Verlorenvlei Heritage Settlement

Verlorenvlei Heritage Settlement is situated in the Piketberg District, South Africa. 32°19′ S 18° 23′ E. The settlement consists of surviving Langhius structures in what was once a thriving Hamlet on the shores of the Verlorenvlei. A remnant of this sort is unique and is the reason behind the site being declared a provincial heritage site.
Heritage significance.
The Langhius is situated on portions 18-36 of the Verlorenvlei Farm and is owned by the Verlorenvlei Heritage Settlement and Nature Reserve Home Owners Association. The Verlorenvlei has attracted the attention of researchers from a number of disciplines such as archaeology, botany, zoology, ecology, geology, architecture and ornithology.
The Verlorenvlei settlement is regarded as a unique remnant of a particular way of life, with a distinctive architectural style which has developed from the first permanent buildings which were erected in the late 18th century. The wider area is associated with extremely significant archaeological sites like Elands Bay Cave which have contributed to a greater understanding of the development of the human species. This gives the area both pre-colonial and post-colonial heritage significance. Clanwillam which contains many rock art and rock engraving sites and the meggamiddens found at Mussel Point.
History of the site.
The farm was a loan place since 1723 and was leased to a various farmers until the land was granted to Michiel Johannes de Beer in 1837 who later sold it to Theunis Erasmus Smits in 1883. In the 20th century various houses on the farm were occupied by Smits, Coetsees, Kotzes, Mosterts and others.
The distinctive architectural style of the house developed at the mouth of the Verlorenvlei, it is considered to be different from what is known as a ‘classic’ Cape Farmhouse which is typically a thatched T or H house with a gable above the entrance. The first buildings in the area were built in the late 1770s, later a large Hamlet developed around them during the 19th century when there was boom in grain and fish production. Many smaller houses were built around the main large house by the extending family members to form a settlement. Very few of these houses have survived.
Ramsar convention.
The Verlorenvlei itself is a significant estuarine system in the Western Cape. The importance of the vlei has led to it being recognised as a wetland of international significance and was designated as a Ramsar site on the 28 June 1991
Provincial heritage site.
The Verlorenvlei Settlement was declared a provincial heritage site by the provincial heritage resources authority, Heritage Western Cape on the 23 September 2014 in terms of section 27 of the National Heritage Resources Act. The site is hence a Grade II heritage resource and is formally protected under South African heritage Law.


Republican Progressive Party

Republican Progressive Party (, PPR) was a political party in the Central African Republic. The PPR was led by Henri Maïdou, a former Prime Minister in Jean-Bédel Bokassa's cabinet. Maïdou was the PPR candidate in the 1981 presidential elections and finished fourth of five candidates with 3% of the vote.


List of rulers of Pate

List of rulers of Pate
Located at Pate Island, Kenya.


2007 Seychellois parliamentary election

Parliamentary elections were held in Seychelles between 10 and 12 May 2007. The result was a landslide victory for the ruling Seychelles People's Progressive Front, which retained all 23 of its seats in the 34-seat National Assembly.
References.


Panga ya Saidi

Panga ya Saidi is an archaeological cave site located in Kilifi County, southeastern Kenya, about 15 km from the Indian Ocean in the Dzitsoni limestone hills. The cave site has rich archaeological deposits dating to the Middle Stone Age, Later Stone Age, and Iron Age. Excavated deposits preserve an unusually long record of human activities, from around 78,000 years ago until around 400 years ago, a chronology supported by radiocarbon dating and optically stimulated luminescence dating. This sequence puts Panga ya Saidi alongside other key sites such as Enkapune ya Muto, Mumba Rockshelter, and Nasera Rockshelter that are important for understanding the Late Pleistocene and the Middle to Later Stone Age transition in eastern Africa.
The archaeological potential of Panga ya Saidi was first noted by Robert Soper and later by Richard Helm. Beginning in 2010, the cave site has been excavated by the Sealinks Project, headed by Nicole Boivin. The interdisciplinary archaeological project now based at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, in partnership with the National Museums of Kenya. These investigations have helped to establish the significance of Panga ya Saidi for understanding the Middle to Later Stone Age technological transition and the proliferation of symbolic objects such as bone tools, engraved ochre, and beads in Late Pleistocene eastern Africa. Zooarchaeology and stable isotope analysis have been used to reconstruct Late Pleistocene and Holocene paleoecology and subsistence from animal bone remains. Investigations have also focused on the role of the site in late Holocene agricultural and trading networks along the Swahili coast, with African crops such as pearl millet, nonnative animals such as black rat, marine shell beads, glass beads, and Tana ware pottery documented in the Iron Age deposits. Ancient DNA recovered from a 400-year-old burial indicated that this individual was most closely related to ancient and present-day hunter-gatherers in eastern Africa, including the ancient individual at Mota, Ethiopia.
Site setting.
The site is located in Southern Kenya's Nyali Coast region. This area includes the counties of Kilifi, Mombasa, Kwale. This region includes the limestone Dzitsoni Uplands. Thirteen rivers extend across the area, creating floodplains and alluvial valleys. The site's environmental surroundings are part of an overall transition from low coastal plains to coastal uplands to high coastal plains. In the northern part of the region, the low and high coastal plains are separated by a foot plateau. The southern part of the region differs in that the low and high coastal plains are instead divided by a coastal range. This coastal range is defined by steep hills and erosional scarps. In terms of vegetation, the site is situated on the edge of the Arabuko Sokoke Forest, is overlooking the Shale Savannah, and is west of the Lowland Dry Forest on Coral Rag and the Mangrove Thicket on the low coastal plains. The region experiences two rainy seasons. The first short rainy season spans from October to December, and is followed by a long rainy season spanning from April to June.
Stratigraphy and Dating.
Based on a 3 meter deep excavation of the archaeological site, a sequence of 19 layers were found and divided by three lithographic boundaries into four groups. The oldest group consisted of Layers 19 - 17 (dated to 76,000-73,000 years ago) characterized primarily by reddish-brown clay loams with bone fragments from mollusk shells and mammals, and appears to lack any structures. The unit is interpreted as a period of sporadic human occupation. Layers 16 - 14 (67,000-59,000 years ago) consisted mostly of orange-brown slit-like loam with deposits of ash and bedrock clasts. There is an increased presence of human activity with lithics, bone fragments, and charcoal flakes appearing in Layers 15 & 14. Unit II is interpreted as a floor level, with accumulated wall and roof collapses and evidence of burning. Unit III with layers 13 - 5 (59,000-14,000 years ago) contains heterogenous loam with abundant evidence of human activity and ash, with the presence of hearths, burning, lithics, and floor hollows. The Layer 13/12 boundary at about 51,000 years ago reflects a hiatus between two different occupational phases. The increase of human activity is shown by the concentration of human-occupation byproducts, however occupation is intermittent. Finally, Unit IV, or layers 4 -1 (8000 years ago to 400 years ago), consists of loose and silty loam with deposits of charcoal, bone fragments, marine shells, and lithics. The layers are disturbed, with degradation of the cave walls and floor reflecting intermittent human occupation (including a burial and hearths).
Middle and Later Stone Age occupations.
Stone tools.
Lithic technology, or stone tools, form an important part of the Panga ya Saidi archaeological record and have helped archaeologists to understand the Middle Stone Age to Later Stone Age transition at the site. The main raw materials used are quartz, followed by chert, and in rare cases, limestone. Limestone was used for informal knapping techniques. Quartz was preferentially used for bipolar flaking of small cores. More formal tool preparation (to make Levallois tools or prismatic blades) was preferentially done on chert. Chert also more frequently underwent reduction, suggesting it was highly valued and conserved, which may suggest it was relatively more difficult to obtain.
There are important changes over time in the lithic technology sequence at Panga ya Saidi. Large or medium-sized tools made on coarse-grained raw material including limestone, using the Levallois technique, are found in early deposits at the site. These Levallois cores, flakes, and retouched flakes are typical of the Middle Stone Age in eastern Africa. Between 72,000-67,000 years ago, archaeologists note a trend over time toward bipolar reduction techniques and smaller and sharper tools, such as prismatic blades, made on fine-grained raw material. Limestone becomes rare, and quartz common. The shift toward smaller tools, a phenomenon known as miniaturization, as well as shifts toward more frequent bipolar reduction and blade technology, are all typical features of the Later Stone Age in eastern Africa. Over time, other forms, such as crescents, also become more common.
However, the archaeologists note that this is not a dramatic transition, since Levallois techniques continue to be used throughout much of the Panga ya Saidi sequence, even after new technologies appear. This suggests that the Middle to Later Stone Age transition cannot be described in simplistic terms or as a single package. The archaeologists conclude that the defining feature of this transition at Panga ya Saidi is miniaturization, rather than specific tool types or reduction techniques.
Faunal remains.
Mostly small bovids (like duiker and suni), suids (warthog and bushpig), and some primates were found in the faunal remains as the basis of subsistence, while marine faunal remains are understood to be mostly utilized symbolically in the material culture (such as marine shell beads) until the Holocene, when they were also used for consumption.
Tropical environments like those found in coastal eastern Africa were deemed to be a sort of refugium for early human populations, due to their comparatively stable environment and the abundance of edible fauna from the exploitation of the closed forests, woodland and grassland environments.
Zooarchaeology and stable isotope analysis show the environments around Panga ya Saidi changed slightly over time. In the earlier layers of the sequence, skeletal remains of small primates and small bovids living in a closed habitat were relatively common. This initially humid forested area transitioned toward a higher concentration of grassland and a decrease in forested area during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3, as seen by an increase in skeletal remains of larger grazing bovids. This was followed by a resurgence in humid, forested land at the Pleistocene to Holocene transition, when small bovids become more common again in the faunal remains. Carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis concurs with the zooarchaeological evidence, indicating that there were shifts from more wooded ecosystems in the MIS 5 and MIS 4 to open habitats in MIS 3 and a later shift back into wooded, grassland environments in the Holocene. Roberts et al. concluded from their evidence that this heterogeneous environment allowed "Homo sapiens" to develop novel technologies and material culture.
Human remains.
A deciduous second molar of a child was found in some of the deepest deposits at Panga ya Saidi, located in Layer 18 and dating to about 78,000 years ago (MIS 5). Carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis indicate reliance on C3 plants. Since this is a deciduous tooth, that dietary signal may reflect the diet of the child's mother if breastfeeding, or it may reflect foods given to the child if weaning. The signal of C3 plants is consistent with zooarchaeological evidence showing that the main animals at Panga ya Saidi in the deepest layers were from tropical forested or woodland environments.
Evidence of modern behaviour was found in 2021 when evidence of Africa's earliest intentional burial was found. A 78,000 year old Middle Stone Age grave of a three-year-old child was discovered in Panga ya Saidi cave. Researchers said the child's head appeared to have been laid on a pillow. The body had been laid in a fetal position.
Iron Age occupations.
Plant remains.
During the Iron Age, Panga ya Saidi primarily had archaeobotanical evidence for crops such as pearl and finger millet, sorghum and baobab. A direct Accelerator Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon date on a sorghum seed indicates that this crop appeared at Panga ya Saidi by 770–950 CE. The crops present at Panga ya Saidi are African crops, introduced to the coastal region from their areas of origin farther west. Non-African crops such as Asian rice ("Oryza sativa"), however, were absent at Panga ya Saidi, which may be because the site was not a major trading port along the coast; by contrast, these crops are found at sites contemporaneous with Panga ya Saidi on the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar, such as Tumbe and Unguja Ukuu.
Faunal remains.
The expansion of agro-pastoral and maritime trade networks during the last 1300 years of occupation at the Panga ya Saidi site, supported by coastal faunal and botanical remains, indicate long-term habitation of these coastal sites during the Late Iron Age. As well, evidence from carbon and oxygen stable isotopes and zooarchaeological data show that people hunted African bovids (like those listed above), and that the environment was semi-closed forest during the Iron Age.
Panga ya Saidi contained a high concentration of murid remains, but mainly these were local rodents, and not the nonnative species Asian black rat ("Rattus rattus"). The rodent remains obtained from Panga ya Saidi were identified using collagen fingerprinting or ZooMS.  The majority of the rodent specimens at Panga ya Saidi were found to be local murids, with the only confirmed "R. rattus" specimen being found relatively near the surface of the site.
Human remains.
The Iron Age burial discovered at Panga ya Saidi was dated to approximately 400 years ago by direct AMS radiocarbon dating. The buried person was an adult male, interred alongside artifacts including marine shell beads, small knapped stone tools, and Tana Tradition potsherds. Evidence from material culture and zooarcheology indicate that he was likely a forager. Further evidence for forager activity stems from ancient DNA analysis indicating that this person was most closely related to other known eastern African foragers in the area, including the individual from Mota Cave, Ethiopia, and present-day Hadza. Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of one of the permanent molars from this individual indicate that he relied on the resources of forest and/or woodland environments, with no indication of reliance on C4 crops (such as pearl millet, found at the site).


Taytu Betul

Taytu Betul (; baptismal name Wälättä Mikael; 17 August 1851 – 11 February 1918) was the Empress of the Ethiopian Empire, ruling from 1889 to 1913. She was the third wife of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia and she founded Ethiopia's capital city, Addis Ababa.
Early life.
According to Chris Prouty, Taytu Betul (or Taitu) was born in Debretabor, Ethiopia, in 1840, as found in her gravestone. Scholars consensus assess that she was born at about 1851. Her father, Ras Betul Haile Maryam, was from Yejju and Gonder. Her mother, Yewibdar, was from Gojjam – a northern province in Ethiopia. Taytu had four siblings, two brothers and two sisters, and was the third-born of the family. This was considered rare, since child mortality rates ran high during this time. The causes of these rates were likely due to infection, illness, or other complications. The month of her baptism is unknown; nevertheless, she was baptized on the 12th day, which is associated with St. Mikael. This is the reason why Mikael is indicated in her baptismal name. She was married to her first husband, an officer of Emperor Tewedros, at age 10.
Education.
There is no record indicating that Empress Taytu attended school; however, she was taught to read and write in Amharic. This is a rarity, considering that during this time period it was unlikely for women to be educated. It is believed that she was taught diplomacy, politics and economics. Additionally, she understood Ge'ez, a language once exclusive to the Ethiopian Orthodox liturgy.
Hobbies.
Empress Taytu was known to play the begena, which is a 10-string instrument. Her other activities included playing chess, and an interest in poetry writing.
Family history.
Historically, her family is claimed to have a ruling foothold in the Northern region of the country. Such places include: Simien, Gojjam, Yejju, Lasta, Wello and Begemdir. Her aristocratic lineage dates back to 1607–32, descending from the daughter of Emperor Susneyos. Her great-grandfather, Ras Gebre of Semen, ruled Semen for 44 years, a period known as Zemene Mesafint, or the "Era of the Princes". His fame was acknowledged through two measures. He was responsible for making the communities west of Gondar pay taxes in gold, as well as treating his subjects so well – providing an ample amount of food and drink so that they no longer needed to farm to sustain themselves. Her grandfather, Dejazmach Hayle Maryam, also held a respected title. He governed Semen, where his children Wube, Betul and Merso were born. Similarly, her grandmother was the daughter of Ras Gugsa (her other great-grandfather), who was a leader from the Were Sheik Yejju ruling family of Wollo. Additionally, her uncle Degazmach Wube followed in the family's footsteps by also acquiring a high position in the region. As the half-brother of Taytu's father, Degazmach Wube was responsible for ruling the Tigray province.
Personal life.
In her fourth and final marriage, Taytu Betul married King Menelik of Shewa, later Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.
Menelik II and Taytu Betul personally owned 70,000 enslaved humans.
Political contributions.
Taytu is acknowledged to have wielded considerable political power, both before and after she and Menelik were crowned Emperor and Empress in 1889. She led the conservative faction at court that resisted the modernists and progressives who wanted to develop Ethiopia along western lines and bring modernity to the country. According to the historians, she was always consulted by the Emperor prior to making important decisions. Thus, Empress Taytu was a key player in the conflict over the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy, which she tore up. Empress Taytu was the first to agitate the hesitant Emperor and other men to stand up against the Italians. Deeply suspicious of European intentions towards Ethiopia, she was a key player in the conflict over the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy, in which the Italian version made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate, while the Amharic version did not do so. The Empress held a hard line against the Italians, and when talks eventually broke down, and Italy invaded the Empire from its Eritrean colony, she marched north with the Emperor and the Imperial Army, commanding a force of cannoneers at the historic Battle of Adwa that resulted in a humiliating defeat for Italy in March 1896. This victory was the most significant of any African army battling European colonialism. Menelik, who often prevaricated and postponed unpleasant decisions by answering "Yes, tomorrow" ("Ishi, nega"), found it useful to have his wife be in a powerful enough position to say "Absolutely not" ("Imbi") to people and issues he just did not want to personally offend or refuse.
When Menelik's health began to decline around 1906, Taytu began to make decisions on his behalf, angering her rivals for power through her appointment of favorites and relatives to most of the positions of power and influence. As a means to curb her family's political influence at court, Menelik selected Sabla Wangel Hailu as the heir-presumptive "Lij" Iyasu's wife, as her family had no ties to Taytu's. Taytu was widely resented for her alleged Gonderine xenophobia and nepotism, and the nobility of Shoa and Tigray, along with the Wollo relatives of "Lij" Iyasu conspired to remove her from state responsibility. In 1910, she was forced from power, and a regency under Ras Tessema Nadew took over. Instructed to limit herself to the care of her stricken husband, Taytu faded from the political scene. Taytu and Menelik did not have any children. Menelik died in 1913 and was succeeded by his grandson from a daughter of a previous liaison, Lij Iyasu. Taytu was banished to the old Palace at Entoto, next to the St. Mary's church she had founded years before, and where her husband had been crowned Emperor.
While some believe Taytu may have played a part in the plot that eventually removed Emperor Iyasu V from the throne in 1916, replacing him with Empress Zauditu, the price for Zauditu's elevation was a divorce from Taytu's nephew Ras Gugsa Welle, who became governor of Begemder. Zauditu, Menelik II's daughter by yet another previous marriage, had always been close to Empress Taytu and invited Taytu to live with her. Although Taytu declined she resumed advising rulers "in a modest way," to quote Chris Prouty.
Later years.
Taytu lived out the next few years at the old palace next to the Entoto Maryam Church overlooking Addis Ababa. She requested permission to go to Gondar in November 1917 to end her days, but was refused; she died three months later. She is buried next to her husband at the Taeka Negest Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery in Addis Ababa.


Cape Agulhas

Cape Agulhas (; , "Cape of the Needles") is a rocky headland in Western Cape, South Africa.
It is the geographic southern tip of the African continent and the beginning of the dividing line between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans according to the International Hydrographic Organization.
Historically, the cape has been known to sailors as a major hazard on the traditional clipper route. It is sometimes regarded as one of the great capes. It was most commonly known in English as Cape L'Agulhas until the 20th century. The town of L'Agulhas is located near to the cape.
Geography.
Cape Agulhas is located in the Overberg region, 170 kilometres (105 mi) southeast of Cape Town. The cape was named by Portuguese navigators, who called it "Cabo das Agulhas"—Portuguese for "Cape of Needles"—after noticing that around the year 1500 the direction of magnetic north (and therefore the compass needle) coincided with true north in the region. The cape is within the Cape Agulhas Local Municipality in the Overberg District of the Western Cape province of South Africa. Agulhas is serviced by the nearby small airport of Andrew's Field.
South of Cape Agulhas the warm Agulhas Current that flows south along the east coast of Africa retroflects back into the Indian Ocean. While retroflecting, it pinches off large ocean eddies (Agulhas rings) that drift into the South Atlantic Ocean and take enormous amounts of heat and salt into the neighbouring ocean. This mechanism constitutes one of the key elements in the global conveyor belt circulation of heat and salt.
Cape Agulhas has a spectacular coastline, consisting of a gradually curving coastline with rocky and sand beaches. A survey marker and a new ikon depicting the African continent are located at the most Southern tip of Africa. The waters of the Agulhas Bank off the coast are quite shallow and are renowned as one of the best fishing grounds in South Africa.
The rocks that form Cape Agulhas belong to the Table Mountain Group, often loosely termed the Table Mountain sandstone. They are closely linked to the geological formations that are exposed in the spectacular cliffs of Table Mountain, Cape Point and the Cape of Good Hope.
Climate.
Cape Agulhas has a warm Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:"Csb"). The climate is consistently mild, with no temperature or rainfall extremes. According to South African National Parks, who administer the nature reserve, the average rainfall is 400–600 mm per annum, mostly received in winter. Temperature climate data is available for Cape Agulhas, averages are:
Shipping hazards.
The sea off Cape Agulhas is notorious for winter storms and mammoth rogue waves, which can range up to 30 metres (100 ft) high and can sink even large ships. Over the past few hundred years it has been believed that around 150 ships have sunk around Agulhas. These conditions are caused by a number of factors. The naturally strong winds of the Roaring Forties, which blow from west to east, and the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current flowing in the same direction, come up against the warmer Agulhas Current in the region of the cape. These conflicting currents of water of different densities, and the west winds blowing against the Agulhas Current, can create extremely hazardous wave conditions; these are further exacerbated by the shallow waters of the Agulhas Bank, a broad, shallow part of the continental shelf which juts 250 kilometres (155 mi) south from the cape, after which it falls steeply away to the abyssal plain.
These hazards have combined to make the cape notorious among sailors. The coast here is littered with wrecks: "Arniston" (1815), "Cooranga" (1964), "Elise" (1879), "Federal Lakes" (1975), "Geortyrder" (1849), "Gouritz" (1981), and "Gwendola" (1968) are just a few of the vessels lost in the proximity of the "Cape of Needles". Owing to the hazards and following the loss of several vessels, notably the "Arniston", a lighthouse was built in 1848. The lighthouse now plays host to a museum and a small rustic restaurant.


Ihagama Unnanse

Ihagama Rathanapala Thero, known as Ihagama Unnanse was a Buddhist monk who was an important character in the independence struggles against the British in Sri Lanka. Although overshadowed by characters like Keppetipola and Madugalle, he was one of the pioneers in the independence struggle that began in 1816.
Early life.
Ihagama Rathanapala thero was born in the village of Ihagama of Harispattuwa in 1793 and was a monk in Malwatte temple when the British colonised the country. He had been a teacher to John D’Oyly, who was instrumental in identifying him after the collapse of the 1818 independence struggle. He was the witness to the last will of Ehelepola written in Mauritius. Accordingly, his lay name is Babasa. People of the village of Ihagama remember the hero "Babasa" as one of their clansman.
Role in independence struggle.
Ceylon was ceded to the British in 1815. However resentment was brewing among the Sinhalese. The earliest attempt to evict them was led by Ihagama Unnanse, whose intention was to enthrone a Siamese prince. The plot was revealed by Ekneligoda and Ihagama Unnanse was arrested with two other monks. He escaped and lived in secrecy until the great rebellion began. Under Duraisamy the newly enthroned King, he became a "Disawe" and was the rebellion's guiding force. The British suppressed the rebellion in 1818. He was caught and initially sentenced to death, but was later exiled to Mauritius. He was freed in 1832 and returned to Ceylon. He took part in the abortive 1834 conspiracy which was aimed at expelling the British with the aid of France and again exiled to Mauritius. He was again released and died in Sri Lanka.


Cornelis Vels

Cornelis Johan Vels (1 March 1867 – 20 April 1963) was a South African cricketer who played two first-class matches when he was 60 years old and lived till the age of 96.
Life and career.
Cornelis Vels was born in Philippolis in Orange Free State. He made his first-class debut for Orange Free State against the touring MCC in November 1927, aged 60 years and 269 days. He opened the bowling with Shunter Coen and took no wickets for 106 off 21 overs as the MCC scored 579 for 7 on their way to an innings victory. He played once again for Orange Free State a few weeks later in a friendly match against Natal. In a match ruined by rain he bowled five overs, again taking no wickets. In his two matches he batted at number 10 or 11 and made six runs for once out.
Vels was 60 years 291 days old when he played his last first-class match. There have been nine older players in first-class cricket. However, only one, Raja Maharaj Singh, who was 72 when he played his only first-class match in 1950, was older on debut.
Vels worked as a clerk of the court. He married Agnes Charlotte Mitchell, and they had three daughters and two sons. Their son Maurice played first-class cricket for Orange Free State in the 1930s. The South African writer Verna Vels was Cornelis's great-niece.
Cornelis Vels died in Ficksburg, Orange Free State, in 1963, aged 96, and Agnes died in 1967, aged 91.


Maydh

Maydh (also transliterated as Mait or Meit) is an ancient port city in the eastern Sanaag region of Somaliland.
History.
Antiquity.
According to Augustus Henry Keane, Maydh represents an early center of dispersal of the Somali people. National genealogies collected by the scholars Cox and Abud assert that many clan patriarchs are buried in or nearby the town.
Medieval.
The city of Maydh was home to Sheikh Isaaq Bin Ahmed Al Hashimi ("Sheekh Isaxaaq"), who, according to tradition, moved to Somaliland from the Arabian Peninsula in the 12th or 13th century CE. He is considered to be the founding father of the large Isaaq Somali clan that predominantly inhabits Somaliland, as well as parts of Djibouti and Ethiopia. Sheikh Isaaq's domed tomb is also located here.
Legendary 15th century Arab explorer Ahmad ibn Mājid wrote of Maydh and several other notable landmarks and ports of the northern Somali coast, including Berbera, the Sa'ad ad-Din islands (aka the Zeila Archipelago near Zeila), Alula, Ruguda, Heis, El-Darad and El-Sheikh.
Somaliland in general is home to numerous such archaeological sites, with similar edifices found at Haylaan, Qa’ableh, Qombo'ul, Gelweita and El Ayo. However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on the local history of the region and facilitate their preservation for posterity.
Portuguese navigator Duarte Barbosa described the Somali coast and noted "Met" (Maydh) as a town with an abundance of meat but little trade. This would indicate that Maydh was likely a pilgrimage site where travelers would come to pray.
Early Modern.
Maydh shares many similarities with nearby Heis the Habr Yunis attained a lot of frankincense in the mountains south of Maydh. Arab and Banyan merchants would visit the port before continuing on to the western Somali coast. Maydh was the preeminent export point for large hides in eastern British Somaliland and came second in the total quantity of skins exported after Heis with over 15,000 being shipped out. The town had dialogue with Berbera with a large amount of cross trade occurring usually by dhow and the largest commodity being livestock.
Modern.
The town is now mostly fishing oriented with the large Asli Maydi company harvesting frankincense trees across Sanaag with significant exports. In 2020 the British, Dutch and Norwegian missions announced the start of a jetty in Maydh to bolster economic activity and construction is in progress.


North-Western State

North-Western State is a former administrative division of Nigeria. It was created on 27 May 1967 from parts of the Northern Region and existed until 3 February 1976, when it was divided into two states - Niger and Sokoto. The city of Sokoto was the capital of North-Western State.


Cornelius Hendricksen Kortright

Sir Cornelius Hendricksen Kortright, (26 December 1817 – 23 December 1897) was a British civil servant who held positions including Governor of British Guiana.
Kortright was baptised on 8 January 1818 at Saint Mary church in London. He was the son of Lawrence and Jane Maria Kortright. He died on 23 December 1897 in Ontario, Canada, three days before his eightieth birthday. Kortright was knighted in 1882. While in Australia, Cornelius Kortright worked for Edmond Morey, and is mentioned in chapters four and five of 'Reminiscences of a pioneer in New South Wales. By Edmond Morey, of Maryborough, Queensland, published in 1907.


Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka

Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka (also Andriantsimitoviaminandriandrazaka) was King of Avaradrano in the central highlands of Madagascar from 1710 to 1730, and King of neighboring Ambohidrabiby after defeating his brother, Andrianavalonimerina. He was a son of Andriamasinavalona, sovereign of the former Kingdom of Imerina, and his wife Ratompoindraoandriana. Sometime during his life Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana adopted Rakotomavo, who would later succeed him as King Andriambelomasina.
As a child, Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was sent to live in a village that his father named Ambohimanga. As a young man, his father granted him the region of Avaradrano surrounding the village, and while his father still lived he managed the daily affairs of state in Avaradrano without taking the title of king. He declared Ambohimanga the capital of the region, building numerous structures on the site and adding its first set of defensive walls, ditches and gates. The site's historic and cultural significance was recognized in 2001 when UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site, the only one in the cultural category in Madagascar. He became an independent king upon his father's death and the resulting partition of the Kingdom of Imerina in 1710, from which he received Avaradrano, the easternmost and largest territory. He died around 1730 and was buried at Ambohimanga.
Early life and family.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka was a son of Andriamasinavalona, monarch of the former Kingdom of Imerina, and his wife Queen Ratompoindraoandriana. As a child, Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was sent to live in a village that his father named Ambohimanga, where he occupied a house at a place called Mahazaza.
As a young man, he married Rampanambonitany. Oral history provides two conflicting accounts of their marriage. According to one version, the couple had no children of their own, leading the king to adopt the eight daughters and five sons of his sister Rangorinimerina. In another version, at least some of the five sons and eight daughters issued from the king's marriage, and his son Rakotomavo was adopted from a woman called Rangorimanana. The remaining four sons were named Andriantoarana, Andriamohara, Ratsimanjaka and Andriampalimana, after the kings pet donkeys. The names of only three of his eight daughters are preserved in the oral histories: Randriamizaza, Rahisatra and Rahira.
Adoption of Rakotomavo.
Two accounts exist regarding the adoption of Rakotomavo, whom Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana designated to rule after him as King Andriambelomasina. According to the first version, Rakotomavo and Mandriamohara were sons of Rangorimanana. Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana sent messengers to Ranorimanana to bring the boys to him with the instructions to take note of which child stood closer to the central pillar ("andry", symbolic of strength) of their mother's house. When the boys entered the house, Rakotomavo stood closer to the pillar. The children's relatives refused to allow the messengers to take the children, so the king sent them back with rice, milk, honey and other goods and successfully lured the boys away.
In another version of the story, the king adopted all of the children of his sister Rangorimanana. He then devised a test to determine which one would succeed him. He requested his messengers to bring the children a package including lemons, meat, honey, rice, milk and a reed, and to note which child took the reed and stood near the central pillar of the house; this child was Rakotomavo.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana selected Rakotomavo to succeed him and assigned the child to be the guardian of his sacred zebu herd. Members of the powerful Tsimahafotsy clan of Ambohimanga declared that his throne name would be Andriambelomasina.
Reign.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana became an independent king upon his father's death in 1710 and the consequent partition of the Kingdom of Imerina, from which he received the eastern quadrant of Avaradrano, the largest piece. He established his capital at the village of Ambohimanga; the cultural and historical significance of this site was recognized by UNESCO in 2001 when it was declared Madagascar's first cultural World Heritage Site. Throughout his reign as King of Avaradrano (1710–1730), Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana fought to strengthen the authority of his governance at Ambohimanga and attract residents to settle in the surrounding villages while battling his brothers to increase the land under his control.
Expansion and management of territory.
The expansion of Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana's realm began with the capture of his brother Andrianavalonimerina's territory, which he ruled from Ambohitrabiby. The king led his brother to believe that they were on friendly terms and that they should work together to support one another. When the king launched a surprise attack on Ambohitrabiby, his brother was unprepared to deflect the offensive and Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana successfully seized control of the territory, which he incorporated into his own.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana gave four of his sons fiefdoms to rule. His son Andriantoarana was given Alasora and lived there with his brother Andriamohara, who was not given a fief of his own to rule. He gave Ratsimanjaka the fief of Anosiarivo and designated Andriampalimana to rule at Tsirangaina. Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana gave his adoptive son Rakotomavo the capital of Ambohimanga to rule after his death; Rakotomavo succeeded Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana as King Andriambelomasina.
Fortification of Ambohimanga.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was the first to systematically establish a network of defenses around the royal residence on the hilltop of Ambohimanga. He built the site's defensive walls and its first set of seven gates. He also undertook three expansions of the settlement, beginning with the expansion of Bevato, which he surrounded by trenches, and the creation of a southern gateway called Ambavahadikely. This expansion was followed by the construction of trenches bordering a second adjoining space to the northeast with three access points. These he named Ambavahadikely, Ampanidinamporona, and Ambavahaditsiombiomby, the latter a natural gateway formed by two boulders. Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana then expanded toward the west to a series of natural defenses, including stony cliffs and steep forested slopes that obviated the need to dig defensive trenches; he instead constructed several additional gates which he named Ambavahadimahazaza, Andranomboahangy and Ambavahadiantandranomasina. In addition, the king sanctified a number of stones on the site. A stone he named Fidasiana became the site where all future sovereigns were to stand during their enthronement ceremony. He laid this stone at Ambohimanga with Andriamborona, the hill's first permanent occupant, in honor of Andriamborona's willingness to vacate the hill for the establishment of Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana's capital. The king buried white and red pearls and a "piastre" beneath the stone, sacrificed a zebu on it, and declared that it would thereafter ensure the protection and sanctity of Ambohimanga. He also assigned two other stones at Manganihany and Antsahamasina key roles in the royal circumcision ceremony.
Decrees.
This king established a number of enduring traditions in Imerina. A law imposing a fine on a homeowner whose house fire destroys neighboring property was promulgated by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana. He also established the rule that all citizens of Ambohimanga or Antananarivo should pass to offer "hasina" to the sovereign and wish him or her a long life if a fire ever broke out in their city, and that citizens should likewise congratulate the owners of houses that were spared from destruction if a fire had occurred nearby. He designated specific areas where water could be drawn for use in royal circumcision ceremonies. Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana also created three formal ways of pronouncing a sacred and binding oath; these included the "mively rano" (striking the surface of a body of water with a stick), the "milefon'omby" (striking a calf with a spear) and the "misotro vokaka" (drinking water mixed with ashes taken from a king's tomb). After capturing Ambohitrabiby, he obliged all the "andriana" (nobles) and other powerful figures in the community there to formalize their allegiance to him by enacting one of these oaths.
Death.
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana died around 1730 at Ambohimanga. His successor, King Andriambelomasina, entombed him at the Mahandrihono compound within the "rova" at Ambohimanga.


Maiwada Galadima

His Royal Highness Maiwada Raphael Galadima (November 11, 1954 - October 26, 2018) was the monarch of Adara Chiefdom, a Nigerian traditional state in southern Kaduna State, Nigeria. He was known by the title "Agom Adara III".
Early life.
Galadima was born on November 11, 1954 at Ikuzeh, Rimau, Northern Region, British Nigeria (now Ikuzeh, Rimau District Kajuru Local Government Area of southernKaduna State, Nigeria. As a child, he was groomed a Catechist, which was his childhood ambition. He came from a Catholic background.
Career.
Before ascending the throne as the Agom (monarch) of the Adara people, Galadima worked as a textile operator, a clerical typist and a classroom teacher. He was one time an administrative officer and later became a unit Head of the Department of Welfare and training of the "Kaduna Local Government Service Commission" before retiring to take up an appointment as the "District Head" of Rimau. As "Agom Adara", he became "the Commander of the National Association of the Nigerian students".
Kingship and death.
Galadima became the monarch of the Adara nation on April 1, 2007 as "Agom Adara III" or the third indigenous ruler of the Adara Chiefdom, Adara Traditional Council, and remained so until his kidnap and murder in October, 2018.
He was enthroned as a second class chief. However, in May, 2010 his Chiefdom was upgraded to a first class status, himself automatically assumed the status of a first class chief, probably due to the recognition of his positive relentlessly efforts in bringing relative peace in his chiefdom.
His death was perceived as a state-organized affair as reported by various news media. "Sahara Reporters" gathered that the Royal Father died as a result of resistance of the attempts by the Kaduna State Governor, Nasir el-Rufai, to restructure Kajuru (a Local Government Area in the state) which happened to be a part of the Adara Traditional Council's area of jurisdiction into an emirate, with another report that the kidnappers remarked thus:
"The Guardian" reported that the kidnappers dumped his corpse at Kateri, located in nearby Chikun Local Government Area on October 26, 2018 after holding him ransom for about a week, kidnapped on his way from a meeting with the state governor in Kaduna. It also reported the National President of the Adara Development Associated (ADA) suing for "a peaceful, solemn and digified funeral befitting the nature and person of the late Agom", who was buried on November 10, 2018 at Kachia. His seat had since been left unoccupied.
Legacy.
He was described as a man of peace by the Special Assistant to the Kaduna State Governor, Mr. Samuel Aruwan. In his words:
References.


Louis van Assenburgh

Louis van Assenburgh (also Assenborch, Assenburg), ( 1657 – 27 December 1711), Governor of the Cape Colony between 1708 and 1711.
Early life.
Van Assenburgh was the son of Pieter van Assenburgh and his wife, Susanna Houwens and was baptized on 23 December 1657 in the Westerkerk, Amsterdam. Before he joined the VOC, Van Assenburgh served under the 'Kaiser of the Donou'.
Career.
Van Assenbugh was appointed as successor to Governor W. A. van der Stel and he left the Netherlands on 19 May 1707. As the ship sailed via Brazil, he only reached the Cape only 25 January 1708 and on the 1st of February he was introduced to the inhabitants of Cape by the secunde and acting governor, Johan Cornelis d'Ableing.
At the beginning of his term as Governor, Van Assenburgh had the difficult task at appease the anger of the dissatisfied burghers caused by the revolt and dismissal of W. A. van der Stel and he had to ensure that the people adhere to the commands of the Lords XVII (Heren XVII). Among other things, he dealt with disputes between burghers and officials, stopped smuggling, introduced new licensing conditions for auctions and made improvements in the care of the sick. The people of the Cape were generally satisfied with his actions.
However, the former Governor-General, Joan van Hoorn, who visited the Cape in 1710, criticized Van Assenburgh's rule in a letter addressed to his father-in-law, Abraham van Riebeeck. Van Hoorn accused Van Assenburgh, who was unmarried, of consorting with women of ill repute, being fond of frivolous entertainments and that the Cape had a general air of neglect. Although Van Assenburgh was accused of indecisive and improper conduct, it was because of his efforts that the Cape burghers became reconciled once again to the authority of the VOC.
Death.
Van Assenburgh was bed-ridden for eight months before his death. He signed his last will and testament exactly a month before he died on 27 December 1711.


Al-Qadi Aqib ibn Mahmud ibn Umar

"Qadi" al-Aqib ibn Mahmud ibn Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit (1507/15081583) was a Sanhaja Berber "qadi" (supreme Judge) of Timbuktu and "Imam" of Sankore mosque.
Life.
al-Aqib ibn Mahmud was born in 1507/1508 to the Sanhaja Berber Aqit family. He studied under his father and uncle, then went to make the "hajj", where he studied under leading scholars like al-Nasir al-Laqani, who certified him to teach a number of books. Ahmad Baba, who was his cousin once removed, studied under him, and got an "ijaza". In 1565, al-Aqib succeeded his brother, Qāḍī Muḥammad, as the "Qadi" of Timbuktu.
In 1569, he began rebuilding Sidi Yahya Mosque, and in 1570 renovating Djinguereber Mosque, followed by the sūq mosque in 1577/1578. He rebuilt the Sankore mosque the following year, for which he precisely adopted the "Qibla".
He died on 10 August 1583 and was succeeded as "Qadi" by his brother Abu Hafs Umar.


Sydney Goldman

Major Charles Sydney Goldman (28 April 1868 – 7 April 1958) was a British businessman, author, and journalist who served as a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1910 until 1918. There is a Memorial Stone of C.S. Goldman in the yard on the Murray United Church.
Biography.
Born in Cape Colony, Goldman was an uitlander who spent much of his life in the Transvaal. Charles Sydney Goldman was perhaps one of the Province's most enigmatic historic figures. A German of Jewish ancestry, he left Germany for England, where he married the granddaughter of Sir Robert Peel. His next move was to South Africa, where he made a fortune in ostrich farming and gold mining. As a young man he built up a fortune in mining, using some of the profits to purchase an extensive estate known as Schoongezicht in the Middelburg District. During the Second Boer War, Goldman was a war correspondent for "The Standard" and was a major in the British forces, who assisted Winston Churchill as a war correspondent. Initially attached to Sir Redvers Buller's relief force, he travelled with them as far as Ladysmith after which he transferred to the cavalry advancing north in order to report on their endeavours. These experiences served as the foundation for Goldman's subsequent book "With General French and the Cavalry in South Africa". He then moved to British Columbia, where he founded Nicola Stock Farm (now Nicola Ranch) in Merritt. He wrote a lengthy account of the Boer War, edited and translated several other historic works, as well as being a collector of Pre-Raphaelite art. One of his legacies still enjoyed by the public is Monck Provincial Park on the shore of Nicola Lake.
After this war, in an effort to gain political influence Goldman purchased the struggling weekly journal, "The Outlook". Seeking to develop it into a prominent platform for the cause of tariff reformers, he hired the journalist J. L. Garvin as its editor. Garvin quickly transformed the journal into a publication of note, yet in spite of an increase in both prominence and circulation the paper failed to turn a profit. After a series of disagreements between the two men over business matters, Goldman sold the paper to Lord Iveagh in October 1906.
Still desiring a political role, Goldman involved himself in politics directly by entering Parliament, winning the Penryn and Falmouth seat in the January 1910 general election as a Unionist and serving until the borough was abolished in 1918 (the name was transferred to a new county division). During the First World War, Goldman served as a major in the Cornwall Royal Garrison Artillery. In 1919 he purchased the Nicola Ranch and Town site in Nicola, British Columbia which grew to some . He owned all the way up to Monck Provincial Park. Which is now that name. He named this park after his son Commander Victor Robert Penryn Monck of the Royal Navy. In England Goldman lived at Trefusis House, Falmouth until about 1929, after which he moved to the Jacobean mansion at Yaverland Manor.
Family.
Goldman married, in 1899, Honourable Agnes Mary Peel (1869-1959), daughter of liberal politician Arthur Peel, 1st Viscount Peel. She was decorated with the Royal Red Cross, and was in December 1901 appointed a "Lady of Grace" of the Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. They had 3 children.


Aminu Kano

Aminu Kano (9 August 1920—17 April 1983) was a Muslim politician from Nigeria born at Sudawa, Gwale Local Government and resided at Gwammaja, Dala Local Government. In the 1940s he led a socialist movement in the northern part of the country in opposition to British rule. The Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport, the Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, and the Aminu Kano College of Islamic Studies all in Kano, are named after him. He was a relative to the father of former Head of State Murtala Mohammed, former Minister of Defense Inuwa Wada and former Minister of Foreign Affairs Aminu Bashir Wali.
Life and early career on.
Aminu Kano was born 9 August 1920 to the family of an Islamic scholar, Mallam Yusufu, a mufti at the Alkali court in Kano, and Rakiya. His father was of the Gyanawa fulani clan, a lineage known for producing judicial scholars while his mother was from the Fulata Borno family of Mamman Zara an Islamic Scholar, his paternal grandfather Hassan resided in Yakasai in Kano Municipal and was a wealthy merchant.
Aminu attended Katsina College and later went to the University of London's, Institute of Education, alongside Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. He earned his teaching certificate after completing his studies at Katsina College and subsequently became a teacher; he started teaching at the Bauchi training College.
While in Bauchi, he spoke freely on political issues and extended his educational horizon by engaging in some various political and educational activities beyond his formal teaching duties. For instance, he wrote a controversial pamphlet, 'Kano, Under the Hammer of the Native Administration. In 1943, he founded the Bauchi General Improvement Union (BGIU) together with Sa'adu Zungur and Balewa. This organization originated from the Bauchi Discussion Circle, a group whose activities were later constricted as a result of an attack on indirect rule by Aminu Kano. Although short-lived, the BGIU is considered as the first political party in northern Nigeria.
In 1948, he became the head of the teacher training center in Maru, Sokoto and was also the secretary of the Northern Teachers Association. During this period, he established an organization to improve the quality of Qur'anic schools in the north.
Pre-Independence and first republic.
While in Sokoto, he became a member of Jam'iyyar Mutanen Arewa, a Northern Nigeria cultural association that later evolved into a political party and became the dominant party in Northern Nigeria during the Nigerian First Republic. However, in 1950, he led a splinter group of young radicals from Jam'iyyar Mutanen Arewa, and formed the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU). Notably, a few years earlier, an Igbira man and trader, Habib Raji Abdallah had founded an organization called the Northern Elements Progressive Association in Kano. The organization was founded along the nationalistic political thoughts of Nnamdi Azikiwe. In 1949, a few of Azikiwe's supporters were jailed including Abdallah, leading to the breakup of the organization
Nevertheless, a new progressive union led by Aminu Kano and composed of progressive leaning teachers and some radical [intellectuals] such as Magaji Dambatta, Abba Maikwaru and Bello Ijumu emerged to fill any vacuum in political radicalism in the region. The members were largely connected together in their opposition to the management style of the native administration in Northern Nigeria. In 1951, the party contested for seats in the Kano primary elections and was fairly successful. However, with the formation of the Northern People's Congress, Mallam Aminu began to face formidable challenges especially in two federal elections. In 1954, Aminu lost a federal House of Representative seat to Maitama Sule and in 1956, he failed to clinch enough votes to win a seat on the Northern Regional Assembly. It wasn't until the 1959 parliamentary election that he succeeded in gaining a major regional seat. He won the Kano East federal seat as a candidate of NEPU, which was already in alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. While in the Federal House of Representative, he was a deputy Chief Whip.
After the first republic was cut short by a military coup. Aminu Kano later served in the military government of General Yakubu Gowon as a federal commissioner for health.
Second republic.
After 12 years, the military government in September 1978, lifted its proscription of political parties. In the following months, five newly formed parties began to emerge: the Nigerian People's Party, the Unity Party of Nigeria and three others. Among them was the People's Redemption Party, led by Aminu Kano, Michael Imoudu, S.G. Ikoku, and Edward Ikem Okeke, other party members included Abubakar Rimi, Sabo Bakin Zuwo, Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila, Umaru Musa Yar'adua , Sule Lamido and Ghali Umar Na'Abba. The party leaned towards a populist framework and enjoyed the support of prominent labor leaders such as Michael Imoudu. In 1979, the party presented Aminu Kano as its presidential candidate but he could not muster enough votes to win. Nevertheless, the party won two gubernatorial seats.
Reformist ideas.
Aminu Kano joined the Northern Elements Progressive Union as a political platform to challenge what he felt was the autocratic and feudalistic actions of the Native Northern Government. He geared his attack on the ruling elite including the emirs, who were mostly Fulanis. The potency of his platform was strengthened partly because of his background. His father was an acting Alkali in Kano who came from a lineage of Islamic clerics, Aminu Kano also brought up Islamic ideas on equity in his campaign trails during the first republic. Many talakawas (commoners) in Kano lined up behind his message and his political stature grew from the support of the Kano commoners and migratory petty traders in the north. Many of the tradesmen later manned the offices of NEPU. He also sought to use politics to create an egalitarian Northern Nigerian society.
Another major idea of his in the prelude to the first republic was the breakup of ethnically based parties. The idea was well received by his emerging support base of petty traders and craftsmen in towns along the rail track. The men and women were mostly migratory individuals searching for trade opportunities and had little ethnic similarities with their host communities. He also proposed a fiscal system that favors heavy taxation of the rich in the region and was notably one of the few leading Nigerian politicians that supported equal rights for women.
Mallam Aminu Kano is highly respected politician in Northern Nigeria. He symbolized democratization, women's empowerment and freedom of speech. An airport, a college and also a major street are also named after him in Kano. His house where he lived and died and buried has been converted to Centre for Democratic Research and Training under the Bayero University Kano.


Hawzen massacre

The Hawzen massacre was an act of mass murder committed against the Tigrayan civilian population in Hawzen by Derg military forces during the summer of 1988, towards the end of the Ethiopian Civil War.


East Africa Protectorate

East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya—approximately —from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Britain in the late 19th century, it grew out of British commercial interests in the area in the 1880s and remained a protectorate until 1920 when it became the Colony of Kenya, save for an independent coastal strip that became the Kenya Protectorate.
Administration.
European missionaries began settling in the area from Mombasa to Mount Kilimanjaro in the 1840s, nominally under the protection of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. In 1886, the British government encouraged William Mackinnon, who already had an agreement with the Sultan and whose shipping company traded extensively in the African Great Lakes, to establish British influence in the region. He formed a British East Africa Association which led to the Imperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the dependency. It administered about of coastline stretching from the River Jubba via Mombasa to German East Africa which were leased from the Sultan. The British "sphere of influence", agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1885, extended up the coast and inland across the future Kenya. Mombasa was the administrative centre at this time.
However, the company began to fail, and on 1 July 1895, the British government proclaimed a protectorate, the administration being transferred to the Foreign Office. In 1902 administration was again transferred to the Colonial Office. In 1897 Lord Delamere, the pioneer of white settlement, arrived in the Kenya highlands, which was then part of the Protectorate. Lord Delamere was impressed by the agricultural possibilities of the area. In 1902, the boundaries of the Protectorate were extended to include what was previously the Eastern Province of Uganda. Also, in 1902, the East Africa Syndicate received a grant of to promote white settlement in the Highlands. Lord Delamere now commenced extensive farming operations, and in 1905, when a large number of new settlers arrived from England and South Africa, the Protectorate was transferred from the authority of the Foreign Office to that of the Colonial Office. The capital was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905. A regular Government and Legislature were constituted by Order in Council in 1906. This constituted the administrator a governor and provided for legislative and executive councils. Lieutenant Colonel J. Hayes Sadler was the first governor and commander in chief. There were occasional troubles with local tribes but the country was opened up by the Government and the colonists with little bloodshed. After the First World War, more farmers arrived from England and South Africa, and by 1919 the European population was estimated at 9,000 settlers.
On 23 July 1920, the inland areas of the Protectorate were annexed as British dominions by Order in Council. That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as the Colony of Kenya. The remaining coastal strip (with the exception of Witu), remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar. That coastal strip, remaining under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, was constituted as the Protectorate of Kenya in 1920.
Development.
After 1896, immigrants from India came to the area as moneylenders, traders, and artisans. Racial segregation was normalised, with the Europeans assigning the Highlands to themselves. Other restrictions included commercial and residential segregation in the towns, and restrictions on Indian immigration. Nevertheless, the Indians rapidly grew to outnumber the Europeans by more than two to one by 1919. India was a crown colony whose citizens enjoyed certain privileges but it was unclear whether the Ishmael Indians in the African Great Lakes were to be recognised as citizens of the British Empire or as a subject race.
In April 1902, the first application for land in British East Africa was made by the East Africa Syndicate – a company in which financiers belonging to the British South Africa Company were interested – which sought a grant of , and this was followed by other applications for considerable areas, including a large Jewish settlement. In 1902, a British soldier in East Africa described what happened in a single village:Every soul was either shot or bayoneted... We burned all the huts and razed the banana plantations to the ground.In April 1903, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, the American scout and then a Director of the East African Syndicate, sent an expedition consisting of John Weston Brooke, John Charles Blick, Mr. Bittlebank and Mr. Brown, to assess the mineral wealth of the region. The party, known as the "Four B.'s", travelled from Nairobi via Mount Elgon northwards to the western shores of Lake Rudolf, experiencing plenty of privations from want of water, and of the danger from encounters with the Maasai. With the arrival in 1903 of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly from South Africa, questions were raised concerning the preservation for the Maasai of their rights of pasturage, and the decision was made to entertain no more applications for large areas of land.
In the process of carrying out this policy of colonisation a dispute arose between Sir Charles Eliot, Commissioner of British East Africa, and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary. The East Africa Syndicate had applied for and been pledged the lease of of land. Lansdowne, believing himself bound by the pledges, decided the applications should be approved. In a separate matter, two South African applicants who were each attempting to lease were declined by Lansdowne, and he refused Eliot permission to conclude the transactions. In view of this Eliot resigned his post, giving his reason in a public telegram to the Prime Minister, dated Mombasa, 21 June 1904, stating: "Lord Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain private persons while giving a monopoly of land on unduly advantageous terms to the East Africa Syndicate. I have refused to execute these instructions, which I consider unjust and impolitic." Sir Donald William Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti (Ghana), was announced as Sir Charles' successor on the day the telegram was sent.
Legislation.
In 1914 the British government banned cannabis ("bhang") in the Protectorate.
Stamps and postal history of British East Africa.
The territory had its own mail system during the 1890s.


Gadi Kinda

Gadi Kinda (; born 23 March 1994) is an Ethiopian-born Israeli footballer who plays as a midfielder for Major League Soccer club Sporting Kansas City.
Early life.
Kinda was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to an Ethiopian-Jewish family. At the age of three, he immigrated to Israel with his family.
Club career.
From the age of 17 he played for F.C. Ashdod in the Israeli Premier League and stayed with the club for 8 years.
In February 2019, he moved to Beitar Jerusalem.
In January 2020, Kinda joined Major League Soccer club Sporting Kansas City on a one-year loan deal with an option to buy. Following the 2020 season, Kinda was signed permanently by Sporting Kansas City.


Battle of Gomit

The Battle of Gomit (another name: Battle of Ygubba) was fought in 1445 between Ethiopia and a powerful Muslim army under the Adal Sultanate. The Ethiopians were led by Zara Yaqob, while the forces of Adal were led by Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din. The Ethiopian army was victorious, and Badlay was killed.


Malagasy franc

The franc (ISO 4217 code "MGF"), was the currency of Madagascar until January 1, 2005. It was subdivided into 100 centimes. In Malagasy the corresponding term for the franc is "iraimbilanja", and five Malagasy francs is called "ariary".
History.
The first francs to circulate in Madagascar were French francs. These were supplemented during the First World War by emergency issues, including issues of postage stamps fixed to pieces of card in denominations of 0.05 up to 2 francs.
The Banque de Madagascar was created on July 1, 1925, by the French government. The currency was issued by the government-owned "Banque de Madagascar" and was pegged at par to the French franc. Only banknotes were issued with French coins continuing to circulate. When the Comoro Islands became a separate French territory, the name of the issuing bank was changed to "Banque de Madagascar et des Comores". The Madagascar-Comores CFA franc (XMCF) replaced the franc of Madagascar on December 26, 1945, with the creation of the other CFA francs. The CFA franc was worth 1.7 French francs until 1948 when a devaluation of the French currency increased the rate to 1 CFA franc = 2 French francs. When the new French franc was introduced in 1960, the rate became 1 CFA franc = 0.02 French francs.
After independence from France, the privilege to issue banknotes was transferred to the "Institut d'Émission Malgache" on December 31, 1961. The CFA franc was replaced by the Malagasy franc on July 1, 1963. It was pegged to the French franc with the same value as the CFA franc (1 FRF = 50 MGF), guaranteed by the French treasury. Denominations were given both in francs and ariary, with 5 francs = 1 ariary. Madagascar left the CFA franc zone in 1972 and the Malagasy franc was declared inconvertible. Banknotes were issued by the "Institut d'Émission Malgache" until 1974 when the Banque Centrale de Madagascar (Central Bank of Madagascar) took over that function.
The peg to the French franc was kept until 1982 when a series of devaluations began. Finally, the franc was floated freely in May 1994. On June 1, 1995, the exchange rate had dropped to 1 FRF = 777 MGF. On January 1, 2005, it was replaced by the ariary at a rate of 5 francs to the ariary. By then, the exchange rate was 1 FRF = 1758 MGF (with the FRF value converted from the Euro).
Coins.
The first Malagasy coins were issued in 1943 by the Free French. These were bronze 50 centime and 1 franc coins bearing the Cross of Lorraine symbol. In 1948, aluminum 1 and 2 franc coins were introduced, followed by aluminum 5 francs and aluminum bronze 10 and 20 francs in 1953.
From 1965, coins were issued denominated in both francs and ariary.
Banknotes.
Following emergency issues between 1914 and 1917 related to the availability of 5, 10 and 20 franc notes, distinct Malagasy notes were introduced in 1925 in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 1000 francs. The lower three denominations were replaced by coins in the 1940s and 50s, with 5000 franc notes introduced in 1950.
From 1961, banknotes were issued denominated in both francs and ariary. Following France’s switch to the euro, Madagascar decided it was time to phase out the franc as well. While still denominated in both ariary and francs, on notes issued since 31 July 2003, the former is emphasized with larger fonts and predominant placement. Beginning in 2007, new notes no longer contain references to the franc as a currency and are instead denominated solely in ariary, which replaced the franc as the official currency of Madagascar on 1 January 2005, at a rate of 5 francs per ariary.


2002 Dagbon chieftaincy crisis

The 2002 Dagbon chieftaincy crisis, also known as the Yendi conflict, was a clash between two feuding factions that occurred at the Gbewaa Palace, Ghana from March 25–27, 2002, and resulted in the killing of Yaa Naa Yakubu II and 40 of his elders.
Committee of Eminent Chiefs.
The Committee of Eminent Chiefs is a three-member committee of Ghanaian traditional rulers formed by the Government of Ghana to intervene the Dagbon chieftaincy crisis.


Walter Hely-Hutchinson

Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson (22 August 1849 – 23 September 1913) was an Anglo-Irish diplomat and colonial administrator.
Background and education.
Hely-Hutchinson was the second son of Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 4th Earl of Donoughmore, and attended the University of Cambridge.
Career.
Hely-Hutchinson was a barrister of the Inner Temple, 1877; Private Secretary to Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor of New South Wales; for Fiji Affairs, 1874; for New South Wales, 1875; Colonial Secretary of Barbadoes, 1877; Chief Secretary to the Government of Malta, 1883; Lieutenant-Governor of Malta between 1884 and 1889, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Windward Islands between 1889 and 1893 and as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Natal and Zululand between 1893 and 1901 and Special Commissioner for Amatongaland. While in Natal he inaugurated the system of Responsible Government in Natal, and completed the annexation of the Trans-Pongola Territories, which form an integral part of Zululand.
He was appointed Governor of the Cape Colony in 1901, during the height of the Second Boer War in South Africa, and was the last British governor until the post disappeared when the colony joined the Union of South Africa in 1910. He also acted as High Commissioner for Southern Africa in 1909 during the absence of Lord Selborne. Following the end of the Boer war in June 1902, he was among those responsible for introducing the peace settlement in the colony. In November-December 1902 he made a month long tour of the Malmesbury, Saldanha Bay, Piquetberg, Clanwilliam, and Ceres districts.
He was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Law (LL.D.) by the University of Edinburgh and was invested as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. He was invested as a Privy Counsellor; thus he was styled "The Rt. Hon."
Family.
Hey-Hutchinson married in 1881 the daughter of General W. C. Justice, C.M.G. (commanding the troops in Ceylon). Their son was the composer Victor Hely-Hutchinson; his daughter, Natalie, married the archaeologist and administrator Gerard Mackworth Young.


Prime Minister of Senegal

The Prime Minister of Senegal was the head of government of Senegal. The Prime Minister was appointed by the President of Senegal, who is directly elected for a seven-year term. The Prime Minister, in turn, appointed the Senegalese cabinet, after consultation with the President. On 14 May 2019, the post was abolished.
The following is a list of prime ministers of Senegal, since the country gained independence from France in 1960.
Future of post.
On 6 April 2019, after being reappointed by President Macky Sall, Prime Minister Mohammed Dionne announced that President Sall had tasked him with enacting various government reforms, including the elimination of the job of Prime Minister. Sall's goal was to remove the "intermediary level" of Prime Minister to allow the President to take a more hands-on approach to governing.
Prime ministers of Senegal (1960–2019).
Key.
Political PartiesOther factions


Rujumbura

Rujumbura was one of the six independent kingdoms which was established after the fall of the Kingdom of Mpororo in 1752 in present day Rukungiri, south western Uganda. It was ruled by an Omukama from the Beene Kirenzi sub-clan of the Bashambo.
It is more associated with Kigezi than Ankole. Efforts to bring it under Bahinda rule of Ankole in the early 1900s remained futile due to the effective resistance of the Rujumbura people under Omukama Makobore of the Bashambo clan.
The short-lived Rujumbura kingdom was ruled by the following kings:
The British invasion of Rujumbura through their system of indirect rule and the abolition of kingdoms by the Government of Uganda under President Milton Obote in 1967 contributed to the collapse of the Kingdom of Rujumbura.
Despite efforts to have Rujumbura restored along with other Mpororo states, there have not been any positive results.


Elections in Mozambique

Elections in Mozambique gives information on election and election results in Mozambique.
Mozambique elects representatives at several levels:
Electoral commission law.
Mozambican elections are run by a National Election Commission (CNE), and the election law has changed often. In December 2012, a new law in regards to the composition of the election commission consists of eight political party representatives: five appointed by the incumbent FRELIMO, two appointed by the principal opposition RENAMO and one by the Democratic Movement of Mozambique (MDM). There are further three members nominated by civil society representatives, a judge appointed by the Higher Council of the Judicial Magistrature and an attorney appointed by the Higher Council of the Public Prosecutor's Office.
1994 – Presidential and Parliamentary election.
In the first multi-party elections held in Mozambique, in 1994, FRELIMO candidate and president of Mozambique since 1986 Joaquim Chissano was elected and the opposition party and former guerrilla group RENAMO acknowledged the result. The United Nations Security Council, which had a peacekeeping operation based there due to the civil war, endorsed the results as free and fair in Resolution 960.
1999 – Presidential and Parliamentary election.
In the elections in late 1999 President Joaquim Chissano from FRELIMO was re-elected with 52.3% of the vote, and FRELIMO secured 133 of 250 parliamentary seats. The main opposition parties candidate, RENAMO's Afonso Dhlakama, got 47.7% and the party won the remaining 117 parliamentary seats.
2004 – Presidential and Parliamentary election.
In the 1–2 December 2004 election Armando Guebuza, the new FRELIMO candidate, won with 63.7% of the votes, more than twice as many as RENAMO's candidate Afonso Dhlakama (31.7%).
In the parliamentary election FRELIMO won 62% (1.8 million) of the votes, RENAMO 29.7% (905,000 votes), and 18 minor parties shared the remaining 8%. FRELIMO will hold 160 of the parliamentary seats, RENAMO 90.
The elections have been criticized for not having been conducted in a fair and transparent manner by the National Electoral Commission. Several cases of electoral fraud have occurred and remained unsanctioned. This has been criticized among others by the European Union Election Observation Mission to Mozambique and the Carter Center. However, the elections shortcomings have probably not (also according to EU observers) affected the final result in the presidential election. The distribution of parliamentary seats among the parties will have been somewhat altered, though (RENAMO probably losing a number of seats to FRELIMO).
On 2 February 2005 Guebuza was sworn in as president of the republic, but without Dhlakama and RENAMO's recognition and presence at the inauguration. RENAMO have, however, agreed to participate in the Parliament and the Council of State.
2009 – Presidential and Parliamentary election.
The Presidential and Parliamentary elections were held on 28 October 2009 for the fourth time since the introduction of the multiparty system. In the elections for the Assembly of the Republic, FRELIMO and RENAMO contested all 13 parliamentary constituencies, but the newly formed MDM was able to contest only 4 parliamentary constituencies.
2014 – Presidential and Parliamentary election.
The Presidential and Parliamentary elections were held on 15 October 2014 for the fifth time since the introduction of the multiparty system. In the elections for the Assembly of the Republic, FRELIMO, MDM and RENAMO contested all 13 parliamentary constituencies.


John Waddington (colonial administrator)

Sir Eubule John Waddington, (9 April 1890 – 18 January 1957) was an English colonial administrator. He served as Governor of Barbados from 1938 to 1941, and Governor of Northern Rhodesia from to 1941 to 1947. After leaving the Colonial Service, he was Chairman of the International African Institute from 1949 until his death.


Ali Coulibaly

Ali Coulibaly (r. 1757 – c. 1759) was a king of the Bambara Empire of Ségou.
Son of empire founder Bitòn Coulibaly and brother to the previous king, Dinkoro Coulibaly, Ali took the throne following his brother's assassination. A devout Muslim, he attempted to convert his largely animist Bambara subjects. Ali became widely unpopular for his interference with local religious practices and his ban on millet beer. His death triggered a decade of instability in the Bambara Empire until the 1766 ascension of Ngolo Diarra to the throne.


Bichi Emirate

Bichi Emirate is a Hausa traditional emirate in Kano State in Northern Nigeria. Its palace is located in the town of Bichi, Bichi Local Government Area.
The Bichi Emirate was established in 2019, when the Kano State Government created four emirates from the oldest kingdom of Kano. The Bichi emirate consists of 9 Local Government Areas of Kano State. These local governments are Bichi, Bagwai, Shanono, Tsanyawa, Kunchi, Makoda, Dambatta, Dawakin Tofa and Tofa local governments.
The current emir of Bichi is Nasiru Ado Bayero. Aminu Ado Bayero is the first emir of Bichi emirate since its established in 2019. In 12 March, 2020, the Kano State Government replaced him with his brother Nasiru Ado Bayero as the Emir of Bichi following the dethroned of former Emir of Kano Muhammadu Sanusi II from the reign of Emir of Kano with his replacement by Aminu Ado Bayero.


Claustre Affair

The Claustre Affair was a hostage crisis during the First Chadian Civil War. Chadian rebels, calling themselves the Command Council of the Armed Forces of the North (CCFAN), lead by Nakaza nationalist Hissène Habré kidnapped Françoise Claustre, a French archaeologist, Marc Combe, a worker in a French development organization in Chad, and Christoph Staewen, a German doctor. Although Combe escaped and Staewen was ransomed back by the West German government, the rebels demanded a ransom of 10 million francs for Mrs. Claustre and her husband Pierre, who was later also captured by the rebels. The case garnered international attention, with the French sending a negotiator who was later executed. Finally the French appealed to Muammar Gaddafi to free the hostages, which he then did. The affair showcased Libya's growing influence in Central Africa.
Background.
Chad gained its independence from France in 1960, but the majority of French-educated Chadians came from the south of the country, so people from southern Chad had more power in the new government than the northerners. Although the French continued to hold on to the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture, the northern part of Chad, until 1965, the lack of power for northern Chad escalated tensions between the two parts of the country. In 1966, a rebel group was formed, the Front for National Liberation of Chad, or FROLINAT, that began an insurgency in northern Chad against the post-independence government of François Tombalbaye. By 1967, the rebellion had spread to much of the country, particularly northern and eastern Chad.
Like most of France's former colonies, Chad had signed a secret agreement with France allowing for French assistance in 'domestic maintenance of order,' which stated that Chad could request France to take direct military action against an internal rebellion. However, this also meant that the French gained command of all Chadian military forces for the duration of the suppression.
By late 1969, the government had lost several important battles against FROLINAT, and appealed to French president Charles de Gaulle to crush the insurgents. DeGaulle approved the move to help the Chadian government, if they allowed France to set up a Mission de réforme administrative (MRA), headed by Pierre Claustre, to reform the Chadian government to stop a future uprising. Tombalbaye acceded to the request, and de Gaulle deployed 2800 troops and around 600 'advisors' to Chad.
The French-led coalition managed to destroy most FROLINAT groups in an operation that took around 10,000 lives, but many rebel groups managed to survive, especially in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region. In addition, the M.R.A. didn't complete its mission to change the government of Chad, essentially setting Chad up for another rebellion for the same reason as the original.
Kidnapping.
On the night of April 12, 1974, the CCFAN led by Hissène Habré attacked the northern Chadian town of Bardaï. Auxiliary troops, "gardes nomades", helped the group kidnap Marc Combe, an M.R.A. worker, Françoise Claustre, a French archaeologist, as well as Christoph Staewen, a German doctor providing medical treatment for locals. Staewen's wife was killed in the crossfire. The rebels loaded 3 cars they found on the site with food and other supplies, including Combe's radio, put the hostages in, and drove off. The Chadian garrison attempted to respond but was unable to pursue the rebels in the darkness of the desert.
In N'Djamena, Françoise's husband Pierre, head of the M.R.A., heard of the kidnapping and flew the to Faya-Largeau, capital of Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture, from where he hoped to go to Bardaï to learn more. Over the next few weeks, Pierre was the only person who contacted the kidnappers often, as the French ambassador Fernand Wibaux had just left, and his replacement, Raphaël Touze, would not arrive until April 27. In addition, the French president, Georges Pompidou, had just died, and there would be no centralizing policy anchor until after the general election on May 19.
Negotiations.
Tombalbaye ordered reinforcements to Bardaï, but both Pierre Claustre and the Chadian prefect in Faya-Largeau thought that the rebels would execute the hostages in response to a military buildup. Luc Baldit, the French "chargé d'affaires" in N'Djamena, was ordered to not provide support to a Chadian military operation that could endanger the lives of the hostages in any way.
Already, two West German envoys had arrived in Chad to negotiate with the hostages. The French were sending Robert Puissant, a high-ranking official, to be their negotiator, but it would take time for him to arrive. Franz Wallner, one of the German envoys, joined Pierre Claustre in Bardaï. On the morning of 10 May, Habré and hisCCFAN published their demands:
The demands were difficult for the French to accept, and put them in a tight spot. The new French ambassador to Chad, Raphäel Touze, feared that the demands were specific enough to France's problems in the region that West Germany would go it alone and negotiate only for Staewen. In addition, by demanding that France release prisoners held by another government, Habré was straining the relationship between the French and Chadian governments. Since releasing the prisoners was not something Tombalbaye wanted to do, French policymakers wanted to go about negotiations in a way that would not undermine the authority of the Chadian government. Some Chadian officials, including the prefect of the BET Prefecture, wanted to stop any direct contact between the CCFAN and the French and German negotiators.
Franz Wallner, the German negotiator, met his French counterpart Robert Puissant and the French ambassador Touze in N'Djamena. They agreed to coordinate a negotiation strategy, but told the French that they would negotiate separately while the CCFAN maintained its demands for a prisoner release, as the West German government had no involvement in that aspect. The Germans had offered to broadcast a CCFAN manifesto over Deutsche Welle in French and Arabic for 3 days, and to pay an indemnity of 50 million CFA francs for the damages Habré stated. It seemed that Habré had accepted the offer in principle. The Germans also urged Touze and Puissant to keep the liberation of the hostages secret from the Tombalbaye government, which would be infuriated about the broadcast of an anti-government manifesto over German radio and a large ransom payment to the CCFAN, so the French and Germans planned to fly directly from Bardaï to Tunis before the Tombalbaye government could react.
The French began to pressure Tombalbaye to release the prisoners. Although Puissant said that the release of political prisoners was something controlled only by the Tombalbaye government, he feared that inaction on the part of Chad would stop any chance of the hostages being released. He was correct; Chad refused to release the prisoners, but seemed willing to fulfill the other two conditions that the rebels gave.
On 18 May 1974, both Robert Puissant and Franz Wallner met with Habré at the village of Zouï east of Bardaï. Habré demanded 1 billion CFA franc (around $2 million today) in addition to his other demands. The next day, Wallner officially accepted Habré's demands in Zouï. After two days, the negotiators again returned to Zouï to finalize negotiations, during which, according to Pierre Claustre, Puissant threatened Habré that "'terrible reprisals would fall upon the populations of Tibesti'" if any of the hostages was executed.
On 26 May 1974, Chadian soldiers began burning the homes of the "gardes nomades" who defected to CCFAN, and later on that evening set fire to the local palm grove. The sub-prefect of the region told Claustre, with tears in his eyes, "'They're crazy, how could the population not hate them?'"
The French government sent in a former ambassador to Chad who had good relations with Tombalbaye to try and get a prisoner release. Tombalbaye seemed to agree, but on 2 June 1974, he gave an inflammatory speech in which he demanded that the rebels release the hostages before getting the prisoners. He threatened Habré's family, and indeed Chadian forces had captured 60 of his relatives, including his mother and son. Pierre Claustre even heard they were transported on French aircraft.
Even with these issue, Habré still released Christoph Staewen in exchange for the broadcast of the manifesto and 4 million French francs. The Germans took Staewen to Libya to avoid Chadian authorities. Later, Chad broke diplomatic relations with West Germany and declared Pierre Claustre, who had already left for France, a "persona non grata". In order to resolve this, the French appointed Pierre Galopin, a French Commandant, to accompany Consul General Georges Estrade in negotiations. Pierre Galopin had previously served as deputy to Camille Gourvenec, head of Tombalbaye's intelligence service, a service that committed torture and other abuses against detainees. Galopin also led 1969 negotiations that caused large parts of FROLINAT to defect to the government, Goukouni Weddeye, the co-leader of the CCFAN, held a special grudge against Galopin,


Zolu Duma

Zolu Duma (aka King Peter) was a Gola ruler of the land which now contains Monrovia, Liberia. At a young age Zolu Duma was placed with Wuling, of the Bassa people who had gained importance as a merchant trading with the Europeans, including slave trade.
In 1822 Zolu Duma met with representatives of the American Colonization Society, including United States naval officer Robert F. Stockton, who wished to purchase land on which to settle African American emigrants from the United States. Accounts of the meeting stated that Zolu Duma initially agreed to the sale, but tried to back out once he learned that the settlement would endanger the slave trade. Stockton then forced Zolu Duma to cede the land at gunpoint: Drawing another pistol and levelling at the head of King Peter, and directing him to sit silent until he heard what was to be said, [Stockton] proceeded to say, in the most solemn manner…he had determined that King Peter himself should be the first victim, and that unless he agreed to execute the treaty on the following day his fate was fixed.
In fiction.
Zolu Duma appeared as a character in Kwame Kwei-Armah's "King Peter" and Dipika Guha's "Elizabeth," two short plays that premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey, in November 2017 as part of the Princeton & Slavery Project Symposium. He was portrayed by actor Esau Pritchett.


Rotaka

The rotaka was a series of farmer and student protests in Madagascar between April 1971 and May 1972 that led to the collapse of the First Republic of Madagascar under President Philibert Tsiranana.
Background.
Madagascar regained independence from France in 1960. The nation's first president, Philibert Tsiranana, was not selected in an open election, but rather was nominated by the senate, in which Tsiranana's heavily pro-French Socialist Democratic Party (PSD) dominated. The PSD was an outgrowth of PADESM, a pro-French, pro-"cotiers" (coastal peoples') party formed in reaction to the establishment of MDRM in 1946 by Merina elites, who many "cotiers" feared would attempt to re-establish the Merina hegemony that existed under the pre-colonial Kingdom of Imerina. Under Tsiranana's leadership, French influence remained ever present. In 1969, foreigners controlled 95% of the modern industrial sector and produced a quarter of all exported agricultural products, despite making up a tiny fraction of the population. The sale of manufactured goods was largely controlled by the South Asian population, while import-export companies were French-owned. Although Madagascar enjoyed a period of economic prosperity for much of the First Republic, the late 1960s saw a recession and deterioration in quality of life in Madagascar, largely prompted by global economic conditions but to which the Tsiranana response had been ineffectual and muted.
Popular disapproval of the Tsiranana administration began to grow. Among his loudest critics was Monja Jaona, a Tandroy politician of the MONIMA party who had served two years as mayor of Toliara (1959–1961) before being chased from office by power politics. Jaona had since developed an image as an opposition figure and champion of the common man against the increasingly unpopular policies of the PSD, including the neo-colonial economic and cultural relationship with France perpetuated by PSD political elites.
Over the first decade of PSD domination in Malagasy politics, PSD members gradually became less focused on the shared objective of preventing a revival of Merina power as under the former Kingdom of Madagascar, and more on maximizing access to political and financial benefits for their particular ethnic group. By 1970, there were strong tensions within the PSD between its alliance of northern and western members - including the Tsimihety president Tsiranana – and members in the southern part of the island, who were relatively marginalized and increasingly sympathetic to Jaona. To neutralize Jaona and the crush the MONIMA party, the PSD devised a ploy whereby the Minister of the Interior, Andre Resampa from the western coastal town of Morondava, approached Jaona on 10 March 1971 to urge him to lead a movement to unseat Tsiranana. Jaona's eventual action would provide PSD with an opportunity to arrest the leader and other key party figures in the "rebellion", which they would stave off before it grew large enough to pose a threat; Tsiranana's advisers expected the arrest of Jaona would also demoralize and hobble southern PSD politicians and their constituencies alike, and cement northern control of the party and the country's politics.
Farmer protests (1971).
Jaona incited armed farmers to protest in Toliara in early April 1971. MONIMA was dissolved by official decree on 3 April 1971. On 6 April Tsiranana gave a radio address in which he blamed Jaona for the bloodshed resulting from clashes between the police and armed protesters and accused him of being a communist, which Jaona loudly denied, instead declaring himself a nationalist since the day he was born. On 12 May, Tsiranana and six ministers, including Resampa, came to Toliara to meet with Jaona; the MONIMA leader only agreed to talk with the president if the conversation could be held in the Malagasy language rather than French, a term to which Tsiranana agreed. Jaona declared that he sought to find a way to work in harmony with the president, and was released from prison.
While the protest had been quickly foiled and MONIMA disbanded, Jaona's efforts made a significant impact on public opinion of Tsiranana. The Malagasy people's image of their country as "moramora" (laid back, gentle) and their first president as a refined leader had been shattered by his violent crushing of the clearly harmless farmer protest.
Student protests (1971–1972).
On 24 March 1971, students at the College of Medicine in Antananarivo started a protest to express popular rejection of the policies and repression of president Tsiranana's neo-colonial administration. The protest quickly spread to include 5,000 students across numerous colleges at the University of Antananarivo. Tsiranana responded by temporarily closing the university and forbidding the meetings of numerous student organizations, while continuing to permit that of the PSD-affiliated socialist student group. The news media reported this protest and that occurring in Toliara, inspiring students in high schools and junior high schools to launch protests in solidarity beginning on 19 April. A committee was formed of students, media, lawyers and other figures to demand information on the status of the prisoners sent to Nosy Lava, which resulted in the rapid release of the southerners held in the island prison.
On 24 April 1972, secondary school students in the capital of Antananarivo protested in solidarity with the city's medical university students to support revisions of the colonial era curriculum and the dismissal of teachers from France. On 13 May, security forces shot student protesters in Antananarivo.
Aftermath.
Within days, Tsiranana announced his resignation and a transitional government was put in place under General Gabriel Ramanantsoa.
Madagascar's most popular musical group, Mahaleo, was formed by high school students who performed at their school's protests in Antsirabe.


Zulu kaMalandela

Zulu kaMalandela (1627–1709), son of Malandela, was the founder and chief of the Zulu clan, which was formed from the Nguni people. The Zulus and the Qwabes were formed from the Ngunis. When the King of the Ngunis, Malandela died, he divided the Kingdom into two clans, the Qwabes and the Zulus. In the Zulu language, Zulu means Heaven.