Democracy in China

The debate over the definition and application of democracy to China has been one of the major ideological battlegrounds in Chinese politics since the 19th century. Modern Chinese leaders state that they run a "socialist democracy" in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is the central authority that acts in the interest of the people and approves which political parties can run. Many foreign media outlets, however, describe China as totalitarian, authoritarian, soft authoritarian, as a surveillance state, or as a dictatorship. The Democracy Index, produced by the Economist Intelligence Unit, for instance, gives China a 2.26 out of 10 and classifies its government as authoritarian.
Zhengxu Wang of Fudan University in Shanghai wrote in a report in 2007: "It is clear that public support for democracy is high in China. Public opinion surveys show that more than 90% of Chinese citizens believe that having a democracy is good. But the majority is not yet ready for a major effort towards democratization because they still see economic growth and social stability as more important than freedom of speech, political participation, and other democratic rights."
During a visit to Europe in 2014, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping said that a multi-party system would not work for China. He said China had experimented in the past with various political systems, including multi-party democracy, warning that copying foreign political or development models could be catastrophic because of its unique historical and social conditions.
Qing dynasty.
The first introduction of the concept of modern democracy into China is credited to exiled Chinese writer Liang Qichao. In 1895, he participated in protests in Beijing for increased popular participation during the late Qing dynasty, the last ruling dynasty of China. It was the first of its kind in modern Chinese history. After escaping to Japan following the government's clampdown on anti-Qing protesters, Liang Qichao translated and commented on the works of Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, Hume, Bentham and many other western political philosophers. He published his essays in a series of journals that easily found an audience among Chinese intelligentsia hungering for an explanation of why China, once a formidable empire of its own, was now on the verge of being dismembered by foreign powers. In interpreting Western democracy through the prism of his strongly Confucian background, Liang shaped the ideas of democracy that would be used throughout the next century. Liang favored gradual reform to turn China into a constitutional monarchy with democracy. The goal of the Hundred Days' Reform was to reform China into such as system, but it was rapidly reversed in the Wuxu Coup.
Liang's great rival among progressive intellectuals was Dr. Sun Yat-sen, a republican revolutionary. Sun felt that democracy would be impossible as long as the Qing monarchy still existed. Democracy was part of his platform, the Three Principles of the People (三民主義) – the principle of the people under 1 nation (nationalism), the principle of the people's rights (democracy), and the principle of the people's livelihood and well-being (civility, decency and respect). Like Liang, Sun agreed that democracy, or at least universal suffrage, could not happen overnight in a country with high illiteracy rates and a lack of political consciousness. Sun's Three Stages of Revolution called for a period of "political tutelage" where people would be educated before elections can occur.
Responding to civil failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court responded by organizing elections. China's first modern elections were organized by Yuan Shikai for Tianjin's county council in 1907. In 1909, 21 of 22 provinces, with the exception being Xinjiang, held elections for provincial assemblies and municipal councils. Requirements were strict; only those that passed the imperial exams, worked in government or military, or owned 5000 yuan of property may vote or run for office. This essentially limited the electorate to the gentry class. Hundreds of thousands voted and the winners were overwhelmingly constitutional monarchists, followers of Liang Qichao. The provincial assemblies elected half of the 200 member national assembly, the other half was selected by regent Prince Chun. All of these assemblies became hotbeds of dissent against the Qing as they were protected by freedom of speech. In 1909, the Qing government held parliamentary elections.
Republic of China, 1912–present.
When the 1911 Revolution began, it was the provincial assemblies that provided legitimacy to the rebels by declaring their independence from the Qing Empire. The national assembly also issued an ultimatum to the Qing court. Delegates from the provincial assemblies were sent to Nanjing to publicly legitimize the authority of the provisional government of the Republic of China founded on 1 January 1912. They later also formed the provisional senate. The limited acts passed by this government included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives.
In late 1912, national elections were held with an enlarged electorate, albeit still small proportionally to the national population. Sun's Nationalist Party dominated both houses of the National Assembly. Song Jiaoren, the incoming Nationalist prime minister, was assassinated in March 1913 before the assembly's first session. A police investigation implicated sitting prime minister Zhao Bingjun while popular belief was that provisional president Yuan Shikai was behind it. This led to the failed Second Revolution against Yuan. Victorious, Yuan forced the National Assembly to elect him president for a five-year term then purged it of Nationalists. Without a quorum, the assembly was dissolved.
After Yuan's death in 1916, the National Assembly reconvened until it was dissolved again the following year by Zhang Xun's coup attempt to restore the Qing. Prime Minister Duan Qirui refused to reconvene the National Assembly, opting instead to hold elections for a new assembly more favorable to him. As a result, a rump of the old assembly moved to Guangzhou to start a rival government in southern China. In northern China, 17 provinces elected a new assembly dominated by Duan's Anfu Club in 1918. This new assembly was dissolved following Duan's defeat in the Zhili–Anhui War of 1920.
President Xu Shichang organized elections for a third assembly in 1921, but with only 11 provinces voting it never had a quorum and thus never convened. That was the last attempt to hold national elections until 1947. All assemblies were dissolved after the Nationalists' Northern Expedition.
The formation of the Nationalist one-party state in 1927 implemented the late Sun's "political tutelage" program, which forbade elections until the people were considered properly educated. All other parties were kept out of government until 1937 when the impending Second Sino-Japanese War led to the United Front and the formation of the People's Political Council which included the smaller parties. In 1940, partly in response to tensions in the United Front, Mao Zedong offered the new Communist Party doctrine, New Democracy. New Democracy was an intermediary stage unlike western parliamentary, electoral democracy but not yet communism. After the war, the Nationalist's "political tutelage" ended with the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China. The 1947 National Assembly and 1948 legislative elections were boycotted by the Communists which held most of northern China. As a result, the Nationalists and their junior coalition partners, the Chinese Youth Party and China Democratic Socialist Party, won.
Taiwan, 1945–present.
In 1945, after the Surrender of Japan, governance of Taiwan was transferred to the Republic of China. The ceding of Taiwan was formalized under the Treaty of Taipei in 1952. After the governmental exodus from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in 1949, martial law was imposed following the February 28 Incident in 1947. The period of martial law lasted for 38 years and 57 days from 19 May 1949 to 15 July 1987. During this period, The Republic of China was governed as a "de facto" one-party state under the Kuomintang although it maintained its status as a "de jure" parliamentary republic.
On 28 September 1986, the Democratic Progressive Party was founded as an alternate party to the Kuomintang. Since the lifting of martial law in 1987, the ROC has had two major political parties, the Kuomintang and the Democratic Progressive Party. Since then, smaller parties have split from the two main parties and formed as new groups, largely within the Pan-Blue Coalition and Pan-Green Coalition. Until 1996, the President of the Republic of China was elected by the National Assembly. In 1996, the Republic of China electoral code was amended to allow for direct election of the President via plurality voting.
The "Pan-Blue Coalition" consists of the Kuomintang, the People First Party (PFP), New Party (CNP), and Minkuotang (MKT). The Pan-Blue parties traditionally favor Chinese unification, with some moving towards a position supporting the present status quo with eventual unification with China.
The "Pan-Green Coalition" consists of the Democratic Progressive Party, Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU), Taiwan Independence Party (TAIP), and Taiwan Constitution Association (TCA). The Pan-Green traditionally favor Taiwanese independence.
People's Republic of China, 1949–present.
The People's Republic of China was initially based on Mao's concept of "New Democracy", not the immediate "dictatorship of the proletariat". Soon, however, Mao called for establishing the people's democratic dictatorship. Starting in the 1980s, in the period of Opening and Reform, the government organized village elections in which several candidates would run. However, each candidate was chosen or approved by the Party. Higher levels of government are indirectly elected, with candidates vetted by the government. As a result, the highest levels of government contain either Communist Party members, their United Front allies, or sympathetic independents. Opposition parties are outlawed.
China continuously elucidates democracy with "Chinese characteristics", trying to portray itself as a democratic country, just not a liberal democratic one. The Diplomat says that China's leadership wishes the world to acknowledge that China is run by a legitimate system with the aim of improving the well-being of people.
Chinese who supported the Communist Party or held anti-democratic perspectives had long expressed skepticism towards Western style democracy as incompatible with traditionalist Chinese culture. They hold that government is legitimate not when people influence it but when it represents their higher interests. Leaders of the post-Mao reforms in the 1980s argued that the Party's record under Mao was bad, but that the Party reformed without being forced. The American political scientist Andrew Nathan concluded that "the reforms aimed to change China from a terror-based, totalitarian dictatorship to a 'mature,' administered dictatorship of the Post-Stalinist Soviet or Eastern European type." "Democracy" would not involve elections or participation in decision making but "the rule of law", which was based on procedural regularity in the exercise of power.
In the spring of 1989, student leaders of the Chinese Democracy Movement expressed demands for democracy in terms which deliberately recalled the demands of the May Fourth Movement, which led to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Intellectual leaders such as Liu Xiaobo and Fang Lizhi supported their calls for participation in government and procedures to fight corruption.
Prefecture-level members of the National People's Congress are directly elected by the general public. Higher-level bodies are elected by those from lower-level bodies; the provincial legislature is elected by members of the prefecture bodies, and members of the national congress are elected by provincial level bodies.
Analysts believe that due to the fact that people are more knowledgeable the leaders they choose at local levels. As policy is more straightforward and potential mistakes cause relatively less damage, local elections are encouraged.
In December 2008, more than 350 intellectual and cultural leaders, including Liu Xiaobo, issued Charter 08. The Charter said China remains the only large world power to still retain an authoritarian system that so infringes on human rights, and "This situation must change! Political democratic reforms cannot be delayed any longer!"
After Xi Jinping succeeded General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012, Amnesty International said that human rights in China have become worse. Human rights abuses are rejected by the government, which insists the country is run according to law.
Xi Jinping said that the democracy in China is a whole-process democracy; all major legislative decisions are made only after democratic deliberations and thorough procedures to ensure sound and democratic decision-making. This concept was announced in the State Council's 2007 “White Paper on China's Political Party System", and was consolidated after the 19th Central Committee's fourth plenary session. This type of democracy, where there is political participation including sortition, consultation and deliberation, and elections at lower levels of government, have been called "political meritocracy" by analysts. This political system aims to select and promote skilled and talented public officials at lower levels of government, instead of a universal electoral democratic method of selecting political leaders at highest levels of government.
China's flexible political system allows easy experimentation at local levels. China's constitution does not expiate strict power divisions between the government hierarchy. Socio-economic experiments are first executed in city and provincial levels, adjustments are made then replicated nationwide. For example, the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone tested market economy policies; this was subsequently extended across China. Recent testing has seen initiatives such as recruiting NGOs to provide elderly healthcare and workers' rights. The standard barometer specifying economic growth above all has been diminished, with things like environmental sustainability and urban-rural income gap indicies in lieu of GDP growth targets implemented in Hangzhou and Chengdu respectively.
The idea of Intra-party democracy has been repeatedly emphasized and expounded by the CCP as an alternative to liberal democratic ideals characterized by multiparty elections and competition.
Electoral reform in Hong Kong was seen as an avenue for political liberalization in China; the universal suffrage reform package which would allow Hongkongers to vote for the chief executive but the chief executive first needed to be approved by a committee. The law failed to pass Hong Kong's legislative council when pan-democrats voted against the package and most of the pro-Beijing members walked out.
At the same time, the party has been warning against the harms that "Western constitutional democracy" could bring to China.
Special Administrative Regions, 1997–present.
As European colonies, both were denied democratic governments until very late in the colonial period. Official memos from Chinese Communist Party leaders, threatening the British government if they were to hold elections in Hong Kong, were repeatedly sent from the 1950s onwards. Hong Kong got its first elections in the 1980s, and Macau in the 1990s.
Both Hong Kong and Macau have legislatures; 35 of Hong Kong's 70 legislators are directly elected, as are 14 of Macau's 33. Also, like grassroots elections in China, Hong Kong does hold elections for the district counsel, which act as consultants to the government.
Hong Kong.
The first Chief Executive election saw the Chief Executive elected by a 400-member Selection Committee in 1996, then by 800-member Election Committee in 2002, 2005, 2007, and then 1200-member Election Committee in 2012 and 2017.
The Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1997–2004 had 60 seats with 24 were directly elected, six elected from an 800-member electoral college known as the Election Committee of Hong Kong, and 30 elected from FCs. Elections in 2004 and 2008, had 30 members were directly elected by universal suffrage from geographical constituencies (GCs) and 30 were elected from functional constituencies (FCs). From 2012 onwards, The Legislative Council consists of 70 elected members, 35 members were directly elected by universal suffrage from geographical constituencies and 35 were elected from functional constituencies.
There have been many attempts with many different ideas to introduce universal suffrage since the handover.
In 2014, Hong Kong experienced massive protests against the Chinese government's universal suffrage reform package, as the candidates would have to "love the country, and love Hong Kong" and would "protect the broad stability of Hong Kong now and in the future" to be able to stand for election. The universal suffrage reform package failed to pass Hong Kong's legislative council when the majority voted against the package.
Macau.
The first Macao Legislative Council in 1996 had 23 members: eight of whom were directly elected (GC), eight indirectly (FC), and seven nominated by the Chief Executive. Its second Legislative Council (2001) had four more members: two more directly elected and two more indirectly. Its third and fourth (2005&2009) legislative councils had 29 members, and the fifth (2013) and sixth (2017) have 33.
The first Chief Executive of Macau was elected by the 200-member Chief Executive Selection Committee in 1999, 2004 and 2009 saw the Chief Executive elected by 300-member Election Committee, and 400-member Election Committee in 2014 and 2019.
Popular support.
Very few comprehensive surveys have been done to understand the popular support for or against democracy.
A 1990 survey from Andrew Nathan and Tianjian Shi reported that 55% of people surveyed agree that "China needs more democracy now", but 76% agreed that Chinese democracy depends on the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. They also reported that a sizeable proportion feared the negative aspects of democracy, 36% agreed that too many parties would "cause political chaos."
Surveys done with the World Values Survey and the East Asia Barometer in 2001 and 2002 shows high explicit support for democracy.
In the survey, 96% answered either "fairly good" or "very good" to the question "Do you think having a democratic political system is...". Moreover, 81% of respondents agreed with the statement "democracy may have problems but it is better than any form government."
When asked to compare authoritarianism or democracy, only 5% of respondents said that an authoritarian government can be preferable, with 20% saying it doesn't matter.
When chosen to rate out of 10 how suitable democracy is for China, only 2% gave a rating lower than 5, 96% gave a 6 or higher, 76% giving an 8, 9 or 10. Nevertheless, 60 to 70% of respondents feared some democratic practices may cause negative effects. 26% agreed or strongly agreed with the statements "in democracy the economic systems runs badly." 35% agreed with that statement "democracies are indecisive and have too much quibbling." 18% agreed with the statement "democracies aren't good at maintaining order."


Constantine II, Prince of Mukhrani

Konstantine Mukhranbatoni () (died 1716) was a Georgian nobleman of the House of Mukhrani, a collateral branch of the royal Bagrationi dynasty of Kartli. He was Prince ("batoni") of Mukhrani and "ex officio" commander of the Banner of Shida Kartli and Grand Master of the Household ("msakhurt-ukhutsesi") at the court of Kartli from 1696 to 1700.
Konstantine was a son of Prince Teimuraz II of Mukhrani. He succeeded to the lordship of Mukhrani and court titles on the deposition of his uncle, Papua, who was punished by the pro-Iranian king Heraclius I for his loyalty to the rebellious George XI. Konstantine married Nino, daughter of Prince David Amilakhvari and had a son, Konstantine.


Shivrai

Shivrai was a copper coin minted during the rule of Marathas and remained in circulation till the end of the 19th century, primarily in the Bombay Presidency region.
Before 1830s, shivrai was valued at 1/74 to 1/80 of a rupee. There are 150 different types of shivrai extant till date. In 1885, the British government ordered all local revenue collectors (Mamlatdars) to collect all shivrais and deposit them in treasury. The purpose of this was to bring the new pice, worth 1/64 of rupee, in currency by eliminating this native rival. In 1890, Rev. Abbott collected and studied around 25,000 shivrais. He mentions that they were still in circulation. The shivrai remained in circulation till the end of the 19th century.
Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Shivrai.
When the Maratha warrior Shivaji became "Chhatrapati" of the Maratha empire, as a symbol of sovereignty, the "Rajyaabhisheka Shaka" (The Coronation Era) was started. On the occasion of coronation, special coins were minted, including a gold coin called " Shivrai Hon". These coins have "Shri Raja ShivaChhatrapati," in Devanagari, inscribed on them.
Dudandi Shivrai.
Dudandi Shivrais (Marathi: दुदांडी शिवराई) were minted during Peshwa period. Dudandi literally means two-bars. The "Shri" at the top of the obverse is underlined. This horizontal line, combined with the horizontal heading line of the word "Raja", gives us an impression of "Double bars", hence the term "Dudandi".
EIC's Shivrai.
The British East India Company minted Shivrais at Poona during the period of 1820-1830. Unlike Earlier Shivrais, these contained year of minting on it. The dotted collar of earlier Shivrais is also absent. The year was given in Fasli era.


Bu Maher Fort

The Bu Maher Fort (, sometimes called Abu Maher Fort) is a fort situated in Halat Bu Maher, in the Kingdom of Bahrain. In 2012, the fort was identified as part of the Bahrain pearling trail, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
History.
The fort was constructed in 1840 although its origins likely come from a Portuguese fortification from the 16th century. An analysis of artefacts from the fort by an excavation team from Oxford Brookes University have suggested the site may have been first occupied from the Ummayad or early Abbasid era. There was also evidence of the site periodically being submerged underwater. The rectangular fort with four circular towers was built by Abdullah bin Ahmed Al Khalifa and served as a sister fort to Arad Fort, guarding the passageway of Muharraq Bay. In 1868, the fort was destroyed by British warships intervening in the Qatari–Bahraini War.
The island and fort were partially restored in 1930 to serve as a quarantine station for smallpox. The fort was further reconstructed in the 1970s by a Bahraini archaeological team and further archaeological excavations have since been conducted as recently as 2010. At present, the fort consists of a solitary tower.
Today.
The site is now adjacent a coast guard base and can be visited from the Bahrain National Museum by a short boat ride. The fort currently boasts a visitor centre and is the starting point of the pearling trail.


District (Vietnam)

Districts (; Chữ nôm: 縣; ), also known as rural districts, are one of several types of second-tier administrative subdivisions of Vietnam, the other types being urban districts ("quận"), provincial cities (), municipal city (), and district-level towns (). The districts are subdivisions of the first-tier divisions, namely the provinces and municipalities. Districts are subdivided into third-tier units, namely townships and communes.
History.
The districts existed since the 15th century. Prior to 1945 the "huyện" (chữ Hán: 縣) was also called district and earlier "sub-prefecture" of the prefectures, or phủ into which provinces were previously divided. The administrative reorganization by Minh Mạng in 1832 did not substantially affect the position of the huyện, but concentrated administration of the level above the huyện, the phủ under new larger unit of the tỉnh and provincial governors. The position of local prefects and district heads remained unaffected.


Myna (film)

Myna is a 2013 Indian Kannada language romance drama film written and directed by Nagashekar. Based on a real-life incident, the film was produced by N. S. Rajkumar for Vajreshwari Combines. Chetan Kumar and Nithya Menen played the lead roles. Jassie Gift is the music director for the film. The film won Filmfare Award for Best Film – Kannada.
. The film is currently being remade in Hindi.
Plot.
The film begins with Satya (Chetan Kumar) being chased by the police. He is caught and is charged with a 34 serial murder case. While being transported to Bangalore on criminal charges, he shares his story with ACP B. B. Ashok Kumar (R. Sarathkumar), the officer who is leading the team that arrested him. How Satya met Mynaa is revealed in a flashback sequences.
Satya was one of the contenders of a reality game show played near Dudhsagar Falls. In one of the tasks, he is to collect as much money as possible incognito. He chooses to beg as a disabled person using a trolley to push himself. On the train he spots a girl named Mynaa (Nithya Menen) and he is instantly infatuated by her. She gives him a 100 note and asks him to use it wisely. He would have won the challenge in the reality show had he surrendered the note. He refuses and as a consequence, has to quit the show. Satya is not disappointed by the turn of events and he considers using his time to pursue Mynaa. He pretends to be a disabled person every single day, but instead of begging he begins selling newspapers in the train that Mynaa frequents. This immensely pleases Mynaa. She starts falling in love with the ingenious beggar who sells newspapers. Slowly, they start conversing more. One day, they decide on meeting for a lengthy conversation. In this encounter, Mynaa confesses her feelings for Satya, and she is about to tell him the biggest secret of her life. Suddenly, her bag gets stolen. Satya, abandoning his pretense, catches the thieves responsible and retrieves the bag to Mynaa. She confesses that she is disabled and admits that she thought that Satya was one too and that was the reason why she liked him and considered him the perfect match for her. She expresses her discontent for Satya's lies, but she turns back and asks him if he still likes her. To this, Satya says "I will always like you no matter what happens, I will like you forever!". Satya also reveals that he knew about her inability to walk. They then resolve their problems, decide to trust each other. They get married and run away from Castle Rock to Bangalore.
Once in Bangalore, they move into a house and Satya finds a job as a Taxi driver and Mynaa as a voice support engineer at a small software company; they live the happiest moments of their lives in this period of time in a small house. Mynaa gets recommended by her boss to join a bigger software company. Everything is going well for them, Satya says his dream in life is to see Mynaa chase him around standing on her own feet.
He tells her of a doctor he drove to the airport who is confident of getting her operated and make her stand again. On Satya's insistence, Mynaa visits the doctor who recommends a full body scan. Mynaa reluctantly obliges to this. The doctor, in a breach of ethics, makes a nude video of her when she is drugged. He threatens her later to submit to his mercy. She however tries to hide this fact from Satya, who finds out the truth when he takes her phone to a repair store.
Satya invites the doctor home without the knowledge of Mynaa and politely asks the evil doctor to hand over the tapes and not publicize the video. The doctor refuses and insists on having his way, this enrages Satya and he manhandles the doctor. But the doctor continues to incite him and Satya breaks down and kills the doctor. He disposes the dead body by cleverly making it look like a car accident. Satya convinces Mynaa to leave for Chennai at once stating he has had a transfer to which she agrees. They meet a different doctor (Suhasini Maniratnam), who has a good track record of curing polio patients. Mynaa agrees to get the operation done. Satya goes to the bank to draw money, but he gets a call from an old friend of Mynaa, Revathi (Malavika Avinash) who asks him to meet her at the beach. This turns out to be a trap set by the police and thus he ends up being in custody of ACP Kumar, to whom Satya has been narrating the story. Upon hearing the story, Ashok sympathizes with Satya. It is revealed that there have been many false allegations on Satya, who has only committed one murder. The police officer fights for Satya, trying to convince his brother, a lawyer (Anant Nag), to save the criminal from the false 34 serial murder case. Ashok leaves Satya out of custody as an expression of his faith in Satya who is provided shelter at a friend of Ashok's.
Ashok and his friend both come under lot of pressure from their bosses and the government to produce former to court. They are also negatively projected by the media. Satya on overhearing a conversation between Ashok had his friend, learns that they have succumbed to the pressure from the government and that they intend to have him jailed. Satya quietly escapes and witnesses his wife being taken to a hostel by the police, hidden. He calls his old friend form Castle Rock (Dudhsagar) and requests him to bring Mynaa to Kengeri railway station, who agrees. Against this dramatic facade, people who are planning to kill Satya have also gathered. Ashok brings his sharp team of police officers to the station. They grab the gang trying to kill Satya. But, as a safety measure Ashok has stationed police with pointed guns on Satya.
Satya meets Mynaa hugging her and lifts her in his arms and carries her; the train passes and Ashok's view of Satya is obscured. Satya starts to run away with Mynaa. Ashok who knows the police might shoot Satya orders them "Don't shoot", but the train sound flushes the "Don't" from his command. The constables shoot down Satya. The constables open fire again this time killing Mynaa in cross fire. Satya is shot again. The couple both die holding each other in their arms.
Production.
Myna is based on a real-life incident. Ex-cop BB Ashok Kumar, the man who had detected more than 100 murder cases, narrated a murder mystery to the director that became the subject of the story. The cameraman Kashi, editor Johny Harsha, and music director Jassie Gift of "Sanju Weds Geetha" were retained in the team by director Nagashekhar.
The shooting of this movie was done across the Konkan stretch of Karnataka including the astounding locales of Dudhsagar waterfalls on the borders of Karnataka & Goa. The locations include the coastline of Uttara Kannada.
Soundtrack.
Jassie Gift has composed all the songs while Kaviraj and V. Nagendra Prasad have shared the lyrics.
Response.
Rediff.com gave the film a 3.5/5, saying "Mynaa is a beautiful love story especially made for lovers". Sify.com gave the film a 4/5, saying "Best ever romantic movie after mungaaru male".
Box office.
It was in 22 centers for 50 days, collected around 12 crores at the box-office, and was in some theaters across Karnataka for 100 days.


Armenian archaeology

Armenia has a number of archaeological sites.
Armenian archeology.
Armenia is among sites of earliest life. Evidence of prehistoric humankind have been found in caves and open air settlements here. Tools made from flint, obsidian, basalt and other materials from the Stone Age (1 million 40,000 years ago) indicate that Neanderthal Man made his home in present-day Armenia.
With those tools, he carved the story of his life onto petroglyphs (stone carvings) which can still be found in regions of Armenia and date to the Mesolithic Era, millions of years before Christ.
Bronze Age in Armenia.
The Armenia of pre-history was an empire unimaginably vast compared to today’s republic. Around the period of the Bronze Age, the Shengavitian culture thrived in a territory of about 1 million kilometers that stretched from today’s Northern Caucasus to Israel and from Central Anatolia to Central Iran.
Early civilization began to emerge from Armenia with the formation of town-like settlements, temples, monumental architecture, a social classes, metal works, systematic transportation, etc. Sculptures of deities reached five meters high by one meter in diameter, and scenes of animal sacrifice, of water birds, snakes and plants from the time were painted onto the surfaces of rocks which became an archeological biography of early Armenia.
Relics dating to the middle Bronze Age (2400-1600 BC) found in Armenia reveal a culture highly developed in jewelry making. Artifacts include colored ceramics, chariots, bronze weapons, gold and silver vessels. Linguists and archeologists say it was this period when the territory was inhabited by Indo-Europeans (more precisely Arians) whose leaders had acquired spiritual and secular power. And during that period the first known statehood formed, administered in Armenian, one of the main branches of Indo-European pre-language.
Iron Age in Armenia.
In the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (15-9 centuries BC) several powerful states emerged in the Armenian plateau. The culture is characterized by “cyclopic” castles built of massive stone blocks, which are wall surrounded settlements with surface of up to
100 hectares. Their number reached to 500 and held a culture that developed the early fertility cult, evidenced in monuments of phallic representation. And bronze sculptures of early heroes, and of animals bear striking resemblance to Hittite sculptural art.
From 9-7 BC on the territory of Armenia was established one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world, the Urartian, or Van Kingdom, noted for its canonized architectural principles and proportional systems of separate buildings. The first cities with systematized layouts and landscape terra-forming features started to emerge (Erebuni, Teyshebaini, Tushpa, Argishtikhinili, etc). The arts of jewelry, ceramics, armory forging, stone and bronze sculpture reached utmost development.
Hellenistic culture in Armenia.
The Hellenistic culture (4 BC – 3 AD) heavily influenced portions of Armenia that remain until today. Cities such as Tigranakert, Armavir, Arshamashat, Ervandashat, and Artashat date to that time. (The latter was named by Greek chronologist Plutarch as the "Armenian Carthagena", most probably because the Artashat defense walls and castle towers were built on the advice of the greatest warriors of the ancient world Hannibal).
The Kingdom of Armenia enjoyed its most powerful world influence in the 1st century BC under the reign of Tigran the Great. The wise and powerful leader built a strong state which started to compete in this region with the Roman Empire. But the Romans’ second effort, led by Pompeus, successfully took part of Armenia. But, conceding to the stubborn resistance of the Armenian Highlanders, Rome gave up the notion of making another empire province. Instead, Emperor Neron invited Armenian King Trdat the First to Rome and officially inaugurated him King of Armenia. Armenia kept her independence, but under the patronage of the Roman Empire.


Bharat Kala Bhavan

Bharat Kala Bhavan is a university museum located in Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. It has been instrumental in the dissemination of knowledge on Indian art and culture. It is one of the important touristic attractions in the Banaras Hindu University and in the city of Varanasi.
History.
The concept for Bharat Kala Bhavan came to fruition with establishment of "Bharatiya Lalit Kala Parishad" on 1 January 1920 in a wing in Godowlia, Varanasi. Between 1920 and 1962, the museum's collection was shifted to several locations within Varanasi before Jawaharlal Nehru laid foundation of the existing museum building in 1950 and the museum was, then shifted to its existing location in the Banaras Hindu University in 1962.
Mahatma Gandhi visited Bharat Kala Bhavan thrice and in his final trip he inscribed "संग्रह बहुत अच्छा है" ("the collection is very good").
Collection.
Bharat Kala Bhavan has a collection of artefacts, Buddhist and Hindu sculptures, pictures, manuscripts, Mughal miniatures, paintings, brocade textiles, contemporary art form and bronze statues from 1st–15th century. Pottery, mental craft, ivory goods, jewellery, terracotta beads & rare collection of Gujarati, Rajasthani & Pahari miniature paintings are also on display in the museum. Total holdings of Bharat Kala Bhawan are .


Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios

Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios (), from Kritou Terra in Paphos, was a dragoman (interpreter) in Cyprus between 1779 and 1809.
Career and influence.
Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios came from Kritou Terra in Paphos in western Cyprus. Early on he served as interpreter or "dragoman". The dragoman was usually a Christian from the local community appointed by the Ottomans, and it was a significant office awarded to highly educated individuals with mastery of both the Greek and Turkish languages. As an interpreter, Hadjigeorgakis dealt mostly with matters of taxation and administration, which brought him into contact with the Ottoman administration of Cyprus, i.e. the "muhassil" (tax collector) and the Turkish aghas on the one hand, and the "kodjabashis" (the local prelates) on the other. Around 1796 he was appointed lifelong Dragoman of Cyprus issued by Sultan Selim III.
The people and the clergy held Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios in high esteem and this earned him increased power and influence. As a result of his position and connections, the dragoman gained considerable wealth. However, he was not known to use his power and riches for his personal benefit. According to a poem by an unknown author composed after his decapitation, Hadjigeorgakis contributed greatly to the protection of Christians and lepers, offered financial and moral support to the Church of Cyprus and promoted education.
He and his wife Maroudia (who was also the Archbishop Chrysanthos of Cyprus's niece), displayed patriotic and charitable sentiments. Nevertheless, there were many that nursed negative feelings against the Dragoman. His own and the Archbishop's rise in the political and financial life of Cyprus caused the envy and anxiety of the aghas, who as conquerors had been accustomed to being the principal agents of authority and the privileged beneficiaries of such authority, but now saw themselves being supplanted. On the other hand, a part of the population resented the heavy taxes placed upon them – and consequently, resented Hadjigeorgakis, who was responsible for the collection of such taxes. The French consuls were also hostilely disposed towards him because they considered him a Russophile and, by consequence, an enemy of France. This resentment manifested itself in the 1804 revolt of the island's Ottomans caused by increased taxation and wheat shortage. The insurgents initially revolted against the imperial authorities, but the latter managed to turn their wrath against the Church and the Dragoman. The angry mob broke into and sacked Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios’ mansion. The Dragoman himself escaped with his family to Constantinople, where they stayed for three years.
Hadjigeorgakis appointed his assistant, a man named Nikolaos Nikolaides, as his commissary. Nikolaides was quick to take advantage of his position to become rich. He collaborated closely with the "muhassil" and resorted to tyrannical methods for the collection of taxes. When Hadjigeorgakis was cleared of all charges, he returned in 1807 to Cyprus to conduct an audit of the accounts. Nikolaides and Hasan Agha sent a slanderous report against him to the sultan in order to avoid being called to account for their actions. This caused an order to be issued for the Dragoman's arrest and for a full examination of his accounts for the past 20 years. Hadjigeorgakis was informed of this development and once again fled to Constantinople to prove his innocence. However, this time he was not successful. Despite the efforts of the ambassadors of England and Russia, the Grand Vizier Kör Yusuf Ziyaüddin Pasha, who resented Hadjigeorgakis, ordered his execution. By the time the Sultan's order for his release was secured, it was too late. Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios was beheaded in Constantinople on March 31, 1809.
Descendants and the Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion.
Hadgigeorgakis spent a portion of his wealth in building a mansion in the upper class Ayios Antonios area in Nicosia, close to the Archbishop's residence. After his execution his estate was confiscated and his family suffered several years of exile and imprisonment. Hatice Hanim, of the Turkish family of Magnisali, bought the mansion for 13,000 "kuruş". In 1830, Tselepi Yiangos, the Dragoman's youngest son, returned from Constantinople and bought the mansion with a loan he received from the Archdiocese. Tselepi Yiangos settled there with his wife Iouliani, née Vondiziano. He died in 1874 and his wife remained at the mansion with the family of her niece Ourania Zachariadou Oikonomidi, whom she had adopted for she had no children of her own. The mansion was then inherited by Ourania's four daughters. The last tenant, Julia Piki, died in 1979.
The mansion was acquired by the Cyprus Department of Antiquities and serves today as the Cyprus Ethnological Museum.


The Warrior Queen of Jhansi

The Warrior Queen of Jhansi is a 2019 British period drama film on the 1857 Indian Rebellion against the British East India Company. The film was co-written, produced and directed by Swati Bhise, with Charles Salmon as co-producer. The film was originally titled "Swords and Sceptres: The Rani of Jhansi". Devika Bhise, who also co-wrote the script, plays the lead role of Rani Lakshmibai. In November 2017, Rupert Everett and Derek Jacobi joined the cast. Principal photography was completed in December 2017.
Synopsis.
The film is a historical story of the Rani of Jhansi, a feminist icon in India and a fearless freedom fighter. She earned a reputation as the Joan of Arc of the East when in 1857 India, as a 24-year old general, she led her people into battle against the British Empire. Her insurrection shifted the balance of power in the region and set in motion the demise of the British East India Company and the beginning of the resistance against the ensuing British Raj under Queen Victoria.
Release.
In June 2019, Roadside Attractions acquired the US distribution rights and slated the film for a Fall 2019 release. The official trailer of the film was launched by RoadsideFlix on 17 September 2019.
The film was released theatrically in Canada 15 November 2019 and in the United Kingdom on December 6 2019. Lionsgate later released the film on Starz after which it was available for streaming on Amazon Prime and Hulu.
Critical reception.
The film was screened at the British Film Festival and won the Impact Award at the Vancouver International Women in Film Festival 2019. The film was also a recipient of the ReFrame stamp for gender parity.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 24% critical approval rating for the film, with an average rating of 4.34/10, based on 34 reviews, and a 78% audience score. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Warrior Queen of Jhansi" has a fascinating real-life character at its center, but her story is ill-served by this heavy-handed adaptation." On Metacritic, the film had a weighted average score of 27 out of 100, based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally unfavourable reviews."
On Amazon, the film has 4 out of 5 stars with 433 global ratings.
Leslie Felperin of "The Guardian" gave the film 3 out of 5 stars, calling it an "impressive drama" where "Bhise brings an undeniable charisma to the central role" and a "rousing, passionate bit of film-making on a reasonably epic scale, with a cast of hundreds deployed for some big dusty battle scenes, which are duly impressive."
Rachit Gupta of "The Times of India" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars, stating that "with its heavy dialogue approach and constant attempt to showcase the characters as righteous, the film plays out like a costume drama." He did, however, praise the film's production value, particularly the casting. Joe Leydon of "Variety" lamented that "Unfortunately, despite some impressively executed battle sequences and a few aggressively colorful supporting performances, "The Warrior Queen of Jhansi" is too tepidly sincere to consistently excite or amuse." Jeannette Catsoulis, writing in "The New York Times", said that "[the movie] is so dedicated to lionization and so declamatory in tone that it almost repels engagement," but praised "the gifted Devika Bhise" and that "the movie's costumes, though, are exquisite and its star swings a sword like a champ."
Film reviewers noted anachronisms in the scenario. For example, the character of Saleem Khan who advises Queen Victoria is based on Mohammed Abdul Karim, who did not become her advisor until 30 years later.


Bhurshut

Bhurshut () or Bhurishreshtha () was a medieval Hindu kingdom spread across what is now Howrah and Hooghly districts in the Indian state of West Bengal.
Bhurshut kingdom grew up in the southern parts of Rarh region. It had a high concentration of "Bhurisresthis", a community of traders and as such came to be called Bhurshut. However, it was possibly the main centre of Rarhi Brahmins. It could have been ruled by a Sur king during the period when the Pala Empire was a rising force. Different feudatory kings may have ruled over the kingdom. At a later time there is mention in folklore of a Dhibar dynasty, possibly in the 14th–15th century. Subsequently, the area came to be ruled by a Brahmin family.
Shanibhangar, the last Dhibar king of Burshut, was defeated by Chaturanan Neogi of Garh Bhawanipur. Chaturanan's grandson (by his daughter) Krishna Roy of the Mukhti royal family of Phulia took over the reign and established the Brahmin dynasty of Bhurshut. Krishna Roy ruled in 1583–84, at a time when Akbar was the Mughal emperor. Krishna Roy's great-grandson Pratap Narayan Roy (ruled around 1652–1684) was the greatest of Bhurshut kings. There is mention about the exemplary bravery of a lady of the family, popularly referred to as "Roy Baghini", but it is difficult to identify the person. She is probably named Rani Bhavashankari Devi.
In Ain-i-Akbari it is mentioned that amongst the thirty-one mahals under Sirkar Suleimanabad, the highest revenue was earned by Basandhari pargana, followed by Bhurshut. No other pargana under Sirkar Satgaon or Sirkar Mandaran earned so much revenue. Bhurshut was conquered by Kirtichand Rai of Bardhaman in the 18th century.
Bhushut kingdom had three forts at Garh Bhabanipur, Pandua (Pedo or Pedo Basantapur) and Rajbalhat. There is hardly any trace of these forts, There still is a place called Dihi Bhurshut in Howrah district, across the Damodar from Rajbalhat.
Bharatchandra Ray, ‘Raygunakar’, 18th-century Bengali poet, hailed from Pedo Bhurshut and possibly belonged to the ruling family of Bhurshut kingdom.


Legendary personalities in Bengal

Gouri Sen, Hari Ghosh, Banamali Sarkar, Gobindram Mitter, Umichand, and Huzoorimal are some legendary personalities, who have survived in public memory in Bengal or what are now the Bengali speaking areas of India and Bangladesh through popular rhymes or sayings. Some of them were based in Kolkata and others were linked to the growing metropolis.
Gouri Sen.
Gouri Sen (1580 - 1667) lived in the 17th century. He was born and hailed from Balir More (Near Bandel Church) of Hooghly Town of Hooghly District, West Bengal. He was the son of Nandaram Sen. The family belonged to the Subarna Banik caste, people who are engaged in business. Gouri Sen earned enormous amounts of money from the family export-import business and was well known in business circles. He donated freely to repay debts of other people or to help those who were in trouble over payments to be made to the royal exchequer . This was the source of the Bengali saying " laage taka debe gouri sen" – "If money is required Gouri Sen will give it". Many people think that he constructed the Gourishankar Shiva temple at his birthplace at Boral Lane also known as Boral Goli Hooghly and many people used to visit this temple to offer puja.
Hari Ghosh.
Hari Ghosh (1720 – 1806) was dewan of Munger fort of British East India Company. He had command over Bengali, Persian and English languages. On retirement, he settled down in Kolkata. He donated freely for social requirements. Many poor students, who went to the city for studies availed of the free facilities of food and lodging in his house in north Kolkata. Many people gathered in his sitting room to participate in idle discussions and then had dinner in his house. Thus arose the saying "Hari Ghosher goal" – "Hari Ghosh’s cattle shed".
Rhyming proverb.
There is a Bengali rhyming proverb:
Banamali Sarkar.
Banamali Sarkar was the first dewan to the resident at Patna and subsequently deputy trader to the British East India Company at Kolkata. His grand house was built in Kumartuli during the period 1740 to 1750.
Gobindram Mitter.
Gobindram Mitter was one of the earliest Indian officials under the British rule and earned a reputation for his tyranny, wealth and extravagance.
Umichand.
Umichand (also known as Amin Chand or Amir Chand) was a Sikh businessman who had come to Kolkata from Amritsar when the British were just making forays into the country. He played a major role in establishing the British in India. He had earned fabulously in business with the British East India Company and donated all his wealth for religious purposes at the time of his death. He was known as 'the Rothschild of his day' - and lives in history by reason of his deception at the hands of Clive.
Huzoorimal.
Huzoorimal was a Sikh friend of Umichand. He had earned fabulously and was famous for acts of public beneficence – a tank at Baitakkhana, a bathing ghat south of where Howrah Bridge now stands (later known as Armenian ghat), the steeple of Armenian church, and a ghat near the Kali temple at Kalighat.


Hossein Khan Sardar

Hossein Qoli Khan Sardar Qajar (), better simply known as Hossein Khan Sardar () (born ca. 1742 – died 1831) was an Iranian statesman in Qajar Iran, who was the last governor of the Erivan Khanate from 1807 to 1828. Around 1826–1828, he and Abbas Mirza, the crown prince, attempted to win back the Transcaucasian and Dagestanian possessions lost to Russia during the war of 1804-1813 which had ended with the Gulistan Treaty. However, using superior tactics and weapons developed since their defeat of Napoleon, the Tsar’s generals inflicted even greater losses on Iran.
In addition to ceding further territories, the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay forced Iran to pay crippling reparations. The treaty also banned Hossein Khan and his younger brother, Hasan Khan, from ever venturing north of the Aras River, the new border.
Hossein Khan belonged to the Qoyunlu branch of the Qajar clan, and was thus part of the royal Qajar dynasty. He was the son of Mohammad Khan Qajar, who had served as the governor of Erivan in the late 18th-century. Furthermore, Hossein Khan was a confidant of Fath Ali Shah, who had cemented their relationship by marrying his sister and giving one of his daughters, Shirin Jan Khanom, in marriage to Hossein Khan's son, Mohammad Qoli Khan.
According to foreign writers who visited Iran, Hossein Khan was one of the most influential and wealthy leaders in Iran with as much power as Abbas Mirza. Hossein Khan Khan did not have any members of his family as prisoners in Tehran, had the privilege to issue coins, and had the infrequent favorable circumstance of maintaining an extensive part of the income for defense intentions. He inspired commerce and established a steady government. Indeed, Armenian and Russian sources, who rarely have anything positive to assert about the Iranian khans in Transcaucasia, praise Hossein Khan for being generous, truthful, grand, diligent, and fair.
The Shah had been indebted to Hossein Khan ever since, on the death of Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, Hossein Khan led an advance column of troops to Tehran to secure the capital and the throne for Fath Ali. Later, the Shah dispatched him to quell a rebellion in Khorasan province. In return for his loyalty, Hossein Khan was rewarded with the Khanate of Erevan, which he ruled until the last Russo-Persian War (1826-1828).
Hossein Khan was also granted estates encompassing some 62 villages near the city of Qazvin. Later generations of Sardars bequeathed their inheritance to religious endowments, or "vaqf". The "ab anbar sardar", a cavernous underground water reservoir in Qazvin, was named after Hossein Khan. Local legend has it that, at 3,000 cubic meters and 28.5 meters from base to ceiling, it took seven months to fill and its supply of water lasted for seven years. Fed by three "qanats" (subterranean water canals), it is the largest in Iran.
Unlike other Transcaucasian khans, Hossein Khan did not make an agreement with the Russians and accomplished to hinder their attempts for two decades. Russia’s irritation was displayed in article 14 of the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), which particularly removed him and his brother of the privilege to sell or trade their estates in Erevan, a privilege which was allowed to all others.


Khwaja Wasiuddin

Khwaja Wasiuddin (1920–1992) was an army general and diplomat. He started his career as a young officer in the British Indian Army and later became a senior general in Pakistan Army. He was the permanent representative of Bangladesh to the United Nations.
Early life.
Khwaja Wasiuddin was born on 20 March 1920 in Ahsan Manzil, Dacca, Bengal Presidency (Present-day Bangladesh). His father Khwaja Shahabuddin was the governor of North-west Frontier Province of Pakistan and member of the Dhaka Nawab family; his father's elder brother was Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin, the second Governor-General of Pakistan and subsequently its second Prime Minister. His mother was Farhat Banu, the niece of sir salimullah and member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly. He studied at Dhaka Muslim High School and later in St Gregory's High School. In 1938 he graduated from Prince of Wales Royal Military College.
Career.
After graduation, he joined the Indian Military Academy and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant on April 1940 in the 8th Punjab Regiment of the British Indian Army. He served in the Burma Campaign of World War II. He reached the rank of major by 1943, and commanded an artillery battalion. In 1945 he was promoted to rank of lieutenant colonel and appointed as the additional deputy president of Inter Services Selection Board of British Indian Armed Forces.
Pakistan.
After the partition of India he opted for Pakistan Army. In Pakistan, he continued to work in Pakistani Inter Services Selection Board, eventually becoming its president. In 1951 he went for further studies in Camberley Staff College in United Kingdom and subsequently was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. In 1960 he was made the general officer commanding (GOC) of the 14th Division located in East Pakistan's Dhaka and in 1963 he was the commander of 10th Division located in Lahore, West Pakistan. In 1962 he was a provincial martial law administrator. In 1964 he got his higher educations from Imperial Defense College in United Kingdom. In 1968 he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General and was appointed as the commander of the II Corps, the headquarters was firstly in Lahore and later was transferred to Multan, Punjab.
Bangladesh.
During the Bangladesh Liberation War he was the Master General of Ordnance (MGO) in General Headquarters in Rawalpindi, West Pakistan. In October 1973, he was repatriated to Bangladesh from Pakistan. After returning to Bangladesh he would serve as the ambassador of Bangladesh to Kuwait and France. He retired from Bangladesh Army in 1973 and was made the permanent representative of Bangladesh to the United Nations, position he held till 1986. As the representative he supported Indonesia's annexation of East Timor in the United Nation.
Death.
He died on 22 September 1992 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.


Thai royal ranks and titles

The precedence of Thai royalty follows a system of ranks known as thanandon (), which are accompanied by royal titles.
The Sovereign.
There are two styles which can be used for a king in ordinary speech, depending on whether he has been crowned:
Consorts.
Traditionally, titles of royal wives depended on their birth titles and royal favour; only princesses of high birth (Chao Fa, Phra Ong Chao and Mom Chao Ying) assuming titles higher than Chao Chom. There were no clear rules about the hierarchy of titles above Chao Chom until the time of King Mongkut, and titles changed over successive reigns.
The rule about commoners also seems to be evolving, and it appears that there are no more restrictions on a commoner from becoming queen. Most of the titles below are from King Vajiravudh's 1924 enactment of the Succession Law.
Princes and princesses.
Holders of these titles are still considered royal, since they are (at most) two generations removed from a king. "Nai Luang" (ในหลวง) is an epithet for a king. Children of a king are called "Luk Luang" (ลูก หลวง "royal children"), and grandchildren of a king are called "Laan Luang" (หลาน "royal grandchildren"). The concept is similar to the French system of "princes of the blood" and the Iberian system of "infantes." In English, they are normally called "prince" or "princess". Special forms are used when one wishes to address them, although the language is less elaborate than when speaking to the king or the queen. A male Luk Luang who does not accede to the throne would assume a new royal surname, normally reflecting his birth name (as opposed to an honorific given later). The surname can be used by his wife if she is a commoner by birth, possibly with "Na Ayudhya" added if she has no noble title. It is otherwise not normally used until his children (or grandchildren) first hold the title of "Mom Chao", when the surname will first appear in their names.
Royal descendants.
More distant royal progeny, starting from the children of male Mom Chao, are considered commoners. However, these commoners have titles indicating that their ancestry can be traced back to a king.
Mom Rajawongse.
"Mom Rajawongse" (หม่อมราชวงศ์, ; abbreviated in Thai as ม.ร.ว. and in English as M. R. and translated as "His/Her Excellency") is the title assumed by children of male Mom Chao M.C.(English) M.C. After first name Informally, they may be called Khun Chai (male) or Khun Ying (female) (). Holders of this title are occasionally erroneously referred to as princes or princesses in older English documents; it is now more common to use the correct title, "Mom Rajawongse". If a specific title is appended, sometimes the titular may be called His/Her Grace by proclamation of the King or a Prince-Regent, but not by a Queen-regent or any royal member sitting in the King's capacity as a Councillor-of-State.
Mom Luang.
"Mom Luang" (หม่อมหลวง, abbreviated in Thai ม.ล. and sometimes in English as M. L. and translated as "The Honourable") are the last royal descendants retaining a title. Mom Luang titles are conferred on children of male Mom Rajawongse. Colloquially (although incorrectly), they are sometimes addressed as "Mom"; the correct informal address is "Khun" ().nlk
Na Ayudhya.
In the Family Name Act, B. E. 2465, Rama VI ordered that royal descendants who do not hold any title should append "Na Ayudhya" (ณ อยุธยา) to their surname to signify they are descended from a royal bloodline. Sometime spelled "Na Ayutthaya".
Wife of prince.
Wives of princes have titles, depending on the titles on both sides.
Phra Vorachaya.
"Phra Vorachaya" () is a title of the royal consort of the Crown Prince". She is elevated to "Phra Chao Vorawongse Ther Phra Ong Chao".
Phra Chaya.
"Phra Chaya" () is a princess, "Chao Fa" (HRH Princess) or "Phra Ong Chao" (HRH Princess) who is married to prince, at every level. She retains her own title. When referring to her as a wife of the prince, she may be called "Phra Chaya Nai (husband's name)".
Chaya.
"Chaya (ชายา)" is a princess or "Mom Chao" (HSH Princess) who is married to prince, at every level. Again, she would retain her own title. When referring to her as a wife of the prince, she may be called "Chaya Nai (husband's name)".
Mom.
"Mom (หม่อม)", in this context, is a commoner married to a prince. She uses this title as a prefix of her name, adding "na Ayudhya" to her new surname; for example, Mom Srirasmi Mahidol na Ayudhya (a wife of Chao Fa Maha Vajiralongkorn, whose surname is Mahidol). If she has her own title ("Mom Rajawongse" or "Mom Luang"), she retains it.
Married princesses.
The son of a holder of the following titles generally inherits a title one step below; a female Mom Rajawongse married to a commoner would produce a child with no title. According to the Royal Marriages Act, B. E. 2475, a princess wishing to marry to a commoner must request royal permission and abandon her royal title. For example, if princess Chao Fa, HRH Princess of Thailand, wished to marry a Mom Rajawongse commoner she would lose her royal title (Chao Fa, HRH Princess of Thailand) but retain royal style as follows:
However, Chao Fa Chulabhorn Walailak received permission from the king to keep her title when she married commoner Virayudh Tishyasarin.
Royal peerage.
In addition to royal ranks and titles, royals may also receive noble titles in the style of the nobility. These are referred to as "krom" () titles. While the granting of noble titles ceased with the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932, on very rare occasions the king may still grant an honorary noble title to a royal.
The noble title, which consists of a rank and a title, is appended to the royal name and title, prefixed with the word "krom" (pronounced "kromma" when forming part of the title). For example, the full title of the King's sister is "Somdej Phra Chao Pheenang Ther Chao Fa Galyani Vadhana "Kromma Luang Narathivat Rajanakarin". Nevertheless, it is the princely title which will be more frequently omitted when contracting the title "e.g." Somdej Phra Chao Boromawong Ther "Kromma Phraya Damrong Rajanubhab" (born Phra Ong Chao Disuankumaan). There are 5 feudal titles for prince/princess:
The ranks of royal peerage are:
Since the time of King Chulalongkorn, the honorific titles given to the royalties normally incorporate a city name or its modified form, and the holders are known in English as the Prince or Princess of that city.
The sovereign may grant titles to other royal-family members:


Parakramabahu IV of Dambadeniya

Parakkamabahu IV was King of Dambadeniya in the 14th century, who was also a scholar known as Pandit Parakramabahu. He built a temple for the Tooth Relic at Kurunegala and was responsible for writing Dhaladha Siritha, a book that laid down procedures for uninterrupted conduct of paying homage to the sacred relic. He renamed Mahanuwara (Kandy/මහනුවර) as Senkadagala. He extended patronage to Vijayaba Pirivena, Asgiriya Temple, and Sri Ghanananda Pirivena. He succeeded his father Bhuvanaikabahu II as King of Dambadeniya and was succeeded by Bhuvanaikabahu III.


David Eastwood (British Army officer)

Herbert David Eastwood (27 January 1919 – 29 October 2010) was a British Army officer who was awarded the Military Cross for courage during Operation Market Garden in the Second World War.
Early life and military career.
Eastwood was born in Bangor, Gwynedd, and educated at Bloxham School and St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He commissioned into the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry on 16 February 1940, and was posted to India on internal security duties. After the Battle of France, his regiment was recalled to England to become part of the 31st Independent Infantry Brigade, and later the 1st Airlanding Brigade. Eastwood was appointed GSO3 (Air) and took part in the Allied invasion of Sicily. He was subsequently given the job of briefing the D-Day planners on the lessons to be learned from the errors made in the Italian campaign.
Operation Market Garden.
Eastwood's company landed on 17 September 1944 as part of the British element of Operation Market Garden. Eastwood and his men were responsible for securing and protecting drop zones (DZs) in preparation for the arrival of the 1st Parachute Brigade. On the next evening Eastwood, in command of No.1 platoon, was detailed to put out navigational aids for a supply drop. Finding Germans in occupation of the zone in some strength, he attacked, killing some and capturing the rest.
On 19 September he returned to the DZ to assist in the landing of the first wave of Polish gliders. As soon as these appeared, the Germans attacked. Eastwood and his men drove them off until all the gliders had been unloaded. Cut off, however, he led his platoon through enemy positions under cover of darkness and reached Ommershof on the north-western outskirts of Arnhem. They dug in there and remained for two days before reinforcing the defensive perimeter around the nearby Hartenstein Hotel. For the next four days they held the crucial area near the Schoonord crossroads, which was constantly exposed to heavy enemy fire. Regardless of personal danger, Eastwood constantly moved between his sections encouraging his men. In spite of numerous attacks and heavy casualties, their morale was such that they remained in position until ordered to withdraw back across the Rhine on 25 September. He was immediately recommended for, and subsequently awarded, the Military Cross.
"The above officer led his platoon with great gallantry throughout the action. On the evening of 18.9.44, he was detailed with his platoon to put out navigational aids on L.Z. "L" for a supply drop. He found the enemy in occupation of this area in some strength. He immediately attacked them, killing or capturing the lot. On 19.9.44, he again returned to this area to assist in the landing of gliders. As soon as the gliders appeared the enemy put in an attack. This was driven off and the enemy held until all the gliders had been unloaded. Later he found that his route back to the Company area had been cut off by the enemy, but he successfully led his platoon through the enemy positions."
"From 20.9.44 until the withdrawal on 25.9.44, he held a position which was constantly exposed to murderous enemy fire, but regardless of personal danger he went constantly round his section positions encouraging his men. His great example undoubtedly kept the spirits of his men at such a high level that in spite of numerous enemy attacks and heavy casualties they hung on to their positions until the end."
Eastwood further served with the 21st Company in the Battle of Arnhem and in the liberation of Norway. He relinquished his commission in 1947.
Post-war.
Following the end of the war, Eastwood joined the colonial Malayan Civil Service in 1947. He learned to speak Malay and served there during the Malay Emergency. Eastwood became district commissioner for Trengganu, on the country's eastern coast, where he wrote the Land Law for the State before going to Malacca. Returning to England after Malaya achieved independence in 1957, he joined the Ministry of Defence in 1959. After serving in Jamaica he completed a four-year tour of Northern Ireland during The Troubles, working in intelligence for the Northern Ireland Office. He was invested as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1973.


Labourers and Farmers Party

The Labourers and Farmers Party (, "Rōdōsha Nōmintō") was a political party in Japan. It was active from 1948 until 1957.
History.
The party was established in December 1948 by members of the Socialist Party Orthodox Faction Diet Members' Group, which was formed by 16 National Diet members who had resigned or been expelled from the Japan Socialist Party after voting against the budget proposed by the Democratic Party–Socialist government due to their opposition to an increase in public transport fares. It was particularly well-supported in Okayama and Hokkaido where party president Hisao Kuroda and Haruo Okada were based, and was supported by some members of the National Railwaymen's Union and National Communications Workers' Union.
It won only seven seats in the January 1949 elections, and was further reduced in size by three defections over the party's unclear stance on the Korean War. It won two seats in the 1950 House of Councillors elections, and retained its four remaining seats in the House of Representatives in the 1952 general elections.
In the 1953 elections it won five seats in the House of Representatives, but failed to win a seats in the simultaneous House of Councillors elections. The 1955 elections saw the party reduced to three Diet members and lost its representation in the House of Councillors in the 1956 elections.
The party was dissolved in January 1957 when its 2,000 members joined the Socialist Party.


Ashina Jiesheshuai

Ashina Jiesheshuai (; Middle Chinese (Guangyun) pronunciation: ; died 19 May 639) was a member of the Ashina clan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and general (Zhonglangjiang) of the Tang dynasty.
Background.
He was one of Shibi Khan's sons and the younger brother of Ashina Shibobi (), who was a vassal khagan of the Tang dynasty and used the title "Tölis Khaghan". ().
Tang China defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, which became a vassal state in 630. During this period, some Turkic nobles were members of the Chinese army. Ashina Jiesheshuai was among these nobles.
Jiucheng Palace raid.
By summer 639, Ashina Jiesheshuai had lost favor with Emperor Taizong (because he had falsely accused his brother Ashina Shibobi of treason, which Emperor Taizong found despicable). He formed a conspiracy with Ashina Shibobi's son Ashina Hexiangu () to assassinate Emperor Taizong at his summer palace called the Jiucheng Palace (九成宮, in modern Linyou County, Shaanxi). They had planned to wait for Li Zhi, the Prince of Jin, to depart from the palace in the morning and use that opportunity to attack the palace. On the day they planned, 19 May, Li Zhi did not leave the palace due to a storm. Ashina Jiesheshuai attacked the palace anyway, engaging the palace guards, but the guards were supported by troops who came outside. Ashina Jiesheshuai and his comrades stole some 20 horses from the stable. They fled to the north, but were caught by pursuers near the Wei River and killed. Ashina Hexiangu was exiled to Lingbiao.
After this incident, officials began advocating for the sending of Turks (or Tujue, as they were known to the Chinese) away from the heart of the state. In fall 639, Emperor Taizong created a Tujue prince who had served him faithfully, Li Simo (né Ashina Simo) as the khan of a newly recreated Eastern Tujue state as Qilibi Khan, giving him all of the Tujue and Hu who had surrendered as his subordinates, to be settled north of the Great Wall and the Yellow River. The Tujue people were fearful of Xueyantuo and initially refused to go to their new location. Emperor Taizong issued an edict to Xueyantuo's khan Yi'nan that he and Li Simo keep their peace and not attack each other, and after receiving from Yi'nan the assurance that he would not attack, the Tujue people moved to the new location.
Aftermath.
Jiesheshuai's rebellion was unsuccessful. However, in 681, Qutlugh revolted against Tang and established the Second Turkic Khaganate in 682.
Cultural influences.
A prominent Turkish nationalist, Nihal Atsız, used some characteristics of Ashina Jiesheshuai for a fictional character named Kür Şad in the novel "Bozkurtların Ölümü" ("The Deaths of Gray Wolves"). However, in the novel, the father of Kürşad is not Shibi Khan but Ashina Xichun (Çuluk Kağan).


Murud-Janjira

Murud-Janjira () is the local name of a famous fort and tourist place situated on an island just off the coastal city of Murud, in the Raigad district of Maharashtra, India.
Origins of the name.
The word Janjira is not native to India, and may have originated after the Arabic word "Jazeera", which means Island. Murud was once known in Marathi as "Habsan" ("of Habshi" or Abyssinian). The name of the fort is a concatenation of the Konkani and Arabic words for Island, "morod" and "jazeera". The word "morod" is peculiar to Konkani and is absent in Marathi.
Ramrao Patil of Janjira.
Raja Ram Rao Patil was Patil of Janjira Island and a chief of Kolis who established and/or built this island in the 16th century for Kolis to live peacefully away from pirates. After gaining permission from the Sultan of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, he built the island but later refused to obey the orders of the Sultan. So the Sultan sent his Admiral Piram Khan to capture the janjira. Due to the castle's fortifications, Piram Khan was unable to attack the island conventionally, so he disguised himself as a merchant and requested to stay a night at janjira and permission was granted. Piram Khan hosted a party under the guise of thanking the patil. When the Patil and kolis were intoxicated, Piram Khan attacked them with his men who had been hidden in barrels and captured the island.
Major features.
Murud-Janjira Fort is situated on an oval-shaped rock off the Arabian Sea coast near the port city of Murud, south of Mumbai. Janjira is considered one of the strongest marine forts in India. The fort is approached by sailboats from Rajapuri jetty. The main gate of the fort faces Rajapuri on the shore and can be seen only when one is about away from it. It has a small postern gate towards the open sea for escape.
The fort has 26 rounded bastions, still intact. There are many cannons of native and European make rusting on the bastions. Now in ruins, the fort in its heyday was a full-fledged living fort with all the necessary facilities, e.g., palaces, quarters for officers, mosque, two small natural fresh water lakes, etc. On the outer wall flanking the main gate, there is a sculpture depicting a tiger-like beast clasping elephants in its claws.
The palace of the Nawabs of Janjira at Murud is still in good shape.
A special attraction of this fort are 3 gigantic cannons named Kalalbangdi, Chavri and Landa Kasam. These cannons were said to be feared for their shooting range. Another gate to the west is sea-facing, called 'Darya Darwaza'.
There is also another fortress, named Ghosalgad, which is located on top of the hill around east of Murud-Janjira, that was used as outpost for the rulers of Janjira.
History.
During its heyday, the island fort boasted 572 cannons.
Visitors can gain access to the Janjira fort from Rajapuri, a small village on the coast. After a short ride in a small boat, one can enter the fort through the main entrance. The fort is oval shaped instead of the usual oblong or square shape. The fort wall is about 40 feet high and has 19 rounded porches or arches, some of which still have cannons mounted on them, including the famous cannon Kalaal Baangadi. These cannons were largely responsible for repelling oncoming enemies from the sea. Inside the fort walls are the ruins of a mosque, a palace and bath with water channeled from streams, evidence that royal ladies occupied the quarters. A deep well, still functional, provides fresh water despite the fort being surrounded by salt water.
On shore is a luxurious cliff-top mansion, the Palace of the Nawab. Built by the former Nawab of Janjira, it commands a panoramic view of the Arabian sea and the Janjira sea fort.
According to another record, the Abyssinian Sidis established the Janjira and Jafarabad state in early 1100.
According to accounts written by the Portuguese Admiral Fernão Mendes Pinto, the Ottoman fleet that first arrived in Aceh prior to the Ottoman expedition to Aceh led by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis included 200 Malabar sailors from Janjira to aid the region of Batak and Maritime Southeast Asia in 1539. Later, in 1621, the Siddis of Janjira became exceptionally powerful as autonomous state to the point that the commander of Janjira, Siddi Ambar the Little, successfully defied his overlord Malik Ambar's attempt to replace him. Siddi Ambar the Little is accordingly considered the first Nawab of Janjira state.
The island fortress was under control of Adil Shahi dynasty until the reign of Ibrahim II where Janjira fort was lost to the Siddis.
Major historical figures from Murud-Janjira include men such as Sidi Hilal, Yahya Saleh and Sidi Yaqub. During the rule of Sultan Aurangzeb, Sidi Yaqut received a subsidy of 400,000 rupees. He also owned large ships which weighed 300–400 tons. According to the record these ships were unsuitable for fighting on the open sea against European warships, but their size allowed for transporting soldiers for amphibious operations.
Despite their repeated attempts, the Portuguese, the British and the Marathas failed to subdue the power of the Siddis, who were themselves allied with the Mughal Empire. For example, 10,000 soldiers from Moro Pandit were repulsed by Janjira's army in 1676. The Marathas led by Shivaji attempted to scale the granite walls; he failed in all his attempts. His son Sambhaji maharaj even attempted to tunnel his way into the fort but was unsuccessful in all his attempts. He built another sea fort in 1676, known as Padmadurg or Kasa fort, to challenge Janjira. It is located northeast of Janjira. Padmadurg took 22 years to build and is constructed on 22 acres of land.
In the year 1736, Siddis of Murud-Janjira set out in a battle with the forces of Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao. On 19 April 1736, Maratha warrior Chimaji Appa attacked the gathering forces in the encampments of the Siddis near Rewas. When the confrontation ended, 1,500 Siddis, including their leader Siddi Sat, were killed. Peace was concluded in September 1736, but the Siddis were confined to only Janjira, Gowalkot, and Anjanwel, thus their power greatly reduced. However, Janjira remained unconquered until it became part of Indian territory after independence from the British in 1947.


Jigme Dorji Wangchuck

Jigme Dorji Wangchuck (, ; 2 May 1929 – 21 July 1972) was the 3rd Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan.
He began to open Bhutan to the outside world, began modernization, and took the first step towards democratization.
Education and Royal Wedding.
Jigme Dorji Wangchuck was born in 1929 in Thruepang Palace in Trongsa. At a young age, he was apprenticed in etiquette and leadership at the royal court of his father the King. Wangchuck was educated in a British manner in Kalimpong and went on study tours and stay to many foreign countries such as Scotland and Switzerland from where he drew inspiration to develop Bhutan with suitable adaptations.
In 1943, he was appointed Trongsa "Dronyer" and then elevated as the 25th Paro "Penlop" in 1950, upon the death of the 24th Paro "Penlop", Tshering Penjor (1902–1949). Wangchuck married "Ashi" Kesang Choden Wangchuck (born 1930), the daughter of "Gongzim" (Lord Chamberlain) Sonam Topgay Dorji (1896–1953), at the Ugyen Pelri Palace, Paro, on 5 October 1951. The royal wedding was held at the Garden Palace. The following year, Wangchuck became the King after his father died in Kuenga Rabten Palace. Coronation was held in Punakha Dzong on 27 October 1952.
Father of modern Bhutan.
During his 20-year reign that ended in July 1972, the fundamental reorientation of Bhutanese society began.
Wangchuck not only achieved the reorganisation of society and government, but also consolidated Bhutan's sovereignty and security. He mobilised resources from the international donors as aid. Wangchuck's strategy was to broaden the source of aid by developing relationships with other countries. Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan in 1962 to obtain international aid. However, India became the main source of financial and technical assistance. He was a deft and farsighted planner in the sense that he modernised Bhutan without destabilizing its culture and tradition. Wangchuck brought modern techniques and methods to preserve and promote the culture of Bhutan, yet at the same time, he introduced Western science and technology. He was a forerunner among environmentalists in this part of the world. The Manas Sanctuary established in 1966 was one of the first in the region.
Political and social reforms.
In the context of Bhutan, there were small groups who were bonded labourers. They would work on the farms of the aristocratic and prominent families. In return, they would receive food, lodging and clothes. As soon as he became the King, labourers who worked on the royal lands were made into tenants and sharecroppers instead of indentured labourers. Later, similar indentured labourers were set free in other areas of the country, especially in some parts of Eastern Bhutan, where they were concentrated.
In 1953, Wangchuck, realising that hitherto the decision of the King and that of the high officials were binding on the country, wanted them to be shared. As a result, Wangchuck opened the National Assembly of Bhutan in 1953 in Punakha Dzong. For the first time, elders from different gewogs were invited to voice their concerns, ideas and solutions for the future of this country. At the same time, it was a forum for Wangchuck to share his larger vision for Bhutan in the years to come.
After the National Assembly was established in 1953, the king drafted and devised a series of progressive laws for the Kingdom. The King brought out a holistic set of laws covering fundamental aspects of Bhutanese life such as land, livestock, marriage, inheritance, property and so forth. The Thrimzhung Chenmo (Supreme Law) was passed by the National Assembly in 1959. The laws are very organic, coherently interrelated within themselves and to the evolving reality and manifested his vision of law-based society.
Along with the promulgation of Thrimzhung Chenmo, a mechanism to implement and enforce laws was needed. Wangchuck decided to open the judiciary, first with the appointment of Thrimpons (judges) in districts, and then finally to the High Court, which was set up in 1968. These administrative and social reforms were prior to any economic modernisation programmes.
In 1955, he intensified the conversion of commodity taxes to cash taxes by assessing land for cash taxation. Cash taxes were nominal, but moving from commodity taxes to cash taxes was a radical step at that time.
Apart from promulgation of better laws and tax reforms, the Royal Bhutan Army was formally established in 1963. Furthermore, the entitlements of all officials were converted from commodities to cash and new designations were given. Wangchuck established new Ministries in 1968.
Culture and education.
The king paid considerable policy attention on preserving Bhutanese culture so that Bhutan could always perpetuate itself as a culturally distinct nation, in particular with a flourishing Buddhist culture.
He established Simtokha Rigzhung Lobdra (now known as the Institute of Language and Cultural Studies) in 1967, where a new breed of traditional scholars could be nurtured. He also increased the number of monks in many dratshangs. During his reign the systematic phonetic, syntax and grammatic rules of Dzongkha language were devised.
To propagate culture and traditions in schools, and to study scientific disciplines as well as humanities, the Third King established modern education on a wide spread basis. He established what were then the centres of education excellence with two public schools: Yangchenphug, in western Bhutan in 1969, and the other, Kanglung, in eastern Bhutan in 1968. An Agriculture Department was created to improve nutrition and to generate income from horticulture. The Kingdom’s free health service was also founded.
Infrastructure development.
Modernising Bhutan's infrastructure for transportation, communications, education, health system and agriculture started after India was receptive enough to offer aid. India became independent in 1947, and was not in any immediate position to help Bhutan. Wangchuck officially visited India in 1954. The first Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru made a historic journey to Bhutan in September 1958. King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck then paid repeated visits to India.
A year after Nehru visited Bhutan in 1958, the development of Bhutan's modern infrastructure began, with assistance from India. Although road construction started in 1959, a large scale undertaking became systematic two years later in 1961, with the commencement of the 1st Five Year Plan (FYP) that envisaged construction of 177 km of road, 108 schools, three hospitals, and 45 clinics. In 1961, motor road transport reached Thimphu. The systematic envisioning of the economic future of Bhutan through FYPs was put into practice in 1961. The idea of budgeting and programming on a five-year basis is a legacy from that period. The construction of roads expanded vigorously to the end of Jigme Dorji Wangchuck’s reign. His last visit to central Bhutan was partly to open the Zhunglam, the highway between Wangdue Phodrang and Trongsa, in 1971.
Multilateral and bilateral relations.
The king's priority was to continue deepening the excellent relationship with India. The second priority was to diversify the relationship with other countries. He intended to strike close economic relationship with Bangladesh. Bhutan was the first nation after India to recognise the independence of Bangladesh.
One key event his era was enabling Bhutan to join the United Nations in 1971, when it became its 125th member.


Kirat Autonomous State

Kirat Region is an area of the Himalaya of ethnic Kirati people of Nepal in the eastern region.
History.
List of Kirat Kings.
List of Kirati kings who ruled in Nepal.


Dewa Cawu

Dewa Cawu (died April or May 1673) was a prince on the Island of Bali, who possibly reigned as king for a short while in the 1650s. He belonged to a dynasty that claimed descent from the Hindu-Javanese Majapahit Empire, and kept its palace (puri) in Gelgel near Bali's south coast.
Assistant to Dalem Di Made.
According to Balinese historiography, written much later, he was one of the fourteen sons of the king Dalem Seganing, and born from a co-wife (penawing). He seems to have held a high position during the reign of his brother Dalem Di Made (1623?-1642?). Dutch sources from the 1630s mention a brother of the current ruler called 'T'jouw' or 'Tchau' who negotiated with the Dutch East Indies Company on the ruler's behalf.
According to an annual entry in the Balinese text "Pawawatekan" the Gelgel kingdom fell apart in 1651, at the same time as Dewa Cawu was enthroned as king. The outbreak of internal fighting on Bali in 1651 is likewise mentioned in Dutch sources.
Exile and death.
Dewa Cawu is not mentioned as ruler in his own right in later Balinese historiography. Also, his time as ruler or pretender-ruler was apparently short and hampered by the ongoing internal warfare. By 1665 the old chief minister of the kingdom, Anglurah Agung, had usurped power, which he retained until his death in 1686. An annal entry states that Dewa Cawu died in Guliang in the present Bangli regency, in 1673. The 18th-century chronicle Babad Dalem likewise speaks of a ruler who died in exile in Guliang, although this ruler is identified with his elder brother Dalem Di Made. The dynastic conditions on Bali at this time are therefore partly obscure, with largely contradictive sources.


Lunavada

Lunavada (also transliterated as Lunawada) is a municipality in the Mahisagar district, former in the Northern part of Gujarat state of India.
Lunawada is the administrative headquarters of the Mahisagar district and one of most developing town of central Gujarat. Lunawada was formally a Taluka, administrative subdivision, in the Panchmahal district up to 15 August 2013. The name Lunawada is derived from Luneshwar Mahadev, a temple of Lord Shiva. Lunawada is surrounded by water, the sources being the Panam river, Vasant Sagar, Kishan Sagar, Kanka Talav, Veri, Mahi River and Darkoli Talav lake.
History.
Lunavada was the capital of Lunavada State, a princely state that predated the town's existence by around 200 years, having been founded in 1225. The state's rulers claimed descent from the Solanki or Chaulukya dynasty; they constituted one of the sixteen branches of the Solanki tribe and were known as the Virpura Solanki's. Before Lunavada was founded, the state's capital was the town of Virpur, across the Mahi river to the west of Lunavada.
According to traditional accounts, the town of Lunavada was founded in 1434 by Bhim Singh, the rana of Virpur. On a hunting trip across the Mahi river, Bhim Singh ended up lost and separated from his companions. He came across an ascetic's hut and, after respectfully greeting the man, was told that, while passing east through the forest, he would see a hare crossing his path. The ascetic told him that he was to found a city on that spot. Bhim Singh did as he was told and saw the hare at a place now marked by the Bhavaneshvari Mata temple; there he built the town. Since the ascetic was a devotee of the god Luneshwar, the rana named the new town Lunavada out of respect.
James M. Campbell noted that the story of the ascetic and the hare was a common founding legend for cities. He suggested that, instead, the name Lunavada was in honor of Bhim Singh's relative Lavanprasad, the ruler of Dholka. Campbell said that Bhim Singh was probably driven across the Mahi by the growing power of the Dholka kings, and that he chose Lunavada as the site of his new capital because of its strong defensive position. A rugged hill, subsequently fortified, overlooked the town, and a tangled forest behind it offered a safe escape route if necessary.
Bhim Singh's direct descendants continued to rule Lunavada until around 1600. The first half of the 1500s apparently saw conflicts with the Gujarat Sultanate; Bodi Moghal, a general of Mahmud Begada, conquered nearby Balasinor in 1505, and a disturbance of some sort occurred in 1545. A paper dating to 1586 indicates the territorial extent of Lunavada State at the time: it still included Virpur and its dependent villages, which later came under Balasinor State, as well as some territory in the north conquered from the thakurs of Meghraj, who also belonged to the Virpura Solanki clan. However, the territory to the south of the Panam river, which later became part of Lunavada State, was not yet under Lunavada's control. Instead, it was controlled by the rulers of Godhra as well as a branch of the Solankis based at Jhanor, near Thasra.
Around 1600, the direct line descended from Bhim Singh died out, and a collateral relative named Kumbho Rano was brought from the village of Gandhari to become king of Lunavada. One of his descendants, Nar Singh, laid the foundation of the historical Lunavada town wall in 1718; four years later, in 1722, he paid a tribute of 80,000 rupees to Haidar Kuli Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Gujarat. Throughout the 1700s, Lunavada State lost territory to the neighbour Balasinor State, but it gained new lands in the south due to the decline of the Godhra chiefs and the Solanki thakurs.
In the census of 1872, Lunavada was recorded as having a population of 9,662, of whom 7,206 were Hindus and 2,456 were Muslims.
During the British Raj, Lunavada State was one of the princely states under the Rewa Kantha Agency of Bombay Presidency. It was a second class state in the Rewa Kantha Agency. One important ruler was Wakhat Singhhji (1867–1919) a Solanki Rajput Maharana of high lineage. The 1901 census records that the population had a decrease of 28% in the previous decade, due to famine.
The last ruler of Lunawada was Maharaja Vir Bhadra Singh. The best known historical place near Lunawada is Kaleshwari where there are Pandav chori, foot prints of Bhima, ancient water kund (small bodies of water sometimes sanctified), several vaavs (large wells with accessible steps to the water level) and the Lord Shiva temple.
Col. HH Maharaja Sri Virbhadrasinhji Ranjitsinjhi 1929/1986, born 8 June 1910 in Lunawada, invested with full ruling powers on 2 October 1930, Member of the Chamber of Princes, married Maharajkumari Manher Kunwari [HH Maharani Kusum Kunwari of Lunawada], daughter of Capt. HH Maharana Raj Saheb Shri Sir Amarsinhji Banesinhji (Gangubha) of Wankaner, and had issue. He died in 1986.
Tourism.
Places that visitor can visit are: Luneshwar Temple, Ramji Mandir, Hanumaan ni Veri, Kakachiya Triveni Sangam, Panam Bridge, Panam River Check Dam, Fateh Baug, Fuvara Chawk, Indira Gandhi Stadium, Kalka Mata ni Tekari, Javahar Garden, Vasiya Talav, Amaze Little Garden and Ganipir Dargah Sharif.
Visitors can also visit places like the Panam Bridge at evening. Another place to visit is the King's Palace of historically significance in the State of Gujarat. Near Lunawada there is a village named Limadiya where the palace is situated.
Hilltop.
Kalka Mata ni Tekari is one of the hill top in Lunawada city and one of the highest point of Lunawada. From the hilltop you will find a beautiful view of the city and on the top there is a temple and bunch of slides and swings. It also has the ruins of the fort on the top. People on weekends come here for a short family picnic enjoying the cool breeze and a perfect view. People also visit the top for jogging purpose and to visit the temple at the hill top.
Luneshwar Temple.
Lunawada is known for the temple of Luneshwar Mahadev. This ancient temple of Lord Shiva has a lot of religious importance as it is said that the Pandavas dwelled at this temple during their stay in the forest. The statue of Lord Shiva Lingam is of white stone found in the quarries of Madhya Pradesh. There is a Saint Kabir Ashram opposite to this Shiva temple. All the walls of this Ashram are engraved with the Dohas of Saint Kabir. Another ancient temple of Bhairavnath Mahadev is situated near the Luneshwar Mahadev temple. This temple has a statue of Bhairav and one of Lord Shiva.
The next attraction is the temple of Melia Mahadev, which is 2 miles away from Lunawada. The local people come here to pray to fulfill their wishes and desires. A temple named Mitha Ganesh ni deri situated in mandvi bazar (beside pipli fali) is held here.
Vasiya Talav (Lake).
Vasiya talav is also one of the tourist attraction in Lunavada city. It is a beautiful lake. The sunsets view are the best. The fairs held here at the occasions of Ursh's are amazing. It has a little park in between the lake named Amaze little garden. It is basically a kids garden with fun slides and swings. At evening many kids visit here with their parents and enjoying the eve with the perfect sunset here. Adults do jogging around the as it has a perfect track around it. Most people visit here at evening to enjoy the sunset.
Jawahar Garden (Victoria Jubilee Garden).
It is the largest park of the Lunawada city and one of the oldest park in the city. It contains Jogging park, Kids Section, garden and two beautiful fountains. The Fountain show is quite impressive here. It is common choice among young and elderly person for jogging in Jogging park. Teens and young visit here for playing badminton and few sports game. Kids go here for kids section. It is also a good spot for a weekend picnic.
Amaze Little Garden.
It is basically a kids garden with fun slides and swings. At evening many kids visit here with their parents and enjoying the eve with the perfect sunset here. Adults also visit here.
People.
•The town contains people of every kind of religious persuasion, Hindus, Jains, Sindhis, Muslims and Dawoodi Bohras. It has Hospitals and clinics for surrounding Talukas. The town has facilities like a Gymnasium, a Town hall, Theater, Gardens, Parks, Public schools, Private Schools, Colleges, Religious schools, Hotels , Guest houses, Restaurants and Cafes. It is predominantly Muslim.
•Lunawada's people have made achievements in fields of business, education, banking, literacy, and health. Lunawada has a large NRI population thriving in different foreign countries like Kuwait, UAE, Australia, Canada, Oman, US, Hong Kong, and Africa.
Godhra-Lunawada Railway.
The Godhra-Lunawada Railway was a 2ft 6in/762 mm narrow gauge(NG) line, opened in 1912 and reached Lunawada in 1914. The railway length of 26 miles(41km) and was served from the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway (BB&CIR) station Godhra. The railway was owned and managed by the Gujarat Railways Company. The company was taken over by the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway(BB&CIR) in 1922. An Agreement was signed 30 Apr 1914 between the Secretary of State for India and Killick, Nixon & Company of Bombay with partners Lowther Robert Windham Forest, Sir Henry Edward Eddleston Procter, Thomas William Berkett, Walter Henry Ogston and Harold Percival Hebblethwaite. The Company shall construct, complete and make ready and fit for opening for public traffic throughout on a route to be selected and determined by the Secretary of State, a railway, from the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway Station at Nadiad to Kapadvanj; and a railway from the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway Station at Godhra to Lunawada. This Line was closed in 2002 following The Godhra Train Incident which killed 59 people. Currently plans are going on to revive this line as a broad gauge(BG) line with extension upto Abu Road Railway Station via Modasa, Himmatnagar, Khedbrahma & Ambaji.


Ramdurg State

Ramdurg State was one of the Maratha princely states ruled by the Bhave family during the British Raj. It was administered as part of the Deccan States Agency of the Bombay Presidency, founded in 1799. It was one of the former states of the Southern Maratha Country and its capital was at Ramdurg.
Ramdurg State measured 438 square kilometers in area. According to the 1901 census, the population was 37,848.
History.
The foundation of the state dates back to 1742 when Ramdurg State was separated from Nargund.
During Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan's time, between 1785 and 1799, Ramdurg was occupied by the Kingdom of Mysore. In 1827 - 1829 Ramdurg State came under the British India administration.
Ramdurg acceded to the Dominion of India on 8 March 1948 and is currently a part of Karnataka state.
Rulers.
The rulers of Ramdurg State were Hindu and belonged to the Chitpavan Brahmin caste with the surname Bhave. The Diwan or Regent of the state belonged to another Chitpavan Brahmin family with surname Ranade. The rulers from Bhave family used the title of Raja.