History of Mogadishu

Mogadishu (, popularly "Xamar"; ) is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries.
Antiquity.
Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia, including the Mogadishu area, was inhabited very early by hunter-gatherers of Khoisan descent. Although most of these early inhabitants are believed to have been either overwhelmed, driven away or, in some cases, assimilated by later migrants to the area, physical traces of their occupation survive in certain ethnic minority groups inhabiting modern-day Jubaland and other parts of the south. The latter descendants include relict populations such as the Eile, Aweer, the Wa-Ribi, and especially the Wa-Boni. By the time of the arrival of peoples from the Cushitic Rahanweyn (Digil and Mirifle) clan confederacy, who would go on to establish a local aristocracy, other Cushitic groups affiliated with the Oromo (Wardai) and Ajuuraan (Ma'adanle) had already formed settlements of their own in the sub-region.
Sarapion.
The ancient city of Sarapion is believed to have been the predecessor state of Mogadishu. It is mentioned in the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", a Greek travel document dating from the first century AD, as one of a series of commercial ports on the Somali littoral. According to the "Periplus", maritime trade already connected peoples in the Mogadishu area with other communities along the Somali Sea coast.
During ancient times Mogadishu was part of the Somali city-states that engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting Somali merchants with Phoenicia, Ptolemic Egypt, Greece, Parthian Persia, Saba, Nabataea and the Roman Empire. Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the "beden" to transport their cargo.
Foundation and Origins.
The founding ethnicity of Mogadishu and its subsequent sultanate has been a topic of serious intrigue in Somali Studies. I.M Lewis believed that the city was founded and ruled by a council of Arab and Persian families. However, the reference I.M Lewis received traces back to one 19th century text called the Kitab Al-Zunuj, which has been discredited by modern scholars as unreliable, and unhistorical. More importantly, it contradicts oral, ancient written sources and archeological evidence on the pre-existing civilizations and communities that flourished on the Somali coast, and to which were the forefathers of Mogadishu and other coastal cities. Thus, the Persian and Arab founding "myths" are regarded as an outdated false colonialist reflection on the Africans' ability to create their own sophisticated states. It has now been widely accepted that there were already existing communities on the Somali coast with local African leadership, to whom the Arab and Persian families had to ask for permission to settle in their cities. It also seems the local Africans still retained their political and numerical superiority while the Muslim immigrants would eventually assimilate into the dominant African culture.
This is corroborated by the 1st century AD Greek document the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, detailing multiple prosperous port cities in ancient Somalia, as well as the identification of ancient Sarapion with the city that would later be known as Mogadishu. When Ibn Battuta visited the Sultanate in the 14th century, he identified the Sultan as being of Barbara origin, an ancient term to describe the ancestors of the Somali people. According to Ross E. Dunn neither Mogadishu, or any other city on the coast could be considered alien enclaves of Arabs or Persians, but were in-fact African towns.
Yaqut al-Hamawi, a famous Muslim medieval geographer in the year 1220 describes Mogadishu as the most prominent town on the coast. Yaqut also mentioned Mogadishu as being a town inhabited by Berbers, described as ”dark-skinned” and considered ancestors of modern Somalis. By the thirteenth century, Ibn Sa'id described Mogadishu, Merca and Barawa located in the Benadir coast had become Islamic and commercial centers in the Indian Ocean. He said the local people in the Benadir coast and the interior were predominantly inhabited by Somalis with a minority of Arab, Persian and Indian merchants living in the coastal towns. Ibn al-Mujawir mentions the Banu Majid who fled the Mundhiriya region in Yemen in the year 1159 and settled in Mogadishu and also traders from the port towns of Abyan and Haram.
Mogadishu is traditionally inhabited by 4 main Reer Hamar Gibil Madow (Dark skins) clan groupings (Somali: afarta reer xamar). These are the Moorshe, Iskashato, DhabarWeyne, and the Bandawow. And with Moorshe being regarded as the oldest group in Mogadishu and is considered to be a sub-clan of Ajuran who established one of the most powerful medieval kingdoms in Africa called Ajuran Sultanate. The Gibil Madow(Dark skins) faction of the Benadiri are said to hail from various Somali clan groups from the interior and from the north and make up the majority of Benadiris with a small minority being Gibil Cads(Light skins) which descend from Muslim immigrants.
Medieval Period.
Mogadishu Sultanate.
Mogadishu Sultanate was a medieval Somali sultanate centered in southern Somalia. It rose as one of the pre-eminent powers in the Horn of Africa under the rule of Fakhr ad-Din before becoming part of the expanding Ajuran Empire in the 13th century. The Mogadishu Sultanate maintained a vast trading network, dominated the regional gold trade, minted its own currency, and left an extensive architectural legacy in present-day southern Somalia. A local city-state which much influence over the hinterland neighboring coastal towns.
For many years Mogadishu functioned as the pre-eminent city in the ("Bilad al Barbar" – "Land of the Berbers"), as medieval Arabic-speakers named the Somali coast. Following his visit to the city, the 12th-century Syrian historian Yaqut al-Hamawi (a former slave of Greek origin) wrote a global history of many places he visited Mogadishu and called it the richest and most powerful city in the region and was an Islamic center across the Indian Ocean.
Ajuran Sultanate.
In the early 13th century, Mogadishu along with other coastal and interior Somali cities in southern Somalia and eastern Abyissina came under the Ajuran Sultanate control and experienced another Golden Age. By the 1500s, Mogadishu was no longer a vassal state and became a full fledged Ajuran city. An Ajuran family, Muduffar, established a dynasty in the city, thus combining two entities together for the next 350 years, the fortunes of the urban cities in the interior and coast became the fortunes of the other.
During his travels, Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi (1213–1286) noted that Mogadishu city had already become the leading Islamic center in the region. By the time of the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta's appearance on the Somali coast in 1331, the city was at the zenith of its prosperity. He described Mogadishu as "an exceedingly large city" with many rich merchants, which was famous for its high quality fabric that it exported to Egypt, among other places. He also describes the hospitality of the people of Mogadishu and how locals would put travelers up in their home to help the local economy. Battuta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan, Abu Bakr ibn Shaikh 'Umar,He noted that Sultan Abu Bakr had dark skin complexion and spoke in his native tongue (Somali) but was also fluent in Arabic.
 The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs (ministers), legal experts, commanders, royal eunuchs, and other officials at his beck and call.
Ibn Khaldun (1332 to 1406) noted in his book that Mogadishu was a massive metropolis. He also claimed that the city was a very populous with many wealthy merchants.
This period gave birth to notable figures like Abd al-Aziz of Mogadishu who was described as the governor and island chief of Maldives by Ibn Battuta After him is named the Abdul-Aziz Mosque in Mogadishu which has remained there for centuries.
The island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. The name "Madageiscar" was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration of the name Mogadishu, the famous port with which Polo had confused the island.
Vasco Da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets. In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as "toob benadir" (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria), together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa. Jewish merchants from the Hormuz also brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.
Duarte Barbosa, the famous Portuguese traveler wrote about Mogadishu (c 1517-1518):
The Portuguese Empire was unsuccessful of conquering Mogadishu permanently despite the City being destroyed by a powerful naval Portuguese commander called João de Sepúvelda, after the Battle of Benadir a peace treaty was signed.
According to the 16th-century explorer, Leo Africanus indicates that the native inhabitants of the Mogadishu polity were of the same origins as the denizens of the northern people of Zeila the capital of Adal Sultanate. They were generally tall with an olive skin complexion, with some being darker. They would wear traditional rich white silk wrapped around their bodies and have Islamic turbans and coastal people would only wear sarongs, and wrote Arabic as a lingua franca. Their weaponry consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, battle axe, and bows, although they received assistance from its close ally the Ottoman Empire and with the import of firearms such as muskets and cannons. Most were Muslims, although a few adhered to heathen bedouin tradition; there were also a number of Abyssinian Christians further inland. Mogadishu itself was a wealthy, and well-built city-state, which maintained commercial trade with kingdoms across the world. The metropolis city was surrounded by walled stone fortifications.
Ajuran Sultanate collapsed in the 17th century due to heavy taxing against their subjects which opened a rebellion. The ex-subjects became a new wave of Somali immigrants, the Abgaal, moved both into Shabelle basin and into Mogadishu, and the city's mudaffar dynasty collapsed. A new political elite led by Abgaal Yaquub imams, with ties to the new leaders in the interior, moved into Shingaani quarter of the city. Remnants of the Ajuran lived in the other key-quarters Xamarweyne. Ajuran merchants began to look for new linkages and regional trade opportunities since the Abgaal had commandeered the existing trading networks.
Early modern period (1700s–1900s).
Hiraab Imamate.
By the 17th century, the Hiraab Imamate was a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of southern and central Somalia. It successfully revolted against the Ajuran Sultanate and established an independent rule for at least two centuries from the seventeen hundreds and onwards.
The alliance involved the army leaders and advisors of the Habar Gidir and Duduble, a Fiqhi/Qadi of Sheekhaal , and the Imam was reserved for the Abgaal who is believed to have been the first born. Once established, the Imamate ruled the territories from the Shabeelle valley, the Benadir province, the Mareeg area all the way to the arid lands of Mudug, which included the ancient port of Hobyo.
Hobyo served as a prosperous commercial center for the Imamate while Mogadishu served as the political center where the ruling dynasty resided. The agricultural centres of El Dher and Harardhere included the production of sorghum and beans, supplementing with herds of camels, cattle, goats and sheep. Livestock, hides and skin, whilst the aromatic woods and raisins were the primary exports as rice, other foodstuffs and clothes were imported. Merchants looking for exotic goods came to the Imamate to buy textiles, precious metals and pearls. The commercial goods harvested along the Shabelle river were brought to Mogadishu for trade. Also, the increasing importance and rapid settlement of more southernly cities such as Mogadishu further boosted prosperity, as more and more ships made their way down the Somali coast to trade and replenish their supplies.
By the late 19th century, the Imamate began to decline due to internal problems, the Imamate also faced challenges from Imperialist kingdoms, the Zanzibari Sultan from the coast and Geledi Sultanate, and Hobyo Sultanate from the interior from both directions.
Geledi Sultanate.
The Sultanate of Geledi and the Omani Empire vied over who would be the superior power on the Benadir Coast, with Sultan Yusuf Mahamud ultimately being the dominant force with the Omanis having a nominal presence and Said bin Sultan even paying tribute to him in order to keep Omani representatives in Mogadishu. Mogadishu under Abgaal control had been in a period of decline and disarray near the end of the Hiraab Imamate. Following a struggle between the two leading figures of each respective quarter (Shingani and Hamarweyn) Sultan Yusuf marched into the city with an 8,000 strong army and ruled in favour of the Shingani leader, with the loser fleeing the city. Yusuf would nominate a relative of the deposed chief to lead the Hamarweyn quarter ending the dispute. Sultan Yusuf is even referred to as the Governor of Mogadishu in some sources, highlighting the power he exerted over the city.
Despite the Hiraab political decline, trade with Geledi Sultanate flourished during Geledi Sultan Ahmed Yusuf's reign. British explorer John Kirk visited the region in 1873 and noted a variety of things. Roughly 20 large dhows were docked in both Mogadishu and Merka respectively filled with grain produced from the farms of the Geledi in the interior. Kirk met the Hiraab Imam Mahmood who reigned over Mogadishu. The Shabelle river itself was referred to as the 'Geledi river' by Kirk, perhaps in respect of the sheer volume of produce that the Sultanate output. In Barawa there was little grain instead a large quantity of ivory and skins which had already been loaded onto ships destined for Zanzibar.
The Geledi Sultans were at the height of their power. They dominated the East African ivory trade, and also held sway over the Jubba and Shebelle valleys in the hinterland. The Omani Sultans' authority in Mogadishu, however, was largely nominal (existing by name only). When Imam Azzan bin Qais of Oman sought to build a fort in the city, he was thus obligated to request permission from Sultan Ahmed Yusuf the real power broker who in turn convinced the Hiraab Imam to acquiesce to the decision. Omani and later Zanzibari officials were mere representatives of the Sultan to collect customs and needed the fort for their own security rather than control of the city. This Fort of Garessa was eventually constructed in 1870. The Sultan of Zanzibar later leased and then sold the infrastructure that he had built to the Italians, but not the land itself, which was Somali owned.
Italian Somalia.
In 1892, Osman Ahmed leased the city to Italy. Italy purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland.
In the early 1930s, the new Italian governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of non-coercive assimilation of locals. Many Mogadishu residents were subsequently enlisted into the Italian colonial troops and thousands of Italian settlers moved to live in the city. Mogadishu also re-assumed its historic position as an important commercial centre, with some small manufacturing companies established within the city limits and in some agricultural areas around the capital, such as Genale and Jowhar ("Villaggio duca degli Abruzzi").
Mogadishu underwent a period of infrastructural expansion in the late 1930s, with new buildings and avenues such as the "Arch of Triumph" erected in 1934. In 1936, the city had a population of 50,000 inhabitants of which 20,000 were Italian Somalis. The Italian settlers also connected the city to Jowhar with a 114 km railway and a newly asphalted Imperial Road leading toward to Addis Ababa. In the late 1930s was created the international airport Petrella with a huge enlargement of the port of Mogadishu.
In 1941, British forces invaded and occupied Mogadishu and Italian Somaliland at large as part of the East African Campaign of World War II.
Somali Youth League.
The Somali Youth League(SYL) formed in 1943 succeeded in uniting all Somali clans under its flag and led the country on the road to independence by drawing inspiration from the early 20th century Somali nationalist; Mohammed Abdullah Hassan and his Dervish Dream, as well as invoking the history of the medieval Somali empires and Kingdoms. The SYL called for national unity and rejected clan divisions. Faced with growing Italian political pressure inimical to continued British tenure and to Somali aspirations for independence, the Somalis and the British came to see each other as allies. The situation prompted British officials to encourage the Somalis to form political parties. In 1945, the Potsdam conference was held, where it was decided not to return Italian Somaliland to Italy.
Somali nationalist agitation against the possibility of Italian rule reached the level of violent confrontation in 1948, when on 11 January, large riots broke out that left fifty-two Italians (and 14 Somalis pro-Italy) dead in the streets of Mogadishu and other coastal cities in which many more were injured. In Mogadishu, a two-hour battle "with bullets, arrows, broken bottles and knives" ensued during an SYL parade. During those clashes Hawo Tako participated, following the visit of the Four-Power Commission, where she eventually was killed. She later became a symbol for Pan-Somalism, and the nationalist Somali Youth League (SYL), who proclaimed her a martyr. When in 1949 news reached Mogadishu that the UN General Assembly was discussing the possibility of the return of Italian administration, more violent riots broke out in the city. In November 1949, the United Nations opted to grant Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the SYL and other nascent Somali political organizations that were then agitating for independence — that Somalia should achieve independence within ten years.
Trust Territory of Somalia (1950-1960).
Following the dissolution of the former Italian Somaliland, the new Trust Territory of Somalia was established as a transitional step toward eventual independence. Italy would administer the polity from 1950 to 1960 under a UN mandate.
This period was marked by significant urban and economic development. New post-secondary institutions of law, economics and social studies were also founded. These academies were affiliated with the University of Rome and included the Somali National University.
On 13 April 1956, administration of the territory was transferred in full to the Somali politicians, and a seventy-member legislative assembly was formed with the participation of SYL members (who agreed with the Italians). The first general elections in Somalia under universal suffrage were won by the SYL, whose then-leader, Abdullahi Issa, became prime minister, and Aden Abdulle Osman Daar became speaker of parliament. The new government would go on to implement various economic and social reforms.
British Somaliland became independent on June 26, 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later. On July 1, 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, with Mogadishu as the nation's capital.
Independence.
A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become President from 1967–1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke.
In the first national elections after independence, held in Mogadishu on 30 March 1964, the SYL won an absolute majority of 69 of the 123 parliamentary seats. The remaining seats were divided among 11 parties. Five years from then, in general elections held in March 1969, the ruling SYL returned to power. However, on 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.
Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.
The revolutionary army established various large-scale public works programs, including the Mogadishu Stadium. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the Mogadishu-based new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974.
After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign of the late 1970s, the Barre administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d'état. Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.
Somali Civil War.
Collapse of government and UN intervention.
By the late 1980s, the moral authority of Barre's regime had collapsed. The authorities became increasingly totalitarian, and resistance movements, encouraged by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war, the toppling of Barre's government, and the disbandment of the Somali National Army (SNA). Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. Armed factions led by USC commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.
UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I, the first stabilization mission in Somalia after the dissolution of the central government. United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south.
Some of the militias that were then competing for power interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the Battle of Mogadishu of 1993, an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader Aidid.
With these casualties, United States President Bill Clinton withdrew American forces in 1994. Two factions in Mogadishu reached a peace accord the same year, on January 16. However, fighting continued for control over the city, prompting the eventual withdrawal of the last international peacekeepers by March 3, 1995.
General Aidid later declared himself president in June 1995. By 1996, his forces had captured strategic neighborhoods in Mogadishu and some outlying territory. Following renewed fighting in the city and Hoddur, Aidid ultimately died in July 1996 from gunshot wounds suffered in a street battle.
Second Battle of Mogadishu.
On 7 May 2006, fighting broke out between Islamist militias and an alliance of Somali faction leaders over control of Mogadishu. The opposing forces were the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT), and militia loyal to the Islamic Court Union (ICU). The conflict began in mid-February 2006 when various warlords formed the ARPCT to challenge the emerging influence of the ICU. It was alleged that the United States had been provided funding for the ARPCT due to concerns that the ICU had ties to al-Qaeda. Most of the combat was concentrated in the Sii-Sii (often written "CC" in English) district in northern Mogadishu with both the Islamist militias and the secular factions leaders fighting for control of Mogadishu. On 5 June 2006, the ICU militia seized the city.
Fall of Mogadishu.
While the ICU consolidated control over Mogadishu, a UN-supported Transitional Government remained undefeated in Baidoa, despite a series of military setbacks. An attempt by the ICU to capture Baidoa prompted a military intervention by Ethiopia in support of the Transitional Government starting December 21, 2006. On December 25 Ethiopian jets bombed Mogadishu's main airport held by the ICU since June. Witnesses reported MiG fighter jets fired missiles into the airport twice. One person was killed and a number injured. Further north, Beledweyne was also bombed, according to witnesses. The fighting between the Ethiopian-backed TFG and the ICU became stretched to over of land.
Following a rapid advance, Ethiopian and pro-government militias surrounded Mogadishu. A spokesman stated that the troops would besiege the city but not attack it in order to avoid civilian casualties. On December 27, reports stated that the ICU was abandoning the city. On December 28, 2006, pro-government militias claimed to have taken control of key locations, including the former presidential palace.
Battle of Mogadishu (2007).
In January 2007, an Islamic insurgency erupted in Mogadishu, targeting government and Ethiopian forces. A helicopter was shot down as battles engulf in the city on March 30, 2007. Two Ethiopian helicopters fired on a rebel stronghold before one was hit by a missile. In addition, Ethiopia told its forces had killed 200 insurgents in a two-day joint offensive with Somali troops against the Islamic Courts Union.
Al-Shabaab insurgency.
Following its defeat in the Battle of Ras Kamboni, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab, regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.
Between May 31 and June 9, 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the UN. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected a new president. With the help of a small team of African Union troops, the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its control of southern Somalia, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a moderate Sufi militia.
Urban renewal.
In November 2010, a new technocratic government was elected to office, which enacted numerous reforms, especially in the security sector. By August 2011, the new administration and its AMISOM allies had managed to capture all of Mogadishu from the Al-Shabaab militants. Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction and urban renewal spearheaded by the Somali diaspora, the municipal authorities and Turkey, a historic ally of Somalia. As of the 2020s, integrated telecommunication service providers for internet and telephone services based in Mogadishu have linked up their underwater internet cables with that of the adjacent nation of Seychelles. This further buttressed preexisting ties such as trade between Seychelles and Mogadishu, which is the nearest major mainland city to the island nation of Seychelles.


Almamy Ahmadou of Timbo

Ahmadou (var. "Amadou"), was one of the last "Almamis" (r. 1873–1896) of the Fula Imamate of Futa Jallon, in the Futa Jallon region of today's Guinea.
Ahmadou signed agreements with French representatives Aimé Olivier de Sanderval (10 July 1881, to build a rail line), Beckmann (14 December 1891), and Alby (23 May 1893 to create a protectorate like status). Though resisting explicit protectorate status or the appointment of a permanent French representative in the Fouta Djallon capital of Timbo, these agreements were the first steps to French direct control of the state.
In 1898 French colonial troops defeated the last Almamy Boubacar Biro Barry, dismantled the state and integrated it into their new colony of Rivières du Sud, which became Guinea.


Bulange

Bulange ("boo-lah-ngeh"), is a building in Uganda. It houses the "Lukiiko" (Parliament) of the Kingdom of Buganda. The Kabaka of Buganda and the "Katikkiro" (Prime Minister) of Buganda also maintain offices in the building. The building serves as the administrative headquarters of the Buganda Kingdom.
Location.
Bulange is on Namirembe Hill close to Namirembe Hospital, about northwest of the main gate of Mengo Palace in Kampala, Uganda's capital and largest city. This is approximately southwest of the city center of Kampala. The coordinates of Bulange are 0°18'35.0"N, 32°33'30.0"E (Latitude:0.309722; Longitude:32.558333). A straight road, approximately long, called Kabaka Anjagala Road (The-King-Loves-Me Road) leads from the main entrance of the Mengo Palace to the entrance of Bulange.
History.
In the beginning, the Buganda Parliament convened inside one of the Kabaka's palaces and conducted business under the shade of one or more trees. Later, grass-thatched buildings served as the parliament buildings. Around the beginning of the 20th century, Prime Minister of Buganda, Apollo Kaggwa, contracted an Indian, Alidina Visram, to build a parliament building using bricks. As the kingdom's government grew in size, the need for a large-enough meeting hall forced the construction of the Bulange outside the King's Palace for the first time.
While in exile in Scotland in 1953, Ssekabaka Muteesa II saw and admired the construction drawings of a building. He brought those drawings with him on his return from exile in 1955. He directed that the new Bulange be constructed according to those drawings. Construction began in 1955 and was completed in 1958 at a cost of £5 million, fully funded by the Government of Buganda.


Kuba Kingdom

The Kuba Kingdom, also known as the Kingdom of the Bakuba or Bushongo, is a traditional kingdom in Central Africa. The Kuba Kingdom flourished between the 17th and 19th centuries in the region bordered by the Sankuru, Lulua, and Kasai rivers in the heart of the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The Kuba Kingdom was a conglomerate of several smaller Bushongo-speaking principalities as well as the Kete, Coofa, Mbeengi, and the Kasai Twa Pygmies. The original Kuba migrated during the 16th century from the north. Nineteen different ethnic groups are included in the kingdom, which still exists and is presided over by the King ("nyim").
History.
Shyaam a-Mbul.
The kingdom began as a conglomeration of several chiefdoms of various ethnic groups with no real central authority. In approximately 1625, an individual from outside the area known as Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong usurped the position of one of the area rulers and united all the chiefdoms under his leadership. Tradition states that Shyaam a-Mbul was the adopted son of a Kuba queen. He left the Kuba region to find enlightenment in the Pende and Kongo kingdoms to the west. After learning all he could from these states, he returned to Kuba to form the empire's political, social and economic foundations.
A new government.
The Kuba government was reorganized toward a merit-based title system, but power still remained firmly in the hands of the aristocracy. The Kuba government was controlled by a king called the "nyim" who belonged to the Bushoong clan. The king was responsible to a court council of all the Kuba subgroups, who were represented equally before the king by their elites.
Growth.
As the kingdom matured, it benefited from advanced techniques adopted from neighboring peoples as well as New World crops introduced from the Americas, such as maize, tobacco, cassava and beans. It developed a refined political system, elected political offices, legal system, trial by jury, public goods provisions and socially supporting movements. Kuba became very wealthy, which resulted in great artistic works commissioned by the Kuba nobility. The Kuba kings retained the most fanciful works for court ceremony and were also buried with these artifacts.
Apex.
The Kuba Kingdom reached its apex during the mid 19th century. Europeans first reached the area in 1884. Because of the kingdom's relative isolation, it was not as affected by the slave trade as were the Kongo and Ndongo kingdoms on the coast.
The current reigning monarch, Kot-a-Mbweeky III, has been on the throne since 1968.
Kuba culture.
Kuba art.
The Kuba are known for their raffia embroidered textiles, fiber and beaded hats, carved palm wine cups and cosmetic boxes, but they are most famous for their monumental helmet masks, featuring exquisite geometric patterns, stunning fabrics, seeds, beads and shells.
The boxes, known as Kuba Boxes and called "ngedi mu ntey" by the Kuba, are generally used to hold "tukula" powder and paste. The boxes are usually in the shape of a square with a faceted lid, a semicircle (sometimes referred to as "half moon"), a rectangle or the shape of a mask. Sometimes they were used for holding razors for cutting raffia, hairpins or ritual objects.
"Tukula" (called "twool" by the Kuba) is a red powder made of ground cam wood. The color red is essential to the Kuba concept of beauty and was therefore used to ornament the face, hair and chest during dances and important ceremonies, as well as to anoint bodies for burial. "Tukula" was also mixed with other pigments to dye raffia cloth.
After 1700, King Misha mi-Shyaang a-Mbul introduced wooden sculptures called "ndop" figures that were carved to resemble the king and represent his individual reign. These figures always included the king's "ibol" or personal symbol, akin to a personal standard.
The carved palm-wine drinking cups and ornately carved boxes are identified with competition between titled court members among the Kuba. With half of all Bushoong men holding titles in the 1880s, competition for influence was sometimes fierce, and it found expression in the elaboration of these essentially commonplace household objects into works of extraordinary beauty.
Kuba religion and mythos.
The Kuba believed in Bumba the Sky Father who spewed out the sun, moon, stars, and planets. He also created life with the Earth Mother. However these were somewhat distant deities, and the Kuba placed more immediate concern in a supernatural being named Woot, who named the animals and other things. Woot was the first human and bringer of civilization. The Kuba are sometimes known as the "Children of Woot."


Kajara

Kajara was one of the six independent kingdoms which was established after the fall of the Kingdom of Mpororo in 1752. It was ruled by an Omukama. It became a part of the Kingdom of Ankole in 1901.


Agbowa-ikosi

Agbowa-Ikosi is an ancient town in the Nigerian state of Lagos. On it lies the second biggest asphalt concrete road in Nigeria.
History.
Agbowa-Ikosi started from a place known today as Egunbesawo. The town is divided into several districts ("Itun"); Aledo, Oriwu, Agbowa, Kosomi (no water) and Ehindi. Each district is governed by their chief-head known as "Olori Itun" and generally by a single head of the town known as the "Olu-Ilu", which was transformed into Baleeship and later to Kingship.
In 1956, His Royal Highness, Oba Edward Alausa Thomas OLUFUWA was crowned the first king of Agbowa-Ikosi, from the Oguntolu-Olufuwa Ruling House. Five houses agreed to rule over the town. While suburban villages such as Ikosi, IGBENE, Oko-Ito, Oke-Olisa, Gberigbe and others are governed by Baale (who reports to the paramount King with the title of “Abowa of Agbowa-Ikosi). Other chiefs who assisted the king are classified according to their grades such as Chief Olisa, who is the next in command to the king. Others are Chief Aro, Oluwo, Odofin and Balogun.
During the warring period, Agbowa-Ikosi was the headquarter of the then Ikosi District Council. It served as a refuge town for people from towns such as Imota, Ibefun, Ota and Owu. The people of Imota settled at Ago-Mota, Ibefun people at Ago-Ibefun, Ota people at Ago-Ota and Owu people at Ago-Owu. After the war, most refugees returned to their settlement. A few remained except for the people of Owu (majorly warriors), who promised not to cause Agbowa-Ikosi any trouble.
Geography.
Agbowa-Ikosi lies 35 kilometer north of Epe Division, on the south bank of a creek that extends parallel to the sea from Lagos to Ikorodu, with a mixture of indigenes and non-indigenes.
Some towns and villages surrounding Agbowa-Ikosi are: Ota-Ikosi, Ikosi Beach, Orugbo-Iddo, Igbalu, IGBENE, Oke-Olisa, Gberigbe, Oko-Ito, Imope, Imota, Odo Ayandelu Ado-Ikosi, Owu, Iganke etc.
Festival.
Agbowa-Ikosi is the first town within Epe division and Ijebuland that sets aside days for the celebration of the town and notable sons and daughters. This event is tagged Agbowa Day Celebration, and its coordinated by Agbowa Development Association (ADA)
Notables.
Agbowa-ikosi has been ruled by four rulers:
Economy.
The people are mostly farmers and fishermen, accompanied by other commercial activities.
Religion.
The people follow Christianity, Islam and traditional beliefs.


History of Fez

The History of Fez begins with its foundation by Idris I and Idris II at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century CE. It initially consisted of two autonomous and competing settlements on opposing shores of what is now known as the Oued Fes. Initially inhabited by a largely Berber (Amazigh) population, successive waves of mainly Arab immigrants from Ifriqiya (Tunisia) and al-Andalus (Spain/Portugal) over time gave the nascent city an Arab character as well. After the downfall of the Idrisid dynasty, it was contested between different Zenata groups allied with either the Fatimid Caliphate or the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. In the 11th century the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin conquered the region and united its two settlements into what is today the Fes el-Bali ("Old Fez") quarter. Under the rule of the Almoravids and of the Almohads after them, despite losing the status of capital to Marrakesh, the city remained the economic and political center of northern Morocco and gained a reputation for religious scholarship and mercantile activity.
Fez reached its zenith in the Marinid era (13th-15th centuries), regaining its status as political capital. In 1276 the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub also founded a separate royal city, Fes el-Jdid ("New Fes"), just west of Fes el-Bali, where the royal palace is still located today. Numerous new madrasas and mosques were constructed across Fez, many of which survive today, while other structures were restored. During this period the Jewish population of the city grew and the "Mellah" (Jewish quarter) was formed on the south side of this new district. After the overthrow of the Marinid dynasty, Fez underwent periods of decline and prosperity and often competed with Marrakesh for political and cultural influence. The city rose again in influence during the 19th century and remained the capital of the Alaouite sultanate until 1912, when it came under control of the French Protectorate in Morocco. The French colonial regime moved the capital to Rabat, where it remains today, and Fes underwent a political decline. The French also constructed a new city, the "Ville Nouvelle", to the southwest, which grew into what is now most of the modern city of Fez.
Foundation under the Idrisids (7th-8th centuries).
The city was first founded in 789 as "Madinat Fas" on the southeast bank of the Jawhar River (now known as the Fez River) by Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. His son, Idris II, built a settlement called "Al-'Aliya" on the opposing river bank in 809 and moved his capital here from Walili (Volubilis). These settlements ("Madinat Fas" and "Al-'Aliya") would soon develop into two walled and largely autonomous sites, often in conflict with one another. The early population was composed mostly of Berbers, along with hundreds of Arab warriors from Kairouan who made up Idris II's entourage.
Arab emigration to Fez increased afterwards, including Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent who were expelled from Córdoba in 817–818 after a rebellion against the Al-Hakam I as well as Arab families banned from Kairouan (modern Tunisia) after another rebellion in 824. The Andalusians mainly settled in "Madinat Fas", while the Tunisians found their home in "Al-'Aliya". These two waves of immigrants gave the city its Arabic character and would subsequently give their name to the districts of "'Adwat Al-Andalus" and "'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin". With the influx of Arabic-speaking Andalusians and Tunisians, the majority of the population was Arab, but rural Berbers from the surrounding countryside settled there throughout this early period, mainly in "Madinat Fas" (the Andalusian quarter) and later in Fes Jdid during the Marinid period. The city also had a strong Jewish community, probably consisting of Zenata Berbers who had previously converted to Judaism, as well as a small remaining Christian population for a time. The Jews were especially concentrated in a northeastern district of "Al-'Aliya" known as "Funduq el-Yihoudi" (near the later Bab Guissa).
The area benefitted from abundant water, and each of the two settlements was fully equipped with its own urban amenities. The first mosques of the city were the Mosque of the Sharifs (or Shurafa Mosque) and the Mosque of the Sheikhs (or al-Anouar Mosque); however, they no longer exist in their original form. The Mosque of the Sharifs became the burial site of Idris II upon his death and later evolved into the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II that exists today, while the al-Anouar Mosque has left only minor remnants. According to one of the major early sources on this period, the "Rawd al-Qirtas" by Ibn Abi Zar, in 859 the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque was founded by Fatima al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Her sister, Mariam, is likewise reputed to have founded the Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque the same year.
Upon the death of Idris II in 828, the dynasty's territory was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez, but some of his brothers attempted to break away from his leadership, resulting in an internecine conflict. Although the Idrisid realm was eventually reunified and enjoyed a period of peace under Ali ibn Muhammad and Yahya ibn Muhammad, it fell into decline again in the late 9th century.
Zenata domination and imperial rivalries (10th-11th centuries).
In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (Tunisia), who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients. The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrisids definitively, after which their Miknasa (one of the Zenata tribes) were installed there. The city, along with much of northern Morocco, continued to change hands between the proxies of Córdoba and the proxies of the Fatimids for many decades. Following another successful but ephemeral Fatimid takeover of Morocco in 979 by Buluggin ibn Ziri, the forces of Al-Mansur of Córdoba managed to retake the region again, expelling the Fatimids permanently.Despite the political instability of this era, notable contributions to the city's development were made. In 956 the Qarawiyyin Mosque was significantly expanded by the local Zenata governor, Ahmed ibn Abi Said, with funds provided by Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba. At the same time, both the Qarawiyyin Mosque and the Andalusiyyin Mosque were given new minarets, which appeared to be simplified versions of the minaret Abd al-Rahman III built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba during the same decade.
From 980 (or from 986), Fez was ruled by a Zenata dynasty from the Maghrawa tribe, who were allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. They maintained this control even after the Caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century and until the arrival of the Almoravids. Under Zenata control Fez continued to grow even though conflicts between its two settlements, "Madinat Fas" and "Al-'Aliya", flared up during periods of political rivalry. Ziri ibn Atiyya, the first ruler of the new dynasty, had a troubled reign. However, Ibn Atiyya's descendant Dunas ibn Hamama, ruling between 1037 and 1049, was responsible for many important infrastructural works necessary to accommodate Fez's growing population. He developed much of Fez's water distribution infrastructure, which has largely survived up to the present day. According to the tenth-century geographer, Ibn Hawqal, water was flushed into the suqs every summer night to clean the ground. The water was also transported to public baths and 300 mills. The city grew quickly and by the late 900s, it had about 100,000 inhabitants.
Other structures built in his time included hammams (bathhouses), mosques, and the first bridges over the Oued Bou Khareb (mostly rebuilt in later eras). Thus, the two cities became increasingly integrated into each other: the open space between the two was increasingly filled up by new houses and up to six bridges across the river allowed for easier traffic between the two shores. A decade after Dunas, however, between 1059 and 1061, the two opposing settlements of the city were ruled separately by two rival Zenata emirs: "Al-'Aliya" was controlled by an emir named Al-Guissa and "Madinat Fas" was controlled by Al-Foutouh. Both brothers fortified their respective shores, and their names have been preserved in two of the city's gates to this day: Bab Guissa in the north and Bab Ftouh in the south.
Fez under the Almoravids and Almohads (11th-13th centuries).
In 1069–1070 (or possibly a few years later), Fez was conquered by the Almoravids under Yusuf ibn Tashfin. In the same year of this conquest, Yusuf ibn Tashfin finally unified "Madinat Fas" and "Al-'Aliya" into one city. The walls dividing them were destroyed, bridges connecting them were built or renovated, and a new circuit of walls was constructed that encompassed both cities. A kasbah (citadel) was built at the western edge of the city (just west of Bab Bou Jeloud today) to house the city's governor and garrison. Under Almoravid patronage the largest expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin took place (1135–1143). Although the capital was moved to Marrakesh under the Almoravids, Fez acquired a reputation for Maliki legal scholarship and remained an important centre of trade and industry. Almoravid impact on the city's structure was such that Yusuf ibn Tashfin is sometimes considered to be the second founder of Fez.
In 1145 the Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min besieged and conquered the city during the Almohad overthrow of the Almoravids. Due to the ferocious resistance they encountered from the local population, the Almohads demolished the city's fortifications. However, due to Fez's continuing economic and military importance, the Almohad caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur ordered the reconstruction of the ramparts. Since the city had grown in the meantime, the new Almohad perimeter of walls was larger than that of the former Almoravid ramparts. The walls were completed by his successor Muhammad al-Nasir in 1204, giving them their definitive shape and establishing the perimeter of Fes el-Bali to this day. The Almohads built the Kasbah Bou Jeloud on the site of the former Almoravid kasbah and also built the first kasbah occupying the site of the current Kasbah an-Nouar. Not all the land within the city walls was densely inhabited; much of it was still relatively open and was occupied by crops and gardens used by the inhabitants. Under Almohad rule the city grew to become one of the largest in the world between 1170 and 1180, with an estimated 200,000 people living there.
Golden age under the Marinids (13th-15th centuries).
Fez regained its political status and became recognised as the capital during the Marinid dynasty, another Berber dynasty, between the 13th and 15th century. The Marinid leader Abu Yahya besieged and captured Fez in 1248, along with other cities, after defeating an Almohad army in eastern Morocco. The traditional urban population of the city was resistant to the rule of the nomadic Marinids, however, and rebelled again in 1250, although it failed to throw off Marinid control.
In 1276, following a violent revolt, the Sultan Abu Yusuf Ya'qub built an entirely new administrative city or royal citadel to the west of the old city, on higher ground overlooking it. This became known as Fes el-Jdid ("New Fes"), while the old city became known as Fes el-Bali ("Old Fez"). The new city included the royal palace of the sultans ("Dar al-Makhzen"), the administrative offices of the state, and the headquarters of the army. The city had its own main mosque, the Great Mosque, and its own set of fortified walls and gates. Most of its outer perimeter was protected by a set of double walls; a tall inner wall with heavy square towers at regular intervals and a smaller outer wall with minor towers. Its northern entrance, at the beginning of the road to Meknes, consisted of a fortified bridge (now the Old Mechouar) over the Oued Fes. Inside, the city was further subdivided into different districts, some of which, including the Dar al-Makhzen, had walls and gates separating them from the others. Another district, initially known as "Hims" and later converted into the Jewish "Mellah", was also added to the south. In 1287 Sultan Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (son of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub) created a vast pleasure garden, known as Al-Mosara, to the north, just outside the city but encompassed by its own protective wall. The gardens were watered via an aqueduct which drew water from the Oued Fes through an enormous "noria" or water wheel, approximately 26 meters in diameter, which was located on the west side of Bab Dekkakin. Although the gardens and the water wheel have since disappeared, traces of the former aqueduct are visible in the western wall of the New Mechouar today and also in the large octagonal towers of Bab Segma, one of the former gates to the garden.
Fez reached its golden age in the Marinid period. It is from this period that the city's reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates. The Marinid rulers established the first formal madrasas in Morocco here in the city. The madrasas became a hallmark of Marinid architecture, with its striking blending of Andalusian and Almohad traditions. Between 1271 and 1357 at least seven madrasas were built in Fez, which are considered among the best examples of Moroccan architecture and some of the most richly decorated monuments in Fez. The first of these was the Saffarin Madrasa in 1271, followed by the Sahrij Madrasa in 1321, the al-Attarine and Sba'iyin madrasas in 1323, and the Mesbahiya Madrasa in 1346. All of these madrasas were built near the Qarawiyyin or Andalusiyyin mosques and were designed to compliment those older institutions, in particular by providing housing for students from outside the city. Another madrasa was also built near the Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid in 1320, though this center never succeeded in rivaling the older educational centers in Fes el-Bali. The only truly independent madrasa (for a time) was the large Bou Inania Madrasa, commissioned by Sultan Abu Inan and completed in 1355, which also served as its own Friday mosque and was located in the western part of Fes el-Bali.
Meanwhile, many scholars consider that the high point of the Qarawiyyin as an intellectual and scholarly center was in the 13th-14th centuries, when the curriculum was at its broadest and its prestige had reached new heights after centuries of expansion and elite patronage. Among the subjects taught around this period or shortly after were traditional religious subjects such as the Qur'an and "Fiqh" (Islamic jurisprudence) as well as other sciences like grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and geography.
Ibn Khaldun, the famous historian and philosopher, spent time in Fez after 1354. He started as the secretary of Sultan Abu Inan but subsequently became involved in the intrigues of Marinid dynastic politics, spending time in jail at the end of Abu Inan's reign. Ibn Battuta also passed through the city on his way to Sijilmasa in the 14th century and described it in his writings. Ibn al-Khatib, the Andalusi poet and writer, also spent time here following his Nasrid master Muhammad V into exile for a few years between 1358 and 1362. After becoming embroiled in political intrigues in Granada he fled to North Africa again and was accused of heresy, eventually being put on trial in Fez and killed while in prison in 1375; his body was reportedly burnt in front of Bab Mahrouk and was buried in the nearby cemetery.
The Jewish quarter of Fez, the "Mellah", was created in Fes el-Jdid at some point during the Marinid period. The exact date and circumstances of its formation are not firmly established, but many scholars date the transfer of the Jewish population from Fes el-Bali to the new Mellah to the 15th century, a period of political tension and instability. In particular, Jewish sources describe the transfer as a consequence of the "rediscovery" of Idris II's body in the heart of the city in 1437, which caused the surrounding area – if not the entire city – to acquire a "holy" ("haram") status, requiring that non-Muslims be removed from the area. The Jewish community had initially consisted of indigenous local Jews but these were joined by Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula (known as the "Megorashim") in subsequent generations, especially after the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain. The ensuing waves of Spanish/Andalusi Jews migrating to Fez and North Africa increased the Jewish population in the city and also altered the community's social, ethnic, and linguistic makeup. The influx of migrants also revitalized Jewish cultural activity in the following years, while splitting the community along ethnic lines for many generations. The "Megorashim" of Spanish origin retained their heritage and their Spanish language while the indigenous Moroccan "Toshavim", who spoke Arabic and were of Arab and Berber heritage, followed their own traditions. Members of the two communities worshiped in separate synagogues and were even buried separately. It was only in the 18th century that the two communities eventually blended together, with Arabic eventually becoming the main language of the entire community while the Spanish (Sephardic) "minhag" became dominant in religious practice.
The 1465 Moroccan revolt in 1465 overthrew the last Marinid sultan. In 1472 the Wattasids, another Zenata dynasty which had previously served as viziers under the Marinid sultans, succeeded as rulers of Morocco from Fez. They faithfully (but for a large part unsuccessfully) continued Marinid policies.
Decline under the Saadians (16th and early 17th centuries).
In the 16th century the Saadians (or Saadis) rose to power in southern Morocco and challenged the Wattasids. In the meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire came close to Fez after the conquest of Algeria in the 16th century. In January 1549 the Saadian sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh took Fez and ousted the last Wattasid sultan Ali Abu Hassun. They later retook the city in 1554 with Ottoman support, but this reconquest was short-lived and later that same year the Wattasids were decisively defeated in the Battle of Tadla by the Saadians. The Ottomans would try to invade Morocco after the assassination of Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1558, but were stopped by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib at the battle of Wadi al-Laban north of Fez. Hence, Morocco remained the only North-African state to remain outside Ottoman control.
After the death of Abdallah al-Ghalib a new power struggle would emerge. Abd al-Malik, Abdallah's brother, enlisted Ottoman support and ousted his nephew Abu Abdullah from power in 1576. The latter would flee to Portugal where he asked king Sebastian of Portugal for help to regain his throne. This would lead to the Battle of Alcacer Quibir where Abd al-Malik's army would defeat the invading Portuguese army with the support of his Ottoman allies, ensuring Moroccan independence. Abd al-Malik himself also died during the battle and was succeeded by Ahmad al-Mansur.
The Saadians, who used Marrakesh again as their capital, did not lavish much attention on Fez, with the exception of the ornate ablutions pavilions added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque's courtyard during their time. It was likely during the Saadian period that the former royal gardens of the Marinids, the Mosara, fell into disuse and began to fade. Perhaps as a result of persistent tensions with the city's inhabitants, the Saadians built a number of new forts and bastions around the city which appear to have been aimed at keeping control over the local population. They were mostly located on higher ground overlooking Fes el-Bali, from which they would have been easily able to bombard the city with canons. These include the Kasbah Tamdert, just inside the city walls near Bab Ftouh, and the forts of Borj Nord ("Borj al-Shamali") on the hills to the north, Borj Sud ("Borj al-Janoub") on the hills to the south, and the Borj Sheikh Ahmed to the west, at a point in Fes el-Jdid's walls that was closest to Fes el-Bali. These were built in the late 16th century, mostly by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur. Two other bastions, Borj Twil and Borj Sidi Bou Nafa', were also built along Fes el-Jdid's walls south of Borj Sheikh Ahmed. The Borj Nord, Borj Sud, and these bastions (sometimes referred to as the "bastioun" in Arabic) of Fes el-Jdid are the only fortifications in Fez to demonstrate clear European (most likely Portuguese) influence in their design, updated to serve as defenses in the age of gunpowder. Some of them may have been built with the help of Christian European prisoners of war from the Saadians' victory over Portuguese at the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578.
After the long and impressive reign of Ahmad al-Mansur, the Saadian state fell into civil war between his sons and potential successors. Fez became a rival seat of power for a number of brothers vying against other family members ruling from Marrakesh and both cities changed hands multiple times until the internecine conflict finally ended in 1627. During this time, the inhabitants of the city had violent confrontations with the Chraga, an Arab tribe which the Saadians had installed in the surrounding countryside as a garrison force (known as a "guich" or "army" tribe). In 1611 the population of the city revolted and even massacred many of the Chraga in apparent retaliation against crimes committed by some of their members. Despite the reunification of the realm after 1627, the Saadians were in full decline and Fez had already suffered considerably from the repeated conquests and reconquests during the conflict. As the Saadian sultanate collapsed, both the city and the wider country descended into relative anarchy. The two shores of the city, the "'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin" and "'Adwat al-Andalusiyyin" (the latter now also known simply as "al-'Adwat"), fell into rivalries reminiscent of the city's early history, while new rivalries developed between different clans within the western ("Qarawiyyin") shore. Fes el-Jdid, which was the center of the official government, also struggled against Fes el-Bali, the old city. In 1649 the city was conquered by the Dala'iyya, a Berber federation from the Middle Atlas which won control over much of central Morocco at the time. The city was not receptive to them either, however, and for a brief period in 1651 they rebelled and invited Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Sharif, one of the early Alaouite sultans, to take control of the city.
Early Alaouite period (17th and 18th centuries).
It was only when the true founder of the future Alaouite state, Moulay Rashid, took Fez in 1666 that the city saw a revival and became the capital again, albeit briefly. Moulay Rashid set about restoring the city after a long period of neglect. He built the Kasbah Cherarda (also known as the Kasbah al-Khemis) to the north of Fes el-Jdid and of the Royal Palace in order to house a large part of his tribal troops. He also restored or rebuilt what became known as the Kasbah an-Nouar, which became the living quarters of his followers from the Tafilalt region (the Alaouite dynasty's ancestral home). For this reason, the kasbah was also known as the Kasbah Filala ("Kasbah of the people from Tafilalt"). Moulay Rashid also built a large new madrasa, the Cherratine Madrasa, in 1670. Upon his death in 1672 he was buried in the Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem, in the southern cemetery of the city outside Bab Ftouh.
After his death Fez underwent another dark period. Moulay Isma'il, his successor, apparently disliked the city – possibly due to a rebellion there in his early reign – and chose nearby Meknès as his capital instead. He also frequently imposed heavy taxes on the city's inhabitants and sometimes even forcibly transferred parts of its population to repopulate other cities in the country. Nonetheless, he did restore or rebuild some major monuments in the city, such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II.
After Isma'il's death things only worsened as Morocco plunged into anarchy and decades of conflict between his sons who vied to succeed him. Fez suffered particularly from repeated conflicts with the Udayas (or Oudayas), a "guich" tribe (vassal tribe serving as a garrison and military force) previously installed in the Kasbah Cherarda by Moulay Isma'il. Sultan Moulay Abdallah, who reigned intermittently during this period and used Fez as a capital, was initially welcomed in 1728–29 as an enemy of the Udayas, but relations between him and the city's population quickly soured due to his choice of governor. He immediately built a separate fortified palace in the countryside, Dar Dbibegh, where he resided instead. For nearly three more decades the city remained in more or less perpetual conflict with both the Udayas and the Alaouite sultans.
Starting with the reign of Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah, between 1757 and 1790, the country stabilized and Fez finally regained its fortunes. Although its status was partly shared with Marrakesh, it remained the capital of Morocco for the rest of the Alaouite period up to the 20th century. The Udayas, who had been a burden on the population of Fez, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power, and in 1760 Muhammad ibn Abdallah was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Udaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead.
There was a brief period of disorder under Moulay Yazid (ruled 1790–1792) and Moulay Slimane (ruled 1792–1822), with the sultans in Fez losing control of most of the rest of Morocco between 1790 and 1795. The reign of Moulay Yazid was especially disastrous in the city. The Udayas tribe was brought back to garrison the city. Most notably, during these two years he forced the entire Jewish community to move to an open area next to the Kasbah Cherarda, north side of Fes el-Jdid. The Mellah was occupied by tribal troops allied to the sultan, its main synagogue was replaced by a mosque, and the district itself was permanently reduced in size. It was only after the Moulay Yazid's death that the chief Muslim "qadi" (judge) of Fez ordered the Mellah to be restored to the Jewish community, along with the demolition of the mosque built by Yazid's troops.
Otherwise, however, the city benefitted from a long era of relative peace. It remained a major economic center of the region even during troubled times. The Alaouites continued to rebuild or restore various monuments, as well as to expand the grounds of the Royal Palace a number of times. The sultans and their entourage also became more and more closely associated with the elites of Fez and other urban centers, with the "ulama" (religious scholars) of Fez being particularly influential. After Moulay Slimane's death powerful Fassi families became the main players of the country's political and intellectual scene. After another episode of troubles in 1820, his successor Abd al-Rahman expelled the Udayas from Fez permanently in 1824.
Prosperity and growth in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), had its spiritual center in Fez after al-Tijani moved here from Algeria in 1789. The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa and its "ulama" had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fez and beyond. Until the 19th century the city was also the only manufacturing center of fezzes (also known as the "tarboosh"). The fortunes of the Jewish community also improved considerably in the 19th century when the expansion of contact and trade with Europe allowed the Jewish merchant class to place themselves at the center of international trade networks in Morocco. This also led to a greater social openness and a shift in tastes and attitudes, especially among richer Jews, who built luxurious residences in the upper Mellah. Likewise, rich Muslim families and elites built their own grand mansions, especially in the garden districts of "al-'Uyun" in southwestern part of Fes el-Bali. Examples from the late 19th century and early 20th century include the Dar Moqri, Dar Glaoui, Dar Mnebhi and Dar Jama'i.
The last major change to Fez's topography before the 20th century was made during the reign of Moulay Hasan I (1873-1894), who finally connected Fes el-Jdid and Fes el-Bali by building a walled corridor between them. Within this new corridor, between the two cities, were built new gardens and summer palaces used by the royals and the capital's high society, such as the Jnan Sbil Gardens and the Dar Batha palace. Moulay Hassan also expanded the old Royal Palace itself, extending its entrance up to the current location of the Old Mechouar while adding the New Mechouar, along with the Dar al-Makina, to the north. This had the consequence of also splitting the Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood to the northwest from the rest of Fes el-Jdid.
Fez played a central role in the "Hafidhiya", the brief civil war that erupted when Sultan Abd al-Hafid challenged his heavily Europe-allied brother Abdelaziz for the throne. A few years later the French Colonel Charles Émile Moinier arrived in Fez in 1911 and established itself at Dar Dbibegh. Moinier established himself in Fez and protected Sultan Abd al-Hafid from threats, including the pretension of Ahmed al-Hiba, son of Ma al-'Aynayn, to the sultanate.
French colonial rule (1912–1956).
In 1912 French colonial rule was instituted over Morocco following the Treaty of Fes. One immediate consequence was the 1912 riots in Fez, a popular uprising which included deadly attacks targeting Europeans as well as native Jewish inhabitants in the Mellah, followed by an even deadlier repression. Fez and its Dar al-Makhzen ceased to be the center of power in Morocco as the capital was moved to Rabat, which remained the capital even after independence in 1956.
A number of social and physical changes took place at this period and across the 20th century. Starting under French resident general Hubert Lyautey, one important policy with long-term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic walled cities in Morocco and to intentionally preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as "medinas". Instead, the French administration built new modern cities (the "Villes Nouvelles") just outside the old cities, where European settlers largely resided with modern Western-style amenities. This was part of a larger "policy of association" adopted by Lyautey which favoured various forms of indirect colonial rule by preserving local institutions and elites, in contrast with other French colonial policies that had favoured "assimilation". The existence today of a "Ville Nouvelle" ("New City") alongside a historic "medina" in Fez was thus a consequence of this early colonial decision-making. The "Ville Nouvelle" also became known as "Dar Dbibegh" by Moroccans, as the former palace of Moulay Abdallah was located in the same area. The French administration did still build some new structures in the old city, often emulating the local Moroccan style, such as the now iconic Bab Bou Jeloud gate in 1913.
The creation of the separate French "Ville Nouvelle" to the west had a wider impact on the entire city's development. While new colonial policies preserved historic monuments, it also had other consequences in the long-term by stalling urban development in these heritage areas. Scholar Janet Abu-Lughod has argued that these policies created in Morocco a kind of urban "apartheid" between the indigenous Moroccan urban areas – which were forced to remain stagnant in terms of urban development and architectural innovation – and the new planned cities which were mainly inhabited by Europeans and which expanded to occupy lands formerly used by Moroccans outside the city. This separation was partly softened, however, by wealthy Moroccans who started moving into the "Ville Nouvelles" during this period. By contrast, the old city (medina) of Fez was increasingly settled by poorer rural migrants from the countryside.
Fez also played a role in the Moroccan nationalist movement and in protests against the French colonial regime. Many Moroccan nationalists received their education at the Al-Qarawiyyin University and some of their informal political networks were established thanks to this shared educational background. In July 1930, the Al-Qarawiyyin's students and other inhabitants participated in protests against the Berber Dahir decreed by the French authorities in May of that year. In 1937 the Al-Qarawiyyin mosque and R'cif Mosque were some of the rallying points for demonstrations in response to a violent crackdown on Moroccan protesters in the nearby city of Meknes, which ended with French troops being deployed across Fes el-Bali and at the mosques themselves. Towards the end of World War II, Moroccan nationalists gathered in Fez to draft a demand for independence which they submitted to the Allies on January 11, 1944. This resulted in the arrest of nationalist leaders followed by the violent suppression of protests across many cities, including Fez.
After independence and up to present-day (after 1956).
After Morocco regained its independence in 1956 many of the trends begun under colonial rule continued and accelerated during the second half of the 20th century. Much of Fez's bourgeois classes moved to the growing metropolises of Casablanca and the capital, Rabat. The Jewish population was particularly depleted, either moving to Casablanca or emigrating to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. Although the population of the city grew, it did so only slowly up until the late 1960s, when the pace of growth finally accelerated. Throughout this period (and up to today) Fez nonetheless remained the country's third largest urban center. Between 1971 and 2000, the population of the city roughly tripled from 325,000 to 940,000. The "Ville Nouvelle" became the locus of further development, with new peripheral neighbourhoods – with inconsistent housing quality – spreading outwards around it. In 1963 the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was reorganized as a state university, while a new public university, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, was founded in 1975 in the "Ville Nouvelle". In 1981, the old city, consisting of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid, was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
During this period, however, Moroccans were also subject to serious social inequalities and economic precarity, particularly under the repressive reign of King Hassan II (known as the Years of Lead). Austerity measures led to several riots and uprisings across other cities during the 1980s. In 1990 the population of Fez broke into protest and rioting in turn, led by university students and youths. The events began with a strike called to demand an increase to minimum wage and other measures. The death of one of the students further inflamed protests, resulting in buildings being burned and looted, particularly symbols of wealth such as the "Hôtel des Mérinides", a luxury hotel overlooking Fes el-Bali and dating to the time of Lyautey. While the official death toll was 5 people, the New York Times reported a toll of 33 people and quoted an anonymous source claiming the real death toll was likely higher. The government denied reports that the deaths were due to the intervention of security forces and armored vehicles.
Today Fez remains a regional capital and one of Morocco's most important cities. Many of the former notable families of Fez still make up a large part of the country's political elite. It is also a major tourism destination due to its historical heritage. In recent years efforts have been underway to restore and rehabilitate the old medina, ranging from the restoration of individual monuments to attempts to rehabilitate the Fez River.


Raul Pires Ferreira Chaves

Raúl Pires Ferreira Chaves (27 May 1889 – 18 August 1967) was a Portuguese civil engineer and inventor. A graduate of the Instituto Superior Técnico of Lisbon, he lived and primarily worked in Portugal, Portuguese Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau).
He invented and patented the "Sistema e material MURUS", a precursor to modern construction systems based on modular blocks, and a contribution to the evolution of the concept of prefabrication. He utilised these materials in many of his construction projects.
Biography.
Raúl Pires Ferreira Chaves was born in the city of Faro, Portugal. He was the son of Joaquim Manuel Ferreira Chaves and Maria Antónia Pires Ferreira Chaves. His brothers were Olímpio Ferreira Chaves and João Carlos Pires Ferreira Chaves, his sister was Maria Alexandrina Pires Ferreira Chaves. He was later married to Elvira da Conceição Ribeiro Ferreira Chaves and had four sons. He was diplomat in Civil Engineering at the High Technical Institute.
In 1915, he moved to Cape Verde with his mother. He lived in the island of Maio and Santo Antão until 1926. He also lived with his first three sons.
From 1926 to 1932, he was director of public works in Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau). He returned to Portuguese Guinea in 1940 and added a factory which made MURUS material system at a great scale. He was also president of the Industrial, Commercial and Agricultural Association of Portuguese Guinea. When he was president, he did architectural works mainly in Bissau including the Bissau Chamber of Commerce completed in 1958.
He attended the São Vicente Lyceum in Mindelo, Cape Verde, he was professor there.
He was Director of Public Works in Cape Verde. He executed various projects to improve habitability and contributed to the development of the archipelago, including the discovery and exploitation of fresh water in submarine sources on the island of Sal.
Also on the island, one of the buildings and plans he designed was the Sal International Airport (now Amílcar Cabral International Airport and Farol da Ponta Norte in the north of the island with its second tower built in 1941. Outside the island, he made an obelisk and an urban plan at Praça 5 do Outubro in the city of Praia.
With the same material project, he constructed different infrastructures including houses, aqueducts, irrigation canals, cisters and bridges. The Portuguese State processed the "MURUS Material System" for use in public work projects, in Cape Verde, in favor of more expensive solutions.
In 1940, he returned to what was Portuguese Guinea, he built a factory which made MURUS material and system at a large scale. Later he was President of the Industrial, Commercial and Agricultural Association of (Portuguese) Guinea.
He made a competition to get the architectural project of a new seat, the "Commercial Chamber of Bissau", started in 1958, which became the most qualified architectural achievement in the city of Bissau. The project was displayed at an exposition in Lisbon at the General Exposition of Plastic Arts (Exposições Gerais de Artes Plásticas) of the National Fine Arts Society (Sociedade Nacional de Belas-Artes), during their colonial war of independence, it became the offices of the PAIGC, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde.
He is still remembered in Guinea-Bissau by his suggestive nickname "Engineer Baga-baga"
He was an inspiration to the protagonist "Doutor Virgolino" ("Dr. Vlrgolino") in the children's book "Animais, esses desconhecidos” by Maria Helena da Costa Dias, illustrated by Tóssan, based on a true story.
He was also possibly in some Portuguese newspapers in the former colonies, numerous references to his person and his work.
He came back to Lisbon in the early 1960s. He died in August 1967.


Oba Abdulwasiu Omogbolahan Lawal

 His Royal Majesty, Oba Abdulwasiu Omogbolahan Lawal, Abisogun II (born 24th July, 1970), is the 15th Oniru of Iruland. He was born to late Chief Taoreed Lawal Akapo, the Ojora of Lagos (1977-1993) and Olori Muinat Olabisi Abeni Ajasa. He is from the Ojora, Aromire, Shokun and Abisogun branch of Oniru royal families of Lagos State. He became the 15th Oniru of Iruland on the 7th of June 2020 after the death of Oba Idowu Oniru (Akiogun II) in September 2019. He was presented with the staff of Office by Governor Babajide Sanwo-Olu on the 7th of June. 2020. Prior to his enthronement, he was the Commissioner for Agriculture in Lagos State.
Early Life & Education.
HRM Oba Wasiu Gbolahan was born on the 24th of July 1970, to Chief Taoreed Lawal-Akapo, who was the Ojora of Lagos from 1977 to 1993 and Alhaja Muinat Olabisi Abeni Ajasa Lawal-Akapo. He attended Holy Trinity Primary School Ebute-Ero from 1976 to 1982 and St. Gregory College Ikoyi from 1982 to 1987 where he obtained his Ordinary Level Certificate from the West African Examinations Council. He proceeded to the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State from September 1988 to September 1992 where he obtained B.Sc (Hons) in Botany.
He then proceeded to the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, for his M.Sc. in Violence, Conflict and Development. He then received an Executive MSc in Cities from London School of Economics and Political Science in 2020, and took a certificate course on Jobs for a Globalizing World: World Bank Labor Market Policy Global Course at the World Bank Institute, in April 2010. He also took part in a Programme for Senior Executives in National and International Security: Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, in September 2006, Strategies for Managing Public Private Partnership: European Centre of Advanced & Professional Studies (ECAPS), Cambridge in November 2011. He also attended the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania where he took courses on Housing Finance in a changing Global Environment, (International Housing Finance Program) in July 2015 and Wharton Advanced Management Programme (AMP) in June 2018.
Career.
From October 1992 to September 1993, he participated in the mandatory one year National Youth Service Corps at Federal Capital Development Authority, in Abuja. From July 1994 to July 1996 he worked at the Raw Materials Research and Development Council, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology. He enlisted in the Nigeria Police Force in August 1996 and was commissioned as Assistant Superintendent of Police by the Nigeria Police Academy. In October 2008, he retired as Superintendent of Police.
In June 1999, he was appointed Aide-de-camp/Escort Commander to the then Governor of Lagos State, Bola Tinubu, and served until 2007 when f Tinubu ended histenure as governor. He was appointed Senior Special Assistant (Special Projects) to Lagos State Governor, Babatunde Fashola from December 2008 to July 2011.

He was reappointed into the cabinet of Governor Babatunde Fashola in July 2011 as the Commissioner for Agriculture and Cooperatives. Governor Akinwunmi Ambode came into office in 2015 and appointed Lawal as the Commissioner for Housing. He was the Commissioner, Lagos State Ministry of Agriculture under the government of Babajide Sanwo-Olu from August 2019 to June 2020.
Selection and Coronation.
After the death of the 14th Oniru of Iruland, Oba Idowu Abiodun Oniru (Akiogun II) in September 2019, a search began for the new monarch. According to traditions of Iruland, selection for a successor usually begins 41 days after the death of the Oniru. Names of princes from the royal families were submitted for selection and Prince Gbolahan Abdulwasiu Lawal was chosen the 15th Oniru of Iruland. The other princes in line for the throne were Prince Hakeem Ajasa, a serving police officer and Chief Security Officer to Speaker of the House of Representatives, Femi Gbajabiamila, and Aremo Adesegun Oniru, a former Commissioner for Waterfront and Infrastructure in Lagos State. Hakeem Ajasa is from the Abisogun house while Adesegun Oniru is the first son of the 14th Oniru.

On the 5th of June 2020, Abdulwasiu Omogbbolahan Lawal was selected as the King. Babajide Sanwo-Olu, Governor of Lagos State presented the staff of office to Oba Abdulwasiu Omogbbolahan Lawal, Abisogun II on the 7th of June 2020 as the 15th Oniru of Iruland. After the presentation of the staff of office by the Governor, he proceeded on a three-month immersion in customary rites and emerged in the Iru palace for his coronation as the 15th Oba of Iruland.

His coronation took place on the 6th of September 2020 at the Iru Palace in Victoria Island, Lagos. In attendance were Oba Adeyeye Enitan Ogunwusi (Ojaja II), the Ooni of Ife, Oba Saheed Ademola Elegushi (Kusenla III) and APC National Leader, Asiwaju Bola Ahmed Tinubu. The Governor of Lagos State, Babajide Sanwo-Olu was represented by his deputy Dr. Obafemi Hamzat.


Josaiah Ndubuisi Wachuku

Josaiah Ndubuisi Wachuku (also spelled Josiah Wachukwu) was king, paramount chief, servant leader and Eze of Ngwa-land – in the then Aba Division of Eastern Nigeria – during British colonial times.
He was the father of Jaja Wachuku, the first Nigerian speaker of the House of Representatives of Nigeria, the first Nigerian ambassador and permanent representative to the United Nations, and first Nigerian minister of foreign affairs.
He was the grandfather of Chuku Wachuku, a United States-educated Nigerian economist and management specialist, and Nwabueze Nwokolo, a United Kingdom based lawyer.


Operation Boris

Operation Boris was a British plan for military intervention in Zanzibar following the 1964 revolution. It was devised around 20 February to be used if the radical left-wing Umma Party attempted to take power. It replaced the earlier sea-based Operation Parthenon with a parachute assault launched from Kenya. However the operation was not required and was jeopardised by the lack of co-operation from the Kenyan government and populace for an attack on Zanzibar. Boris was replaced by Operation Finery, an amphibious helicopter assault, on 9 April 1964.
Objectives.
Operation Boris was intended as an intervention to be implemented if the radical left-wing Umma Party attempted to seize control of the Revolutionary Council from President Abeid Karume's more moderate Afro-Shirazi Party. The British believed that this could be accomplished if the Umma Party gained the support of John Okello, leader of the recent revolution and Field Marshal of country's military forces. Operation Boris was designed as a replacement for, Operation Parthenon, an earlier plan that would depend on a force of Royal Navy vessels acting as the start point for an assault. Boris had been devised around 20 February 1964, when the British government was informed that communist bloc troops may have helped to train the Zanzibar revolutionaries and that a new mix of troops would be better suited to an assault.
Plan.
The British had identified Unguja, Zanzibar's southern island, as the main base of revolutionary power, whilst Pemba, to the north, was less affected. Thus Operation Boris would commence with a parachute assault on Unguja's airfield, launched from pre-existing British airfields in Kenya, with troops securing Unguja before repeating the tactic on Pemba. However the success of Boris was not assured as it was recognised by the planners that any unilateral intervention by Britain against Zanzibar would cause a "strong adverse reaction" in Kenya. Britain had previously informed Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika that if they requested British intervention in Zanzibar then it would be forthcoming but no such requests were received. Furthermore, the Kenyan government had stated that its clearance for British troops to move freely in Kenya did not extend to any intervention in Zanzibar. In any case the security of British forces in Kenya could not be guaranteed if there was local opposition to the intervention and Zanzibari forces would likely be informed of any impending attack by sympathetic Kenyans. With this in mind the Defence Council replaced Boris on 9 April with Operation Finery, an amphibious helicopter assault.


Buima

Buima was a Basoga chiefdom in what is today Uganda. It was founded before 1818 and lasted until the end of the nineteenth century.


Battle of Dioubouldou

The Battle of Dioubouldou (sometimes spelled Jubuldu, Dioubouldy or Dybuldu) was fought on 25 February 1855 between French forces of Colonel Louis Faidherbe and the combined Waalo and Trarza forces under Queen Ndaté Yalla Mbodj.
Background.
Although they were historical enemies, relations between Waalo and Trarzas had recently got a bit warmer when Mohamed El-Habib married the sister of Queen Ndaté. Together, they started challenging the growing influence of the French in the vicinity of Saint-Louis.
In January 1855, Queen Ndaté sent an imperious letter to French governor Louis Faidherbe, ordering him to evacuate the outskirts of Saint-Louis immediatly. In response, Faidherbe gathered troops and local volunteers and departed from Saint-Louis in order to march on N'Der, the village of Queen Ndaté.
Battle.
On 25 February, the French column, composed of 400 regulars, 400 volunteers from Saint-Louis and a platoon of colonial cavalry, met with the Waalo-Trarza army near a wood in the plain of Dioubouldou, not far from N'Der. Queen Ndaté's forces had been waiting here for French. Trarza cavalry was positioned at the center, while Waalo infantry was disposed on each sides of the cavalry. A large number of Waalo warriors were also hidden in the field of tall grass that separated the French from the Waalo-Trarza army.
Colonel Faidherbe started by firing some artillery rounds on the field, which caused great disorder in Waalo ranks. He then sent a company of marines under Captain Benoit and a group of volunteers led by a man named Amadou Sar to attack the warriors in the grass. Meanwhile the French rearguard, which consisted in a company of marines under Captain Bruyas, easily repulsed an attempt at envelopment by Trarza cavalry. French cavalry was then sent against the retreating Waalo warriors, turning their flight into a complete rout.
Aftermath.
Following the rout of the Waalo-Trarza army, Queen Ndaté fled to Cayor with her followers. French forces captured the village of N'Der, residence of Queen Ndaté and de facto capital of the Waalo Kingdom, which had been deserted by its inhabitants. The volunteers thoroughly looted the deserted village, which was then set on fire. Several nearby villages were also looted, and the French column eventually went back home to Saint-Louis with a large booty of over 2,000 cows and oxen, 50 donkeys and 30 horses.


Slavery in Seychelles

Abolition of slavery in Seychelles was a gradual process that became increasingly powerful in the early nineteenth century and finalized in 1835.
Slavery.
Slaves in the Seychelles were placed in four broad categories. Firstly there were the Creoles (the largest group), those of mixed African and European blood who were brought from Mauritius and had children born on the island; they were often regarded as superior in intellect.
Abolition.
The Anti-Slavery movement in Seychelles led by William Wilberforce grew in power in the early 19th century. The civil administrator at the time, Mylius recalled that on Emancipation Day on February 11 the freed slaves responded with "peaceable demonstrations of joy".


Holland Car

Holland Car PLC (ኔዘርላንድ መኪና) was an Ethiopian CKD automobile assembler with official head offices in the "Getu Commercial Center" and the "TK International Building" in Addis Ababa. Its general manager was Tadesse Tessema Alemu, and the company had 200 full-time employees and a fluctuating number of part-time ones. The firm was declared in bankruptcy at FY2014.
Overview.
Holland Car operated with two plants. Its main plant was located in Mojo. The second assembly plant was opened in the late 2008 under the name Cassiopeia Assembly Factory and is located in Tatek.
Holland Car was founded in 2005, as a joint-venture between the Trento Engineering BV and Ethio-Holland PLC, an Ethiopian importer of used Lada automobiles from the Netherlands. Its first product was the Holland DOCC (Dutch Overseas Car Company) which is a rebadged Tofaş Şahin. Beginning in 2007, Holland Car assembled the Lifan 520 as the Holland Abay, but the relationship with the Chinese Lifan Group was ended in 2009. Holland Car claims that the Chinese company attempted to take control of its Ethiopian partner, while Lifan states that the reason for the termination was that sales did not meet expectations. In 2009, the company started a new joint-venture with JAC Motors. New products in 2009 were the Holland Tekeze, the Holland Abay Executive and the Holland Awash Executive. The newest product of Holland Car is the Shebelle, first released in 2010.
In 2009 Holland Car was the winner of the Africa’s Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises Award in the category of most innovative company, and the Overall winner of the 2009 Africa SMME of the year.
Zemen Bank Distances Itself from Access, Holland Car Creditors, "Addis Fortune", April 4, 2013</ref>


Bokar Biro

Bokar Biro Barry (or Boubacar Biro) (died 13 November 1896) was the last independent ruler of the Imamate of Futa Jallon in what is now Guinea. He died in the Battle of Porédaka, when his forces were destroyed by French artillery.
Background.
The Imamate of Futa Jallon was one of the last independent states in Senegambia, in the highlands where the Gambia River and Senegal River both rise.
It was established as a theocratic state in a "jihad" launched in 1725 by Karamokho Alfa, and consolidated by his successor Ibrahim Sori.
The state was a loose federation of nine provinces, each headed by chief.
Two political factions emerged, the "Alfaya" and "Soriya", supporters of the descendants of the first two rulers. A power sharing arrangement evolved under which the position of "almami", the head of state, was alternately filled by an "Alfaya" or "Soriya" candidate.
By the late nineteenth century the French were the dominant colonial power in the region, and were increasingly impatient with the Futa Jallon's hostility.
They were angry with the support Futa Jallon was giving to Samori Ture's Wassoulou Empire, which was also resisting French control.
In 1889 the British made a treaty with the French that recognized that Futa Jallon was within the French sphere.
However, the British in Freetown, Sierra Leone, continued to give subsidies to Futa Jallon until 1895.
Almami of Futa Jallon.
Bokar Biro belonged to the Soriya faction. His base was Timbo, the capital of the Futa Jallon federation.
In 1890, the long reign of the "Almami" Ibrahima Sori Dongolfella ended with his death, triggering a power struggle.
The Council of Elders selected Bokar Biro's elder brother as ruler.
Bokar Biro took power in a coup after assassinating his brother, and began placing men loyal to him in positions of authority.
Bokar Biro had to cope with struggles between the "Alfaya" and "Soriya" political factions, and attempts by the rulers of the Labé, Timbi and Fugumba provinces to obtain more autonomy. Also, both slaves and ordinary free people were leaving the country for the less oppressive French-controlled zones.
In July 1892 Bokar Biro was forced to cede power to Amadu of the "Alfaya" faction. He assumed power once again in June 1894. Some of the chiefs asked for French help to overthrow him. The "Alfa" Yaya of Labé began maneuvering for full independence of his province.
On 13 December 1895 the disgruntled chiefs led by Modi Abdoullaye Dhokhiré attacked and defeated Bokar Biro at Bantignel, and he only narrowly managed to escape.
Several weeks later, when most people thought that Bokar Biro was dead, he emerged at Keebu, on the western border of the Timbi province, whose chief gave him assistance in returning to Timbo.
He managed to assemble a new army of 1,500 soldiers with which he defeated his enemies on 2 February 1896. The main chiefs went into hiding.
French intervention.
At the end of 1894 the French sent Raoul de Beeckman as their representative to meet with Bokar Biro and arrange a treaty.
By March 1895 de Beeckman had spent almost three months on the border of Futa Jallon and was giving up hope of arranging a meeting.
Without authorization, the French administrator crossed the border and attacked the village of Nanso, near Demukulima, which he accused of having looted a caravan belonging to a French ally. One of the village elders was killed. This incident fueled the hostility of Bokar Biro, who accused the French of a series of hostile actions, including suppression of the trade in slaves with the Sudan, and refusal to return runaway slaves.
He was also suspicious of visits to Futa Jallon by French agents on the pretext of trading or making topographical studies,
which he thought were in preparation for military intervention.
De Beeckman returned to Futa Jallon the next year.
On 18 March 1896 de Beeckman arrived at Timbo, the Futa Jallon capital, with a detachment of troops. The French demanded the right to build roads through Futa Jallon, to instal a representative in Timbo, to vet all appointments of provincial chiefs and a trade monopoly.
Bokar Biro resisted, but eventually pretended to sign a treaty in order to get the French out of the way while he dealt with his opponents.
When the treaty document was examined in Saint Louis, it turned out that in place of his signature Bokar Biro had written "Bismillah", meaning "in the name of God".
Once it was clear that Bokar Biro did not intend to yield to French demands, they decided to resort to armed force if necessary once the rainy season had passed. The French troops temporarily withdrew to Sangoya.
Bokar Biro treated the French withdrawal as a victory. He initiated an aggressively anti-French policy.
When his term as "Almami" came to an end in April 1896 he refused to hand over office.
The power struggle escalated, with violent incidents, coming close to outright civil war, with calls for assistance reaching the French in September and October.
The French decided the time had come to make their move, breaking up Futa Jallon into smaller client states, with their ally Umar Bademba as "Almami" of what remained of the Timbo-based state.
Death.
Troops were dispatched from Senegal, Guinea and the Sudan, converging on Futa Jallon.
A French column captured Timbo on 3 November 1896. Bokar Biro was unable to enlist the support of the chiefs in resisting the French. On 13 November 1896 Bokar Biro fought a pitched battle on the plain of Porédaka. The French artillery destroyed his army. A poet who described the battle said that Bokar Biro kept his word. He did not flee from the French, but was killed by the blast of the cannon.
In fact, Bokar Biro managed to escape but was soon captured by some soldiers of his enemy, Sori Illili, and was decapitated.
Bokar Biro's son died with him.
With Bokar Biro's death, the French assumed a protectorate. In June 1897 Ernest Noirot, a former set designer for the Folies Bergère, became administrator and started a program to eliminate slavery.
In 1904 the French removed the power of the chiefs. In 1905 they arrested Bokar Biro's arch rival Alfa Yaya and sent him into exile.
References.
Citations
Sources