Peter Lumsden

General Sir Peter Stark Lumsden (9 November 1829 – 9 November 1918) was a British military officer who served in India. Born in Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, he was the fourth son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB. He studied at Addiscombe Military Seminary, before officially joining military service as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry in 1847. From 1852 to 1857 he served on the North-West Frontier, where, among other activities, he participated in the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the capture of Tantya Tope in 1859.
Following his time on the North-West Frontier, Lumsden served as quartermaster general in 1860 during the Second Opium War, where he participated in the capture of both Tang-ku and the Taku Forts. He was promoted to brevet-lieutenant-colonel, before giving his final act of military service in the Bhutan War of 1865. He was promoted again to Adjutant-General of the Indian Army in 1874, and also acted as aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria for eleven years.
In 1883, Lumsden was awarded a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and was appointed as a commissioner on the Council of India for 10 years. He represented Britain a year later at the Anglo-Russian Commission for the demarcation of the north-west boundary of Afghanistan, then acted as British representative on the Afghan Frontier Commission. After retiring from military service in 1893, Lumsden served as a justice of the peace in his home county of Aberdeenshire, before dying on his 89th birthday, 9 November 1918, in Dufftown, Banffshire.
Life and military career.
Early life and North-West Frontier.
Peter Stark Lumsden was born at Belhelvie Lodge, Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, on 9 November 1829. He was trained at Addiscombe Military Seminary from the age of 20, and entered the East India Company's Bengal Army in 1847 as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry. Between 1852 and 1857 he served on the North-West Frontier in five expeditions against native tribes: the Mohmunds, the Ootman Khel, the Bori Afridis and the Miranzais. He was mentioned in despatches five times and awarded the special thanks of the Local and supreme Governments. From 1857 to 1858 he accompanied a special peace-finding mission to Kandahar with his brother Harry Lumsden. He received thanks from the Government for his work, but returned to India to take part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny. Lumsden next joined the Central India Field Force at Gwalior under General Sir Robert Napier, and, as assistant quartermaster general under Major-General Hugh Rose, shared in the pursuit and capture of Tantya Tope in 1859, when he was again mentioned in despatches.
Second Opium War and Bhutan War.
Lumsden's next period of active service was as quartermaster general on the staff of General Napier, who commanded the 2nd division of the expeditionary force to China during the Second Opium War, in 1860. Lumsden took part in the operations of the Anglo-French forces, including the action of Sin-ho, the capture of Tang-ku and the capture of the Taku Forts that led up to the advance on and occupation of Beijing. He was again mentioned in despatches and promoted to brevet-Major and then brevet-lieutenant-colonel.
The final spell of active service in Lumsden's military career was in the Bhutan War of 1865: his later employment was on the staff and in political posts. He was deputy quartermaster general from 1864 to 1868, and quartermaster general of the Indian Army from 1868 to 1873. He was Acting Resident in Hyderabad, 1873, and Adjutant-General, India from 1874 to 1879, when he was appointed Chief of the Staff in India. He also served for eleven years as an aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria.
Second Anglo-Afghan War.
Lumsden served as Chief of Staff to the commander-in-chief, General Sir F. P. Haines, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War, for which he received the Order of the Bath. In 1884, Lumsden returned to the North-West frontier, when he was selected as British representative on the Anglo-Russian Commission for the demarcation of the north-west boundary of Afghanistan. While leading the Commission, he felt he had been given insufficiently clear instructions by the British government, which proved very dangerous as the situation in Afghanistan deteriorated to the brink of war with Russia. He resigned and returned to England in 1885 after the Panjdeh Incident. He left London to represent the British at negotiations with Russia in selecting the Afghan Frontier Commission to determine the Afghan boundary.
Lumsden was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and given a commissioner's seat on the Council of India, which he occupied for a 10-year tenure from 1883. In 1885 he wrote "Countries and Tribes Bordering on the Koh-i-Baba Range", an article for the seventh volume of the journal "Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography".
Later life.
Following completion of his tenure on the Council of India, Lumsden retired from military service in 1893. He was placed on the Unemployed Supernumerary List three years later and settled down on Buchromb, an estate that he had purchased near Dufftown. During this time he co-wrote "Lumsden of the Guides" with G. R. Elsmie. The book detailed the role that his brother, Harry Burnett Lumsden, had played in founding The Corps of the Guides, a regiment of the British Indian Army. He identified himself with local affairs and served as a justice of the peace and as Deputy Lieutenant for Banffshire and Aberdeenshire. Lumsden died on 9 November 1918 in his estate at Dufftown, Banffshire.
Family.
Lumsden was married to Mary Marriott in 1862. His father was Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB, with one of his three older brothers being Harry Burnett Lumsden. Thomas Lumsden was a distinguished officer of the Bengal Horse Artillery who had served in the Nepal Campaign of 1814 and at the siege of Hatrass and the capture of Kalunga in 1817. Thomas was himself the son of Harry Lumsden, an advocate in Aberdeen who had bought an estate at Belhelvie. He returned home on leave from the Bengal Army in 1819 to marry Hay Burnett of Elrick, and went on to serve another 23 years in India before retiring to Belhelvie in 1842. They had a total of six sons, of whom three emigrated to Canada and two (Harry and Peter) followed in their father's footsteps by pursuing military careers in India.


Veh Mihr Shapur

Veh Mihr Shapur (died 442) was a Sasanian military officer and the first Marzban of Armenia from 428 to 442. Veh Mihr Shapur died in 442 and was succeeded by Vasak of Syunik.


Imperial State of Iran


Candi of Indonesia

A candi () is a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the "Zaman Hindu-Buddha" or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th centuries.
The "Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the Language Center" defines a "candi" as an ancient stone building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings and priests. Indonesian archaeologists describe "candis" as sacred structures of Hindu and Buddhist heritage, used for religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia. However, ancient secular structures such as gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often called "candi" too, while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called a "cungkup".
In Hindu Balinese architecture, the term "candi" refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a "pura". It is often modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To the Balinese, a "candi" is not necessarily ancient, since "candis" continue to be (re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.
In contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, "candi" also refers to a shrine, either ancient or new. Several contemporary "viharas" in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size replica or reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica of Pawon and Plaosan's "perwara" (small) temples. In Buddhism, the role of a "candi" as a shrine is sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the ashes of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara Takus and Batujaya for example are actually elaborate stupas.
In modern Indonesian language, the term "candi" can be translated as "temple" or similar structure, especially of Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus temples of Cambodia (such as the Angkor Wat), Champa (Central and Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also called "candi" in Indonesian.
Terminology.
"Candi" refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it, and a portico. The term "Candi" is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe. However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period, such as "gapura" (gates)," petirtaan" (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city ruins, are also considered "candi".
In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called "" (Sanskrit: ), as evidence in the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to refer to the Sewu temple. This term is in par with Cambodian and Thai term "prasat" which refer to the towering structure of a temple.
Etymology.
From Hindu perspective, the term "candi" itself is believed was derived from "Candika", one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in ancient Indonesia the "candi" had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The association of the name "candi", or with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand, or Burma.
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term "candi" might be a localized form of the Pali word "cedi" (Sanskrit: "caitya") — which related to Thai word "chedi" which refer to a stupa, or it might be related to the Bodhisattva Candī (also known as "Cundī" or "Candā").
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king, patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple in Pasuruan portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.
Architecture.
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The "candi" was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.
Structure elements.
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:
Style.
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the "candi" styles into two main groups: a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style, which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern Java style.
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids ("punden berundak"). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.
Materials.
Most of well-preserved "candi" in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as temple and building materials. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:
Motif and decoration.
Kala-Makara.
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni.
In ancient Javanese "candi", the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated with "nāga", to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE). Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the linga is missing.
Bas-reliefs.
The walls of "candi" often displayed bas-reliefs, either serves as decorative elements as well as to convey religious symbolic meanings; through describing narrative bas-reliefs. The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as "Karmavibhangga" (the law of karma), "Lalitavistara" (the birth of Buddha), "Jataka", "Avadana" and "Gandavyuha". While in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; the "Ramayana" and "Bhagavata Purana" (popularly known as "Krishnayana").
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.
There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.
Deities.
Kalpataru and Kinnaras.
The images of coupled "Kinnara" and "Kinnari" can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu, Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair of "Kinnara" and "Kinnari" usually is depicted guarding "Kalpataru" (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure. There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous "kinnari", Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing image of "simha" (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara.
In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male figure of "Bodhisattvas" and female figure of "Taras", along with "Gandarvas" heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock of "Gana" dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology. The notable images of "boddhisattvas" could be found adorning outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.
Devata and Apsara.
In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male "Devatas" and female "Apsaras" are usually found adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist "Bodhisattva-Tara" celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of "devatas" and "brahmin" sages. The figure of "lokapalas", the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a male deities "devatas" flanked by two "apsaras". The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses — "devatas" and "apsaras", describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of "Svargaloka". This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Guardians.
Dvarapala.
Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather slender, with the exception of gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of "Gupolo" guardian in later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.
Lion.
The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: "Siṁha", Indonesian and Javanese: "Singa") flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians of "candi" entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians. In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara. The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa and Ratna pinnacles.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of "Arupadhatu" consist of round lotus pedestal, gently sloped bell-shaped dome, rectangular shape on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal pinnacle.
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a "stupa", instead of a temple. A "stupa" is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:"pelipit"). It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple. In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In later periods, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts.
Location.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other important sites with notable temple compounds includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.
Java.
Central Java.
Dieng Plateau.
The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground channels. The temples are:
Gedong Songo.
South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.
Borobudur and Kedu Plain.
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west of Magelang, in Central Java.
Klaten Regency.
East of Yogyakarta, Central Java.
Mount Lawu.
Near Surakarta, Central Java.
East Java.
Malang area.
Malang, East Java.
Gallery.
Indonesian candi, Hindu-Buddhist temples, dated from the oldest circa 2nd century, to latest, circa 15th century.


Keshri Singh

Maharaja Keshri Singh (September 1766 - 28 March 1778) was the ruling Maharaja of Bharatpur state (r.1769 – 1778 CE).
Crowning.
He ascended to throne after the death of Maharaja Ratan Singh in 1769.


Amangkurat II of Mataram

Amangkurat II (died 1703) was the Susuhunan of Mataram (later Kartasura) from 1677 to 1703. Prior to taking the throne, he was the crown prince and had the title Pangeran Adipati Anom.
He was the first Javanese monarch to wear European-style uniform, thus gaining nickname Sunan Amral. Amral is Javanese rendering for "admiral".
Genealogy.
Born as Raden Mas Rahmat, he was the son of Amangkurat I of Mataram and Ratu Kulon, daughter of Pangeran Pekik of Surabaya.
Amangkurat II had many wives, but he only had one child, i.e. RM. Sutikna (later Amangkurat III). According to "Babad Tanah Jawi", RM. Sutikna's mother had used magic on another wives of Amangkurat II until they were barren.
Conflict within family.
RM. Rahmat was raised in Surabaya. He then moved to Plered Palace as "adipati anom" (crown prince). However, his relation with his brother, Prince Singasari, worsened. There was also a news that poaition of crown prince would be transferred to Prince Singasari.
In 1661, RM. Rahmat rebelled to his father, supported by anti-Amangkurat I faction. The small rebellion could be suppressed. But, Amangkurat I failed when he attempted to poison RM. Rahmat in 1663, and made their relation worsened.
In 1668, RM. Rahmat fell in love with Rara Oyi, a Surabaya girl who would become his father's concubine. Pangeran Pekik abducted her to be married with RM. Rahmat. This made Amangkurat I angered and murdered Pangeran Pekik and his family. RM. Rahmat was pardoned after he was forced to murder Rara Oyi with his own hand.
Alliance with Trunajaya.
Amangkurat I also relinquished the position of crown prince from RM. Rahmat, and transferred it to Prince Puger (future Pakubuwono I).
In 1670, RM. Rahmat asked Panembahan Rama, a spiritual teacher originated from Kajoran family, for help. Panembahan Rama introduced his former son-in-law, Trunajaya of Madura, to be his assistant.
In 1674, Karaeng Galesong of Makassar and his followers came to Mataram. They requested a tract of land in Mataram, but rejected by Amangkurat I. They were hurt by the refusal and joined with Trunajaya, who rebelled in the east. RM. Rahmat secretly gave them a tract of land in Demung, Besuki (now in Situbondo Regency).
With the merging of Karaeng Galesong, Trunajaya force became larger and hard to control. RM. Rahmat were anxious and decided to join with his father's side. He regained his position as crown prince, because Prince Puger was born from a mother originated from Kajoran family, which supported the rebellion. With the reunion of RM. Rahmat to his father, Amangkurat I, the rebellion of Trunajaya and Karaeng Galesong became more violent.
Ultimately, Trunajaya invaded Plered Palace on 2 July 1677. Amangkurat I and RM. Rahmat themselves escaped to the west, while the palace was defended by Prince Puger as a proof that not all members of Kajoran family supported Trunajaya. However, Prince Puger himself was ousted to Kajenar.
End of Trunajaya rebellion.
Amangkurat II became monarch in 1677 at the height of the Trunajaya rebellion. He succeeded his father, Amangkurat I, who died in Tegal after being expelled from Plered, his capital by Raden Trunajaya, a prince from Madura that captured the court in 1677. According to "Babad Tanah Jawi", Amangkurat I's death was caused by poison in his beverage, given by RM. Rahmat, his own son. Despite of that, RM. Rahmat was still chosen as his successor, but accompanied by a curse that none of his descendants never became a monarch but his short-term son.
In Tegal, RM. Rahmat was welcomed by Martalaya, Regent of Tegal. RM. Rahmat initially planned to make a pilgrim (hajj) instead of fighting against Trunajaya. But he suddenly cancelled his plan, reportedly because he got "wahyu keprabon" (divine mandate). RM. Rahmat then implemented his father's will to collaborate with Dutch East India Company.
Like his father, Amangkurat II was nearly helpless, having fled without an army nor a treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch East India Company (VOC), who then went to war to reinstate him.
In September 1677, a treaty was signed in Jepara. The Dutch East India company was represented by Cornelis Speelman. Most northern coast of Java, straddling between Karawang Regency and Panarukan, Situbondo Regency, was mortgaged to Dutch East India Company as a guarantee of payment of war cost. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favorable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. The multinational Dutch forces, consisting of light-armed troops from Makasar and Ambon, in addition to heavily equipped European soldiers, first defeated Trunajaya in Kediri in November 1678, and Trunajaya himself was captured in 1679 near Ngantang west of Malang, and killed by Amangkurat II with his own hand on 2 January 1680.
Giri Kedaton rebellion.
Giri Kedaton, which became Mataram's vassal since Sultan Agung era, had supported Trunajaya rebellion. Panembahan Ageng Giri actively looked for support to strengthen rebels' force.
Upon accession to throne, Amangkurat II came to Kadilangu, Demak Regency, to meet Panembahan Natapraja, a wise, invulnerable, and smart elder who had soldiers who were ready to help Amangkurat I. Panembahan Natapraja, as a descendant of Sunan Kalijaga, were asked to rewrite history of Java because the original manuscript had been burned by rebels. This became the origin of "Babad Tanah Jawi" as known in the next era. Amangkurat II also made an alliance and treaty with Dutch East India Company to gain weaponry support to make a revenge toward Giri Kedaton.
Giri Kedaton became the last Trunajaya ally to have a large force. In April 1680, Panembahan Natapraja made a large-scale invasion toward Giri Kedaton, supported by Dutch East India Company who helped Amangkurat II. The best commander who was also a reliable disciple of Giri Kedaton was Prince Singosari (Senopati Singosekar), a strong and invulnerable warrior. He was eventually killed in action after duelling with Panembahan Natapraja. Panembahan Natapraja's soldiers were small, but they were able to devastate Giri Kedaton.
Panembahan Ageng Giri was captured and sentenced to death by whip. His family was also exterminated. This marked the end of Giri Kedaton.
Building new palace.
Since the fallen Plered was considered inauspicious, Amangkurat II built a new palace in Wanakarta forest, and moved the capital to Kartasura in the land of Pajang (the northern part of the stretch of land between Mount Merapi and Mount Lawu, the southern part being Mataram).
Prince Puger, who initially stayed in Kajenar, moved to Plered after being left by Trunajaya. He refused to join with Amangkurat II because he heard a news that Amangkuray II wasn't RM. Rahmat (his half-brother), rather Cornelis Speelman's son disguised as RM. Rahmat. The confusing news ultimately caused a chaotic condition.
The war between Plered and Kartasura occurred in November 1680. "Babad Tanah Jawi" mentions it as a war between Mataram and Kartasura. Then, in 1681, the alliance of Dutch and Amangkurat II forced Prince Puger, his younger half-brother, who styled himself Susuhunan ing Alaga when he seized the throne, to relinquish it after he surrendered in 28 November 1681.
"Babad Tanah Jawi" relates that Mataram Sultanate had fallen in 1677, and Sunanate of Kartasura was a new successor of Mataran, legitimized by Panembahan Natapraja of Kadilangu who was considered as Mataram elder.
Attitude toward the Dutch.
Javanese chronicles depicts Amangkurat II as a weak ruler who was easy to influence. Prince Puger, his half-brother, had a more role in government. Amangkurat II ascended to throne with Dutch help and left a debt for war cost as high as 2.5 million guilders. An anti-Dutch official, Patih Nerangkusuma, was successful to persuade him to free from the debt.
In 1683, Wanakusuma, a Kajoran family member, rebelled. His Gunung Kidul-based rebellion was successfully suppressed.
By providing help in regaining his throne, the Dutch brought Amangkurat II under their tight control. Amangkurat II was apparently unhappy with the situation, especially the increasing Dutch control of the coast, but he was helpless in the face of a crippling financial debt and the threat of Dutch military power. The king engaged in a series of intrigues to try to weaken the Dutch position without confronting them head on. For example, he tried to cooperate with other kingdoms such as Cirebon and Johor, and the court sheltered people wanted by the Dutch for attacking colonial offices or disrupting shipping, such as Untung Surapati. Amangkurat II gave him a residence in Babirong village, and Untung Surapati arranged his strength there.
In 1685, Batavia (now Jakarta) sent Captain Francois Tack, the officer who captured Trunajaya, to Amangkurat's court at Kartasura, to capture Surapati and negotiate further details into the agreement between VOC and Amangkurat II. François Tack was killed when pursuing Surapati in Kartasura, but Batavia decided to do nothing since the situation in Batavia itself was far from stable, such as the insurrection of Captain Jonker, native commander of Ambonese settlement in Batavia, in 1689. Mainly due to this incident, by the end of his reign, Amangkurat II was deeply distrusted by the Dutch, but Batavia were similarly uninterested in provoking another costly war on Java.
Amangkurat II then approved Untung Suropati and Nerangkusuma to seize Pasuruan Regency. Anggajaya, Regent of Pasuruan who was initially appointed by Amangkurat II himself had to be victim. He escaped to Surabaya, joined with his brother, Anggawangsa alias Duke Jangrana.
The ambiguous attitude of Amangkurat II was discovered by Dutch East India Company, who found Amangkurat II's letters to Sultanates of Cirebon, Johor, Palembang, and Kingdom of England, which urged to wage a war with Dutch Republic. Amangkurat II also supported Captain Jonker's revolt in 1689.
The Dutch East India Company made a pressure to Kartasura to pay war cost as high as 2.5 million guilders. Amangkurat II himself attempted to improve the relation by pretending to invade Untung Suropati in Pasuruan.
Death.
Amangkurat II died in 1703 and was briefly succeeded by his son, Amangkurat III (r. 1703–1705), whose reign was marked by First Javanese War of Succession.


Kaladi inscription

Kaladi inscription is a series of Javanese inscriptions engraved on copper plates dated from the year 831 Saka or 909 CE originated from the Medang Mataram kingdom period. It was written in the form of prose in standard Kawi script with some variations, and using the Old Javanese language. This inscription was carved on copperplate ("tamra praśasti") totaling 10 plates, however two plates are missing; the plate numbers 3 and 5. Today the 8 plates of Kaladi inscriptions are stored in the National Museum of Indonesia in Jakarta with inventory number E71.
The Kaladi inscription was found in the area of Mount Penanggungan, East Java. The Kaladi inscription dated from early 10th century, during the reign of King Śrī Maharāja Rakai Watukura Dyah Balitung Śrī Dharmmodaya Mahāsambhu of Medang Mataram Kingdom. King Balitung was the successor of Rakai Kayuwangi.
This inscription is important and interesting, because it refers to banditry in ancient Java. The inscription also mentioned about foreign-origin residents that resided in Java. The inscription describes the royal patronage that encourage the development of settlements along the rivers and roads connecting interior settlements with the ports of coastal Java, in order to protect the merchants and coastal settlers by reducing the crime of piracy, robbery and banditry along the trade routes.
Contents.
This inscription tells of the establishment of the villages of Kaladi, Gayām, and Pyapya, all included within the "samgat" (region) of Bawaᶇ. The lands were appointed as Sīma lands by the request of Dapunta Suddhara and Dapunta Dampi to the King Rakai Watukura Balitung. The inscription tells the background of that led to the request; initially there were patches of forests that separates the villages which causes fear among villagers. The village dwellers are constantly under attack from residents (horde of bandits) of Mariwuᶇ, which makes the traders and fishermen feel uneasy and constantly in fear day and night. Then the villagers mutually agreed and decided that the forests should be cleared and transformed into rice paddy fields, so that people will no longer suffer fear, and the rice fields were to be included within the region ("samgat") of Bawaᶇ.
This inscription also mentioned the names of the officials in charge of this affairs, and also mention about pegs given to the officials to mark the boundaries of the new Sīma lands' rice fields. The inscription also mentioned "sapata" law or punishment for violating the Sīma.
In addition, this inscription also explains about foreign-origin people that resided in ancient Java. The inscription mentioned about "Kling" (refer to Kalinga or simply Southeastern Indian people), "Arya" (Aryans of the Northern India), "Singhala" (Sinhalese of Sri Lanka), "Drawila" (Dravida?, Pondhiceri), "Campa" (Chams of Champa), "Kmir" (Khmers of Cambodia, but some translate it as Kashmiri people, although this is highly discounted) and "Rman" (Mon) as foreigners from mainland Asia that frequently came to Java to trade. The inscription suggests a maritime trade network has been established between kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia and Java.


Vadiveeswaram

Vadiveeswaram is a village, now part of the town of Nagercoil, in Kanyakumari district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The village was originally an agraharam, or a traditional double line of houses occupied by Brahmins and flanking a temple or pair of temples. It is most famous as the birthplace of Neelakanta Sivan, a well-known 19th-century composer.
Geography.
Vadiveeswaram (வடிவீசுவரம் )is located at , on the Pazhayar river (பழையாறு). Among the prominent streets in Vadiveeswaram are Deep Street (Palla Theru),Kezha palla theru, Big Street(Periya Theru)பெரிய தெரு, Dalavai ( தளவாய் ) Street, High Street (Mettu Theru)மேட்டுத்தெரு, East Car Street (Kizhakku Radha Veedhi), West Car Street (Merku Radha Veedhi), Sasthankoil Street and kalmada street .
In 2001, according to the Census of India, Vadiveeswaram had a population of 5,254 people, with 81 per cent literacy.
The low-lying area is prone to flooding during heavy rains.
Nagercoil Railway Station is the nearest railway station which is about a 5 minutes walk from the centre (prominent streets).
It has the Cape road as the western border, Meenakshipuram at north, Kottar (Kambolam) at south and Railway station with paddy fields as the eastern borders.
History.
The name Vadiveeswaram is a compound of the words "vadivu", which means 'beauty' and "Eeswara", an appellation of the God Shiva, in Tamil. The name thus means "the beauty of Shiva", which could refer either to the area or to the presiding goddess of the Azhagamman Temple, a Hindu Saivite temple situated in the north-east corner of the village.
Carnatic composer Neelakanta Sivan was born in Vadiveeswaram in 1839. He mentioned his birthplace twice in his work "Thiruneelakanta Botham". A festival of Carnatic music was held in the village in 2007.
Political.
Its under Kannya kumari district - 30 மாவட்டம், Nagercoil - 230 constituency தொகுதி,
part numbers 129–133 in electoral roll, It has 3 wards 13, 14 & 38.
electoral roll
Temples.
The principal temple is Azhagamman Kovil, with its tank. This temple is dedicated to Vadivambal and Sundareswarar from whose names the name of the village is derived. The village is also home to five other temples: Mutharaman Kovil, Perumal Kovil, Idar Theertha Perumal Kovil, Sastha Kovil and Pillayar Kovil.
A rare image of saint Vyagrapada Vigneswari was found in Vadiveeswaram by the Kanyakumari Historical and Cultural Research Centre.
Festivals.
The Azhagamman Temple, the biggest in the area presides car festival annually. The temple has two cars which was parked on the middle of the East car street ( Keezha ratha veedhi / Kizhakku ratha veedhi/ கீழ ரத வீதி ). The four prominent streets was named after the car festival which was held in the streets was named as North, East, West & South Car streets respectively.
Another important festival worth to mention was the soorasamhaar/ soora samhaaram (சூரசம்ஹாரம் ) which too was held under azhagamman temple at keezha radha veedhi.


Sunday Beauty Queen

Sunday Beauty Queen is a 2016 Philippine documentary film directed by Baby Ruth Villarama and follows a group of expatriate domestic workers in Hong Kong as they prepare to take part in an annual beauty pageant. It made its world premiere in the Wide Angle documentary competition at the 21st Busan International Film Festival in 2016.
The film is an official entry to the 2016 Metro Manila Film Festival.


Malwala Palace

Malwala Palace was built in 1845 and is located in Hyderabad, telangana, India. Malwala Palace was located along the road leading towards east from Charminar. It was constructed in Mughal and Rajasthani style and in Hyderabadi courtyard style, was known for its richly carved. wooden pavilion. Other than Raja Bhagwandas Bagh Pavilion, Malwala Palace was the only other palace in Hyderabad having a wooden pavilion.
Barring the grand gateway, the entire palace complex has been demolished in August 2000 and a shopping mall has been built in its place.
History.
The "Malwalas" were responsible for the revenue records of the Nizam's dominions.
The palace belonged to a noble family of Dewan Chandulal, the Malwala or the custodians of the Revenue Records (Daftar -i- Mal) of the erstwhile Hyderabad State. Built in the early 18th century by the noble Sagar Mall during the reign of first nizam in 1724, this was one of the very few palaces of Hyderabad built in the Mughal and Rajasthani styles of architecture. It acquired the name Malwala as Sagar Mall was the custodian of revenue records (maal) in hyderabad state. At the time department of revenue was held by the Mathur Kayastha family or Malwala family. During the 1940s, at the time of one of the family descendants, Raja Dharam Karan, the grandeur of the palace was resplendent and was noted for its glory and power.
It was an exquisite Diwan Khana made of huge arches in lacquered wood and painted with vegetable dyes and two galleries about 80 m in length flanking the Diwan Khana on each side constructed with Rangoon teak rafters. The galleries housed priceless collection of antique Indian art and artifacts. The palace also had a library, which boasted of a collection of rare books and manuscripts from the 10th century A.D.
It is one of the few wooden edifices in the city, a double-storeyed mansion with inner courtyards, with its ornamental archway entrance rich in stucco work and a fountain at the centre. There were wooden pavilions on two sides and overhanging wooden balconies with intricate patterns in Rajasthani and Mughal architectural styles. The palace had two wings, the eastern part used for official business, celebrations and social functions and the western one for residential purpose. The eastern part extended to 2460 square metres with a beautiful cistern standing in the middle of the vast courtyard. It consisted of a series of galleries in two floors and a wooden pavilion, which like the Diwan-i-Khas of the Delhi Fort is "an oriental magnificence in wood." Vegetable dyes were used for decorating the lacquered wood and the walls.
Tragedy struck the Malwala Palace, a protected heritage building, having rare wooden pavilion considered the "bride" among the garland of palaces around Charminar when the major portion as important as the "heart" was reduced to rubble in 2000. The demolition occurred after disputes between a sections of the owners of the palace, some in collusion with real estate developers and politicians over maintaining heritage status of the building.


Yazathu of Pagan

Yazathu (, ; 1260 – 10 May 1291) was the only son of King Narathihapate and his chief queen Saw Hla Wun. By birth, Yazathu should have been the heir-presumptive although the chronicles do not specifically mention any heirs apparent during Narathihapate's reign. After the king's death in 1287, Yazathu did not become king. His powerful mother instead placed Kyawswa, a son of Narathihapate by a junior queen, on the throne in 1289. A surviving inscription from 1290 states that the prince and his mother donated a monastery. The prince died in 1291.


Economic history of China

The economic history of China is covered in the following articles:


List of disasters in Metro Manila by death toll

This list of disasters in Metro Manila by death toll includes both natural and man-made disasters that took place in the general vicinity of Metro Manila in the Philippines. This list is not comprehensive in general.


Shehrizor Province, Ottoman Empire


Gadag-Betageri

Gadag-Betageri is a city municipal council in Gadag district in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Gadag District. The original city of Gadag and its sister city Betageri (or "Betgeri") have a combined city administration. The municipality of Gadag-Betageri has a population of 172,813 and an area of . Kanaginahal of Gadag is the birthplace of the first co-operative society in Asia. The temples of Veera Narayana and Trikuteshwara are places of religious and historic importance.
The twin city municipality is situated from Dharwad and from Hubballi, and lies on the Gutti-Vasco National Highway.
Gadag style of architecture.
The "Gadag style of Architecture", marked by "Ornate pillars with intricate sculpture", originated during the period of the Western Chalukya (or Kalyani Chalukyas) king "Someswara I", and it flourished for a period of 150 years (During to ) during which period some 50 temples were built; some examples being:
The Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag,
The Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi,
The Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal,
The Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri,
etc.
Demographics.
 India census, Gadag-Betageri had a population of 172,813. Males constitute 86,165 of the population and females 86,648. Gadag-Betageri has an average literacy rate of 85.56%. The Sex ratio is about 1006 females per 1000 males to females. 18,419 of the population is under 6 years of age.
Kannada is the main and widely spoken language, English and Hindi are spoken and understood by few people.
See also.
IN 2020 cleanest cities,gadag has got 8th rank in karnataka
Gadag is famous for dishes that is MIRCHI,BADNIKAYI AND GIRMITTI & Also Egg Rice


Hindu period in Lahore

The city of Lahore has a history of Hindu presence. The earliest princes were said to be Rajputs from Ayodhya, of the same family as those who reigned in Gujrat and Mewar.
Hieun Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who visited the Punjab in 630 AD, speaks of a large city, containing many thousands of families, chiefly Brahmans, situated on the eastern frontier of the kingdom of Cheka, which he says, extended from the Indus to the Beas.
The old Hindu-city.
Many historians agree that Lahore was founded by an ancient Rajput colony sometime between the first and seventh centuries, probably as early as the beginning of the second; that it soon rose to be a place of importance, the parent of other colonies, and eventually the capital of a powerful principality, to which it gave its name. There are some grounds supporting that the old Hindu city of Lahore did not occupy exactly the site of the modern city. Tradition points the site of old Lahore to the vicinity of Ichhra - which is now a part of Lahore city - but was back then a village about three miles to the west.
The name of the village was formerly "Icchra Lahore" . Moreover, some of the oldest and most sacred Hindu shrines are to be met within this locality, namely and the "Chandrat". The gate of the present city, known as the Lahori or Lohari Gate was so called as being the gateway looking in the direction of "Lohawar" or old Lahore just as the Kashmiri Gate looks towards Kashmir, and the Delhi Gate of modern Delhi to the ancient city of that name.
There are no architectural remains of the old Hindu city of Lahore, a circumstance which might well be explained by the absence of stone material, and the numerous destructive invasions to which the city has been subjected. But also, in accordance with what all Indian architectural researchers tend to show namely, that the northern Hindu race was not, until a comparatively late period, in the habit of building temples, or durable edifices of any kind. Even at Delhi, the seat of Hindu Dynasties from upwards of a thousand years BCE to more than a thousand years AD (CE) , and there, where is abundance of stone, no specimens of Hindu architecture exist dating earlier than the tenth or eleventh century.
Invasions.
At the period of the first Muhammadan invasion, Lahore was in possession of a Chauhan prince, of the family of Ajmer. Whether owing to change of dynasty, or to Lahore's exposed position on the high road from Afghanistan to India, it was subsequently deserted and the seat of the government was removed to Sialkot or its vicinity, where it remained until the period of the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni in the beginning of the eleventh century; that the conqueror re-occupied the deserted city, and established a garrison in a fort, which was built possibly, like the Old Fort at Delhi, on the ruin of the old Rajput stronghold.
In 682 AD, according to Ferishta, the Afghans of Kerman and Peshawar, who had, even at that early period, embraced the religion of the Prophet, wrested certain possession from the Hindu prince. A war ensued, and in the space seventy battles were fought with varied success, until the Afghans, having formed an alliance with the Ghakkars, a wild tribe inhabiting the Salt Range of Punjab, compelled the Raja to cede a portion of his territory. The next mention of Lahore is in the Rajputana chronicles, where the Bussas of Lahore, a Rajput tribe, are mentioned as rallying to the defence of Chittore, when besieged by Muslim forces in the beginning of the ninth century.
At length, in 975 AD, Sabaktagin, Governor of Khorassan and father of the celebrated Mahmud advanced beyond the Indus. He was met by Jeipal, the "Raja of Lahore" whose dominion is said to have extended from Sirhind to Lamghan and from Kashmir to Multan. By the advice of the Bhati tribe, the Raja Jeipal formed an alliance with the Afghans, and, with their aid, was enabled to withstand the first invasion. However, Sabaktagin later repeated his invasion on his succession to the throne of Ghazni. A battle ensued in the vicinity of Lamghan ending with the defeat of the Raja and overtures being made for peace. His terms were accepted and persons were sent, on the part of Sabaktagin, to take the balance of the stipulated ransom. On reaching Lahore, Jeipal proved faithless and imprisoned those commissioned to receive the treasure. On learning intelligence of his perfidy, Sabaktagin, in the words of the Ferishta, "like a foaming torrent, hastened towards Hindustan".
Another battles ensued, in which Jeipal was again vanquished, and he retreated, leaving the territory to the west of the Nilab or Indus in the hands of the invader. The invader did not retain the conquests that he had made for in 1008 AD, a confederation headed by Anangpal, the son of Jeipal, again met the advancing army, now commanded by Mahmud, son and successor of Sabaktagin, in the vicinity of Peshawar. Lahore was allowed to remain intact for thirteen years longer. Anangpal was succeeded by Nardjanpal, while Mahmud pushed his conquests into Hindustan. But in 1022 AD, he suddenly marched down from Kashmir, seized Lahore without opposition, and gave it over to be plundered. Nardjanpal fled helpless to Ajmer, and the Hindu principality of Lahore was extinguished forever. A final effort was made by the Hindus in the reign of Modud, 1045 AD, to recover their lost sovereignty, but after a fruitless siege of six months, they retired without success.


Anurutha

Chao Anurutha (also spelled Anouruttha or Anurathurat; ; 1737 – 31 December 1819) was the king of Luang Phrabang from 1792 to 1819.
Anurutha was the forth son of king Inthasom. He was appointed the viceroy ("oupahat") of Luang Phrabang in 1768. In 1788, he was taken as hostage to Bangkok together with other royalties. He was not allowed to return until 3 February 1792. After a four-year interregnum, he was crowned in Luang Phrabang by Siamese in 1792. However, he was accused of in treasonous contact with Burmese by the Vientiane king Nanthasen. Rama I permitted Nanthasen to attack Luang Prabang. After the capture of Luang Phrabang, Anurutha was detained in Bangkok. After Chinese intervention, Anurutha was allowed to return to Luang Phrabang in 1796. He died on 31 December 1819.


Longyou Caves

The Longyou Caves (), also called the Xiaonanhai Stone Chambers (), are a group of 24 artificial sandstone caverns located at Fenghuang Hill, near the village of Shiyan Beicun on the Qu River in Longyou County, Quzhou prefecture, Zhejiang province, China. Created more than 2,000 years ago, they were not recorded in any historical documents and were rediscovered by farmers in 1992.
Discovery.
In June 1992, four farmers in Longyou discovered the caves by accident when they drained the water of five small ponds in their village. The ponds turned out to be five large manmade caverns. Further investigation revealed 19 more caverns nearby. They have been determined to be more than 2000 years old, and their construction is not recorded in any historical documents.
About 200km to the Northwest, the Huashan Grottoes at the riverbanks of the Xin'an River somewhat resemble the Longyou Caves, but have likely been built more than 1500 years later during the late Ming Dynasty (1552–1667 AD).
Description.
The caves are notable in several respects:


Khmer architecture

Khmer architecture (), also known as Angkorian architecture (), is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains.
Periodization.
Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style.
Materials.
Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes.
Brick.
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the SandStones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest.
Sandstone.
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone.
Laterite.
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in the underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple.
Structures.
Central sanctuary.
The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower ("prasat") rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang.
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmer religious architecture.
Enclosure.
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.
Gallery.
A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple.
Gopura.
A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers.
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire.
House of Fire, or "Dharmasala", is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.
Library.
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
Srah and baray.
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain.
The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."
Elements.
Bas-relief.
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII.
The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:
Blind door and window.
Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls.
Colonette.
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.
Corbelling.
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation.
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum.
A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment.
The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
Stairs.
Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
Motifs.
Apsara and devata.
Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear individually and in groups.
Dvarapala.
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei.
Gajasimha and Reachisey.
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda.
Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as follows:
Indra.
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.
Kala.
The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva. In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.
Krishna.
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:
Linga.
The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.
Makara.
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings.
Nāga.
Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.
Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia. Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements.
Nāga Bridge.
Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source in Indian mythology.
Quincunx.
A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva.
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort, while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.
Vishnu.
Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.
Ordinary housing.
The nuclear family, in rural Cambodia, typically lives in a rectangular house that may vary in size from four by six meters to six by ten meters. It is constructed of a wooden frame with gabled thatch roof and walls of woven bamboo. Khmer houses typically are raised on stilts as much as three meters for protection from annual floods. Two ladders or wooden staircases provide access to the house. The steep thatch roof overhanging the house walls protects the interior from rain. Typically a house contains three rooms separated by partitions of woven bamboo.
The front room serves as a living room used to receive visitors, the next room is the parents' bedroom, and the third is for unmarried daughters. Sons sleep anywhere they can find space. Family members and neighbors work together to build the house, and a house-raising ceremony is held upon its completion. The houses of poorer persons may contain only a single large room. Food is prepared in a separate kitchen located near the house but usually behind it. Toilet facilities consist of simple pits in the ground, located away from the house, that are covered up when filled. Any livestock is kept below the house.
Chinese and Vietnamese houses in Cambodian town and villages typically are built directly on the ground and have earthen, cement, or tile floors, depending upon the economic status of the owner. Urban housing and commercial buildings may be of brick, masonry, or wood.
See also.
Indian influence:


Manikyakkallu

Manikyakkallu is a 2011 Malayalam drama film directed by M. Mohanan and starring Prithviraj and Samvrutha Sunil in the lead roles. The film is about a young teacher who arrives at a village school, who tries to make a definite change in student attitude. The movie is loosely based on the life story of the students and teachers of the Govt Brennan School, Thalassery.
Plot.
The story happens in a government school that had a glorious past but is now on the verge of being shut down as there are fewer than 60 students enrolled there. The teachers have no hope about making a difference to the situation and are busy with their personal activities. Into this situation comes a young teacher Vinayachandran (Pritiviraj), who makes a difference. Being a new teacher to the institution, it is unknown to all that he is the son of the school's former headmaster, who became a dishonor after all the students of the school failed in the SSLC exams and died heartbroken.


Kotharia, Rajasthan

Kotharia is a town in Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, which was the headquarters of the former 1st class jagir (estate) of the House of Kotharia, part of the Udaipur (Mewar) state, which was in Mewar Residency in Rajputana Agency.
It is situated on the right bank of the Banas River about 50 km. northeast of Udaipur, and 5 km. from Nathdwara.
History.
The first ruler of Kotharia were the descendants of the last Chauhan king of Ranthambhor, Raja Hamir Singh, about 1302. Whose descendants settled in Mainpuri in uttar pradesh state of present-day India.
During the Battle of Khanwa, when Mughal Emperor Babur fought Maharana Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) on 17 March 1527, one of them was Manik Chand Chauhan, a chieftain from the village Rajor in present Mainpuri district, Uttar Pradesh, who joined Rana Sanga with his 4,000 men and fought to the death. After the war, he was posthumously rewarded with the jagir of Kotharia and the title of ‘Rawat’. Manik Chand's sons opted to remain in Kotharia and serve Mewar, and were among the first rank of Mewar's nobles (the First 16 Umraos).
In 1901, the town had a population of 1,586 and the estate had 81 villages under it.


Ayn al-Mansi

Ayn al-Mansi (, "Ein el Mansî") was a Palestinian Arab village in the District of Jenin of the Mandatory Palestine. It was depopulated as a result of a military attack in mid-April during the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine.
History.
In the 1882 the PEF's "Survey of Western Palestine" (SWP) described "El Mensi" as: "A small ruined village, with springs."
British Mandate era.
In the 1931 census of Palestine, conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Ein el Mansi had 73 Muslim inhabitants, in a total of 15 houses.
In the 1945 statistics, Ayn al-Mansi had a population of 90 Muslims, and the jurisdiction of the village was 1,295 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this, 186 dunams were used for plantations and irrigable land, 868 dunams were used for cereals, while 2 dunams were built-up (urban) land.
1948 and aftermath.
Ayn al-Mansi became depopulated after Military assault in mid-April 1948.


Khurram Khan Panni

Khurram Khan Panni had served as the Chief Whip of the East Pakistan Provincial Assembly and former Ambassador of Pakistan.
Early life.
Panni was born in 1921 to Masud Ali Khan Panni. He studied at St. Paul's School, Darjeeling, St. Xavier's Collegiate School, and Presidency University.
Career.
Panni was elected to East Bengal Legislative Assembly but was unseated as he was underage, below 21.
Panni contested the April 1949 election from Tangail as a Muslim League candidate against former Muslim League politician Shamsul Huq. On 26 April 1949, he lost the election to Huq for representing Nagarpur, Mirzapur and Basail.
In 1954, Panni lost the election to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, candidate of the United Front.
In 1962, Panni was elected to the East Pakistan Provincial Assembly and went on to become whip of the ruling party.
In 1963, Panni was appointed the High Commissioner of Pakistan to Kenya.
During Bangladesh Liberation war, Panni served as the ambassador of Pakistan to the Philippines in 1971. He declared allegiance to Bangladesh during the war along with two other Bengali Pakistan ambassadors, Abdul Momin and Abul Fateh.
In 1974, Panni was appointed the ambassador of Bangladesh to Indonesia. He retired in 1975 and moved to Seattle, Washington, United States.
Personal life.
Panni was the grandson of Wajed Ali Khan Panni, the zamindar of Karatia Zamindari. His maternal grandfather was Abdul Halim Ghaznavi, for whom he worked as a Private secretary.


Wipas Raksakulthai

Wipas Raksakulthai (; born c. 1973) is a Thai businessman currently serving a sentence for lèse majesté following a Facebook post to his account perceived to criticize King Bhumibol. Wipas has been named a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International.
Wipas is a Thai "Red Shirt", a supporter of the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship, the movement loosely affiliated with deposed prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra. On 29 April 2010, he was arrested at his home in Rayong Province by the Department of Special Investigation on charges of lèse majesté, following a Facebook post to his account allegedly criticizing the king. He was 37 years old at the time of his arrest. Wipas denied that he had made the post, stating that his account had been hacked. In May 2011, "The Nation" quoted a "reliable source" as saying that Wipas had been released on bail, but was trying to avoid further news coverage.
The "Bangkok Post" reported that this was thought to be the first lèse majesté charge against a Thai Facebook user. A media reform activist described the case as escalating "the climate of fear among [Thai] internet users" and stated that "now many people refrain from revealing their real identities on Facebook."
In its 2011 Annual Report, Amnesty International criticized the arrest, expressing its concern that "[Thai] freedom of expression is being curbed through the use of the emergency decree, the lese majeste law and the Computer Crime Act." The organization named Wipas a prisoner of conscience, apparently the first in several decades. An advisor to Amnesty International said he was uncertain why Wipas had been classified as a prisoner conscience while the possibly hundreds of other citizens detained under the lese majeste law had not.


Jayavarman III

Very little is known about Jayavarman II's son and successor, Jayavarman III (), or Vishnuloka, the second ruler of Angkor.
The future Khmer king, Yasovarman I, claimed to be related to the brother of Jayavarman III's grandmother, Rudravarman.
An inscription from Prasat Sak describes: "When he failed to capture a wild elephant while hunting, a divinity promised that he would secure the animal if he built a sanctuary." There are some temples dated to his reign though none said that they belonged to him. He may have begun a small construction project which was overshadowed by his more ambitious successor and builder, Indravarman I. He died in 877 probably from chasing a wild elephant.


Dharanindravarman II

Dharanindravarman II (; also titled "Paramanishkalapada") was king of the Khmer Empire from 1150 to 1160.
He married the daughter of Harshavarman III, Princess Sri Jayarajacudamani. Their son Jayavarman VII was born by 1125.
Dharanindravarman II was a cousin of the king he succeeded, Suryavarman II.
The Yuhai encyclopedia records that in 1155 “Zhenla-Luohu” (that is, Cambodia) sent two elephants as tribute to the Song emperor.