Nalagarh

Nalagarh is a city and a municipal committee in Solan district in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh.
Geography.
Nalagarh is a gateway to Himachal Pradesh in North India, 300 km of north Delhi and 60 km from Chandigarh.
History.
The Fort of Nalagarh was built in 1421 during the reign of Raja Bikram Chand on a hillock at the foothills of the mighty Himalayas. It affords a panoramic view of the Shivalik hills beyond the Sirsa river and gave its name to the state. Nalagarh enjoyed indirect rule during the British Raj as a non-salute state.
In the early twentieth century, Nalagarh State was one of the Simla hill states, under the government of Punjab. The country was overrun by Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in possession of the territory. Grain and opium were the main agricultural products.
Governance.
Nalagarh is a municipal council with 9 wards. Nalagarh area touches the areas of Ropar and Anandpur Sahib of Punjab.
Demographics.
 India census, Nalagarh had a population of 9,433. Males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Nalagarh has an average literacy rate of 76%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 80%, and female literacy is 72%. 12% of the population is under 6.
In the 1961 Census of India, 78.4% of the Nalagarh tehsil of the then Ambala district registered as Hindi-speaking, 14.8% as Punjabi-speakers and 6.4% as Pahari-speaking.
According to 2011 census, the Nalagarh Municipal Council has population of 10,708 of which 5,739 are males while 4,969 are females. Children age 0-6 number 1296 or 12.10%. The Female Sex Ratio is 866 against state average of 972. The Child Sex Ratio is around 914 compared to Himachal Pradesh state average of 909. Literacy rate is 90.03% higher than state average of 82.80%. Male literacy is around 93.07% while female literacy rate is 86.51%.
Economy.
4,291 residents were engaged in work or business activity. Of this 3,309 were males while 982 were females. 93.08% were engaged in Main Work while 6.92% were engaged in Marginal Work.


List of Indian monarchs

The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents.
Early later documented rulers and dynasties who are deemed to have ruled a portion of the Indian subcontinent are included in this list.
Chandravanshi-Haihay Rajvansh.
Later they were divided among different sub-castes which include Kansara, Kasera, Tamrakar, Thathera, Tambat and many more.
Magadha dynasties.
This list includes the legendary kings of Magadha
Nanda dynasty (c. 345–321 BCE).
Mahanandin,founded the Nanda Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empire
("Agrammes","Xandrammes") (until 321 BCE), lost his empire to Chandragupta Maurya after being defeated by him.
Ancient southern dynasties.
Pandyan dynasty (c. 1100 BCE–1345 CE).
Central Pandyas
Early Pandyas
First Empire
Pandyan Revival
Pandalam dynasty (c. 1200)
Chera dynasty (c. 500 BCE–1124 CE).
Ancient Chera
1. Udiyancheralatan
2. Antuvancheral
3. Imayavaramban Nedun-Cheralatan
4. Cheran Chenkutuvan (c.410–375 BCE)
5. Palyanai Sel-Kelu Kuttuvan
6. Poraiyan Kadungo
7. Kalankai-Kanni Narmudi Cheral
8. Vel-Kelu Kuttuvan
9. Selvak-Kadungo
10. Adukotpattu Cheralatan
11. Kuttuvan Irumporai
12. Tagadur Erinda Perumcheral
13. Yanaikat-sey Mantaran Cheral
14. Ilamcheral Irumporai (241–257 CE)
15. Perumkadungo
16. Ilamkadungo
17. Kanaikal Irumporai (367–397 CE)
Kulashekhara dynasty (1020–1314)
Chola dynasty (c. 600 BCE–1279 CE).
Sangam Cholas
Imperial Cholas (848–1279)
Foreign invaders in north-western India.
These empires were vast, centered in Persia or the Mediterranean; their satrapies (provinces) in India were at their outskirts.
Satavahana dynasty (c. 271 BCE–220 CE).
The beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE. Satavahanas dominated the Deccan region from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE. It lasted till the early 3rd century CE. The following Satavahana kings are historically attested by epigraphic records, although the Puranas name several more kings (see Satavahana dynasty#List of rulers):
Chahamana or Chauhan dynasty (500–1315 CE).
"The ruling dynasties belonging to the Chauhan clan included:-"
Chahamanas of Shakambhari (500–1194).
Following is a list of Chahamana rulers of Shakambhari and Ajmer, with approximate period of reign, as estimated by R. B. Singh:
Chahamanas of Naddula (c. 950–1197).
Following is a list of Chahmana rulers of Naddula, with approximate period of reign, as estimated by R. B. Singh:
Chahamanas of Jalor (1160–1311).
The Chahamana rulers of the Jalor branch, with their estimated periods of reign, are as follows:
Shahi Kingdom (500–1026 CE).
In Kabul Shahi Kingdom two Dynasties ruled (both were Hindu dynasties) from:
Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty (550–1036).
Rajogarh Branch.
NOTE: Badegujar were rulers of Rajogarh
Mewar Dynasty (550–1950).
Rana branch (1162–1326).
Rahapa, a son of Ranasimha alias Karna, established the Rana branch. According to the 1652 Eklingji inscription, Rahapa's successors were:
Karkota Empire of Kashmir (625–955).
This Lalitaditya built the famous Martand Sun Temple in Kashmir.
Tomar dynasty of Delhi (736–1151).
Various historical texts provide different lists of the Tomara kings:
As stated earlier, the historians doubt the claim that the Tomaras established Delhi in 736 CE.
Paramara dynasty of Malwa (c. 9th century to 1305).
According to historial Kailash Chand Jain, "Knowledge of the early Paramara rulers from Upendra to Vairisimha is scanty; there are no records, and they are known only from later sources." The Paramara rulers mentioned in the various inscriptions and literary sources include:
Solanki dynasty or Chalukyas of Gujarat (c. 940-1244).
The Chalukya rulers of Gujarat, with approximate dates of reign, are as follows:
Kachwahas Dynasty (967 CE–1949 CE).
Kachwahas King Sorha Dev and Dulha Rao defeated Meena of Dhundhar Kingdom & established Kachwaha Dynasty, which ruled for more than 1000 years & still ruling in Jaipur district of Rajasthan.
Vaghela dynasty (c. 1244–1304).
The sovereign Vaghela rulers include:
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526).
Tughlaq dynasty (1321–1414).
After the invasion of Timur in 1398, the governor of Multan, Khizr Khan abolished the Tughluq dynasty in 1414.
Tomara dynasty of Gwalior (1375–1523).
The Tomara rulers of Gwalior include the following.
Musunuri Nayaks (1323–1368).
There were at least two Musunuri Nayak rulers:
Kingdom of Mysore (1371–1950).
Wodeyar dynasty (first rule, 1371–1761).
The reign of the Kings of Mysore (Wodeyar line) was interrupted from 1761 to 1799.
Maharajas of Cochin (1503–1964).
Veerakerala Varma, nephew of [[Rajashekhara (Chera king)|Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], is supposed to have been the first king of Cochin around the 7th century. But the records we have start in 1503.
Chogyal rulers of Sikkim and Ladakh (1642–1975).
1. 1642–1670 Phuntsog Namgyal
(1604–1670) Ascended the throne and was consecrated as the first Chogyal of Sikkim. Made the capital in Yuksom.
2. 1670–1700 Tensung Namgyal
(1644–1700) Shifted capital to Rabdentse from Yuksom.
3. 1700–1717 Chakdor Namgyal
(1686–1717) His half-sister Pendiongmu tried to dethrone Chakdor, who fled to Lhasa, but was reinstated as king with the help of Tibetans.
4. 1717–1734 Gyurmed Namgyal
(1707–1733) Sikkim was attacked by Nepalis.
5. 1734–1780 Phuntsog Namgyal II
(1734–1780) Nepalis raided Rabdentse, the then capital of Sikkim.
6. 1780–1793 Tenzing Namgyal
(1769–1793) Chogyal fled to Tibet, and later died there in exile.
7. 1793–1863 Tsugphud Namgyal
(1785–1863) The longest-reigning Chogyal of Sikkim. Shifted the capital from Rabdentse to Tumlong. Treaty of Titalia in 1817 between Sikkim and British India was signed in which territories lost to Nepal were appropriated to Sikkim. Darjeeling was gifted to British India in 1835. Two Britons, Dr. Arthur Campbell and Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker were captured by the Sikkimese in 1849. Hostilities between British India and Sikkim continued and led to a treaty signed, in which Darjeeling was ceded to the British Raj.
8. 1863–1874 Sidkeong Namgyal, (1819–1874)
9. 1874–1914 Thutob Namgyal
(1860–1914) John Claude White appointed as the first political officer in Sikkim in 1889. Capital shifted from Tumlong to Gangtok in 1894.
10. 1914 Sidkeong Tulku Namgyal
(1879–1914) The shortest-reigning Chogyal of Sikkim, ruled from 10 February to 5 December 1914. Died of heart failure, aged 35, in most suspicious circumstances.
11. 1914–1963 Tashi Namgyal
(1893–1963) Treaty between India and Sikkim was signed in 1950, giving India suzerainty over Sikkim.
12. 1963–1975 Palden Thondup Namgyal, (1923–1982)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818).
Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj era.
The Empire was divided between two branches of the family c. 1707–10; and the division was formalized in 1731.
Bhosale Chhatrapatis at Kolhapur (1700–1947).
The state acceded unto the [[Dominion of India]] following the [[independence of India]] in 1947.
The Peshwas (1713–1858).
Technically they were not monarchs, but hereditary prime ministers, though in fact they ruled instead of the Chhatrapati (Maratha emperor) after death of [[Chattrapati Shahu]], and were hegemon of the Maratha confederation.
Bhosale Maharajas of Thanjavur (?–1799).
Descended from a brother of [[Shivaji]]; ruled independently and had no formal relationship with the [[Maratha Empire]].
The state was annexed by the British in 1799.
Holkar rulers of Indore (1731–1948).
Following the [[independence of India]] in 1947, the state acceded unto the [[Dominion of India]].
The monarchy was ended in 1948, but the title is still held by Usha Devi Maharaj Sahiba Holkar XV Bahadur, Maharani of Indore since 1961.
Scindia of Gwalior (1731–1947).
Following the [[independence of India]] in 1947, the state acceded unto the [[Dominion of India]].
Sikh Empire (1801–1849).
The British Empire annexed the Punjab c. 1845–49; after the [[First Anglo-Sikh War|First]] and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second]] Anglo-Sikh Wars
Sources and external links.
[[Category:Lists of rulers]]
[[Category:Indian rulers]]
[[Category:India history-related lists|rulers]]


Tivala

Tivala (born 3rd-century BC), also referred to as Tivara, was a son of Maurya Emperor Ashoka from his second queen, Karuvaki. He is the only son of Ashoka who is mentioned by name in his inscriptions, along with his mother, in the Queen Edict.He was the favourite child of his father and probably the crown prince , being his mother the only wife of Ashoka living in the palace advising him on his matters.
Tivala is the only son of Ashoka whose existence is attested by historical evidence and who was a possible successor to his father. However, it seems that Tivala may have predeceased Ashoka and thus could not succeed him as Emperor. Tivala is also considered to have been a favourite child of his aging father.


Lee Meng

Lee Meng (–2012) was a Chinese communist guerrilla and a leading member of the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM). She took part in guerrilla resistance alongside the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) against the Japanese occupation of Malaya, and later joined the Malayan National Liberation Army during the Malayan Emergency in an attempt to free Malaya from British colonialism. She was described as one of the most capable members of the local communist movement, and was also the leader of the "Kepayang Gang" in Perak.
Background and early life.
Born as Lee Ten Tai in Canton of the Republic of China in 1926, Lee moved to Ipoh together with her family at the age of five. She firstly worked as a school teacher in a Chinese school located in Anson Bay (present-day Teluk Intan) in Perak during the British Military Administration shortly after the Japanese surrender on 12 September 1945. Lee had joined the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM) at the age of 16 when she was recruited by the school teacher in 1942. Her father was unemployed and lived with her uncle and aunt while her mother was later banished back to Mainland China by the British authorities in 1950 after being arrested for involvement in communist activities.
Underground activities.
Prior to her recruitment, she led the party's underground area committee of Ipoh during the Japanese occupation of British Malaya where she had the reputation as a cunning fighter and plot organiser and known as one of the most ruthless members of the CPM in Ipoh. She also operating a Central Committee communication posts which co-ordinated a top secret communist communication networks with links to other states such as Pahang, Selangor, Penang and as far to Singapore. A majority of her followers are female, both young and old with legal cover occupations and throughout the activities, she helped any pregnant wives of high rankings communists in Perak for their confinement in the houses of selected relatives.
Throughout the Malayan Emergency, she controlled many of the major armed units in the town area, including the notorious Kepayang Gang along with Special Mobile Squad (SMS) that were reported as being responsible for many of the assassinations and grenade attacks that were carried out between 1948 until 1951. Although the Special Branch unable to prove Lee's involvement in any of the attacks, she held the utmost responsible as most of the units are under her control. Many captured/surrendered communist guerrillas named her as the one who ordered a number of executions against collaborators, which were carried out by Communist Special Service squads. She was described by the communist party's leader Chin Peng as a dedicated, active and brave woman where she was also reckless in her operational style.
Events leading to her arrestment.
Irene Lee whose husband Detective-Corporal Jimmy Loke was assassinated by a communist guerrillas in Penang in April 1951, decided to joined the Malayan police force where she was promoted as Detective-Inspector and was subsequently posted to Special Branch headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. Irene Lee's work as a detective led to the British colonial occupation acquiring information concerning the working of the Chinese communist party, and eventually led to Lee Meng's capture by the colonial forces.
Manhunt and subsequent arrestment.
Following a raid on a communist guerrilla camp in Selangor in early February 1952, documents from the abandoned camp revealed the identity of a Chinese woman serving as a courier member from Singapore into Johor which identified as Ah Shu or Ah Soo, a Chinese school teacher and the wife of Wong Fook Kwang (Tit Fung), the leader of the Communist-controlled Workers Protection Corps in Singapore. The woman husband is responsible in the killings of pineapple and rubber merchant Lim Teck Kin and several other collaborators including a policeman, a factory supervisor and a manager at Hock Lee Bus Company in Singapore. Once the identity of Ah Shu was identified, Irene was sent by her department into Singapore in February 1952 to track the woman and follow a trail that would ultimately lead to Lee's arrest and her eventual banishment to Mainland China.
Lee was captured by the British Malayan police forces in Ipoh in July 1952, tried for having a hand grenade in her possession and sentenced to death for her responsibility in issuing order on several "murders". In February 1953, a petition was signed by 60 members of the Malayan Parliament to the Sultan of Perak to grant a pardon to Lee since her early petition to appeal the Privy Council had been dismissed by the Judicial Committee. Within the same year, the Hungarian People's Republic government offered to swap British national Edgar Sanders who had been caught in Budapest for suspected espionage to the British authorities for her. The British Prime Minister at the time, Winston Churchill initially refused but following the order by the Sultan of Perak who agreed to pardon and persuaded the British authorities, along with the efforts of Lim Phaik Gan, a British-born Malayan woman lawyer and diplomat, her sentence was commuted and she was released to the People's Republic of China in 1964, after serving her term for 11 years in Taiping prison.
Later life and death.
Following her banishment to China, Lee was reunited with her mother, whom she cared for till the latter passed away. She married with Peng's trusted aide and comrade named Chen Tien in 1965. Both intended to moved to southern Thailand and despite their fellow comrade there had built them a house, her husband died on 3 September 1990 due to lung cancer. In August 2007, Lee visited Malaysia to meet one of her trial lawyers, Lim, to thank her for securing her safe release. Lee died in Guangzhou, China, on 2 June 2012 at the age of 86.


Harappa

Harappa (; Urdu/) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a modern village located near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs to the north. The current village of Harappa is less than from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today.
The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Indus Valley Civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture. The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.
The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway. In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work.
History.
The Harappan Civilisation has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000  BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilisation, with a possible writing system, urban centres, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.
Because of the reducing sea-levels certain regions in late Harappan period were abandoned
. Towards the end Harappan civilisation lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering. As a result the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges cities developed.
Culture and economy.
The Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers." Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.
The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated," as well as "fowl for fighting". Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory. Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls). Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety.
Trade.
The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia which also served as trading centres.
Archaeology.
The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:
By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.
In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.
 Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu". Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.
The area of the late Harappan period consisted of areas of Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around .
Early symbols similar to Indus script.
Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project. This primitive writing is placed slightly earlier than primitive writings of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC. These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script.


Palapa oath

The Palapa oath () was an oath taken by Gajah Mada, a 14th-century Prime Minister of the Javanese Majapahit Empire described in the "Pararaton" (Book of Kings). In this oath Gajah Mada swore that he would not taste any spice, as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (the Indonesian archipelago). The oath was taken during his inauguration as Majapahit "Amangkubhumi" (Prime Minister) that took place in 1256 Saka (1334) or 1258 Saka (1336).
The oath.
The main source of the Palapa oath is taken from the middle Javanese manuscript, "Pararaton", which states:
Translation:
Interpretation.
The term "palapa" is an Old Javanese term for "coconut". It also might be used to refer to "pala" (nutmeg) to describe "spices" or flavourings in food. "Palapa" can also be interpreted as the combination "pala-apa", which means any fruit or spices. The oath means that Gajah Mada would not eat "palapa" until he succeeded in uniting the Nusantara archipelago under Majapahit suzerainty. Historians have interpreted that Gajah Mada might have performed what is now known in Javanese tradition as "puasa mutih", only consuming plain food of white steamed rice, plain vegetables and clear water, without any coconut or spices for flavouring. Some might also interpret this to mean Gajah Mada was somehow performing a somewhat ascetic ritual by refusing to indulge himself in sensual pleasures, which includes consuming spiced flavoursome food. This oath was probably meant to describe his seriousness and strong will in achieving his goal of furthering the glory of Majapahit.
From this manuscript, historians have learnt several names of places and polities in Nusantara at the time the oath was taken, which were not under Majapahit suzerainty, and were targeted by Gajah Mada's ambitious expansive campaign.
Legacy.
The Palapa oath is used as the name of the Indonesian telecommunication satellite Palapa, a Boeing-made satellite. The program was started in February 1975 and the satellite was launched on 9 July 1976, from Cape Caneveral, United States. The name "Palapa" was chosen by President Suharto and means 'fruits of labor', also signifying the Indonesian effort to unify the Indonesian archipelago through telecommunication technology.
A university-wide orientation session for freshman students at Gadjah Mada University, "PPSMB Palapa", is named after the oath.


Punnathurkotta

Punnathurkotta is a fort and former palace located in Kottapadi, about 3 km from the Guruvayoor Sree Krishna Temple, in Thrissur District of Kerala State in South India.
Description.
Punnathurkotta was once the palace of a local ruler, but the palace grounds are now used to house the elephants belonging to the Guruvayoor temple, and has been renamed "Anakkotta" (meaning "Elephant Fort"). There were 86 elephants housed there, but currently there are about 59 elephants. The elephants are ritual offerings made by the devotees of Lord Guruvayurappa.
Described as a 'Palace for Elephants,' this facility is also used to train the elephants to serve Lord Krishna as well as to participate in many festivals that occur throughout the year. The oldest elephant is around 82 years of age and is called 'Ramachandran'. The rituals of "Gajapooja" (Worshipping Elephants) and "Anayoottu" (Feeding Elephants) are observed here, as an offering to Lord Ganesha. The legendary elephant "Guruvayur Keshavan" was housed here.
The compound also has a naalu kettu, a traditional rectangular home with a central courtyard, which belonged to the Punnathur Raja. It presently houses a training school for "Papans" (Mahout).
This complex also contains a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva and Bhagavathy. Some scenes in the famous Malayalam movie "Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha" (starring Mammooty) were filmed at this location. The visiting hours are 9.00 AM to 5.00 PM. The entry fee is Rs 10 per adult. An extra Rs 25 is charged for to use a camera inside the complex.now a days camera usage is not allowed in punnathurkotta
Elephant Camp at Punnathurkotta.
The Elephant Camp is located in Punnathur Kotta, at a distance of 3 km from the Guruvayur Temple. This Elephant Camp houses 58 elephants in 11.5 acres of land and is home to the largest number of captive elephants. During the month July elephants are given special ayurvedic treatment and food. But this practice has been criticized by the Animal Welfare Board of India in a study commissioned on the welfare of the elephants. This study also found many glaring issues on the treatment of elephants and suggested remedial measures many of which has not been implemented.


Rosokhrankultura

Rosokhrankultura (), full name: Federal Service for monitoring compliance with cultural heritage protection law (), is a state agency of Russia responsible for keeping the national register of cultural heritage, enforcing preservation of listed properties through monitoring compliance with preservation law and enforcing compliance with copyright law, including licensing of copyright management agencies.
As at May, 2009, the agency is subordinated to the federal Ministry of Culture. For a brief period in 2008 Rosokhrankultura was merged into the Russian Federal Surveillance Service for Mass Communications, Communications but was eventually reorganized back into an independent agency. It is chaired, since June 2008, by Alexander Kibovsky (born 1973), historian of Imperial Russian Army and a lecturer on military costume at the Moscow Art Theatre college.
In September 2008 Rosokhrankultura performed a survey of damages of the 2008 South Ossetia War in South Ossetia.


Yong Saetae

Yong Saetae (; , Teochew: "Dên Iong"; ?–?) was a Chinese merchant and the father of the Siamese king Taksin. In Vietnamese record, he was called "Trịnh Yển" (鄭偃).
His birth name was Dên Dag (). Born in Chenghai County, Shantou, Guangdong Province, Qing China. It was said that he was a broad-minded and unconventional man. His fellow countrymen did not like him, and called him "Pai Gian Dag" ( "or" , lit. "Dag, the ruffian" in Teochew). During the Yongzheng Emperor's reign, he came to Siam to do business, and became rich, and changed him name to Yong Saetae. Later, he became a tax-collector, and married Nok-lang (later Princess Phithak Thephamat), who later gave birth to Taksin the Great.


Kenneth Spring

Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Arthur Spring (23 October 1921 – 25 December 1997) was a British Army officer, artist and co-founder of the National Youth Theatre of Great Britain.
Early life and family.
Spring was born in Dulwich, London, the son of Albert Spring (1884–1961), a former Royal Flying Corps officer and schoolmaster, and the composer, Cecil Dorothy Arburn Chapman (1885–1961). Spring was a descendant of the Suffolk Spring family, and a relation of Lord Risby and Brigadier-General Frederick Spring. He was educated at Alleyn's School, London, where he was a close friend of John Lanchbery, before attending Blackpool Art School.
Military career.
On call-up in the Second World War, 22 February 1941, Spring registered as a conscientious objector and was conscripted into the Non-Combatant Corps (NCC); with other members of the NCC, he went on to volunteer for work in bomb disposal in London. In October 1941 he resigned his status as a conscientious objector, and served as a sapper in 15 Bomb Disposal Company, Royal Engineers, between December 1941 and July 1943, when he transferred to the staff of "B” Company, No.2 Training Battalion, Royal Engineers, at Blacon Camp. In March 1944 he was selected for officer training and undertook the Officer Cadet Training Unit commissioning course at Catterick Garrison. On 23 July 1944 he was commissioned into the Royal Regiment of Artillery.
He was posted to India in October 1944, taking command of 35 Battery, 33rd Indian Mountain Regiment, Royal Indian Artillery, part of the 25th Indian Infantry Division. He saw extensive action in the Arakan Campaign 1944–1945 in Burma, during which he was injured. On 30 March 1945 he was promoted to war substantive lieutenant and became adjutant of the 33rd Mountain Regiment. Spring was involved in Operation Zipper and served as the Station Staff Officer, South East Asia Command in Kuala Lumpur during the Japanese surrender. Between November 1945 and June 1946 he was Acting District Officer of Teluk Anson in British Malaya. In this position he established a prisoner-of-war camp for Japanese prisoners in Perak. He returned to England in June 1946 and was placed on the list of the regular reserve of officers. On 22 April 1947 he was released from regular service due to his wartime injuries and transferred to the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve, becoming honorary lieutenant.
He was promoted to acting captain on 17 November 1948 and to honorary lieutenant colonel on 25 April 1974. He was appointed to the committee of the Combined Cadet Force Association, and served as the CO of Alleyn's School CCF between 1960 and 1966. He was awarded the Efficiency Decoration for long service in 1961. Spring relinquished his commission in 1975, and was invested as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (Military) the same year.
Artist and teacher.
After returning to England in 1947, Spring gained an art teaching diploma from the University of London and became a teacher at his alma mater, Alleyn's School. In 1949 he founded the influential South East London Art Group, of which he became chairman, and was closely associated with artists such as Keith Godwin and Stanley Roy Badmin. In 1953 he was appointed Lecturer in Art at Goldsmiths, University of London. In 1958 he was appointed chief examiner of art by the London University Board and was responsible for the introduction of the new craft syllabus. He sat on the executive committee of the Camberwell Arts Council.
In 1956 he was a co-founder, alongside Michael Croft, of the National Youth Theatre. He was production manager for the Youth Theatre's first play, "Henry V", which appeared at the Toynbee Hall in London in September 1956. He continued to be involved in Youth Theatre productions until 1962. In 1965 Spring moved to Oxfordshire to become a master at Bloxham School.
Style.
Spring worked in a variety of media, including watercolour, oil, print, and carving in stone and wood. His body of work in watercolour and oil were largely of landscapes, and were in a similar style to S. R. Badmin. Other flat work shows strong affinities with contemporary neo-romantic artists such as John Piper. He was also influenced by Sir William Coldstream, who he met whilst serving in the Royal Artillery and from whom he received tutelage at Camberwell College of Arts. His wood carving style was influenced by Frank Dobson and Jacob Epstein, and mostly depicted the human form. Spring's woodcutting technique was influenced by Eric Ravilious.
Personal life.
Spring married Doreen Healy in 1947 and together they had two children:
He died on 25 December 1997 in Sibford Ferris and is buried in Bloxham.


Madanpur, Lalitpur, India

Madanpur is an ancient town on the southern edge of Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India. The town is known for a large tank built in medieval times and series of ruined temples and inscriptions under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India. Nine protected monuments appear in the List of Monuments of National Importance in Lalitpur district, India.
Demographics.
 India census, the location code or village code of Madanpur village is 153608. Madanpur is situated 45km away from sub-district headquarter Mahroni and 82km away from district headquarter Lalitpur. As per 2009 stats, Madanpur village is also a gram panchayat. The total geographical area of village is 1411.63 hectares with a population of 1,472 peoples. There are about 277 houses in Madanpur village.
Monuments.
Choti Kacheri and Badi Kacheri. Two ruined temples stand beside the large medieval tank, Madan Sagar, and are protected monuments dating to the twelfth century. They are locally known as Choti Kachari and Badi Kacheri. One of these structures is notable for a unique painting on the ceiling showing dancing figures and peacocks. The large lotus in the centre of the ceiling is a painted version of the carved lotuses that are found at Khajuraho and other sites. The paintings were first reported in the late nineteenth century by P. C. Mukherji. A series of inscriptions are found inside these buildings. From a historical point of view, the most important records are those mentioning Prithviraj Chauhan (c. 1166-1192).
The temples also have a number of pilgrim and donative records.
Panch Marha is a large stone temple in front of five small shrines. A series of Digambara Jain images of about the 11th and 12th centuries stand outside the main temple, some of them inscribed. The place is known amongst the Jains as Shantigiri.
Modi Marha is an old Jain temple of the Digambara located on a ridge to the north of the town.
Champa Marha is a Jain temple complex located above the town on a ridge to the north west.


Chick Parsons

Charles Thomas "Chick" Parsons Jr. (April 22, 1902 – May 12, 1988) was a businessman, diplomat, and decorated World War II veteran.
Pre-war years.
Parsons was born in Shelbyville, Tennessee, moved frequently, and spent part of his youth (beginning at the age of 5) in Manila, before returning to Tennessee. Charles Parsons' interest in the Philippines occurred because two of his uncles had gone there to seek their fortune. Their letters home ignited Charles' imagination and sense of adventure. As a result, he took courses in shorthand and Spanish while in school in Chattanooga. He graduated from Chattanooga High School. After graduating from school, he held a job as a court reporter for a year or two. Then in 1921, at the age of 19, he arrived in Manila after working across the Pacific as a crewman on a freighter. His knowledge of shorthand and Spanish allowed him to qualify as secretary to U.S. Governor-General Leonard Wood. For three years, Parsons traveled throughout the Philippines with Wood and got to know the Filipino people, learning their language and customs, as well as picking up knowledge of Philippine geography. All this would serve him well when he later went into business for himself and served as a U.S. naval officer during the war years.
A postgraduate course in commerce and his increased fluency in the local dialects allowed Parsons to find work with the Philippine Telephone and Telegraph Company. Then in 1927, he went to Zamboanga on Mindanao as a buyer of logs and lumber for the Meyer Muzzell Company. This company, financed by Mayor James Rolph of San Francisco, exported timber to the United States. This job required Parsons to travel extensively throughout Mindanao, learning details about the island and its inhabitants that would save his life many times during World War II.
The Philippines had become like home to Parsons. While at Zamboanga, he met and married Katrushka (Katsy) Jurika, daughter of Stefan Jurika, a naturalized Czechoslovak, and Blanche Anna Walker of Oxnard, California. At that time, Parsons was 30 years old and Katrushka was only 15, but their marriage was solid and quickly produced three sons – Michael, Peter and Patrick. The Parsons family moved to Manila in 1929, where Charles took a job managing the Luzon Stevedoring Company as "boss stevedore," which operated a fleet of tugboats, chrome and manganese mines, and other activities. Other business interests included managing the North American Trading and Importing Company, which produced alcohol from molasses discarded from sugar refining, and the La Insular Cigar and Cigarette Factory, one of the largest tobacco interests in the Philippines and owned by Spanish royalty. Ironically, due to a Philippine law requiring a 60% American or Filipino interest in a foreign company operating in the Philippines, Parsons also became president of Nihon Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha, a Japanese mining company.
In 1929, according to Ingham (1945), he also made another important career decision. He joined the U.S. Naval Reserve as a Lieutenant (jg), and took active duty with the Pacific Fleet whenever possible. However, Peter Parsons, his son, states that his father joined the U.S. Naval Reserve in 1932, and was assigned to submarines.
By the fall of 1941, Charles Parsons was thirty-nine years old and anticipating an early retirement, as well as spending more time enjoying his hobby of polo. He had previously help organize the Los Tamaraos Club in Manila to ensure high-quality polo games in Manila. Parsons was proud to be the "only polo-playing stevedore in the world." Then, on the night of December 8, 1941, a fellow reserve officer woke Parsons up and informed him that the entire personnel and equipment of the Luzon Stevedoring Company had been taken into the U.S. Navy. Parsons was immediately sworn into active duty as a full Lieutenant. The Japanese had bombed the Philippines.
World War II.
Under Japanese occupation.
During the early days of the war, Lieutenant Parsons worked resupplying American submarines which came into Manila Bay, or relocating supplies to Bataan and Corregidor. As the Japanese army approached Manila at the end of 1941, Parsons spent New Year's Eve destroying what was left of the Navy's supplies in Manila, as well as the contents of the warehouses belonging to his various companies. Although recently promoted to lieutenant commander, he also burned his Navy uniforms as he was not retreating to Bataan with the rest of the American-Filipino forces. Before World War II broke out in the Philippines, Charles Parsons' wife, sons, and his mother-in-law Blanche Jurika had not been evacuated with other military dependents, as the Philippines was their home. In early January, they awoke one day to find a Japanese sentry at the gate to their house, along with a sign stating that the house was now the property of the Imperial Japanese government.
Since 1940, some Danish ships had been interned in the Philippines, as Denmark had been conquered by Germany. When America entered the war, these ships were seized and registered under the Panamanian flag. Because of this, Charles Parsons had added another title to his list when he agreed to serve as the temporary Panamanian consul until one could be dispatched from Panama. As a result, he had identification papers, with corresponding documents in Manila's government house, identifying him as such. While watching the Japanese sentry, it suddenly occurred to Parsons that he could use this position to obtain diplomatic immunity as a citizen of a neutral country. From that moment on, he and his family spoke only Spanish while they were in Japanese-controlled territory. That same day, their home was designated as the Panamanian Consulate by the Japanese, and they continued to live there in relative freedom. Before the war, Parsons had worked with numerous Japanese citizens, some of whom became his friends, who knew of Parsons' position in the U.S. Naval Reserve. At least one of these Japanese acquaintances, "Pete" Yamanuchi, was now a Japanese naval officer. However, none of them informed on him to the occupying Japanese forces.
Due to his knowledge of the Philippines and his previous business activities, Japanese businessmen offered Parsons a position as manager of several mines, some of them his own. Parsons kindly refused, citing his diplomatic position and other responsibilities as the reason. However, Charles and Katsy Parsons, and Blanche Jurika used their time in Manila to obtain information on the Japanese and their activities, to communicate, and even visit, with American and Filipino soldiers who had fled to the nearby hills and jungles, and to obtain information on American prisoners held by the Japanese. Charles Parsons often did this dressed as a Filipino peasant, the disguise enhanced by his deeply-tanned skin caused by years in the tropical sun.
However, after the Doolittle Raid on Japan in April 1942, the attitude of the Japanese occupying forces changed toward all Caucasians, even Germans and those from non-belligerent nations. Parsons was among those arrested and held for a period of time and tortured, then released because of his Panamanian diplomatic status and permitted to leave with his family in June 1942. Once his family was safely settled in the United States, he volunteered his services to help the Allied forces in the Pacific, reporting to General MacArthur.
Parsons' extensive knowledge of the Philippines and its culture plus an established network of trusted contacts made it possible for him to travel throughout the vast archipelago and communicate effectively with Filipino and American guerrillas, escaping enemy detection. During the Japanese occupation, Parsons undertook eight secret submarine missions to the Philippines, as well as several more by air, supplying guerrillas with arms, radio equipment, medicine and other supplies. His first such mission was to Mindanao to supply and evaluate Lt. Col. Wendell Fertig's guerrilla organization. He also organized and maintained extensive intelligence networks and coast-watcher radio stations throughout the country, which transmitted information on Japanese troop movements to the Allied forces.
In 1944, Parsons returned to Leyte nine days ahead of MacArthur to help prepare the guerrillas for the invasion. Later, he accompanied the first troops into Manila where he arranged supplies for the starving civilians newly liberated from the Santo Tomas Internment Camp. After the war, Parsons resumed his business activities in Manila and assisted in rebuilding the country.
Recognition.
For his distinguished military and public service, Parsons was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross from the United States, two Navy Crosses from the United States, the Bronze Star from the United States, the Order of Saint Sylvester from the Vatican, the from Panama, the Legion of Honor from the Philippines, and the Medal of Valor, also from the Philippines. He never requested the Purple Heart for the several times he was wounded in skirmishes with Japanese troops, once by a saber that opened up the right side of his neck.
In 2004, the ballroom of the Embassy of the United States, Manila, was named after Chick Parsons.


Nagas of Vidisha

The Naga (IAST: Nāga) dynasty of Vidisha in central India is known from the Puranas, and probably ruled in the first century BCE. No inscriptions of the dynasty have been discovered. Historian K. P. Jayaswal attributed some coins issued by the Datta rulers of Mathura to this dynasty, but later historians have disputed his theory.
Rulers.
The Nagas probably ruled at Vidisha during the first century BCE.
According to the Puranas, the following Naga kings ruled Vaidisha (kingdom of Vidisha):
The Puranas mention the Naga king Shesha ("Śeṣa Nāgarāja") as the father of Bhogi, but historian A. S. Altekar theorized that Shesha is a mythical figure (see Shesha and Nagaraja), because the Puranas explicitly describe Vangara as the dynasty's fourth king (if Shesha was a historical king, Vangara would become the fifth king).
After mentioning these kings of Vidisha, the Puranas refer to the king Shishu-nandi (Śiśunandi) and his descendants, who ruled after the decline of the Shunga dynasty. According to one interpretation, Shishunandi and his successors, which included Nandi-yashas (Nandiyaśas) and Shishuka (Śiśuka), were the Naga kings of Vidisha.
Coins.
No inscriptions of the dynasty have been discovered. Several coins issued by the kings whose names end in "-datta" have been discovered at Mathura and its neighbouring places. These kings include Shesha-datta, Rama-datta, Shishu-chandra-datta, Shiva-datta, Purusha-datta, Uttama-datta, Kama-datta, and Bhava-datta. These kings are usually identified as members of the distinct Datta dynasty. However, historian K. P. Jayaswal theorized that these kings were actually the Naga rulers of Vidisha: he identified Shesha-Nagaraja with Shesha-datta, Rama-chandra with Rama-datta, and Shishu-nandi with Shishu-chandra-datta. Jayaswal argued that these coins were found at Mathura, because that city has been a major market for coins since the ancient times. He also read the suffix mentioned on the coins as "-data" ("donor") instead of "-datta", and asserted that "Rama-datta" should be read as "Rama, the celebrated donor". Jayaswal further argued that the Puranas describe the Naga kings of Vidisha as "vrisha" (IAST: "vṛṣa", "bull"), and that the symbol Shiva's bull Nandi) appears on the Mathura coins.
Historian A. S. Altekar disputed Jayaswal's theory based on several arguments:


Cengiz Topel

Cengiz Topel (September 2, 1934 – August 8, 1964) was a fighter pilot of the Turkish Air Force, who was killed after his plane was shot down while supporting the Turkish army during the 1964 inter-communal conflict "Erenköy Resistance", known as the Battle of Tylliria in Greek Cypriot parlance.
Career.
Topel was born in İzmit on September 2, 1934 to Hakkı Bey, a tobacco expert from Trabzon and Mebuse Hanım in İzmit, where his father was working for the Turkish tobacco company Tekel. He was the third sibling of four children.
Cengiz Topel was schooled in Bandırma and Gönen of Balıkesir Province. He finished the primary and the secondary school in Kadıköy, İstanbul, where his family moved following his father's death. After a brief time at Haydarpaşa High School, he entered Kuleli Military High School, from which he graduated in 1953. Cengiz Topel joined the Army in 1955 with the rank of a second lieutenant following his education at the Turkish Military Academy.
His interest in aviation took him to the Turkish Air Force. He was sent to Canada for flight training. In 1957, he returned to Turkey and was appointed to the 5th Air Wing in Merzifon Air Base. Cengiz Topel served from 1961 on at the 1st Tactical Air Force Command at Eskişehir Air Base. In 1963, he became an Air Force captain.
Combat mission.
On August 8, 1964, Topel was appointed to a combat mission during Turkey's military intervention during the Battle of Tylliria. He led a four-fighter flight of the 112th Air Squadron leaving Eskişehir Air Base around 17:00 local time for Cyprus. Topel's F-100 Super Sabre was hit by 40mm anti-aircraft fire from a Greek Cypriot gun emplacement and shot-down as he was strafing the "Arion", a Greek Cypriot patrol boat. He was able to eject from his aircraft and made a safe parachute jump over land. He was promptly captured and brought to a hospital. However, members of the Cyprus National Guard allegedly took him from the hospital to their headquarters at Kykkos Monastery. An autopsy of his body showed that he was heavily tortured and his corpse was shot afterwards.
His corpse was returned on August 12, 1964 to the Turkish authorities only after insistent attempts. On August 14, 1964, he was laid to rest at the Edirnekapı Martyr's Cemetery in Istanbul.
He is known as the first Turkish pilot being killed in action.
Legacy.
A former Turkish Air Force base located near İzmit, currently in use as Cengiz Topel Naval Air Station, is named after him. A monument was erected on the coastal road in the village Gemikonağı near Lefke in Northern Cyprus, where he had landed by parachute. A bronze statue in Eskişehir depicts him in flight suit. A number of places, schools in Turkey and a hospital in Northern Cyprus are named after him.


Ali I of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Ali Kalaminja Siri Dhammaru Naaja Mahaa Radun (Dhivehi: އައްސުލްޠާން ޢަލީ ކަލަމިންޖާ އެއްވަނަ ސިރީ ދަންމަރުނާޖަ މަހާރަދުން) was the Sultan of the Maldives from 1185 to 1193. He was the son of "Rekehiriyaa Maavaa Kilege" (Dhivehi: ރެކެހިރިޔާ މާވާކިލެގެ). Sultan Ali I was succeeded by Dhinei


Majid Movaghar

Mirza Majid Movaghar () (1898–1968) was a Persian politician. He represented Dezful, Khuzestan in the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 16th National Consultative Assembly.


Raden Panji Soejono

Professor Raden Panji Soejono (born 1926) is an Indonesian archaeologist. He retired as director of the National Research Centre for Archaeology (ARKENAS) in 1987. Early in his career, in 1956, he served as Curator of Prehistory at the National Museum of Indonesia. He received the title of "Extraordinarius Professor" at the University of Indonesia and the Gadjah Mada University, and "Doctor Onoris Causa" at Aix-Marseille University. In 1990, he was awarded the Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et Lettres.


William Tolly

Col. William Tolly (1715-1784) was an officer of British East India Company, who later settled down in Calcutta, noted for creating Tolly's Nullah.
Life-sketch.
He served as officer of British East India Company and retired as a colonel.
He settled down near Calcutta and decided to dig out an old channel of Adi Ganga (a branch of Hooghly River) at his own cost to make it navigable for ships. This canal "( nullah )" was dug out by him in years 1775-76 became operational in 1777 and came to be known as Tolly's Nullah. He de-silted, deepened and opened this old channel as a water way connecting the Calcutta Port to the rivers of the eastern Bengal such as Bidyadhari and Matla making it a part of Calcutta and Eastern Canals, extending over
a length of 1,127 miles, of which 47 miles was length of Tolly's Nullah. Thus making the hinterland of Districts of Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam connect with Port of Calcutta. He was given the lease of the canal and some adjacent lands along with the right to collect the toll from the ships using this canal by the Company. He also built a market ("Ganj"), which came to be known as Tollygunj. He also purchased Belvedere area of Calcutta from Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1780 and built his mansion there. He is sometimes referred to as the Ferdinand de Lesseps of Calcutta.
He died in 1784.
Memorials.
At present Tolly's Nullah and Tollygunj area of Kolkata bear his name as a memorial to him.


Wiang Kum Kam

Wiang Kum Kam (; ) is an historic settlement and archaeological site along the Ping River, which was built by King Mangrai the Great as his capital before he moved it to Chiang Mai. It was flooded and abandoned more than 700 years ago; that move became more understandable in 2005, when the ancient city was flooded three separate times as the river overflowed its banks in that area of Chiang Mai.
History.
Wiang Kum Kam is an ancient city ( "wiang" "walled city") located in Saraphi District in the northern region of Thailand, around south of the southeastern corner of Chiang Mai's city centre. According to the chronicles and archaeological evidence, the old city was built by King Mangrai around the latter part of the 13th century.
The city was established as a new capital by the King after his victory over the Mon people's kingdom of Hariphunchai, modern Lamphun. Due to repeated flooding, a new capital, Chiang Mai, was built a few years later. Wiang Kum Kam flourished during the reign of the Mangrai dynasty until the late 16th century.
The old city was then lost from history for many years after Chiang Mai was conquered by the Burmese in 1558. There is a presumption that it was seriously flooded again at this time and was finally abandoned. The people were moved back to this area again more than 200 years later with a new community, and it was then named Chang Kham village ().
In 1984, the Department of Fine Arts Unit 4 discovered remnants of the old city around Wihan Kan Thom () at Wat Chang Kham () and afterwards excavation was begun; since then many new remains have been found and restoration has proceeded since that time.
The main temple of the town is Wat Chedi Liam (originally Wat Ku Kham), which is still occupied by monks.
List of sites.
Note that this list is definitely incomplete.
Wat Chang Kham.
Wat Chang Kham (; "Elephant-Propped Temple") is within the grounds of a working modern temple. It is adjacent to the Wat That Noi site. The name is derived from elephant figures supporting one of the structures.
Wat Chedi Liam / Wat Ku Kham.
Wat Chedi Liam (; "Temple of the Squared Pagoda"), formerly known as Wat Ku Kham (; "Temple of the Golden Stupa"), is named after its ancient five-level "chedi" (or Buddhist pagoda) of Mon style, which was copied from a similar structure at Wat Phra That Hariphunchai in Haripunchai (modern Lamphun). It is apparently the only ancient temple in the Wiang Kum Kam archaeological area that remains a working temple with resident monks. In keeping with its Mon roots, Brahma, the Hindu creator, is venerated at the temple in addition to Buddhism.
Wat I Khang.
Wat I Khang (; "Langurs' Temple") is a ruined 16th or 17th century temple named after the former prevalence of wild old world monkeys at the site prior to its excavation and restoration, which are known as "khang" in Thai. It has a large, mostly intact "chedi".
Wat Nan Chang.
Wat Nan Chang (; "Nan Chang's Temple") is a ruined 16th or 17th century temple. Excavated from 2002 to 2003, it primarily provides evidence of ancient flooding in the region, having been inundated by some 1.8 meters of sediment. It is speculated that it was built to face a now dried up route of the Ping River, a major transportation and trade route of historic periods.
Wat Phaya Mangrai.
Wat Phaya Mangrai (; "Temple of King Mangrai") is named after the historic figure Mangrai the Great. Very close to the south-eastern side of Wat Phrachao Ong Dam.
Wat Phrachao Ong Dam.
Wat Phrachao Ong Dam (; "Temple of the Black-Bodied Lord") is named after a burnt bronze Buddha image that was discovered at the site. Very close to the north-western side of Wat Phaya Mangrai.
Wat Pu Pia.
Wat Pu Pia (; "Temple of Old Man Pia") is notable for its relatively good state of preservation, including some stucco work and an intact layout.
Wat That Khao.
Wat That Khao (; "Temple of the White Reliquary) is another ruined temple from the 16th or 17th century that is named after its formerly lime-plastered chedi.
Wat That Noi.
Wat That Noi (; "Temple of the Little Reliquary") is another ruined temple of the area, so named because of its restricted scale.


Saw Oo I of Toungoo

Saw Oo (, ) was viceroy of Toungoo (Taungoo) from 1397 to 1399. He succeeded his father Phaungga following his father's death. But Saw Oo was still a youngster, and was removed from office about two years later by King Swa Saw Ke, who wanted a more experienced governor.
He is also known as "Ya Kya Saw Oo" (ရာကျ စောဦး, "Saw Oo who lost the office").


Keith Wookey

Keith Wookey (1912 - 1963) also known as "W.K.C. Wookey", was a District Officer and later Resident in the post-war British Colonial Government of North Borneo. At some point Wookey was the most senior official stationed in Sandakan as Resident (known as Resident Commissioner in full) and was also appointed by the Queen to the Executive Council, North Borneo.
Biography.
Early life.
Walter Keith Caple Wookey was born in Sleaford, Lincolnshire and soon after moved to Barbados Lodge, Bath, Somerset, schooled at Lewisham, Bristol, UK and went on to further his studies at Oxford. His mother, Elizabeth Walker, died in 1921 at the birth of Keith’s sister Betty. Soon, both Keith & Betty were taken to their grandparents, Francis & Alice Wookey who raised them at Stones Cross House, Somerset. From 1933 to 1935 Keith joined the Royal Navy Reserve.
Pre-war.
On 17 April 1936 Keith came to North Borneo as a cadet (trainee government official), joining the British North Borneo Chartered Company administrators. He arrived in Sandakan with Mr J.H. Macartney by S.S. Kajang on 18 April 1936. At the beginning of his career as a trainee government official, Keith was placed within the Secretariat, although he was also supervised most of the time by the Under Secretary. From then on, Keith transferred from various branches of Government taking short posts while doing his study of the Laws of the State and of the Malay language.
In 1938, two years after his arrival in Sandakan, Keith became Assistant District officer at Mempakul (today as the westernmost part of Sabah, Malaysia; known as Kampung Mempakul) and then was posted to Kota Belud after a year. During his stay in Kota Belud, Keith met his first wife, Tampusis; they had two girls, Agnes (born 1940) and Susan (born 1941). During this time, Keith lived in various Kampongs for weeks at a time, and claims he became proficient in various dialects of Dusun, Kadazan language. Not long after Susan’s birth in 1941, Keith’s family moved to Lahad Datu where he was appointed as an Assistant District Officer.
Life during the War.
In January 1942, while Keith was posted in Lahad Datu, the rule of the British North Borneo Chartered Company was abruptly ended and North Borneo was taken over by Japanese Imperial forces after their landing in Jesselton (presently known as Kota Kinabalu). Despite the impossibility of resisting the Japanese naval and military forces, the chartered company ordered its posted officials to stay in their assigned places and aid in protecting the locals by giving advice in the face of the invasion. Keith, during this time, was badly beaten and taken away from his family, while Tampusis was forced to remarry in order to protect herself from the Japanese Imperial Army. The Japanese shipped Keith first to Sandakan at Berhala Island with Harry Keith and other fellow officers. Later on, he was moved to Kuching, spending his next three years in Batu Lintang camp which was under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Tatsuji Suga.
"The behaviour of the population during this period was, with very few exceptions, exemplary, and many paid for their loyalty with their lives. The British Military Administration, which contained a few former Chartered Company senior officers, found the Colony in a state of appalling devastation."
For more than three years, North Borneo remained under the control of the Japanese Imperial Army until the units of the Ninth Australian Division landed in Labuan on 10 June 1945. In Keith’s personal journal entry dated 20 August 1945, he states that this was the first time he was given a piece of paper to write on since the Japanese invasion.
Post War.
In September 1945, Keith and his friend Dr. Marcus Clarke, then a surgeon captured by the Japanese and stationed in Batu Lintang as well, were released from internment. Shortly thereafter, Keith traveled to Sydney, Australia for recuperation in 1946. Upon his return to North Borneo in 1947, Keith played a key role in the rebuilding and the development of Sandakan in the aftermath of the Second World War. During this time, the territory changed status from a protectorate of England and administration by the Chartered Company to a Crown Colony, overseen by the government of Britain in London.
During a short stay in Australia while on leave, he met Eleanor Farrell, whom he soon married. Upon his return to North Borneo with Eleanor in 1948, Keith was posted in Tenom as a District Officer. Two years later, Keith and Eleanor moved to Jesselton and in May 1950, their first son Michael was born. There, during the early 1950s that Keith became close friends with Governor Roland Turnbull. In 1956, after a five-year service, Keith was appointed as a permanent member of the Executive Legislature and was appointed in 1957 as Resident of Sandakan. At the same year, his second son Robin was born.
Wookey was appointed by the Queen as an Official Member of the Executive Council of the Colony of North Borneo. He opposed the succession by the crown of the colony of North Borneo to join the Malaysian federation, and was accused of obstruction by Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia's first Prime Minister.
In November 1963, Keith died of a heart attack shortly after North Borneo (now known as Sabah) was granted self-governance on 31 August 1963, preparing to join Malaya, Sarawak and Singapore in forming the Federation of Malaysia.