Foundation Sheikh Thani Ibn Abdullah for Humanitarian Services

The Foundation Sheikh Thani Ibn Abdullah for Humanitarian Services (مؤسسة الشيخ ثاني بن عبد الله للخدمات الإنسانية), abbreviated as RAF (راف) is a Qatari foundation established by the al-Thani family.
The foundation provides humanitarian aid and contributes to social development of all sectors of the Qatari society without discrimination. RAF is also engaged in international projects in partnership with foundations that share the same goal.
Management.
The foundation was founded by Thani bin Abdullah. Ayed bin Dabsan Al Qahtani is the current CEO.
Mission.
According to its website, RAF aspires to reach levels of excellence as a humanitarian foundation which participates in "establishing communities of mercy" in Qatar and throughout the world.
The foundation aims to support those who are most in need, and pursues five main goals:
Activities.
RAF’s initiatives are primarily focused on “Training and Development” and “Humanitarian Aid.” The RAF Center for Training and Civil Society Studies is a good example of the foundation’s synergic approach to both areas of action, in that it aims to provide specialized training in the field of humanitarian and charitable work. In fact, the foundation attempts to identify the needs of organizations, charities and workers in the field of humanitarian work, and to develop ad hoc training programs in order to enhance their performances.
RAF also designs and implements specialized projects to develop the educational and professional capacities of targeted social groups and to support their entry into the labor market.
The foundation organizes conferences, seminars and workshops on the subjects of humanitarian work and community service to evaluate and measure the impact of the gained experience, and establishes partnerships with institutions and experts in the field.
Moreover, RAF carries out extensive research in the field of humanitarian aid. The foundation closely monitors the development of the Qatari society, prepares studies on contemporary phenomena and social problems, and contributes to the dissemination of humanitarian culture and volunteerism among civil society through integrated social network information and publications.
Recent initiatives.
RAF is especially active in the fields of education, health care and medical assistance, and supports international efforts to meet the basic needs of people throughout the world.
The foundation is preparing to implement a food bank in Qatar that is expected to benefit 1200 families on a monthly basis.
RAF has funded 157 charitable projects in Sudan, and has initiated the implementation of service complexes for several villages in Darfur within the framework of its “Darfur development program”.
With RAF financial support, the “RAF International University” was established in Kenya to provide modern university education and to serve the Muslim minorities in East Africa by reinforcing their presence in all productive and intellectual sectors. RAF also opened the largest mosque in the city of Mannar, in northern Sri Lanka. Another project in Sri Lanka, executed in July 2012, witnessed the establishment of a residential village with 200 houses at an estimated cost of QR2.6 million.
Moreover, the foundation is planning to build a school in Kyrgyzstan and an educational complex in Mauritania.
RAF also carried out a work field study in Tunisia and submitted a plan to establish a package of projects that serve the country’s economic and social development.
In August 2012, RAF embarked on a project which would involve the expenditure of QR 27 million on medical infrastructure and housing in Zaatari refugee camp to assist refugees of the Syrian Civil War. The foundation also raised $3.3 million in February 2015 from a radio program they organized with the aim funding housing developments for Syrian child refugees.
The first phase of the "Save a Life Initiative" (SALI) was initiated in November 2015. Aiming to provide free health services to people in developing countries, this phase witnessed the installation of numerous portable clinics in Sudan.
RAF has also been active in founding projects of an Islamic nature. RAF has stated its intention to print and distribute a million copies of the Quran to distribute throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. RAF has already printed and distributed 505 thousand copies of the Quran to 9 countries in Africa as well as other Asian and European countries. RAF also recently financed the construction of 30 mosques in Ghana and an Islamic school in Sudan.
Controversies.
RAF has also been active in locations controlled by groups widely considered to be terrorists. RAF has committed millions of dollars towards multiple projects in Gaza, controlled by Hamas since 2007. In addition, RAF has subsidized million dollar projects in Idlib, Syria since the governate fell into the hands of opposition forces. Ahrar al-Sham, the Army of Conquest, and al-Qaeda affiliated Jabhat al-Nusra were all operating in Idlib during the time of RAF’s work.
In late 2014, the "Telegraph" reported that designated al-Nusra fundraiser Shafi al-Ajmi asked donors to send their funds to RAF. Arifi also reportedly appeared at a RAF-sponsored Ramadan festival "honouring a number of hardliners and extremists".
Achievements.
According to the data available on the foundation's website, RAF has established 140 training programs involving 1836 trainees and organized two conferences and international meetings.
RAF acknowledges 150 institutions among its beneficiaries, including its partners, senior leadership institutions, charitable and humanitarian organizations and volunteers.


Gordon Sanderson

Gordon Sanderson (1886 – 13 October 1915) was an officer with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and held the position of the Superintendent, Mahomedan and British Monuments, Northern Circle. He is best known for his work in preserving and documenting the historical monuments of India. Sanderson also wrote books on Indian monuments including "Delhi Fort: A Guide to the Buildings and Gardens", "Conservation Notes on Archaeological Buildings in Delhi Province", "The Arts and Antiquities of India: An Illustrated Selection."
At the peak of his career with the ASI, Sanderson decided to fight for Britain when the First World War broke out. He took charge as Lieutenant of 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles). On 13 October 1915, aged 28, Lieutenant Gordon Sanderson was killed in action in France. He was buried in the Gorre British and Indian Cemetery, at Pas de Calais, northern France.
In recognition of his work with the Archaeological Survey of India, a monument was erected at the Qutb Complex, New Delhi in 1919. The monument, a white marble sundial, was installed by his colleagues from ASI. Sanderson had carried out extensive excavations in the area around Qutub Minar starting in 1910 AD. He is credited with making the Qutub Minar complex what it is today.


Upatissa I of Anuradhapura

Upatissa I was King of Anuradhapura in the 4th century, whose reign lasted from 370 to 412. He succeeded his father Buddhadasa as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his brother Mahanama.


Yang Bojun

Yang Bojun (; 1 September 1909 − 1992) was a Chinese philologist best known for his "Chunqiu Zuozhuan Zhu" (), an annotated commentary of the ancient Chinese historical text and Confucian classic "Zuo Zhuan". The work took him more than twenty years to finish. His commentaries of the "Analects of Confucius" and the "Mencius" are also highly influential.
Early life and education.
Yang Bojun was born in September 1909 in Changsha, Hunan province. He was the eldest son of Yang Shugu (), and was also known as Yang Dechong (). Starting in childhood, he was taught by his grandfather to read Confucian classics such as the "Analects", the "Book of Poetry", and the "Zuo zhuan".
In 1926, he passed the examination to enter the Chinese department of Peking University, where he studied under prominent scholars such as Qian Xuantong, Chen Yuan, and the philologist Huang Kan. He graduated in 1932. However, the person who influenced him the most was his uncle Yang Shuda (), also a well-known philologist.
Career.
In 1953, Yang became an associate professor at the Chinese department of Peking University. He began writing "Lunyu Yizhu" (论语译注, "Translation and Annotation of the Analects"), which was published in 1958 by Zhonghua Book Company.
When the Anti-Rightist Movement began in 1957, Yang and three of his cousins (sons of Yang Shuda) were labelled "Rightists". Yang was transferred to Lanzhou University in remote Gansu province, where he continued to teach in the Chinese department. In Lanzhou he wrote "Mengzi Yizhu" (孟子译注, "Translation and Annotation of the Mencius"), which was published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1960.
In 1960 he moved back to Beijing to work for Zhonghua Book Company, where he edited the "Book of Jin", and began working on "Chunqiu Zuozhuan Zhu" (Annotated Zuo Zhuan). "Zuo Zhuan" was the most monumental work of the Thirteen Classics, comprising almost 200,000 characters of Old Chinese. For the annotation Yang studied many related works including the "Shiji", "Gongyang Zhuan", and "Guliang Zhuan". He also consulted older commentaries and notes on the "Zuo Zhuan" by scholars such as Hong Liangji, Liu Wenqi (), Liu Shipei, and Zhang Binglin, as well as oracle bone records and bronze inscriptions. Many of his notes were destroyed during the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), which he only partially recovered from memory. The book was finally published in 1981, more than 20 years after he started the work. A revised edition was published in 1990. In 1985, the "Zuo Zhuan Dictionary", compiled by Yang and his wife Xu Ti (), was published.


Nungambakkam (film)

Nungambakkam is a 2020 Indian Tamil-language drama film directed by Ramesh Selvan. Based on the Swathi murder case, the film features Ajmal, Mano and Ayra in leading roles. The film completed its shoot in 2017 but faced production and legal delays before releasing on 30 October 2020 through a digital platform.
Synopsis.
The film's plot is based on the real-life incident of the Swathi murder case, which took place at the Nungambakkam railway station in Chennai during June 2016.
Production.
Director Ramesh Selvan and writer R. B. Ravi scripted the film "Swathi Kolai Vazhaku" on the Swathi murder case. Rookie actors Ayra and Mano from Koothu-P-Pattarai have were cast to play Swathi and Ramkumar, respectively, while Ajmal was signed to play the role of the Nungambakkam inspector investigating the murder, and A. Venkatesh reprised the role of Ramraj, Ramkumar's lawyer. After completing shoot in early 2017, a trailer was released by actors Vishal and Arya in May 2017.
The father of Swathi and the brother of Ramkumar expressed their objections to the film, prompting Ramesh to change the script, character names and title to "Nungambakkam". The censor board made a series of further cuts, prompting the team to reshoot more scenes. The film was delayed even further after politician Thol. Thirumavalavan raised an objection to the film's release for portraying dalits in a demeaning manner. He opted to drop his case after a special screening.
Release.
Following the production delays, the team prepared to release the film in July and then August 2019. However, the film was postponed and failed to have a theatrical release.
In October 2020, the team released the film on 30 October 2020 through a digital platform, CiniFlix.
after a poor response in the ott platform the film re released in theatres on november 20th


Bhovi

The Bhavi means well. A well is mainly used to store water for agriculture and drinking purpose. Bhavi use the inland water system there's difference between bhovi and bhavi(ಭಾವಿ) Which is a Kannada word some unknown fellow has edited the real version which was available prior to these article.Also Bhovi is a caste (Community of people) who use to be Palanquin Carriers in southindia
Construction.
The word 'bhovi' is thought to derived from Sanskrit word bhaavi. Some of the southern Indian languages have similar word. Bhovi are dug around 500–600 feet in a cylindrical shape. There can be additional borewell from the bottom till it hits the inland water system. Some bhovi have a staircase till the bottom in cyclical manner. These staircases are made up of stones locked on to the edge of the circle.
Usage.
The Bhovi usage for bhaavi is very rare. Bhovi is used only in small remote villages. The more common reference is bhaavi. Bhovi is almost extinct. With advancement of technology and modern equipment's, borewell irrigation system is more prominently used. Community has been involved in the construction of stone art and architecture, water fountains and roads.
In 2019, when large parts of Karnataka faced droughts, the community were the predominant group employed in digging wells.
Dimensions.
Bhovi is around 24 feet in diameter.
Approximately 75–80 feet circumference.
It goes as deep as 600 feet, beyond which it is difficult and expensive.


Razriady (books)

Razriady () or "Razriadnye knigi" (Razriad books) were a kind of register books in traditional Russian office work of 15–17th centuries. These were annual records that included the appointment of the noblemen to various posts, as well as descriptions of major military campaigns, information on the weddings of rulers and their relatives, on receptions of ambassadors, on awards for service, etc. The originals of Razriad books were burned in 1682 in order to fight against "mestnichestvo", however, some copies and compilations (of varying quality) were preserved. The "Razriady" are the one of the most important sources in the history of the early-modern Russian state.
History.
The Russian word "razriad" can be translated as "section, division, category". Thus, it denoted both the appointment to various posts, and, in the 17th century, the type of territorial–military organization.
An early type of "razriad" books was the so-called "service books", which had been maintained since at least 1475. However, in the beginning they were maintained irregularly, and there are no records for some years. Then the entries become regular and quickly increase in their size. Records of the appointment of nobles to various military, administrative and court posts were recorded in this service books, and this was usually done shortly after the events.
The originals of the “service books” were not preserved. Partially, they were annihilated in fires, and then destroyed during the abolition of "mestnichestvo" in 1682. However, various copies have been preserved (more than 120 are known), which were made by various nobles for use in disputes over appointments. According to the tradition of "mestnichestvo" the high post occupied by the ancestor of the nobleman allowed him not to obey another nobleman whose ancestors did not reach such high ranks. Then these service books were used as material for compiling shorter official "sovereign "razriady"", as well as for various kinds of reduced editions created on a private initiative. The known copies of "razriad" books often contain information from other sources, for example, compilations from chronicles, from various documents, etc.
References.


Arabs in Pakistan

Arabs in Pakistan () consist of migrants from different countries of the Arab world, especially Egypt, Oman, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Jordan and Yemen and have a long history. The first form of contact between the Arab people and modern-day Pakistan originally came in 711 to Sindh, when Muhammad bin Qasim, an Arab military general, was on a quest to free Muslims and their families who had apparently been arrested by Raja Dahir's soldiers while they were returning in a merchant ship to their homes in Iraq's city of Basra from Sri Lanka.
Migrants.
The total number of Arabs in Pakistan, both legal and non-legal residents, number in the thousands, and reside in the country.
Egyptians.
There were 1,500 Egyptians living in Pakistan during the 1990s. Following the 1995 attack on the Egyptian Embassy in Pakistan by Egyptian radicals, the Egyptian government renewed its security focus and collaborated with the Pakistani government to remove Egyptians from the country whom it deemed as shady elements; consequently, many Egyptians living in Pakistan were expelled or faced a discriminate crackdown. An extradition treaty was signed between the two countries, ensuring that any wanted Egyptians apprehended in Pakistan could be more efficiently mainlined back to Cairo.
Emiratis.
Emirati nationals and royalty periodically visit Pakistan for hunting falcons, especially Macqueen's bustards (or Asian houbara). In Rahim Yar Khan, Sheikh Zayed built his own summer palace and an airport for his personal use whenever he visited Pakistan for hunting and recreation. The tradition has been revived by many other royal figures, amid rage by ecologists over the declining population of falcons.
Jordanians.
Jordanians in Pakistan are mostly students.
Syrians.
There are about 200 Syrians in Pakistan. There are also students from Syria studying in Pakistani institutions. In May 2011, Syrian expatriates in Pakistan were seen protesting outside the Syrian embassy in Islamabad and condemning Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad and his regime, amid the Syrian protests back home.
Syeds, Tamim, Arains and Awans.
There are numerous Syeds (descendants of Muhammad) in Pakistan, who are yet another clear example of Pakistanis with Arabic heritage. Some of these Syeds first migrated to Bukhara and then to the South Asia. Others reportedly settled in Sindh to protect their lives against the atrocities of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs of Arabia. The Syed people of Pakistan are figured as the most prominent and well-established people of the country, with a number of them having become popular and well-known religious icons, political leaders and professionals.
The Syeds, Arains, Thahim or Al-Tamimi, Abbaasi, Mashwanis, Awan, Alvi, Ansari, Osmani, Poswal, and Farooqi all claim Arab ancestry.


Nepalese revolution

Nepalese revolution may refer to:


Flag of Kaliningrad Oblast

The flag of the exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast is a rectangle with a ratio of 2:3 divided into three horizontal stripes. The upper stripe is red having in the canton a silver-and-black stylized medieval castle with open gates and the monogram of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (under which reign parts of the region were shortly under Russian control during the Seven Years' War), a thin (1/3 of the upper strip) yellow stripe in the middle and a dark blue stripe of the same size as the red bar.
The law does not state what the colours stand for. In the Russian press it was stated that the silver fortress with open gates stands for hospitality, the dark blue for the Baltic Sea and tranquility, the yellow for the wealth of amber and the red for active man principle ("цвет активного мужского начала"). (Other sources state that red stands for the bellicose past of Prussia, the Red Army, the Hanseatic League, or the historical connections with Brandenburg and Poland.)
The law about the flag and the coat of arms went into effect on 9 June 2006. Previously this westernmost Russian region had no flag. When plans were made to adopt a flag another proposal was a tricolour with 3 horizontal stripes in green, white and dark blue similar to the flag of Sierra Leone. Another proposal was similar to the flag of Scotland, but with a yellow St. Andrew's Cross.


Uchchhakalpa dynasty

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The Uchchhakalpa (IAST: Ucchakalpa) dynasty ruled parts of central India during 5th and 6th centuries. Their territory included north-eastern parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh. Their capital was located at Uchchhakalpa, the present-day Unchehara.
The Uchchhakalpas were neighbours of the Parivrajakas, and appear to have been feudatories of the Gupta Empire. The dynasty is known from inscriptions issued by two of its kings: Jayanatha and Sharvanatha.
History.
Inscriptions of two Uchchhakalpa kings, dated in an unspecified calendar era, are available: Jayanatha (Year 174–182) and Sarvanatha (Year 191–214). The era is now generally identified with the Gupta era (which begins in 318–319 CE), although some earlier scholars identified it as the Kalachuri era (which begins in 248–249 CE). The Uchchhakalpa inscriptions are written in the central Indian variety of the Gupta script. Moreover, the Bhumara stone pillar inscription names the Uchchhakalpa ruler Sharvanatha and the Parivrajaka ruler Hastin as contemporaries. This suggests that both were vassals of the Guptas, and the calendar era mentioned in the Uchchhakalpa inscriptions is the Gupta era.
According to these inscriptions, the earliest king of the dynasty was Oghadeva. He was succeeded by Kumaradeva, Jayasvamin, and Vyaghra. Jayanatha, the dynasty's earliest king attested by his own inscriptions, was a son of king Vyaghra and queen Ajjhitadevi. Jayanatha was succeeded by Sharvanatha, who was his son from queen Murundasvamini. Nothing is known about the successors of Sharvanatha.
Genealogy.
The following kings and queens of the dynasty are known (IAST names):
Inscriptions.
The following copper-plate inscriptions from the Uchchhakalpa reign have been discovered.
Inscriptions of a Vakataka feudatory named Vyaghra-deva have been found at Nachna-Ganj. According to one theory, this ruler may be identical with the Vyaghra of Uchchhakalpa dynasty, but this identification is doubtful.


Public Cause Research Foundation

Public Cause Research Foundation (PCRF) was a Delhi, India-based non-governmental organisation (NGO) that campaigned for just, transparent, accountable and participatory governance.
History.
Public Cause Research Foundation was established on 19 December 2006 by Arvind Kejriwal, Manish Sisodia and Abhinandan Sekhri. Kejriwal donated the prize money he had received from the Ramon Magsaysay Award as a seed fund.
PCRF was registered under section 80G and 12A of Income tax Act.
National RTI Awards.
In 2009, and 2010, PCRF and the "Hindustan Times" jointly recognised the efforts of several people who had contributed to protecting the right to freedom of information.
There have been no awards since 2010 and, , the organisation is no longer listed as an NGO. Its last published accounts were for 2011–2012.


Crime in Indonesia

Crime is present in various forms in Indonesia. However, violent crimes such as murder are low as compared to the rest of the world.
Crime by type.
Crimes against foreigners in Indonesia.
Petty crime, which includes snatch theft and pick-pocketing, is present in Indonesia, usually taking place in locations with many people. Taxi scams are common in Indonesia, in which fake taxis are passed off as real ones. Foreign travellers often get fooled by this trickery, and end up getting robbed by the con-man operating the fake taxi. Violent crime is another growing issue in the country. Pirated and counterfeit merchandise can be easily found in most parts of Indonesia.
As for tourist targeted scams, one very common one include the money changer scam, especially in Bali. What they do is to advertise attractive exchange rates to pull you in. They then only deal in small IDR 10,000 notes, and while counting this huge stack of notes, they use sleight of hand to drop some notes without you realizing. Some may even use a rigged calculator which can be effective due to the large denomination of the rupiah.
Another common scam found in Yogyakarta is the Malioboro batik/art school scam. A tout offers to bring you to the best batik shops or art school. He shows you some stalls at the market and tell you why these are not worth it. You are then brought to the shop/school and wild claims are made, such as receiving money from the government to teach batik/art! They will also show you the process of making batik/art and treat you to tea so as to make you want to reciprocate. If you do, you will end up buying a screen printed fake on a worthless piece of cloth.
Prostitution.
Prostitution, interpreted as a "crime against decency/morality", is illegal in Indonesia. Nevertheless, the practice still is widespread, tolerated and regulated. Prostitution is most visibly manifested in Indonesia’s brothel complexes, or "lokalisasi", which are found throughout the country. These brothels are managed under local government regulations. During or after raids by the police, the prostitutes are able to bribe the law enforcers and be released from custody; this has led to police raids being called "nothing more than an income source for public order officers".
UNICEF estimates that 30 percent of the female prostitutes in Indonesia are below 18 years of age. The International Labour Organization (ILO) puts the total number of child prostitutes in Jakarta at 5,000; according to the Jakarta city government, this is concentrated in Prumpung (North Jakarta), Grogol (West Jakarta) Tanah Abang (Central Jakarta), Block M (South Jakarta), as well as Jatinegara and Ciracas (both East Jakarta). Child sex tourism is a problem, especially on the resort islands of Bali and Batam.
Corruption.
Corruption is a known and increasing issue in Indonesia. There are two key areas in the public sector in which corruption in Indonesia can be found. These are the justice and civil service sectors. While hard data on corruption is difficult to collect, corruption in Indonesia is clearly seen through public opinion, collated through surveys as well as observation of how each system runs. Corruption is regarded as a huge expense to the Indonesian government. The Indonesian police force is known to go overboard and there have been reports of assaults against demonstrators in the country. The misuse of ferocity has been panned by the London-based Amnesty International.
Mass street fighting.
Tawuran is a form of customary mass street fighting between gangs of particular school related students in urban Indonesia, especially in the capital city Jakarta. It is practised largely by males in their junior or senior year of high school. Indonesian sociologist Wirumoto has suggested that it serves as a stress release mechanism, as it often occurs following examinations, holiday seasons or graduation.
Sex trafficking.
Sex trafficking in Indonesia is a problem. Indonesian and foreign women and girls have been forced into prostitution in brothels and homes and been physically and psychologically abused.
Punishment.
Indonesia has put to death a handful of individuals convicted of the crime of murder. Watching porn is against the law, with effect of March 2008.
Crime is segmented into two broad classifications: "Crimes" and "Offenses". There are a few methods to punish one for crime; this includes imprisonment and fine. The death penalty executed by a firing squad is available and very frequently used, as a deterrent against crime. They say that this gives the firing squad some practice. This has raised concerns from bodies like Amnesty International.


Famagusta Gate

The Famagusta Gate () is a gate in the Nicosia walls, Cyprus. It is the chief gate of the city: the Porta Giuliana, or "di sotto" of Fra Stefano Lusignano's " Chorograffia", known as Famagusta Gate in modern times. This construction, in the Venetian style has been copied from the famous Lazaretto Gate of Candia designed by Michael Sammicheli at the beginning of the 16th century, and consists of a vaulted passage through the earthwork rampart of the city with a carefully executed spherical dome, eleven metres (36') in diameter, in its centre. The passageway is large enough for two vehicles to pass, and it is lighted by a circular opening in the centre of the dome in the style of the Pantheon, Rome. On either side of this passage appear to be entrances into chambers now blocked up. The external doorway of the Porta Giuliana is a small archway in the re-entering angle or "orecchione" of the Caraffa bastion now somewhat injured by breakage of the arch stones, and the ancient doors, etc., are missing. On the inner side of the gateway, facing the town, is an imposing facade.
History.
The gate was built in 1567 by Venetians, as a part of the new city walls and was originally called the Porta Giuliani after its designer. It was restored by the Ottomans in 1821, and a lookout was added to the gate for a probable Greek revolt.
During the early Ottoman period, only Turks were allowed to pass through the gate on horseback, while Christians and foreigners were obliged to walk. The gate was locked at sunset and reopened at sunrise and remained closed on Fridays, the Muslim holy day, to allow the guards time to pray.
During British Colonial times the spacious rooms of the gate served as a warehouse for fuel and other materials. Even though a gradual process of preservation was carried out from 1934 to 1981, humidity problems prevailed, and the Gate fell into disuse.
In 1980, the Nicosia Municipality decided to restore the gate and re-use it as a cultural centre. The entrance floor was covered with a cement bed and the area in front of the gate was covered with cobblestones. The internal walls and the roof were cleaned and then insulated. Air conditioning and ventilation systems were installed under floor. The rooms were provided with general lighting and special lighting for the exhibits. The passageway and two side rooms can operate as a whole, or as three individual areas.
Restoration was completed in 1981, and since then the Famagusta gate has become a busy venue for exhibitions helping regenerate Taht-el-kale, Nicosia.


Akrotiri (village)

Akrotiri (, literally "Cape", ) is a village within the Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area, which forms part of the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. It is the only village in the Western SBA with a significant non-military population.
The village contains two small churches dedicated to St. Cross and St. George. To the south is a site called Kourion (Greek: Κούριον) containing the ruins of an ancient settlement. Of the place Stefano Lusignan in his "Description de toute l'isle de Cypre" (Paris, 1580) says: "Cury est une ville antique, située au milieu du Promontoire des chats." ("Kouria is an ancient town situated in the middle of the Headland of Cats.")
Holy Monastery of St Nicholas of the Cats.
Two kilometres east of the village—in the middle of fields and orchards—is the ancient monastery of Saint Nicholas of the Cats ().
Early history.
The monastery is mentioned by travellers in the fifteenth century, but the fullest account is given by Felix Fabri, a Dominican who visited Cyprus in 1480 and 1483. He mentions Saint Nicholas as an isolated monastery "surrounded by serpents" where the monks kept cats to protect themselves. Writing about a century later in the sixteenth century, Stefano Lusignan reports a tradition that associated the first establishment of this monastery to Saint Helena who, on her visit to Cyprus, found it infested with poisonous snakes. Hundreds of cats from Egypt or Palestine were imported to the place where her ship had landed, the Akrotiri peninsula. Kalokeros, then appointed as governor, is said to have founded the monastery and the cats attached themselves to the establishment thereafter.
Architectural remains.
Parts of the current church date to the Lusignan period, notably the door with a moulded arch on the north side of building. The marble lintel is carved with a cross in the centre and two shields on each side. One has a rampant lion of the usual Lusignan variety, while the others are probably personal and episcopal in nature. Since the restoration and repair of the church, a contemporary mosaic of Saint Nicholas has been inserted in the tympanum above the lintel, and a portico added across the entire north side of the church.
After the establishment of Ottoman rule, Jacques de Villamont, who visited in 1588, reported the abbey remained almost whole, "having received no injury from the Turks when they took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1570." However, "the cats are dead from want of food but their memory lives in the name Capo delle Gatte." The traveller, humanist and writer Kryštof Harant provided a charming woodcut of the cats and snakes amidst the monastic buildings in his 1608 book Journey from Bohemia to the Holy Land, by way of Venice and the Sea, while de Beauvau, writing in the same period, reported that cats were gone, but that some monks were still resident. The monastery seems to have fallen slowly to ruins over the course of the seventeenth century so that the eighteenth, the Metropolitan Bishop Makarios I undertook its restoration. The church as it presently stands probably reflects his work. His attempts to revive the monastery faltered and the management of the monastery was assumed by the Bishopric of Kiti to which the property belonged. Writing in 1918, George H. Everett Jeffery says: "At the present day the monastery ... is a ruin of which only the church and one arcade of the cloister survive in a condition to show the original design." The arcade he mentions is probably that which survived to the 1970s and is now incorporated into the restored cloister.
Recent history.
In 1960, the church of the monastery was repaired, while shortly after 1974 an elderly monk from the Monastery of Apostle Barnabas initiated efforts to revive the Monastery. He died before finishing his work but from 1983, two nuns from Agios Georgios Alamanos resumed the effort. Emulating St. Helena, they decided to keep 100 cats in the monastery. In 1991, on the name day of Agios Nicolaos nun Kassiani was declared abbess. Today, the nunnery is administered by the Bishopric of Lemesos.
Literary responses.
The Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis wrote a poem about Saint Nicholas of the Cats in 1969, translated into English in 1995. An article by Benjamin Arbel also reflects on the cats and their significance in Renaissance writing.


Initial states of Thailand

Before the Tai people's southward migration from Guangxi since the 4th century, the Indochinese peninsula had already been populated by Australo-Melanesians who by around 30,000 BP had spread into all sub-regions. They left traces of the first local culture - the Hoabinhian, a name assigned to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artifacts that appears around 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described in "Hòa Bình", Vietnam, later also documented in Terengganu, Malaysia, Sumatra, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and Yunnan, southern China.
Austroasiatic Mon and Khmer groups, who originate in North-Eastern India predominantly populated the riverine lowlands of Indochina since around 5000 years BP. Austronesian immigrants arrived at the coast of central modern Vietnam around 2500 BP.
The controversial Two layer hypothesis suggests the immigration of settlers arriving from the Yangtze River valley around 3,000 BP, who introduced wet-rice and millet farming techniques in Mainland Southeast Asia.
The site of Ban Chiang in North-eastern Thailand currently ranks as the earliest known center of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia and has been dated to around 2,000 years BCE.
The oldest known records of a political entity in Indochina are attributed to Funan - centered in the Mekong Delta and comprising territories inside modern day Thailand. Chinese annals confirm Funan's existence as early as the 1st century CE, but archaeological documentation implies an extensive human settlement history since the 4th century BCE. The Langkasuka and Tambralinga kingdoms on the Malay peninsula appear in Chinese texts by the fifth century.
As well as Funan these polities are characterized as fully developed Indianized kingdoms, which after centuries of trade and socio-economic interaction with India had adopted and incorporated elements of Indian culture, religion, statecraft, administration, epigraphy, literature and architecture.
The Mon Dvaravati principalities also appear during the middle of the first millennium in the lower Chao Phraya River valley of modern-day central Thailand. Unlike Funan, Langkasuka and Tambralinga that were situated in the center of the international trade network Dvaravati remained relatively isolated. Although distinct, the sophisticated Mon-Dvaravati culture is based on Hindu cosmology. Its characteristic art style "such as the faceted miter sitting high on the forehead ... the facial features, especially the eyes″ has influenced Thai sculpture to this day.
Indigenous states theory.
Instead of the theory of the migration from southern China, some posit an Indigenous States theory. A number of indigenous states were able to absorb foreign political and cultural influences, and forge their own distinct cultural identity.
Previously, studies on the initial state of Thai history were confined to the preconception that both its origin and existence were the results of Indian influences alone. These influences were seen as being a significant cause of early Thai states becoming a unified state with territorial power covering areas of the Indochina peninsula. Furthermore, the idea of a unified state extended to the belief that its citizens were all of Mon descent.
This theory ignored the fact that the indigenous groups already had their own political and cultural systems, although numerous and diverse, which were both individualistic and well developed. They had contacted and exchanged between the groups and then established a common culture before the advent of Indian influences.
The development of Suvarnabhumi (Thai: U-Thong, Chinese: Chinlin) and Funan from the communities to coastal centres was due to their economic and cultural interaction with seafarers from the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. They transported both new techniques and artefacts to the various settlements in Southeast Asia. They were the main force influencing the later development of populated centres into states. They were in contact with the seafarers of Maritime Southeast Asia and became coastal centres of the trade and the cultural activities during the 2nd to 6th centuries. Together with Suvarnabhumi and Funan, Chinese records mention the states of Tun-Sun, Tan-Tan, Pan-Pan and the later states such as Chi Tu, Lang-Jia-Shu, To-Lo-Po-Ti and Lo-Hu. These records correlate with certain archaeological finds. The Roman lamp, copper coins of Victorius, atche beads, enamelled beads were found in this area. These antiques were also firmly related to the trading which linked the Eastern and Western world.
Empire of the South Sea.
By the 6th century, mariners had learnt to use the prevailing monsoons and navigate through the Straits of Malacca, which helped to shorten the journey to East Asia. This brought the Gulf of Thailand mariners into direct confrontation with their rivals, the seafarers of the Java Sea, who were already trading out of several important ports. About this time the importance of Suvarnabhumi lessened, whereas the importance of Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian archipelago appeared to grow, together with the importance of the “Empire of the South Sea”. The new network extended as far as the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sri Lanka. The area located among these land and islands became the commercial and economic base for Srivijaya as a maritime state.
The early coastal states continued to grow physically and spread inland, where they met up with more diverse cultures, which had already been through their own process of historical and cultural development. Their radiating power extended throughout the hinterland of Chao Phraya basin. There is evidence that the “Empire of the South Sea” had conquered the mainland once. Tambralinga invaded Lavo or Kingdom of Dvaravati in 903. References to the kings of Haribhunjaya, King Bakaraj (Drabaka), King Ujajitachakravard, and Javaka Raja of Tambralinga, were mentioned in these records. According to the Song's chronicle describes that San-Fo-Shih sent tribute to Chinese court by the command of King Che-Li-Wu-Ye in 961. The envoy reported the name of their kingdom was Xian-Lo-Gua.
Economy.
The import of new techniques and the growth of the initial Thai state affected agricultural production. The water buffaloes were introduced as beasts of burden instead of the oxen. This method was ideally suited for wet rice farming. Rice production increased and became an economic base for the development of the community. The people were able to develop their own economic system based on rice until they gained economic and political power over all others states in this region.
Although the international trade through the Strait of Malacca had been favoured since the 6th century, the overland routes from the coastal towns in Southern Myanmar to the port towns of central Thailand were favoured until the early Rattanakosin period. Together with the rice commerce, Sukhothai, Ayudhya and Rattanakosin became one of the trans-peninsula routes parallel with the Strait of Malacca.
Population.
The result of population movements and migrations certainly affected cultural traditions and lifestyles found among the peoples who are to populate the kingdom of Thailand. Therefore, the Thai / Sama / Sayam / Siam is the various indigenous peoples, Proto Malayu, Mon, Khmer, Champa, as well as to immigrants from India. In addition, the population also consisted of coastal peoples, some mariners, Chinese, and a host of other minority groups. This important characteristic is “The great variety” of Thai people.
Thai society and culture covered an area wider than that ruled by the state. Tai peoples refers collectively to the ethnic groups of southern China and Southeast Asia, stretching from Hainan to eastern India and from southern Sichuan to Thailand, that speak the Tai languages and share similar traditions and festivals, including Songkran. Despite never having a unified nation-state of their own, the peoples also share or historically shared a vague idea of a "Siam" nation, corrupted to Shan or Assam in some places, and most self-identify as "Tai". A far more comprehensive list is available in Thai only for this term. For example, 29 ethnic groups & languages are identified as "Tai" in the Thai language version in People's Republic of China alone. Tai peoples include:
Society.
The initial Thai society, the basic division was that between the rulers and the ruled. During this formative period, there were radical changes in the local political system. The original system of chiefdom is led by a chief was changed to a system of divine kingship based on Indian models. The king and the royal aristocracy together with the bureaucratic nobility wielded full economic and power. Next was the upper class consisting of statesmen and high officials who supervised the carrying out of state and royal duties. There were also community leaders who interacted closely with the populace.
Beneath these strata were the masses, the great majority of whom were either free men or slaves. Within this hierarchical system, each individual had a fixed status with clear-cut responsibilities and rights toward individuals above and below him. The ordinary people consisted of several groups. Every free man was the client or retainer of a person in the upper strata, while every slave was the property of an elite individual or family. The great majority of the free men were agriculturalists, townsmen and traders emerged as a result of the state being located on both continental and seafaring trading routes. The fact that it was one of the most important commercial centres in Southeast Asia can clearly be seen from the multitude of archaeological evidence found.
Religion.
The growth of the initial Thai states gradually came into a Buddhist culture instead of Shamanism. Buddhism became the core faith of early Thai society, linking up and unifying the various lifestyles and beliefs found in this region, and also played a part in determining the form of the political system. The Buddhist faith was recognised by both the state and the people. Buddhism also played an important part in the affairs of the ruling classes it was accepted in early Thai society that the king was not only the royal patron of Buddhism but also the Dharmikaraja whose duty was to spread the faith through following the righteous path as well as through the domination and subjugation of other peoples through the waging of war.
The monks partook in religious duties which were more related to the needs of the ordinary people. They taught the people how to read and write, as well as giving lessons concerning the Buddhist doctrine. While the brahmins had a direct relationship with the royalty through their ceremonial duties, the hermits and mendicants took refuge in the deep jungle, although some enjoyed various degrees of influence over politically powerful persons.
The development of Buddhism during the early Thai state period formed the basis for a Buddhist society and state in this area and provides the historical basis and origins for the later development of the kingdom of Thailand.


Zin Ko Ko Zaw


Cherung Royal Tomb

The Cherŭng Royal Tomb is a 15th-century mausoleum located in Chi-dong, Kaepung-gun near Kaesong, North Korea. The site contains the body of Queen Sinui, first wife of Joseon dynasty founder Yi Songgye. Construction on the tombs began after her death in 1392; as she died before her husband overthrew the Goryeo dynasty to become king, she was buried at the Goryeo-era capital of Kaesong. After Yi took the throne, restyling himself as King Taejo, she was posthumously awarded the title of "queen". The burial mound is ringed with a carved granite base, while the "spirit road" leading to the tomb is lined with statues of military officers and Confucian officials.
Despite being the tomb of a Joseon monarch, the site was excluded from the World Heritage Site "Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty" as it is located in North Korea. It is one of only two royal tombs from that dynasty in the country; the other, Hurung, belongs to King Jongjong, who temporarily moved the capital back to Kaesong before abdicating.


House Museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov (Shaki)

Mirza Fatali Akhundov's house museum is the house museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov, an Azerbaijani writer, educator, poet, materialist philosopher and public figure, founder of Azerbaijani drama and literary criticism in Azerbaijani literature, located in Sheki. Akhundov was born in this house and spent his childhood and adolescence here. This museum is also the first memorial museum opened in Azerbaijan.
History.
The house was built in 1800. In 1811, it was taken by Mirza Fatali Akhundov's father Mirza Mohammad Taghi. Mirza Fatali Akhundov was born here in 1812. Two years later, Akhundov's father moved with his family to Khamna village near Tabriz. Mirza Fatali's parents divorced when he was 13 years old. Later, in 1825, Akhundov returned to Sheki with his family. From this period, his mother's uncle Akhund Haji Alasgar began to take care of him. In 1833 he entered the Russian school opened in Sheki, and after studying there for a year he went to Tbilisi in 1834. In 1940, a museum was established in this house. In 2012, in honor of the 200th anniversary of Akhundov, the museum was overhauled.
Description.
The house museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundov in Sheki is the first memorial museum opened in Azerbaijan. The museum consisted of two small interlocking rooms. There is another building near the house. It was built later and an exposition on the life and work of the great writer was created here. M. F. Akhundov's house museum consists of 2 buildings, an exposition hall dedicated to his life and work and the house where Akhundov was born.
The house was built of raw brick in the Sheki architectural tradition around 1800 and consists of two rooms, a balcony and a basement. There is a wooden structure between the floors. The stove also shows that the building was built in an oriental style. Antiques are exhibited in the rooms. In the past, there were stone and brick walls in the yard, a brick arched gate in the eastern style, and another two-storey, basement house made of raw bricks belonging to Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh's cousins.
The Exposition Hall was built in 1975. The house-museum of Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh was repaired in 2011–2012. The museum displays 248 exhibits.


Volleyball in the Philippines

The history of volleyball in the Philippines refers to the history of volleyball in the Philippines as a recreation and as a sport. Philippine volleyball history began in 1910 when the Philippines was a United States territory (1898–1946). The Filipinos have made significant contributions to volleyball in its evolution as a professional and international game. The Filipinos continued playing volleyball up to the modern-day period in its status as an independent republic (1946–present).
Volleyball in the Philippines is a female-dominated sports, with two commercial leagues serving as the de facto top-flight leagues in the country; the Philippine Super Liga and the Premier Volleyball League. The Spikers' Turf is the top-tier the men's volleyball league in the Philippines.
Introduction.
It was introduced to the Filipinos by an American named Elwood S. Brown, the then Physical Director of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA). It became a popular game held in backyards and at beaches in the islands. At first, the Filipinos invented their own rules for the game. US soldiers who were assigned to the different islands of the Philippine during the period also helped in the widespread introduction of volleyball to the Filipinos. These American military servicemen encouraged the Filipinos to join them in playing during their time-off from military duties. Early in the history of the game of volleyball in the Philippines, the Filipinos used trees as makeshift net holders (the net was hung between the two chosen trees).
Filipino contributions.
The Filipinos contributed two items to modern-day volleyball:
Inspiration for the three-hit limit.
The first contribution was that the Filipinos inspired American players to create the "three-hit limit" for each player in modern-day volleyball. This number of limits in hitting the ball was based by American volleyball players from the Filipino way of letting each player hit the ball before sending or "volleying" it over to the side of the opponent team. The Americans revised this method to become the "three-hit limit" because the old way of taking turns in hitting the ball took too much time, and had been observed to affect the intensity of the game and the motivation of the participating volleyballers (lessens the "challenge and the competitive nature" of the game).
Setting and spiking the ball.
The second Filipino contribution was the "set and spike" maneuver, also known as "set and hit", "setting and spiking", or just "spike". A spike is a form of volleyball "attack" done by the player by jumping, raising one arm above the head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court. The set, on the other hand, is an over-hand pass done by the "setter" (another player) using the wrists to push finger-tips at the ball.
It was after accepting the new set of rules created by the Americans regarding the "three-hit limit" when the Filipino volleyball players at the time invented the "set and spike" maneuver. The new technique invented by the Filipinos prompted American enthusiasts and participants in volleyball to call it as the "Filipino bomb", because "spiking the ball" was like a "hit" or a form of "attack" that can squash or "kill" the opportunity of the opponent team to hit the ball back for a possible point or win. A more apt description of "hitting and spiking" is that it is "an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player."
Associations.
The Philippine Amateur Volleyball Association (PAVA) was founded by the Playground and Recreation Bureau (PRB) of the Philippines on July 4, 1961. It was renamed the Philippine Volleyball Federation (PVF) in 2003. The PVF was the recognized sporting body for volleyball until 2015, when recognition was transferred to the Larong Volleyball sa Pilipinas (LVPI), following a leadership dispute in the PVF. The LVPI itself was succeeded by the Philippine National Volleyball Federation (PNVF) in 2021.
Leagues.
Indoor Collegiate:
Indoor:
Beach:
Participation and gender.
Volleyball is a female-dominated sports in the Philippines with men's volleyball league games lagging behind their distaff counterpart in terms of attendances. There are several speculations raised to explain the popularity of women's volleyball in the Philippines over men's volleyball. This includes:
Men's volleyball gained a traction after the Philippine national team clinched a silver medal in the 2019 Southeast Asian Games.


Parakramabahu VII of Kotte

Parakramabahu VII was King of Kotte in the fifteenth century, who ruled from 1480/1 to 1484. He succeeded his father Bhuvanekabahu VI as king of Kotte and was succeeded by Parakramabahu VIII.


Governor of Ceylon

The Governor of Ceylon can refer to historical vice-regal representatives of three colonial powers:


Murunda dynasty

The Murunda dynasty ruled in the Utkal region of modern Odisha in eastern India during 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Their territory included parts of the area around the northern districts of coastal Odisha. They appear to have succeeded the Mahameghavahana dynasty and then conquered by the Gupta Empire.
Rulers.
The following members of the Murunda family are known:
History.
The Murunda dynasty likely ruled Utkala around the 2nd century and 3rd century CE.
Gana.
Much of the information about King Gana is known from the Bhadrak inscription which was issued in the 8th regnal year during his reign. The inscription was found near Bhadrakali Temple which brought there from the neighbouring village. The language of the inscription is in Prakrit written in Middle or Kushana Brahmi script. The inscription refers to the land grant given by Maharaja Gana to the residents of Panida.
Dhamadamadhara.
Dhamadamadhara ruled over the region in around 3rd century CE. Under his reign, it has been noted that there were important diplomatic relations between Kalinga and Funan. The Funan kingdom was co-founded by the merchant Kaundinya I from Kalinga when he married the Funanese princess Soma. During 3rd cen CE, King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) received the envoy Su-Wu representing King Fan Chan of Funan (225-250 CE) at the port of Tamralipti. Dhamadamadhara's rule over Kalinga is also attested from the discovery of a gold coin from Sisupalgarh, on whose obverse his name has been inscribed. The king presented the envoy Su-Wu with four horses and it quite likely there were strong trade and cultural interactions between the two kingdoms.


Wadi of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Wadi Kalaminjaa Siri Dhagatha Suvara Mahaa Radun (Dhivehi: އައްސުލޠާން ވަޑީ ކަލަމިންޖާ ސިރީ ދަގަތާ ސުވަރަ މަހާ ރަދުން) was the Sultan of the Maldives between 1214 and 1233. He was also one of the sons of "Fathahiriyaa Maavaa Kilege" (Dhivehi: ފަތަހިރިޔާ މާވާކިލެގެ). Sultan Wadi ascended the throne in 1214 after the death of his elder brother Sultan Dhihei. He was succeeded by his younger brother Valla Dio


Retainers in early China (social group)

Retainers in China from pre-Qin through Han times were a special social group, who lived as dependents under a noble, an officeholder, or a powerful landlord. They were designated binke, (), shike (), menke (). Retainers stayed long-term at the house of their host, were fed by him, and obtained also many other benefits through him, such as money, reputation, social position, appreciation, and so on. In return, a retainer would have rendered certain services to his host. But he was free to come and go, and he could leave when he was not treated politely or when he disapproved of the behavior of his host.
The historical development.
The practice of keeping retainers can be traced back to the Warring States period (ca. 476-221 BCE). Ancient Chinese social structure was changing during this time, the system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BCE with the flight of the Zhou court to Chengzhou (modern-day Luoyang) and the diminution of the court's relevance and power. The sovereign (king of Zhou) was merely a figurehead and the social hierarchy which formerly had depended on blood-relationship to the king of the Zhou was severely impacted by the move. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence. The number of retainers one was able to keep seems to have been a status symbol, and keeping retainers also served as a means to augment political power. A retainer could with his own ability and efforts acquire benefits and improve his social status. Therefore, there many noblemen kept retainers, and some of them, up to about three thousand retainers.
This pre-Qin practice of keeping retainers was continued in Qin times (BCE 221–207). Li Si 李斯 (BCE 280–208), the imperial chancellor, and Zhao Gao 赵高, the powerful eunuch, each kept a number of retainers.
Having retainers was still very popular in Han times, the largest number of retainers reported for the Han was ca. one thousand. Under the protection of a powerful master a retainer usually was able to avoid the payment of taxes. Furthermore, the government had difficulty in levying labor and military service from the retainers of powerful person. Under the protection of a master some guests engaged I robbery, murder, and other unlawful activities. It seems that there developed a sort of patron-client relationship. The host became more demanding and arrogant, while the retainers became more subservient.
The number of retainers kept by a host again increased in the era of the Three Kingdoms (220-280 CE). There were two instances of men who kept more than a thousand retainers. This sudden increase is understandable: during the wars and disturbed periods of the Later Han and thereafter, every powerful person was ambitious to use his strength to acquire political power and tended to keep a large number of retainers who actually were his personal troops.
From the end of the Early Han the retainers began to participate in production, particularly in the cultivation of land. This tendency was more dominant at the end of the Later Han and in the years of the Three Kingdoms. For example, a provincial governor sent ten of his retainers to build a house and plant orange trees. The family derived a profit worth several thousand rolls of silk from the produce yearly and became wealthy. They actually became tenants, who paid labor and earned remunerations.
The role of the host.
The host was expected to provide lodging, food, clothing and even carriages for his retainers and to treat them generously. Some of the most honored retainers were even given luxurious articles such as pearls and jade. Obviously only the wealthy nobles and officials could afford to support a large number of retainers. Prince Tian Wen 田文 (?-279 BCE) of Qi (state)齐, Prince Zhao Sheng 趙勝 (?- 251 BCE) of Zhao (state) 趙, Prince Wei Wuji 魏無忌 (?-243 BCE) of Wei, and Chancellor Huang Xie 黄歇 (?-238 BCE) of the State of Chu (state), all tried to have more and more retainers. A prince with such an enormous number of retainers under his command usually was powerful enough to control his own state. Sometimes a state did not even dare to fight with a neighboring state because the ruler had thousands of retainers.
While the number of retainers kept by a master could be enormous, they must have varied greatly in personality and qualification; and of course their selection depended heavily on the attitudes and disposition of the patron.
The social status of retainers.
In the pre-Qin time, the social status of a retainer was not an inferior one. A master, though much superior in political and social status as well as in wealth, had to treat his retainers politely. But guests did not all have the same status, nor were they all treated the same. As a rule, those who engaged in humble occupation and were looked down upon by society were also held in less respect as retainers. A man without special ability was also considered inferior by his master and his fellow retainers.
The status of retainers in the Later Han, and especially in the era of the Three Kingdoms, was markedly inferior; retainers were asked to engage in productive and menial labor and were treated more like slaves or servants.
The function of retainers.
In pre-Qin times, the retainer seldom had definite obligations, and usually no routine work was assigned to him. He was expected to render occasional service according to his abilities when there was such a demand. When Prince Tian Wen 田文 wanted to send someone to collect his debts, he inquired of his retainers whether one of them was versed in accounting and competent for his job. Sometimes the mission was difficult or even dangerous. A retainer was expected to do what the master asked of him and even risk his life for him. Hundreds of retainers were ready to give up their lives to follow Prince Wei Wuji 魏無忌.
In Han times, retainers served in various capacities. They were intelligent men who served as personal advisors to high officials. Others were engaged in physical and menial work. Some retainers served as bodyguards. It was not uncommon to ask a retainer to assassinate an enemy. Under unusual conditions retainers were even asked to engage in robbery and other unlawful activities. As a rule, retainers were expected to share the suffering of their master and offer help in times of emergency or danger. Retainers also had obligations to defend the family of their master when it was attacked by bandits or enemies. The military services of retainers obviously were a help in seeking military and political power.
Retainers were usually not asked to perform domestic or productive work in the pre-Qin through early Han periods, but from the end of the early Han the retainers participated in production, particularly in the cultivation of land, and this tendency was more dominant at the end of Later Han and Three Kingdoms (220-280 CE) periods. During this time, retainers were treated in the same manner as slaves, and slaves and retainers were expected to perform the same kind of menial work.
Famous retainers in history.
Sun Bin 孫臏, the famous retainer in the residence of Tian Ji 田忌 in the Warring States period. Once, King Wei of Qi invited Tian Ji to a horse racing competition. Sun Bin suggested a strategy to Tian Ji to utilize his horses to the best advantage, and Tian won two out of three rounds in the race. The king was impressed with Tian's victory. Tian admitted that he won with the help of Sun Bin, and recommended Sun's talents to the king. King Wei wanted to appoint Sun Bin as the commander of the Qi armies. Sun declined, as his handicap prevented him from riding horseback, and would have a negative effect on the morale of soldiers. Sun was then appointed chief military advisor instead and served as Tian Ji's deputy.


Batadombalena

Batadombalena is an archaeological site with evidence of habitation from 8,000 years BCE, Balangoda Man, located from Colombo in Sri Lanka, a two-hour drive from Colombo.
The Batadombalena archaeological site contains evidence of habitation from as early as 8,000 years BCE and is one of the sites whose discoveries support the "Out of Africa" hypothesis, according to Professor Paul Mellars, a Cambridge University archaeologist. Among the evidence of Balangoda Man he unearthed at the site were stone tools that are interpreted as arrow - or spearheads and carefully shaped and perforated beads made from ostrich eggshell fragments. One particular piece of an ostrich eggshell, incised with a distinctive criss-cross motif, has also been discovered.
Batadombalena Cave has a size of roughly .


Horse racing in the Philippines

Horseracing in the Philippines began as a recreational activity in 1867. Its history is divided into three major time periods based on the breed of horses raced, in conjunction with the three significant eras of Philippine history. According to the type of horses used, the periods are the Philippine-pony era (1867–1898), the Arabian-horse era (1898–1930), and the Thoroughbred era (1935–present).
The Philippine-pony era refers to the time when the Philippines was under Spanish control. At that time, racehorses were bred from the German, Persian, and Israeli lineages of the Classical period in Philippine history, 900–1521.
The Arabian-horse refers to the time when the "American Philippines" were a territory of the United States, 1898–1946, although the Arabian-horse era only lasted until 1935.
The Thoroughbred-era (1935–present) replaced the breeding of Arabian for horseracing with local breeds; the era continued when the Philippines became an independent republic in 1946.
Spanish era (1521–1898).
Philippine-pony era (1867–1898).
Straight-way course.
The earliest record of horseracing in the Philippines was in 1867. At that time a straight flat course measuring was used. From 1867 to approximately 1881, the common breed of horses used were those whose lineage were of Suluan, Indian, and Chinese stock. Also in 1867, the Manila Jockey Club (MJC) was founded by Philippine Governor-General José de la Gandara y Navarro, a Spaniard, together with the club's founding members (the , literally meaning "founding partners"). The MJC was the first racing club established in Southeast Asia, with 100 founding partners from the "prominent and affluent families" of the time period, including Spaniards, Filipinos, and English. These families include the Ayalas, the Zobels, the Tuasons, the Elizaldes, the Bousteads, and the Prietos. Edward Boustead was the father of Nellie Boustead, a French woman courted by two Philippine revolutionary heroes, namely José Rizal and Antonio Luna: in Paris, they nearly came to a duel over her.
Because the MJC was established as a social and recreation club, from 1867 through the 1870s only "fun runs" without betting were held annually, during April or May. The straight course ran from the Basilica of San Sebastian, Manila up to the Quiapo Church. The jockeys for the ("official races") were exclusive to club members. The prizes for the winning jockeys included a gold medal, a silver medal, and an ornamental watch.
English-style oval horseracing.
English-style horseracing was first used in the Philippines from 1881, being held twice yearly for four consecutive days. The event was supported by Governor-General Eulogio Despujol. The location was moved in 1881 from the MJC in Quiapo, Manila to the oval of the (Santa Mesa Hippodrome) in the district of Santa Mesa, also in Spanish Manila, next to the Pasig River; by 1880 Quiapo had become crammed with shops and businessmen's residences. The new location was a ricefield rented by the club from the Tuasons, a family club member. The grandstand next to the new oval track was made of nipa and bamboo. Back then, horseraces in the oval track ran clockwise, like in England, but nowadays they run counter-clockwise, like in the United States.
The horseracing activities of the MJC were suspended during the 1896 Philippine Revolution, a conflict between Spanish soldiers and Filipino revolutionaries. They resumed after the ratification of the 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato. The truce was celebrated in Manila with a fiesta in Manila for the entire month of January 1898. The MJC intended to celebrate the truce by holding a race known as the ("Grand Manila Cup") in May 1898. The prize trophy for the winning horse rider would have been a silver cup made in Hong Kong, embellished with horses' heads and a likeness of Justitia, the goddess of justice. But it was not to be, because in 1898 horseracing in the Philippines was suspended with the onset of the Spanish–American War, that lasted from April 25 until August 12, 1898. The Gran Copa trophy was sent by the MJC to the Shanghai Bank in Hong Kong for safekeeping, and was only returned in 1937, after 38 years.
American era (1898–1946).
After the Spanish–American War, the Philippines became a territory of the United States, because Spain opted to make peace with the United States. resulting in the 1898 Treaty of Paris (1898), where Spain negotiated on terms favorable to the US, allowing temporary American control of Cuba, and ceding indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine islands – as island possessions – to the US.
Arabian-horse era (1898–1955).
Horseracing at the Santa Mesa Hippodrome (also known as the Santa Mesa Oval) resumed in the Philippines in 1899. In 1900, the MJC was moved to San Lazaro in the district of Santa Cruz, Tayuman in Manila (the MJC is currently known as the San Lazaro Leisure & Business Park). The site measured and had a grandstand and a 1200-meter or six-furlong track. In 1901, during the term of American Governor-General William Howard Taft, the "democratization of horseracing" allowed "people from all social strata" to go to the hippodrome during horseracing days. Betting was introduced and permitted in 1903. In 1930, foreign breeds such as Arabian horses were imported by the Bureau of Agriculture. Also in 1930, the Bureau of Animal Industry was established, and continued to import Arabian horses.
During this time, there were two other racetracks that tried to compete with the MJC: the Pasay Country Club (between Harrison Street and Vito Cruz Street) and another in Cebu. Neither lasted long.
Thoroughbred-era (1935–present) started.
In 1935, the Philippine Legislature signed Act No. 4130 This law authorized the holding of Sweepstakes Races by the Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office, which replaced the National Charity Sweepstakes on October 30, 1934. The MJC became incorporated in 1937, becoming the Manila Jockey Club, Inc. (MJCI), transforming itself from a social association into a business.
In 1937, the Philippine Racing Club was established in Makati and became a competitor to the MJCI. Established by Filipino and American businessmen, the Philippine Racing Club (PRC) was also organized for the purpose of using horse breeds of "superior quality" for horseracing. In 1939, Commonwealth Act No. 156 was enforced. This Commonwealth Act was later amended through Commonwealth Act No. 156. The purpose of Commonwealth Act No. 156 was to include the Philippine Tuberculosis Society Inc. in the holding of yearly National Grand Derby Races, with the goal of promoting the breeding of local or native horses in the Philippines.
At the beginning of the 1940s, when Rafael Roces became the president of MJCI, he introduced two types of bet on the horseracing menu: the "daily double" bet and the ("key") bet. The daily double bet is unique to the Philippines, and is not offered in other countries. The daily double bet is still popular today.
While under American possession, the Philippines became involved in World War II (1939–1945). Although the war began in 1939, it only started to affect the Philippines directly in 1941 when the United States entered. MJCI had to close for the duration of the war. From 1941, the Gran Copa trophy of the MJCI was kept by Dr. Salustiano Herrera, an officer of the club. The invading Japanese armed forces used the premises of the MJCI as their barracks. After World War II, the MJCI's buildings were converted by the Americans into a facility with "a hospital and a garrison".
Herrera returned the Gran Copa trophy to MJCI and it was installed in the Trophy Room.
Independent-Republics era (1946–present).
After the Second World War, the Republic of the Philippines was officially recognized as an independent nation on July 4, 1946.
Thoroughbred-era (1935–present) continued.
1940s.
In March 1946, the horseracing facilities of MJCI were returned to its members. It took two months of reconstruction before the racetrack became open to the public. In 1948, the Commission on Races was created by Republic Act. No. 309, a law signed by former Philippine President Elpidio Quirino to regulate horseracing.
1950s.
In 1951, President Quirino further signed Executive Order No. 392, a presidential order that resulted in the creation of the Games and Amusements Board, which was given the responsibility to regulate public gaming. The Board was also tasked with enforcing gambling laws.
In 1957, after the MJCI was registered at the Manila Stock Exchange, off-track betting stations were established in Manila, Pampanga, Cavite, and other provinces with the aim of eradicating illegal bookmakers. Horseraces at the club were broadcast on television via VHF Channel 11.
1960s.
In 1964, the Philippines became the host of the Fourth Asian Racing Conference. In 1965, the National Stud Farm was created, through former Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos's approval of Republic Act No. 4618. There were three main purposes for the National Stud Farm. First was to prevent the illegal importation of foreign breeds of horses. Second was to improve the existing breeds of Philippine horses. Third was to perform other functions related to horseracing. In 1969, regulation of the "distribution of gross wages sales on horseracing" was started through the approval of Republic Act No. 6115. During the 1960s, the Philippines became a member of the Asian Racing Conference (ARC), which focused on how further to improve horseracing in the region.
1970s.
In 1971, the MJC's Gran Copa trophy was lost in a fire. Today only a replica exists at the San Lazaro Leisure Park (SLLP). Despite of the loss, the Gran Copa de Manila horseracing event continued during the 1970s. With San Miguel Beer as the sponsor, two divisions of the Gran Copa de Manila were being held. The event also became known as the San Miguel Beer Copa or SMB Copa due to SMB sponsorship.
In 1972, both the MJCI and the PRC were given franchises to "construct, operate and maintain their own racetracks for a period of 25 years". This was made into law by the Philippine Congress with Republic Acts No. 6631 and 6632.
In 1974, the twelfth Asian Racing Conference was held in the Philippines. Also during 1974, the Philippine Racing Commission (PHILRACOM) was created through Presidential Decree No. 420. PHILRACOM was given the responsibility to promote and administer the development of horseracing in the Philippines as "a sport and a source of revenue and employment". The PHILRACOM was established through the efforts of the Metropolitan Association of Race Horse Owners (MARHO), an organization formed when a shortage in the supply of horsefeed, such as oats, occurred. On March 20, 1974, the two entities sharing authority over horseracing were the Philippine Racing Commission and the Games and Amusements Board (GAB).
As of June 3, 1977, through Presidential Decree No. 1157, the rate of taxes from horseracing (together with Jai-alai) was equivalent to 10% of an individual's Sweepstakes winnings or dividends corresponding to each winning ticket, after deducting the cost of the ticket.
1980s.
In 1988, Executive Order No. 194 reduced the level of horseracing taxes. This lowering of tax rates happened through the efforts of MARHO, which was headed at the time by Federico "Eric" Moreno, a Philippine justice.
1990s.
During the early part of the 1990s, computer technology was employed for the day-to-day operations of the MJCI.
In 1992, a program to monitor Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) was initiated by the National Stud Farm for all breeding stock. The tests adopted were the Coggins Test (also known as the Agar Gel Immuno-Diffusion (AGID) Test). In 1995, the Blood Typing and Parentage Validation Program was also adopted by the NSF for horses that were under contract with the Royal Western India Turf Club, Inc. (RWITC). In 1996, the "Stud Book Authority of the Philippines" (SBAP, also known as "The Philippine Stud Book Volume I") was recognized by the International Stud Book Committee (ISBC). The "Stud Book Authority of the Philippines" recorded the "breeding activities of more than 500 Thoroughbred mares" (including those that were breeding in the Philippines) from 1994.
In 1996, the yearly MARHO Breeders Cup (MBC) program was established by MARHO leader, horseowner, and horsebreeder Aristeo "Putch" Puyat, together with Leonardo "Sandy" Javier, Jr., Puyat co-leader at MARHO. The program gives recognition and trophies to deserving horse owners, horse breeders, jockeys, and trainers, focused only on "high-quality stock" of Philippine-bred horses.
In November and December 1997 an outbreak of equine influenza affected horseracing in the Philippines.
In 1999, the second volume of the "Stud Book Authority of the Philippines" known as "The Philippine Stud Book Volume II" was published, a record of the "breeding activities of more than 600 Thoroughbred mares" in the country from 1995 through 1998, including stallions which have produced offspring from pregnant (in-foal) mares imported into the Philippines during that time.
Live horseraces at the MJCI were later broadcast on a dedicated cable television channel.
2000s.
In 2000, Executive Order No. 296 was signed by Philippine President Joseph Estrada to integrate the "personnel, programs and resources" of the National Stud Farm with other units and agencies managed by the Department of Agriculture. With this Order the Stud Book Division became the Stud Book and Animal Registry Division (SBARD), placing it under the control of the Bureau and Animal Industry (BAI). With the same Order, the Stud Book Division became the Stud Book Authority of the Philippines (SBAP).
In 2001, three Japanese-owned thoroughbred horses bred in the Philippines were exported to Japan, and were proven to be of horseracing quality "at par" with racehorses bred in other countries.
In 2003, the Philippine National Stud Book Division was transferred from the Department of Agriculture to the Philippine Racing Commission, a bureau that was directly under the control of the Office of the President of the Philippines. The executive order was approved by Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Also in 2003, the offices and racetrack of the MJCI were transferred to Carmona, Cavite at the San Lazaro Leisure Park (SLLP), a complex.
In 2004, after the start of the transfer of personnel, programs, and other resources of the Stud Book Division to the Philippine Racing Commission, "The Philippine Stud Book Volume III" was published, recording the breeding activities of 676 Thoroughbred mares from 1999 until 2002. Also in 2004, the first MARHO Founders Cup (also known as the "Pearl Stakes") horseracing festival was started by the founders of MARHO to celebrate the organization's foundation.
In 2005, Benhur C. Abalos became the leader of MARHO. Abalos and other members of MARHO took legal and police action against the activities of illegal bookmakers. The campaign would continue through 2006. Also in 2005, monitoring and eradication program for Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) was made mandatory by PHILRACOM for all racehorses. Identification "passports" were also issued for all racehorses, including pedigrees, vaccination, laboratory test results, and other required information.
Also during 2005 the MJCI developed a website featuring horseraces, tips, and results. In 2006, MJCI became the first horseracing club in the Philippines to provide horseracing information through text messaging, a program known as the , with plans to introduce betting via text message.
Also in 2006, the Blood Typing and Parentage Validation Program for racehorses was replaced by a DNA technology program. A microchip numbering program was additionally adopted in 2007 for foals that were born in 2005. Also in 2006, because of the International Agreement on Breeding, Racing and Wagering (IABRW), the Philippines became a signatory to significant articles published by International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) in relation to racehorse breeding. On December 8, 2006, the San Lazaro Leisure Park Turf Club of the MJCI became the first "racino" in Asia. The casino gaming area, named as the "Casino Filipino at San Lazaro", was on the top floor of the SLLP Turf Club.
In 2008, the offices and Santa Ana racetrack of PRCI were transferred from Makati to the newly built Saddle and Clubs Leisure Park in Naic, Cavite.
2010s.
In February 2013, the Metro Manila Turf Club, Inc. (also known as Metro Turf or MMTCI) opened, being the third world-class horseracing facility in the country. It operates at Malvar, Batangas.
Until the end of 2012, races were conducted every other Tuesdays to Sundays. The race venues were alternatively shuttled between PRCI and MJCI. With the entry of MMTCI in 2013, the racing calendar has been divided among the three racetracks; racing days are alternating held so that only one track operates in each racing day.
In November 2018, MMTCI wrote Philracom that they were considering suspending operations for the first quarter of 2019, citing financial losses among other reasons. A group of concerned horse owners approached the club's management and offered to run the racetrack themselves. This group of 'white knights', which calls itself the "New Management Board", is headed by former Mandaluyong mayor Atty. Benjamin C. Abalos Jr. and Atty. Narciso O. Morales. They began operating MMTCI in January 2019, with their first racemeet a success in terms of gross sales.


Huzoor Palace, Gondal

The Huzoor Palace, currently the residence of the royal family, is located in Gondal, India. Its annex, or wing, is known as the Orchard Palace.
The Orchard Palace is to the east of Naulakha Palace, was used as a guest house during the nineteenth century. As it is located next to an orchard of fruit trees, in a well tended garden, it is called the Orchard Palace. It has many garages known as "the Royal Garages" which display a plethora of cars mostly of 1950s vintage still in well preserved and in working condition. This collection of vintage cars is stated to be "the greatest collection of vintage cars in the whole of Asia". Also exhibited in the garages are a large collection of horse drawn coaches both Victorian and Shetland type. The rooms here have high ceilings and the bed room furnishings include four posters, apart from the royal artifact collection of over 100 years.


The Irrawaddy

The Irrawaddy () is a news website by the Irrawaddy Publishing Group (IPG), founded in 1990 by Burmese exiles living in Thailand. From its inception, "The Irrawaddy" has taken an independent stance on Burmese politics. As a publication produced by former Burmese activists who fled violent crackdowns on anti-military protests in 1988, it has always been closely associated with the pro-democracy movement, although it remains unaffiliated with any of the political groups that have emerged since the 8888 Uprising.
"The Irrawaddy" is published in both English and Burmese, with a primary focus on Burma and Southeast Asia. It is regarded as one of the foremost journalistic publications dealing with political, social, economic and cultural developments in Burma. In addition to news, it features in-depth political analysis and interviews with a wide range of Burma experts, business leaders, democracy activists and other influential figures.
History.
It was started in 1990 with the name "Burma Issues". The founder is Aung Zaw, a student activist from Rangoon University who left the country after the 1988 imposition of martial law and started the Burma Information Group (BIG) in Bangkok. The BIG initially circulated "The Irrawaddy" amongst foreign embassies, human rights groups and the Burmese exile community to update on developments inside Burma in the wake of the suppression of the pro-democracy movement and the consolidation of military control under the State Law and Order Restoration Council.
The BIG’s main offices were relocated to Chiang Mai, Thailand in 1995-96, and the organization was renamed the Irrawaddy Publishing Group in 1999 to coincide with an expansion of the magazine's focus to include other political issues in Southeast Asia. The organization’s online service was launched in 2000 to provide more regular coverage of breaking news, notably the fallout from the 2003 banking crisis and the downfall of senior junta leader Khin Nyunt.
In 2012, following legislative reforms to end Burma’s decades-old system of prepublication censorship and the granting of new media licenses, "The Irrawaddy" opened a bureau in Rangoon and gradually moved its editorial operations into the country, while maintaining a legacy presence in Chiang Mai.
"The Irrawaddy" formerly published a monthly English language magazine and a weekly Burmese language journal, both of which were circulated in Burma and Thailand. Its English and Burmese language websites are updated daily. The editor of the English edition is Kyaw Zwa Moe, younger brother of Aung Zaw, who was jailed for eight years while a high school student in Rangoon and joined The Irrawaddy after his release.
The publication has been widely cited in international media and wire services over the years. An exclusive interview with US President Barack Obama, coinciding with his second visit to Burma in 2014, received extensive coverage in the western press.
The English language print edition of "The Irrawaddy" ceased publication in September 2015, while the Burmese language edition was halted in January 2016.
Editorial stance.
"The Irrawaddy" was an outspoken and strident critic of the State Law and Order Restoration Council and its successor, the State Peace and Development Council. Towards the end of the junta era, it criticized the protracted drafting of the 2008 Constitution by the military, and highlighted irregularities in the conduct of the 2010 general elections. Since the election of a civilian government, the magazine has questioned the sincerity of the country’s political and economic reforms, and called for an end to the military’s ongoing presence in political affairs.
Since her release from house arrest, "The Irrawaddy" has also at times been critical of National League for Democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi and her party. While not formally affiliated with any of Burma’s myriad pro-democracy groups, "The Irrawaddy" has given a platform to members of the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners, the 88 Generation Students Group, and other civil society groups. It has reported extensively on ongoing conflicts between the military and ethnic armed groups, and recent protests over land seizures and education reforms.
Hacking attempts.
"The Irrawaddy's" websites were subjected to Distributed Denial of Service attacks during the Saffron Revolution, and again on the uprising's anniversary in 2008 and 2010, which temporarily shut down both its English and Burmese online editions.
On 12 March 2011, "The Irrawaddy" was hacked by unknown attackers who posted fake articles on the magazine’s website. One of the articles alleged a feud between Aung Zaw and Aung San Suu Kyi, claiming that the National League for Democracy leader had encouraged funding cuts for exiled media that have forced a number of organisations, including "The Irrawaddy" and Democratic Voice of Burma, to cut programmes and fire staff. Another article alleged the death of popular singer May Sweet in a London traffic accident. Both stories were quickly flagged as fictitious, and Aung Zaw later speculated that the attack was launched by a pro-military junta group or Naypyidaw's cyber warfare department.
On October 2, 2014, "The Irrawaddy’s" website was hacked by a group apparently sympathetic to the radical Buddhist 969 Movement, which rose to prominence after the outbreak of intercommunal riots across Burma in 2012. Prompted by the website's syndication of a wire story reporting a cooperation agreement between the 969 Movement and Sri Lanka’s Bodu Bala Sena Buddhist nationalist organization, the front page was defaced to read: “Irrawaddy supports Jihad and Radical Muslims. For the defend of Muslims and Allah, Irrawaddy have shown attacking Buddhists and others Non-Muslims with Media News (sic).”
Criticism.
Before media reforms in 2012 allowed exile media organizations to establish an official presence in Burma, "The Irrawaddy" relied on a network of stringers and sources operating inside the country and communicating developments back to Chiang Mai by telephone. In some instances, inaccurate reports were published on political developments during the transfer of power from the State Peace and Development Council to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw after the 2010 general elections:


Bhoja of Kannauj

Bhoja was a medieval Indian king who ruled Kannauj in the late 8th century CE
His parents were Dunduka and Padma, Dunduka's queen. Dunduka made several futile attempts to kill Bhoja. Later, Bhoja killed Dunduka for the throne in his royal court.
After killing his father, Bhoja ascended the throne with the favour and support of Dunduka's subjects and high officials. Bhoja, like his father Dunduka and grandfather Āma, became a "parama" Jaina. He either retired as a king after a short rule, or his kingdom was annexed by the Ayudhas, who established a new dynasty,<ref name="https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false"></ref> or he was deposed by the Pratiharas.


Henry Ernest Gascoyne Bulwer

Sir Henry Ernest Gascoyne Bulwer, (11 December 1836 – 30 September 1914), the nephew of Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer and brother to Edward Earle Gascoyne Bulwer, was a British colonial administrator and diplomat.
Bulwer was educated at Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Administrative and diplomatic posts held include:
Bulwer was appointed to the Order of St Michael and St George, as Companion in 1864, Knight Commander in 1874, and as Knight Grand Cross in 1883.
Commemoration.
The town of Bulwer in Natal, South Africa was named after him.
While Governor of Labuan he presented the type specimen of Bulwer's pheasant ("Lophura bulweri") to the British Museum, a bird consequently named after him.
The author H Rider Haggard dedicated his novel "Marie" to Sir Henry Bulwer.


Ottoman Arabia

The Ottoman era in the history of Arabia lasted from 1517 to 1918. Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.
History.
Early period.
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and al-Hasa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. The main reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. As early as 1578, the Sharifs of Mecca launched forays into the desert to punish the Najdi tribes who mounted raids on oases and tribes in the Hejaz.
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab who was from the Hanbali school of thought, This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.
Rise of the Saudi state.
The first Saudi state was established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia. When Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahab abandoned the position of imam in 1773, the spread of Saudi control over the whole southern and central Najd was completed. In the late 1780s, the northern Najd was added to the Saudi emirate. In 1792, Al-Hasa fell to the Saudis. The Saudi emirate gained control of Taif in 1802, and of Medina in 1804.
The first Saudi state was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. A much smaller second "Saudi state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty (albeit nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.
In 1902, Ibn Saud took control of Riyadh in Nejd and brought the Al Saud back to Nejd. Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured al-Hasa from the Ottomans in 1913.
In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia.
Hajj in the 16th and 17th centuries.
When the Ottomans conquered Mamluk territory in 1517, the role of the Ottoman sultan in the Hijaz was first and foremost to take care of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina, and provide safe passage for the many Muslims from various regions who travelled to Mecca in order to perform the Hajj. The Sultan was sometimes referred to as "Servant of the Holy Places" but since the Ottoman rulers could not claim lineage from the Prophet Muhammad, it was important to maintain an image of power and piety through construction projects, financial support and caretaking.
There is no record of a ruling Sultan visiting Mecca during the Hajj but according to primary records, Ottoman princes and princesses were sent to make the pilgrimage or visit the Holy Cities during the year. The distance from the center of the empire in Istanbul, as well as the length and danger of the journey, was likely the main factor that prevented Sultans from travelling to the Hijaz.
Regional administration of Mecca and Medina was left in the hands of the Sharifs, or the stewards of Mecca since the Abbasid caliphate. The Sharifs maintained a level of local autonomy under the rule of the Sultan; however in order to balance the local influences, the Sultan appointed the kadis and lesser officials in the region. At first, being appointed the kadi in the region was considered a low position, but as religion grew more important within the culture of the Ottoman Empire, the role of the kadis in the Mecca and Medina grew in prominence.
Aside from customs collected in Jeddah, the inhabitants of the Hijaz did not pay taxes to the empire and the finances of the city were taken care of through various waqf properties across the rest of the empire, dedicated to support the people of Mecca and Medina as an act of charity with religious significance because of the holy status of the two cities.
The central Ottoman government controlled caravan routes to Mecca, and was obligated to protect pilgrims along these routes. This included providing supplies such as food and water for the journey. Additionally, this included providing subsidies to the desert Bedouin tribes whose limited resources were used by pilgrims along the major routes from Damascus and Cairo respectively. The Ottoman Empire, as custodian of Mecca and Medina, was supposed to provide safe passage for all pilgrims travelling to the Holy Cities. However, political alliances and conflicts shaped the routes that were opened or closed.
Particularly in the case of the Safavid Empire, the Ottomans closed the shortest route from Basra (in present-day Iraq) that would have allowed Shi’i pilgrims to cross the Persian Gulf into the Arabian Peninsula. Pilgrims were instead required to use the official caravan routes from Damascus, Cairo or Yemen. From the Mughal Empire, sea routes were blocked by the presence of Portuguese ships in the Indian Ocean; from Central Asia, wars between the Uzbeks and Safavids also led to complications in caravan routes. Most Central Asian pilgrims went through Istanbul or Delhi to join a pilgrimage caravan. Trade routes often flourished along pilgrimage routes, since the existing infrastructure and protections were established, and travelling pilgrims increased the demand for products.
Construction, repairs and addition to religious sites in Mecca and Medina were costly, due to the location of the cities and need for imported materials, but it was a symbol of the power and generosity of the Sultan. Repairs that had to be made to the Kabah after a flood in 1630 were contentious because of the religious significance of the building itself. These repairs were generally aimed at preserving the structural integrity of the site, yet the opinion of local religious scholars on the extent of the repairs meant that the project became politicized because Ridhwan Agha, who was in charge of overseeing the repairs, was a representative of the Sultan as opposed to an elite from the Hijaz.
Other projects included building, repairing and maintaining water pipes that served pilgrims, and establishing soup kitchens, schools and charitable foundations within the region.
Territorial divisions.
During the era of Ottoman rule, the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was divided between the following entities: