William, Duke of Austria

William ( – 15 July 1406), known as William the Courteous (), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1386. As head of the Leopoldian line, he ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies of Carinthia, Styria and Carniola as well as the County of Tyrol and Further Austria from 1396 until his death.
Biography.
Born in Vienna, William was the oldest son of Duke Leopold III of Austria (1351–1386) and his consort Viridis Visconti (1352–1414), a daughter of Lord Bernabò of Milan. Leopold III had already acted as regent over the Tyrol and the Further Austrian possessions in Swabia; in 1379 he signed the Treaty of Neuberg with his elder brother Duke Albert III, whereupon he also received the Inner Austrian lands.
At the age of 14, William was betrothed to the Anjou princess Hedwig ("Jadwiga"; 1373–1399), the youngest daughter of King Louis I of Hungary, who had also become King of Poland in 1370. This was one of the first attempts of the Habsburgs to extend their dominions by marrying heiresses, as Louis intended his elder daughter Mary and her fiancé Sigismund of Luxembourg to succeed in Poland, while Jadwiga was designated heir to the Kingdom of Hungary. When King Louis died in 1382, Mary succeeded in Hungary. However, the Polish nobles rejected Mary and Sigismund, and instead chose Jadwiga as queen regnant. They also repudiated her betrothal to William and enforced the break-up of the engagement.
In 1386, Leopold III was killed in the Battle of Sempach. William and his brother Leopold IV succeeded him as Duke of Austria, ruling jointly with their uncle Albert III. A fierce inheritance dispute arose when Duke Albert III died in 1395 and was succeeded by his only son Albert IV, William's first cousin. An agreement was reached in the following year, based on the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, whereupon William left the rule over Austria proper to Albert IV and, as eldest members of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, went on to rule over the three Inner Austrian duchies and the County of Tyrol taking his residence in Graz.
In 1401, William married another presumptive heiress, Princess Joanna of Naples, Hedwig's cousin and also of Angevin descent. The marriage did not produce any offspring and William did not live to see his wife succeed her brother Ladislaus of Naples as Queen Joanna II in 1414.
In 1404, his cousin Albert IV died, leaving the lands of the elder Albertinian line to his seven-year-old son Duke Albert V. William acted as an Austrian regent and again tried to take the Albertinian territories from his minor nephew, but did not succeed before his death.
William died in 1406 without heirs in Vienna. He is buried in the Ducal Crypt in Vienna's St. Stephen's Cathedral. Upon his death, another division of the Habsburg hereditary lands took place, whereafter William's brother Leopold IV took over the regency in Austria proper, the third-born Ernest the Iron inherited the Inner Austrian duchies, and Frederick IV, the youngest, Tyrol and Further Austria.


Johannes Hau

Johannes Hau (17 April 1771, Flensburg - 3 August 1838, Reval) was a Baltic-German landscape painter.
Life and work.
His father, Jens Petersen Hau, was a ship's captain. In 1795, he left his hometown and moved to Tallinn (Reval, in German). There, he became a master painter and by 1806, he was serving as an "" (a type of administrative official) with the Canute Guild. From 1818 until his death, he was the guild's chairman.
He is best remembered for his small-scale "vedute" of Reval and Narva done in gouache. These were very popular with upper-class people from St. Petersburg, who came to visit the city's spas. In 1823, he organized an exhibition at his home, which was one of the first solo exhibitions of any type held in Reval.
He was interred at the Kopli cemetery, which was destroyed in the 1940s, during the second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states.
His two sons, Eduard and Woldemar Hau, also became well known painters.


Mungo Campbell

Mungo Nutter Campbell of Ballimore (1785–1862) was a 19th-century Scottish merchant who served as Lord Provost of Glasgow 1824/26.
Life.
He was born around 1785 the eleventh child of Alexander Campbell of Dallingburn (1739–1811) and his wife, Susanna Nutter Campbell (his father's cousin). His father was collector of customs at Port Glasgow.
He entered Glasgow University in 1799 but there is no record of his graduation.
In 1809 following his first marriage, he joined his father-in-law (and uncle)'s firm of John Campbell & Son, West Indies traders. The company reached its peak in 1821, with sugar plantations in the West Indies and Demerara.
In 1811 he inherited his father's estate at Dellingburn. In 1813 he purchased Belvidere as a residence. In 1820 he sold Belvidere and purchased the Ballimore estate on Loch Fyne.
In 1826 he is listed as a merchant living at 5 Blythswood Place and with premises at 35 Buchanan Street.
In Glasgow Town Council he served as Dean of Guild 1823/24 and Lord Provost 1824 to 1826.
In 1834 he received large compensation (over £50,000) for the loss of slaves (following the abolition of slavery in UK colonies) in British Guyana where he owned the Endeavour, Johanna, Enterprise, Annandale and Perth plantations.
In 1850 he was living at 12 Moore Place in Glasgow.
He died at Ballimore House on 26 July 1862.
Family.
He married his cousin, Helen Campbell, daughter of John Campbell of Morristoun (1735–1808), in Liverpool in 1809. They had three daughters.
His first daughter, Marion Helen Campbell (1810–1855) married John Macpherson-Grant, 2nd Baronet of Ballindalloch.
He secondly, in 1824, married Anne Amelia McLellan (born 1792)
His cousin, Colin Campbell of Colgrain (the "son" of John Campbell & Son) was immensely rich.
Artistic Recognition.
He was painted by Sir Henry Raeburn around 1825.


Centre for Public Inquiry

The Centre for Public Inquiry () was established in February 2005 as a non-governmental body to "...investigate matters of public importance in Irish political, public and corporate life". Its board was made up of Mr Justice Feargus Flood the former chairman of the Planning and Payments (corruption) Tribunal and former High Court Judge, Enda McDonagh the chairman of the board of University College, Cork, broadcaster and former editor of the Sunday Business Post Damien Kiberd and solicitor, writer and human rights campaigner Greg O'Neill. Investigative journalist Frank Connolly was named executive director. His investigations into payments to former government minister Ray Burke, contributed to the establishment of the Planning and Payments tribunal and the Morris Tribunal. It was to have been funded by Atlantic Philanthropies to the amount of €4 million over five years. It closed in April 2006 following the withdrawal of this funding and a critical article by the then Minister for Justice Michael McDowell in the "Sunday Independent" newspaper.
Mission.
The mission of the Centre for Public Inquiry was to independently promote the highest standards of integrity, ethics and accountability across Irish public and business life and to investigate and publicise breaches of those standards where they arise. Artist Robert Ballagh designed the logo for the organisation.
Reports.
Trim Castle, A monument to bad planning.
The first report, issued in September 2005, concerned the construction of an hotel in the shadow of Trim Castle, Trim, County Meath, a national monument in State care. It raised important issues of public concern including the manner in which the objections of the most senior officials charged with protecting the State's heritage were over-ruled by a former Minister.
The report was also highly critical of former minister for the environment Martin Cullen who was advised that Dúchas, the department's heritage section, consistently expressed concern regarding the scale of the hotel, which was described as insensitive to a national monument in the State's Care. But the minister recommended only that the development be scaled back and the report claimed that "as a result of the instructions from the minister's office no objection was submitted by the department or Dúchas officials to the planning application". Following the grant of planning permission, the report claimed, two officials from the department prepared an objection but "an intervention by the minister's office put a halt to these efforts to lodge an appeal"
The Great Corrib gas controversy.
The second report, issued in November 2005, was about the controversy surrounding the Corrib gas project and the associated pipeline and processing plant proposed for the Erris peninsula in north west County Mayo.
 It revealed that the disputed pipeline carries a real and substantial risk of failure because of its potential to operate at extremely high pressures. The likelihood of system failure is increased also because of the unknown gas compositions it is required to carry, and the probability of internal corrosion. As a result of these findings the report concludes that the current proposed route is unacceptable because of its close proximity to people and dwellings.
Allegations against Frank Connolly.
In December 2005 the Executive Director of the CPI, Frank Connolly was subject to allegations that he had used a fake passport to gain entry to Colombia, although he was never charged with the offence. The allegations were published in the "Irish Independent" after then Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell leaked them to journalist Sam Smyth. Connolly denied the allegations, describing them as "false and malicious". He was backed by the CPI's board which stated that: "The Board of the Centre for Public Inquiry reiterates its full confidence in its Executive Director, Frank Connolly and his integrity" and said "...the claim made in Dáil Éireann by the Minister for Justice, Michael McDowell, that either Frank Connolly or the CPI, or both, could pose a threat to the security of the State is entirely without evidential basis, unsustainable, and totally untrue." The Director of Public Prosecutions DPP decided not to prosecute Connolly in 2003. It further went on to say that "a private and public blackening of his character has been unleashed by the Minister. This shows a signal departure from principles of fair dealing and respect for justice to the individual citizen by the State which are absolute, save in the most exceptional cases and where legislated upon by the Oireachtas. The methods adopted by the Minister may well have undermined the status, authority and the statutory independence of the DPP."
Closure.
The CPI was a short-lived body. The criticism against Frank Connolly by McDowell and the Sunday Independent under the editorship of Aengus Fanning meant funding for the body from its financial backer Chuck Feeney's Atlantic Philanthropies was withdrawn. Feeney met Taoiseach Bertie Ahern in August. The meeting was not arranged to specifically discuss the work of the CPI, but while the work of the centre was discussed, there was a discussion of Connolly. He also conducted a meeting with McDowell at which Connolly was again discussed. McDowell presented Feeney with documentation pertaining to the allegations. The final straw was the threat of legal action by Treasury Holdings in Dublin in connection with its third report which was under preparation. The government has already come under pressure to explain why the state-owned Dublin Port Company, chaired by former councillor Joe Burke, a political associate of Bertie Ahern, the taoiseach, did not go through a tender procedure before entering into a joint venture with private operators to develop a site Without the necessary funding the CPI ceased to function.
Tim Pat Coogan, a historian and journalist, stated in 2010 at the Parnell Summer School that it was lamentable that the Centre for Public Inquiry was forced to close.


Antenor (writer)

Antenor () was a Greek writer of uncertain date, wrote a work upon the history of Crete, which on account of its excellence was called "Delta" (Δέλτα), inasmuch as, says Ptolemy Hephaestion, the Cretans called that which is good "Delton" (Δέλτον).


Asia Minor Slavs

The Asia Minor Slavs were the historical South Slav communities relocated by the Byzantine Empire from the Balkans to Asia Minor (Anatolia). After Maurice's Balkan campaigns (582–602) and during the subduing of the Slavs in the Balkans in the 7th and the 8th centuries, large communities were forcefully relocated to Anatolia as military units to fight the Umayyad Caliphate.
History.
7th century.
The earliest evidence for a relocation of Slavs from the Balkans may be a seal dated to 650. In 658 and 688/9 the Byzantines invited groups of Slavic settlers to Bithynia. Constans II settled captured Slavs in Asia Minor, and 5,000 of these joined Abdulreman ibn Khalid in 664-665.
There was a town in Bithynia known as Gordoservon, mentioned in 680–81, whose name probably derived from the Serbs resettled there from the areas "around river Vardar" by Byzantine Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668), in the mid-7th century (in ca. 649 or 667).
Justinian II (685-695) also settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor, in an attempt to boost military strength. Most of them however, with their leader Neboulos, deserted to the Arabs at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692.
8th century.
Bulgar aggression in northern Greece prompted the Byzantine state to relocate a large number of Slavs in 758 under Constantine V, and again in 783 out of fear that they would side with the Bulgars during an invasion.
The Bulgar expansion caused massive Slav migrations, and in 762 more than 200,000 people fled to Byzantine territory and were relocated to Asia Minor.
The most prominent among the Asia Minor Slavs was Thomas the Slav, a military commander who raised most of the empire in an unsuccessful revolt against Michael II the Amorian in the early 820s. Although the 10th-century chronicler Genesios calls him "Thomas from Lake Gouzourou, of Armenian race", most modern scholars support his Slavic descent and believe his birthplace to have been near Gaziura in the Pontus.
By the middle of the 9th century, the Asia Minor Slavs were integrated within the Bulgarian nationality.
10th century.
The Slavs of the Opsician Theme ("Sklabesianoi") are still attested as a separate group in the 10th century, serving as marines in the Byzantine navy.
12th century.
The Serbs rose up against the Byzantines in 1127–29, probably with Hungarian support; After the Byzantine victory, part of the Serb population was deported to Asia Minor.


Balares

The Balares were one of the three major groups among which the Nuragic Sardinians considered themselves divided (along with the Corsi and the Ilienses).
History.
Pausanias in his work "Periegesis" speculated that the Balares were the descendants of the Iberian and African mercenaries of Carthage, adding that in the language of the Corsi, "Balares" translates to "fugitives".
In the "Historiae", Sallust mentions a possible origin from the city of Palla, Corsica.
Archaeologist Giovanni Ugas proposed that they derived from the first wave of the Beaker people who settled in the island in the late Copper Age from the Franco-Iberian area and that they were related with the ancient peoples of the Balearic Islands; their name has been connected with that of Balarus, a chief of the Vettones. According to Ugas, during the Nuragic period the Balares lived in the whole north-western part of the island (Nurra, Anglona, Sassarese); their territory bordered with the Ilienses in the south (Tirso) and with the Corsi in the north-east (Mount Limbara).
After the Punic and Roman occupation of Sardinia, part of the Balares, along with the Ilienses and the Corsi, retreated in the mountainous region called Barbagia to resist the invaders. In 177 BC, the Balares and Ilienses revolted against the Romans but they were defeated by the legions of Tiberius Gracchus.
Strabo in the Geographica mention them among the "nations of mountaineers" that raided the Italian coast.


The Queen of the Rosary Church, Budapest

The Queen of the Rosary Church is a Roman Catholic Church on Thököly út 56 in the XIV district Budapest.
History.
Next to the Dominican chapel, built in 1905, was built by Antal Hofhauser and designed by Ferenc Paulheim between 1912 and 1915, the large church was dedicated on October 3, 1915 by Archbishop János Csernoch of Esztergom. Until 1951 Dominican monastic priests, and between 1951 and 1989 diocesan (non-religious) priests served in the church. Between 1989 and 2007, he was once again served by the Dominican Order, and from 2007, for the second time, he was served by diocesan priests.
In a 1997 fire, the building and its equipment were severely damaged. The interior renovation started in 2008 and in 2012 the repair of stained glass windows.


Krasnystaw

Krasnystaw () is a town in eastern Poland with 19,750 inhabitants (29 March 2011). Situated in the Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Chełm Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Krasnystaw County.
The town is famous for its beer festival called "Chmielaki" ( means hop), and for its dairy products like yogurt and kefir. Krasnystaw is near the border with Ukraine. The river Wieprz flows through Krasnystaw.
History.
Krasnystaw received its town charter from King Władysław II Jagiełło, who signed the document in Kraków, on March 1, 1394. The new town was located in the location of previously existing village of Szczekarzew, and in 1490 – 1826, was property of the Bishops of Chełm, and the seat of a starosta. Due to convenient location along merchant route from Lublin to Lwów, it prospered in the 16th century.
The period known as Swedish wars (1655–1660) brought destruction of both the town and the Krasnystaw Castle. Following the third partition of Poland, Krasnystaw was in 1795 annexed by the Habsburg Empire, but since 1815 until 1916, it was part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. During the January Uprising the town and its area saw heavy fighting between Polish rebels and Russian troops.
In 1916, Krasnystaw received rail connection, and in 1919, already in the Second Polish Republic, the town became seat of a county.
On September 18–19, 1939, during the Invasion of Poland, Polish troops of the 39th Infantry Division fought here with advancing Wehrmacht units. During World War II, numerous units of the Home Army and others operated in the area. The Germans blamed Jews for the resistance, and hanged seven. They then placed 40 Jews on the German front lines. About one third were killed. During the first months of their occupation, the Germans murdered both Christian and Jewish Poles.
In 1940, the Germans established a Jewish ghetto in the poorest part of town. Over the next few years, Jews from other communities were moved to the ghetto, others moved out of it to other camps and ghettos. Finally, in May 1942, it became a transit ghetto where Jews were brought on their way to Majdanek or to the Sobibor extermination camp, where all were immediately murdered. Later in 1942, some of the remaining Krasnystaw Jews were sent to the Belzec extermination camp. Only a handful of Krasnystaw's Jewish population of about 2500 survived.
In 1943, a local German prison was raided, and 300 inmates were released, in spring 1944, several German trains were destroyed. After the war, anti-Communist units operated here until 1950.
Economy.
In Krasnystaw dominates the food industry:
Jewish community.
The old synagogue of Krasnystaw, which was still standing at the beginning of the 20th century, had a number of 14th- and 15th-century architectural features. The municipal customs records of Krasnystaw for 1548 show a number of Jews resident in the town. In 1554, Jews were prohibited from owning dwelling houses in the town and suburbs, though in 1584 they were allowed to reside in the suburbs only. In 1761, three Jews from Wojslawice and one from Czarnoloz were convicted in a blood libel trial in Krasnystaw; another accused person, the rabbi of Wojslawice, committed suicide in prison. In 1776, the Jewish population of Krasnystaw numbered 63.
In the first half of the 19th century, a bitter struggle emerged between the Jews and the gentile townsfolk, who wished to keep their privilege of not having Jews reside in the town. In 1824, Jews were permitted to reside temporarily in several villages near the town, but the last restrictions on Jewish residence in Krasnystaw itself were not rescinded until 1862. Eleven Jews resided in the town in 1827, by 1857 the community had grown to 151 (4% of the population), and by 1897 to 1,176 (25% of the total). At that time 80% of local trade was in Jewish hands.
In 1921, the 1,754 Jews constituted 20% of the town's population. After the murder of almost all the pre-World War II Jewish population, no Jews currently reside in Krasnystaw.
Sport.
Krasnystaw has a 4th league football team called Start Krasnystaw. In 2008 a new stadium/recreation center was built for the team. This new stadium has over 3,000 seats. The recreation center includes an indoor basketball court, a European handball court, gym, volleyball net, and spa.
Notable people and residents.
A list of people that were born in the town or that live here.


Principality of Grubenhagen

The Principality of Grubenhagen was a subdivision of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruled by the Grubenhagen line of the House of Welf from 1291. It is also known as Brunswick-Grubenhagen. The principality fell to the Brunswick Principality of Lüneburg in 1617; from 1665 the territory was ruled by the Calenberg branch of the Welf dynasty.
Geography.
The principality was located on the southwestern edge of the Harz mountain range in present-day South Lower Saxony. It included two separate territories, one around the town of Einbeck with Grubenhagen Castle, and another domain around the towns of Osterode and Duderstadt (ceded to Mainz in 1366) with Clausthal, Herzberg, and Herzberg Castle. The dominion also comprised the eastern exclave of Elbingerode, today part of Saxony-Anhalt.
History.
Grubenhagen was split off from the Brunswick Principality of Wolfenbüttel in 1291, when the sons of late Duke Albert the Tall (1236–1279) finally divided their heritage. Its first ruler was Duke Henry the Admirable. Henry's sons split the small principality further in 1322 as they themselves had numerous heirs; Otto, son of Duke Henry II, in view of his small share left for Montferrat, married Queen Joan I of Naples in 1376 and became Prince of Taranto in 1383. The ongoing fragmentation weakened the position of the Grubenhagen branch regarding estate distributions involving their Wolfenbüttel, Lüneburg and Calenberg cousins.
The Principality of Grubenhagen was finally reunited in 1526 under the rule of the Brunswick duke Philip I. However, in 1596 the Grubenhagen branch became extinct upon the death of his son Philip II. The territory was disputed by the different lines of the Welf dynasty: Duke Henry Julius, Prince of Wolfenbüttel, occupied Grubenhagen; his son Frederick Ulrich, however, had to cede it to Duke Christian, Prince of Lüneburg according to a 1617 ruling of the Imperial Chamber Court "(Reichskammergericht)" at Speyer.
With the Principality of Lüneburg, the Grubenhagen territory was finally inherited by Duke Christian Louis, Prince of Calenberg, in 1648. After his death in 1665 Grubenhagen ceased to exist as an independent principality. Formally, it remained a state of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806.
A Calenberg-Grubenhagen "Landschaft" (administrative division) still exists today.
Princes of Brunswick-Grubenhagen.
Principality divided in 1479.
Grubenhagen re-united in 1526.


Shide railway station

Shide railway station was at Shide, on the southern fringes of Newport, Isle of Wight, off the south coast of England. It was an intermediate station on the line from Newport to Sandown, which was initially operated by the Isle of Wight (Newport Junction) Railway (incorporated 1868). Shide station opened in 1875 and closed, along with the line itself, in 1956. Situated near Shide Chalk Pits, it was a sparsely used station whose main purpose was to transport raw materials needed for the Island’s cement industry. It was doomed when production ceased during the Second World War. The station site was built over and is now occupied by a warehouse, and the River Medina has since been diverted to flow along the course of the old railway at this point. The old track to the south of the station site is now a cycle route (NCN23).


Augusta Munatiana

Augusta Munatiana also known as Rauracorum was a Roman colony six miles from Basle. The original town had been an Oppidum of the Raurici Celtic tribe at Basel-Gasfabrik.
During the Roman Empire it was a large town, mentioned on the Tabula Peutingeriana and prospered due to its proximity to the regional capital Augusta Raurica on the crossroads and the Pax Romana, but shrunk during the middle ages to be a mere village. It was located at 47.5700n, 7.6000e, near the intersection of the German, French and Swiss borders.


Stadtbredimus Castle

Stadtbredimus Castle (), located on the banks of the Moselle in the village of Stadtbredimus in south-eastern Luxembourg, has a history going back to the 13th century when a fortified castle stood on the site. In 1724, today's castle was built on the ruins of the old fort and, after some questionable restoration work, was bought by the la Fontaine family in 1802. It was here that Luxembourg's national poet, Edmond de la Fontaine, better known as Dicks, lived from 1858 to 1881.
The castle is now the headquarters of the "Domaines Vinsmoselle" wine cooperative.


George Rozgonyi

George Rozgonyi (, died in 1457 or 1458) was an influential lord in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 15th century. He was judge royal from 1441 to 1445 and one of the seven "captains in chief" between 1445 and 1446.


Chalkotheke

The Chalkotheke (Greek for "bronze store") was a structure on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece. Its name and function are only known from 4th century BC inscriptions. One decree orders the listing of all objects stored in the Chalkotheke and the erection of a "stele" inscribed with that list in front of the building.
Remains of a structure discovered to the east of the sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia and immediately to the southwest of the Parthenon have been suggested to be those of the Chalkotheke. Only scant limestone foundations and rock-cut foundation trenches survive. The building stood in front of the southern Acropolis wall and was "circa" 43 m long and 14 m wide, fronted on its northern long side by a portico of 4.5 m width. To make room for that portico, the southernmost portion of the rock-cut steps leading up to the west facade of the Parthenon had to be cut away. Thus, the portico is assumed to have been an early fourth century BC addition, while the main part of the structure is thought to be roughly contemporary with the Parthenon, i.e. to date to the mid-fifth century. A major renovation appears to have taken place during Roman times, as indicated by numerous fragments of architectural members that are definitely Roman in date and have dimensions matching those of the Chalkotheke.


John Coffey (historian)

John Coffey is an English historian. He has written monographs on Samuel Rutherford and John Goodwin, and is Professor of early modern history at the University of Leicester. His "Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689" is the first overview work on the topic since W. K. Jordan's four-volume work "The Development of Religious Toleration in England" (1932–1940).


Compromise of Avranches

The Compromise of Avranches in 1172 marked the reconciliation of Henry II of England with the Catholic Church after the Becket controversy from 1163, which culminated with the murder in 1170 of Thomas Becket.
Henry was purged of any guilt in Becket's murder, and swore to go on crusade. He agreed to allow appeals to the papacy in Rome, and to eliminate all customs to which the Church objected. He also agreed that the secular courts had no jurisdiction over the clergy, with the exceptions of high treason, highway robbery and arson: the benefit of clergy provision in English law.
In return, the king managed to secure good relations with the papacy at a time when he faced rebellions from his sons.


Spaldingas

The Spaldingas ("dwellers of the Spald") were an Anglian tribe that settled in an area known as "the Spalda". This divided the fens and marshes of East Anglia in what is now the South Holland part of Lincolnshire. As well as establishing the town of Spalding, first mentioned in a charter by King Æthelbald of Mercia to the monks of Crowland Abbey in 716, they also gave their name to area of Spalding Moor and the village of Spaldington in East Yorkshire.
A tribe living in "Spalda" are mentioned in the Tribal Hidage (7th century). Eilert Ekwall regarded this name as etymologically obscure. He suggested that the tribe may have brought this name (Spaldas) from the Continent where there may have been a corresponding place-name. It would presumably be related to the unrecorded Anglo-Saxon ' (to cleave) (OHG ') so the meaning of the noun would be "cleft" or "ravine". However, as there are no ravines in the fenland, all of the above should be treated with caution. Caitlin Green has suggested that the Spaldingas were of mixed Anglo-Saxon and Brittonic origin, due to a significant concentration of British Celtic place names in their territory.
The Spaldingas may have retained their administrative independence within the Kingdom of Mercia into the late 9th century, when Stamford became one of the Five Boroughs of the East Midlands under Danish control.


History of Guernsey

The history of Guernsey stretches back to evidence of prehistoric habitation and settlement and encompasses the development of its modern society.
Prehistory.
Around 6000 BC, rising sea created the English Channel and separated the Norman promontories that became the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey from continental Europe. Neolithic farmers then settled on its coast and built the dolmens and menhirs found on the islands today. The island of Guernsey contains two sculpted menhirs of great archaeological interest, while the dolmen known as "L'Autel du Dehus" contains a dolmen deity known as "Le Gardien du Tombeau".
The Roman occupation of western Europe induced people to flee, including to the Channel Islands where a number of hoards have been found, including the Grouville Hoard. It later brought trade and Roman settlements. A 3rd-century Gallo-Roman ship wreck was found in St Peter Port harbour. Trade was by ship down the west coast of Europe, silver from England, Breton pottery, wine amphorae, as discovered in the Kings Road excavation in St Peter Port. The Nunnery in Alderney, was a 5th-century Roman signal station fort.
Early history.
The arrival of Christianity.
During their migration to Brittany, Britons occupied the "Lenur" islands (the former name of the Channel Islands) including "Sarnia" or "Lisia" (Guernsey) and "Angia" (Jersey). It was formerly thought that the island's original name was "Sarnia", but recent research indicates that this might have been the Latin name for Sark ("Sarnia" nonetheless remains the island's traditional designation.) Travelling from the Kingdom of Gwent, Saint Sampson, later the abbot of Dol in Brittany, is credited with the introduction of Christianity to Guernsey.
A chapel, dedicated to St Magloire, stood in the Vale. St Magloire was a nephew of St Samson of Dol, and was born about the year 535. The chapel in his name was mentioned in a bull of Pope Adrian IV as being in the patronage of Mont Saint-Michel, in Normandy; all traces of the chapel have gone. While the chapel would probably be of a much later date, St Magloire, the British missionary, may well have set up a centre of Christian worship before A.D. 600.
Somewhere around A.D. 968, from the Benedictine monastery of Mont Saint-Michel, came to Guernsey to establish a community in the North of the Island. The Priory of Mont Saint-Michel was a dependency of the famous Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel
The Duchy of Normandy.
The history of the Bailiwick of Guernsey goes back to 933 when the islands, came under the control of William Longsword, son of Rollo the first Duke of Normandy, having been annexed from the Duchy of Brittany by the Duchy of Normandy. The island of Guernsey and the other island in the Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy. In the islands, Elizabeth II's traditional title as head of state is Duke of Normandy. (The masculine nomenclature "Duke" is retained even when the monarch is female.)
According to tradition, Robert I, Duke of Normandy (the father of William the Conqueror) was journeying to England in 1032, to help Edward the Confessor. He was obliged to take shelter in Guernsey and gave land, now known as the "Clos du Valle", to the monks. Furthermore, in 1061, when pirates attacked and pillaged the Island, a complaint was made to Duke William. He sent over Sampson D'Anneville, who succeeded, with the aid of the monks, in driving the pirates out. For this service, Sampson D' Anneville and the monks were rewarded with a grant of half the Island between them. The portion going to the monastery being known as "Le Fief St Michel", and included the parishes of St Saviour, St Pierre du Bois, Ste. Marie du Catel, and the Vale.
The loss of Normandy by King John in 1204 isolated the Channel Islands from mainland Europe. Each time England and France went to war over the coming centuries, trade to and from the Channel Islands was restricted or banned and even when not officially at war, the island was repeatedly attacked by continental pirates and naval forces.
Fortifications were improved in the Channel Islands, manned by professional soldiers and the Guernsey militia who would help to defend the Island for the next 600 years. Service was compulsory in the militia for every man in the Island. Raids on Guernsey in 1336 and 1337 by exiled David Bruce, came at the start of the Hundred Years War, they were followed by Sark being captured and using this as a base, the next year when, starting in 1339, Guernsey was occupied by the Capetians, holding the Island for two years and Castle Cornet for seven. The attacks would recur on several occasions.
It was 1348 when the Black Death reached the Island, ravaging the population. In 1372, the island was invaded by Aragonese mercenaries under the command of Owain Lawgoch (remembered as "Yvon de Galles"), who was in the pay of the French king. Lawgoch and his dark-haired mercenaries were later absorbed into Guernsey legend as an invasion by fairies from across the sea.
In 1394 Richard II of England granted a new Charter to the islands, because of great loyalty shown to the Crown, exemption for ever, from English tolls, customs and duties.
Ship building skills improved and trade to and from Guernsey increased with a growing number of ports, sometimes using trading treaties and sometimes avoiding paying duties. Guernsey ships in the 14th century were small. 12-80 tons with crews of 8-20 men. In times of war, ships could be seized as prizes, the practice continuing in times of peace, against all nationalities, as piracy.
The Reformation.
In the mid-16th century, the island was influenced by Calvinist reformers from Normandy. During the Marian persecutions, three local women, the Guernsey Martyrs, were burned at the stake in 1556 for their Protestant beliefs. Two years later Elizabeth I came to the throne and Catholicism faded in Guernsey.
The French and piracy were problems to trade with Guernsey in the 16th century, requiring English naval ships to keep them at bay. Guernsey and Jersey were given certain privileges as the English crown needed the Islands to be loyal, not least of which was the Islands neutrality, allowing trade to be pursued with France and England, even when these were at war. The trade creating revenue from taxes to pay for the Island garrisons.
Early modern history.
Civil War.
During the English Civil War, Guernsey sided with the Parliamentarians, while Jersey remained Royalist. Guernsey's decision was mainly related to the higher proportion of Calvinists and other Reformed churches, as well as Charles I's refusal to take up the case of some Guernsey seamen who had been captured by the Barbary corsairs. The allegiance was not total, however; there were a few Royalist uprisings in the southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the Governor, Sir Peter Osborne, and Royalist troops. Castle Cornet, which had been built to protect Guernsey, was turned on by the town of St. Peter Port, who constantly bombarded it. It was the penultimate Royalist stronghold to capitulate (in 1651)
17th and 18th trade and emigration.
The Newfoundland cod trade was important to Guernsey until around 1700 when the small Guernsey ships found that the smuggling trade could prove more profitable, with Island businesses established to buy in goods for sale to smugglers until smuggling declined at the end of the 18th century, when legal privateering took over as the most profitable business.
Wars against France and Spain during the 17th and 18th centuries gave Guernsey shipowners and sea captains the opportunity to exploit the island's proximity to mainland Europe by applying for Letters of Marque and turning their merchantmen into licensed privateers. It was very profitable. In the first ten years of 18th century, the War of the Spanish Succession, 608 prizes were taken by Guernsey privateers. there was however a downside with about 50 ships being lost. To spread the risk, people would buy a share in a ship, (⅛ for instance) receiving a portion of prize monies after costs, if successful. Many Islanders became rich without ever setting foot on a sailing vessel. Ships became larger, with more crew and were better armed as more money was invested. Late in the 18th century, during the American Revolutionary War which lasted for 8 years, Guernsey and Alderney privateers took 221 prizes worth £981,300 (in today's terms, about £100m). The Islands and Guernsey in particular provided an important element to the blockading of enemies of Britain.
During the late 17th century the grant by Charles II of England of an island to George Carteret the Bailiff of Jersey, which was renamed "New Jersey", combined with the Channel Island trading ships visiting New England saw Islanders setting up businesses and settling overseas. By the beginning of the 18th century, Guernsey's residents were starting to settle in North America. Guernsey County was founded in Ohio in 1810.
Ordinary trade continued, fishing had always been an important business. Knitting was an important home industry, overseas shipping carrying such diverse goods as wood, sugar, rum, coal, tobacco, salt, textiles, finished goods, glass, emigrants and wine. Trading mainly with Europe, the West Indies and the Americas.
19th century.
Privateering during the Napoleonic Wars generated more profits, rolling on from the French Revolutionary Wars. London issued 5,632 letters of Marque of which Guernsey captains received 602, amongst around 70 ships varying in size from 5 to 500 ton. The Letter of Marque would set out which countries' ships could be taken, by which ship, owned by which people. Ships also became stronger and better armed. The war saw the introduction of a series of UK Privateer Acts, to set out rules of valuation of prizes to reduce disputes in Court.
Fort George was a former garrison for the British Army. Construction started in 1780, and was completed in 1812. It was built to accommodate the increase in the number of troops stationed in the island in anticipation of a French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Le Braye du Valle was a tidal channel that made the northern extremity of Guernsey, Le Clos du Valle, a tidal island. Le Braye du Valle was drained and reclaimed in 1806 by the British Government as a defence measure. The eastern end of the former channel became the town and harbour (from 1820) of St. Sampson's, now the second biggest port in Guernsey. The western end of La Braye is now Le Grand Havre. The roadway called "The Bridge" across the end of the harbour at St. Sampson's recalls the bridge that formerly linked the two parts of Guernsey at high tide. New roads were built and main roads metalled for ease of use by the military.
In 1821 the population of Guernsey was 20,302 with over 50%, 11,173 living in St Peter Port. By 1901 the island population would double.
The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in prosperity of the island, due to its success in the global maritime trade, and the rise of the stone industry. Ships were travelling further to trade, one notable Guernseyman, William Le Lacheur, established the Costa Rican coffee trade with Europe and the Corbet Family who created the Fruit Export Company Shipbuilding also increased in the 1840-70 era, declining when iron ships were demanded.
The quarrying industry was an important employer in the 19th century, Guernsey granite was highly prized, with London Bridge and many important London roads being repaved in Guernsey granite, resulting in hundreds of quarries appearing in the northern parishes. Horticulture developed from the use of glasshouses for growing grapes to the growing of tomatoes, becoming a very important industry from the 1860s. Tourism during the Victorian era and the use of Guernsey as a refuge or retirement location brought money to the Island. Victor Hugo being one of the most distinguished refugees.
Light industry businesses would regularly appear and after a few decades would move on, such as the Dundee firm James Keiller, who set up in Guernsey in 1857 and lasting until 1879 to avoid the high taxes on sugar in the UK, with marmalade manufactured in Guernsey exported all over the world.
It was normal for the island to deport vagrants, criminals and anyone who had fallen on hard times who were not "local". Between 1842 and 1880 10,000 people were deported. This included local born widows and local born children of "foreign" men and people who, whilst not born in Guernsey, had resided in Guernsey for over 50 years. This reduced the burden on the parish requirement to look after their poor and discouraged France, England and Ireland encouraging their poor to emigrate to Guernsey.
At the end of the century, long resisted, the time had arrived for change, to schools, where English would be taught as a language, to the government, including the use of English as a language in Court together with voting reform, and some changes to the unfair treatment of non-locals as regards their deportation if unwanted and their summary arrest and detention for petty debt offences, it being almost impossible for an immigrant to ever be recognised as a local, irrespective of their wealth and the number of decades residing in Guernsey.
20th century.
World War I.
During World War I, approximately 3,000 island men served in the British Expeditionary Force. Of these, about 1,000 served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry regiment formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916. In August 1917, Guernsey hosted an anti submarine French flying boat squadron, erecting hangars near Castle Cornet. The base is credited with having destroyed 25 German submarines. The Guernsey Roll of Honour includes 1,343 who were Bailiwick of Guernsey individuals or who served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry.
The economic depression in the 1930s also affected Guernsey. Unemployed labourers being given jobs such as building sea defences and constructing roads, including Le Val des Terres, opened in 1935 by "Le Prince de Galles".
World War II.
For most of World War II, the Bailiwick was occupied by German troops. Before the occupation, many Guernsey children had been evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war. Some children were never reunited with their families.
The occupying German forces deported some of the Bailiwick's residents to camps in the southwest of Germany, notably to the "Lager Lindele" (Lindele Camp) near Biberach an der Riß. Among those deported was Ambrose (later Sir Ambrose) Sherwill, who, as the President of the States Controlling Committee, was "de facto" head of the civilian population. Sir Ambrose, who was Guernsey-born, had served in the British Army during the First World War and later became Bailiff of Guernsey. Three islanders of Jewish descent were deported to France and from there to Auschwitz where they were killed in The Holocaust. In Alderney, four camps were built to house forced labourers, mostly from Eastern Europe, two were handed for the SS to run. They were the only concentration camps run on British soil and are commemorated on memorials under Alderney's French name "Aurigny".
Occupation laws were enforced by the German garrison. For example, rewards were offered to informants who reported anyone for painting "V-for Victory" signs on walls and buildings; a practice that had become popular among islanders wishing to express their loyalty to Britain.
Guernsey was very heavily fortified during World War II out of all proportion to the island's strategic value, for example four captured vintage Russian 305mm naval guns were installed at Batterie Mirus. German defences and alterations remain visible, including additions made to Castle Cornet and a windmill. Hitler had become obsessed with the idea that the Allies would try to regain the islands at any price, so over 20 per cent of the materials used to construct the "Atlantic Wall" (the Nazi attempt to defend continental Europe from seaborne invasion) was committed to the Channel Islands, including 47,000 cu m of concrete used for gun bases. Most of the German fortifications remain intact and although the majority of them stand on private property, several are open to the public.
Starvation threatened the Island in late 1944 after the German forces were cut off and supplies could not be brought in from France. The SS Vega chartered by the Red Cross, brought Red Cross food parcels and other essential supplies into the Island.
The Island was liberated on 9 May 1945.
Post-war.
After 1945 the Islanders had to rebuild their lives, the return of evacuees, especially children who could hardly remember their relatives. Many properties had been damaged through wood being stripped from them for fuel, the island had an enormous debt, tourism was destroyed and the growing industry was damaged. The amount of scrap metal collected is now regretted. Rationing continued as in the UK, until the mid 1950s.
Many traditional businesses, such as fishing and quarrying would not return. So the Islanders looked to other opportunities, the physical import/export of goods was difficult as the harbours were too small and freight cost too expensive, so control of trade was looked at, the right to supply Mateus Rosé to the UK was controlled by a Guernsey business and it became the top selling wine in the world.
By the 1960s the island had recovered, tourism was important again, the horticulture industry was booming, 500 million tomatoes being exported annually, then came the crash. Cheap North Sea fuel allowed the Netherlands to provide cheap heating to their growers, the Guernsey industry was undercut on price, which combined with rising fuel prices saw the complete demise of the tomato industry after 100 years by the end of the 1970s. Restrictions were introduced to make it harder and more expensive for people to move to the island as there was a fear of a massive population increase.
During the 1970s and 1980s the island began to boom in the finance industry. Not an easy transition for people from the growing industry to an office environment. Profits and salaries were good and the Island had revenues to support long term capital expenditure plans. Continuing through the 1990s with divergence to related industries, such as captive insurance and fund management have managed to keep unemployment low. Tourism declined in the 1980s when the price of a holiday in Spain became much cheaper than coming to Guernsey, leaving the island aiming to attract the higher end of the market.
Light industry businesses had continued to appear and operate for a few decades in Guernsey including electronic (Tektronix from 1957 to the 1980s) and the current Specsavers which was established in 1984.
Further reading.
Mawson, Gillian (2012) "Guernsey Evacuees: Forgotten Evacuees of the Second World War", History Press
Mawson, Gillian (2016) "Britain's Wartime Evacuees", Frontline Books
Johnston, Peter (2014), "A Short History of Guernsey", 6th edition, Guernsey Society,
Sarnia, novel by guernesiais writer G.B. Edwards (life on Guernsey from 1900 until 1970).


2004 Cologne bombing

On 9 June 2004, a nail bomb detonated in Cologne, Germany, in a business area popular with immigrants from Turkey. Twenty-two people were wounded, with four sustaining serious injuries. A barber shop was completely destroyed; many shops and numerous parked cars were seriously damaged by the explosion and by the nails added to the bomb for extra damage. Authorities initially excluded the possibility of a terrorist attack. The bomb, which contained more than 800 nails, was hidden in a travel compartment on a bicycle left in front of the barber shop.
In November 2011, after having been accused by authorities of being responsible for a robbery in Eisenach, the neo-Nazi terrorist group National Socialist Underground ("Nationalsozialistischer Untergrund") released a video claiming responsibility for the Cologne bombing.
The group’s main members, Uwe Böhnhardt, Uwe Mundlos, and Beate Zschäpe, were also indicted with the killing of nine businessmen of Turkish and Greek origin between 2000 and 2006 (the National Socialist Underground murders) and the murder of Michèle Kiesewetter in 2007. Böhnhardt and Mundlos died in a murder-suicide, leaving only Zschäpe to be charged (among other charges) for the attempted murder of 23 people in the Cologne bombing, in the NSU trial.
The events of the 2017 film "In the Fade", starring Diane Kruger as a German woman whose Kurdish husband and their child were killed in a nail bomb attack by Neo-Nazis, was inspired by the 2004 bombing.


Sutinske Toplice

Sutinske Toplice is an uninhabited settlement in Mihovljan municipality, Croatia.


Prince Giuseppe, Count of Asti

Giuseppe of Savoy (Giuseppe Benedetto Maria Placido; 5 October 1766 – 29 October 1802) was a prince of Savoy. He was styled the Count of Moriana from birth but was later created the Count of Asti.
Biography.
Prince Giuseppe born at the Royal Palace of Turin, he was styled the Count of Moriana from birth. He was the youngest child of Victor Amadeus of Savoy (then styled as the "Duke of Savoy") and his wife, Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain. To escape the threat of Napoleon I, Montferrat fled to Sardinia with his brothers the Duke of Aosta and Charles Felix of Sardinia where the trio lived in the "Palazzo Carcassona".
In June 1799 his brother Charles Emmanuel IV created his brother Maurice, the Governor of the province of Sassari but he later died of malaria on the island in 1799. At the death of Montferrat, Asti became governor of Sassari in his brother's place. Catching malaria in 1802, Asti died of the disease having had a fit of convulsions and was buried at the Cathedral of Alghero. His "other" brother Genoa later became the viceroy of Sardinia.


Maria of Loon-Heinsberg

Maria of Loon-Heinsberg (1426 – 20 April 1502) was the daughter of John II of Loon, Lord of Jülich, Heinsberg and Löwenberg. Her mother was the second wife of John II, Countess Margaret of Solms-Braunfels.
Maria died on 20 April 1502 as the last member of the house of Loon-Heinsberg and is buried with her husband in the mausoleum of Engelbert I of Nassau in the Church of Our Lady at the Market Square in Breda.
Marriage and issue.
She married on 7 February 1440 with John IV, Count of Nassau, Lord of Breda. They had the following children:


Newport railway station (Freshwater, Yarmouth and Newport Railway)

Newport FYN railway station was a railway station at Newport, Isle of Wight, off the south coast of England. For ten years it was the alternative terminus of the Freshwater, Yarmouth and Newport Railway. The station opened on 1 July 1913 after a conflict between the FYN and the Isle of Wight Central Railway, and closed 10 years later on the creation of the Southern, when Freshwater trains reverted to using Newport's main station. During its inauspicious existence passengers had a short inconvenient walk between the two rival termini. Any trace of the station has long since gone.


Anhalt-Bitterfeld

Anhalt-Bitterfeld is a district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Its capital is Köthen (Anhalt).
History.
This district was established by merging the former districts of Bitterfeld, Köthen and a large part of Anhalt-Zerbst as part of the reform of 2007.
Towns and municipalities.
The district Anhalt-Bitterfeld consists of the following subdivisions:


Klosterkammer Hannover

The Klosterkammer Hannover (Hanover Monastic Chamber), based in Hanover, is a special authority within the scope of the Lower Saxony Ministry of Science and Culture. It administers former ecclesiastical, mediatized property and maintains churches and convents. In addition, as a foundation body (""), it administers four independent foundations under public law.
The Klosterkammer maintains and promotes church, social and educational projects. It is one of the oldest and most traditional state authorities in Lower Saxony, whose forerunner organisation was founded in the 16th century.
History.
The Klosterkammer Hannover was founded during the time of the sovereign church regiment, when state and church were still institutionally linked. It has its roots in the time of the Reformation in the Principality of Calenberg-Göttingen around 1542, when the regent Elisabeth von Calenberg ordered an inventory of the documents of the former Catholic convents, which had been converted to Protestant ladies' foundations during the Reformation. This was only carried out to a limited extent. After the reign of Elisabeth of Calenberg ended in 1545 due to the majority of her son Eric II, the reformation of the convents came to a halt, as Erich II had converted to the Catholic faith. It was only after his death in 1584, when the Principality of Calenberg-Göttingen fell to Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in inheritance, that under Duke Julius the monastic system was reorganised according to the Wolfenbüttel Church Constitution of 1569.
The "Allgemeine Hannoversche Klosterfonds" (General Hanoverian Monastery Fund), the predecessor organisation, experienced a significant increase in assets as a result of the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss 1803, when the clerical principalities of Hildesheim and Osnabrück fell to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1815. The assets of the dissolved convents were not confiscated by the state, but were transferred to the Klosterfonds. This increase in assets was the reason for the establishment of the Klosterkammer Hannover as the central authority. Prince Regent George IV set it up on 8 May 1818 to administer the former convent assets. During the time of the Prussian Province of Hanover from 1866 to 1945, the Klosterkammer, with its own President, was subordinate to the Chief President of the Province in Hanover.
Numerous former collegiate and convent churches in Lower Saxony are still owned by the Klosterkammer; they are used by Protestant and Catholic parishes as parish churches. In addition, there are extensive properties of the former convents. The president of the Klosterkammer is responsible for representing the respective prelatures at the Calenberg-Grubenhagen Landtag.
Administration and real estate.
The Klosterkammer is located in the Oststadt (East Town) of Hanover, not far from the Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover (Hanover University of Music, Theatre and Media). It administers the "Allgemeine Hannoversche Klosterfonds" (AHK), the "Domstrukturfonds Verden" (Verden Cathedral Structure Fund), the "Stift Ilfeld" (Ilfeld Abbey) and the "Hospitalfonds St. Benedikti in Lüneburg" (St. Benedict Hospital Fund in Lüneburg).
The Klosterkammer has an administrative, a real estate and a building department as well as the Klosterkammer forest business, which is managed by the convent forest offices in Soltau and Westerhof, as a state enterprise. There are about 135 employees who look after the extensive foundation assets. This consists mainly of around 40,000 hectares of land with agricultural and forest areas, gravel pits, nature conservation and leisure areas. Three quarters of the Klosterkammer is financed by almost 16,000 leasehold properties. In addition, the Chamber owns about 800 buildings, most of which are listed, including the Calenberg nunneries of Barsinghausen, Mariensee, Marienwerder, Wennigsen and Wülfinghausen. Also about 10,000 works of art belong to the possession.
Activity.
The administration of the four foundation assets by the Klosterkammer also includes the fulfilment of performance obligations towards numerous Protestant and Catholic parishes. In the vast majority of cases, these obligations have always been borne by the assets of the foundations, in particular the Allgemeine Hannoversche Klosterfonds (AHK). An initial list is found in Falk's memorandum of 1877, the size of which varies considerably. In the case of the parish of St. Michaelis Lüneburg, for example, the AHK is obliged to bear the entire costs of the parish, i.e. all personnel, material and building maintenance costs. In other cases, the AHK bears all or part of the parish pay and/or the construction maintenance of church buildings, rectories and cemetery chapels. In addition, the AHK provides subsidies for salaries and heating costs. Based on a contractual agreement of 1963/83 with the State of Lower Saxony, the AHK bears the performance obligation of the State of Lower Saxony towards the so-called Lüneburg abbeys, i.e. Damenstiften, Ebstorf, Isenhagen, Lüne, Medingen, Walsrode and Wienhausen. In return, the AHK was released from its obligation to pay benefits to the University of Göttingen and the excess claim was compensated by the transfer of agricultural and forestry assets. In addition, the Klosterkammer advises the convent foundations of Bassum, Börstel, Fischbeck and Obernkirchen in administrative, building and other specialist matters.
From the economic surpluses of the asset management, the Klosterkammer allocates subsidies of about three million euros annually for projects in Lower Saxony in accordance with the ecclesiastical, social and educational purpose of the foundation.


William Wynne (historian)

William Wynne (c. 1671 – May 1704) was a Welsh historian.
Life.
Wynne was the youngest son of Robert Wynne (a canon of Bangor Cathedral and rector of Llanddeiniolen and Llaniestyn) and his wife Catherine Madryn, heiress of Llannerch Fawr. William Wynne's eldest brother was Robert Wynne. William Wynne was born before 12 November 1671 and educated at Jesus College, Oxford (like his father and elder brother). He matriculated in March 1688 and took his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1691. He became a Fellow of the college in 1692, and held this position until his death in 1704. After ordination, he became rector of Llanfachraeth, Anglesey, but appears not to have resided there. Whilst at Oxford, he was part of the circle of Edward Lhuyd, the Welsh naturalist, botanist, linguist, geographer and antiquary. Wynne's publications included a "History of Wales" (1697), which was essentially a new version of David Powel's 1584 work "The Historie of Cambria, now called Wales". Wynne's version, which was reprinted in 1702 (unchanged), 1774 and 1812 (with changes each time), and in 1832 (with topographical notes), was the starting point in English on medieval Welsh history for nearly two hundred years.


List of governors of Malta

The Governor of Malta () was an official who ruled Malta during the British colonial period between 1813 and 1964. This office replaced that of the Civil Commissioner. Upon the end of British rule and the creation of the State of Malta in 1964, this office was replaced by the Governor-General, who represented the British Monarch and not the Government of the United Kingdom as did the Governor. The office of Governor-General was itself abolished in 1974 and replaced by the post of President when Malta became a Republic.
The Governor.
The Governor, appointed by the British monarch (on the advice of the prime minister), maintained executive power in Malta throughout British rule. He was head of the executive council and the pre-independence government of Malta.
The Governor was the most powerful official in Malta.
The Governor was initially supported by a Lieutenant-Governor. For example, from ca.1813 to ca.1820, Major-General Sir William Hutchinson served as Lieutenant Governor. After the death of the Marquess of Hastings in 1826, the British government decided to downgrade the post of Governor to Lieutenant-Governor, with a reduced allowance. Sir Frederick Ponsonby was formally designated Lieutenant-Governor and Commander of the Malta Garrison.


HMS Success (G26)


The Revenge of the Whore

The Revenge of the Whore () is a 2012 television film, based on the novel "Die Kastellanin" written by Iny Lorentz. It is the sequel of the 2010 television film "The Whore". The title song is "Mna Na H-Eireann" by the French singer Nolwenn Leroy. The film was produced in Austria and the Czech Republic, by Josef Aichholzer and cost €5.6 million (about US$7.53 million). It aired in Germany February 28, 2012 on Sat.1.
Plot.
Marie played by Alexandra Neldel and her husband Michel Adler played by Bert Tischendorf have a happy life until Michel has to go to war against the Hussites for König Sigismund but does not come back. Marie does not believe that he is dead and starts her journey to find out what really happened to him.
It is sometimes displayed - on recording and when digitally streamed - as "The Revenge of the Siren" in English-translated versions (and similarly for its predecessor, The Royal Siren, and successor, The Legacy of the Siren, in the series.)


State Council of Hanover

The State Council of Hanover () was a political body of the Kingdom of Hanover. It was the second chamber of the Parliament of Hanover. It was established in 1839 by King Ernest August I of Hanover and existed until the Prussian invasion and occupation of Hanover in 1866.
The first President of the State Council was Major-General Bernhard of Solms-Braunfels, a member of the princely Solms-Braunfels family, who held the office from 1839 to 1848. In 1848 he was succeeded by Prime Minister Alexander Levin von Bennigsen. From 1849 the Prime Minister was "ex officio" President of the State Council. From 1856 the constitution was changed again, and the President was henceforth appointed at the discretion of the King. Johann Caspar von der Wisch served as President of the council from 1856 to 1865. The last President was Wilhelm von Borries from 1865 to 1866.
In addition to its President the State Council consisted of the cabinet ministers and the highest-ranking civil servants as full members. In addition the King appointed other individuals as associate members.


St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral

St. Theodosius Cathedral () is an Eastern Orthodox church located on Starkweather Avenue in the near west side neighborhood of Tremont in Cleveland, Ohio. Considered one of the finest examples of Russian church architecture in the United States, it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. St. Theodosius was the first Eastern Orthodox parish in Cleveland and is currently under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of the Midwest of the Orthodox Church in America. The cathedral is perhaps best known for its appearance in the 1978 Best Picture winning film, "The Deer Hunter" with Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken, and Meryl Streep.
Dedication.
The cathedral is dedicated to the patron saint of St. Theodosius of Chernigov (in present-day Ukraine). Theodosius was born in the early 1630s in Podolia. The name given to him in baptism is unknown. Educated at the Brotherhood Monastery in Kiev, he became a monk at Kiev Pechersk Lavra and was named Theodosius, in honor of Theodosius of Kiev. He was later ordained as a celibate priest at the Saint Nicholas Krupytskyi Monastery near Baturyn. In 1662, he was appointed hegumen of the Korsun Monastery in Kaniv and in 1664, he was appointed hegumen of the Vydubychi Monastery in Kiev. He established a small skete on the island of Mikhailovschino or Mikhailovschina in 1680 and, in 1688, he was appointed archimandrite of the Yeletskyi Dormition Monastery in Chernigov. On September 13, 1692, he was consecrated archbishop in the Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1694, a skete was founded near Liubech. Saint Theodosius died on February 5, 1696 and was buried in the Cathedral of Saints Boris and Gleb in Chernigov.
History.
The parish of St. Theodosius was organized in Cleveland in 1896 by Carpatho-Rusyn immigrants living in Tremont. The founders had emigrated from Carpathian Ruthenia in Austria-Hungary (now Zakarpattia Oblast in present-day Ukraine) when the tide of Eastern European immigration to the American urban centers of the Northeast and Midwest was at an all-time high. They were originally Ruthenian Greek Catholics (also known as Byzantine Catholics) who became dissatisfied by their affiliation with the Catholic Church and followed Carpatho-Rusyn church leader Alexis Toth into Russian Orthodoxy. This same situation played out in many Eastern Catholic parishes in the US, and the results formed the core group of the present Orthodox Church in America (OCA).
The first church structure was a light-frame construction building, at Literary Rd. and W. 6th St., built in 1896. The Russian Missionary Fund established by Tsar Nicholas II provided financial assistance. The second church structure was the former Sisters of St. Joseph Convent. In 1902, the parish bought the former Sisters of St. Joseph Convent and sold 80 individual lots from the convent land to parishioners for $125 apiece to raise funds. The current cathedral is the parish's third church structure. It was completed at an estimated cost of $70,000. It was consecrated by Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) on Sunday, July 20, 1913.
In 1909 the parish purchased land in the Cleveland suburb of Brooklyn for a cemetery. The property had a wooden barn on it and one of the monks from St. Theodosius would come to the location on Saturdays to teach the Russian language to the children who lived too far away to attend Russian classes at the church.
Starting in 1917, the Russian Revolution and Civil War greatly impacted the Russian Empire and the Russian Orthodox Church. After the February Revolution, the Russian Provisional Government abolished the Most Holy Synod and allowed the church to restore the Patriarchate. The Most Holy Synod had administered all church property and controlled the expenditure of churches and monasteries. The Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution of 1917. Shortly afterwards, the church elected Tikhon of Moscow to be Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'. The subsequent violence of the Russian Civil War devastated the church and the country. The Soviet government opposed the church, and many White émigrés came to Cleveland and joined St. Theodosius during this period. Longtime pastor Fr. Jason Kappanadze of Georgia was among them.
On February 25–28, 1919, the cathedral hosted the Second All-American Sobor which set a precedent, by electing Alexander (Nemolovsky) to the rank of Archbishop of the Aleutians and North America, for future elections of the Church's primates by later councils. This made him the first primate to be chosen locally in North America. The Russian Orthodox Church was weakened again and further dissociated in 1922, when the Living Church, a Soviet-supported movement, dismissed the Patriarch and restored a Synod to power.
On November 20–23, 1934, the cathedral hosted the Fifth All-American Sobor which elected primate Theophilus (Pashkovsky). On November 26–29, 1946, it hosted the Seventh All-American Sobor which broke ties between the Orthodox Church in America and Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. It was rededicated on October 3, 1954. Since the late 1950s, the clergy celebrated the liturgy in both Church Slavonic and English languages. Today there is only one Sunday liturgy and it is in English and parts in Slavonic.
On January 18, 1974, the building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places and was designated a Cleveland Landmark.
In the summer of 1977, St. Theodosius served as the site for the wedding scene in the film "The Deer Hunter". According to the film credits, the parish's own Father Stephen Kopestonsky, was cast as the priest in the scene. On June 16, 1961, it also appeared in an episode of the TV series "Route 66" ("Incident On a Bridge").
Architecture.
The cathedral was built in a recognizable Neo-Byzantine style; a type of Russian church architecture with one large, four medium, and eight small copper onion domes, symbolic of Christ and the twelve apostles. The cathedral is considered one of the best representatives of Russian church architecture in the U.S. with design features, by Cleveland architect Frederick C. Baird, based on photographs of the original Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, Russia.
The iconostasis, separating the sanctuary from the larger portion of the cathedral accessible to the faithful, contains the following icons imported from Russia:
In 1953 the church commissioned murals by noted Russian émigré fresco painter Andrej Bicenko. Included in a mural is the likeness of one of the cathedral's most prominent pastors, Fr. Jason Kappanadze.


Heinrich Sylvester Theodor Tiling

Heinrich Sylvester Theodor Tiling (31 December 1818 in Wilkenhof, Livonia, now in Latvia – 6 December 1871 in Nevada City, California, US) was a German–Russian physician and naturalist. During his later years he became an American citizen.
Early years.
His parents were Johann Heinrich Tiling and Margarete, née Pearson of Balmadis. He studied medicine in Dorpat from 1838 to 1844. He graduated and received a doctor's degree in 1844.
Career.
Tiling became a physician at the "Russian North American Co." in Ayan, Siberia from 1845 through 1851. He went to Ayan over land with his young wife and arrived in winter 1845. The difficulties during the overland journey were extreme in parts. He published an account of it in "" see below. The German title of the book translates as: "A journey around the world from West to East through Siberia and the Pacific and Atlantic seas". During his time in Ayan, he kept a daily register of the temperature and rainfall for Ayan. He described all plants in the area and published an account of it with the director of the botanical gardens in St. Petersburg, Russia, Eduard August von Regel ("Florula Ajanensis"; see below). He went back to Riga with his wife and four small children and arrived early 1852.
After that, he practiced medicine in Riga from 1853 to 1854. From 1854 to 1863, he practiced in Wenden and from 1863 until 1868, in Sitka, Alaska. He had settled in Sitka before the Alaska purchase. After it he stayed and later went on to San Francisco and Nevada City, California.
He collected and described numerous plants and species in Siberia, Alaska, and California from 1844 to 1871 such as Tiling's monkeyflower, "Mimulus tilingii", native to North America.
Journey around the world.
Directly after having got the doctor's degree, he was offered a post with the Russian-American Company to become the company surgeon in their newly created port on the Okhotsk Sea, Ayan. He married in the spring of 1844 Anna Elisabeth Fehrmann. She accompanied him on the overland journey to Siberia. Tiling started to learn the Russian language during his travels. The journey was slow and obviously lasted longer than planned and it was already winter when they arrived. After a lot of trouble that ended very nearly deadly, they arrived in Ayan on 4 December 1844 and Tiling began his work. At the time of his arrival, Ayan had only about 100 inhabitants and his duties as a doctor took up only about an hour per day. Thus Tiling could spend most of the day making scientific observations. One example is the temperature tables he made starting November 1847. He took temperatures three times per day, at 7 a.m., 2 p.m. and 9 pm, calculated monthly median values, and monthly high and low temperatures. He logged cloud cover, barometer readings, wind direction, and rainfall. He collected plants in the near vicinity of Ayan and according to his own conclusion "hardly missed one". His weather readings for Ayan are the oldest in Eastern Siberia. The flora of Ayan is one of the best documented in Siberia. In 1851, he and his family, now with four little children, took the boat from Ayan to Sachalin, Kamschatka, Sitka, Hawaii, Tahiti, around Cape Horn through the Atlantic Ocean back to Kronstadt.
Back in Europe.
After the arrival in Europe, Tiling practised first in Riga. In 1854 he was the county surgeon for Wenden. Only when he moved to America he left this post.
Second journey.
From 1863 to 1868, Tiling was surgeon in Sitka, Alaska. This was either again with the Russian-American Company, or with the Russian Government represented through the governor. Whether his wife and family accompanied him on this second journey is not entirely clear, yet it is very likely. She herself died in Riga in 1876, and also much later all their eight children. So nobody of the family stayed in the end in North America. At the time of the journey their youngest child Eduard was only six years old. Therefore, it can be assumed that at least his wife and some of the children came with him. In 1867 the US government purchased Alaska from Russia, yet Tiling stayed in Sitka. Most of the higher ranking Russian officials moved back to Europe. It is very likely that Tiling spoke English, his mother being English. His wife Anna was born in London and should have some degree of knowledge of the English language as well.
There is no detailed written evidence about the later movements to San Francisco and Nevada City.
Critical assessment.
Very obviously the collection and categorization of plants is core to Tiling's personality. This passion is with him throughout his life. From his various places of residence he send back plants, specimens, seeds, and descriptions. Lange and Gumprecht, the two persons that reviewed ', sing his praise for the introduction and popularisation of the pretty garden shrub "Weigela Middendorfiana" to Europe's gardens. In addition to that Regel wrote: "It is mainly Dr. Tiling to whom we owe the introduction of many excellent Siberian plants" The review of Lange and Gumprecht go far above a normal book review. They add information about Tilings voyage that is not contained in the book they review. The size of the review with 21 full pages is remarkable as well. Although ' was published anonymously the reviewers did know the author and supported his views. At least among the German speaking people "in the know" it was clear who the author of "" was. There must have been intensive contact between author and reviewers previously. Specifically intensive was Tilings exchange with the director of the Botanical Gardens in St Petersburg, Eduard August von Regel with whom he published "Florula Ajanensis".
Trained as a medical man and having the collection of plants at his heart his interests far exceeded these two areas. One example is the meteorological observations in Ayan described above. This is probably the earliest systematic weather observations taken in Eastern Siberia. Through the scientifically trained experience of different geographical areas of the world and their resulting flora and fauna Tiling developed a very modern view of the development of nature. At the beginning of his lecture "On the inhabitants of the seas" (German: ""), which he gave after his return from Ayan, he made people aware of the differences in the various parts of the sea and the reason for it. The Baltic Sea, on whose shore he and his audience was born and raised, he thought as very poor in diversity of species. Today that is an acknowledged fact. As the most widely known example for the extinction of species he names Steller's sea cow "… We have seen not very long ago the extinction of an animal of the sea and that in a part of the sea that seemed so vast to us that we thought it should give shelter for its harassed inhabitants."
The large variety of species and individuals in the Sea of Okhotsk near his former home Ayan was described very lively. He combined this knowledge with what he had seen on his return voyage to Europe 1851–1852 as ship's surgeon from Ayan via Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Sitka, Hawaii, Tahiti, around the Cape Horn and through the Atlantic Ocean back to the baltic seaport Kronstadt, now a suburb of St. Petersburg. He drew the following conclusion: "… Add the huge numbers of sea lions, sea bears and walrusses, which you may encounter in various parts of the sea and you will have to confess that it is due to the complete annihilation of these creatures in the Baltic Sea to which we owe the deadly calmness that the view of the sea induces in us. We have so to speak only the splendid frame left of the gigantic picture that our creator has set before our eyes." With this he formulates an indeed very modern view and concern that scientists formulated distinctly during the last twenty years.
Plants named by him.
More than 20 species were named after him. The abbreviation Tiling indicates that Heinrich Sylvester Theodor Tiling has described this species for the first time.


Kallinikos Manios

Kallinikos Manios () was founder of the first school in Veroia.
He was born in Veroia on 1624. In the year 1642, he went to Rome and attended as a student the Greek college of Ayios Athanasios. He stayed there until 1647 and later he went to the Collegio Urbano. Later he returned to Veroia where he became active in the field of education (1649). He founded the first school in Veroia. He died in 1665.


Battle of Cingoli

The Battle of Cingoli was fought in 1250 between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the armies of the Guelphs and the Papal States, the area being so notable due to its nickname as "The Balcony of Marche". The Imperial forces inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pope's factions. After the battle, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor was smitten with leprosy, and Pope Innocent IV declared the illness to be an act of God. This was most probably due to the Emperor's excommunication; a common threat and practice for subduing overconfident Catholic leadership.


Caeria

Caeria (died 344/343 BC), was an Illyrian queen who reigned in the second part of the fourth century BC.
Cynane, an Illyrian princess and daughter of Philip II of Macedon, engaged in battle with Caeria in 344/343 BC. An account cites that Cynane accompanied her father when this happened during his campaign in Illyria. Caeria was killed by Cynane in a hand to hand combat with a blow to the throat, and with great slaughter, her army was also defeated.


Eric Christiansen

Eric Christiansen (15 September 1937 – 31 October 2016) was a medieval historian and fellow emeritus of New College, Oxford University.
Christiansen was educated at Charterhouse School after which he served in the ranks of the Northamptonshire Regiment. He became a fellow of New College after completing a thesis on modern Spanish history but subsequently specialised in medieval history.


Rimvydas Petrauskas

Rimvydas Petrauskas (October 21, 1972 in Vilnius) is a Lithuanian historian, and the current Rector of the Vilnius University since 2020. For his outstanding scientific research, he received a variety of awards, including the Knight's Cross of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas (in 2018), Knight's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland (in 2019), Lithuanian Science Prize (in 2019).


James Martin Eder

James Martin Eder (June 24, 1838 – December 26, 1921), known in Colombia as Santiago Martín Eder Kaiser, don Santiago Eder or simply "El Fundador", is considered the pioneer of the sugar industry in Colombia, and is widely recognized as one of Colombia's leading 19th century industrial pioneers.
Early life.
Eder was born to a Lithuanian Jewish family in Goldingen in the Duchy of Courland in the Russian Empire. He was the son of Martin Sass Eder and Dorina Kaiser, and was the youngest of their seven children. In 1851 Santiago Eder immigrated from Courland to New York City where his older brother and most of his siblings already lived. He completed his education and after some work experience entered Harvard Law School in 1858. In 1861 he moved to San Francisco, and from there moved to the Colombian sea port of Buenaventura where he worked as a lawyer and a commercial representative for Panamanian trading firms when Panama was still part of Colombia. In 1864 he bought the Manuelita sugar and coffee farm near the city of Palmira in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. He bought this farm at a public auction in Cali from the father of leading Colombian novelist Jorge Isaacs. In 1866 Eder became the consul of the United States in Buenaventura, as well as the vice-consul of Chile. In 1867 he traveled to London where he met and married Elizabeth 'Lizzie' Benjamin in the New Synagogue. In their marriage certificate, the name of don Santiago's father is given as 'Moses Eder'. From this marriage were born his children Henry, Charles, Luisa, Walter, Phanor, Fanny and Edith Eder.
Industrial pioneer in Colombia.
In 1901, Manuelita became the first Colombian sugar mill to move from mule to steam powered mills. As such, don Santiago became one of Colombia's first industrialists. In 1903 he left his children Charles James and Henry James Eder in charge of his business interests and moved with his wife to New York. He remained there until his death at 83 in 1921. Eder is buried at the Shearith Israel Cemetery in Cypress Hills, Brooklyn. His nephew Montague David Eder was one of England's Leading Zionist.
After his death, the Manuelita sugar company saw further expansions in 1927 and 1939. In 1952 under management of Harold Henry Eder, Santiago's grandson, Manuelita became the first sugarcane mill in Colombia to make refined sugar. Under Santiago Eder's great grandson Henry James Eder Manuelita started an international expansion, and today is one of Colombia's leading agro/industrial companies with operations in Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Chile. The current president of Manuelita is Harold Eder Garcés, is don Santiago's great-great-grandson and belongs to the fifth generation of the Eder Family in Colombia.
Much of Santiago Eder's correspondence, mostly business related, but also dealing with the Colombian government and personal family matters, are preserved at the Phanor James Eder Collection at the University of Miami.


Dutch ship Willem de Eerste

The Willem de Eerste was a 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the navy of the Dutch Republic, the Batavian Republic, and the Royal Netherlands Navy.
The order to construct the ship was given by the Admiralty of the Meuse.
The ship was commissioned in 1785. In 1795, the ship was renamed Brutus and incorporated in the Batavian Navy.
On 11 October 1797 the "Brutus" took part in the Battle of Camperdown under Rear-Admiral Johan Bloys van Treslong. A cannonball hit the Rear-Admiral's right arm, which had to be amputated. "Brutus" soon left the battle, when she couldn't reach the flagship "Vryheid" because the burning ship "Hercules" blocked the way. After the battle, on 13 October, the ship was found by the frigate and was attacked. "Brutus" sailed deeper in the Dutch waters of the Goeree channel, where she was no longer pursued by the British vessel.
In 1806, the "Brutus" was renamed Braband. In the years 1811-1813, the ship formed part of the French navy, but she was returned to the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814. In 1815 she was fitted out to sail to the Dutch East Indies, but it soon became clear that her hull wasn't strong enough for the voyage, and she sailed no further than Portsmouth. The ship was eventually broken up in 1820.


Communist League of West Germany

The Communist League of West Germany ("Kommunistischer Bund Westdeutschland"; KBW) was a Maoist organization in West Germany which existed from 1973 until 1985. The KBW contested the general elections in 1976 and 1980 in West Germany and was rated as the strongest of the German Maoist parties from 1974 until 1981. After 1982 the KBW was virtually inactive and was finally dissolved completely in 1985.
History.
The KBW was formed at a conference held in Bremen in June 1973 as a fusion of various local communist groups from Heidelberg, Bremen, Göttingen, Freiburg etc. At its inaugural conference the KBW adopted a programme advocating the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the bourgeois state and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat in order to achieve a classless society and communism. In its programme the KBW demanded the arming of the people (”"Allgemeine Volksbewaffnung"“).
One of the main efforts of the KBW was the struggle against the Bundeswehr (Federal Armed Forces). It organized youth camps dedicated to ideological and practical training for the revolutionary struggle. Members of the KBW participated in violent demonstrations against nuclear power plants in West Germany (Brokdorf, Grohnde).
On September 21, 1975 the KBW and his "Committees against § 218" organized a demonstration of 25,000 people in Bonn against the German law prohibiting abortion.
The KBW contested the general elections in 1976 and 1980 and several state (German "Bundesland") and local elections. The organization obtained 20,018 votes or 0,1% in the 1976 elections (8,285 votes 1980). It won one seat in the Heidelberg city council in 1975 which was lost later. Strongholds of the KBW were university towns.
The KBW headquarters moved from Mannheim to Frankfurt am Main in April 1977. When the Minister-President of Lower Saxony, Ernst Albrecht, proposed a ban on three maoist groups in 1977, KBW, the maoist "Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands" (KPD/AO) and the Communist Party of Germany/Marxist-Leninist (KPD/ML) demonstrated together in Bonn with about 16,000 supporters.
The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) was supported in its armed struggle by contributions from the KBW. ZANU politicians Ndabaningi Sithole, Robert Mugabe and Edgar Tekere visited West Germany several times at invitation of the KBW.
The organization split in the summer of 1980 when about a quarter of the membership formed the League of West German Communists ("Bund Westdeutscher Kommunisten; BWK)", which continued to work on the basis of the KBW programme of 1973.
In 1982 the KBW abandoned its objective of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat and started to infiltrate The Greens ("Die Grünen").
The official weekly "KVZ" and the theoretical organ "KuK" ceased publication at the end of 1982. Their successor, the monthly "Kommune" was not a KBW magazine anymore.
Structure.
The organizational principle of the KBW was democratic centralism.
Since 1977 the organization was divided into three regional ("Nord", "Mitte", "Süd") and 40 district units. It had in the beginning a 13-member (later expanded) Central Committee and a five-member Standing Committee ("Ständiger Ausschuss").
The KBW had 900 members in 1973 and about 5,000 (with affiliated organizations) in 1977. Membership declined later due to the high demands the party made on their members, lack of success and the dramatic changes in the politics of the People's Republic of China.
Secretary of the Central Committee's Standing Committee from 1973 until 1982 was Joscha Schmierer.
Activity.
For a KBW activist a normal week looked as follows: Monday from 5.30am-7.30am the selling of the weekly "Communist Peoples Newspaper" (KVZ) in front of a factory gate or at the railway station, followed by a branch meeting on Monday evening. Tuesday started early again with KVZ sales, as did Wednesday. On Wednesday evening there was usually a training course based on an article from the theoretical organ "Communism and Class Struggle". On Saturday there was various public activity (mostly information stands with newspaper sales), and the whole of Sunday was devoted to the study of Marxist-Leninist classics. On free afternoons leaflets were distributed and more extensive training courses took place.
Electoral work.
The KBW also took part in elections. In general elections, the KBW only got around 0.1 percent of the votes. More important was the actual number of people voting for the KBW (20,018). This gave a relative good indication of how many people of the time actually approved of the violent overthrow of the capitalist system . Other smaller revolutionary parties also got about 25,000 votes at this time (1976).
The KBW had its biggest success in the communal elections of Baden-Württemberg in April 1975, when Helga Rosenbaum was voted onto the Heidelberg city council and used this as a platform to call for the violent overthrow of the Federal Republic. On September 16, 1976 she was expelled from this body by a vote of the majority parties.
Finances.
Contrary to most political parties, KBW had no major financial problems, with KVZ and other publications giving the party a healthy income. Another important factor was financial contributions from party members. There were no set party dues as such, rather, in each cell it was specified, what the individual member had to pay. Members in employment generally contributed one-third of their income. Added to that were the various donations that came in. Individual members brought in entire fortunes and inheritances. In the mid-1970s annual contributions and donations amounted to around 5 million DM and the income from the sales of the various publications was a further 2 million DM.
Orientation.
The KBW subscribed to the ideas of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong, whose writings were distributed through KBW bookshops (or later party offices). It sided with the politics of the Communist Party of China until 1980. Condolences and greetings of KBW secretary Hans-Gerhart "Joscha" Schmierer were published frequently since 1976 in the Peking Review (later "Beijing Review)." It sent delegations to China several times and to the Democratic Kampuchea of Pol Pot in late 1978.
Party slogan.
"Vorwärts im Kampf für die Rechte der Arbeiterklasse und des Volkes - Vorwärts im Kampf für den Sieg des Sozialismus" (Forward in the struggle for the rights of the working class and the people - Forward in the struggle for the victory of socialism)