Business School, where he was a member of the HBS Rugby Club.
Roosevelt is a great-grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt. As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, and through his ancestor Cornelius Van Schaack Jr., he is a descendant of the Schuyler family. His maternal grandparents were George Wheeler Babcock (1879—1950) and Anne Mason Bonnycastle Robinson (1886—1923).
Career.
After college, he went to the Navy and was commissioned on as an ensign in the Naval Reserve on June 16, 1965, and he served as a U.S. Navy officer with Underwater Demolition Team 11 (BUD/S Class 36). After completing BUDS he served for two years in Vietnam with the Navy SEALs. He remained in the Naval Reserve after leaving active duty and was promoted to lieutenant commander on April 1, 1974.
He would later then go onto serving in the U.S. State Department as a foreign service officer in Washington, D.C. and the Upper Volta.
Public service.
Roosevelt is Chair of the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, a Trustee of the Alliance for Climate Protection, a member of the Governing Council of The Wilderness Society (United States), and a Trustee for the American Museum of Natural History, the World Resources Institute, and The Cultural Institutions Retirement System. He is also a Counselor for the China–U.S. Center for Sustainable Development. He sits on the Advisory Council of the nonpartisan anti-corruption organization Represent.Us, where he served as a consultant in the crafting of the American Anti-Corruption Act.
At the Republican Convention in 2000, Roosevelt gave the speech on the environment. He gave the keynote speech at the National Governors Association Annual Meeting in 2001 as well as the keynote address at the Governors Conference on Climate Change in April 2008 sponsored by Yale University. Most recently, he spoke at the Conference of Parties Climate Summit in December 2009 in Copenhagen sponsored by the European Union Parliament.
On April 18, 2016, the day before the New York Republican primary, Roosevelt endorsed Ohio Governor John Kasich for president of the United States.
Personal life.
In 1970, Roosevelt married Constance Lane Rogers. They have one son: Theodore Roosevelt V.


Star of Oregon (event)

The Star of Oregon episode of American history began in 1840 and ended in 1843. This enterprise by pioneers in the Willamette Valley of present-day Oregon consisted of building a ship they named "Star of Oregon" and then sailing it to California in order to bring back cattle to Oregon Country. The group was led by Joseph Gale and received assistance from Captain Wilkes of the United States Navy prior to setting sail on the open ocean. These pioneers were able to procure nearly 4,000 head of cattle, sheep, and horses combined.
Background.
In 1837 the Willamette Cattle Company had brought over 600 head of cattle to Oregon via California. Prior to this, virtually all cattle in the region were owned by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC).
While the events of 1837 had broken the HBC's monopoly, much of the cattle were owned by a select few such as Ewing Young, John McLoughlin, and the Methodist Mission.
The independent settlers of the Willamette Valley were left in the same situation as before, so they met and came up with a plan to alleviate their need for cattle. This group of pioneers decided to build a ship, sail it to California, trade the ship there for cattle, and then drive the cattle overland back to Oregon. In the early stages Joseph Gale, as an experienced sailor, was asked to assist on the project and serve as captain once they got further along in the building.
Ship construction.
Construction of the ship began in 1840 on Swan Island in present-day Portland, Oregon. There the ship was built under the guidance of Felix Hathaway, a ship's carpenter. On May 19, 1841, the ship was launched into the water, but only after Hathaway left the project for the lack of pay. Construction then moved upriver to Oak Island to complete the vessel.
As the area lacked many industries at the time, supplies were difficult to acquire. This was made more difficult when the Hudson's Bay Company's Doctor John McLoughlin denied the shipbuilders the ability to purchase supplies from Fort Vancouver. McLoughlin refused, claiming that he did not think the boat would be seaworthy and even if it was able to set sail that the owners may attempt piracy with the ship. Therefore, the builders covertly procured supplies elsewhere, mainly through buying from other settlers. Additionally, the Methodist Mission’s blacksmith Josiah Lamberson Parrish would make metal spikes needed for the ship, plus Thomas J. Hubbard also made spikes for the ship.
As construction progressed, the builders needed more and more materials to complete the boat. Coincidentally, in the summer of 1841 Captain Wilkes of the United States Navy arrived on the Columbia as part of the United States Exploring Expedition. While inland, he learned of the construction of the ship and the plans of the builders. Wilkes then impressed upon McLoughlin to change his position regarding the sale of supplies to the builders, including an offer to pay for any supplies the Americans were unable to buy. With this, McLoughlin then allowed the ship builders to buy the remaining items needed, namely canvas and rigging.
Even with a seaworthy craft, the builders also needed to get official papers to allow them to freely sail the ocean. Once again Captain Wilkes was able to provide this necessity, but not before testing Captain Gale on his sailing and navigation skills. Gale passed the test, and Wilkes presented papers to the crew along with a compass, kedge anchor, log line, two log glasses, and an American flag.
As October approached, the builders stopped for the winter. The next year, 1842, the ship was completed in August and Gale began training his crew as they sailed down the Willamette River.
They named the completed vessel "Star of Oregon", after which ship and crew set sail for California. The enterprise left the Willamette River on August 29, 1842 sailing by Fort Vancouver. As the ship progressed down the Columbia, Captain Gale continued training the others on sailing. On September 12, the "Star of Oregon" left the Columbia and entered the open ocean. The day before Gale met with Captain John H. Couch aboard Couch's brig "Chenamus" when Couch offered to Gale advice and to lead the way out of the mouth.
Execution.
Once on the ocean, Gale stayed at the helm for approximately 36 hours straight through the fog and rain. He wanted to sail out around from the coast and then head south, this due to the ship's lack of charts. While sailing south the ship nearly hit rocks as they cruised too close to shore in the fog. Then on September 17, 1842, the "Star of Oregon" and her crew reached San Francisco Bay. They stopped at the Old Presidio and presented their papers to the Mexican officials, who then allowed them to proceed to Yerba Buena.
Once in Yerba Buena, now San Francisco, the passenger Mr. Pfeffenhauser disembarked to continue his journey to find his relative Captain Sutter. There the ship was sold to a Frenchman, Joseph Yves Limantour, in a three way transaction. Limantour was in need of a new vessel since in October 1841, the merchant's schooner "Ayacucho" had gone aground near Point Reyes. However, Limantour did not have cattle, but General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, Commander General of California, did have the cattle. Vallejo owned a substantial rancho in Sonoma with plenty of cattle. So in the deal Vallejo received merchandise from Limantour, the Oregonians received 350 head of cattle from Vallejo, and Limantour got the ship. The vessel was then renamed the "Jóven Fanita" in honor of General Vallejo's seven-year-old daughter, Epifania.
However, the Oregon crew did not immediately head back north, as Gale thought it best to wait the winter out and attempt to recruit more people for the overland journey. Kilbourne then dropped out and decided to stay. Meanwhile, Gale sent out several circulars to attempt to recruit more people to settle in Oregon. Once spring came and the crew gathered at Cash Creek there were now a total of 42 people ready to head north to Oregon Country.
This party started north with 1,250 head of cattle, 600 horses and mules, and 3,000 sheep. The journey overland took 75 days, and in mid May 1843, they arrived back in the Willamette Valley of the Oregon Country.
Legacy.
The enterprise brought the first Spanish merino sheep to Oregon, and allowed for greater economic independence of the pioneers. Gale was then elected to the provisional government of Oregon a few months later as one of three members of the executive committee at the Champoeg Meetings.
Participants.
Shipbuilding.
Those participating in the construction of the vessel:


Charles E. Nelson House

The Charles E. Nelson House was an historic house located in Dufur, Oregon, in the United States. The late 1800s Queen Anne Victorian was burned by the Substation Fire in mid 2018. It was one of the most widely photographed houses in Oregon.


Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

This is the timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition through the American West, 1803-1806.


Opitsaht

Opitsaht, spelled also as Opitsat and Opitsitah, is a community of the Tla-o-qui-aht people of the Nuu-chah-nulth nation, located at the southwest end of Meares Island in Clayoquot Sound. During the era of the Maritime Fur Trade, Opitsaht was the seat of Wickaninnish, chief of the Tla-o-qui-aht. In 1791 the Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza estimated a population of about 2,500 people. According to John Boit in 1792 the village contained 200 ornately carved buildings typical of Nuu-chah-nulth villages. John Kendrick made a strong alliance with Wickaninnish in the summer of 1791. Although Wickaninnish remained an ally of Kendrick, the good feelings towards Americans that Kendrick had built were ruined by Kendrick's former partner Robert Gray. The original village of Opitsaht was lost when Gray ordered it destroyed by the cannons of the "Columbia Rediviva" as part of a falling-out with the Tla-o-qui-aht when Gray evacuated his erstwhile "fort" nearby on Meares Island, known as Fort Defiance. Today Opitsaht is one of the main villages governed by the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations, the band government of the Tla-o-qui-aht people.
The population of Opitsat Indian Reserve No. 1, which is named after the village and is an official land status used by Statistics Canada as a census area, was 174 at the Census of 2006.


James Bay Project

The James Bay Project () refers to the construction of a series of hydroelectric power stations on the La Grande River in northwestern Quebec, Canada by state-owned utility Hydro-Québec, and the diversion of neighbouring rivers into the La Grande watershed. It is located between James Bay to the west and Labrador to the east, and its waters flow from the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield. The project covers an area the size of New York State and is one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world. It has cost upwards of US$20 billion to build and has an installed generating capacity of 16,527 megawatts. If fully expanded to include all of the original planned dams, as well as the additional James Bay II projects, the system would generate a total of 27,000 MW, making it the largest hydroelectric system in the world. It has been built since 1974 by the James Bay Energy () for Hydro-Québec.
Located in a region inhabited by Cree and Inuit north of Montreal, the La Grande River watershed stretches over or approximately 11% of the total area of Quebec, an area larger than Florida or twice the size of Scotland.
Construction costs of the project's first phase in ≈ 1971 amounted to $13.7 billion (1987 Canadian dollars). The eight power stations of the La Grande Complex generate an average of 83 terawatt-hours (TWh) a year, enough to meet the total demand of a small industrialized economy such as Belgium.
The James Bay power stations represent almost half of Hydro-Québec's total output and capacity.
The development of the James Bay Project led to an acrimonious conflict with the 5,000 Crees and 4,000 Inuit of Northern Quebec over land rights, lifestyle and environmental issues. A ruling against the Quebec government in 1973 forced the Robert Bourassa government to negotiate a far-reaching agreement, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, involving the Cree, the Naskapi First Nations, the Quebec and Canadian governments, Hydro-Québec and the SEBJ. In the 1990s, forceful opposition by the Crees and their environmental allies caused the cancellation of the Great Whale Project, a proposed 3,000 MW complex north of La Grande River.
In February 2002, the Bernard Landry government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed the "Peace of the Braves" () and the "Boumhounan Agreement", establishing a new relationship between Quebec and the Crees and agreeing on environmental rules for the construction of three new power stations built between 2003 and 2011 — the Eastmain-1, Eastmain-1-A and Sarcelle generating stations — and the diversion of the Rupert River.
Geography.
The James Bay region, also known as Jamésie, is a territory, bordered by the 49th and 55th parallels, James Bay on the western side and by the drainage divide with the Saint Lawrence River basin on the eastern side. The topography of the area consist of generally low relief areas and includes three parts: a coastal plain, a rolling plateau with a maximum elevation of and the Otish Mountains to the east of the territory, with peaks reaching .
The area is part of the Canadian Shield and is largely made up of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. Relief has been eroded by successive glaciations in the Pleistocene era, as recently as 6,000 years ago, leaving depositions of loose materials: moraines, clay, silt and sand and reshaped the hydrography of the territory.
The region's climate is subarctic. Winters are long and last, on average, from October 22 to May 4. Summers are short and mild, with temperatures averaging in July, while dropping to in January. Annual precipitation average , a third in snow. Highest monthly rainfalls are registered in the summer and snow depth varies from in the winter. Precipitations are significantly lower than the annual average of recorded in Montreal. The area lies in the zone of discontinuous permafrost, whose depth is significantly reduced by the deep snow cover.
The natural seismicity of the area is low. An earthquake of magnitude 5 on the Richter magnitude scale occurred in 1941, its epicenter located approximately 150 km from the La Grande-3 generating station. However, episodes of induced seismicity occurred during the initial fill of reservoirs. In 1983, a 4 magnitude tremor was recorded upstream of LG-3's main dam.
History.
Exploration.
Between 1950 and 1959, a team led by H. M. Finlayson conducted water surveys of the Nottaway, Broadback and Rupert Rivers—collectively known by the abbreviation NBR—on behalf of the Shawinigan Water & Power Company, a large investor-owned utility based in Shawinigan, Quebec. Among options studied by Shawinigan's engineers was the possible diversion of these rivers to the Saint-Maurice River watershed in order to increase output at the company's 8 power stations.
With the nationalization of privately owned utilities in 1963, Hydro-Québec inherited the preliminary studies conducted by Finlayson and his team on the hydroelectric potential of James Bay rivers. However, other projects, such as the Manicouagan-Outardes project on the North Shore and the possibility of building a large power station at Churchill Falls in Labrador proved easier and less expensive and the Crown corporation devoted only minimal resources to the vast potential of northern rivers. In 1965, Hydro-Québec survey program included exploration of the territory and hydrographic surveys of areas between the 52nd and 55th parallel.
In 1967, the company stepped up the work on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers. Dozens, then hundreds of people were sent by helicopter and seaplanes in inaccessible areas of the taiga to perform surveys and geological studies to identify potential sites for hydropower development. Faced with budget concerns, Hydro-Québec did cut back exploration budgets between 1968 and 1970, but the company maintained planning and analysis work, since early data showed a large potential for development.
Early steps.
On December 16, 1969, Liberal Backbencher Member of the National Assembly Robert Bourassa met with the president of Hydro-Québec, Roland Giroux over lunch at the parliamentary dining room in Quebec City. After the meeting Bourassa, who was about to launch a leadership bid for the position left vacant by the resignation of former Premier Jean Lesage, became convinced of the probability and suitability of the project and made the development of James Bay hydroelectricity a major plank of its leadership campaign. Elected as the party leader in January, Bourassa went on to win the April 29, 1970 general election, and his tenure as Premier of Quebec became closely linked to hydroelectric development in general and with the James Bay project in particular.
For Bourassa the development of James Bay project addressed two of his priorities. In "Energy in the North", an essay published in 1985 Bourassa, an economist by profession, argued that "Quebec's economic development relies on the development of its natural resources". Moreover, argued Bourassa his 1969 estimates showed demand for electricity would outstrip supply by 11,000 MW by 1983, concurring with forecasts made at the time by Hydro-Quebec.
Six months after his election, Bourassa began working on the details of the scheme with his adviser, financier Paul Desrochers. The two men met secretly with Roland Giroux and Robert A. Boyd for an update in September 1970 and the next month he travelled to New York City in the midst of the October Crisis to negotiate financing for the project, estimated at the time to cost between $5 to $6 billion.
Bourassa introduced his plan to the provincial cabinet in March 1971 and recommended hiring the US engineering firm Bechtel to oversee the construction. Liberal strategists then chose to make the announcement before a partisan crowd assembled at Quebec's Little Coliseum as part of the Liberal party gathering celebrating the first year of Bourassa's term, on April 30, 1971. According to journalists witnessing the scene, Bourassa's speech concluded on a scene of indescribable enthusiasm.
Nuclear lobby.
The announcement quickly generated a public debate on the wisdom to engage the province on such a large-scale project. For several years, a lobby spearheaded by the Canadian government and its nuclear venture, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, promoted the adoption of nuclear energy in Quebec, as a way to "share the benefits of Canada with our fellow francophone citizens", as Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson said. The lobby had its supporters within the ranks at Hydro-Québec, and has been vocal when the provincial government made the decision to invest in the Churchill Falls venture with Brinco. Several Parti Québécois spokesmen, including energy critic Guy Joron and economic adviser Jacques Parizeau voiced their opposition to the Bourassa scheme. In an interview with Montreal's "Le Devoir", the former economist and public servant who later became premier of Quebec commented: "We don't have to dam every single river just because they're French Canadian and Catholic."
However, Bourassa himself and Hydro-Québec senior management — including President Roland Giroux and commissioners Yvon DeGuise and Robert Boyd — were firmly behind the large hydroelectric development to be built in northern Quebec. At the time Giroux, a financier, argued that large international investors "are still wary about nuclear energy. If we bring them a good hydroelectric project, and James Bay is a good one, they'll soon show where their preferences lie". As an engineer, Boyd expressed concerns at this early date about the uncertainty of nuclear energy. He recommended maintaining a certain expertise in the field but advocated delaying nuclear expansion as late as possible.
The Quebec premier received an unexpected backing when the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Alexei Kosygin visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop the technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations.
Options.
Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway, Broadback, Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to the north. The northerly rivers were selected in May 1972, various studies conducted by engineering firms having concluded the La Grande option would be more cost effective, while having a lesser impact on forestry and would require less flooding, thus minimizing impacts on First Nations fishing and hunting. Another area of concern was the silty nature of the terrain in the NBR area, which would have complicated the damming.
The project, as described at the time, would involve the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James, a newly created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec, headed by Robert A. Boyd.
As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of the James Bay Road to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about $400 million. In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region.
Construction had boomed in Montreal for Expo 67, leading to an inflated workforce, and afterwards times were tough for the construction industry in Montreal. As Bourassa had promised in the 1970 election that his government would create 100,000 jobs in the construction industry, there was much violent competition between various construction unions to have their workers engaged in the James Bay Project. Canadian historian Desmond Morton noted that there were 540 different incidents between the two main construction unions in Quebec on sites associated with the James Bay Project between 1970–74, many of them "very bloody". In the 1973 election, after the Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (FTQ) union had donated generously to the "Parti libéral du Québec", Bourassa announced that only companies employing workers from the FTQ-affiliated "Conseil des métiers de la construction" headed by André "Dédé" Desjardins would work on the James Bay project. In March 1974, when one sub-contractor refused to fire two workers belonging to the rival CNFU union, the FTQ workers destroyed the LG-2 site, causing $35 million in damage. On 21 March 1974, the workers on the LG-2 site rioted and used their bulldozers to destroy the site that they were working on while other workers set buildings afire.
In response to the riot at the LG-2 site, Bourassa created a royal commission headed by Judge Robert Cliche, the union official Guy Chevrette and a prominent Montreal labor lawyer Brian Mulroney to examine the question of freedom of expression within Quebec construction unions. The Cliche commission as it became known found widespread corruption within the construction unions as the columnist Peggy Curran wrote that the Cliche commission uncovered "...tales of nepotism, bribery, sabotage, blackmail and intimidation; charges of union organizers with criminal records who gave lessons in how to break legs; thugs-for-hire who would happily beat up a rival union organizer’s teenager or strangle their dog." Desjardins was called before the Cliche commission several times starting in November 1974, where it was established that he was closely associated with the Montreal Mafia, and engaged in thuggish practices as president of the "Conseil des métiers de la construction" union.
Although the Aboriginal Crees had traditional hunting and trapping areas in the region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 Inuit to the north and several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed of the hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. The federal Indian affairs minister Jean Chrétien intervened on the side of the Cree and the Inuit, hiring lawyers to argue their case in the courts. Both Bourassa and the Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau were Liberals and federalists, but relations between the two were very strained at best as the French-Canadian nationalist Bourassa was a "soft federalist" who favored devolving the powers of the federal government down to the provinces while the Canadian nationalist Trudeau was a "hard federalist" who favored concentrating power in the hands of the federal government. Relations between Quebec City and Ottawa were brought to the breaking point in 1971 when Bourassa vetoed the Victoria charter for patriating the British North America Act to give Canada its own constitution on the grounds that if the British North American Act was going to be changed, then the federal government should cede more powers to the provinces. The willingness of the Trudeau government to intervene on the side of the Cree and Inuit against the Quebec government was at least in part caused by the feud between Bourassa and Trudeau.
In a speech championing the Cree, Chrétien said Bourassa "could go to hell", charging that he did not have the right to build on or flood the land claimed by the Cree. In 1973, the federal government's lawyers won a court injunction ordering the James Bay project stopped until a treaty could be signed with the Cree and Inuit, but an appeals court overturned the ruling days later. However, Bourassa agreed to negotiate with the First Nations as the federal government announced it was willing to take the matter to the Supreme Court. In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given a settlement of $150 million, negotiated by Cree chief Billy Diamond.
In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement with the Cree of the James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, granting exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000 km2 of territory and about $250 million in financial compensation in return for the right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec. The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50 km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned. The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving other rivers of Northern Quebec.
The project.
Phase I.
The period of construction of the first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the Robert-Bourassa (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800 MW, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300 km2. The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800 m3/s of water to the La Grande River. The power plants of the first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65 TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated generating capacity.
During this first phase of construction, over of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by the project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa generating station was carved 30 m (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A network of transmission lines was necessary to bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. The network contains several 735-kilovolt lines and one 450-kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid.
Phase II.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centred on the construction of five secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding a further 5,200 MW of generating capacity by the end of 1996. Three new reservoirs covering an area of 1,600 km2 were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288 km2. The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.9 TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70% of their maximum rated generating capacity.
On March 13, 1989, a massive solar storm caused a failure of the La Grande complex which plunged most of Quebec into darkness for nine hours.
Great Whale River project.
During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the Great Whale River (French: "Grande rivière de la Baleine"), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the Cree was even more vocal this time than in the early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come organized a canoe trip from Hudson Bay to the Hudson River, in Albany, New York, and this very effective public relations stunt brought international pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on the construction site. Poverty and social problems remained important in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Quebec, even in areas where there were no hydroelectric or mining activities.
By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of Chisasibi, and about 4% of the traditional hunting and trapping territories of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi. At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when the State of New York withdrew from a multibillion-dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994, the Government of Quebec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely.
Rupert River diversion.
In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, "La Paix des Braves" (literally "The Peace of the Braves"), ensuring the completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1 generating station, with a capacity of 480 MW, and the Eastmain Reservoir with a surface area of about .
A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental assessment of the projected diversion of the Rupert River, to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined capacity of 888 MW. The Rupert diversion would generate a total of 8.5 TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations.
Former Grand Chief of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Matthew Mukash (elected in late 2005 and served until 2009) opposed the Rupert River diversion and favoured the construction of wind turbines.
Hydro-electric installations.
The hydro-electric stations in the La Grande watershed are:
Environmental impacts.
Although there was no environmental impact assessment legislation before the James Bay Project's initial construction phase in the 1970s, a major environmental research program was conducted before Phase I began.
The environmental impacts of the James Bay Project largely stem from the creation of a complex chain reservoir through the integration of all the watersheds of the eastern shores of the Hudson Bay, from the southern tip of James Bay to Ungava Bay in the north. This has had the consequence of diverting the flow of water from four major rivers into a large body of water, ultimately changing the dynamics of the land, an environmental political phenomenon often regarded as a "first build, then paint green," policy.
Mercury pollution.
Two of these main diverted rivers are the Caniapiscau River and the Eastmain River into which the James Bay Project submerged about 11,000 km² of boreal forest (taiga). Consequently, the flooded vegetation's stored mercury (Hg) was released into the aquatic ecosystem, and due to the diversion of the water flow to contained reservoirs, the sudden abundance of mercury in the James Bay area in 1979 was unable to be dispersed and diluted as would have been the case in natural waters. Because the James Bay Cree (East Cree) live a mostly traditional lifestyle including a diet rich in fish and sea mammals, there is a possibility that the damming project has contributed to northern Quebec's Cree having the highest measured methyl-mercury concentration of all Canadian First Nations. Because of the simultaneous mercury contamination in James Bay from other activities in the area, including paper milling, the direct effect of the project on mercury levels has been difficult to ascertain. A clear correlation is, however, evident. From 1981-1982, a few years after the flooding of La Grande River, mercury levels in lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) increased up to fourfold their pre-flooding levels, while those in northern pike (Esox lucius) rose up to sevenfold during the same period. In natural lakes, these concentrations are five to six times less than in the James Bay area. This rapid spike of mercury levels in two of the fish species used extensively by the area's Cree is attributed to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Biaccumulation is the initial consequence of mercury pollution, as the toxin is first incorporated into the given ecosystem's producers. In the James Bay area ecosystem, mercury being released from the decaying flooded trees would be incorporated in trace amounts in zooplankton. Benthic organisms (benthos), the whitefish's primary prey, consume a great deal of zooplankton, causing the mercury concentration in a single organism to magnify due to accumulation of mercury and its inability to be excreted. In turn, whitefish, due to their greater size, consume large numbers of benthic invertebrates, thus incorporating the individual mercury accumulations of each organism and creating their own store of mercury. The effect is further exacerbated by humans consuming this built up store of mercury. The James Bay Mercury Agreement, signed in 1986 between the Grand Council of the Crees (of Québec), the Cree Regional Authority, the Cree Bands, the Government of Québec, Hydro-Québec and the Société d’énergie de la Baie James (James Bay Energy), aims "to restore and strengthen Cree fisheries [...] but [...] also adequately take into account the health risks associated with human exposure to mercury."
Local climate changes.
The establishment of reservoirs containing large amounts of standing water has the ability to produce local climate changes. Alteration of annual precipitation patterns, increased abundance of low stratus clouds and fog, and warmer autumns and cooler springs, leading to a delay in the beginning and end of the growing season, have all been observed in the vicinity of the project's major reservoirs. The doubling of the freshwater input into James Bay during the winter decreases the salinity of the seawater, thereby increasing the freezing point of the bay. The resultant increased ice content at the northern section of the project in the winter has cooled warm air currents more than usual, bringing harsher Arctic weather, including strong winds and less precipitation, to south-central Quebec. The tree line at the southern edge of the development has shifted noticeably southward since the project's construction.
Water flow modifications.
Following construction of the project, the area's water flow was substantially modified. In the James Bay area in general, the average monthly surface runoff rate in the winter increased by 52%, doubling the total freshwater input, while that of the summer months decreased by 6%. The James Bay area's water flow is most affected by the hydroelectric project from January to April because rivers have their lowest runoff rates in the winter months when freezing occurs. Additionally, runoff rates in the damming system can be altered to meet power needs, which are highest in the winter and lowest in the summer, thereby more completely reversing the natural water flow cycle. As evidenced by the 500% increase in its winter runoff, the La Grande River is the pillar of the James Bay project's hydroelectric capacity, with the runoff increasing from an average yearly amount of 1,700 m3/s to 3,400 m3/s, and from 500 m3/s to 5,000 m3/s in the winter. This immense harnessing of the area's energy at La Grande was made possible by reducing the Eastmain River's water flow at its mouth by 90% and by reducing that of the Caniaspiscau River's by 45%, and then by diverting these rivers into La Grande. Not only does this alter the runoff amount of the Eastmain and the Caniaspiscau Rivers, but also their drainage location, since prior to having been directly merged with La Grande, these rivers’ drainage locations were separate from the La Grande River. The summer runoff rate of La Grande increased by 40%, making the average annual runoff rate 91% greater than its natural rate.
Because of the change in the runoff rates of James Bay, massively increasing in the winter months, and increasing considerably in the summer as well, there has been more extreme fluctuation in the water levels. This has killed many trees along the shoreline, which are not equipped with deep enough root systems and tolerance of prolonged exposure to seawater to withstand these fluctuations. As well, the increased riverbank erosion downstream of the dams has washed the flora’s habitat down the river. The result has been considerable decay (decomposition) of dead trees along the shoreline, consequently releasing stored mercury into the area's terrestrial ecosystem through bioaccumulation in decomposers and detritovores and eventual biomagnification up the food web. This has left the area's Cree susceptible to mercury poisoning from both land and sea. Any shoreline plants that could potentially provide vegetation growth to replace any of the lost wetland habitats in these zones of periodic fluctuations are destroyed.
Possibility of increased seismic activity.
The James Bay Project is subject to earth tremors near the hydroelectric dams. This phenomenon is caused by the colossal weight of the artificial river, resulting in the shift of layers of rock, and although officials state that the reservoirs are only shallow lakes and the occurrence of such disaster is remote at best, these geological tremors could potentially fatally harm Quebec's local population and surrounding environment, as the region is typically dominated by slump-sensitive clays, and fault lines present in the St. Lawrence Valley.
Changes in migration routes.
Other changes in the delicate balance of the James Bay ecosystem can be illustrated through the animal migration patterns, salmon spawning, and destruction of wildlife habitats. The significant loss of wetlands and the blocking of passageways to those wetlands that remain has inhibited salmon spawning and migration in the James Bay area. Additionally, diverting rivers towards the James Bay could cause changes in the geographical pattern of river water discharge into the sea.[36]
Caribou populations, which have been expanding since the 1950s, have adopted migration routes throughout much of the Quebec-Labrador Peninsula and have thus been increasingly abundant in the James Bay area, the valley of the Caniapiscau, and around George River (Quebec).[37] Variations in the water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 migratory woodland caribou in September 1984, representing about 1.5% of the herd at that time. On the other hand, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau River and the Koksoak River has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on the lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations, giving hunters greater access to caribou than ever before. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by Inuit, Cree and American and European hunters.
Seasonal reversal in the flow of rivers can potentially rob the rich nutrients that thrive in various mudflats and coastal marshes, affecting millions of migratory birds such as waterfowl, Canada geese, and various inland birds that use the coastlines of both the James and Hudson Bays during their spring and fall migrations.[38]
Operational environmental cost.
The potential for massive greenhouse gas emissions in large hydroelectric reservoirs has also generated considerable debate since the Kyoto Protocol on climate change of 1997. However, greenhouse gas emissions from the northern reservoirs of the La Grande complex are between 2% and 8% of the emissions associated with any conventional (fossil fuel) power generation (and from 1% to 4% of the greenhouse emissions of the typical coal-fired power generation plant of Canada or the United States).
Social impact.
The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Cree and Inuit communities to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline Air Creebec. The James Bay Project also was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee). The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development, schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the Kativik Regional Government, in Nunavik.
Yet, the social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of the James Bay Road ("Route de la Baie James") from Matagami to the new town of Radisson, near the Robert-Bourassa generating station (La Grande-2), and on to the nearby Cree village of Chisasibi. During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500.
Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the Cree coastal villages of Wemindji, Eastmain and Waskaganish. These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to hunting areas of the interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate road ("Route du Nord") also links the James Bay Road to Chibougamau, via the Cree village of Nemaska. The building of these newer roads was largely the work of Cree construction companies.
The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in the southern James Bay area and substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however, only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20% by the late 1990s. Hunting and fishing in the Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year.


Philip Philipse

Philip Philipse (1663–1699) was the eldest son and heir of Frederick Philipse, a Dutch-born merchant trader, slaver, land baron, and 1st Lord of Philipsburg Manor. However, he died before his father, and by Frederick's will Philip's legacy was split between his bachelor brother Adolphus Philipse and his son Frederick Philipse II, who became the 2nd Lord of Philipse Manor.
Upon the death of his uncle in 1750, Frederick II inherited Adolphus' share as well, consolidating Philipse wealth in Philip's line.
Early life.
Philip Philipse was the eldest son of Frederick Philipse (1626–1702), Lord of Philipsburg Manor and Margaret Hardenbroeck (c.1637–c.1690).
Lost inheritance.
As eldest, he stood to inherit the Manor – holdings which reached 80 square miles of southernmost Westchester County – family commercial interests in shipping and slaving, and the hereditary title. He died in 1699 (some accounts 1700), predeceasing his father, who died in 1702.
By the terms of his father's will, dated 26th October, 1700, proved 1702, Philip's younger brother Adolphus received all the Manor north of Dobb's Ferry, including the present town. He was also named proprietor of a tract of land on the west bank of the Hudson north of Anthony's Nose and executor of Philip's estate. The balance passed on to Philip's son, Frederick Philipse II, establishing him as second Lord of Philipsborough Manor.
Upon the death of his bachelor uncle Adolphus in 1750, Frederick II inherited Adolphus' share of Philipse lands and commercial interests received from Frederick I, as well as the Highland Patent Adolphus had been granted by the Crown for lands purchased north of Westchester County between the Hudson River and the Connecticut Colony. Later known as the Philipse Patent, the roughly 250 square mile parcel became today's Putnam County.
Personal life.
Philipse married Maria, daughter of John Sparke(s) of Devon, England, and Barbados, said but not proven to be the Governor of Barbados, in 1697. The couple had two children:


Wilhelmina FitzClarence, Countess of Munster

Wilhelmina FitzClarence, Countess of Munster ("née" Kennedy-Erskine; 27 June 1830 – 9 October 1906) was a British peeress and novelist. Her mother, Lady Augusta FitzClarence, was an illegitimate daughter of William IV of the United Kingdom; Wilhelmina, also known as Mina, was born the day after William's succession as monarch. She travelled as a young girl throughout Europe, visiting the courts of France and Hanover. In 1855, Mina married her first cousin William FitzClarence, 2nd Earl of Munster; they would have nine children, including the 3rd and 4th Earls of Munster.
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton. Later in life, Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer. In 1889, she released her first novel, "Dorinda"; a second, "A Scotch Earl", followed two years later. The year 1896 saw the publication of "Ghostly Tales", a collection of tales on the supernatural which have largely been forgotten today. Lady Munster also produced an autobiography entitled "My Memories and Miscellanies", which was released in 1904. She died two years later.
Family and early life.
Wilhelmina "Mina" Kennedy-Erskine was born on 27 June 1830 in Dun House, Montrose, Scotland. She was the second child of the Hon. John Kennedy-Erskine and his wife Lady Augusta FitzClarence, an illegitimate daughter of William IV (who became monarch the day before Mina's birth). Her father, the second son of the 13th Earl of Cassilis, was a captain with the 16th Lancers and an equerry to King William before dying in 1831 at the age of 28. Her paternal grandmother, Anne Watts, was a descendant of the Schuyler family, the Van Cortlandt family (including Stephanus Van Cortlandt), and the Delancey family of British North America.
Mina lived with her widowed mother and two siblings in a "charming brick house" on the River Thames called Railshead, which was next door to a house owned by her paternal grandparents. King William visited the family often and was quite fond of Mina; on one occasion, he visited to comfort his daughter when three- or four-year-old Mina nearly died of a "very dangerous brain fever". The Kennedy-Erskines also often visited Windsor Castle during the king's reign.
Five years after Kennedy-Erskine's death, Lady Augusta married Lord Frederick Gordon-Hallyburton, a decision that displeased her first husband's parents. The decision led to Lady Augusta's departure from Railshead. In 1837 she became State Housekeeper at Kensington Palace after the death of her sister, Lady De L'Isle. Mina lived there until she married. She and her sister Millicent enjoyed music and had a particular love for the Italian soprano Marietta Alboni. The sisters' Italian singing-master secretly arranged for a meeting with Alboni, but the encounter did not go well; the singer discovered that they were the daughters of the "housekeeper", and, assuming that they were not ladies, departed soon after.
In the late 1840s, Mina travelled through Europe with her family so that they might "learn languages and finish [their] education". The trip started in 1847, when Mina journeyed to Dresden due to her mother's desire for her daughters to learn German. From 1847 to 1849, she and her family lived in Paris near the Arc de Triomphe, and were kindly received by the French Royal Family headed by Louis Philippe I and Queen Marie Amelie. They left soon after the king and queen's fall from power, as the city had suddenly become unsafe for those of their rank. In 1850, they visited the court of Hanover and were received by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover and his family; later that year, they returned to Kensington Palace and Mina and Millicent came out in society.
Marriage.
Mina married her full first cousin William FitzClarence, 2nd Earl of Munster at Wemyss Castle on 17 April 1855 in a double wedding in which her sister Millicent married James Hay Erskine Wemyss. Like Mina, FitzClarence was a grandchild of William IV; at a young age, he had succeeded his father the 1st Earl, who served as a governor of Windsor Castle and constable of the Round Tower until his suicide in 1842. The FitzClarences travelled to Hamburg immediately after the wedding, visiting local "schlosses" and the family of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (who later married The Princess Helena). Their first child, Edward, was born within a year. The couple would have nine children, four of whom outlived their mother:
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton. According to an article in contemporary women's magazine "The Lady's Realm", the Countess lived a very quiet life. In 1897, the magazine reported that she had lived in retirement in Brighton for the past thirty-five years. Her attachment to the city, the article suggested, was due to childhood memories of visiting there with King William. The article also stated that because Lord Munster's health was failing, the Countess was living in "comparative seclusion", though her lifestyle was also attributed to a love of a "quiet, literary, and artistic life". She died on 9 October 1906, having been widowed five years.
Literary career.
Later in life, Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer, writing under the title the Countess of Munster. At the age of nearly sixty, she published two novels; her first, "Dorinda", in 1889, and her second, "A Scotch Earl", in 1891. The plot of "Dorinda" centred on a young woman who eventually kills herself after stealing works of art from her friends. Oscar Wilde noted Munster's skill in writing "Dorinda"; he compared the "exceedingly clever" novel's eponymous heroine to "a sort of well-born" Becky Sharp, and praised the author's ability "to draw ... in a few sentences the most lifelike portraits of social types and social exceptions". In 1888, an article by Munster about ballad singing appeared in "The Woman's World", a Victorian women's magazine edited by Wilde. "A Scotch Earl", which centred on a vulgar Scottish nobleman named Lord Invergordon, was less well received by contemporaries. "The Spectator" published a critical review soon after its publication which suggested that the novel's showering of "contempt upon the society of wealth and rank" was close to Republicanism or Socialism. The review criticised "A Scotch Earl" for lacking "any merits of construction or style", and added that Lady Munster was "not and never will be a capable novelist".
In 1896, Munster released "Ghostly Tales", a collection of stories "written in a manner similar to accounts of true hauntings". "Lady's Realm" considered her stories to be based on fact. A positive review of "Ghostly Tales" was published in the "Saturday Review" in 1897, in which the stories were described as "entertaining and dramatic", but it was noted that not all were based on supernatural events. Hugh Lamb included the Countess's "surprisingly grim" story "The Tyburn Ghost" in his 1979 edited volume "Tales from a Gas-Lit Graveyard". He wrote at the time that Lady Munster's works had been "completely overlooked by bibliophiles and anthologists since her death". Lamb deemed this regrettable, as he considered "Ghostly Tales" "possibly her best work" and one of the "truly representative collections of Victorian ghost stories". Lamb also included another of her stories, "The Page-Boy's Ghost", in a 1988 anthology. However, modern author and editor Douglas A. Anderson has called the Countess's stories "standard, melodramatic fare", which are "perfectly forgettable".
In 1904, Lady Munster produced an autobiography entitled "My Memories and Miscellanies". In its foreword, she explained that "some valued friends" convinced her to write it, despite her reluctance, because her "long life" had witnessed "not a few interesting events". The book was called her "chief work" in "The Manchester Guardian" at the time of her death in 1906. The Countess wrote the entire book by memory, and expressed regret that she had given up her journal writing as a young girl after someone else improperly read it. The autobiography included several recounted sightings of the female ghost "Green Jean" at Wemyss Castle; Lady Munster claimed that several members of her family, including Millicent, saw the ghost while staying there.