History of Mauritius

The known history of Mauritius begins with its discovery by Arabs and Malays, followed by Europeans and its appearance on maps in the early 16th century. Mauritius was successively colonized by the Netherlands, France and Great Britain, and became independent in 1968.
Discovery.
Mauritius was first discovered by the Moors. This is corroborated by the earliest existing historical evidence of the island on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502. Cantino shows three islands which are thought to represent the Mascarenes (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) and calls them Dina Margabin, Dina Arobi, and Dina Moraze. The medieval Arab world called the Indian Ocean island region Waqwaq.
Portuguese discoveries (1507–1513).
Mauritius was later discovered and visited by the Portuguese between 1507 and 1513. Mauritius and surrounding islands were known as the Mascarene Islands ("Ilhas Mascarenhas") after Pedro Mascarenhas.
An official world map by Diogo Ribeiro described "from west to east, the first island, 'Mascarenhas', the second, 'Santa Apolonia' and the third, 'Domingo Froiz.' " The three islands (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) were encountered some years earlier by chance during an exploratory expedition of the coast of the Bay of Bengal led by Tristão da Cunha. The expedition ran into a cyclone and was forced to change course. Thus, the ship "Cirne" of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion island on 9 February 1507. They called the island "Santa Apolonia" ("Saint Apollonia") in honor of that day's saint. Mauritius was encountered during the same expedition and received the name of "Cirne" and Rodrigues that of "Diogo Fernandes". Five years later, the islands were visited by Dom Pedro de Mascarenhas who left the name "Mascarene" for the whole region. The Portuguese took no interest in these isolated islands. They were already established in Asia in Goa, on the coast of Malabar, on the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and on the Malaysian coast.
Their main African base was in Mozambique, therefore the Portuguese navigators preferred to use the Mozambique Channel to go to India. The Comoros at the north proved to be a more practical port of call. Thus no permanent colony was established on the island by the Portuguese.
Dutch East India Company era (1598–1710).
In 1598, the second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia consisting of eight ships, under the orders of admirals Jacques Cornelius van Neck and Wybrandt van Warwyck, set sail from Texel, Netherlands, towards the Indian subcontinent. The eight ships ran into foul weather after passing the Cape of Good Hope and were separated. Three found their way to the northeast of Madagascar, while the remaining five regrouped and sailed in a southeasterly direction. On 17 September, the five ships under the orders of Admiral van Warwyck came into view of Mauritius. On 20 September, they entered a sheltered bay which they named "Port de Warwick" (now known as "Grand Port"). They landed and decided to name the island "Prins Mauritz van Nassaueiland," after the son of William the Silent, Prince Maurits (Latin version: Mauritius) of the House of Nassau, the "stadtholder" of most of the Dutch Republic, and after the main vessel of the fleet, the "Mauritius". From that time, only the name Mauritius has remained. On 2 October, the ships again took to the sea towards Bantam.
Some of the descendants of William of Orange through the female line reside in Mauritius, including Jill Holloway, a distinguished businesswoman, marine journalist and writer.
From then on, the island's Port de Warwick was used by the Dutch as a stopover after long months at sea. In 1606, two expeditions came for the first time to what would later become Port-Louis in the northwest part of the island. The expedition, consisting of eleven ships and 1,357 men under the orders of Admiral Corneille, came into the bay, which they named "Rade des Tortues" (literally meaning "Harbor of the Tortoises") because of the great number of terrestrial tortoises they found there. From that date, Dutch sailors shifted their choice to Rade des Tortues as a harbor.
In 1615, the shipwreck and death of governor Pieter Both, who was coming back from India with four richly laden ships in the bay, led Dutch sailors to consider the route as cursed, and they tried to avoid it as much as possible. In the meantime, the British and the Danes were beginning to make incursions into the Indian Ocean. Those who landed on the island freely cut and took with them the precious heartwood of the ebony trees, then found in profusion all over the island.
Dutch colonization started in 1638 and ended in 1710, with a brief interruption between 1658 and 1666 (the year of Great Fire of London). Numerous governors were appointed, but continuous hardships such as cyclones, droughts, pest infestations, lack of food, and illnesses finally took their toll, and the island was definitively abandoned in 1710.
The island was not permanently inhabited for the first forty years after its "discovery" by the Dutch, but in 1638 Cornelius Gooyer established the first permanent Dutch settlement in Mauritius with a garrison of twenty-five. He thus became the first governor of the island. In 1639, thirty more men came to reinforce the Dutch colony. Gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island, but he did nothing of the sort, so he was recalled. His successor was Adriaan van der Stel, who began the development in earnest, developing the export of ebony wood. For that purpose, van der Stel brought 105 Malagasy slaves to the island. Within the first week, about sixty slaves were able to escape into the forests; about twenty of them were recaptured.
In 1644, the islanders were faced with many months of hardships, due to delayed shipment of supplies, bad harvests, and cyclones. During those months, the colonists could only rely on their own ability to feed themselves by fishing and hunting. Nonetheless, van der Stel secured the shipment of 95 more slaves from Madagascar, before being transferred to Ceylon. His replacement was Jacob van der Meersh. In 1645, the latter brought in 108 more Malagasy slaves. Van der Meersh left Mauritius in September 1648 and was replaced by Reinier Por.
In 1652, more hardships befell the inhabitants, colonists and slaves alike. The population was then about a hundred people. The continuing hardships affected the commercial potential of the island and a pullout was ordered in 1657. On 16 July 1658, almost all the inhabitants left the island, except for a ship's boy and two slaves who had taken shelter in the forests. Thus the first attempt at colonization by the Dutch ended badly.
In 1664, a second attempt was made, but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander, van Niewland, without proper treatment, and he would die.
From 1666 to 1669, Dirk Jansz Smient administered the new colony at Port de Warwick, with the cutting down and export of ebony trees as the main activity. When Dirk Jansz Smient left, he was replaced by George Frederik Wreeden, who died in 1672, drowned with five other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition. His replacement would be Hubert Hugo. Hugo was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony. His vision was not shared by his superiors, and he eventually had to abandon the attempt.
Issac Johannes Lamotius became the new governor when Hugo left in 1677. Lamotius governed until 1692, when he was deported to Batavia for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship. A new governor, Roelof Diodati, was then appointed in 1692. Diodati faced many problems in his attempts to develop the island, such as cyclones, pest infestations, cattle illnesses, and droughts. Discouraged, Diodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be Abraham Momber van de Velde. The latter fared no better, but remained the last Dutch governor of the island until it was abandoned in 1710.
Slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists, and revolts or the act of organizing one were severely repressed and punished. Some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others, eventually culminating in condemned slaves’ execution at sunset.
Legacy of the Dutch in Mauritius include:
French rule (1715–1810).
Abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French colony when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne d'Arsel landed and took possession of this port of call on the route to India. He named the island "Isle de France". Six years later, in 1721, the French started their occupation. However, it was only from 1735, with the arrival of the French governor, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that "Isle de France" started developing effectively. Mahé de La Bourdonnais planted spices such as pepper, cinnamon and cloves at "Jardin Pamplemousses".
Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. Under his governorship, numerous buildings were built, a number of which still stand today: part of Government House, the "Château de Mon Plaisir" at Pamplemousses and the Line Barracks. In early 1729 Indians from Pondicherry, India arrived in Mauritius aboard the vessel "La Sirène". Work contracts for these craftsmen were signed in 1734 at the time when they acquired their freedom.The island was under the administration of the French East India Company which maintained its presence until 1767. In 1796 the French settlers broke away from French control when the government in Paris attempted to abolish slavery.During the French rule slaves were brought from parts of Africa such as Mozambique and Zanzibar. As a result the island's population rose dramatically from 15,000 to 49,000 within 30 thirty years. During the late 18th century African slaves accounted for around 80 percent of the island’s population, and by the early 19th century there were 60,000 slaves on the island.
In 1806, the Governor General, Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen, created the city of Mahébourg, named in honour of Mahé de La Bourdonnais. It was originally known as Bourg Mahé. From that year until 1810, the island was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France.
During the Napoleonic wars, the "Isle de France" had become a base from which French corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured during the same year, was successful. Rodrigues was before visited for only fresh water and food by the British in 1809. In late November 1810 the British landed in large numbers in the north of the island near Cap Malheureux and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated on 3 December 1810. By the Treaty of Paris in 1814, the "Isle de France" which was renamed "Mauritius" was ceded to Great Britain, together with Rodrigues and the Seychelles. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the languages, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants.
British rule (1810–1968).
Despite the only French naval victory (during the Napoleonic Wars) of Battle of Grand Port on 19 and 20 August 1810 by a fleet commanded by Pierre Bouvet, Mauritius was captured on 3 December 1810 by the British under Commodore Josias Rowley. Their possession of the island was confirmed four years later by the Treaty of Paris (1814). French institutions, including the Napoleonic code of law, were maintained. The French language was at that moment still used more widely than English.
The British administration, which began with Robert Townsend Farquhar as governor, was followed by rapid social and economic changes. One of the most important events was the abolition of slavery on 1 February 1835. The planters received a compensation of two million pounds sterling for the loss of their slaves which had been imported from Africa and Madagascar during the French occupation.
Sir George Ferguson Bowen was governor from 1879 to 1883.
Mauritian Creoles trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields.
When slavery was abolished on 1 February 1835, an attempt was made to secure a cheap source of adaptable labour for intensive sugar plantations in Mauritius. Indentured labour began with Chinese, Malay, African and Malagasy labourers, but ultimately, it was India which supplied the much needed laborers to Mauritius. This period of intensive use of Indian labour took place during British rule, with many brutal episodes and a long struggle by the indentured for respect. The term applied to the indentured during this period, and which has since become a derogatory term for Mauritians of Asian descent, was Coolie. The island soon became the key-point in the trade of indentured laborers, as thousands of Indians set forth from Calcutta or Karikal; not only did they modify the social, political and economic physiognomies of the island, but some also went farther, to the West Indies.
Indo-Mauritians are descended from Indian immigrants most of whom arrived between 1835 and 1924 via the Coolie Ghat in order to work as indentured labourers after slavery was abolished in 1835. Included in the Indo-Mauritian community are Muslims (about 17% of the population) from the Indian subcontinent. The Franco-Mauritian elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking. As the Indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended, political power shifted from the Franco-Mauritians and their Creole allies to the Indo-Mauritians.
The meeting of a mosaic of people from India, China, Africa and Europe began a process of hybridisation and intercultural frictions and dialogues, which poet Khal Torabully has termed "coolitude". This social reality is a major reference for identity opened to otherness and is widely used in Mauritius where it represents a humanism of diversity.
Conflicts arose between the Indian community (mostly sugarcane labourers) and the Franco-Mauritians in the 1920s, leading to severalmainly Indiandeaths. Following this, the Mauritius Labour Party was founded in 1936 by Maurice Curé to safeguard the interest of the labourers. Curé was succeeded a year later by Emmanuel Anquetil who tried to gain the support of the port workers. After his death, Guy Rozemont took over the leadership of the party.
The Mauritius Territorial Force comprising coastal artillery and infantry formations was created in 1934. Due to the escalation of the Second World War, the force expanded to comprise two battalions. It was renamed the Mauritius Regiment in 1943.
The 1st Battalion with a strength of 1,000 men landed in (Diego Suarez) on December 1943 to relieve Imperial Forces who had invaded and seized the island from Vichy France in the 1942 Battle of Madagascar. Shortly after landing the battalion mutinied due to protests at their conditions and the breaking of their guarantee they would not leave Mauritius. Disarmed by the King's African Rifles, 300 soldiers were arrested and 500 soldiers tried but only 6 remained imprisoned by 1946
There was also a home guard formation, the Mauritius Defence Force of 2,000 men and a naval Coastal Defence Force
Elections in August 1948 for the newly created Legislative Council (under the revised 1947 Constitution) marked Mauritius's first steps toward self-rule. It was the first time that women were represented and a significant number of Indo-Mauritians and Creoles were elected. The previous Council of Government was replaced by the new Legislative Council composed of 19 elected members, 12 members nominated by the Governor and 3 ex-officio members. The first sitting of the Legislative Council took place on 01 September 1948.
Independence (1968).
An independence campaign gained momentum after 1961, when the British agreed to permit additional self-government and eventual independence. A coalition composed of the Mauritian Labour Party (MLP), the Comité d'Action Musulman (CAM), and the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB)a traditionalist Hindu partywon a majority in the 1967 Legislative Assembly election, despite opposition from Franco-Mauritian and Creole supporters of Sir Gaetan Duval QC's and Jules Koenig's Mauritian Social Democratic Party (PMSD). The Labour-IFB-CAM coalition was known as Independence Party (Mauritius). Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Chief Minister in the colonial government, became the first prime minister after independence, on 12 March 1968. The date of 12 March was specifically chosen to coincide with Mahatma Gandhi's Salt March which occurred on 12 March 1930. Between 1965 and 1968 there were various ethnic riots which could only be brought under control with assistance from British troops who flew in from South-East Asia. The communal strife that preceded independence led to around 300 deaths.
British rule ended on 12 March 1968 with the Mauritius Independence Act 1968. The British monarch, Elizabeth II, remained nominal head of state as Queen of Mauritius. Her constitutional roles were delegated to the Governor-General of Mauritius. The last governor, Sir John Shaw Rennie served as the first governor-general until 27 August 1968.
Whilst in power the Labour-IFB-CAM coalition (Independence Party (Mauritius)) disintegrated by 1969, most IFB MPs landed on opposition benches whilst most PMSD MPs joined the Labour-CAM government. The remaining PMSD MPs who refused to follow Gaetan Duval formed a new party called Union Démocratique Mauricienne (UDM) which together with the IFB formed the opposition to the Labour-CAM-PMSD government. In 1969, the Mouvement Militant Mauricien led by Paul Bérenger and Heeralall Bhugaloo emerged. The first MMM MP (Dev Virahsawmy) was elected in 1970 at a by-election of Constituency No. 5 following the death of IFB MP Lall Jugnauth. Until 1982, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam was prime minister, his Labour Party in coalition with Duval's PMSD. In 1982, the coalition of "Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien" (MMM-PSM) came to power in a landslide electoral victory, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC as prime minister and Harish Boodhoo as the Deputy Prime Minister. The coalition split in 1983, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC forming the "Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien" (MSM), which became the governing party, with Jugnauth as prime minister. Following the electoral defeat of 1982 Sir Satcam Boolell was dismissed from the Labour Party, which led him to he form a new party Mouvement Patriotique Mauricien (MPM) before returning to the Labour Party in 1983. Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam subsequently became Governor General.
After Seewoosagur's death in 1985 Satcam Boolell became Leader of the Labour Party. In 1990 Seewoosagur's son, Navin Ramgoolam, succeeded him as leader of the party which was defeated at the 1991 elections, which saw Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC re-elected under a MMM-MSM government.
The Republic of Mauritius was proclaimed on 12 March 1992. Following the abolition of the monarchy, the last Governor General of Mauritius, Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo became the first President of Mauritius.
Republic (1992-present).
In December 1991, the Constitution was amended to make Mauritius a republic within the Commonwealth. Mauritius became a republic on 12 March 1992, with the last governor general, Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo, as interim president. He was succeeded by Cassam Uteem on 30 June 1992.
Dr. Navin Ramgoolam led a MLP-MMM coalition to victory at the 1995 general elections, replacing Sir Aneerood Jugnauth QC as prime minister, a post the latter had occupied for 13 years. The governing coalition split in 1997, with the MMM going back to the Opposition and Dr. Navin Ramgoolam staying on as prime minister.
At the next elections in 2000, Sir Anerood Jugnauth's MSM, in coalition with Paul Bérenger's MMM was returned to power, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC appointed as prime minister. He subsequently retired as prime minister after 3 years and assumed the office of president. For the remaining time of the elected government the prime minister's post was filled by Paul Bérenger. At the 2005 general elections, the MLP-led Alliance Sociale coalition won the elections, and Dr. Navin Ramgoolam became prime minister while Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC remained the president. The 2010 general elections saw the victory of a MLP-MSM-PMSD coalition (known as "L'Alliance de l'Avenir") and the maintaining of Dr. Navin Ramgoolam as prime minister. A year or so later, Sir Anerood Jugnauth QC left the presidency and was replaced by Kailash Purryag, an attorney at law and politician, who has served the country as senior minister on many occasions under the leadership of Dr. Navin Ramgoolam.
The 2014 general elections saw the victory of a MSM-PMSD-ML coalition (known as "L'alliance Lepep") and Sir Aneerood Jugnauth became Prime Minister while Kailash Prayag remained the president until 2016 when Mrs Ameena Gureeb Fakim became the first female president. In January 2017, Prime Minister Anerood Jugnauth stepped down to hand power to his son, Pravind. In November 2019, Mauritius’ ruling Militant Socialist Movement (MSM) won more than half of the seats in the 2019 elections, securing incumbent Prime Minister Pravind Kumar Jugnauth a new five-year term.


Fikre Selassie Wogderess

Fikre Selassie Wogderess (; 13 July 1945 – 12 December 2020) was an Ethiopian politician who was the first Prime Minister of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) from 10 September 1987 to 8 November 1989.
Biography.
Fikre was one of the more obscure members of the Derg until the coup of 3 February 1977, in which Secretary-General Tafari Benti was killed along with seven other Derg members. The coup elevated him (Bahru Zewde notes "according to some sources from near execution by reason of mistaken identity!") to Secretary-General, in which post he would occasionally dispel "the atmosphere of total sycophancy" with his "fractionally independent disposition."
Fikre became the first Prime Minister of the newly-formed Communist state that replaced the Derg in 1987. He made a trip to Cairo in November 1988 to seek improved relations with Egypt, and to express support for Egypt's offer to negotiate a settlement of the Eritrean conflict. In November 1989, President Mengistu Haile Mariam ordered him removed from his post, having criticized him three days prior in a meeting of the Politburo of the Workers Party of Ethiopia, stating "there is no one quite like Fikre Selassie, who sits idly and quietly. One time, he sat here reading a magazine... He is not antirevolutionary or a criminal, nor is he conspiratorial... But he is unstable and even rude... He is being expelled for disciplinary reasons also."
Following the conclusion of the Ethiopian Civil War and the end of the PDRE, Fikre was one of 46 former leaders of the PDRE who were tried in person beginning 19 April 1996 for murdering individuals, genocide, and crimes against humanity by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; 22 more individuals, including the exiled Mengistu, were charged "in absentia" at the same trial. The trial ended on 26 May 2008, and Fikre Selassie Wogderess was sentenced to death. In December 2010, the Ethiopian government commuted the death sentence of Fikre Selassie and other 23 Derg officials. On October 4, 2011, Fikre Selassie was freed along with other 16 of his former colleagues, after twenty years of incarceration. The Ethiopian government paroled almost all of those Derg officials who had been jailed for 20 years.
Death.
Fikre Selassie Wogderess died on 12 December 2020 after receiving medical treatment for diabetes and kidney complications.


Ouagadagou Declaration

The Ouagadagou Declaration is the final declaration signed by the six political and military movements of Azawad, following a meeting that took place in Burkina Faso at the end of August 2014. The purpose of the declaration was to put an end to hostilities in northern Mali and to establish a political and legal status for Azawad. It was signed on August 28, 2014 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. During this meeting, the groups were gathered together for the first time since the of June 2013. The meeting took place following the first round of the Algiers peace negotiations in July 2014 and before these negotiations resumed in Algiers on September 1, 2014.
Background.
A meeting took place in Ouagadougou from 25 to 28 August bringing together six different armed groups in northern Mali. The meeting was intended to encourage dialogue to resolve participants’ differences and to present a united front during official negotiations with the Malian government in Algiers, to find an acceptable solution to all the parties to the Northern Mali conflict.
The meeting was facilitated and moderated by the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HD), chaired by (HCUA) and co-financed by the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA).
Participants.
The participants of this meeting included:
Results.
The meeting helped to develop a conflict management committee in northern Mali and to establish a monitoring committee for the Ouagadougou Declaration. The HCUA, with support from HD, worked to bring all groups together to resolve their disputes. It encouraged them to develop a common position during the negotiations in Algiers and therefore to facilitate the discussions with the government in the rounds following the Declaration.
The declaration also brought an end to rivalries and hostilities on the ground especially between the MAA, MNLA group and MAA around . Discussions during the meeting allowed an exchange of prisoners between the two groups.
Signatories.
The declaration was signed by:
Algabass Ag Intalla representing the Coordination of Political-Military Movement of Azawad / northern Mali (MNLA, HCUA, MAA and CMFPR).
Ahmed Ould Sidi Mohamed representing the Movement Coordination Politico-Military Azawad signatories of the Algiers Platform of June 14, 2014 (CPA, CMFPR and MAA), also known as "the Platform".


List of wars involving Ivory Coast


Kerry McNamara

Kerry McNamara (August 1940 in Kuruman – 16 January 2017 in Swakopmund) was a Namibian master architect and anti-Apartheid activist.
McNamara was born in August 1940 in Kuruman in the Northern Cape region of South Africa. In 1965 he graduated from University of Cape Town and moved to South-West Africa shortly thereafter. His first architectural project was the Technical High School in Ongwediva, later renamed to Ongwediva Training College. He founded "Kerry McNamara and Associates" in 1977, a company in 1988 renamed to "Kerry McNamara Architects".
During his career McNamara he contributed to about 1,170 architectural designs, the best known of which were the Oshakati Open Market, the buildings at Namibia University of Science and Technology Engineering campus, the display of the Hoba meteorite near Grootfontein, and the Rössing Foundation Adult Education Centre in Windhoek. He received recognition of his "innovative design of public places", and as a "standard setter on the Namibian architectural landscape". His colleague Natanael Araseb described him as a "visionary architect who practised urban design long before the concept had been coined". In 2010 he received the "Lifetime Achievement Award" from the Namibian Chamber of Architects.
Kerry McNamara was a known anti-apartheid activist. He was one of the driving forces behind the "Namibia Peace Plan 435", a lobby group pushing for the implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 435 which called for the Independence of Namibia and the abolishment of White minority rule. The offices of The Namibian, a newspaper critical of the South African occupation of South-West Africa and supporting the then-oppressed SWAPO party, were leased from him, despite repeated firebombing and teargassing attacks by pro-apartheid militia. McNamara also partnered with Niko Bessinger, a black architect and known SWAPO leader, knowing that this partnership would cost him numerous contracts from the state and from private individuals.
McNamara died from cancer on 16 January 2017 in his retirement home in Swakopmund. He was married to Shelagh McNamara; the couple had three sons and a daughter.


Andrianmanotronavalonimerina

King Andrianmanotronavalonimerina was the King of Ambohidrabiby (now part of Madagascar) in the 18th century, following the death of his father, King Andriamasinavalona in 1710, though he held Ambohidrabiby as a principality even before this date. He was later defeated by his brother, King Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka and was forced to retreat into exile into the area around Anjafy and Anativolo, where he died.
He had issue a son named Prince Andrianavakondambozafy.


Alphadi

Alphadi (born Sidahmed Seidnaly 1 June 1957) is a notable Nigerien fashion designer often known as the "Magician of the Desert". He is Touareg, from an upper caste lineage, on both his parents sides. Alphadi was born in Timbuktu, Mali, but moved to his parents native Niger at a young age.
Alphadi studied at Cardon Savard Studios in Paris, started his label in 1984, and his first haute couture line was released in 1985 at the Paris International Tourism Tradeshow. His line has since extended into sportswear and perfume. The Alphadi line, which has 'Complexe Alphadi' boutiques in Niamey (on Rue Vox), Ivory Coast and Paris
In 1998 Alphadi was the one of the three African fashion designers to win the Principal Prince Claus Award; the other two were Tetteh Adzedu from Ghana and Oumou Sy.
In 1998, he created the first FIMA, the International Festival of African Fashion which was located in Niger. This event allowed African designers to come together with other international designers such as Yves Saint Laurent, Kenzo, Jean Paul Gaultier and Paco Rabanne. Since then, the event has been going on every 2 years. In 2007, he launched a new contest during the FIMA and Hip Hop FIMA Contest.
Alphadi maintains production facilities in Niamey and Morocco, and splits his time between homes in Niamey and Paris. He is married, a father of six children.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 580

United Nations Security Council resolution 580, adopted unanimously on 30 December 1985, having heard representations from Lesotho and recalling Resolution 527 (1982), the Council condemned the recent attacks on the Kingdom of Lesotho by South Africa, resulting in loss of life and damage to property on 19 December, in which several South African refugees were murdered in Lesotho's capital Maseru by the South African Defence Force.
The Council demanded South Africa pay compensation to Lesotho, calling upon all parties concerned to normalise their relations and to apply established channels of communication on matters of mutual concern in a peaceful manner. It reminded South Africa to live up to its commitments not to destabilise neighbouring countries, and to begin the process of dismantling apartheid.
The resolution then requested Member States and international organisations provide economic assistance to Lesotho due to the damage caused by the attacks.
Lastly, the resolution required the Secretary-General to establish a presence in Lesotho compromising of one or two civilians in Maseru for the purposes of keeping him informed on developments. It also asked him to report to the Security Council as appropriate on developments in the region.


Jama kaNdaba

Jama kaNdaba (c. 1727–1781), the son of Ndaba kaMageba, was a High Chief of the Zulu clan from 1763 to 1781. His grandfather was Chief Mageba kaGumede.
Biography.
Marriage.
He married, amongst others, Mthaniya Sibiya, who bore him Senzangakhona, who succeeded him. Senzangakhona was the father of the three Zulu kings, including the greatest, Shaka. He also had a daughter named Mkabayi kaJama.
His daughter Mkabayi.
Mkabayi singlehandedly courted Mthaniya for her father Jama who was aging without having a successor. She did this without her father’s knowledge and when he found out he said: "Nenzengakhona", which means "you have done accordingly." Mthaniya’s first son was named Senzangakhona – "we have done accordingly", after his sister’s efforts to find her father a successor. Mkabayi was a twin and Zulu custom dictated that one of the twins be sacrificed to evade bad luck that would result in the death of one of the parents.
Jama refused to kill one of his girls and broke a known tradition. Consequently his wife died without bearing him a successor. Mkabayi devoted her whole life in looking after the Zulu Kingdom due to the sacrifice her parents made for her to live.
Etymology.
His name is derived from the Zulu word meaning "he of the stern countenance".


African Writers Conference

In June 1962 a conference of African literature in the English language, the first African Writers Conference, was held at Makerere University College in Kampala, Uganda. Officially called a "Conference of African Writers of English Expression", it was sponsored by the Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Mbari Club in association with the Department of Extra-Mural Studies of Makerere, whose director was Gerald Moore. The conference was attended by many prominent African writers, including: from West Africa Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka (later Nobel Laureate in Literature), John Pepper Clark, Obi Wali, Gabriel Okara, Christopher Okigbo, Bernard Fonlon, Frances Ademola, Cameron Duodu, Kofi Awoonor; from South Africa: Ezekiel Mphahlele, Bloke Modisane, Lewis Nkosi, Dennis Brutus, Arthur Maimane; from East Africa Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o (then known as James Ngugi), Robert Serumaga, Rajat Neogy (founder of "Transition Magazine"), Okot p'Bitek, Pio Zirimu (credited with coining the term "orature"), Grace Ogot, Rebecca Njau, David Rubadiri, Jonathan Kariara; and from the African diaspora Langston Hughes. The conference was "not only the very first major international gathering of writers and critics of African literature on the African continent; it was also held at the very cusp of political independence for most African countries."
Conference topics.
The conference dealt with the issue of how the legacy of colonialism had left the African writer with a dilemma with regard to the language choice in writing. The questions raised and debated at the conference were:
Controversy.
At the conference, several nationalist writers refused to acknowledge any literature written in non-African languages as being African literature. Ngũgĩ noted the irony of the conference's title, in that it excluded a great part of the population that did not write in English, while trying to define African literature but accepting that it must be in English. As he would describe it in his 1986 book "": "The bullet was the means of the physical subjugation. Language was the means of the spiritual subjugation."
In an essay entitled "The Dead End Of African Literature", published in "Transition" in 1963, Obiajunwa Wali stated: "Perhaps the most important achievement of the last Conference of African Writers of English Expression held in Makerere College, Kampala, in June 1962, is that African literature as now defined and understood leads nowhere. The conference itself marked the final climax on the attack on the Negritude school of Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire... Another significant event in the Conference, is the tacit omission of Amos Tutuola."
Effect and legacy.
Writing of the conference 50 years later, James Currey in "Leeds African Studies Bulletin" quoted Chinua Achebe as saying in 1989: "In 1962 we saw the gathering together of a remarkable generation of young African men and women who were to create within the next decade a corpus of writing which is today seriously read and critically valued in many parts of the world. It was an enormously important moment, and year, in the history of modern African literature."
The conference is regarded as a major milestone in African literature, and is thought to have defined many African authors' style of writing. For example, Currey notes that Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o as a young student ventured to ask Chinua Achebe at the conference to read the manuscripts of his novels "The River Between" and "Weep Not, Child", which would subsequently be published in Heinemann's African Writers Series, launched in London that year, with Achebe as its first advisory editor. Ngũgĩ subsequently rejected Christianity in 1976, and changed his original name from James Ngugi, which he saw as a sign of colonialism. He also resorted to writing in Gikuyu language instead of English.
Memorial conference.
"SOAS African Literatures Conference – 55 years after the first Makerere African Writers Conference" was organised as a memorial event taking place on 28 October 2017, with a keynote speech by Wole Soyinka.


Cheche Disaster

The Cheche Disaster (Portuguese: Desastre do Cheche) was an incident during the Portuguese Colonial War in Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) in which almost fifty Portuguese soldiers died on 6 February 1969 while crossing the Corubal River.
Background.
When Brigadier António de Spínola came to Guinea in 1968 as Governor and Commander in Chief, he decided to evacuate the Portuguese troops in the east of the country, which was thinly populated and of no strategic value. The camp at Madina do Boé was surrounded and was suffering constant attacks by the PAIGC guerillas of Amílcar Cabral. The position was untenable. It was occupied by PAIGC forces the same day that the Portuguese evacuated it. The retreating force included "Caçadores" ("Hunters") company 1790, commanded by Captain José Aparício, more troops from company 2405 and Guinean militia.
Moving the troops, vehicles and equipment over to Chéché, on the south bank of the Corubal River, was a difficult operation but was completed successfully. On the afternoon of 5 February 1969 the force began to use two ferries to cross the river from south to north. With repeated trips, 100 tons of equipment and ammunition, 28 heavy vehicles and about 500 men made the crossing. The ferries were rafts about . The wooden platforms were supported by canoes and empty diesel barrels, and pulled by a boat with an outboard engine.
Incident.
By the early morning of the 6 February only the rearguard of 100 to 120 men remained on the south shore. These men all piled onto one raft to make the last crossing. In the middle of the river, the raft tipped to one side, throwing several men into the water, then tipped to the other side, throwing more men in. The raft was seriously overloaded, with the weight poorly distributed.
The tipping may have triggered by an explosion creating a panic.
However, one survivor says there was no firing, and another pointed out that the troops were accustomed to mortar fire and would not have reacted. Another possibility is that the boat pulling the raft accelerated too fast.
Wearing boots and uniform, weighed down with arms and ammunition, many of the men sank immediately. When the raft reached the other bank the extent of the disaster was realised: 47 Portuguese soldiers and five Guinean militia from the Madina do Boé garrison had died.
Aftermath.
About two weeks later, an operation was launched using marines and navy divers to try to recover the bodies, which were already in an advanced state of decomposition. Many were not recovered; those that were received a formal military burial beside the river.
In February 2010 a team of researchers from the Faculty of Science and Technology in the University of Coimbra exhumed and tried to identify the bodies of between fifteen and seventeen of the soldiers who had been buried in a mass grave from the river. The skeletons were in poor condition due to the very high humidity levels, complicating the job of separating and identifying them. The exhumation was promoted by the League of Combatants of Portugal ("Liga dos Combatentes de Portugal") under a program named "Conservation of Memories".
Notes and references.
Citations
Sources


Jamaican Maroons

Jamaican Maroons descend from maroons, Africans who escaped from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica and established free communities in the mountainous interior, primarily in the eastern parishes. Escaped Africans who were enslaved during Spanish rule over Jamaica (1493–1656) may have been the first to develop such refugee communities.
The English, who invaded the island in 1655, expanded the importation of slaves to support their extensive development of sugar-cane plantations. Africans in Jamaica continually fought and revolted, with many who escaped becoming maroons. The revolts had the effect of disrupting the sugar economy in Jamaica and making it less profitable. The revolts simmered down after the British government signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons in 1739 and the Windward Maroons in 1740, which required them to support the institution of slavery. The importance of the Maroons to the colonial authorities declined after slavery was abolished in 1838.
The Windward Maroons and those from the Cockpit Country resisted conquest in the First Maroon War ( 1728 to 1740), which the government ended in 1739–1740 by making treaties to grant lands and to respect maroon autonomy, in exchange for peace and aiding the colonial militia if needed against external enemies. Tension between British colonial Governor Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres, and the majority of the Leeward Maroons resulted in the Second Maroon War from 1795 to 1796. Although the governor promised leniency if the maroons surrendered, he later betrayed them and, supported by the Assembly, insisted on deporting just under 600 Maroons to British settlements in Nova Scotia, where British slaves who escaped from the United States were also resettled. The deported Maroons were unhappy with conditions in Canada, and in 1800 a majority left, having obtained passage to Freetown, eight years after the Sierra Leone Company established it in West Africa (in present-day Sierra Leone) as a British colony.
Origins.
The word "maroon" is derived via French from the Spanish word "cimarrón", meaning "wild" or "untamed". This word usually referred to runaways, castaways, or the shipwrecked; those "marooned" probably would never return. The origin of the Spanish word "cimarrón" is unknown.
When the English invaded Jamaica in 1655, most Spanish colonists fled. Many of their slaves escaped and, together with free blacks and mulattoes, former slaves, and some native Taíno, coalesced into a number of ethnically diverse groups in the Jamaican interior.
Spanish Maroons.
Some Spanish Maroons created "palenques", or stockaded mountain farms, first at Lluidas Vale, in modern-day St Catharine Parish, under Juan de Bolas (also known as Lubolo). Toward the western end of Cockpit Country were the "Varmahaly or Karmahaly Negroes" under the leadership of Juan de Serras. There were possibly a third group was active in the region of Porus, in modern Manchester Parish; and a fourth in the Blue Mountains. During the first decade of English rule, these groups were active on behalf of the Spanish. But, as it became increasingly obvious that the British would hold their conquest, the group run by de Bolas changed its position.
Faced with discovery and defeat in 1659, de Bolas allied with the English and guided their troops on a raid which resulted in the final expulsion of the Spanish in 1660. In exchange, in 1663, Governor Sir Charles Lyttelton, 3rd Baronet signed the first maroon treaty, granting de Bolas and his people land on the same terms as English settlers. The colonial authorities paid the men of de Bolas to hunt the supporters of de Serras and recent runaways. However, de Bolas was eventually killed in an ambush, probably by Maroons belonging to de Serras. While the Maroons belonging to de Bolas disappeared from history, the English authorities failed to subdue the Karmahaly Maroons.
The other Maroon groups remained independent in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, surviving by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. These initial Maroon groups faded from colonial history records, possibly migrating to more mountainous or remote regions of the interior. Others may have coalesced to form the nucleus of what would later be called the Windward Maroons. Over time, runaway slaves increased the Maroon population, which eventually came to control large areas of the Jamaican mountainous interior.
In the 1670s and 1680s, in his capacity as an owner of a large slave plantation, former buccaneer and now lieutenant-governor of Jamaica Sir Henry Morgan led three campaigns against the Karmahaly Maroons of de Serras. Morgan achieved some success against the Maroons, who withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, where they were able to stay out of the reach of Morgan and his forces. It is possible the Maroons of de Serras merged with the Windward Maroons.
Establishment of the Leeward and Windward Maroons.
Between 1673 and 1690 there were several major slave uprisings, mainly prompted by newly arrived, highly militarized Fante or Coromantee groups from Cape Coast and Ashanti Empire. On 31 July 1690, a rebellion involving 500 slaves from the Sutton estate in Clarendon Parish led to the formation of Jamaica's most stable and best organized Maroon group. Although some were killed, recaptured, or surrendered, more than 200, including women and children, remained free after the rebellion ended.
They established an Ashanti-style polity based in the western parts of the Cockpit Country, notably Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town); the most famous ruler of the Western Maroons was Cudjoe. They incorporated outsiders only after newcomers had satisfied a strict probationary period.
At this time, the leaders who emerged in the Eastern Maroons were Quao and Queen Nanny. The Windward Maroons, in the wilder parts of eastern Jamaica, were always composed of separate highly mobile and culturally heterogeneous groups. It is possible that the runaway slaves from de Serras' group of Karmahaly Maroons formed the initial nucleus of the Windward Maroons. From early on, the Jamaican governors considered their settlements an impediment to English development of the interior. They ordered raids on the Maroon settlements in 1686 and 1702, to little effect.
By about 1720, a stronger Windward community had developed around the culturally Africanised group of three villages known as Nanny Town, under the spiritual leadership of Queen Nanny, an Ashanti woman, sometimes in allegiance and sometimes in competition with other Windward groups. She was known for her exceptional leadership skills, especially in guerrilla warfare during the First Maroon War. One tactic particular to the Jamaican Maroons involved the art of camouflage using plants. Her remains are reputedly buried at "Bump Grave" in Moore Town, the main town of the Windward Maroons, who are concentrated in and around the Rio Grande valley in the northeastern parish of Portland. Queen Nanny, also known as Granny Nanny (died c. 1750s), is the only woman honoured as one of Jamaica's National Heroes. She has been immortalised in songs and legends.
Maroons in the 18th century.
First Maroon War 1728–1739.
Disturbed by plantation raiding, the colonial authorities of Jamaica wanted to eradicate the Maroon communities in order to promote British settlement. Their strategy, beginning in the 1730s, was to break off lines of communication between the Windward and Leeward Maroons, then first pick off the less organized Windward Maroons. In practice, the Maroon troops' command of the territory and skill in guerrilla warfare gave them a strong advantage over colonial forces.
After much fighting, the British took and destroyed Nanny Town in 1734, but most of the Windward Maroons simply dispersed and formed new settlements. At this point, however, fighting shifted to Leeward, where the British troops had equally limited success against the well-trained and organized forces of Cudjoe.
By the mid-1730s, warfare was proving costly to Maroons and British alike and was turning into an ongoing stalemate. Cudjoe rejected suggestions of a treaty in 1734 and 1736, but by 1738 he agreed to parley with John Guthrie. This local planter and militia officer was known to and respected by the Maroons. In 1739, the treaty signed under British governor Edward Trelawny granted Cudjoe's Maroons 1500 acres of land between their strongholds of Trelawny Town and Accompong in the Cockpit Country and a certain amount of political autonomy and economic freedoms, in return for which the Maroons were to provide military support in case of invasion or rebellion, and to return runaway slaves in exchange for a bounty of two dollars each. This last clause in the treaty caused tension between the Maroons and the enslaved black population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into Maroon settlements.
In addition, a British superintendent was to be assigned to live in each Maroon town. In 1740, similar treaties were signed by Quao and Nanny, major leaders of the Windward Maroons. The Windward Maroons were originally located at Crawford's Town and the new Nanny Town (now called Moore Town). In all, about 600 Maroons came to terms with the British authorities through these two treaties.
Not all the Maroons accepted the treaties. Rebellions occurred in Maroon communities in the years that followed. After the treaties, the white superintendents appointed by the governors eventually took control of the Maroon towns. In the 1740s, some Leeward Maroons who opposed the 1739 treaty rose in revolt, but Cudjoe crushed those rebellions.
In 1754, Quao attempted to overthrow Edward Crawford, the new Maroon leader of the Windward Maroon town, and in the resulting conflict, Crawford's Town was destroyed. Governor Charles Knowles re-established control over the uprising with the help of other Maroons. He then ordered that the Maroons of Crawford's Town be resettled in the new, nearby Windward Maroon towns of Charles Town (Jamaica) and Scott's Hall (Jamaica).
The Maroon population grew from 664 in 1739 to 1,288 in 1796, at a time when both the slave population and the white settler communities were ravaged by disease.
Intervention in Tacky's War, 1760.
In April 1760, the Jamaican government called upon the Maroons to honour their treaties and come to their assistance during the major slave uprising led by the Fante leader, Tacky, in Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica. The Windward Maroons were first to be mobilized. Their intervention at first appeared half-hearted: the Scott's Hall Maroons began by claiming outstanding arrears in bounty, while those Charles Town Maroons at Down's Cove allegedly took cover when attacked by the rebels. However, the Maroon warriors were employed guerrilla warfare tactics, which contradicted the British military tradition of marching into the oncoming fire.
In the end, it was a Scott's Hall Maroon, Lieutenant Davy the Maroon, who killed Tacky during a skirmish. The loss of Tacky's leadership essentially ended the initial rebellion.
In western Jamaica, Apongo led another slave rebellion, inspired by Tacky's Revolt, which lasted from April 1760 to October 1781. Cudjoe's well-trained forces were mobilized to help deal with them with some degree of success.
The Maroons and runaway communities in the Blue Mountains.
In the years that followed Tacky's rebellion, many Maroon officers such as Samuel Grant, allegedly the son of Davy, made a career out of hunting runaway slaves for the colonial authorities. These runaway slaves formed informal maroon communities, modelled along the lines of the official Maroon communities before they came to terms.
In the 18th century, Maroons also hunted and killed notorious escaped slaves and their deputies, such as Ancoma, Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica), and Dagger. However, while they were successful in capturing and killing some runaways and their leaders, most members of the runaway maroon communities continued to thrive under new leaders.
White superintendents took command of the Maroon towns, and the Maroon officers were relegated to their subordinates. After Tacky's War, the governor appointed a separate superintendent for each of the five Maroon towns. These superintendents reported to the Superintendent-General, who in turn reported to the governor. The Superintendents-General of all Maroon towns were as follows:
Second Maroon War 1795–1796.
The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British-Jamaican planters panicked by the excesses of the French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighboring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding Maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town).
The treaties following the First Maroon War had called for the assignment of a white "superintendent" in each Maroon community. Trelawny Town had objected to the official recently assigned to them and eventually expelled him. At this, the new, hardline Governor, Balcarres, sent William Fitch to march on Trelawny Town with a military force to demand their immediate submission. Balcarres ignored the advice of local planters, who suggested giving the Maroons some more land in order to avoid conflict. Instead, the governor demanded that the Maroons surrender unconditionally, provoking a conflict that could have been avoided. The Trelawny Maroons, led by their colonel, Montague James, chose to fight and were initially successful, fighting a guerrilla war in small bands under several captains, of whom the most noted were Johnson, Parkinson, and Palmer.
The casualties suffered by Fitch and his men were significantly higher than those felt by the Maroons of Trelawny Town. When the Trelawny Town Maroons killed Fitch, several of his officers, some Accompong Maroon trackers, and many militia soldiers in an ambush, Balcarres appointed a new general, George Walpole. This new general suffered more setbacks, until he eventually opted to besiege the Cockpit Country on a massive scale, surrounding it with watchposts, firing in shells from a long distance, and intending to destroy or cut off all Maroon provision grounds. Meanwhile, Maroon attempts to recruit plantation slaves met with a mixed response, though large numbers of runaway slaves gained their freedom by fighting for Trelawny Town. Other Maroon communities maintained neutrality, but Accompong Town, however, fought on the side of the colonial militias against Trelawny Town.
Despite signs that the siege was working, Balcarres grew impatient and sent to Cuba for a hundred hunting dogs and handlers. The reputation of these was so fearsome that their arrival quickly prompted the surrender of the majority of Trelawny forces. The Maroons, however, only put down their arms on condition that they would not be deported, and Walpole gave his word that would be the case. To Walpole's dismay, Balcarres refused to treat with the defeated Maroons and had them deported from Jamaica, at first to Nova Scotia, then to the new British colony of Sierra Leone, and joined the African-American founders who established the Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown, Sierra Leone.
From the 1830s on some Maroons (or their descendants) returned to Jamaica to work as free labourers, and many of them settled in the village of Flagstaff, near the old site of Trelawny Town (although some of these returnees resettled in Sierra Leone) (see Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone). The descendants of the Returned Maroons live in Flagstaff today (see Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)). Those who remained in Sierra Leone formed the new Creole ethnic group of Sierra Leone which established diaspora communities along the West African shores from Sierra Leone to the Gambia to Fernando Pó.
Maroons in the 19th century.
Maroons in the last years of slavery.
Trelawny Town was the largest Maroon town, so the population of Maroons in Jamaica was significantly dented by their deportation. However, in the nineteenth century the total population of the four remaining Maroon towns grew from 853 in 1808 to 1,563 in 1841. The Maroon towns grew in numbers at a time when the population of black slaves and white slave-holders alike declined from disease. One historian argues that this is due to the healthier environment of the Maroon towns.
When the colonial authorities deported the Maroons of Trelawny Town, they left a void which was filled by communities of runaway slaves. The Maroons of the smaller town of Accompong were unable to cope with the growing numbers of runaways in western Jamaica, who found refuge in the Cockpit Country. The Accompong Maroons tried but failed in their attempts to disperse the runaway community of Cuffee (Jamaica), who established a community of runaway slaves in the Cockpit Country in 1798. When Cuffee's maroon group faded from the colonial records, their place was taken by another group of runaways, who established themselves in the Cockpit Country in 1812. The maroon community of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come also resisted attempts by the Accompong Maroons and the colonial militias to disperse them in the 1820s.
A large maroon group of runaway slaves established themselves near Hellshire Beach in southern Jamaica, and it thrived there for years until it was finally dispersed by a party of Windward Maroons in 1819.
The Maroons played a significant role in helping the colonial authorities to suppress the Samuel Sharpe revolt in 1831–32, under the leadership of white superintendents such as Alexander Fyfe (Fyffe).
Sharpe's Baptist War persuaded the British government to end the system of slavery, which they did in the years following the rebellion. After that, the colonial authorities had no use for the Maroons, and they passed the Maroon Allotments Act in 1842, and abolished the post of superintendent in the 1850s. Their attempts to break up the Maroon communal land, while partially successful in Charles Town and Scott's Hall, met with Maroon resistance in Accompong Town and Moore Town.
The Returned Maroons of Flagstaff.
After the Second Maroon War, the colonial authorities converted Trelawny Town into a military barracks, and renamed it Maroon Town, Jamaica. The Trelawny Maroons flourished in Sierra Leone at first, but their situation soon soured, and they submitted petitions to British government, asking for permission to return to Jamaica. These petitions were turned down.
However, in 1831, another petition was presented by 224 Sierra Leone Maroons to the British government, and this time the Jamaican authorities relented. They responded by saying they would place no obstacle in the way of Maroons returning to Jamaica, but would not pay any passage or for the purchase of lands in the island.
In 1839, the first Maroons made their way from Sierra Leone to Jamaica. Mary Brown and her family, which included her daughter Sarah McGale and a Spanish son-in-law, sold off their property in Sierra Leone, bought a schooner, and set sail for Jamaica. They were joined by two other Sierra Leone Maroons, Mary Ricketts and her daughter Jane Bryan. In 1841, this group found their way to Trelawny Town, now called Maroon Town, Jamaica but which they still insisted on calling Cudjoe's Town. Their descendants still live their today in a village named Flagstaff among a group known as the Returned Maroons.
In 1841, the first ship to arrive in Sierra Leone looking for African workers was the "Hector", and several Maroons were so desperate to leave Sierra Leone that they did not wait for the ship to dock, but rowed out to meet it in their canoes. In all, 64 Maroons left Sierra Leone for Jamaica on the "Hector" alone. Most Sierra Leone Maroons lived in Freetown, and between 1837 and 1844, Freetown's Maroon population shrank from 650 to 454, suggesting that about 200 made their way back to Jamaica.
As many as one-third of the Maroons in Sierra Leone returned to Jamaica in the 1840s.
Intervention in the Morant Bay Rebellion, 1865.
In 1865, poor free blacks, led by Bapist deacon Paul Bogle, rose in revolt against the colonial authorities in the Morant Bay Rebellion. The governor called out the Moore Town Maroons one last time to put down the rebellion. Fyfe was called up once more to lead a combination of Moore Town Maroons, including some who resided in Hayfield and Bath, and they committed a number of atrocities before they captured Bogle. However, their cruelty in suppressing the uprising attracted a lot of criticism from Methodist missionaries and residents of Saint Thomas Parish, Jamaica.
Maroons in the 21st century.
To this day, the Maroons in Jamaica are, to a small extent, autonomous and separate from Jamaican culture. Those of Accompong have preserved their land since 1739. The isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today resulted in their communities being amongst the most inaccessible on the island.
Today, the four official Maroon towns still in existence in Jamaica are Accompong Town, Moore Town, Charles Town and Scott's Hall. They hold lands allotted to them in the 1739–1740 treaties with the British. These Maroons still maintain their traditional celebrations and practices, some of which have West African origin. For example, the council of a Maroon settlement is called an "Asofo," from the Twi Akan word asafo (assembly, church, society).
Native Jamaicans and island tourists are allowed to attend many of these events. Others considered sacred are held in secret and shrouded in mystery. Singing, dancing, drum-playing, and preparation of traditional foods form a central part of most gatherings. In their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St. Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons have a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners. They hold a large festival annually on 6 January to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War.
Moore Town, located between the Blue Mountains and John Crow Mountains in Portland Parish, was relisted on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008 for its Maroon heritage, particularly music.


Julius von Soden

Julius Freiherr von Soden (5 February 1846 – 2 February 1921) was a German colonial administrator and politician. He was the Governor of the colonies of Kamerun and German East Africa, and later became "Chef de Cabinet" and Foreign Minister of the King of Württemberg.
Youth and education.
Julius von Soden was born on 5 February 1846 in the barracks of the 7th Infantry Regiment in Ludwigsburg, where his father was lieutenant colonel. He was a member of the Evangelical Church.
In 1849 the family moved to Stuttgart. His parents died early. His mother, whose maiden name had been Marie von Neurath, died on 28 March 1849, and his father Julius on 13 April 1854.
Soden and his three older sisters were raised by his grandmother, Charlotte von Neurath.
Soden started school in Korntal, then went on to high school in Stuttgart. His temporary tutor Julius Klaiber and his schoolmasters in high school inspired him with an interest in antiquity, and he aspired to become
a classical scholar. Throughout his life, Soden enjoyed classical authors, especially Homer and Dante.
His view of the world was at first strongly influenced by David Strauss and then increasingly by Immanuel Kant.
After leaving school in 1864, Soden began the study of law at the University of Tübingen, where he joined the "Corps Suevia Tübingen", a student duelling society. In the fourth semester, he moved to Göttingen. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 created a problem, since Soden had by then become a reserve officer and was a strong supporter of the Prussian Otto von Bismarck, while his family sympathized with Austria. He avoided the problem by remaining in Göttingen on the basis that it was impossible to travel to the south in wartime, only returning to Tübingen for his examinations in 1869.
Soden then became a law clerk in Heilbronn, even though he had more interest in jurisprudence. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, Soden was an enthusiastic volunteer, serving in the 4th Württemberg Cavalry. He saw little action, and when peace returned left the military and returned to his legal studies, passing his second legal examination in the fall of 1871.
Travel and consulates.
Julius von Soden felt an urge to travel and see the world. He heard that German consuls, who had usually been merchants, were being replaced by civil servants, often lawyers, and took up a consular career, ready to go anywhere. He first obtained a position as vice-consul in Bucharest, then in 1872, after half a year, transferred to the newly established German consulate in Algiers.
Soden loved to travel and, in the next few years, made many long voyages. After his first voyage from Marseilles to Algiers, in 1876 he was sent to Canton and then Hong Kong.
In 1879 he was assigned to Havana. From 1881 to 1882 he was Resident Representative of the Minister to Lima, and in 1884 he was Consul General to St. Petersburg. In these positions, he came to the conclusion that promotion of trade contacts was a job for businessmen, not consuls. He also began to take a broad view of the economic importance of developing German industry, shipping, and trade.
West Africa.
With the tentative start of German colonialism, Soden moved from a diplomatic into an administrative role.
In July 1884, he was appointed as the first head commissioner of the German colony of Togoland.
A year later, in March 1885, he was appointed by Kaiser Wilhelm I as the first governor of Kamerun.
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had a negative attitude towards Soden's colonial aspirations and gave him few instructions.
Soden's job was made difficult by lack of resources to support a colonial empire and by lack of infrastructure. Without a telegraph system, it was very difficult to simultaneously fulfill the offices of Chief Commissioner of Togoland and Consul General of the Gulf of Guinea.
In the circumstances, Soden emphasized a strategy of "peaceful" development of the "protected area", with the goal of maximizing the economic benefits of the colony. He envisioned a network of schools throughout the colony, with teachers to follow merchants, planters and officials. The schools would assist missionary activity as well as industrial and commercial enterprises.
Soden quickly realized the potential of Cameroon for plantations, and encouraged the Hamburg-based "Land- und Plantagengesellschaft" in their project in Man O' War Bay. He established an advisory council under the governor, an arbitration court, and an initial customs administration. He brought the trade in spirits and arms under control.
He dealt with risings in 1886 and 1887 caused by attempts by the government to break the monopoly that the coastal tribes had over trade with the interior.
Although his policy was apparently succeeding, during a vacation at home from 13 May 1887 to 17 January 1888, he was invited by Bismarck to Friedrichsruh, where he learned that there had not been more enthusiasm for German colonial policy than before. Bismark's fall from power in 1890 did not immediately relieve him of his difficulties.
East Africa.
In 1890, the new German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi asked for a study of the prospects for establishing a new colony in East Africa. Despite a sobering report, the project went ahead, and Soden was appointed governor of the colony of German East Africa on 1 January 1891. However, in his new post Soden was handicapped by infrastructure problems and by constant interference by the Foreign Office in Berlin.
Without consulting him, the government appointed three commissioners with vague powers: Eduard Schnitzer, known as Emin Pasha, Carl Peters, and Hermann von Wissmann, Soden's two immediate predecessors in the colonial administration. Soden was handicapped in his main task of reorganizing the local security forces by being a civilian whose authority was not readily recognized by the military. He found that the principles of colonial policy that he had formulated over years of experience were in conflict with the "global politics" of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Soden founded the first secular state school, the Tanga School, against the wishes of the home government. His objective was to train Swahili-speaking junior administrators who would help him in his policy of limiting administration to the coast and using the coastal people as his intermediaries in establishing trade links with the interior. To overcome the distrust of a purely secular education by the upper-class Swahili families, a Koranic teacher was employed, but he was swiftly dismissed after the missionary lobby caused an uproar in Germany. In 1893, frustrated by the obstacles imposed on his administration from Berlin, Soden asked Chancellor Caprivi to allow him to retire.
Later career.
For the six years following his retirement, Soden lived on his estate in Germany, for the first time undertaking the duties of a landowner. He also traveled throughout Germany, coming into closer contact with the governments of the states, and also continued to be involved in colonial affairs as a consultant. In 1896, he became a member of the board of the West Africa Plantations Company ("Westafrikanische Pflanzungsgesellschaft"), an enterprise in Cameroon.
In 1899, Soden was surprised to be offered the post of Chief of Cabinet at the court of King William II of Württemberg. He accepted, and was successful in this very different role from his previous offices.
He was trusted and respected by the king and all with whom he came into contact as someone who would give clear and impartial opinions. His kind and always helpful nature and his sunny temperament was of great value. On 1 September 1900, Soden married Helene von Sick (born 1856), a daughter of Major-General Hermann von Sick of Ludwigsburg. Julius was 54 years old, ten years older than his bride. Their marriage was childless, probably due to the bride's advanced age.
In November 1900, Soden left the King's cabinet and became foreign minister in the Württemberg State Government. In this position, he promoted improvements in the transport sector, driving forward the unification of the railroads and expanding the Württemberg branch lines.
He resigned from this post in 1906, and resumed his former post as royal cabinet chief, remaining in office until 1916. He also accepted various honorary positions, including that of chairman of the Swabian Schiller Society (1900 to 1902 and 1906 to 1917).
After the war and the November Revolution, Soden decided to resume his studies. In September 1920, aged 74, he returned to Tübingen, where he attended lectures. His chosen subjects were spiritual in nature, philosophy, philology and aesthetics.
His retirement was short. A few months after a new semester began in January 1921, Soden suffered a physical collapse, and on 2 February 1921, after a 14-day illness, he died three days before his 75th birthday.


Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Burkina Faso)

The Union for Democracy and Social Progress () was a political party in Burkina Faso.
In the 2007 parliamentary elections the party won one of the 111 seats in the National Assembly.


The Daily Times (Malawi)

The Daily Times is a daily newspaper published in Blantyre, Malawi. It is the oldest newspaper in the country, founded as the monthly Central African Planter in 1895. Around 1900 the title Central African Times was adopted, and weekly publication. Later the title was changed again, to Nyasaland Times. With Malawian independence in 1964 it became simply "The Times" (then published bi-weekly), and finally the "Daily Times" in 1972.
The publisher is Blantyre Newspapers Limited (BNL), a subsidiary of Blantyre Printing & Publishing Company Ltd., which publishes four sister newspapers: "The Daily Times" (Monday-Friday), and the weeklies "The Weekend Times" (Friday afternoon), "Malawi News" (Saturday), and "Sunday Times" (Sunday).


Jan de la Fontaine

Jan de la Fontaine ( 1684 – 6 May 1743) was governor of the Cape from 1729 to 1737, after also acting as governor in 1724 to 1727.
Career.
De la Fontaine started his career with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1708 when he was sent to Batavia. In 1710 he was re-employed to the Dutch Cape Colony and arrived at the Cape in March 1710. At the Cape he was appointed assistant and junior merchant and progressed through the ranks to member of the council of policy in 1713 and in 1717, was given the rank of merchant.
On the death of governor, Maurits Pasques de Chavonnes on 8 September 1724, De la Fontaine was appointed acting governor. He served in this capacity until 25 February 1727, when the new governor, Pieter Gysbert Noodt, assumed office. De la Fontaine then applied for discharge from the service of the VOC, but his request was rejected, and the company gave him a promotion to senior merchant and increased his salary substantially. When Noodt died in 1729, De la Fontaine again was appointed acting governor on 24 April 1729 and on 8 March 1730 the Lords XVII (Heren XVII) confirmed his appointment as governor and he took the oath on 21 March 1731.
During his administration, De la Fontaine endeavoured to expand the Cape settlement into the interior. In July 1734, he travelled to the vicinity of Mossel Bay and although he thought little of the harbour, he claimed the bay for the VOC and proclaimed the Great Brak River as the eastern boundary of Cape. New outposts were also established in 1734, at Riviersonderend, at Rietvlei on the Buffeljags River, and at St Helena Bay.
In 1736 De la Fontaine again asked to be released, in part because he wanted to ensure good education for his children. His request was granted and in August 1737 he handed his duties to his successor, Adriaan van Kervel.
Personal.
De la Fontaine was the eldest of the four children of Jacques (Jacob) de la Fontaine and Barbara van der Burgh and was baptized in Amsterdam on 23 April 1684. At the Cape he married Maria Elisabeth de Man on 10 May 1711, who was born and died at the Cape and they had a son and a daughter. In February 1738, De la Fontaine and his family sailed for Holland, where he bought Westerhout, a farmstead at Wijk aan Zee and lived there until his death.


Avenor Ewe

The Avenor Ewe are a sub-tribe of the Ewe people of Ghana. The origin of the name Avenor is not known.
Location.
Their traditional area is located in the south eastern part of the Volta Region of Ghana. The Avenor traditional area has Avenorpeme as it traditional seat and Akatsi as the administrative capital. Administratively, the people of Avenor can be found in two districts namely the Akatsi South District which is Avenorland and Akatsi North District which the Avenors share with their neighbours to the north, the Aves. The traditional area is bordered to the south by the Anlo Ewe (Keta Municipal District) on the east by the Somes (Ketu District), the west by the Tongus and Agaves (North and South Tongus districts) and North by the Aves (Akatsi North district).
History.
Tradition has it that the Avenor people lived in a town by the name Avenor Ketukpe, a suburb of Ketu in the lower Niger area, the original home of all Ewe- speaking people. The Avenor like other Ewe groups moved from Avenor Ketukpe to Notsie due to incessant conflicts with their enemies (mostly like the Yorubas) The headman or leader of the Avenors at Ketukpe was Togbe Agbohlo whose son Anumah led the Avenors to Notsie.
On leaving Notsie, the Avenors under their leader Anumah, moved very closely with the Agus, with whom they found their first settlement at Avenor-Agu Volui near present Kpalime in the Republic of Togo. Their next settlement was at Anyirawase Awudome. Tribal frictions made them move to Fodzoku from where they later crossed the Volta to Kroboland, founding a settlement at Kpong. They became known as Avenor Krobos. This is still sung in songs and the Avenors still have descendants in Kroboland. Frequent clashes with the Akwamus made the Avenors to leave to continue their wandering. From Kroboland there was a general dispersion. One group defected to found a settlement by the Gas at a place now called Avenor close to the Police Training Depot in Accra. The larger group led by Togbui Anumah made settlement at Tefle Avenorkpo in Fieve land. Avenorkpo still stands.
The group that sojourned in Accra had to flee from Accra to look for the larger group at a time when Ofori, the King of Accra and his people also fled from the Akwamus to LittlePopo (about 1682). Quarrel over farmland and fishing zones with the Tefles made the Avenors to cross the Volta to found a settlement at Yorta, later called Detsowome, near Dabala. At Yorta, male child without one arm and an eye was born to one Ku of the chiefly (royal) family. The incident was an ill omen. Then there arose the saying "Detsagbawor" a typical Avenor word meaning, what strange thing has befallen us. Detsagbawor is now Detsawame. By then the Accra group had caught up with the group led by Anumah. Trekking resumed and the Avenors found a new home at Adume near present Avenorpedo (Avenor’s deserted home). Here Togbui Anumah went to farm to be succeeded by his son Atsu Fiadzea. Anumah’s grave has been marked by an uncultivated grove, now still standing at Adume- Avenorpedo.
The Tefles had not forgiven the Avenor encounters they had at Teflekpo and took to kidnapping Avenor women when the opportunity occurred. At Adume the nearest source of water was at Lotor, a distance of four miles away. Whenever Avenor women went to fetch water the Tefles would lay ambush to them and either kill or kidnap them, so the place become known as Lotor- Latsi meaning "you will come but not return". This situation forced the Avenors under their leader Atsu Fiadzea to move away to a place called Korvenu (the grove that protects).
At Korvenu the Avenors in alliance with the Adas fought the Anlo in 1750 and 1767. In 1775, the Avenors again fought the Anlos in what is called the Korvenu War or Anyamakpa war. The scene of war is called Ametawito meaning the "pit of skull". The Avenors had to abandon their settlement to found a new home at Agbiveme also Afeyeme (new abode). Here Atsu Fiadzea died and was succeeded by his son Adoe under whom the Avenors made their permanent home at Avenorpeme about 1776. From the settlement at Avenorpeme, new settlements were founded by hunters and adventurers emanating from the thirteen clans of Avenor.
Clans.
Avenor has thirteen (13) clans namely;


Shout at the Devil (film)

Shout at the Devil is a 1976 British war adventure film directed by Peter R. Hunt and starring Lee Marvin and Roger Moore. The film, set in Zanzibar and German East Africa in 1913–1915, is based on a novel by Wilbur Smith which is very loosely inspired by real events (see the sinking of the SMS "Königsberg"). The supporting cast features Barbara Parkins and Ian Holm.
Plot summary.
Colonel Flynn O'Flynn (Lee Marvin), a hard-drinking American, manipulates British aristocrat Sebastian Oldsmith (Roger Moore) into helping poach ivory in Tanganyika, which is part of the German-controlled pre-World War I territory of German East Africa. On hearing news that the American has returned, Herman Fleischer (Rene Kolldehoff), the local German Commander of the Southern Provinces, relentlessly hunts O'Flynn with his "Schutztruppen" (colonial troops).
Later Sebastian meets and falls in love with O'Flynn's daughter, Rosa (Barbara Parkins). They are married and have a daughter together. Meanwhile, the poaching continues. Fleischer has his warship ram and sink O'Flynn's Arab dhow loaded with poached ivory. Later, while attacking O'Flynn's home, "Schutztruppe" under Fleischer's command kill Sebastian's daughter Maria.
O'Flynn and Sebastian decide to go and kill Fleischer as revenge for the death of the little girl. But when it is discovered that Britain is at war with Germany, allied officers convince O'Flynn to locate and destroy the German warship awaiting repair.
O'Flynn, Sebastian, and Rosa pursue Fleischer, who happens to be on the warship. Eventually they find her in an inlet and plant a bomb on board. O'Flynn sacrifices himself so that Sebastian and Rosa can escape while Fleischer's crew search for the bomb. Fleischer jumps overboard just in time to get away also, but as he comes ashore, Sebastian kills him with a rifle. Sebastian and Rosa then watch the ship as it is ripped apart by more explosions and burns.
Original novel.
The script was based on a novel by Wilbur Smith. The critic from "The New York Times" called the book "a bloodbath".
Historical accuracy.
The book which the film is based on is vaguely based on real events, but takes significant artistic licence with historical facts. The main story is loosely based on events concerning the light cruiser SMS "Königsberg", which was sunk after taking refuge in Rufiji Delta in 1915. Ivory hunter P J Pretorius had gone on board "Königsberg" disguised as a native to pace out the ranges for the Navy's guns.
In the film the German ship is named "Blücher"; there was a vessel of this name, but it did not serve in Africa. The film implies that Portugal became a co-belligerent with Britain against Germany when the First World War broke out in August 1914, as the Portuguese supply O'Flynn and Oldsmith with a marked Portuguese plane with a Portuguese pilot to conduct surveillance in German territory. In reality, the Portuguese would not have allowed this as they remained neutral until 1916.
Although the motives for killing Fleischer are personal, Sebastian Oldsmith is in fact the only major character who is a citizen of a nation actually at war with Germany.
Production.
Development.
Film rights were bought by Michael Klinger, who would also buy the rights to "Gold Mine", "The Sun Bird", "The Eye of the Tiger" and "Eagle in the Sky". It was announced in 1969 that the movie version would be made by Cinerama Inc. but it took a number of years for the adaptation to be financed.
In 1971 Smith wrote to Klinger that, "It is now becoming critical that somebody start making films out of my books. This is essential for my career – which really needs a good film to take off in the Alistair MacLean class."
Klinger was highly enthusiastic about "Shout at the Devil" – his son referred to it as his father's equivalent of "Gone with the Wind". The producer himself called it a combination between "The African Queen" and "The Guns of Navarone". However it was an expensive film to produce. Klinger decided to first make a film of Smith's novel "Gold Mine".
Screenplay.
Smith worked on the script with Stanley Price, who also helped adapt Smith's novel "Gold Mine" for Michael Klinger. However, the film ending was changed; in the novel all three main characters die.
Filming.
The film's budget has been reported as $9–10 million. Klinger said $3.5 million was provided by AIP.
The film was shot on location in Malta and – controversially due to the then apartheid regime – in South Africa. Shooting took 15 weeks and began in March 1975. The South African portion of the film was based out of the town of Port St Johns.
Stars Roger Moore and Lee Marvin got along well. "They were very funny and liked each other a great deal", said director Peter Hunt. "They would socialise and get drunk together in the evenings, although they never had thick heads in the morning."
"I love this gentleman", said Moore about Marvin. "Thanks to him I have given my best performance ever. I can only be as good as the other guy. Working with Lee Marvin hauls you up, forces you to try to reach his level."
The movie was cut during post production with around 50 minutes cut out.
Soundtrack.
The music was composed by Maurice Jarre.
Reception.
Box office.
The film was one of the most successful British films of 1976 grossing £15 million.
Critical.
Critic Richard Eder did not like the film much. He wrote, "The movie has too much plot. All that action, conducted by characters without character—except for Fleischer, whose childlike joy in hurting people is almost appealing—produces lethargy...the movie is a passable midget in absurdly long pants."
Film critic Roger Ebert thought that ""Shout at the Devil" is a big, dumb, silly movie that's impossible to dislike. It's so cheerfully corny, so willing to involve its heroes in every possible predicament, that after a while we relax: This is the kind of movie they used to make, back when audiences were supposed to have the mentality of a 12-year-old. It's great to be 12 again."
Follow ups.
Klinger had the film rights to other Smith novels, "The Sunbird", "Eagle in the Sky" and "The Eye of the Tiger". "Eagle" and "Eye of the Tiger" were meant to be part of a four-picture deal between Klinger and Rank Productions. However, none were ever made. The relationship between Smith and Klinger, once warm, ultimately ended in litigation.


Iipumbu Ya Tshilongo


Bahrey

"Abba" Bahrey (Ge'ez: ባሕርይ "bāḥriy", "pearl") was a late 16th-century Ethiopian monk, historian, and ethnographer, from the southern region of Gamo. He is best known for his 1593 work on the history of the Oromo and their migrations in the 16th century, the "History of the Galla" ("Galla" being a historical and now pejorative term for the Oromo; ዜናሁ ፡ ለጋላ "zēnāhū lagāllā"). This short work is considered the ultimate source for information on the sixteenth century history of the Oromo: Manuel de Almeida borrowed heavily from Bahrey in writing his history of Ethiopia, and Hiob Ludolf derived much of his information on the Oromo from Baltazar Téllez's abridgment of Almeida's work.
Bahrey may also have been the author of Emperor Sarsa Dengel's chronicle, "The History of King Sarsa Dengel."


Alexander Wood Renton

Sir Alexander Wood Renton (24 June 1861 – 17 June 1933) was a Scottish lawyer and British colonial judge. He served as the 21st Chief Justice of Ceylon from 1914 to 1918.
Biography.
Renton was born in Fife, the son of Rev. John Renton and Janet Morrison ("née" Wemyss), a cousin of Sir James Wemyss Mackenzie, 5th Baronet. He was educated at the Glasgow Academy and the University of Edinburgh, where he took first class honours in the "Legum Baccalaureus" examination. He was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1885.
As a barrister in England, he did not acquire a large practice, but secured his reputation through his legal writings, including his 1896 book, "Law and Practice of Lunacy". He was an editor of the 13-volume "Encyclopaedia of English Law" (1897), English Reports, and the "Law Journal", and contributed many legal articles to the "Encyclopædia Britannica".
In 1901, Renton was sent to Mauritius as "Procureur" and Advocate-General, and served as a judge on the island. In 1905, he was appointed to the Supreme Court of Ceylon. He was promoted to Chief Justice of Ceylon on 22 August 1914 succeeding Alfred Lascelles and was Chief Justice until 1918. He was succeeded by Anton Bertram.
In 1918, Renton returned to England with the intention of retiring; however, the Colonial Office sent him on a special mission to Nigeria and the Gold Coast Colony.
In 1919, the Foreign Office sent him to Egypt, where he was vice-president of the Egyptian Riots Indemnities Commission. He was subsequently appointed chairman of the Ceylon Salaries Commission (1921), the Irish Compensation Commission (1923), the Irish Grants Committee (1926).
He was made a member of the Privy Council in 1923.
Personal life and honours.
Renton was knighted in the 1915 Birthday Honours. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1925 Birthday Honours and promoted a Knight Grand Cross of the same order in 1930.
In 1889, he married Elizabeth ("née" Jackson), with whom he had two daughters. He died in London, aged 71. In his obituary, "The Times" described him as a popular man: "Personally, he was much liked, and his Scottish humour was enhanced by the agreeable accent with which it was conveyed."


Al-Sahili

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Al-Sahili (1290–1346) was a prominent architect of the Mali Empire under the rule of Mansa Musa.
In 1324, al-Sahili met the ruler of Mali, Mansa Musa, during his pilgrimage to Mecca. According to the chronicler al-Sa'di, Mansa Musa was so delighted by the poetry and narrative talents of al-Sahili that he invited him to return to Mali with him. Al- Sahili settled in the growing intellectual and commercial center of Timbuktu, where he built an audience chamber for Mansa Musa, demonstrating his talent as a skilled craftsman. So impressed was Musa that he engaged the Andalusian to construct his new residence and the Great, or Djingereyber, Mosque in Timbuktu. While the residence has been lost to time, the Great Mosque still stands in Timbuktu. Hunwick posits that the "rounded arch, so reminiscent of the architecture of Muslim Andalusia, may, therefore have been an innovation of al-Sahili." But more reasoned analysis suggests that his role, if any, was quite limited. the architectural crafts in Granada had reached their zenith by the fourteenth century, and its extremely unlikely that a cultured and wealthy poet would have had anything more than a dilettante's knowledge of the intricacies of contemporary architectural practice. Abu Ishaq Al-Sahili died in 1346 and is buried in Timbuktu. Although it is believed that he never married, he is said to have fathered several children who later resettled in Walata.
Ibn Batutta visited his grave, noting he was called al-Tuwaijin (the little cooking pan) in his home country of Granada.


List of rulers of Mombasa

Before 1502 the East African city of Mombasa was part of the Kilwa Sultanate. The independent Mombasa sultanate named "Mvita" (Swahili) or "Manbasa" (Arabic) was then established, but was conquered by the Portuguese Empire during the 16th century. After this control alternated between the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Oman, before the establishment of the British East Africa Protectorate in 1887. Mombasa became part of independent Kenya in 1963.


Makonnen Endelkachew

"Ras Betwoded" Mekonnen Endelkachew (16 February 1890 – 27 February 1963) was an Ethiopian aristocrat and Prime Minister under Emperor Haile Selassie. Mekonnen was born in Addisge, the nephew of the noted Shewan general and politician "Ras Betwoded" Tessema Nadew, who introduced him to Emperor Menilek II. He was a member of the alpha class of the Menelik II School in Addis Ababa when it opened in 1908.
He was a published author, having written a novel, and a booklet on the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Fascist atrocities.
Life.
He was married twice. His second marriage, to the Emperor's niece, Princess Yeshashework Yilma, followed Makonnen's affair with the woman, who was married to the Tigrayan noble "Ras" Gugsa Araya Selassie at time. The affair threatened to destroy the accord Emperor Haile Selassie had carefully crafted, and led to Makonnen's recall from his post as Minister to Great Britain in 1932. Princess Yeshashwork was married to Bitwoded Makonnen Demissew after the death of her first husband, and would not marry Makonnen Endalkachew until after she was widowed for a second time during the Italian occupation, and her return from exile in 1941.
Makonnen accompanied Haile Selassie during his tour of Europe from 16 April to 4 September 1924. Following his recall from London, he served as Minister of the Interior, then governor of Illubabor Province; while governor, he led the troops of that province against the Italian invasion on the Ogaden front, afterwards going into exile from 1936 to 1941 in Jerusalem, and accompanying the Emperor back into Ethiopia upon the liberation of the country. Emperor Haile Selassie appointed him Minister of the Interior in March 1941, as part of the cabinet Haile Selassie established to re-assert Ethiopia's existence as an independent state against the views of the British War Office that, since Ethiopia had previously been Italian territory, the Emperor "cannot fully reassume his status and powers as Emperor until a peace treaty has been signed with Italy". However, as John Spencer points out, Ethiopia was able to rely on the principle of postliminium—that is, once enemy occupation is terminated, a state may act as if its existence had survived without interruption. "Having withdrawn its recognition of the Italian conquest," Spencer points out, "Britain was in no position to contest Ethiopia's application of the doctrine of postliminium." The conflict between Ethiopia and the United Kingdom over the former's sovereignty dominated their relations for the next several years.
From 29 January 1943, when the Emperor created the position, Makonnen served as Ethiopia's first Prime Minister, until his retirement on 1 November 1957. Bahre Zewde notes, however, that Makonnen "was a mere ceremonial figure, given more to intellectual pursuits than to political machinations. The "de facto" prime minister [during Makonnen's tenure] was "Tsahafe T'ezaz" Walda-Giyorgis Walda-Yohannes." Spencer notes that his fellow ministers considered him "as a lightweight."
Although Makonnen led the delegation that represented Ethiopia at the summit in San Francisco that created the United Nations, because he was not fluent in either French or English he took no part in the debates.


Momba, Zambia

Momba was a Nkoya kingdom in what is today known as the Kalomo District of Zambia.


Michael Kintu

Michael Kintu (born , 1964) was a Ugandan politician who served as "Katikkiro" (chief minister) of the Kingdom of Buganda from 1955 to 1964.
Prior to becoming "Katikkiro" himself, Kintu had "already served for more than twenty years as a chief in the administration", including as "Mukwenda" (chief adviser) to "Katikkiro" Paulo Kavuma, who he would later replace. He also chaired the Kintu Committee, established in December 1954 to advise the Bugandan Lukiko on whether to accept the Namirembe recommendations. Ultimately, the Kintu Committee supported the recommendations, with a number of proposed amendments: the deferral of local government and succession reforms, and the instigation of direct elections to the Lukiko. The Kintu Committee's report was adopted by the Lukiko on 9 May 1955 by 77 votes to 8 with 1 abstention.
Kintu's election as "Katikkiro" in August 1955, which followed the return of the Kabaka (king) from exile, was tightly contested, with Kintu defeating Matayo Mugwanya 42–41. In government, Kintu was highly critical of the colonial Protectorate government, and pushed for Ugandan independence. In contrast to Kavuma, Kintu was initially supportive of a single Ugandan state. However, his vision for a federal state (with a high degree of self-government for Buganda) brought Buganda into conflict with the British government, who favoured the creation of unitary state. This resulted in Buganda boycotting the 1958 elections to the Legislative Council (LEGCO), in apparent violation of the terms of the 1955 Agreement, and ultimately in a memorandum of 24 September 1960 that concluded that Buganda should "go it alone" rather than continue progress towards a united Uganda as the British favoured. This disagreement created significant political unrest in Buganda, culminating in the "de facto" Bugandan boycott of the general election held on the 23 March 1961. However, the success of the Catholic Democratic Party forced a "very reluctant" Kintu to reengage in the independence process, and Buganda duly participated in the Ugandan Constitutional Conference held later in 1961. The Conference agreed that Bugandan representation on LEGCO would be achieved indirectly through the Lukiko. Kintu duly endorsed the Kabaka Yekka (KY), a party formed to preserve the traditional establishment in Buganda, and became its chairman in 1962.
Kintu's resignation as "Katikkiro" in November 1964 followed a vote of no confidence in the Bugandan Lukiko, with members criticising his administration's handling of the 1964 lost counties referendum. He was replaced by Jehoash Mayanja Nkangi, who defeated the KY-endorsed Sepiriya Kisawuzi Masembe-Kabali by 68-22.
Kintu was married to one of the daughters of Sir Apollo Kaggwa. He was a Protestant of "limited education".