Ludwig Kaas

Ludwig Kaas (23 May 1881 – 15 April 1952) was a German Roman Catholic priest and politician of the Centre Party during the Weimar Republic. He was instrumental in brokering the Reichskonkordat between the Holy See and the German Reich.
Early career.
Born in Trier, Kaas was ordained a priest in 1906 and studied history and Canon law in Trier and Rome. In 1906 he completed a doctorate in theology and in 1909 he obtained a second doctorate in philosophy. In 1910 he was appointed rector of an orphanage and boarding school near Koblenz. Until 1933, he devoted his spare time to scholarly pursuits. In 1916 he published the book "Ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Catholic Church in Prussia" ("Die geistliche Gerichtsbarkeit der katholischen Kirche in Preußen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Wesens der Monarchie"), demonstrating his expertise in church history, Canon law and his political interests. In 1918 he requested to be sent to a parish, but Michael Felix Korum of Trier refused and instead appointed him professor of canon law at the Trier seminary in 1918. In that position, he published the study "Missing in war and remarriage in state law and canon law" ("Kriegsverschollenheit und Wiederverheiratung nach staatlichen und kirchlichen Recht"), dealing with remarriage in case of spouses missing in war. In 1919 he was offered the chair for canon law at the university of Bonn and was initially inclined to accept it, but as he did not find the conditions in Bonn to his liking and after consultation with Bishop Korum he refused the offer.
Entry into politics.
Distressed by the revolution, Kaas also decided to engage in politics and joined the Centre Party. In 1919 he was elected to the Weimar National Assembly and in 1920 to the Reichstag, of which he was a member until 1933. He was also elected to the Prussian state council, the representation of Prussia's provinces. As a parliamentarian Kaas specialized in foreign policy. From 1926 to 1930 he was a German delegate to the League of Nations.
Kaas considered himself a "Rhenish Patriot" and advocated the creation of a Rhineland state within the framework of the German Reich. In 1923, a year of crisis, he – just like Konrad Adenauer, then mayor of Cologne – fought the separatists that wanted to break away the Rhineland from Germany. Despite French occupation, he sought reconciliation with France and voiced this desire in a famous Reichstag speech on 5 December 1923.
Despite personal reservations towards the Social Democrats (SPD), he developed a cordial relationship with President Friedrich Ebert and willingly acknowledged the SPD's accomplishments after 1918. Kaas supported foreign minister Stresemann's policy of reconciliation and denounced nationalist agitation against this policy - agitation he considered to be irresponsible.
Advisor to the Nuncio Pacelli.
In 1920, Eugenio Pacelli, the Papal Nuncio to Bavaria, was also appointed Nuncio to Germany. In view of this new position, he asked Cardinal Adolf Bertram of Breslau, to provide him with experts who might serve as a link between the Nuncio in Munich and the Prussian bishops. Bertram suggested Kaas, who in his academic work had developed a special interest in the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.
The workload as a professor, a parliamentarian and as advisor to the Nuncio strained Kaas's energies. Though Kaas tried to convince himself that his primary obligation was to his own diocese, it was his academic post that always came out last. In 1922 he was prepared to resign his chair, but Bertram and Pacelli insisted that he should stay until he had obtained a secure position within the diocese that would not hinder his external commitments. Bertram, following Pacelli's wishes, proposed to the new bishop of Trier, Franz Rudolf Bornewasser, to make Kaas a cathedral canon, but the bishop refused. An angry Kaas announced he would give up all his other commitments and concentrate on his academic work, but eventually he was reconciled to Bornewasser. On 1 April 1924, Kaas was appointed to the Cathedral chapter.
Bishop Bornewasser had allowed Kaas to keep his parliamentary seat until September 1924, but expected him to resign it afterwards and concentrate on his administrative and academic work within the diocese. However, as Pacelli asked the bishop not to insist on this as it would "substantially hinder the hitherto influential work of Dr. Kaas and damage an effective representation of ecclesiastical interests in a deplorable way". Bornewasser, though legally in a stronger position, yielded to these considerations of expediency and did not press his demand again. In the same year, Kaas resigned from his academic chair.
Pascalina Lehnert, writing after Pacelli had already become Pope Pius XII, described the relationship between Kaas and Pacelli in the following words:
In 1925, as Pacelli was also appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Prussia and moved his office to Berlin, the cooperation between Pacelli and Kaas became even closer. Out of this involvement grew a formal but close and lasting friendship, which remained one of the basic factors throughout Kaas's life. In this position Kaas contributed to the successful conclusion of the Prussian Concordat negotiations with Prussia in 1929.
After this achievement, Pacelli was called back to the Vatican to be appointed Cardinal Secretary of State. Pacelli asked Kaas, who had accompanied him on his travel, to stay in Rome but Kaas declined because of his ecclesiastical and political duties in Germany. Nonetheless, Kaas would frequently travel to Rome, where he would stay with Pacelli, and experience first hand the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty, which he penned an article on. In 1931 and 1932 continued as an advisor in negotiations for a Reichskonkordat; that, however, came to nothing.
In 1929, Kaas published a volume of Nuncio Pacelli's speeches. In the introduction, he described him as: “Angelus not nuntius, ... his impressive personality, his sacerdotal words, the popularity he generated in public meetings"
Kaas as party chairman.
Without being a candidate, September 1928 Kaas was elected chairman of the Centre Party, in order to mediate the tension between the party's wings and to strengthen their ties with the Bishops. Under Kaas' watch, the Centre began drifting steadily rightward. Much of his time was occupied in arranging a Reich-wide Concordat. This work made him increasingly distrustful of democracy, and he eventually concluded that only authoritarian rule could protect the interests of the church.
From 1930 onwards, Kaas loyally supported the administration under the Centre's Heinrich Brüning, who served as the leader of the party's Reichstag faction due to Kaas' frequent travel to the Vatican. In 1932 he campaigned for the re-election of President Paul von Hindenburg, calling him a "venerated historical personality" and "the keeper of the constitution". As his frequent Vatican travels hampered his work as chairman, Kaas was prepared to yield the leadership of the party to Brüning, whom Hindenburg had dismissed in May, but the former Chancellor declined and asked the prelate to stay.
In 1932 Kaas and Brüning led the Centre Party into opposition to the new Chancellor: party renegade Franz von Papen. Kaas called him the "Ephialtes of the Centre Party". Kaas tried to re-establish a working parliament by cooperation with the National Socialists.
Hitler's Enabling Act.
Kaas felt betrayed when Adolf Hitler became Chancellor on 30 January 1933 based on a coalition between National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), German National People's Party (DNVP) and independent conservatives, which excluded the Centre Party. In the campaign leading up to the election on 5 March, Kaas vigorously campaigned against the new government, but after the government parties succeeded in attaining a majority, he visited Vice Chancellor Papen, offering to put an end to their old animosities.
Later that month, from 15 March, he was the main advocate supporting the Hitler administration's Enabling Act in return for certain constitutional and, allegedly ecclesiastic guarantees. Hitler responded positively via Papen. On 21 and 22 March the Centre leadership negotiated with Hitler on the conditions and reached an agreement. A letter, in which Hitler would confirm the agreement in writing, was promised by the government but never delivered.
Kaas — as much as the other party leaders — was aware of the doubtful nature of any guarantees; when the Centre fraction assembled on 23 March to decide on their vote, he still advised his fellow party members to support the bill, given the "precarious state of the fraction", saying: "On the one hand we must preserve our soul, but on the other hand a rejection of the Enabling Act would result in unpleasant consequences for fraction and party. What is left is only to guard us against the worst. Were a two-thirds majority not obtained, the government's plans would be carried through by other means. The President has acquiesced in the Enabling Act. From the DNVP no attempt of relieving the situation is to be expected."
A considerable group of parliamentarians however opposed the chairman's course, among whom were the former Chancellors, his nemesis Heinrich Brüning and Joseph Wirth and former minister Adam Stegerwald. The opponents also argued in regard to Catholic social teaching that ruled out participating in an act of revolution. The proponents however argued that a "national revolution" had already occurred with Hitler's appointment and the presidential decree suspending basic rights, and that the Enabling Act would contain revolutionary force and move the government back to a legal order. Both groupings were not unaffected by Hitler's self-portrayal as a moderate seeking co-operation, as given on the Day of Potsdam of 21 March, as against the more revolutionary SA led by Ernst Röhm.
In the end the majority of Centre parliamentarians supported Kaas's proposal. Brüning and his followers agreed to respect party discipline by also voting in favour of the bill.
On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled at midday under turbulent circumstances. Some SA men served as guards, while others crowded outside the building, both to intimidate any opposing views. Hitler's speech, which emphasised the importance of Christianity to the German culture, was aimed particularly at assuaging the Centre Party's sensibilities and almost verbatim incorporated Kaas's requested guarantees. Kaas gave a speech, voicing the Centre's support for the bill amid "concerns put aside", while Brüning notably remained silent. When parliament assembled again in the evening, all parties except the SPD, represented by their chairman Otto Wels, voted in favour of the Enabling Act. This vote was a major step in the institution of the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler and is remembered as the prime example of a democracy voting for its own demise.
Because of Kaas's request for guarantees and because of his later involvement in the Reichskonkordat negotiations, it is sometimes alleged that Kaas's assent was part of a "quid pro quo" of interests between the Holy See and the new regime. There is however no evidence for involvement of the Holy See in these dealings .
Kaas had planned to travel to Rome since the beginning of the year, to discuss a conflict in Eupen and Malmedy, formerly German towns now belonging to Belgium, where priests had been arrested. This trip had been postponed by the political events - first Hitler's appointment, then the March elections, then by the Enabling Act -, but on 24 March, one day after the decision, Kaas finally managed to leave for Rome. During this stay, Kaas explained to Pacelli the Centre's rationale for acceding to the Enabling Act. On 30 March, he was called back to Germany to take part in sessions of the working committee, that had been promised during the Enabling Act negotiations. This committee was chaired by Hitler and Kaas and was supposed to inform about further legislative measures, but it only met three times: on 31 March, on 2 April (followed by a private talk between Kaas and Hitler) and on 7 April. On 5 April Kaas also reported to the foreign office about his talk in the Eupen-Malmedy affair.
Reichskonkordat.
On 7 April, directly after the third meeting of the working committee, Kaas once more left Berlin and headed for Rome. The next day, after having changed trains in Munich, the Prelate happened to meet Vice-Chancellor Papen in the dining car. Papen officially went on skiing holidays to Italy, but his real destination was Vatican City, where he was to offer a Reichskonkordat on his government's behalf. Kaas and Papen traveled on together and had some discussions about the matter on the train. After their arrival in Rome, Kaas was received first by Pacelli on 9 April. One day later, Papen had a morning meeting with Pacelli and presented Hitler's offer. Cardinal Pacelli subsequently authorized Kaas, who was known for his expertise in Church-state relations, to negotiate the draft of the terms with Papen.
These discussions also prolonged his stay in Rome and raised questions in Germany as to a conflict of interest, since as a German parliamentarian he was advising the Vatican. On 5 May Kaas resigned from his post as party chairman, and pressure from the German government forced him to withdraw from visibly participating in the concordat negotiations. Though allegedly the Vatican tried to hold back the exclusion of Catholic clergy and organisations from politics, Pacelli was known to strongly favour the withdrawal of all priests from active politics, which is Church position in all countries even today. In the end, the Vatican accepted the restriction to the religious and charitable field. Even before the Roman negotiations had been concluded, the Centre Party yielded to increasing government pressure and dissolved itself, thus excluding German Catholics from participating in political life.
According to Oscar Halecki, Kaas and Pacelli, "on account of the exclusion of Catholics as a political party from the public life of Germany, found it all the more necessary that the Holy See assure government guarantees to maintain their position in the life of the nation" He maintains that Hitler had from the beginning no other aim than a war of extermination of the Church. Pacelli, now Pope Pius XII, met the German Cardinals on 6 March 1939, three days after his election. He referred to the constant Nazi attacks against the Church, and the Nazi responses to his protests, saying, "They always responded, 'sorry, but we cannot act because the concordat is not legally binding yet'. But after its ratification, things did not get any better, they got worse. The experiences of the past years are not encouraging." Despite this, the Holy See continued diplomatic relations with Germany in order to "connect to the bishops and faithful in Germany". As a result of the Concordat, the Church gained more teachers, more school buildings and more places for Catholic pupils. At the same time it was well known to Pacelli and Pope Pius XI that the Jews were being treated very differently. The Centre Party's vote for the Enabling Act, at Kaas's urging, was an action which fostered the establishment of the Hitlerian tyranny.
At the Vatican.
Kaas, who had played a pivotal role in the concordat negotiations, hoped to head an information office, watching over the implementation in Germany. However, Cardinal Bertram considered Kaas to be the wrong man, given his political past. Also, Kaas's conduct was controversial among his fellow party members, who saw his sudden and lasting move to Rome as an act of defection and his involvement in the concordat negotiations as treason to the party. A prime example of this view is Heinrich Brüning, who denounced Kaas in his own memoirs written in exile and not undisputed among historians.
Cardinal Bertram had proposed to elevate Kaas to honours without responsibilities. Accordingly, Kaas was appointed papal protonotary on 20 March 1934 and canon of the Basilica of Saint Peter on 6 April 1935. Meanwhile, the dioceses of Trier stripped Kaas of his position in the cathedral chapter of Trier.
The exiled Kaas suffered from homesickness and from the rejection by his fellow party members and the German episcopate. On 20 August 1936, Kaas was appointed Economicus and Secretary of the Holy Congregation of the fabric of St. Peter's Basilica.
Pacelli was elected Pope Pius XII on 2 March 1939. Late in that year, after the outbreak of World War II, Kaas was one of the key figures for the secret "Vatican Exchanges", in which Widerstand circles within the German army tried to negotiate with the Allies through the mediation of the Pope Pius XII. Josef Müller, a Bavarian lawyer, would travel to Rome from Berlin with instructions from Hans Oster or Hans von Dohnanyi and confer with Kaas or the Pope's secretary Pater Robert Leiber, in order to avoid direct contact between Müller and the Pope. These exchanges resumed in 1943 after the Casablanca conference, but neither attempt was successful.
After his election, Pius XII had decided to accelerate the archaeological excavations under St. Peter's Basilica and put Kaas in charge. At the Christmas message of the Holy Year 1950, Pius XII presented the preliminary results, which deemed it likely that the tomb of Saint Peter was resting below the Papal altar of the Basilica. Not all questions were solved, and Kaas continued excavations after 1950, despite an emerging illness.
Ludwig Kaas died in Rome in 1952, aged 70. He was first buried in the cemetery of Campo Santo in the Vatican. Later, Pope Pius XII ordered the body of his friend to be put to rest in the crypt of St. Peter's Basilica. Ludwig Kaas is thus the only Monsignor who rests in the vicinity of virtually all Popes of the twentieth century. To succeed him in his work, Pope Pius XII appointed a woman, Professor Margherita Guarducci, another Vatican novelty.
List of publications.
Ludwig Kaas was a scholar and prolific writer, addressing a wide range of issues in Latin or German concerning marital law, education reform, moral and systematic theology, canon law, prisoners of war, the speeches of Eugenio Pacelli, historical issues, policy issues of the Weimar Republic and the Reichskonkordat. Some of his writings were published after his death.


Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta

Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark () (13 February 1904 – 15 April 1974) was the fifth child and second daughter of Constantine I of Greece and his wife, the former Princess Sophie of Prussia. She was a member of the royal families of Greece and Italy. From 1941 to 1943 she was also officially Queen Consort of Croatia.
Family and early life.
Her paternal grandparents were George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia. Her maternal grandparents were Friedrich III, German Emperor, and his Empress consort Victoria. Victoria was a daughter of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
Irene was born in Athens, preceded in birth by three brothers, George (1890), Alexander (1893) and Paul (1901), and one sister, Helen (1896). Another sister, Katherine was born in 1913. In 1927, her brother, George, announced her engagement to Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe, a nephew of Christian X of Denmark, but no marriage occurred.
Marriage.
On 1 July 1939, Princess Irene married Prince Aimone, Duke of Spoleto (b. 9 March 1900 in Florence, Italy) They had one child:
In March 1942 Irene, who was a trained nurse, headed a Red Cross hospital train going to Russia to repatriate wounded Italian soldiers. After a difficult journey, she returned to Florence the following month. Prince Aimone became the 4th Duke of Aosta on 3 March 1942, following the death of his elder brother, Amedeo. On 18 May 1941, taking the name Tomislav II, he was proclaimed King of the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of fascist Germany and Italy, but he never set foot on the territory of the state and abdicated in 1943.
After the Allied armistice with the Kingdom of Italy, the princess was interned by the Germans at the Hotel Ifen in Hirschegg, Austria, July 1944, along with her infant son, her sister-in-law and two nieces. They were liberated by the French in May 1945.
After the war and the 1946 plebiscite which ended the monarchy in Italy, the family went into exile. Prince Aimone died on 29 January 1948 in Buenos Aires. Upon his death, his son Amedeo succeeded him as the 5th Duke of Aosta. In June 1948, the family was allowed to return to Italy, and Irene spent the rest of her life living outside of Florence.
Princess Irene died on 15 April 1974 in Fiesole, Italy after fighting a long illness.
References.
Edward Hanson, The Wandering Princess: Princess Helene of France, Duchess of Aosta (1871-1951) [Fonthill, 2017].


2006 Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast local election

Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast local election, 2006 is a local election in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast that took place on March 26, 2006. Seats were split among five political parties and blocks, which received at least 3% popular vote.
Overview.
The elections were largely won by Our Ukraine Bloc with the greatest majority of 57% in the Yaremche municipality. The lowest popularity of the political bloc was in the biggest cities in the region Ivano-Frankivsk and Kolomyia and if the city of Ivano-Frankivsk Our Ukraine marginally has won, the Kolomyia municipality was decisively "overtaken" by the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc.
The greatest support for the region's third party Ukrainian National Bloc was shown in the western corner of Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast where in the Bolekhiv municipality and the Dolyna Raion the party managed to make over 10% mark. Also, remarkable performance of the Revival of Prykarapattya that even though barely made it to the regional council it had a substantial support in the Verkhovyna Raion where it, however, became the third party. Revival of Prykarpattya also became third in the Kolomyia municipality and the Kolomyia Raion.
Ivano-Frankivsk city council.
Viktor Anushkevychus (Ukrainian National Bloc - Ukrainian People's Party)


Wolfgang von Wurzbach

Wolfgang von Wurzbach (born 3 June 1879 in Vienna - 10 February 1957 ibid) was an Austrian Romance language scholar, literary scholar, and collector.
Life and work.
Alfred Wolfgang Ritter Wurzbach von Tannenberg was the son of Alfred von Wurzbach and Eugenie v. Wurzbach, the daughter of the banker Joseph Lippmann von Lissingen. He was a great-grandson of the Ljubljana lawyer Maximilian von Wurzbach, who had been raised to the nobility, and the grandson of the biographical lexicographer Constantin von Wurzbach. He studied at the University of Vienna, where he received his doctorate in 1902. He completed his habilitation1906/07 in Vienna for Romance literary history, 1911 expanded to Romance philology. From 1922 he was associate professor for Romance languages and literatures at the University of Vienna, was dismissed in 1938 because of his mother's Jewish descent and was reinstated as full professor for Romance philology in 1946. In 1950 he retired. In addition to Hispanic and French studies, he also published German and English studies.
Wurzbach was a well-known collector of souvenirs from Viennese personalities (autographs, portrait lithographs, medals). He bequeathed his collections to various museums in Vienna, including his important collection of Dutch paintings from the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, which he inherited from his maternal grandfather.


Marie Christine Felizitas of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg-Heidesheim

Marie Christine Felizitas of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg-Heidesheim (29 December 1692 – 3 June 1734), was a German noblewoman member of the House of Leiningen and by her two marriages Princess of Baden-Durlach and Duchess of Saxe-Eisenach.
Born in Broich Castle, Mülheim an der Ruhr, she was the fourth from seven children of Johann Karl August, Count of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg-Heidesheim and Lord of Broich and Bürgel by his wife Countess Johanna Magdalene of Hanau-Lichtenberg. From Marie Christine's six older and younger siblings, only three survive adulthood: one sister, Sophie Magdalene (by marriage Countess of Salm-Grumbach) and two brothers, Christian Karl Reinhard and Johann Wilhelm Ludwig.
Life.
In Heidesheim on 1 December 1711, Marie Christine married firstly Prince Christopher, younger brother of Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach. They had three sons:
After eleven years of marriage, Prince Christopher of Baden died on 2 May 1723 and was buried in the "Stiftskirche St.Michael", Pforzheim.
In Philippsruhe Castle, Hanau on 29 May 1727 Marie Christine married secondly John William, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach as his fourth wife. The union lasted only twenty months until his death on 14 January 1729. They had no children.
Marie Christine died in Eisenach aged 41. She was buried in the "Georgenkirche", Eisenach.


Johann Heinrich Baumann

Johann Heinrich Baumann (; 9 February 1753 – 29 July 1832) was a Baltic German artist who mainly lived and worked in what is today Latvia.
Early life and education.
Johann Heinrich Baumann was born in Jelgava () into a German-speaking family. He was the son of the pastor and general superintendent of Mitau, Joachim Baumann.
University.
Baumann went to University of Erfurt to study theology in 1773–1776. However, in Erfurt he took up painting, under the influence of (1715–1778), a notable local painter specialising in animal portraits in the then-prevailing Baroque style. After his studies, Baumann returned to his Baltic homeland Courland but would henceforth pursue a career as an artist and not as a priest.
Travels.
Being a keen hunter, Baumann travelled as far as present-day Lithuania, Russia and Belarus on hunting expeditions. He also wrote anecdotal, whimsical short stories about his hunting adventures, for which he has been called the "Munchausen of Courland". His outdoors interests also came to dominate his art completely, which is an unusual blend of skillfulness and professionalism mixed with naivety and slovenliness. Almost all his known paintings depict animals, hunting scenes or related subjects. His style is perhaps best characterised as a provincial form of Baroque, inspired to some extent by similar motives in Dutch Golden Age painting, executed in a highly personal way. Although he never became recognised as a major artist in Imperial Russia, he was still acknowledged by a special mention of the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1786. He is reputed to have painted over 1700 paintings, however only 43 surviving paintings are safely attributed to him today.
Playwriting.
Baumann was also one of the first authors in present-day Latvia to write plays for the stage in Latvian.


Richard Richmond

Richard Richmond, LL.D. (died 1780) was an Anglican clergyman who served in the Church of England as the Bishop of Sodor and Man from 1773 to 1780.
He was nominated Bishop of Sodor and Man by John Murray, 3rd Duke of Atholl and Charlotte Murray, Duchess of Atholl on 23 January 1773, and was consecrated on 14 February 1773.
He died in office on 4 February 1780.
References.


Weltermolen, Welten

The Weltermolen (literally "mill from Welten") is a watermill located in Welten, Heerlen in the Netherlands. It is fed by the Geleenbeek, with some extra force created by a largely man-made pond (the Weltervijver).
The Weltermolen wasn't a watermill until the start of the 20th century.
During World War II (approximately 1943) the waterwheel was taken out of action and an electrical motor took over.
The mill was already mentioned in the 14th century and it has a strong connection with Huis Strijthagen (or Huis Strijthagen tot Welten).
The present day mill consists of a long shaped part of one floor under a Mansard roof, a tower and the mill. The tower has a weather vane shaped like a carp.
The mill was restored in 1982 and is open to the public on milling days.
This watermill is one of several located in the Geleenbeek stream.


Galloway Association of Glasgow

The Galloway Association of Glasgow is a charitable trust that was formed on 22 August 1791, and was originally known as the Glasgow Galloway Brotherly Society. Its aims have always remained the same: to aid charitable, benevolent or educational purposes associated with Galloway and to encourage a love for and interest in Galloway. Membership is drawn from ex-Gallovidians, people who have relatives from Galloway or who have developed an interest and love of the ancient province.
Origins.
Glasgow Galloway Brotherly Association was a friendly society formed by a few Gallovidian men who had gone to Glasgow to find better opportunities. In the days long before welfare benefits, they put aside a few pennies to help the wives and children back in Galloway, who perhaps had fallen on hard times when the menfolk were off in Glasgow seeking their fortune. At the same time it enabled retention of a link with their heartland and a real purpose of providing some form of tangible benefit for those at home.
Charitable work.
The Association continues to consider requests for assistance each year, and selects those that are deemed to be appropriate to the aims and objectives of the Association. Grants may be approved by the Council of Management where they are considered to advance the future well-being of residents of Galloway but are not connected to the advancement of any business project. The Association supports projects for the arts, education, non-commercial groups and individuals.
Involvement in supplying grants for education has always been a key target area for the Association, providing financial support for young people pursuing a recognised course of further education at a University or College. Students are encouraged to find out what help might be available through their Head Teachers at Secondary Schools in Galloway.
Social activities.
The Association holds regular public meetings in Glasgow, primarily on subjects pertaining to Galloway such as the "Planned Villages of Dumfries and Galloway", the "Wigtown Book Town" and the "Railways of Galloway". Members are invited to Spring and Summer Outings, such as "Threave Gardens", Castle Douglas and "Loch Katrine". The social highlight of the year is the "Anniversary Dinner", usually held in Gatehouse of Fleet, with a Galloway theme provided by guest speakers and entertainers.
Galloway.
Galloway lies at the south west tip of Scotland, facing the Irish Sea to the south and the North Channel to the west. Galloway refers to the former county of Wigtownshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright.


North Front Cemetery

The North Front Cemetery is a cemetery located in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Also known as the Gibraltar Cemetery and the Garrison Cemetery, it is the only graveyard still in use in Gibraltar. It is also the only Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) cemetery in Gibraltar. The two CWGC monuments, the Gibraltar Memorial and the Gibraltar Cross of Sacrifice, are positioned nearby at the junction of Winston Churchill Avenue and Devil's Tower Road.
History.
The North Front Cemetery is located in the North District of Gibraltar, the British Overseas Territory at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It is situated between the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar to the south and the airport to the north. The cemetery is located off Devil's Tower Road, just west of Devil's Tower Camp. Also known as the Gibraltar Cemetery and the Garrison Cemetery, it was established in 1756 south of the neutral ground and the border with Spain. A French map made of Gibraltar in 1811 shows that the cemetery was well established.
The graveyard was initially divided into five sections. In addition, to those for members of the Church of England, and Presbyterian, Wesleyan, and Catholic Churches, there was a fifth section for those of other denominations. In May 1848, Jews' Gate Cemetery on Windmill Hill was closed to burials. After that closure, a sixth section, for Jews, was established in North Front Cemetery. In the 21st century, only three sections are present, Christian, Jewish, and unconsecrated. The North Front Cemetery is also a military cemetery, and includes the graves of those who died in the World Wars.
The North Front Cemetery is the only graveyard which is still in use in Gibraltar. In addition to the 1848 closure of Jews' Gate Cemetery, Trafalgar Cemetery fell into disuse after 1814. St. Jago's Cemetery was also closed and, by the early twentieth century, its grounds had been incorporated into the St. Jago's Barracks recreational facilities.
The authority in charge of North Front Cemetery is the Superintendent of the Cemetery. The staff includes a Keeper of the Cemetery, as well as eight gravediggers and eight people responsible for maintenance. In 1889, the Cemetery Act was passed; it set procedures regarding management and supervision of North Front Cemetery.
The graves of two Governors of Gibraltar are present in North Front Cemetery: Lieutenant-General Sir Lothian Nicholson (1827–1893) and General Sir Kenneth Anderson (1891–1959). Sir Joshua Hassan (1915–1997), Chief Minister and Mayor of Gibraltar, was buried in the Hebrew section of the cemetery. In addition, both Thomas Henry Kavanagh (1821–1882), awarded the Victoria Cross, and George Campbell Henderson (1910–1951), who received the George Cross posthumously after the Bedenham explosion, are interred at North Front. Kavanagh has the distinction of being the only recipient of the Victoria Cross buried in Gibraltar. His gravestone was restored about 2008.
Commonwealth war graves.
North Front Cemetery is the only Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Gibraltar. More than 750 Commonwealth soldiers of the two World Wars, as well as 41 of the fallen of other nationalities, are buried or commemorated at the cemetery. This includes two graves in the Hebrew section. Most of the Commonwealth war graves for the fallen of the Second World War are located in two plots, one triangular and the other rectangular, at the northern end of the cemetery. Others are scattered around the graveyard, as are those from the First World War. The majority of the Commonwealth war graves are from World War II. After the First World War, a Cross of Sacrifice was installed west of the cemetery. A second monument was erected after the Second World War near the cross. The second monument, the Gibraltar Memorial, commemorates 98 lost or buried at sea.
The First World War graves are primarily those of soldiers who died at British Military Hospital Gibraltar or on vessels passing by Gibraltar. They include the tombs of 23 men who died on when she sank on 9 November 1918 after a submarine attack off Cape Trafalgar. Also included are the graves of seamen who succumbed from natural causes during the course of the war. The Second World War graves are primarily those of soldiers from the garrison, including those who lost their lives while doing military construction and those who were attacked by aircraft. Among the dead were soldiers who had been taken prisoner in France and died following their escape to Gibraltar. Also included were the graves of four Frenchmen who died when their aircraft crashed into the sea during a landing attempt.
Gibraltar Memorial.
The Gibraltar Memorial is located together with the Cross of Sacrifice in a triangular, fenced site west of the North Front Cemetery. The memorial site is at the northeast corner of the intersection of Winston Churchill Avenue and Devil's Tower Road. The Gibraltar Memorial and the Cross of Sacrifice are connected by paths which lead to a central panel containing an inscription.
The Gibraltar Memorial was erected by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. It commemorates 91 soldiers who died during the Second World War and were buried at sea. In addition to the names of those military men, the names of seven of the fallen of the First World War have been added. Those seven soldiers died when the "SS Woodfield" was attacked by a submarine on 3 November 1915 and sunk off Ceuta. The original monument to the men in North Front Cemetery was demolished.
Steps rise up to the Gibraltar Memorial, which is positioned behind the cross. The monument is constructed of limestone, within which have been inserted panels of Cornish granite that match the Cross of Sacrifice and bear the inscribed names of the fallen. The nearby central panel explains:
Gibraltar Cross of Sacrifice.
The Cross of Sacrifice is positioned together with the Gibraltar Memorial in the fenced area west of the cemetery, at the corner of Winston Churchill Avenue and Devil's Tower Road. Both monuments are connected by paths to a central inscribed panel. The Cross of Sacrifice was constructed of Cornish granite, and erected by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, then the Imperial War Graves Commission, after World War I. The monument was unveiled on Armistice Day 1922 by Governor of Gibraltar Sir Horace Lockwood Smith-Dorrien. At the base of the cross, in addition to the dates "1914 – 1918" and "1939 – 1945," is the inscription "In Glorious Memory of Those Who Died For The Empire." On an adjacent plaque is inscribed: "Erected By The Royal Engineers For The Imperial War Graves Commission And Unveiled on Armistice Day 1922 By H. E. Gen. Sir H. L. Smith-Dorrien GCB-GCMG-DSO Governor and Commander-In-Chief Gibraltar." A portion of the inscription on the nearby panel reads:
In 2004, Gibraltar celebrated its tercentenary anniversary of British rule. Some veterans who had served in Gibraltar were invited to an all-expenses-paid trip to The Rock. In July 2004, the schedule of events included a memorial service at the Cross of Sacrifice which included the Royal British Legion.


Ivon Moore-Brabazon, 3rd Baron Brabazon of Tara

Ivon Anthony Moore-Brabazon, 3rd Baron Brabazon of Tara, (born 20 December 1946), is a British Conservative politician.
Early life.
Lord Brabazon attended Harrow School. He married Harriet Frances de Courcy Hamilton in 1979, with whom he had a son and a daughter. He has worked in the London Stock Exchange and the freight industry.
Political career.
House of Lords.
He sat in the House of Lords as a Conservative and from 1984 to 1986 was a House of Lords whip in Margaret Thatcher's government. He then became a Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department of Transport, holding that post until 1989. Lord Brabazon was then made a Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In early 1990, he returned to the Department of Transport as Minister of State, holding that post until leaving office at the 1992 general election.
House of Lords Act 1999.
With the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, Brabazon along with almost all other hereditary peers lost his automatic right to sit in the House of Lords. He was however elected as one of the 92 elected hereditary peers to remain in the House of Lords pending completion of House of Lords reform.
In 2001, he was elected Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and as a result resigned the Conservative whip and became a non-affiliated member of the House of Lords. This means that he is not associated with any party or with the Crossbenchers. He was the Chairman of Committees from 2002 to 2012, at which point he retook the Conservative whip.
Lord Brabazon is a Deputy Lieutenant of the Isle of Wight.
Marriage and children.
He married Harriet Frances Hamilton, daughter of Mervyn Peter de Courcy Hamilton, on 8 September 1979. They have one son and one daughter:


William I of Verona

William I of Verona (, died in 1263) was the ruler of the central , or third, of the Lordship of Negroponte in Frankish Greece from 1216 to 1263. He was also the titular of king of Thessalonica from 1243 to 1246.
Guglielmo is son of Giberto da Verona, triarch of Eubea. After his father's death, ruled tougether with his brother Alberto da Verona. Guglielmo married Elena, doughter of Manuel Komnenos Doukas and bulgarian princes Maria Asen, illegitimate daughter of Ivan Asen II.


Sfakians

The Sfakians (or Sphakians or Sfakiots; ) are the inhabitants of the region of Sfakia located in western Crete. The Sfakians hold themselves to be the direct descendants of the Dorians who invaded the island around 1100 BC.
The inhabitants of Sfakia have faced numerous foreign invaders, to which fact they owe their reputation as courageous warriors that they have had for centuries as cousins of the Maniots and Souliots.
Sfakians and Saracens.
When the Saracen Arabs invaded Crete in 824 AD, many regions of the island, Sphakia included, escaped effective Arab rule. One reason frequently offered is geography: Sphakians, secure in their mountain fastness, could mount a formidable deep defence from high ground gradually retreating upward while imposing relatively high casualties on invaders from the lowlands.
In refusing to submit to the Arabs, the Sfakians established a form of self-government known as the "Gerousia" ("Council of Elders"); this had its antecedent in the Spartan Gerousia, but it is not clear there is any connection. The members of the council were either known as "Gerontes" ("Elders") or "Dimogerontes" ("Public Elders") who were selected based on the general consensus of the members of the entire community (cf. alderman).
Nicephorus Phocas, general of the Greek Byzantine forces sent to liberate Crete, appointed large numbers of Sfakian warriors to defend his rear against Arab attacks from the south while he besieged Chandax. Chandax was the key to Phocas's campaign as it was both the most formidable Arab fortress and the capital of Crete under Arab rule.
The Sfakians not only successfully protected General Phocas's troops, but they also supported him in the siege of Chandax, which fell on March 7, 961 AD, marking the end of Arab rule in Crete. General Phocas was so grateful for the contributions of the Sfakians that he gave the "Gerontes" many presents which included weapons and lavish clothing. Moreover, the general allowed the Sfakians the right to continue with their own form of self-government with the added benefit of being exempt from all taxes. Moreover, when General Phocas became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, he reconfirmed these privileges.
Peace in Byzantine Crete.
At the dawn of the second Byzantine period in Crete (961–1204), the island itself was in a state of devastation. Many of the inhabitants were sold to slave markets, the economy was in ruins, and the administrative structure of government had no presence on the island. The Byzantines immediately started to rebuild fortifications on the island in order to guard against future attacks. Also, they placed a new administrative system that divided the island into a number of provinces that appointed their own governors.
A new period of cultural and economic renewal began to emerge in Crete. Christianity in Crete was undergoing a revival thanks to missionaries such as Saint Nikon the Metanoeite ("The Repenter") and Saint Ioannis Xenos ("John the Stranger"). The local population grew and further assistance was provided by Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. In 1080, the emperor ordered the migration and settlement of Greek Byzantine families in Crete.
Emperor Alexius II Comnenus, grandson of Alexius I Comnenus, issued an imperial order that divided the island into twelve provinces and appointed twelve princes from the Byzantine Empire to govern them. Each prince was known as an "archondopoulon" ("petty lord"; cp. English baron) and he would arrive with his extended family to settle in the area allocated to him. From this event, a number of great aristocratic families of Crete emerged, some of them still in existence today. The "archondopoula" of Crete entailed the families of Kallergis, Skordilis, Melisseni, Varouchi, Mousouri, Vlasti, Hortatzi, and others.
Sfakia itself was allocated to the emperor's nephew, Marinos Skordilis, who came to Crete with nine of his brothers who also brought over their sons and families. The borders of Skordilis's territory ranged from Askyfou east to Koustogerako and along the south coast to Agia Roumeli, Omprosgialos (today's Hora Sfakion) and to Frangokastello (the largest town in Skordilis's territory was Anopoli and many Sfakian families today claim to be direct descendants of the original Skordiles).
John Phocas, a direct descendant of the emperor who freed Crete from the Arabs, was considered to be the most senior member of the twelve "archondopoula". His territory was one of the largest, which covered the greater part of today's province of Rethymno, all the way south to the coast and westward up to the valley of Askyfou, where the border of the Skordilis' territory was located (the name of the family changed a few years later under the Venetians to Kallergis and families that today claim to be direct descendants of the Phocas-Kallergis dynasty are one of the largest family groups in Crete, including a number from Sfakia).
Revolts against Venice.
Rebellions (1212–1283).
During Venetian rule in Crete (1204–1669), the Greek inhabitants of the island rebelled at least twenty-seven times (without counting any of the other smaller local uprisings) particularly during the first decades of Venetian occupation in favor of re-unification with the Byzantines. Some of these revolutions lasted for years and were eventually suppressed by the Venetians with great brutality. Many of these revolutions sprang out of the "Lefka Ori" (or "White Mountains"), which was a Sfakian stronghold. Many of the revolutionaries were led by members of the "Archondopouloi" families, especially members of the Sfakian-based families of Skordilis and Phocas/Kallergis.
There occurred over fourteen insurrections between 1207 and 1365. The first rebellion in 1212, against Venetian resettlement, was started by the Aghiostephanites or Argyropouli but was quickly quelled by Venice. In 1217, another revolt occurred that was caused by a private dispute over stolen horses between the noble Skordilis and the Venetian Castellan. The revolt spread rapidly, but a treaty was made and signed between a new Duke and the rebels. Another large rebellion occurred in 1230 in the Rethymno area as a result of the gathering of the noble clans of Skordilis, Melisseni, and Drakontopouli. The rebellion went on for six years until Venice conceded much land and many garrisons in order to bring the revolt to an end. Venice, from this point on, had its hands full with Crete.
Over the next few decades starting in 1212, the Venetians began to resettle numerous noble families from Venice in order to acquire better control over Crete. Chandax was renamed Candia (today's Heraklion) and became the seat of the Duke of Candia. The duke was appointed for a two-year term by Venice and the island was known as the "Regno di Candia" or the "Kingdom of Crete." In 1252, Chania was built on the ancient city of Kydonia by the Venetians and Crete was divided into six provinces ("sexteria"). Eventually, the six provinces became four counties, but Sfakia always remained out of the direct control of the Venetians who maintained only a small garrison at the castle at Omprosgialos (today's Hora Sfakion). The Venetians would rarely venture outside of their castle walls.
In 1273, the Hortatzi brothers Georgios and Theodore became the leaders of a great rebellion supported by all Cretan archons but of one revealing exception. The revolt lasted for six years and the costs to the Venetians were heavy. However, the Cretan nobleman, Alexios Kallergis, was lured by the promises given to him by the Venetians and he eventually supported them. The Venetian attack against the Hortatzi brothers was decisive and in 1279, the entire rebellion was crushed.
The Venetians did not keep their promises to Alexios Kallergis and were unfortunately very cruel in their treatment of the Cretan rebels. As a result, Kallergis started one of the largest and most destructive rebellions against the Venetians in 1283. After sixteen years of fighting, the Venetians and Kallergis secretly negotiated an end to the rebellion with numerous concessions made on both sides. In return for the Venetian concessions that entailed the allowing of mixed marriages (in which such a "privilege" did not persuade the Sfakians and Cretans to perceive the Venetians any more favorably) and the installation of a Greek bishopric, Kallergis would swear allegiance to Venice.
The Chrysomallousa revolution (1319).
One of the major Sfakian revolutions against Venetian rule was the Chrysomallousa Revolution of 1319. The Venetian garrison maintained at Omprosgialos at Sfakia consisted of only fifteen soldiers and an officer. These troops were merely keeping an eye out on the Sfakians, but rarely did they venture outside and they never interfered in Sfakian affairs. Capuleto, the Venetian officer in charge of the garrison, was attracted one day by a young girl at the well of the village. He approached the young girl and kissed her. She slapped Capuleto in the face, but he managed to pull out a dagger and cut some of the girl's golden hair. The girl's name was Chrysi Skordilis and she was from the Archondopoula family of the Skordilises. She was also called "Chrysomallousa" (or "Golden Hair") due to her blond hair. Upon hearing what happened to Chrysi, her relatives immediately killed the offending Venetian officer and most of the guards. Venetian troops arrived soon from Chania and the locals fought the Venetians bravely throughout the district. The revolution went on for more than a year until Archondas Kallergis intervened and had reached a peace treaty with the Venetians. The peace treaty entailed an agreement for the withdrawal of the Venetian forces from the area and an end to hostilities.
Rebellions (1332–1371).
More rebellions against the Venetians broke out in 1332 in Margarites and in 1341 in Apokoronas. In Amari, Sfakia, Mesara and elsewhere throughout the island, the Cretans succeeded in winning for themselves many new benefits. As a result of the hard tax policy Venice exercised towards its colony, both Cretans and Venetian settlers revolted in 1363. The revolt, which became known as the revolt of St. Titus, overthrew official Venetian rule and declared a Cretan Republic under the protection of Saint Titus, Crete's patron saint who had Christianized the island thirteen centuries earlier. A new rebellion occurred in 1365 and it was crushed by Venice to the point where life in Crete was very miserable.
The Venetians decided to build a castle on the fertile plains east of Sfakia where they intended to place a strong military presence in order to protect Venetian nobles and their properties. This decision was a result of the constant incursions the Venetians were experiencing on the southern coast of Crete from pirates (some of whom were Sfakians). The castle itself would also serve to protect the Venetians from the Sfakians who lived in the mountains north and west of the plains and who were harassing Venetian nobles. In 1371, a Venetian fleet with soldiers and builders arrived on the fertile plain to begin construction on the castle. However, the local Sfakians were against having a castle on their territory. The Sfakians, under the leadership of the six Patsos brothers from the nearby settlement of Patsianos, would destroy every night what the Venetians built during the day. Eventually, the Venetians were forced to bring in additional troops that surrounded the whole area during the whole period that the castle was being built. The Patsos brothers, ready to resume their campaigns against the Venetians, were unfortunately betrayed, arrested and ultimately hanged at the site of the castle. In 1374, the castle was complete, but the Sfakians were not threatened in their stronghold by the Venetian troops who much preferred to be stationed at the castle looking out for pirates instead of trying to establish control over the Sfakians. The castle is now known as Frangokastello.
War of the chickens (1470).
Another major Sfakian revolution was known as the "Ornithopolemos" (or the "War of the Chickens"), which took place in 1470. This revolution was caused by the pressures the Venetians were placing on the Cretans in order to extract additional tax revenues. A new tax was introduced requiring all Cretan families to provide one well-fed chicken every month to the Venetian in charge of their area. As time went by and Cretan families began to multiply, the number of chickens demanded was increasing and arguments began to start about the correct number of chickens that should be given to the Venetian in charge of the area. Some villages started giving eggs rather than chickens on the basis that the Venetians would hatch the eggs themselves. Legal action was taken by the Venetians against the villagers for short payment, as well as against the Sfakians who were refusing to pay the tax altogether. Eventually, the Venetians issued over 10,000 indictments. The Sfakians, in return, compiled a report charging the Venetian authorities of corruption and sent the report to Chania for dispatch to Venice. The authorities at Chania imprisoned the Sfakian who brought the report and as a result, the Sfakians declared a revolution and encouraged the rest of the Cretans to refuse the tax. The revolution lasted for three years and at the end of the fighting, the Venetians agreed to withdraw the tax from the whole island, as well as withdraw all outstanding legal actions.
Kantanoleon's revolution (1527 or 1570).
There occurred yet another Sfakian revolution, which became a part of Cretan mythology since the publication of a book in 1872 known as "The Cretan Weddings" by a Lefkadiot writer and historian named Zambelios. The full historical events have never been proven, but there are Venetian records that substantiate large parts of the overall story. However, the records do not fully explain why the wedding was proposed in the first place and by whom. The name of this major uprising was called Kantanoleon's Revolution and the Cretan Weddings. The protagonists of this revolution were George Kantanoleon (who came from the small village of Koustogerako north of Sougia), his son Petros, Francesco Molino (a Venetian noble from Chania), and Sophia (Molino's daughter). Although Kantanoleon came from Koustogerako, a small village just outside today's province of Sfakia, the village itself was on the border of the Sfakian territory owned by Archondopoulo Skordilis. Kantanoleon was also from the family of Skordilis (some sources also claim that his correct surname was Skordilis and that the surname "Kantanoleon" was given to him by the Venetians).
Some time before 1527 (or 1570 according to another source), many people from western Crete met at the monastery of Saint John at Akrotiri to revolt against their Venetian rulers as a result of taxes and brutal treatment, and elected George Kantanoleon as ruler. Following battles at Impros Gorge near Rethymno and at Samaria Gorge at Lasithi, the Venetians withdrew to Chania, allowing the new Cretan government free rein over western Crete. Kantanoleon established his headquarters at Meskla at the foot of the Lefka Ori, about 15 kilometres south of Chania, and set up his government including a more acceptable level of taxation.
The events that followed are disputed. Zambelios, in his book "The Cretan Weddings", claims that Petros (Kantanoleon's son) fell in love with Sophia (Molino’s daughter) and that Molino conspired with the Duke of Candia to trap and kill all the revolutionaries. Molino's plan was for a marriage between his daughter and Petros in which the invitees would be arrested and the rebels killed. A Venetian historian, however, stated that it was Kantanoleon that tried to impose a reconciliation between Cretans and the noble Venetian families of western Crete by arranging the marriage of his son to Molino's daughter, thus trying to establish a new dynasty to govern western Crete.
Both historians agree on the events that transpired at the wedding. The wedding itself had a large number of invited Cretan guests and traditional festivities had large amounts of wine consumed (spiced with opium according to Zambelios). Eventually, all of the guests were surrounded by Venetian troops that came secretly from Chania, Rethymno, and Candia. The troops arrested both Kantanoleon and his son Petros and hanged them on the spot together with more than thirty other Cretan nobles. The rest of the prisoners, ranging in the hundreds, were divided into four groups and one was hanged at the gates of Chania, one at Koutsogerako, one on the road from Chania to Rethymno, and one at Meskla (the headquarters of the rebel government). Yet, the atrocities did not stop there as whole villages were destroyed including Koutsogerako, Meskla, and a few others. The atrocities continued for some time and quite a few Cretan leaders and their families fled up to the mountains and stayed there for some time until eventually an amnesty was issued.
Sfakians and the fall of Constantinople.
In January 1453, Sultan Mehmet II had the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, surrounded. He decided that he was going to take it over either by breaking through the city's defenses or by starving the inhabitants into submission. The sultan had his troops and an enormous fleet at his disposal while the besieged Byzantines (and their Christian allies) were demoralized and divided amongst themselves. Responding to a request for help from the Byzantine Emperor, the Sfakian leader Manousos Kallikratis gathered 300 Sfakian warriors and another 760 Cretan fighters from other parts of the island. The leader then sailed in five ships (three of which were Sfakian) and went to help the besieged Emperor.
The Sfakian/Cretan forces fought valiantly by breaking through the Ottoman blockade and by defending the city itself. Many Cretans died alongside the Byzantines, as well as alongside the few Genoese and Venetian co-defenders. When the city fell, the only 170 surviving Cretans had been surrounded by Ottoman troops in one of the city's towers and were refusing to surrender. The sultan was so impressed by their courage and fierce fighting skills that he agreed to let them walk out of the city with their flags, arms, and wounded and sail away to Crete in one of their ships.
A poet of the time has the Byzantine Emperor saying as he was surrounded by the Ottomans, "Christians, Greeks, cut off my head, take it, good Cretans, and carry it to Crete, for the Cretans to see it and be sad at heart." Just a few words from an anonymous poet described the deep impact of the fall of Constantinople had on the Cretans. They were to become the next home of the refugees from Byzantium and responsible for nurturing the rich heritage left to them by the collapsing Byzantine Empire.
Against the Ottomans with the help of the Imperial Russia.
During the Ottoman occupation of Crete (1669–1898), and especially from the 18th century onwards, the Greeks looked towards Christian Russia as its savior. Peter the Great, as part of his plan to expand southward to the Black Sea, promoted himself as a champion of the Christians residing in the Balkans. His overall policy, with some variations, was continued by Catherine the Great (1762–1796) in her wars against the Ottoman Turks. She dreamed of resurrecting the Byzantine Empire and placing her grandson as its emperor. Before the first Russo-Turkish War, she sent Russian agents to Morea and the islands in order to stir up the Greeks to fight against the Turks. One of the Russian agents reached a man named Daskaloyiannis and told the Sfakian from Anopoli to lead a revolt. This was ill advice since the Sfakians, let alone the Cretans in general, were hardly ready for such a revolt, as they had virtually no weapons.
Yet, when in 1770, a Russian fleet under Count Aleksey Grigoryevich Orlov appeared in the Aegean, precipitating the Orlov Revolt, Daskaloyiannis and his Cretan followers revolted. However, when the Russo-Turkish conflict ran to an end, the Cretans were left alone against Turkish troops from Chania, Rethymno, and Heraklion. The pasha of Crete had captured the brother and daughters of Daskaloyiannis and with the promise of leniency he demanded that Daskaloyiannis surrender. Daskaloyiannis decided to surrender so that he could see his brother and daughters released. Most of the other leaders of the revolt were killed, and the pasha had Daskaloyiannis first tortured in order to provide any valuable strategic information. Naturally, Daskaloyiannis refused to surrender his people to the Turks. Even after the pasha had the Sfakian flayed alive in front of hundreds summoned at a public square, Daskaloyiannis did not betray his people.
Neither the failed revolt of 1770 AD nor the death of Daskaloyiannis went in vain since both events aroused the national sentiments of all Cretans. The revolts made by the Cretans and the legendary Sfakians contributed to the rise of the independent Cretan state in 1898, which also paved the way for Crete’s union with Greece in 1912.
The Sfakian dialect.
The Sfakian dialect is similar to other Cretan dialects, and yet it is also quite different. Like many other Cretan dialects, , , , and before front vowels become , , , and . However, one oddity present in the Sfakian dialect is how it treats . Before an or an , ⟨λ⟩ is a lateral . However, before an , , or , it becomes an approximant , much like the English "r" sound. For example, "θάλασσα" (thalassa, meaning "sea") is pronounced by a Sfakian as , but πουλί ("pouli", meaning bird) is , closer to standard Greek. This feature is not shared anywhere else, except for certain villages in the Aegean, including the village of Apiranthos on the Cyladic island of Naxos. Indeed, the Sfakians believe that hundreds of years ago, probably after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, a group of Sfakians left Crete and came to Apiranthos on Naxos. The cultures of Sfakia and Apiranthos bear many striking similarities, not least of which includes the aforementioned dialectal peculiarity.


Barony of Vaud

The Barony of Vaud was an appanage of the County of Savoy, corresponding roughly to the modern Canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It was created by a process of acquisition on the part of a younger brother of the reigning count beginning in 1234 and culminated in the formalisation of its relationship to the county in 1286. It was semi-independent state, capable of entering into relations with its sovereign, the Holy Roman Emperor (as in 1284), and of fighting alongside the French in the Hundred Years' War. It ceased to exist when it was bought by the count in 1359. It was then integrated into the Savoyard state, where the title Baron of Vaud (Italian "barone di Vaud") remained a subsidiary title of the heads of the family at least as late as the reign of Charles Albert of Sardinia, although the territory of the barony was annexed by the Canton of Bern during the Protestant Reformation (1536).
Geography and economy.
The "pays de Vaud" at the time of its purchase by the Count of Savoy in 1359 comprised fertile farmland probably yielding more revenues annually than the neighbouring County of Geneva. It lay between the lakes Geneva and Neuchâtel, and between Lausanne, which was the seat of the Bishop of Lausanne, to the west and Bern, which was a self-governing commune, to the east. It lay on important trade routes leading from the Alpine passes of the Great St Bernard and Simplon along its lakeside paths northwards into Germany and westward into France.
The appanage of Vaud that was formally ceded to the younger brother of the count in January 1286 was a fief of the count owing liege homage. A few lords of the "pays de Vaud" remained liege vassals of the count and their lands were not a part of the barony of Vaud. These were the Count of Gruyère and the lords of Châtel and Cossonay. Politically, the barony of Vaud was divided into ten castellanies centred on Nyon, Rolle, Morges (which was the baronial capital, where homage was received and the administration overseen), Moudon (which was the first Savoyard acquisition in the region in 1207), Estavayer, Romont, Rue, Yverdon, Les Clées, and Vaulruz.
The feudal obligations owed by the baron of Vaud are evidenced by the participation of 160 men-at-arms ("gentes armorum"), who were mounted and fully armoured, and 2,500 infantrymen, all of whom were pledged to serve at least twenty-two days in the campaign of the spring of 1352 against the "pays de Gex". When the barony was ruled by a baroness, who was not therefore a banneret entitled to lead troops in battle under his own banner, the men-at-arms of Vaud fought under their "bailli". In the spring of 1355, when the Count of Savoy was invading the Barony of Faucigny, the baroness of Vaud provided 122 men-at-arms under her "bailli", Jean de Blonay, and another seventeen under his lieutenant, Arnaud d'Aigrement.
History.
In the settlement of the succession to Savoy, following the death of Thomas I (1233), the first Savoyard count to expand his lordship into the "pays de Vaud", the lands in the Vaud went to Peter "le Petit Charlemagne" in 1234, who later became Count of Savoy (1263–68). It was he who brought most of the Vaud into the Savoyard ambit, by diplomacy and war, with the aid of English money supplied by his nephew-in-law Henry III. Peter willed his barony of Vaud to his daughter, Beatrice, but she never enjoyed it. In 1271 her uncle, Count Philip I, forced her to concede the "pays de Vaud" to him, partly through the intervention of Edmund Crouchback, who was travelling through the region to join the Ninth Crusade. In the summer of 1272, Philip's possession of Vaud was limited to the duration of his life, to return to her upon his death (although this was later ignored).
Because of his dispute with King Rudolf concerning the Vaud and other Swiss regions, Philip granted it to his nephew Louis, who by September 1281 was receiving the homage of the vassals of the region. In May 1284 Louis's position was confirmed by Rudolf, who granted him the right to mint coin within the "pays de Vaud". Another settlement was needed following the death of Philip I in 1285. Savoy fell to Louis's brother Amadeus V, who was forced to recognise Louis's possession of all the territories in the "pays de Vaud" formerly held by Count Peter (1286).
Louis passed the barony on to his son and namesake Louis II upon his death. Louis II's only son died at the battle of Laupen in 1339 and his heir became his eldest daughter Catherine. She succeeded him, and appears to have ruled with the help of her widowed mother, Isabelle de Chalon-Arlay, although she was also often absent in her husband's domains. When Catherine became pregnant in 1353 after her marriage to her third husband, the then Count of Savoy, Amadeus VI, offered to buy the barony from her and her husband in order to prevent it from falling into the hands of another dynasty. The final contract of sale signed on 19 June 1359 initiated the definitive integration of the "magna baronia" ("great barony") into the County of Savoy, at the price of 160,000 florins. At the time the barony owed large debts. The title Baron of Vaud is constantly attached to the counts, later dukes, of Savoy and afterwards the kings of Sardinia and Italy.
In 1465, Jacques of Savoy obtained the barony and country of Vaud with the title of Lord of Vaud from his brother, Duke Amadeus IX of Savoy. In 1476, the Vaud returned to the direct domain of the dukes of Savoy until 1536 when it was conquered by the Canton of Bern and incorporated into the Old Swiss Confederacy. It became a canton of its own in 1803, during the Napoleonic Wars.
List of barons.
All the barons belonged to the House of Savoy.


Antonio de Cardona

Antonio de Cardona y de Xerica-Aragon, (1395–1458 Naples, Italy) Viceroy of Sicily 1419–1421, son of Hugo de Cardona and Beatriz de Xerica y Martinez de Luna,
In 1400, Antonio de Cardona y de Xerica-Aragon married "Leonor Manoel de Vilhena" (born 1380)
They had:


National Action (Malta)

National Action (, AN) was a right-wing Maltese political party active between 2007 and 2010.
History.
The party was founded in June 2007, the two most prominent founders being Josie Muscat, a medical doctor and entrepreneur and a former MP of the Nationalist Party, and real estate magnate Anġlu Xuereb. Muscat was elected National Action's first Leader.
The party was best known for its position on immigration. It believed that Malta should close its borders to illegal immigration and, where this is not possible, the European Union (of which Malta is a member) should be obliged to share Malta's burden of illegal immigration. Illegal immigrants should be hosted in Malta for not more than a month, then being moved on to other states. The party has also called for a directly elected President of Malta with expanded powers and politically unaffiliated, a smaller Parliament and a Council of State. It also wanted to lower taxes using a flat tax methodology in exchange for more social responsibility and the curbing of social services abuse.
After the result of the general elections of 2008, Muscat announced his retirement from politics. He was eventually persuaded to stay on as Party Leader.
On 15 April 2010, after a second similar showing, this time in the 2009 elections for the European Parliament, the Party's executive committee proposed to transform the party into a pressure group.
No activities have been noted since.


Treaty of Dresden

The Treaty of Dresden was signed on 25 December 1745 at the Saxon capital of Dresden between Austria, Saxony and Prussia, ending the Second Silesian War.
In the 1742 Treaty of Breslau, Maria Theresa of Austria, struggling for the succession after her father Emperor Charles VI according to the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, had to cede most of the Bohemian province of Silesia to the attacking King Frederick II of Prussia. In the following years, however, she was able to strengthen her position. She attacked the Electorate of Bavaria and in January 1745 achieved the support of Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Saxony to reconquer Silesia. Furthermore, her rival, Emperor Charles VII, died a few days later, and on 22 April 1745 his son and successor, Elector Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria, concluded the Treaty of Füssen with her.
By the end of May 1745, Austrian and Saxon troops invaded Prussian Silesia but were halted by Prussian forces at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg on 4 June. Maria Theresa's husband Francis I was finally elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September, and Frederick's troops gained shining victories at Soor and Kesselsdorf, occupying Dresden on 18 December. Frederick, however, had to cope with a rising number of enemy powers and expiring resources, all the more because he had failed to obtain support from Empress Elizabeth of Russia. Facing the situation, both side agreed on a "status quo".
Based on the terms of the agreement, Frederick acknowledged Francis as Holy Roman Emperor. In return, he maintained control over Silesia. The actually-disadvantaged side was Saxony, which had to pay Prussia one million rixdollars in reparations. Overall, the accord ratified and confirmed the tenets of both the Treaty of Breslau and the Treaty of Berlin. The accord brought the Second Silesian War to an official end.


Dutch ship Gelijkheid

The Prins Frederik Willem was a Dutch 68-gun third rate ship of the line of the navy of the Dutch Republic, the Batavian Navy, and the Royal Navy.
The order to construct the ship was given by the Admiralty of the Meuse.
In 1795, the ship was renamed "Gelijkheid" ("Equality").
On 11 October 1797 the "Gelijkheid" took part in the Battle of Camperdown. The ship was captured by the British and renamed HMS "Gelykheid".
In 1799, the "Gelykheid" was a prison ship at Chatham. In November 1803 the ship was stationed in the Humber as a guardship.
In 1807, "Gelykheid" was fitted out as sheer hulk at Falmouth, and she was disposed of in 1814.


Battle of Duns

The Battle of Duns or Battle of Duns Park was an engagement fought in 1372 near the site of the present day town of Duns, Berwickshire.
Background and battle.
In retaliation for previous Scottish raids, Henry, Lord Percy, the English March Warden had invaded Scotland with 7,000 troops, and met little resistance. Having crossed the Merse, the English army camped at Duns awaiting reinforcements. The shepherds and farmers of Duns used a type of rattle out of dried skins with pebbles inside, which they used to scare wild animals away from their crops and beasts. These rattles were put to effect on the English encampment. By frightening the English horses, the English camp awoke in turmoil, in disarray and being harassed by the local peasantry, the English retired over the Border leaving their baggage behind.
The motto of the town of Duns: 'Duns dings a'!', is supposed to have come from this battle.