Battle of Zutphen

The Battle of Zutphen was fought on 22 September 1586, near the village of Warnsveld and the town of Zutphen, the Netherlands, during the Eighty Years' War. It was fought between the forces of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, aided by the English, against the Spanish. In 1585, England signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the States-General of the Netherlands and formally entered the war against Spain. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was appointed as the Governor-General of the Netherlands and sent there in command of an English army to support the Dutch rebels. When Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and commander of the Spanish Army of Flanders, besieged the town of Rheinberg during the Cologne War, Leicester, in turn, besieged the town of Zutphen, in the province of Gelderland and on the eastern bank of the river IJssel.
Zutphen was strategically important to Farnese, as it allowed his troops to levy war contributions in the rich Veluwe region. Therefore, he left some troops blockading Rheinberg and marched to relieve the town. He personally supplied Zutphen at first, but as the Anglo-Dutch siege continued, he assembled a large convoy whose delivery to the town he entrusted to Alfonso Félix de Ávalos Aquino y Gonzaga, Marquis del Vasto/Guasto. Leicester learned of this when a courier dispatched by Farnese to Francisco Verdugo, the man in charge of Zutphen, was intercepted. The English and Dutch prepared an ambush, in which many English knights and noblemen were involved. In the end, the Spanish succeeded in delivering the convoy safely to Zutphen after a hard-fought battle. The Spanish cavalry, composed mainly of Italians and Albanians, was defeated by the English cavalry under the Earl of Essex. The Spanish infantry, however, held its ground and delivered the convoy to Zutphen. From there, reinforced by Verdugo, the Spanish troops forced the English to retreat.
Zutphen was secured for the Spanish, though in the following weeks the English managed to capture a major Spanish fort, Zutphen's sconce, on the bank of the IJssel river opposite the town. Most of the English gains were negated when, months later, the English governors of Deventer and Zutphen's sconce defected to the Spanish ranks and handed over their places to Farnese.
Background.
In 1585, Queen Elizabeth I of England took the United Provinces of the Netherlands under her protection and signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the States-General. England dispatched 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry soldiers to the Low Countries, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, was proclaimed Governor-General of the Netherlands. Commanding untrained and badly paid levies, Leicester was unable to prevent the Army of Flanders under Alessandro Farnese, from seizing the towns of Grave, Venlo, and Neuss, though he managed to take Axel.
When Farnese besieged Rheinberg in September 1586, Leicester's army marched towards Zutphen and took a Spanish sconce on the left bank of the IJssel river. On 18 September Leicester laid a pontoon bridge over the IJssel and took positions on the right bank of the river, thus encircling Zutphen. Leicester's Anglo-Dutch army consisted of 8,000 infantry – mainly English and Scottish, but also 1,400 Irish – and 3,000 cavalry. Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, led the cavalry, John Norreys the infantry, and William Pelham the camp, in which Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, the deposed Archbishop of Cologne, and Manuel, son of the Prior of Crato, claimant to the Portuguese crown, all resided.
On receiving news of the siege, Farnese dispatched the governor of Friesland, Francisco Verdugo, to Borculo with 400 infantry and two cavalry companies, and Verdugo's lieutenant Johann Baptista von Taxis to Zutphen with 600 infantry and two cavalry companies. As the siege continued, Farnese left some troops to blockade Rheinberg and supplied Zutphen in person with 600 cavalry and a convoy of 300 wagons of wheat. Leicester was in Deventer then, but on receiving news of Farnese's approach, he returned to Zutphen's camp. He found, on his arrival, that Counts Philip of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg had entrenched the army on a hillock along the right bank of the IJssel. Leicester was informed of the possible ways through which the Spanish army might attempt to supply the town, but because of a misunderstanding no troops were deployed to guard the roads.
Led by Farnese himself and Francisco Verdugo, the Spanish troops left Borculo at night, passed next to the Dutch town of Lochem and reached Zutphen through a narrow way flanked by deep woods. Farnese prayed in the St. Walburgis church and later on walked up its tower to watch the English army. The following morning a war council was held after a captured Scottish officer was interrogated and revealed Leicester's plans and strength. Farnese considered the possibility of defending the town himself, but Verdugo dissuaded him to avoid "giving the Queen of England the fame that Prince of Parma was like a prisoner inside Zutphen". Farnese returned to Borculo, entrusted the command of the town to Verdugo, and sent Taxis to guard a fort nearby. While the siege continued, he marched to Lingen with his army to intercept a corps of reiters who were being recruited in Germany under Elizabeth I's orders. When he arrived, however, the reiters had dissolved for lack of pay.
Battle.
Preparations.
To preserve Zutphen's garrison, Farnese gathered enough food to feed 4,000 men for three months in the towns of Groenlo, Oldenzaal, Lingen, and Münster. As this food was carried to Borculo, a large convoy was formed to resupply Zutphen. Farnese gave command of the mission to Alfonso Félix de Ávalos Aquino y Gonzaga, Marquis del Vasto, under whom he put an escort of 2,500 infantry − 1,000 of them Spanish – and 600 Italian and Albanian cavalry, according to the Jesuit historian Famiano Strada, or just 600 infantry and 300 cavalry as claimed by the Spanish chronicler and soldier Alonso Vázquez, who was an eyewitness. On 21 September Farnese sent a letter to Verdugo commanding him to leave Zutphen with 1,000 men, meet the convoy, and deliver it to the town. Farnese's courier, however, was intercepted near Lochem and Leicester learned of the convoy. Persuaded by one of his confidants, Captain Rowland York, he prepared an ambush. York had served for some years in the Dutch States Army before being imprisoned on charges of pretending to surrender Dendermonde to the Spanish. When Brussels fell to Farnese, he was freed and went to serve Leicester, whose confidence he earned.
Leicester waited for the Spanish convoy near the small village of Warnsveld, half a mile from Zutphen. Supported by the Earl of Essex, Sir John Norreys, Sir William Stanley, Lord Willoughby, his nephew the poet and courtier Sir Philip Sidney, and William Russell, Leicester commanded 1,500 infantry and 200 cavalry, according to the coeval English scholar Edward Grimeston. Famiano Strada increases these numbers to 3,000 infantry and 400 cavalry, and Alonso Vázquez to about 8,000, many of them veteran Frisons under Count William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg. The 19th century American historian John Lothrop Motley, on the other hand, reduces the strength of the English force to 200 cavalry and 300 pikemen, though adding that "a much stronger force of infantry was held in reserve and readiness". The English soldiers, unlike the Dutch, were anxious to engage the Spanish troops. Rowland York told Leicester that he understood Spanish tactics, and that Spaniards were incomparable to English soldiers.
Leicester formed his army over a deep, narrow way, with the elevation where the Dutch were entrenched behind. He deployed his cavalry in two squadrons, formed a large infantry battalion, put 300 or 350 advanced pikemen under Sir William Stanley and Lord Audley next to the way, and flanked the road with sleeves of musketeers and arquebusiers. As the morning on 22 September was very misty, the English met the convoy before they expected. The Spanish cavalry opened the way followed by a battalion of foot, two sleeves of musketeers flanking the wagons, and some cavalry closing the way. Del Vasto left part of his cavalry near Lochem to guard the rear of the convoy. At 8:00 am, when the Spanish, led by the Marquis del Vasto himself, had passed Warnsveld, Stanley and Lord Audley began to skirmish with the Spanish vanguard. After the first clashes, the Earl of Essex charged upon the Spanish with the English cavalry, crying "Follow me, good fellows, for the honour of England and of England's Queen!"
Ambush.
The Spanish vanguard was driven off by the English at the first charge, but the Spanish pikemen under Captains Pedro Manrique and Manuel de Vega, from Francisco Arias de Bobadilla's and Juan del Águila's tercios, formed the defenders into squadron formation and kept the way open for the wagons. As the carters fled at the beginning of the fight, the Spanish arquebusiers had to take their places and brought the wagons towards Zutphen. Stanley's pikemen charged upon the Spanish squadron, but they were repelled at the push of pike. As the fight approached Zutphen and Francisco Verdugo noticed the musketry fire, he ordered a wagon to be loaded with powder and bullets and sent it to the Spanish arquebusiers. The English cavalry, in the meantime, charged over the Spanish pikes on one of its flanks. Though they succeeded in breaking the two or three foremost ranks, Essex's men could not penetrate further. Twice more the English charged upon the squadron, but they were as well repelled.
To reduce the pressure on the Spanish infantry, the Marquis del Vasto collected his cavalry and charged over Stanley's infantry, being in turn repelled. He was nearly killed when an English soldier attacked him with a battleaxe, but a Spanish light horseman surnamed Arenas saved him by transfixing the English with his lance. Del Vasto retired from the fight and met Verdugo and Johann Baptista von Taxis, who sallied from Zutphen with several troops to join the battle. At the same time they were conversing, English troops unsuccessfully attacked Zutphen's sconce on the other side of the IJssel, which was defended by Count Herman van den Bergh with some men. For a moment, Verdugo thought that the skirmish was inside Zutphen and the town burghers had risen in arms against the few Spanish troops he had left behind the walls. Leicester committed the same mistake, believing that the Frisons under Count William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg were fighting against the Spanish inside Zutphen.
During the confusion, the cavalry left behind by Del Vasto, which included the Italian and Epirote companies under Appio Conti, Hannibal Gonzaga, George Crescia, the Marquis of Bentivoglio, and Nicolo Cefis, reached Zutphen. Count Hannibal Gonzaga and the Albanian captain George Crescia attacked the English on their own, without Del Vasto's orders. Crescia was dismounted and taken prisoner by Lord Willoughby, while Gonzaga, not wearing his close helmet, received a serious slash in the neck and fell from his horse. On the English side, Philip Sidney, governor of Vlissingen, was fatally wounded in the leg in the final charge. The Spanish cavalry then sought protection behind the infantry, which kept the English cavalry at bay. Verdugo, supported by the Albanian captain Nicolao Basta and the Spanish Evangelista de las Cuevas, Commissar General of the cavalry, managed to restore order in the Spanish ranks. Seeing the good order of Verdugo and Del Vasto's men, the English and Dutch commanders did not renew the action and began to retire back to their camp. A handful of Spanish pikemen, including some low ranking officers, disobeyed their orders and began to pursue the English.
Aftermath.
The Spanish soldier Alonso Vázquez labelled the Battle of Zutphen as "one of the best factions that until that time was ever seen in Flanders". For many years it was common among Spaniards and Netherlanders to call a hard-fought action "as warm as the fight of Zutphen". According to John Lothrop Motley, "it is probable that the encounter would have been forgotten by posterity but by the melancholy close up upon that field to Sidney's bright career". Sidney allegedly had removed his cuisses when he saw that William Pelham was not wearing any. However, by the 1590s cavalry soldiers wore less armour than in the past, and this, instead of Sidney's solidarity toward his companion, cost his life. Sidney was carried to the town of Arnhem to recover, but he died three weeks later of gangrene, as surgeons were unable to extract the bullet. Historians are uncertain about the number of casualties both sides suffered during the battle. Motley claims 13 horse and 22-foot killed on the English side, against 'perhaps' 200 men on the Spanish side. On the other hand, Vázquez claimed that the Spanish "were winners with very little loss, having wounded and slaughtered many people to the rebels".
On 12 October, for the third time, Farnese supplied the garrison of Zutphen, personally, as he had done the first time. Later on, he sent Verdugo back to Friesland and left Johann Baptista von Taxis in charge of Zutphen. After that, the Spanish army took its winter quarters. When Farnese moved to Brussels to spend the winter there, the Earl of Leicester continued the siege of Zutphen. He was not able to take the town, but succeeded in occupying several forts beyond the IJssel, including Zutphen's sconce, which was carried by surprise by Edward Stanley, brother of William Stanley, and 12 other soldiers. Shortly after the English and Dutch also took their winter quarters. Sir William Stanley was given the command of Deventer, Sir John Burroughs of Doesburg, and Rowland York of Zutphen's sconce. Stanley and York's appointments were met with suspicion by the Dutch States, because Stanley was openly Catholic and York a man of dissolute character. Leicester expressed his full confidence in both soldiers, but in 1587 Stanley and York shifted sides to the Spanish party and handed Deventer and Zutphen's sconce over to Taxis.
Stanley and York's acts not only negated the gains of the 1586 campaign, but also undermined Leicester's reputation and the Dutch States confidence in the English troops. The Dutch States decided to appoint Count Maurice of Nassau as Governor-General of the Netherlands and Philip of Hohenlohe as his lieutenant. With the loss of Deventer and Zutphen's sconce, the Spanish were able to levy war contributions in the provinces of Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland. Zutphen and Deventer remained in Spanish control until their capture in 1591 by Maurice of Nassau.


Second Barbary War

The Second Barbary War (1815) or the U.S.–Algerian War was fought between the United States and the North African Barbary Coast states of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. The war ended when the United States Senate ratified Commodore Stephen Decatur’s Algerian treaty on December 5, 1815. However, Dey Omar Agha of Algeria repudiated the US treaty, refused to accept the terms of peace that had been ratified by the Congress of Vienna, and threatened the lives of all Christian inhabitants of Algiers. William Shaler was the US commissioner in Algiers who had negotiated alongside Decatur, but he fled aboard British vessels during the Bombardment of Algiers (1816). He negotiated a new treaty in 1816 which was not ratified by the Senate until February 11, 1822, because of an oversight.
After the end of the war, the United States and European nations stopped paying tribute to the pirate states; this marked the beginning of the end of piracy in that region, which had been rampant in the days of Ottoman domination during the 16th–18th centuries. The western nations built ever more sophisticated and expensive ships which the Barbary pirates could not match in numbers or technology.
Background.
The First Barbary War (1801–05) had led to an uneasy truce between the US and the Barbary states, but American attention turned to Britain and the War of 1812. At the prompting of Britain, the Barbary pirates returned to their practice of attacking American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea and ransoming their crews to the United States government. At the same time, the major European powers were still involved in the Napoleonic Wars, which did not fully end until 1815.
At the conclusion of the War of 1812, however, the United States returned to the problem of Barbary piracy. On 3 March 1815, Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers, and the squadron under the command of Commodore Stephen Decatur set sail on 20 May. It consisted of (flagship), , "Macedonia", , , , , "Flambeau", , and .
War.
Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers, Decatur's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship "Meshuda" and captured it in the Battle off Cape Gata, and they captured the Algerian brig "Estedio" in the Battle off Cape Palos. By the final week of June, the squadron had reached Algiers and had initiated negotiations with the Dey. The United States made persistent demands for compensation, mingled with threats of destruction, and the Dey capitulated. He signed a treaty aboard the "Guerriere" in the Bay of Algiers on 3 July 1815, in which Decatur agreed to return the captured "Meshuda" and "Estedio." The Algerians returned all American captives, estimated to be about 10, in exchange for about 500 subjects of the Dey. Algeria also paid $10,000 for seized shipping. The treaty guaranteed no further tributes by the United States and granted the United States full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea.
Aftermath.
In early 1816, Britain undertook a diplomatic mission, backed by a small squadron of ships of the line, to Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers to convince the Deys to stop their piracy and free enslaved European Christians. The Beys of Tunis and Tripoli agreed without any resistance, but the Dey of Algiers was less cooperative, and the negotiations were stormy. The leader of the diplomatic mission, Edward Pellew, believed that he had negotiated a treaty to stop the slavery of Christians and returned to England. However, just after the treaty was signed, Algerian troops massacred 200 Corsican, Sicilian and Sardinian fishermen who had been under British protection thanks to the negotiation. This caused outrage in Britain and Europe, and Pellew's negotiations were seen as a failure.
As a result, Pellew was ordered to sea again to complete the job and punish the Algerians. He gathered a squadron of five ships of the line, reinforced by a number of frigates, later reinforced by a flotilla of six Dutch ships. On 27 August 1816, following a round of failed negotiations, the fleet delivered a punishing nine-hour bombardment of Algiers. The attack immobilized many of the Dey's corsairs and shore batteries, forcing him to accept a peace offer of the same terms that he had rejected the day before. Pellew warned that if the terms were not accepted, he would continue the action. The Dey accepted the terms, but Pellew had been bluffing since his fleet had already spent all its ammunition.
A treaty was signed on 24 September 1816. The British Consul and 1,083 other Christian slaves were freed, and the U.S. ransom money repaid.
After the First Barbary War, the European nations had been engaged in warfare with one another and the U.S. with the British. However, in the years immediately following the Second Barbary War, there was no general European war, which allowed the Europeans to build up their resources and challenge Barbary power in the Mediterranean without distraction. Algiers and Tunis were seized and colonized by France in 1830 and 1881, respectively.


Governor of Dumbarton Castle


Burgfriedenspolitik

Burgfriedenspolitik (), literally "castle peace politics" but more accurately a political policy of "party truce", is a German term used for the political truce the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the other political parties agreed to during World War I. The trade unions refrained from striking, the SPD voted for war credits in the Reichstag and the parties agreed not to criticize the government and its war. There were several reasons for the "Burgfrieden": the Social Democrats believed it was their patriotic duty to support the government in war, they were afraid of government repression if they protested against the war, they feared living under an autocratic Russian Tsar more than the German constitutional monarchy and its Kaiser and they hoped to achieve political reforms after the war such as the abrogation of the inequitable three-class voting system by co-operating with the government.
The only member of parliament of any party to vote against war credits in the second session was Karl Liebknecht. In the third session on 20 March 1915, Otto Rühle joined him. Over the course of the war the number of SPD politicians opposed to the war steadily increased. Their resistance against the "Burgfrieden" politics led to the expulsion of Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, Clara Zetkin and others from the SPD. These went on to found the Spartacist League, the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).
The only trade union to refuse the "Burgfrieden" was the Free Association of German Trade Unions (FVdG), which would later become the Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD).


Battle of Fajardo

The Battle of Fajardo was an engagement between the armed forces of the United States and Spain that occurred on the night of August 8–9, 1898 near the end of the Puerto Rican Campaign during the Spanish–American War.
Background.
Proceeding under orders from Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, the monitors , , the armed tug , and the collier proceeded from Port Nipe to Cape San Juan, on the northeastern tip of Puerto Rico, arriving late afternoon on August, 1. The ships anchored behind a series of keys: Icacos, Isla de Lobos and Isla Palominos, out of sight from the mainland. Cape San Juan (Fajardo) was the designated landing site for the US Army forces under Major General Nelson A. Miles. However, sometime between July 21–24, 1898, Miles had unilaterally changed the invasion site from Fajardo to Guanica on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico. Expecting a rendez-vous with Miles' troops, but finding no transports save for "Arcadia" and "Mississippi" that "had been ordered to make a landing, but were at a loss what to do", the senior officer present, Captain Frederick W. Rodgers, USN, of "Puritan" ordered "Leyden", Ensign Walter S. Crosley, USN, commanding, to stand out for the telegraph office at St. Thomas to communicate with the Navy Department in Washington, D.C. Rodgers ordered two boat parties of bluejackets ashore from "Puritan" led by Lt. Herman G. Dresel, USN, for reconnaissance. The sailors traveled to within half a mile of the nearby town of Fajardo. Upon spotting Spanish troops, the boat party turned back, seizing a schooner as a Prize of war before returning to "Puritan".
The next morning, Captain Rodgers ordered another boat party ashore led by Lt. Commander James R. Selfridge, USN. The sailors seized the "Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan" (Cape San Juan lighthouse), posted the American flag and ordered the lighthouse keepers to continue working. The Spaniards in Fajardo, about 5 miles away, did not become aware of the Americans until the early hours of August 3, when an employee of the telegraph office in Fajardo phoned the lighthouse and overheard voices speaking English. This information was immediately telegraphed to Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado at La Fortaleza in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Macias ordered the remaining Spanish troops in Fajardo to withdraw and remove the telegraph equipment.
When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, an influential Fajardo civic leader, realized that the Spaniards had withdrawn and the city was defenseless against the invading Americans, he entreated the Spanish authorities in San Juan over the next two days to dispatch troops to defend Fajardo. Believing that the Spanish forces would not come to his aid, on August 5, Veve went to the lighthouse to seek American protection of his town from the Spanish.
Obtaining an invitation from Captains Rodgers and Charles J. Barclay of "Amphitrite", Dr. Veve and other Fajardan civic leaders rowed out to the American monitor on the morning of August 5, and persuaded the naval captains to protect the women and children of the prominent town families from a feared Spanish reprisal. "Leyden" had since returned from St. Thomas and "Puritan", "Hannibal" and the two army transports proceeded on to Ponce.
On the afternoon of August 5, Captain Barclay, Ensign Albert Campbell, a few prominent Fajardan leaders, including Veve and a landing party of 14 "bluejackets" boarded the shallow-draft "Leyden" and navigated through the shoals to shore. The American bluejackets and the contingent of Fajardans posted the American flag at the Customs House in the harbor and marched to the town where they hoisted the United States flag over the City Hall. Before the sailors returned to their ship, Barclay organized a citizens militia to patrol the town and appointed Dr. Veve as military governor of the eastern region of Puerto Rico.
Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez was ordered to investigate the situation in Fajardo. He was told that the Americans no longer occupied the city and that it would be an easy task to capture the people of Fajardo that had betrayed Spain. Rivero Méndez passed the information to General Ricardo de Ortega y Diez who suggested to Governor Macias that they take the town with 200 soldiers and an artillery battery. Macias was told to capture Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada and all those involved in the revolt, including the Americans in the lighthouse even if it meant the destruction of the structure.
On August 5, Governor General Macias dispatched Colonel Pedro del Pino and 200 men, including provisional troops and civil guardsmen from San Juan to recapture Fajardo. When the citizenry learned that the Spanish troops were coming, panic and fear ensued among those who had sided with the Americans. The citizen militia was disbanded and the citizens who had joined in the sedition fled to neighboring towns and into the hills. Dr. Veve and several other town leaders went to "Amphitrite". Moving by rail from Hato Rey to Carolina and then marching the rest of the way, the Spanish troops entered Fajardo the afternoon of August 7.
Battle.
Early on the evening of August 6, with anchored about 1,800 yards offshore, Captain Barclay ordered a landing party of 14 petty officers and men from "Amphitrite", armed with rifles, pistols and a 6mm Colt machine gun under Ensign Kenneth M. Bennett, with Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins, Naval Cadets William H. Boardman, Paul Foley and Pay Clerk O.F. Cato to reoccupy the Cape San Juan lighthouse. Almost immediately, a second boat of 14 armed petty officers and men under naval Lt. Charles N. Atwater with Assistant Surgeon A.H. Heppner was dispatched, with Atwater to take command of the landing parties. Atwater ordered Bennett's men to proceed ahead to reoccupy the lighthouse and light the lamp, while his boat squad first secured both boats before following them up to the lighthouse. Though no attack materialised the first night, Cadet Boardman was mortally wounded when his revolver dislodged from its faulty holster, fell to the marble floor and fired into his left inner thigh as he was entering the darkened lighthouse with three sailors. Assistant Surgeon Heppner initially believed it was a flesh-wound, although Boardman suffered a large loss of blood. He died two days later on the "Amphitrite" where he was evacuated that night after the ship's surgeon came ashore to accompany him and Dr. Heppner back to the ship. Boardman was one of only 23 combat-related U.S. Navy deaths during the entire Spanish–American War, two Navy deaths during Puerto Rican operations and the only Annapolis cadet to die out of 123 who served on ships in combat operations.
Meanwhile, in Fajardo, when Spanish Col. Pino first led his troops into the city they found it mostly deserted; about 60 of the women and children of the cities prominent families, including Dr. Veve's wife and children and a few Europeans that were deemed most at risk, had been authorized by Captain Barclay to be quartered in the lighthouse with the American petty officers and men, while some 700 Fajardans that could not be accommodated were camped out in the adjacent hills.
On the 7th, Jenkins and Foley returned to "Amphitrite" and on the 8th, Jenkins returned to the lighthouse with Gunner Herbert Campbell and a relief party for half the men, who returned to the ship, including Ensign Bennett and Pay Clerk Cato. The cruiser , and collier "Hannibal" joined "Amphitrite" and "Leyden" off Cape San Juan on August 8. That day, the "Amphitrite" landing party engaged in arms practice and fortified the lighthouse for the expected assault by Spanish troops. Windows were blocked, sentries placed, and the Colt machine gun was mounted on the roof to "sweep the lane".
On the 7th and 8 August, native horse-men repeatedly galloped up to the Navy men "with the wildest of rumors" estimating the Spanish were planning attacks with 500 men, a figure hyperbolically increased to 800.
Just before 11:00 on the night of August 8, 1898, Lt. Atwater thought he saw moving figures in white, on the edge of the woods 250 yards from the lighthouse. At 11:45, with moonlight breaking through the clouds, he saw several men in the brush on the edge of the woods. Without giving an alarm, he instructed the lookouts to be on heightened vigilance. As he was heading to the yard gate to order the corporal of the guard and sentry to come inside the light-house, those men came running up and announced they had seen Spanish troops in the road. Almost immediately, a volley of gunfire erupted from the surrounding woods.
Atwater ordered the lighthouse lamp doused as a signal to the three armed ships lying offshore that the light-house was under attack. The cruiser, , the only ship with an operable searchlight, trained it on the hill where the lighthouse sat in order to direct secondary battery gunfire from "Cincinnati", "Amphitrite" and "Leyden" on the attacking Spanish troops.
At about 12:30am, an errant 6 pound naval shell crashed through the 2 foot thick walls of the parapet, "within touch of six men not one was hurt" when the shell failed to explode. Lt. Atwater immediately ordered the lighthouse lamp relit. At about the same time, gunfire from the Spanish troops ceased and Atwater gave the order to cease firing shortly thereafter. 1,100 shots were fired from the 22 rifles of the navy men in the lighthouse. Lt. Atwater estimated the Spanish force was probably 72 infantry, 24 cavalry, with 2 killed and three wounded, one of them a Spanish lieutenant. The Americans retained control of the lighthouse and suffered no casualties.
Aftermath.
Early the next morning, Captain Barclay decided to withdraw the landing party and civilian refugees as the advantage of continuing to hold the lighthouse seemed slight. The U.S. Marine guard from "Cincinnati" under the command of 1st Lt. John A. Lejeune and a like number of men from "Amphitrite" (30) landed and covered the withdrawal. The women and children refugees were soon on board the USS "Leyden" which transported them to Ponce, Puerto Rico.
After the Americans had departed, Col. Pino's men tore down the two U.S. flags that flew over the Customs House and City Hall and returned to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned, leaving only the civil guard behind to police Fajardo. The flags, as trophies of war, were sent to Madrid, Spain where today they can be seen at the army museum there.
While the Battle of Fajardo was the only instance in the Puerto Rican Campaign where American forces withdrew from a position, it was not a defeat. President McKinley mentioned the engagement in his State of the Union address, remarking, "With the exception of encounters with the enemy at Guayama, Hormigueros, Coamo, and Yauco and an attack on a force landed at Cape San Juan, there was no serious resistance. The campaign was prosecuted with great vigor, and by the 12th of August much of the island was in our possession and the acquisition of the remainder was only a matter of a short time."


Treaty of Habenhausen

The Treaty of Habenhausen was the result of peace negotiations after the Second Swedish war on Bremen between Sweden and the city of Bremen. Negotiations in Habenhausen began November 15, 1666, the main conditions of the treaty were:


Port Royal, Tennessee

Port Royal is an unincorporated community on the border of Montgomery and Robertson counties, Tennessee. It is home to Port Royal State Park and is located at the confluence of the Red River and Sulphur Fork Creek.
History.
Port Royal is one of the earliest and was one of the most populous settlements outside of Nashville. The first settlers who arrived there were members of the Prince family and others who were coming from the "Old 96" (now Spartanburg) district of South Carolina. This was likely in 1784. Soon after the Tennessee County court held its first meeting nearby on Parsons Creek. In 1791, the Red River Baptist Church was founded at the mouth of the Sulphur Fork Creek. This church is thought to have been the only church for nearly during its first few years of use. This church is still active today in Adams, Tennessee.
In 1796, when the State of Tennessee was founded, five delegates from Tennessee County were selected to represent the county at the Tennessee Constitutional Convention in Knoxville. Four of the five were from the settlement that was to become Port Royal.
On October 25, 1797, the town of Port Royal was incorporated. It quickly became a thriving center of commerce for the upper Middle Tennessee and south central Kentucky area, due to its strategic location at the confluence of the Red River and the Sulphur Fork Creek. These streams meander through eastern Montgomery, Robertson and Sumner counties in Tennessee, and Logan County, Kentucky and drain nearly 975 square miles.
In the fall of 1838 the Cherokee removal to Oklahoma, enforced by the Indian Removal Act of 1830, crossed the Red River at Port Royal. A letter from Elijah Hicks to Principal Chief John Ross, tells of the stay at Port Royal. This is the only written record of this stopping place, but of the eleven detachments that were moved, it is known that eight of them followed the designated North Route that went through Port Royal. This event came to be known as the Trail of Tears.
By the mid-19th century, a principal stagecoach route had been located through Port Royal. This was, for a time, the main route to the west from the southeast. Newspaper articles from the mid-19th century mention Port Royal being on the "Great Road to the West".
In 1842, the Tennessee Silk Manufacturing Company and Agricultural School was opened in Port Royal to train workers in manufacturing cloth from silk that was then being produced by area farmers. At his 1843 inauguration Governor James C. Jones wore a silk suit manufactured in Port Royal. The silk industry failed at Port Royal really before it even got started. One of the shareholders, A.D. Carden, left for Europe with all of the shareholders funds in order to purchase machinery but was never heard from again.
Port Royal continued to thrive until after the Civil War. The end of the Civil War brought severe economic depression to the South in general and Port Royal felt the effects strongly, resulting in many businesses ceasing operation. To further complicate things, the L&N Railroad had just come through Adams and Clarksville, and Guthrie, Kentucky, surrounding the town of Port Royal with railroad access on all sides. With such means of goods transportation available, river travel on smaller tributaries quickly became obsolete. Soon, all of the commerce and culture that the town had enjoyed for so long moved to other towns with railroad access.
By the early 20th century, Port Royal had become a small crossroads town and in 1941, when the post office closed, Port Royal was merely a small farming community.
Noting the importance of Port Royal in the history of the State of Tennessee and the nation, the Tennessee Division of State Parks decided to acquire the land and preserve it in perpetuity. The small town is now known as Port Royal State Park. It is also an officially certified site on the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.
Notable residents.
The 1940s all-female, integrated big band International Sweethearts of Rhythm was led by Anna Mae Winburn, who was born in Port Royal in 1913.


Lankapura Dandanatha

Lankapura Dandanatha, more commonly referred to as simply Lankapura, was a Senapathi (General) of the army of ancient Sri Lanka during the reign of King Parakramabahu I. He led an expeditionary force to South India in support of the Pandyan king, bringing parts of South India under their control. Lankapura succeeded in restoring the Pandyan prince to the throne, and ordered the use of Sri Lankan currency in areas under his control. Whether he died during the invasion is unclear, since Sri Lankan sources claim that Lankapura returned to Sri Lanka as a war hero, while Indian sources say that he was killed.
Name.
Lankapura was the son of Lankadhinatha Kitti, a regional ruler. His real name is unclear. Dandanatha may have been his real name, and Lankapura a title. However, some sources refer to him as Dandanatha of Lankapura, indicating that Lankapura was in fact a place name. It is also possible that Lankapura was the actual given name, and Dandanatha was a title. However, most sources, both modern and ancient, refer to him commonly as Lankapura.
Invasion.
The Pandyan king Parakrama Pandya sought assistance from cousin Parakramabahu I in 1167 to face an internal strife in his country. Parakramabahu prepared an army, and appointed "Senapati" (General) Lankapura as its commander. However, by the time Lankapura and his army reached the port of "Mahatittha" (Mannar) in the north west of Sri Lanka, Parakrama Pandya had been killed by his rival Kulasekhara Pandya.
Despite this setback, Lankapura proceeded with an invasion to dethrone Kulasekhara Pandya. This was possibly launched in 1173. After sailing for a "day and night", his army landed in South India. He attacked Rameswaram and captured it after several battles. Lankapura fought with and defeated the Pandyan army in several towns and villages after this, and established a fortress at Kundukaal and named it "Parakramapura" after the king of Sri Lanka.
A counterattack by Kulasekhara Pandya on this fortress was repelled back, and Vira Pandya, Parakrama Pandya's son later joined up with Lankapura. The army of Lankapura continued to march forward and came to a stronghold named Semponmari. Semponmari, a great stronghold that the armies of the Chola Kingdom had failed to capture after a siege of two years, was captured by Sri Lankan forces commanded by Lankapura in around half a day . Parakramabahu sent another General named Jagath Vijaya to assist Lankapura in another battle against Kulasekhara Pandya who had returned with reinforcements, and they defeated him again. The throne was handed over to Vira Pandya. Lankapura went on to capture several more towns and villages including the city of Madura.
End of invasion.
Kulasekhara Pandya subsequently obtained assistance from the Cholas and returned to fight Lankapura's army again. However, Lankapura defeated them again and burned down the Chola country for a distance of 7 leagues/38.9 kilometers. He ordered the Sri Lankan currency of "Kahapana" to be used in the areas under his control. Ancient Sri Lankan sources say that Lankapura returned to Sri Lanka after his victory, and was welcomed by Parakramabahu I as a great war hero and was well rewarded. The indian prisoners of war captured by Lankapura's army were sent to Sri Lanka to repair the Ruwanweli Seya and other buildings damaged by earlier Chola invasions of the country.
However, Chola inscriptions (such as the Arapakkam inscription) claims that he was defeated and the heads of Lankapura and Jagath Vijaya were nailed to the gates of Madura. After Lankapura's death or return to Sri Lanka, the forces of the Sri Lankan king were said to be defeated by Kulasekhara Pandya who ultimately regains the throne. However, Rameswaram and many areas of India, remained under the rule of the Sri Lankan Monarchs until the reign of Nissanka Malla, which shows that general Lankapura was never defeated.


Dyce Work Camp

Dyce Work Camp was set up in August 1916 at quarries north-west of Aberdeen, Scotland, to accommodate conscientious objectors who had been in prison for refusing military service in World War I. These men, mostly from England, had been released on condition that they performed "work of national importance" – breaking up granite rock to produce stone for road building. The conditions in the tented camp near the village of Dyce were poor, exacerbated by the very wet weather, and one man died of pneumonia without receiving medical treatment. Following an inquiry and a debate in parliament, the camp was closed in October 1916, with the ministerial statement that it had always been intended to be only temporary.
Background.
Conscription.
When the United Kingdom joined in World War I by declaring war on Germany on 4 August 1914 the British Army was flooded with volunteers, in a seizure of patriotic fervour. However, by autumn 1915 there was a shortage of recruits to replace those killed or injured in the fighting, so a voluntary system, the Derby Scheme, was instituted, by which men could "attest" that they were willing to serve when the time came. However, this also did not produce enough volunteers, so plans were made to conscript men in an orderly manner. On 27 January 1916 the Military Service Act enlisted all men aged between 18 and 41 who lived in Great Britain (Ireland was excluded) and who were unmarried or widowed on 2 November 1915. Men were exempted if they were doing work vital for the war (such as engineering) or work essential for maintaining civilian life (such as farming). By 25 May 1916 a second act was passed to include married men.
Conscientious objectors.
Local Military Service Tribunals were set up to consider objections to call-up on grounds of illness, occupation or conscientious objection. A hierarchy of appeal was established, in a few cases culminating in the Central Tribunal in London. Provision for conscientious objectors was most troublesome, because the Act had not defined the term. The public generally, and the tribunals in particular, were often very unsympathetic to "conchies", even to those who had genuine moral, political or religious objections to war. During the course of the war more than 16,000 men claimed conscientious objection.
Those whose applications for exemption as conscientious objectors were refused were called up for military service and, if they did not co-operate, they were arrested and taken before a magistrates' court, where they were handed over to the Army. When they disobeyed Army orders, they were court-martialled and sentenced to imprisonment in civilian prisons. However, in the notorious cases of the Richmond Sixteen and 19 others, objectors were sent out to France and, when they refused to obey orders, they were sentenced to death by shooting. However, political repercussions led to the men being reprieved and returned to Britain for imprisonment.
Work centres.
With the prisons now overcrowded and reports of serious ill-treatment of the objectors, a Committee on Employment of Conscientious Objectors was created under William Brace MP, Under-Secretary at the Home Office. The committee decided to institute a scheme of compulsory employment but, faced with opposition from highly reluctant employers, men were sent to work on road building and forestry where commercial employers were not involved. Two prisons were converted to "work centres" for those unfit for outdoor work. These work programmes were not officially punitive – "The conditions should not be penal, but should not be appreciably better than those applying to Non-Combatants on Home Service".
The camp at Dyce.
It was under these circumstances that, starting from about 23 August 1916, 250 men arrived at Dyce Quarries to break up granite stones for roadmaking. Dyce is in Aberdeenshire a few miles north-west of Aberdeen and the quarries were on the side of a hill just outside the village. Because quarrying was not a protected occupation many workmen there had been called up, and it had been possible to persuade the employer to take on the conscientious objectors; he would not be responsible for paying their wages. The men had been released from prison with a suit of clothes and a train ticket, and they were trusted to turn up at the camp, which everyone did. Thirty-one had previously been sentenced to death before being reprieved, including fifteen of the Richmond Sixteen The first job for the men was to erect 27 bell tents and three marquees because there was no living accommodation on site. Aberdeen City Council was not informed about what was happening and the press did not find out until 9 September. The Scottish Local Government Board sent a medical doctor, Dr Dittmar, to inspect the camp – he visited on 4–5 September and reported in detail on his overall findings. His report, and an article in the "Aberdeen Free Press" on 12 September provide the basis for much of the following description.
Working conditions.
The work involved breaking stone, taking it in wheelbarrows to steam crushers, and loading the crushed chippings into trucks. The announced intention was that they were to work for ten hours a day, but initially they only worked for five hours with an hour's break for lunch because it was accepted that people unused to hard physical work needed time to develop their strength. Many of the workers were academics, teachers or clerks with no experience of manual labour, and they were paid 8 pence (£ at current prices) per day. Each week about 1000 tons of granite were shifted (32 truckloads a day).
Living conditions.
The tents were army surplus from the Boer War. They were in poor condition and could leak, but Dittmar remarked that this applied to the tents of front-line troops as well. Each man was provided with a straw-filled mattress and three blankets. The water supply was found to be uncontaminated and plentiful and the drainage was also satisfactory. Food was the standard field service rations, which the doctor considered a "liberal allowance". Overall, Dittmar considered the camp was adequate in the short term, but wet weather and winter would make it necessary to have other arrangements in future. About 90 workers had chosen to sleep in stables or dilapidated cottages or to live in local lodgings at their own expense.
One man was recovering from scarlet fever and he was removed to hospital, but otherwise the doctor considered illness was restricted to colds and sore throats.
Death of Walter Roberts.
20-year-old Walter Roberts arrived at Dyce after four months hard labour in prison. Like most of the workers, he developed a cold when he arrived at the camp and on Wednesday 6 September he dictated a letter to his mother:."As I anticipated, it has only been a matter of time for the camp conditions to get the better of me. Bartle Wild is now writing to my dictation because I am now too weak to handle a pen myself. I don't want you to worry yourself because the doctor says I have only got a severe chill but it has reduced me very much. All these fellows here are exceedingly kind and are looking after me like bricks so there is no reason why I should not be strong in a day of two when I will write more personally and more fully. The village doctor had diagnosed a chill, but the following night Roberts fell from his bed and ended up lying on wet ground for two hours. The next day the doctor said he was too ill to be moved, but no nursing or medical attention was provided – one of Roberts' colleagues (a dentist) did what he could to help. By early Friday Roberts had died of pneumonia before any medical help could be requested. Fenner Brockway, founder of the No-Conscription Fellowship, himself a conscientious objector and later MP, wrote demanding an inquiry.
Inspections of the camp.
Confronted with calls for a public inquiry into the death of Roberts and into conditions generally, the Home Office was only willing to conduct an internal inquiry, and Brace led a two-hour visit to the camp on 19 September. The press was briefed and they reported in detail on the findings, but the inquiry itself never published any report. The visitors decided that all workers should be housed in barns or lofts, and neither tents nor stalls in stables were suitable. Accommodation for the sick should be specifically prepared for the purpose, and seriously ill people should be taken to hospital. Five-hour working should continue until living conditions had been improved. As a result, some improvements were made and the use of tents had stopped before the camp was closed in October.
Another visitor was Ramsay MacDonald (later Prime Minister), who was at the time Independent Labour Party MP for Leicester. Born in north-east Scotland, he was a well-known, and even notorious, pacifist. His visit was in a personal capacity and it was on the same day as the official visit. The press reported that he considered the conditions "very bad" and he thought the whole concept of work camps was "uneconomical and wasteful".
Public and political reactions.
The opening of the camp had not been announced but by September the local population were very aware of an influx of young "foreigners", almost all Englishmen. Because the policy was to send objectors to work camps well away from their homes local Scots had also been sent far away. The workers were allowed to come and go in their free time and so this enabled the men, many of whom were well-educated and articulate, to take the opportunity to publicise their situation, including by publishing a camp newspaper "The Granite Echo".
"Dyce Humbugs".
On 12 September 1916 the Aberdeen Daily Journal reported Roberts' death on page three, and on page four it published an editorial about the conscientious objectors headlined "Dyce Humbugs".
While all will regret that one of the conscientious objectors now doing their reluctant "bit" at Dyce should have succumbed as the result of a cold caught in our bracing climate, very few will approve of the statement issued by the Committee representing the conscientious objectors now at that place. The Committee speaks of "open-air life in a severe climate" but there has been no severity of climate during the past two months at least in the north. Complaint is also made because of the strain of "ten hours' work in a quarry every day", of leaking tents, and of the hardship of sleeping in "barns and cottages". Some will fall by the way under any state differing from their normal routine, but when we think of the conditions which the men in the
trenches have had to bear during the past two years in fighting and dying for the safety and the liberty of these conscientious objectors, the complaints fall extremely flat, especially as the conditions complained of only apply to a comparatively small number who have for the most part refused to work or committed other offences.
The conscientious objector in war-time is a degenerate, or worse, who is out of harmony with the people of the nation which protects him in peace-time, and safeguards him in war-time, and the No-Conscription Fellowship which champions these shirkers of their duty is under so deep a cloud of suspicion that no fewer than twenty-seven raids by the police have been made within the past week or so on the houses of secretaries and members in the London area. It is interesting to learn that Mr Ramsay MacDonald is to visit the Dyce shirkers shortly. The Trades Union Congress having set Mr MacDonald and the I.L.P. brood about their business, and the Lossiemouth golf course having been banned to him, the ex-Labour Chairman will no doubt find very congenial reception for his pro-German martyrdom trophies among the conscientious shirkers at Dyce.
On the same day, 12 September, the Aberdeen newspaper was able to report something of a lull in the Battle of the Somme, but it carried its usual daily account of the numbers of British casualties – 4936 including 1018 killed and 636 missing. Brief articles were published about seven local men who had been killed and, amongst the few mentions of the injured, there was a report about a Dyce man, George Riddoch of the Gordon Highlanders, who was wounded but had been returned to hospital in England.
Closure of the camp.
During the 19 October House of Commons debate on military service, and following the death of Roberts and the Home Office inquiry, Brace and MacDonald both spoke. Most significantly, Brace claimed that the camp had only been intended to be temporary, it would cost too much to improve it to the recommended standards, and that it would be closed by the end of the month. The closure actually took place on 25 October 1916.
The public and local press had been largely against the presence of the camp, generally disapproving of the people working there, and so they were pleased when the camp was closed down. On leaving the camp, the men were transferred to other work camps (some after a short leave at home), although some chose to leave the Home Office Scheme and return to prison.
The site is now occupied by a long-stay car park for Aberdeen Airport.


Battle of Fraustadt

The Battle of Fraustadt was fought on 2 February 1706 (O.S.) / 3 February 1706 (Swedish calendar) / 13 February 1706 (N.S.) between Sweden and Saxony-Poland and their Russian allies near Fraustadt (now Wschowa) in Poland. During the Battle of Fraustadt on February 3, August II was only 120 km away, with a cavalry force about 8,000 men strong. That was one of the main reasons that Swedish General Rehnskiöld hurried to engage Schulenburg. The battle is an example of a successful pincer movement and was one of Sweden's greatest victories in the Great Northern War.
Deployment.
The Saxon army had not chosen its position carefully; Schulenburg had been maneuvered into a position chosen by the Swedes. Rehnskiöld withdrew his forces from Schlawa to Fraustadt. Rehnskiöld later stated in his journals, "“Så resolverade jag att draga mig till Fraustadt tillbaka i den tanken att locka till mig fienden efter mig utur sin fördel, inbillandes honom att jag ville alldeles draga mig av”" roughly translated as "”Thus I resolved to withdraw to Fraustadt with the thought to lure the enemy to me away from his advantageous position, deceiving him into thinking I was in full retreat”".
The Saxons, superior in numbers regarding infantry (9,000 Saxons and 6,300 Russians), but with less cavalry (4,000 Saxons) than the Swedes, took a strong defensive position behind lines of chevaux de frise littered by artillery. In two lines, with cavalry on both flanks, between the villages of Geyersdorf and Röhrsdorf and ahead of the town of Fraustadt, entrenched behind frozen lakes and marshes opposing the Saxon-Russian army, Rehnskiöld placed his infantry of 3,700 men in the center in three columns and his cavalry consisting of 5,700 units on both flanks.
The battle.
On the left flank, the Swedish cavalry under Hummerhielm had some trouble passing through a frozen swamp, but the Saxon cavalry did not use that advantage. After regrouping, the Swedes charged the Saxon Garde du Corps and Chevaliers Garde regiments three times, utterly routing them. Colonel von Krassow, commander of the Swedish cavalry on the right flank, passed outside the left Russian flank with 12 dragoon squadrons, near the village of Rörsdorf, and engaged the Saxon Cavalry covering the Russian flank. After witnessing the destruction of the Saxon right flank, the left flank fled, and were routed by the Swedish dragoons. Colonel von Krassow's cavalry then wheeled clock-wise into the Saxon-Russian rear, which caused several of the Saxon regiments to break formation.
On the Saxon left flank, facing Rehnskiöld's infantry, the Russians were deployed with their uniforms inside-out so they would look more like Saxons with their red colors instead of the Russian-standard green. This was however an order from Schulenburg who questioned their battle skills to reveal the weakness of the flank. The Swedish infantry assaulted the Saxon-Russian line frontally, under heavy cannon and musket fire. Upon discovering that the left wing of the enemy line was held by the Russian troops, Rhenskiöld directed his infantry to assault their positions, which were also being attacked from the rear by colonel von Krassow's cavalry. The Russian infantry were quickly surrounded and dispersed.
The Saxon middle had its flank and rear exposed, and its regiments buckled and broke formation in short order under the pressure along its left flank. The Saxon right flank initially held, inflicting some damage to the Swedish infantry until the cavalry in the frozen swamp attacked their rear. The Saxon-Russian army fell apart and the main body fled to the south through Fraustadt. The Swedish cavalry, previously bogged down in the swamp, raced ahead on the open terrain, and met the fleeing Saxons and Russians on the far outskirts of the town. Trapped by Swedish cavalry to their front and infantry to their rear, the defeated Saxon-Russian forces surrendered en masse.
Casualties and losses.
In the end 7,377 Saxons and Russians had been killed and over 7,300 taken prisoner where of 2,000 of them were wounded. Sweden suffered some 400 killed, (amongst them, commander of the Kronoberg Regiment, colonel Gabriel Lilliehöök) and 1,000 wounded. Schulenburg managed to escape, despite having suffered a bullet wound to his hip. 71 banners, the whole Saxon artillery, 11,000 rapiers and equally as many muskets had also been captured. Rehnskiöld executed about 500 Russian prisoners; it is debated whether he did this in retaliation for Russian atrocities in Courland or because he believed their inside-out coats were an attempt to be recognized as Saxons, who were given better terms in captivity. Hiding your own identity and claiming to be something else was frowned upon at the time, and sometimes considered reason enough to be denied quarter.
Analysis.
The Swedish success in the battle was mainly due to Rehnskiöld effectively neutralising the Saxon infantry, who were superior in number at the start of the battle, combined with the pincer movement performed by the Swedish cavalry under Hummerhielm and von Krassow. Schulenburg also made two grave mistakes: first by being lured into terrain not to his advantage and then underestimating the mobility of the Swedish cavalry, especially on the flanks. It is known from Rehnskiöld's personal journals that he had intended a double envelopment from the beginning. The Battle of Fraustadt is one of the most classic double envelopments in military history. It is probable that Rehnskiöld had studied the Battle of Cannae 216 BC although it is uncertain if he intended to copy it.
Aftermath.
The captured Russians (some 500) were, according to some historians, executed by an order from Rehnskiöld, although involvement of the latter has been disputed. The authors further quotes Lieutenant Colonel Nils Gyllenstierna of the Norra Skånska cavalry regiment about the fate of the Russian infantry, "“på några 100 när massakrerat, emedan vi inte i begynnelsen kunde giva kvarter, eftersom vår vänstra flygel ännu stod i full eld”" roughly translated as "“all but a few hundred were massacred, as initially quarters could not be given, since our left flank was still in full assault”".
From Alexander Magnus Dahlberg's (Dragoon at Buchwalds dragoonregiment) diary:
"“Ett ännu som mig underligit förekom vil jag här anföra, nemligen at ingen af de 6000:de ryssar som voro saxerne tilhielp gafs någon pardon, utan blefvo alla masacrerade; de voro alla munderade i hvita råckar med rödt foder, hvaraf några under flyckten som fådt så lång tid, vändt om råckarna och det röda fodret ut, fingo pardon i mening at de voro saxar, men sedan general Renschiöld fick veta at de voro ryssar, lät han föra dem för fronten, och befalte at skiuta dem för hufvudet, som var rätt ett ymkeligt spectacel.“"
Roughly translated to:
”"Something which I found strange I’d like to here mention, is that none of the 6000 Russians who were the Saxons help were given any mercy, but were instead all massacred; They were all dressed in white coats with red lining, with some during the retreat having turned their coats inside out to resemble Saxons in hope of mercy, but after General Renschiöld learned they were Russians, he had them taken to the front to be shot in the head.”"
The road to Saxony was open for King Charles XII of Sweden. King August II of Poland gave up his claim on the Polish crown, although he remained Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. He would later regain the Polish throne in 1709. The prisoners taken by the Swedes during the battle that were of German, French and Swiss nationality were immediately reorganized into the ranks of the Swedish army. The Saxon prisoners were shipped to Sweden, where they formed a regiment and three battalions. This regiment made a good effort at the Battle of Helsingborg 1710.


Kotte conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom

The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna kingdom was an expedition against the Jaffna kingdom by the Kotte kingdom. The Kotte's campaign had several phases against Jaffna dated between A.D. 1449–50 and 1453-4. The first campaign, led by Prince Sapumal, adopted son of Parakramabahu VI in 1450. In the second campaign, Prince Sapuma defeated Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and ruled the region nearly 17 years as a representative of Kotte.
Background.
Jaffna kingdom was in better peak in terms of power and economy during early 15th century. It had influential control over Palk Strait and extended its domination over Vanni, Puttalam, and Chilaw regions. Vanni principalities were paid tribute to the kingdom. Also, it was able to influence southern kingdoms of the island. The rise of Vijayanagara Empire influenced Southern India and extended its sovereignty to Jaffna. Therefore, Jaffna kingdom became powerless, weak, and a tributary state. Meanwhile, Kotte kingdom became powerful during the reign of Parakramabahu VI. He made a request to Prince Sapumal for invading Jaffna kingdom as the king wanted to keep him away from Kotte by considering future crown issues. However, Rajaveliya did not mention such causes.
Campaign.
Expeditions against the Jaffna kingdom had two phases that were led by Sapumal. The first campaign was able to defeat tributary Vanni states of Jaffna kingdom, but failed to subdue the Jaffna. The support of Vijayanagara Empire was an additional strength to Jaffna forces. It occurred in 1449–50.
Sapumal gathered forces from Kotte and launched the second attack, including center of Jaffna during 1453-4. Jaffna and Kannada forces put up stubborn resistance. Kannada forces had an outpost on the mainland that served as access command to the Jaffna peninsula. Vanniyar leaders and Indian Muslims also helped Jaffna. However, all of them were defeated and Sapumal conquered Jaffna kingdom.
There are different concepts about the last days of Jaffna king Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan. Ancient records that described the Jaffna campaign do not say much about his last days, but "Rajaveliya" says that Sapumal slew him, took his consort and children prisoners, and brought them to Kotte. Also, some historical scholars suggest that he would have been killed in the final battle, but Yalpana Vaipava Malai and "Kokila Saudesaya" describe that he had fled to Southern India with his family.
Aftermath.
Parakramabahu VI appointed Prince Sapumal as representative of Kotte and ruler of Jaffna. Sapumal received cooperation from local people including chieftains and the Jaffna army. The newly formed army consisted of Tamil, Malayalis, Tuluvar, and Singhalese. According to "Yalpana Vaipava Malai", Sapumal established Nallur city and built Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil. However, there are controversial concepts that say Nallur and temples were established before the arrival of Sapumal.
Also, some scholars say that the campaign end the rule of Aryacakravarti dynasty in Jaffna kingdom as the later kings of Jaffna did not have the title of Aryacakravarti. Sapumal ruled the Jaffna kingdom for 17 years.


Sac City Monument Square Historic District

Sac City Monument Square Historic District is a nationally recognized historic district located in Sac City, Iowa, United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015. The square consists of the General Sherman Hall (1892), Memorial Statue (1894), the American Legion Hall (1922), four World War II era Howitzers, and three granite tablets that commemorate the lives of the soldiers from Sac County who fought in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War tablet does not contribute to the historic district because it is a more recent installation.
The Neoclassical General Sherman Hall was built by the local Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) post. Organized in 1884 as Sac City Post No. 284, its name was changed in 1891 to the General Sherman Post in honor of William Tecumseh Sherman, who had died earlier that year. In 1873 the present Sac County Courthouse was completed a half block north of the former courthouse to eliminate the turns around the city square. The local GAR acquired the half-block property that remained as Monument Square for a soldier's monument and a hall to honor General Sherman. The buildings served as a meeting hall for the General Sherman Post, the Women's Relief Corps, and Sons of Veterans. The soldier's monument was the work of New York sculptor Maurice J. Power.
The American Legion Cantigny Post No. 195 was organized in Sac City in 1919. They bought property that overlooked Monument Square for a meeting hall and memorial, and the Neoclassical structure was completed in 1922. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (V.F.W.) Post 590 of Sac City erected the three granite tablets to commemorate the local soldiers who served in the four 20th century conflicts. The larger tablet memorializes the soldiers from World War I and World War II. The two smaller tablets commemorate the Korean and Vietnam conflicts.


Militia (United Kingdom)

The Militia of the United Kingdom were the military reserve forces of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the Union in 1801 of the former Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland. The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907. For the period before the creation of the United Kingdom, in the home nations and their colonies, see Militia (Great Britain).
Nineteenth century.
A separate voluntary Local Militia was created in 1808 before being disbanded in 1816.
By 1813 the British Army was experiencing a shortage of manpower to maintain their battalions at full strength. Some consideration was given to recruiting foreign nationals; however on 4 November 1813 a bill was introduced to Parliament to allow Militia volunteers to serve in Europe. In the event only three battalions were raised, and these were sent to serve under Henry Bayly. On 12 April 1814 they arrived in Bordeaux, where they were attached to the 7th Division.
After the Napoleonic Wars, the Militia fell into disuse, although regimental colonels and adjutants continued to appear in the "Army List". Whilst muster rolls were still prepared during the 1820s, the element of compulsion was abandoned. For example, the City Of York Militia & Muster Rolls run to 1829. They used a pre-printed form with a printer's date of Sept 1828.
The Militia was revived by the Militia Act of 1852, enacted during a period of international tension. As before, units were raised and administered on a county basis, and filled by voluntary enlistment (although conscription by means of the Militia Ballot might be used if the counties failed to meet their quotas). It was intended to be seen as an alternative to the army. Training was for 56 days on enlistment, then the recruits would return to civilian life but report for 21–28 days training per year. The full army pay during training and a financial retainer thereafter made a useful addition to the men's civilian wage. Of course, many saw the annual camp as the equivalent of a paid holiday. The militia thus appealed to agricultural labourers, colliers and the like, men in casual occupations, who could leave their civilian job and pick it up again. The militia was also a significant source of recruits for the Regular Army, where men had received a taste of army life. An officer's commission in the militia was often a 'back door' route to a Regular Army commission for young men who could not obtain one through purchase or gain entry to Sandhurst.
Under the Act, Militia units could be embodied by Royal Proclamation for full-time service in three circumstances:
Until 1852 the militia were an entirely infantry force, but the 1852 Act introduced Militia Artillery units whose role was to man coastal defences and fortifications, relieving the Royal Artillery for active service. Some of these units were converted from existing infantry militia regiments, others were newly raised. In 1877 the militia of Anglesey and Monmouthshire were converted to Royal Engineers.
Under the reforms introduced by Secretary of State for War Hugh Childers in 1881, the remaining militia infantry regiments were redesignated as numbered battalions of regiments of the line, ranking after the two regular battalions. Typically, an English, Welsh or Scottish regiment would have two militia battalions (the 3rd and 4th) and Irish regiments three (numbered 3rd – 5th).
The militia must not be confused with the volunteer units created in a wave of enthusiasm in the second half of the nineteenth century. In contrast with the Volunteer Force, and the similar Yeomanry Cavalry, they were considered rather plebeian. Volunteer units appealed to better-off recruits as, unlike the Militia which engaged a recruit for a term of service, a volunteer could quit his corps with fourteen days notice, except while embodied for war or training with the regular forces. Volunteer Corps required recruits to fund their own equipment, however, effectively barring those with low incomes.
The Special Reserve.
The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the military reforms of Haldane in the reforming post 1906 Liberal government. In 1908 the militia infantry battalions were redesignated as "reserve" and a number were amalgamated or disbanded. Numbered Territorial Force battalions, ranking after the Special Reserve, were formed from the volunteer units at the same time. Altogether, 101 infantry battalions, 33 artillery regiments and two engineer regiments of special reservists were formed.
Upon mobilisation, the special reserve units would be formed at the depot and continue training while guarding vulnerable points in Britain. The special reserve units remained in Britain throughout the First World War, but their rank and file did not, since the object of the special reserve was to supply drafts of replacements for the overseas units of the regiment. The original militiamen soon disappeared, and the battalions became training units pure and simple.
The Special Reserve reverted to its militia designation in 1921, then to Supplementary Reserve in 1924, though the units were effectively placed in "suspended animation" until disbanded in 1953.
The Militiamen.
The term militiaman was briefly revived in 1939. In the aftermath of the Munich Crisis Leslie Hore-Belisha, Secretary of State for War, wished to introduce a limited form of conscription, an unheard of concept in peacetime. It was thought that calling the conscripts 'militiamen' would make this more acceptable, as it would render them distinct from the rest of the army. Only single men aged 20–22 were to be conscripted (given a free suit of civilian clothes as well as a uniform), and after six months full-time training would be discharged into the reserve. The first intake was called up, but the Second World War was declared soon afterwards, and the militiamen lost their identity in the rapidly expanding army.
Modern survivals.
Two units still maintain their militia designation in the British Army, in the Army Reserve. These are the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (formed in 1539) and the Jersey Field Squadron (The Royal Militia Island of Jersey) (formed in 1337).


Zaragoza Offensive

The Zaragoza Offensive took place during the Spanish Civil War in 1937. This battle involved the Spanish Republican Army. The main goal of the offensive was to occupy the city of Zaragoza. The main action of the offensive was the battle of Belchite.
Background.
In August 1937, the commander in chief of the Republican Army, Vicente Rojo, decided to launch an offensive in the Aragon front in order to take the regional capital, Saragossa. The main goal of the offensive was to stop the Nationalist offensive against Santander. Furthermore, Saragossa was the communications centre of the whole Aragon front.
Opposing forces.
In the Aragon front the Republican Army had deployed the Army of the East, led by the general Pozas and his chief of staff Antonio Cordon. This army had six divisions (Lister's 11th Division, 26th Division, 27th Division, Walter's 35th Division, 43rd Division; and Kleber's 45th Division). Furthermore, the Republicans had 200 aircraft and many T-26 and BT-5 tanks.
Opposing them, the Nationalists had three low-quality divisions (51st, 52nd and 105th divisions), and 15 aircraft (obsolete Heinkel He-46 light bombers and He-51 fighters).
The offensive.
The Republican plan was to break through at seven different points between Zuera and Belchite in order to divide any Nationalist counter-attack. The 27th Division would occupy Zuera, turn left and attack Zaragoza. Kléber's 45h Division would attack south-eastwards towards Saragossa and the 43rd Division would cross the Ebro and cut the highway from Quinto to Saragossa. But the main attack was concentrated up the south side of the Ebro Valley, with Modesto's V Corps (11th Division and 35th Division).
The Republican attack began on August 24 with no artillery bombardment in order to maintain the advantage of surprise. The 27th Division occupied Zuera, the 45th Division reached Villamajor de Gállego (six kilometres from Saragossa) and the 25th Division took Codó, despite fierce Nationalist resistance. Nevertheless, Lister's 11th Division failed to occupy Fuentes de Ebro and almost all its BT-5 tanks were destroyed.
Fuentes del Ebro.
Lister had to take the fortified town of Fuentes del Ebro in order to open the road to Zaragoza. Forty-eight BT-5 tanks carrying Spanish troops would cross the Republican lines and attack the town from the front, supporting by the troops of the XV International Brigade. Nevertheless, the attack was ill-planned. The tanks were not suited to carrying troops, very little reconnaissance was carried out, there was virtually no artillery preparation and the tanks became bogged down in the mud. The attack failed and the republican army lost 19 of its 48 tanks and more than 300 men (according to Hugh Thomas 12 tanks destroyed out of 40) An American member of the International Brigades said:
Courage and heroism are plentiful in Spain and the Spanish people have no lack of it. What they need is tactics. And as for tactics, on 13 October, Regiment BT was bankrupt.
Belchite.
On 26 August, the 25th Division took Quinto, but the delays in the Republicans' advance had given the Nationalists time to bring up reinforcements (Barron's 13th Division and Saenz de Buruaga's 150th Division and 80 aircraft from the Madrid front) and the attack on Zaragoza failed.
Modesto then decided to capture the small (3,800 inhabitants) and well fortified town of Belchite. The Republican army cut the water supply of the town and the heat was appalling, but the defence of the besieged forces was vigorous. The attack on Belchite started on 1 September and, after five days of heavy bombardment and bloody combat, the Republicans managed to occupy it. The offensive ended on 6 September.
Aftermath.
The offensive was a complete failure. The Nationalists did not stop their offensive against the Northern Republican held zone. The Republicans only advanced ten kilometres and took a handful of small towns. Furthermore, the Republican Army suffered heavy losses of armament and tanks. Indalecio Prieto said: "So many troops to take four or five "pueblos" does not satisfy the ministry of defence". The offensive failed because the republican forces lacked coordination, supplies and military intelligence. Furthermore, the Republican commanders wasted troops in order to reduce small resistance points.


Statue of John V. Power

The John V. Power statue is a monumental statue in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States. Dedicated in 1947, the statue honors John V. Power, a soldier from Worcester who was killed in action during World War II and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. The statue is located near Worcester City Hall and is one of several war memorials in the city.
History.
Background.
John V. Power was born on November 20, 1918. After attending the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, Power enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in 1942 during World War II. In 1944, as a first lieutenant, Power was deployed to the South Pacific to fight in the Marshall Islands as part of an assault on Namur Island. On February 1, 1944, Power was killed in action during the Battle of Kwajalein. In recognition of his actions during the battle, he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor, which was given by then-President Franklin D. Roosevelt to his family at the White House in November 1944. He is one of the few residents of Worcester to be awarded the medal.
Dedication and rededication.
The statue was dedicated on January 1, 1947. According to an entry on Waymarking.com, the statue was sculpted by Aristide Berto Cianfarani and was cast at the Gorham Brothers Foundry.
In 2016, the monument underwent some renovation work which included polishing the bronze statue and plaque and repointing the granite base. The cost of the restoration work was approximately $10,000 for the city. The statue was rededicated on November 10 of that year, which was both the United States Marine Corps birthday and the day before Veterans Day, in an event that included multiple speakers and culminated in a wreath laying ceremony by Power's relatives.
Design.
The monument consists of an tall granite pedestal with a bronze tablet affixed to its front. Atop this pedestal is an tall bronze statue of Power. The plaque describes Power's actions during the war and features a signature by Roosevelt. Power is depicted with a rifle over his shoulder and a hand on his hip.
The statue is located on the south side of City Hall, on Franklin Street, and faces towards Holy Cross.


Castle of Rajadell

The Castle of Rajadell (Español: Castillo de Rajadell) is a medieval castle in Rajadell, Spain. Built in the 10th century, the castle was used during a number of conflicts in the history of Spain. The castle is listed as a Spanish heritage and cultural site.
Description.
The gothic castle was built in the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. The castle is first mentioned in 961 A.D, though some sources describe it as a being first mentioned in 1063. The castle was initially built by the noble Rajadell family during the early centuries of the Reconquista. The castle remained in the hands of the Rajadells for centuries, and was badly damaged when the family joined an unsuccessful revolt against John II of Aragon, before being sold in the 16th century.
After the 16th century, the castle was intermittently owned by a number of noble families; by the 19th century it was still in private hands. During the Spanish Civil War, the castle was occupied and used as a base by Catalonian revolutionaries. The Spanish government declared it a heritage site in 1988.


Battle of Tetovo

The Battle of Tetovo (Macedonian: Тетовска битка) was the largest engagement during the 2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia, in which Macedonian security forces battled Albanian insurgents of the National Liberation Army for control of the city.
Prelude.
Tetovo is a large city in Macedonia, the majority of whose citizens are ethnic Albanians.
During the break up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, over 2,000 ethnic Albanians marched through Tetovo demanding secession from the Socialist Republic of Macedonia and unity with Albania. Self-determination of an ethnic minority within a state was not a right under the Socialist Republic of Macedonia's constitution, and protesting their lack of representation under the constitution of a new Republic of Macedonia, the Albanians of Macedonia boycotted the referendum on independence from Yugoslavia and were thus excluded from almost any representation in the new government. Tetovo became headquarters of the new Albanian political parties, which were regarded as unconstitutional by the Republic of Macedonia. Tensions worsened, Tetovo, along with the city of Gostivar, took in and sheltered several thousands of Bosnian Muslim refugees from 1992 until the end of the Bosnian war. Prior to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia over Kosovo, Tetovo became the rear supply base for the Kosovo Liberation Army, and then later home to over 100,000 Kosovar refugees from the Kosovo war. Gligorov’s plan to re-allocate the Kosovar refugees to Albania via refugee corridor through Macedonia had been abandoned, and the refugees began to gather in Tetovo, Gostivar and the western Albanian dominated towns during the late summer months. The KLA began to use the Tetovo hospital to treat the wounded combatants. As the ethnic Albanian unofficial capital in Macedonia, Tetovo was crowded with refugees from Kosovo and was deeply involved in the munitions supply to the KLA.
The Albanian-dominated town of Tetovo had been deeply involved in the Kosovo war since the spring of 1998, and some leading KLA officials came from Tetovo, such as Bardhyl Mahmuti. Many educated Albanians in Tetovo under 50 years of age had attended Pristina University before it was purged of ethnic Albanian teachers in the early 1990s. Before 1991 Kosovo and Macedonia formed part of Yugoslavia which meant unrestricted access between the entities.
In 1997, Alajdin Demiri, the mayor of Tetovo, was jailed for raising the double headed eagle flag of Albania from Tetovo town hall and by 2000 the outbreak of hostilities in Tanusevci had spilled into the towns of Tetovo and Gostivar. With the formation of an insurgency, the National Liberation Front (NLA) began seizing territory in and around the Tetovo area. Skirmishes between the insurgency and government forces became commonplace in other portions of the country.
The Macedonian forces, numbering more than 3,000, held a limited amount of armour and artillery. Reportedly, they possessed a number of armoured personnel carriers, 105 mm and 122 mm Howitzers, ex-Bulgarian T-55 tanks. The bulk of their force consisted of reservists at the brink of conflict. These numbers were to rapidly rise in the following months as the military expenditures of Macedonia quadrupled to almost 7% of GDP, which resulted in major purchases of military hardware mainly from Ukraine and Bulgaria, and the mobilisation of special police forces like the Lions and Tigers. By the height of the conflict, the whole 1st Mechanized Brigade was stationed in and around Tetovo municipality.
The NLA, a mainly guerrilla force, had only an assortment of rockets, assault weapons, and mortars. However, they had the advantage of concealed positions in the mountains ringing the city. Weapons and supplies found their way from Kosovo to the frontlines over the Šar Mountains through horse caravans. Mounts Baltepe and Kale were major strongpoints, both of which held ancient fortresses left over from the Ottoman Empire. The rebels constructed a series of trenches and bunkers in defence.
Battle.
Opening phase.
During the afternoon of 16 March, ethnic Albanians held a nationalist rally in town. Around this time, machine gun fire opened up on Macedonian police from the Baltepes hill. The confrontation in Tetovo began when about 15 rebels opened fire with rifles in the suburb of Kale about 1.2 miles north of the city centre and in the nearby village of Selce. The NLA proceeded to engage Macedonian forces with sniper fire and mortar attacks.
The first civilian death was an Albanian taxi driver who was killed on the first day of the rebellion in the old Ottoman neighbourhood of Koltuk when the police opened fire with machine guns indiscriminately, even though the main fighting at the time was taking place 1.2 miles away, beyond the Kale, the fortress above the city, in the village of Lavce.
Fifteen Macedonian police and a NATO German soldier were also wounded when joint barracks in the outskirts of the town where hit by mortar fire. The next day, the German Ministry of Defence moved in two Leopard 2 tanks from Prizren, in Kosovo, in order to protect the base. Half of the 1,200 German troops were evacuated to another location eight kilometers away. By 20 March, another 400 KFOR German combat troops equipped with Marder armoured vehicles and more Leopard II tanks had been deployed to Tetovo. Civilians continued on with their daily business, but the streets became empty. Cafes and shops were deserted and electricity was cut off to part of the town. For the cafes that remained open, it was common to see some people taking the risk of watching gun battles.
In the battle for Tetovo, the Macedonian Army was frequently outmanoeuvred by the highly mobile guerrillas and their military leader, Gezim Ostreni. Born in Debar in western Macedonia, Ostreni was a veteran who had served in the Yugoslav Army and until April 2001 was a deputy commander in the Kosovo Protection Corps. Ostreni was typical of ethnic Albanians, who saw no future for themselves in the post-independence Macedonian Army whose officer corps was dominated by Macedonians. Ostreni was not only a gifted tactician but also an author on military affairs who wrote a book on the partisan movement in Macedonia during the Second World War in which he tried to falsify a myth that there was no Macedonian/partisan democratic victory.
On 21 March, the two sides witnessed a brief cease fire. The day was quiet without a single shot. By this point in time, however, thousands of residents had fled the city. Those whom remained pressed on with life as best as they could while both factions licked their wounds. It was also on this day that the Macedonian army scaled Kale Hill under cover of artillery and gunfire.
On 22 March, after two months of sporadic violence, two Albanians were gunned down near the football stadium in the eastern districts. The two men approached a Macedonian checkpoint in a white car, only to be shot as they tried to throw grenades. Images of the dead men became famous, marking the insurgency's first "martyrs" and bringing Macedonia's violence to the world spotlight.
The Macedonians proceeded to beef up their security forces and deployed T-55 tanks in support.
Macedonian Army soldiers were attacked near the village of Vejce, nine miles north of Tetovo. Stevo Pendarovski, the Interior Ministry spokesman, said ‘‘Eight are killed and two are injured. They were fired at with machine guns and rocket launchers. Macedonian forces responded, and the attackers withdrew. The situation is quiet now. It was an isolated incident.’’ The assumption was premature. The slaying of the eight commandos, which was an enormous loss for a country of only two million people, provoked the first civilian backlash by Macedonians grouped in sinister new paramilitarystyle, ‘self-defence’ organisations in the southern city of Bitola, 170 kilometres (120 miles) south of Skopje, from where four of the dead soldiers came. Ethnic Macedonian crowds looted and set fire to Albanian shops.
In Tetovo's old town, a sandbag checkpoint near the Church of St. Nicholas suffered frequent shelling from houses in the highlands. Over the next few days, several skirmishes broke out throughout the hills. A Macedonian Mi-17 helicopter crashed while ferrying police forces to a ski resort on the outskirts of town, killing the pilot and wounding 16 policemen. Most of the rebels held out on Baltepe Mountain. From the Koltak district, Macedonian forces poured fire onto Albanian positions. This was often returned with machine gun, sniper, and mortar fire.
A series of blasts was clearly visible in the hills above Tetovo as terrified residents scurried for cover below. The hills had been occupied by Albanian guerrilla forces for the past week. The Macedonian army was firing indiscriminately and several of the rising columns of smoke came from civilian houses. There was no word on casualties, but the risk to civilians was high. The hills around Tetovo are dotted with houses and it was not clear if they had all been evacuated. The NLA stood their ground.
A short time after the start of the Government offensive, the Macedonian army issued an ultimatum, giving the NLA 24 hours to cease hostilities and surrender, or leave Macedonia. After the deadline, Macedonian security forces continued using all their means against positions of the rebels. The Macedonian onslaught began just hours after the rebels offered to join peace talks.
Staunch resistance by 100 NLA fighters cornered in the Gracani area after the Tetovo fighting continued to harass the ARM, whose infantry units seemed extremely reluctant to engage in an open battle.
Second phase.
On 6 June another cease-fire was initiated, which lasted eighteen days. Just before noon on 22 July, machine gun and small arms fire shattered the silence once again. As United States and European envoys met with President Boris Trajkovski in Skopje on 23 July, the battle reached Tetovo's suburbs.
On 23 July, the Macedonians used ex-Ukrainian Mi-24 helicopters for the first time in the conflict, responding to Albanian mortar fire that wounded 20 civilians in the Koltuk area. Despite the addition of these new helicopters and superior firepower, the army was not experienced at counterinsurgency operations and resorted to sledgehammer tactics. With the hills and mountains behind the city and dozens of Albanian-populated villages to count on for support, the rebels knew they were in a strong position in Tetovo.
In the Drenovac district, rebels and government forces fought heavily for the town's sports stadium. The fall of the stadium and government checkpoint left the rebels within fifty yards of the city center. Residents of the areas were instructed to leave their homes by Macedonian forces.
During the fierce fighting that engulfed Tetovo from 22 to 24 July, a 12-year-old Albanian girl, Jehina Saliu, was mortally wounded in Poroj. The shelling of Poroj killed nine civilians on 23 July alone. Jeff Bieley, a journalist who was covering the conflict, found himself trapped in a basement in the village during the bombardment. ‘‘It was held by the NLA in as much as police could not go there,’’ he recalled, ‘but it was mainly a civilian target.’ Thirteen civilians and five government soldiers were injured. Macedonian government forces also shelled villages surrounding Tetovo, which were under control of Albanian rebels.
Final phase.
The Ohrid peace negotiations finally came into play on 8 August. By then, Tetovo was practically a ghost city, most of its residents having fled the fighting. On 12 August 2001, ten ethnic Albanians in the village of Ljuboten were killed by government forces – evidently in revenge for the slaying of eight Macedonian commandos blown up by land mines and ten other soldiers killed in an NLA ambush. The eight soldiers were killed, and eight others were wounded, on the morning of 10 August, when a Macedonian military truck ran over two anti-tank mines on a remote country road on the Skopska Crna Gorna mountain just north of Skopje.
Ljuboten also gave an international profile for the first time to Ljube Boskovski, the hardline Interior Minister who is a hero to many ordinary Macedonians but a simple-minded warlord in the eyes of many ethnic Albanians. President Trajkovski dismissed the Macedonian Army Chief of Staff, General Pande Petrovski, on 9 August, following the attack on the convoy. Petrovski had told Macedonia's National Security Council that he ‘would take responsibility’ for the casualties. His deputy, General Metodij Stamboliski, replaced him. This was the fourth time that the armed forces command had changed hands in less than two months, another telling sign of the Macedonian Army's inability to cope with the rebellion.
The next day, the rebels attacked Macedonian army barracks in central Tetovo, sending black plumes of smoke above the northern and southwestern suburbs. Part of the barracks and an armored personnel carrier were set on fire in the fighting. The NLA attacked the army barracks in the city of Tetovo with machine guns and grenade launchers, killing an army soldier. The Macedonian National Security Council, in response, authorized another offensive against the NLA. Macedonian forces concentrated their attack around the suburb of Teqe, of which a graveyard separated both factions.
Aftermath.
On 13 August, Macedonian and Albanian representatives signed the Ohrid Agreement, ending most of the fighting. Over the next few months, NATO and Macedonian troops worked to disarm the NLA, which ceded power after the thirty-day Operation Essential Harvest.
As a result of the fighting, the Red Cross estimated that 76,000 people fled their homes. Though the major violence ended on the 13th, skirmishes and harassment remained common throughout the Tetovo area. On 14 August, A Macedonian policeman was shot dead by suspected ethnic Albanian rebels in Tetovo, puncturing the fragile ceasefire declared on Sunday as part of a plan to end the six-month rebellion and pave the way for the disarmament of the guerrilla National Liberation Army. An NLA commander said a civilian had been injured in the shooting at the Drenovec checkpoint in a Tetovo suburb. He accused police of opening fire.
A western ambassador in Skopje cautioned that NATO force would most likely remain for a while after the disarmament process as the Albanian youths have had a taste of a successful insurgency. Part of the guerrilla group feels very sure of itself and might not surrender its weapons. The Macedonian Army and paramilitary police suffered a series of defeats by the rebels in Tetovo and the Kumanovo region, at Aracinovo on the outskirts of Skopje and in the renewed fighting that raged near both Tetovo and Kosovo in August.
On 12 November, three Macedonian police officers were ambushed and killed in the village of Trebos.


Mut Castle

Mut Castle is a castle in Mut, Mersin Province, Turkey.
Geography.
The castle is in mid town at about . Laal Pasha Mosque is to the east and intercity bus terminal is to the north east. Highway 715, which connects Mersin to Karaman and Konya is northeast of the castle at a distance of about .
History.
The neighbourhood surrounding the castle during the Roman Empire was known as "Claudiupolis". According to unconfirmed reports Claudiupolis may be even older than the Roman Empire (up to Hittites). Although the building date of the castle is unknown, it is known that the castle had been used during the Byzantine Empire period. In 1228 (?) the Karamanids (a Turkmen dynasty which controlled a part of Anatolia between the 13th and 15th centuries.) captured the castle and rebuilt it. (Mut was frequently used as a co-capital of Karamanids). In 1473, the castle was captured by the Ottoman Empire.During the reign of the Ottoman sultan Ahmet I (1603-1617) the castle was renovated .
Technical details.
The plan of the castle is almost square. There are 9 bastions around the fortifications and a small cylindrical inner castle () within the main castle. Face stone and rubble stone were used in the construction.