Daniel Axtell

Colonel Daniel Axtell (1622 – 19 October 1660) was captain of the Parliamentary Guard at the trial of King Charles I at Westminster Hall in 1649. Shortly after the Restoration he was hanged, drawn and quartered as a regicide. Apart from his participation in the regicide, he is best remembered for his participation in Pride's Purge of the Long Parliament.
Biography.
Axtell was a Baptist from Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire, who was apprenticed as a grocer. He joined the New Model Army, serving in John Pickering's regiment of Foote, and rose to the rank of colonel.
Axtell played a big part in the English Civil War after being recruited by Parliament in 1643. He fought as an infantryman and was present at the sieges of Lindon (May 1644) and York (June 1644), along with the battle of Marston Moor and many other sieges and battles. Axtell was a keen puritan and in 1646 he and some other puritan soldiers started preaching in churches in Oxford. At that time it was illegal to preach unless one was a qualified clergyman, so he had to force the clergymen to give way.
Axtell was a figure of some prominence in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. He played a role part in the storming of Drogheda and the massacre that ensued. After the town's walls and the internal earthworks had been successfully stormed by English Parliamentarians, Arthur Aston, the Royalist governor of Drogheda, and others retreated to a citadel on Windmill Mount, which was heavily fortified and could not easily be taken by assault.
It was on direct orders from Oliver Cromwell that the quarter that had been given to the defenders on Mill Mount by Axtell was overturned, and the unarmed prisoners were killed.
Granny Grannagh castle beside the River Nore is an imposing ruin. "In the civil wars" writes Grosse "it was strongly garrisoned for the King and commanded by Captain Butler, Colonel Axtell, the famous regicide who was governor of Kilkenny, dispatched a party to reduce it, but they returned without accomplishing their orders; upon which Axtell himself marched out with two cannon and summoned the castle to surrender on pain of military execution. Without any hope of relief it is no wonder the garrison submitted".
On 25 October 1650 Axtell led the Parliamentarian army to victory at the battle of Meelick Island (a Crannog on the Shannon, on which the Connaught Irish army was camped) after launching a sudden attack on the Irish army under cover of darkness. After fierce hand-to-hand fighting the Parliamentarians were victorious, killing several hundred of the Irish soldiers and capturing their weapons and equipment. After the conflict, however, it was alleged that many of the Irish had been killed after the promise of quarter. Axtell was court-martialled for this by Henry Ireton and sent back to England. It is possible that Axtell was a scapegoat; Cromwell had committed similar atrocities a year earlier at Drogheda and at Wexford, in the sense that no quarter had been offered. It is possible that the leaders of the Parliamentarian forces in Ireland (if not the Parliamentarian leadership in Britain) felt that the 'shock' tactics initially adopted in Ireland were counter-productive. For example, Ireton's request for lenient surrender terms to be made known by Parliament were refused. Axtell's actions may have run counter to a less ruthless strategy putatively adopted by Ireton in the field.
After the fall of the Protectorate in May 1659, Axtell returned briefly to Ireland as a colonel under the command of Edmund Ludlow but was sent back to England to support John Lambert against Booth's Uprising in August 1659. Axtell was among the veterans of the Good Old Cause who attempted to oppose the Restoration in April 1660. He escaped from the fight at Daventry during which Lambert was captured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, but was himself arrested shortly afterwards.
He was arraigned for treason for his actions during the King's trial. His defence at his trial as a regicide, that he was only obeying orders at the trial of the King, was refuted by several witnesses who testified that Axtell had behaved discourteously towards the King, encouraging his men to jeer at or shout down the King when he tried to speak in his own defence. The court held: "[Axtell] justified all that he did was as a soldier, by the command of his superior officer, whom he must obey or die. It was... no excuse, for his superior was a traitor..., and where the command is traitorous, there the obedience to that command is also traitorous."
On 19 October 1660 Axtell was executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn and his head set up on Westminster Hall. His commanding officer Colonel Francis Hacker had also been condemned as a Regicide and had been executed. Axtell went to his execution unrepentant, declaring "If I had a thousand lives, I could lay them all down for the [Good Old] Cause".
Miscellaneous.
In 1678 Daniel Axtell, the son of the regicide, fled to Carolina after his house in Stoke Newington was searched for seditious libels. He died in 1687.


Peter Robertson (Jamaica)

Peter Robertson was a planter and slave-owner in Jamaica. He owned Dunrobin Plantation, Friendship Valley Pen, Prospect pen, and the Weybridge Estate, and had interests in others. He was elected to the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1820 for the parish of Saint Thomas-in-the-East.


Galatians (people)

The Galatians (; ; ) were a Celtic people dwelling in Galatia, a region of central Anatolia surrounding present-day Ankara, during the Hellenistic period. They spoke the Galatian language, which was closely related to Gaulish, a contemporary Celtic language spoken in Gaul.
The Galatians were originally part of the great migration led by Brennus which invaded Macedon. The originals who settled in Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leotarios and Leonnorios c. 278 BC. They consisted mainly of three tribes, the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii, but there were also other minor tribes. In 25 BC, Galatia became a province of the Roman Empire, with Ankara ("Ancyra") as its capital.
In the 1st century AD, many Galatians were Christianized by Paul the Apostle's missionary activities. The "Epistle to the Galatians" by Paul the Apostle is addressed to Galatian Christian communities and is preserved in the Bible (i.e. the New Testament).
History.
Seeing something of a Hellenized savage in the Galatians, Francis Bacon and other Renaissance writers called them ('Gauls settled among the Greeks') and the country , as had the 3rd century AD Latin historian Justin. The more usual term was of Diodorus Siculus' "Bibliotheca historica" v.32.5, in a passage that is translated "...and were called Gallo-Graeci because of their connection with the Greeks", identifying Galatia in the Greek East as opposed to Gaul in the West.
Brennus invaded Greece in 281 BC with a huge war band and was turned back before he could plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi. At the same time, another Gaulish group of men, women, and children were migrating through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' people in 279 BC, and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius. These invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278–277 BC; others invaded Macedonia, killed the Ptolemaic ruler Ptolemy Ceraunus but were eventually ousted by Antigonus Gonatas, the grandson of the defeated Diadoch Antigonus the One-Eyed.
During the course of the power struggle between Nikomedes I of Bithynia and his brother Zipoetes, the former hired 20,000 Galatian mercenaries. The Galatians split into two groups headed by Leonnorius and Lutarius, which crossed the Bosporus and the Hellespont respectively. In 277 BC, when the hostilities had ended the Galatians came out of Nikomedes' control and began raiding Greek cities in Asia Minor while Antiochus was solidifying his rule in Syria. The Galatians looted Cyzikus, Ilion, Didyma, Priene, Thyatira and Laodicea on the Lycus, while the citizens of Erythras paid them ransom. Either in 275 or 269 BC Antiochus' army faced the Galatians somewhere on the plain of Sardis in the Battle of Elephants. In the aftermath of the battle the Celts settled in northern Phrygia, a region that eventually came to be known as Galatia.
The Seleucids built a series of forts at Thyatira, Akrasos and Nakrason and placed garrisons at Seleucia Sidera, Apamea, Antioch of Pisidia, Laodicea on the Lycus, Hierapolis, Peltos and Vlandos to limit Galatian raids. However the Galatians expanded beyond those borders taking control of important cities such as Ancyra (present day Ankara), Pessinus, Tavium, and Gordion. They launched further raids into Bithynia, Heracleia and the Pontus in both 255 and 250 BC. Either in 240 or 230 BC Attalus I inflicted a heavy defeat on the Galatians at the Battle of the Caecus River. In 216 BC, Prusias I of Bithynia intervened to protect the cities of the Hellespont from Galatian raids. In 190s BC, the Galatians raided Lampsacus and Heraclea Pontica. According to Memnon of Heraclea their goal was to gain access to the sea, however this claim is disputed by modern historiography.
The constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: comfortably to custom, each tribe was divided into cantons, each governed by a tetrarch with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place, twenty miles south-west of Ancyra, written in . It is likely it was a sacred oak grove, since the name means 'sanctuary of the oaks' in Gaulish: (from , 'oak', and , 'sacred ground'). The local population of Cappadocians were left in control of the towns and most of the land, paying tithes to their new overlords, who formed a military aristocracy and kept aloof in fortified farmsteads, surrounded by their bands.
These Galatians were warriors, respected by Greeks and Romans ("illustration, below"). They were often hired as mercenary soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides in the great battles of the times. For years the chieftains and their war bands ravaged the western half of Asia Minor as allies of one or other of the warring princes without any serious check—until they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax, who reigned in Asia Minor. Hierax tried to defeat Attalus I, the ruler of Pergamon (241–197 BC), but instead the Hellenized cities united under Attalus' banner and his armies inflicted several severe defeats upon Hierax and the Galatians in c. 232, forcing them to settle permanently and to confine themselves to the region to which they had already given their name. The theme of the "Dying Gaul" (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favourite in Hellenistic art for a generation.
Their right to the district was formally recognized.
The king of Attalid Pergamon employed their services in the increasingly devastating wars of Asia Minor; another band deserted from their Egyptian overlord Ptolemy IV after a solar eclipse had broken their spirits.
In 189 BC, Rome sent Gnaeus Manlius Vulso on an expedition against the Galatians, the Galatian War, defeating them. Galatia was henceforth dominated by Rome through regional rulers from 189 BC onward. Galatia declined, at times falling under Pontic ascendancy. They were finally freed by the Mithridatic Wars, during which they supported Rome.
In the settlement of 64 BC, Galatia became a client-state of the Roman empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled 'tetrarchs') were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and Julius Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia.
Tribes.
Each tribal territory was divided into four cantons or tetrarchies. Each of the twelve tetrarchs had under him a judge and a general. A council of the nation consisting of the tetrarchs and three hundred senators was periodically held at Drynemeton.
There were also the:
Religion.
Comparatively little is known about Galatian religion, but it can be assumed that it was similar to that of most Celts. The Greek god Telesphorus has attributes not seen in other Greek gods, and it is speculated to have been imported from Galatia.


Worshipful Company of Grocers

The Worshipful Company of Grocers is one of the 110 Livery Companies of the City of London and ranks second in order of precedence. The Grocers' Company was established in 1345 for merchants occupied in the trade of grocer and is one of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies.
History.
The Company was founded in the 14th century by members of the "Guild of Pepperers", which dates from 1180. The Company was responsible for maintaining standards for the purity of spices and for the setting of certain weights and measures. Its members included the suppliers of medicinal spices and herbs, who separated forming the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries in 1617.
The guild was known as the "Company of Grossers" from 1373 until 1376 when it was renamed the "Company of Grocers of London". In 1428, two years after building its first hall in Old Jewry, the Company was granted a Royal Charter by King Henry VI of England. One of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies, it ranks second in the Companies order of precedence after the Mercers' Company. It is said that the Grocers' Company used to be first in the order, until Queen Elizabeth I, as Honorary Master of the Mercers' Company, found herself in procession, after her coronation behind the Grocers' camel which was emitting unfortunate smells; as a result, the Mercers were promoted.
Today, the Grocers' Company exists as a charitable, constitutional and ceremonial institution which plays a significant role in the election of and supporting the Lord Mayor and the Sheriffs of the City of London. The Company's motto is "God Grant Grace". The Company also provides banqueting and conference facilities at Grocers' Hall situated in Prince's Street, next to the Bank of England.
Hall.
The earliest known Grocers' Hall was in Poultry, London, then known as Conningshop-lane on account of the three conies or rabbits hanging over a poulterer's stall in the lane. It was built in 1428 on land once owned by Lord Fitzwalter and let out "for dinners, funerals, county feasts and weddings." The roof and woodwork of the hall were destroyed in the 1666 Great Fire and afterwards a new roof was erected on the old walls while Sir John Cutler, 1st Baronet paid for a new parlour and dining room. The hall was again renovated in 1681 by the future Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Moore. A new hall was built on the same site between 1798 and 1802 when part of the garden was sold to the Bank of England for the expansion of nearby Prince's Street. However, frequent and extensive repairs were required due to defective foundations in the building, which was replaced by a fourth hall, completed in 1893 on Prince's Street. The hall survived the Blitz with only minor damage to its north wing, but was almost completely destroyed by a fire in 1965, apparently caused by a lightbulb left on in the grand staircase beneath an oak lintel which smouldered and eventually caught fire. A fifth and final hall was constructed nearby in 1970, also on Prince's Street, which remains the Grocers' home today.
The present Master Grocer for 2019-20 is Rupert Uloth and the Company's Clerk is Brigadier Greville Bibby.
Affiliations.
The Company is responsible for the maintenance of Oundle School at Oundle, Northamptonshire, which uses the Grocers' crest of a camel as its school badge, and of the Elms School in Colwall, Herefordshire. Reed's School's Annual Foundation Appeal has been held at Grocers’ Hall for over fifty years. Additionally, in 1876 the Company founded the Grocers' Company School, in Hackney, east of the City of London, for the education of "sons of the middle classes". This was transferred into London County Council's control after that authority's formation in 1889 and changed its name to Hackney Downs School; it closed in 1995. The school depicted as its school badge a camel, for the Lower School, and a shield with cloves and the motto of the Grocers' Company for the Upper School; the "Camel and Cloves" are remembered to this day by old boys of the school through the Clove Club for former pupils. The Grocers' Company now maintains close links with and is the principal sponsor of Hackney's Mossbourne Academy, renowned for its excellent educational standards. The church of St Paul, Homerton in Hackney was founded by the Company in 1890, but became redundant in 1981. The building still displays the Company's coat of arms.
The Company is also affiliated to HMS "Queen Elizabeth", the first of the Royal Navy's new Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, and with the Coldstream Guards, the British Army's oldest regular regiment.
Eglinton Village in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland, was established by the Grocers' Guild in 1619, under the name of Muff; the local Castle Credit Union adopted the use of the Company's crest, as has Eglinton Primary School.
The church of St Mary the Virgin at Northill in Bedfordshire shows the Grocers' coat of arms on a stained glass window by John Oliver. The company commissioned the window in 1664.


George Hay Dawkins-Pennant

George Hay Dawkins-Pennant (1764–1840), of Penrhyn Castle, Caernarvonshire and 56 Portland Place, Middlesex, was an English politician. He was the second son of Henry Dawkins and his original name was George Hay Dawkins; the surname Pennant was added when he inherited the estate of Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn, who died in 1808.
Life.
Dawkins-Pennant was a Member of Parliament (MP) for Newark 19 May 1814 to 1818; and for New Romney 1820 to 1830.
Dawkins-Pennant inherited four large sugar estates in Clarendon Parish, Jamaica, and at the time of emancipation in the 1830s, the British government compensated him for over 650 slaves in his possession.
Family.
Dawkins-Pennant married in 1807 Sophia Mary Maude, daughter of Cornwallis Maude, 1st Viscount Hawarden, and in 1814 Elizabeth, daughter of William Henry Bouverie His eldest daughter Juliana Isabella Mary Dawkins-Pennant married Colonel Edward Gordon Douglas August 1833, from 1841 Edward Douglas-Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn of the second creation.


Sir John Fowell, 2nd Baronet

Sir John Fowell, 2nd Baronet (14 August 1623 – 8 January 1677) of Fowelscombe in the parish of Ugborough in Devon, was thrice elected a Member of Parliament for Ashburton in Devon, between 1659 and 1677. He fought in the Parliamentary army during the Civil War and following the Restoration of the Monarchy was appointed in 1666 by King Charles II Vice-Admiral of Devon.
Origins.
Fowell was the eldest son and heir of Sir Edmund Fowell, 1st Baronet (1593-1674), of Fowelscombe, by his wife Margaret Poulett, a daughter of Sir Anthony Poulett (1562–1600) ("alias" Pawlett, etc.), of Hinton St George in Somerset, Governor of Jersey and Captain of the Guard to Queen Elizabeth I and a sister of John Poulett, 1st Baron Poulett (1585–1649).
Career.
He was a colonel in the Regiment of Foot in the Parliamentary army during the Civil War and was governor of Totnes.
In 1659 he was elected Member of Parliament for Ashburton, Devon, in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Ashburton in 1660 for the Convention Parliament and was re-elected MP for Ashburton in 1661 for the Cavalier Parliament. He held the seat until his death in 1677 at the age of 53. In 1666 he became Vice-Admiral of Devon and in 1674 on the death of his father he inherited the baronetcy.
Marriage and children.
Fowell married Elizabeth Chichester (d.1678), a daughter of Sir John Chichester (1598-1669) of Hall in the parish of Bishop's Tawton in Devon, Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel in Cornwall in 1624. By his wife he had children including:


Amaryllis Collymore

Amaryllis Collymore (1745–1828) was an Afro-Barbadian slave who gained her freedom from her relationship with a white man. The couple had eleven children and she successfully ran a plantation allowing her to acquire numerous other properties, to become the wealthiest free black woman in the colony at the time of her death.
Life.
Amaryllis Renn Phillips was born into slavery in 1745 on Barbados, during British colonial rule where records indicate she was a mulatto. She was purchased by Robert Collymore in 1780, from Rebecca Phillips, a free coloured hotelier, along with her five mulatto children, four of whom were Robert's children. In 1784, Robert arranged their manumission by selling her and the children to a friend, James Scuffield. Selling a slave to a trusted third-party to avoid high manumission fees was a common practice during the period in Barbados.
Robert acquired "Lightfoots", a 42-acre sugar plantation with its 44 slaves, to provide for her and the children. Collymore expanded the estate to over a hundred acres and was able to buy seven properties throughout Bridgetown, on Canary Street, High Street and James Street, which she rented out. She also ran a successful shop. By 1805, Collymore owned another property, on Roebuck Street, which she sold for £800. She and her daughter, Katherine Anne Collymore, were the recipients of a bequest from Renn Phillips in his 1809 will.
In 1824, when Robert died, he bequeathed she and her eleven children, full title to "Lightfoots" and the slaves working on the plantation. Among her children, besides Katherine were Frances Lasley, Margaret Jane, and Robert (baptized 18 February 1792), Thomazin Ashby (baptized 6 June 1795), Elizabeth Clarke (baptized 13 June 1798), Samuel Francis Collymore, Jackson Brown Collymore and Renn Phillips Collymore, who would become the great-great grandfather of Frank Collymore. Collymore's will, dated 1826 (or 1829 but which was probably the date the estate was probated), left her estate, worth over £10,000 to relatives. She devised a home in Bridgetown and a plantation known as Haggat Hall, and 67 slaves, as well as silver and personal property. At the time of her death she was "the richest free woman of color in pre-emancipation Barbados".
Death and legacy.
Collymore died on 16 December 1828 and was buried in the St. Mary's Churchyard in Bridgetown. The house that Collymore and her children occupied is now the Morningside Building, and houses the Arts Department of the Barbados Community College.


Humphrey Edwards

Humphrey Edwards (1582–1658) was one of the regicides of King Charles I of England.
He joined the parliamentarian side in the English Civil War, finding loyalty to Charles I pecuniarily unprofitable; he was M.P. for Shropshire; signed Charles I's death-warrant, 1649; thrust himself into the chief ushership of the exchequer, 1650; and was commissioner of South Wales, 1651.
Biography.
Edwards was the younger son of Thomas Edwards of Shrewsbury, by Ann, widow of Stephen Ducket, and daughter of Humphrey Baskerville, alderman of London. He was admitted to Shrewsbury School in 1615, and to Gray's Inn in 1633, but he was not called to the bar.
Edwards is represented as "having alwaies been a half-faced cavalier, changing his party for his profit". On 17 February 1637 he was appointed a gentleman pensioner to King Charles I of England. In that capacity he was one of the armed men who accompanied Charles I to the House of Commons to arrest the 5 "birds" on 4 January 1642, and was disappointed at not obtaining a reward for attending the king on that expedition. So Edwards took sides with Parliament and was elected member as a Knight of the Shire for Shropshire (probably in the place of Sir Richard Lee (a royalist) who was "disabled to sit"). He became a prominent member of the Independent party, and was not excluded in Pride's Purge. He was nominated one of the commissioners of the high court of justice attended each day of the trial of Charles I, and signed the death-warrant.
After the execution he remained an active member of Parliament, involving himself in the sale of church and crown estates. He hankered after the chief ushership of the exchequer, then held by Clement Walker, and, after vainly soliciting the committee of sequestrations to sequester Walker during his incarceration in the Tower of London, persuaded the committee of revenue to confer the office on him "until the parliament declare their pleasure therein", by an order dated 1 February 1650. On the following 21 March, though the order had not been ratified by parliament, he took forcible possession of Walker's official residence. In 1651 he was appointed to the high court of justice to investigate insurrections in Wales in June 1651. This was his last political appointment and he did not sit in Parliament or have a position in government during the Protectorate. Edwards died in 1658, and was buried at Richmond on 2 August.
Family.
Edwards married Hester (died in or before 1658 preceding Edwards), daughter of Roger Pope of Shropshire, in 1623.
Edwards died intestate, his property was granted to his sister, Lucy, Lady Ottley, but for his part in the regicide, although he died before the Restoration he was excepted out of the bill of pardon and oblivion and so his property (now in the possession of Lady Ottley) was confiscated by the crown.


Holowczyn

Holowczyn or Holovchin or Golovchin is a village in the Byalynichy Raion in the Mogilev Region in Belarus.
The total population is 511 inhabitants. It is located 18 kilometers northeast of Belynichi and 26 kilometers from Mogilev.
History.
In July 1708, the Battle of Holowczyn was fought between the Russian forces, and the Swedish army, led by Charles XII of Sweden.
Around 70 Jews used to live in the village before World War II. In October 1941, around 19 Jewish men were shot in a mass execution perpetrated by an Einsatzgruppen. The other Jews were sent to another ghetto, probably in Belynichi.


Henry Waite Plummer

Henry Waite Plummer (1771-1847) was a planter and slave-owner in Jamaica. He was elected to the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1820.


Thusnelda

Thusnelda ( 10 BC – unknown) was a Germanic Cheruscan noblewoman who was captured by the Roman general Germanicus during his invasion of Germania. She was the wife of Arminius. Tacitus and Strabo cite her capture as evidence of both the firmness and restraint of Roman arms.
Biography.
Thusnelda was the daughter of the pro-Roman Cheruscan prince Segestes. In 9 AD, Arminius, Thusnelda's future husband, who had been given by his father to the Romans as a child and raised as a Roman military commander serving under Publius Quinctilius Varus, switched sides to the Germans, and led a coalition of Germanic tribes that defeated the legions of Varus at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. The conflict between the Roman Empire and the Germanic tribes continued after the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, and Arminius abducted and impregnated Thusnelda circa 14 AD, likely as a result of a dispute with her pro-Roman father.
In May 15 AD, Thusnelda was captured by Germanicus, who commanded the invasion of Germania. She was pregnant and staying with her father, who had seized her from Arminius at some point. It was Segestes who delivered her to Germanicus, after the latter saved the former by driving off Arminius' forces, who had besieged Segestes. Arminius grieved his loss of Thusnelda deeply and did not marry again. According to Tacitus, Arminius was "driven to frenzy" by the loss of his wife.
During her captivity, Thusnelda gave birth to her and Arminius' only child, Thumelicus. At the Battle of the Weser River, Arminius engaged in a famous disputation with his brother Flavus, who was still serving in the Roman army. Flavus informed Arminius that Thusnelda was being well-treated — as, he claimed, was typical of Rome. On May 26, 17 AD, Thusnelda and her son Thumelicus were displayed as prized trophies of the triumph granted to Germanicus. During the triumphal parade, her father was forced to watch from the stands. Contemporary historians evince discomfort with her display as evidence of Roman victory in Germania, as Arminius had resisted capture.
Thusnelda's son, Thumelicus, was trained at the gladiator school in Ravenna and is believed to have died in a gladiator show at a young age. Tacitus wrote that he would report on Thumelicus' fate "at the proper time" — i.e., when he discussed the year in question in his chronicle. The main gap in the text of the Annals is for 30 and 31 AD, so it could be that Thumelicus died then, aged 15 or 16.
Details of Thusnelda's life after the triumph of 17 AD and her date of death are unknown.
In popular culture.
In the 2020 German Netflix series "Barbarians", Thusnelda is played by French-German actress Jeanne Goursaud.


William Fairfax (soldier)

Sir William Fairfax (1609–1644), was an officer in the Parliamentary army during the English Civil War.
Biography.
Fairfax was the second son of Sir Philip Fairfax of Steeton and Frances Sheffield.
Fairfax was knighted by Charles I at Whitehall on 1 June 1630. In 1636, he succeeded to the family estates at Steeton and Newton Kyme. In 1642, he took the side of the parliament, and signed the Yorkshire petition of 12 May 1642, beseeching the king to trust to parliament and dismiss his guards. He was given the command of a regiment in the army of Essex, which was stationed on the left wing at the Battle of Edgehill and ran away. Fairfax then joined his uncle, Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, in Yorkshire, and took part in the capture of Leeds (23 January 1643) and Wakefield (21 May 1643).
In a letter to his wife he says of himself and his cousin, Sir Thomas Fairfax: "For Thomas's part and mine we rest neither night nor day nor will willingly till we have done God some good service against His and our enemies". In the victory at Nantwich (25 January 1644) Sir William Fairfax commanded a wing of the horse, and at Marston Moor headed a brigade of foot on the right of the parliamentary line. In August 1644 he was despatched into Lancashire with two thousand Yorkshire horse, and took part in the siege of Liverpool. In the Relief of Montgomery Castle on 18 September 1644 he was mortally wounded, and died the following day. John Vicars, who gives a detailed account of the death of Fairfax, states that he had fifteen wounds, and adds that his widow said "that she grieved not that he died in this cause, but that he died so soon to do no more for it".
Family.
In 1629 William Fairfax married Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Chaloner of Guisborough in Cleveland, and sister of James and Thomas Chaloner, the regicides. Parliament voted £1,500 for the widow and children, and on 7 September 1655 the council of state voted them £2,000 more in lieu of arrears of pay due to their father. He was the father of General Thomas Fairfax 1633-1712, William 1630-73 (whose son was Robert Fairfax), Catherine b1634 and Isabella Fairfax (1635-1691) who married Nathaniel Bladen.


Carlos Abdala

Carlos Abdala (1930-1976) was a Uruguayan politician and diplomat.
He served as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs. Later he was appointed Ambassador in Paraguay, a country where he was mistakingly assassinated by a Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood terrorists.
His son Pablo is currently a national representative.


Il Veneto Decida

Il Veneto Decida (transl. "Let Veneto Decide") was a cross-party committee campaigning for a referendum on the independence of Veneto from Italy.
The committee was first launched in Venice on 25 July 2013, and was officially presented during a convention in Vedelago on 4 September. The committee comprises or is supported by several Venetist parties, associations and individuals, notably including:
In March 2014 the committee was almost completely supplanted by the birth of United for Independent Veneto, composed of Independent Venetians (a split of Venetian Independence), Veneto State, Liga Veneta Repubblica and Popular Future. The coalition was later transformed into Independence We Veneto.


Afro-Turks

Afro-Turks (in Turkish: Zenci) are people of Zanj (Bantu) descent in Turkey. Like the Afro-Abkhazians, they trace their origin to the Ottoman slave trade.
History.
Beginning several centuries ago, a number of Africans, usually via Zanzibar as Zanj and from places such as Niger, Arabia, Libya, Kenya and Sudan, came to the Ottoman Empire settled by the Dalaman, Menderes and Gediz valleys, Manavgat and Çukurova. African quarters of 19th-century İzmir, including Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik and Ballıkuyu, are mentioned in contemporary records.
Some came from Crete following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. They settled on the Aegean coast, mainly around İzmir. Africans in Ayvalık declare that their ancestors from Crete spoke Greek when they came to Turkey and learned Turkish later. Afro-Turks living in İzmir celebrated the traditional spring festival "Dana Bayramı" ("Calf Festival") until the 1960s. "Dana Bayramı" has currently been revived among the younger generation of Afro-Turks.
The Ottoman Army counted thousands of black African soldiers in its ranks. The army sent to the Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 included 24,000 men from Africa. One of the first black pilots in history, Ahmet Ali Çelikten, was an Ottoman warpilot during World War I.
Today.
Areas with significant populations of Afro-Turks are in Turkey's Aegean Region, especially İzmir, Aydın and Muğla provinces. People of African ancestry also live in some villages and municipalities of Antalya and Adana provinces. Some of the descendants of the African settlers remain, mixed with the rest of the population in these areas and many migrated to larger cities. Migration and assimilation make it difficult to estimate the number of Afro-Turks.
Notable Afro-Turks.
Arts
Sports
Literature
Politics
Military


Society for the Extinction of the Slave Trade and for the Civilization of Africa

The Society for the Extinction of the Slave Trade and for the Civilization of Africa was an organisation set up in London in June 1839 to oppose the slave trade. Fowell Buxton was the principal person behind its establishment. Slavery had been abolished in 1833 throughout the British Empire.
Objects.
The objects of the society were:


Statue of Robert Baden-Powell, Poole

A statue of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of Scouting, is installed on the Quay in Poole harbour, Dorset on the south coast of England. The statue, erected in 2008, is a life-size bronze of Robert Baden-Powell by sculptor David Annand. It portrays Baden-Powell in his scout uniform, seated on a log as if for a campfire, with a pair of log seats either side which "allow easy access for photo opportunities".
History.
The memorial was unveiled on 13 August 2008, facing Brownsea Island. The island was the site of Baden-Powell's first camp in 1907 which is seen as the start of the Scout and Guide movement.
Robert Baden-Powell has been criticised over alleged events during his army career and his comments of support concerning Adolf Hitler and
Mein Kampf. His biographer, Tim Jeal, said that any admiration was limited to his and Hitler's shared ideas for boys' education and liking Mein Kampf's references to character training. In June 2020, the memorial appeared on a list of targets by anti racism protesters. Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council planned to move it into storage pending discussion about its future, but council workers failed to remove the statue on 11 June 2020 as planned because the foundations were deeper than they had realised. A group of local people then surrounded the statue to prevent its removal and protect it from both council workers and activists. The council announced that it would arrange 24 hour security for the statue until either the statue had been removed or the threat had passed. On 12 June the statue was boarded up by the council for its protection.
In response to the controversy, Bear Grylls, current Chief Scout, and successor to Baden-Powell, said, "As Scouts, we most certainly do not celebrate Baden-Powell for his failings. We see them and we acknowledge them. ... But we also recognise that Baden-Powell is part of our history, and history is nothing if we do not learn from it. ... it's right that we take time to listen, to educate ourselves, and reflect on our movement’s history. We need the humility to recognise there are times when the views and actions from our Scouting’s past do not always match the values we live by today. We must learn, adapt, and improve. ... Baden-Powell may have taken the first step in creating Scouting, but the journey continues today without him. We know where we came from but we are not going back." Grylls also said that he hoped Scouting statues remain in place "to remind us all of one thing - the huge positive influence that Scouting continues to bring to so many young people worldwide."


Secretary of State (Jacobite)

The Secretary of State was one of the senior ministers of the Jacobite court in exile following the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
In common with Jacobite attempts to create a shadow court in exile that matched of that in London, the role was based on the British position of Secretary of State. In London the role had been split into two Northern Secretary and Southern Secretary. At the Jacobite court in exile, first in Paris and then in Rome, the claimants alternated between having one or two Secretaries of State. From 1689 to 1759 a series of unsuccessful attempts were made to invade Britain which would have restored the Secretaries effective power.


War of the Thuringian Succession

The War of the Thuringian Succession (German: "thüringisch-hessischer Erbfolgekrieg") (1247–1264) was a military conflict over a successor to the last Landgrave of Thuringia for control of the state of Thuringia (now in modern-day Germany).
Cause of the conflict.
With the death of the childless Landgrave Henry Raspe in 1247, the Ludowingian line of Thuringian landgraves became extinct in the male line. His property included not only large parts of Thuringia, but also the Countship of Hesse had come into Ludowingian possession through the female line. In 1122, before his acquisition of the title of Landgrave, Count Louis I of Thuringia had married Hedwig of Gudensberg, the female heir of the Hessian comital family of the Gisonen. The Gisonen, whose lands were initially mainly in the upper Lahn area, had previously come into the significant inheritance of Count Werner in Lower Hesse. Then, through the marriage of Giso IV with Kunigunde of Bilstein, they had also acquired widespread property and vogtship rights from the Counts of Bilstein.
Claims on the Ludowingians' inheritance were made by Henry Raspe's niece and his nephew. Sophie of Thuringia, married to Henry II, Duke of Brabant and Lothier, was the daughter of Henry Raspe's brother Louis IV and she claimed the territories on behalf of her son Henry. (Sophie's sister Gertrude was abbess of the imperial convent of Altenberg in Wetzlar and thus excluded from the succession.) Henry III, Margrave of Meissen, was the son of Henry Raspe's older sister Jutta. Another competitor was the Archbishop of Mainz, who could claim Hesse was a fiefdom of the Archbishopric and now, after the extinction of the Ludowingians, demanded its return.
Results of the war.
The war lasted over 17 years. Sophie did not succeed in winning the overall Ludowinger inheritance for her son Henry, but the war secured his Hessian possessions. This created the Landgraviate of Hesse. The Margrave of Meissen acquired Thuringia and also the title of Landgrave of Thuringia.
The importance of the dispute and its outcome lies in that an increasingly strong territorial principality of Hesse emerged and that, at the same time, the goal of the Ludowingians of building a strong territorial base in the heart of Germany through the combination of Hesse and Thuringia, came to an end. The Wettiners of the Margraviate of Meissen did subsequently achieve this goal. With the acquisition of the Electorate of Saxony in 1423, they gained a centre of power on the Elbe.


John Alford (Parliamentarian)

John Alford (c. 1590 – 5 January 1649) was an English landowner and politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1626 and 1648. He supported the Parliamentarian side in the English Civil War.
Early life.
Alford was the son of Edward Alford of Offington and his wife Judith Downing, daughter of Sir Edward Downing. He matriculated at St John's College, Oxford, on 13 February 1607 aged 16.
Political career.
In 1626 Alford was elected Member of Parliament for New Shoreham and in 1628 was elected MP for Arundel until 1629 when King Charles decided to rule without parliament for eleven years. The manors of Hamsey and Offington both came into his possession on the death of his father in 1632.
In April 1640, Alford was re-elected MP for New Shoreham in the Short Parliament and again in November 1640 for the Long Parliament and held the seat until 1648 when he was excluded in Pride's Purge.
Death.
Alford died in 1649 and was buried at Broadwater, West Sussex where a monument in the South Transept Chapel was erected to his memory.
"Here lyeth the body of the truly honourable and religious John Alford of Offington, Esquire, who having finished his career, exchanged mortality for glory, Jan. 5, 1648. AEt. 59.
"He left issue ye noble Lady Jane Eversfield, and the virtuous gentele woman Mrs. Elizabeth Alford."
Alford married Frances Bishopp, daughter of Sir Thomas Bishopp, 1st Baronet, of Parham, Sussex, M.P., and had two daughters Elizabeth, born 1620, who married Mr. Bickerstaff, and was Jane, who married Sir Thomas Eversfield. His widow outlived him for eleven years.
References.


Marie-Louise Charles

Marie-Louise Charles (1765, Petit-Bourg – "after" 1807) was a French businessperson.
Marie-Louise Charles was born as a slave in Guadeloupe. In 1784, she was freed and settled in Bordeaux in France, where she bought a house for the sum of 4000 "livres", a colossal sum for a newly freed slave. Through financial deals and the rental of her property in Bordeaux she acquired a fortune and was able to live a life of luxury. In 1790, she married the "affranchi" François Hardy. Her life has been the subject of research and is considered to be remarkable and unusual for a former slave in the 18th century. While there was a large enclave of people of African descent and former slaves in Bordeaux, only a minority of them became rich, and most of them were male. She is last noted in 1807, when she stated her profession as that of a seamstress and was apparently no longer wealthy.


Racism in Portugal

An anti-discrimination law was published on 28 August 1999. It prohibits discriminatory practices based on race, skin colour, nationality and ethnic origin. According to the Portuguese Constitution, further discriminatory practices based on sex, race, language, origin territory, religion, political and ideological convictions, instruction level, economic situation, social condition or sexual orientation are also prohibited.
History.
The Muslim Moors, mainly Arab and Berber people in origin, Jews and the Christian Mozarabs, were expelled out of the continent, during the Reconquista and the expansion of the newly founded Kingdom of Portugal in the 12th and 13th centuries, after the conquest of the southern lands, including Lisbon, the Alentejo, and the Algarve.
Like the other countries of the Mediterranean, Portugal has witnessed a new phenomenon since the 1974 Carnation Revolution and the end of the Portuguese overseas empire: beyond the condition of country of emigration, it became at the same time a country of immigration. There was a very large flow of African immigrants, particularly coming from the former Portuguese colonies in Africa (collectively known as PALOP countries).
Immigration to Portugal before 1980 usually involved different groups (mainly Europeans and South Americans, in particular Brazilian immigrants), and a different socio-economic integration, than later immigrants.
The 1980s also saw racist attacks against certain immigrants by skinheads and the far-right National Action Movement, a fringe movement.
Since the 1990s, along with a boom in construction, several new waves of Brazilians, Romanians, and Moldovans have immigrated to Portugal. A number of British and Spanish people have also immigrated to Portugal, with the British community being mostly composed of retired pensioners and the Spaniards composed of professionals (medical doctors, business managers, businesspersons, nurses, etc.). Racism is usually related with ethnicity rather than nationality, with black people being the most common target, after Ciganos. The Ciganos were the object of fierce discrimination and persecution. The number of Ciganos in Portugal is about 40,000 to 50,000 spread all over the country. The majority of the Ciganos concentrate themselves in urban centers, where from the late 1990s to the 2000s, major public housing ("bairros sociais") policies were targeted at them in order to promote social integration. However, this population is still characterised by very low levels of educational qualification, high unemployment, and crime rates. The Ciganos are the ethnic group that the Portuguese most reject and discriminate against, and are also targets for discriminatory practices from the State administration, namely at a local level, finding persistent difficulties in the access to job placement, housing and social services, as well as in the relation to police forces. There are also reports on discrimination of Ciganos by owners of small shops in many parts of the country, including businesses run by other ethnic minorities, such as the Chinese. There has also been incidents of minor discrimination towards Arabs due to the history of the country.
Laws.
Law number 115 of 3 August 1999 introduced the legal recognition of immigrant associations as well as the technical and financial State support for the development of their activities. The High Commissioner gives this recognition for Immigrants and Ethnic Minorities to those associations that wish to be recognised as such, as long as they fulfil the appropriate conditions foreseen in the Law. These recognised associations may have the following rights: to participate in the definition of the immigrants policies; to participate in the legislative processes concerning immigration; to participate in the consultative bodies, in the terms defined by the law; to benefit from the right to public speech on the radio and television. Since the introduction of the law, already 25 immigrant associations have been legally recognised. The associations can be of national, regional or local scope, according to the number of members each association claims to have: that is, the number of associated members will determine if an association can be considered as being of local, regional or national range. An anti-discrimination Law was published on 28 August 1999. It prohibits discriminatory practices based on 'race', colour, nationality and ethnic origin. Article I states that the objective of this law is to prevent and prohibit racial discrimination in all its forms and sanction all acts that violate a person's basic rights or impede the exercise of economic, social or cultural rights for reasons such as nationality, colour, 'race' or ethnic origin. This Law also provides for an Advisory Committee for Equality and Against Racial Discrimination. Presided by the High Commissioner for Immigrants and Ethnic Minorities, the Committee is responsible for promoting studies on equality and racial discrimination, supervising enforcement of the law, and making legislative proposals considered suitable for the prevention of all forms of discrimination. The law number 20, of 6 July 1996, introduced the possibility for immigrants, anti-racist and human rights associations to assist in a legal action against discrimination, together with the victim and the Prosecution, i.e. to formulate an accusation and to introduce evidence into the penal process
Racism and the media.
Portugal, as a new country of immigration since after the Carnation Revolution of 1974, has been witnessing the growing importance of all the issues related to the phenomena of racism and xenophobia. A typical feature is the positive complicity expressed and the accepted similarities between Africans and Portuguese as well as the absence of assumed and declared racist attitudes. Existing research has also made visible the role played by the mass media in the reproduction of discourses of antiracism, particularly when the press is dominated by some specific thematization, such is the case regarding the European Year Against Racism. In this case, the issue of racism even deserved being commented by specialists in the different analysed newspapers.
Notable incidents of racism.
In an incident on February 5, 2015, eighteen police officers (PSP) tortured and beat a group of youths of African descent. The police officers originally lied about what had occurred, but a two-year investigation by the National Counterterrorism Unit (UNCT) and Public Ministry (MP) uncovered what had occurred. The MP concluded that the incident began with an arbitrary and violent arrest of a young man Bruno Lopes in a suburb of Lisbon, Amadora. Despite not resisting arrest, he was subject to racial slurs, and was beaten violently. As a result, 6 individuals (including mediators of youth associations who act as informal liaisons between members of the community and police) went to inquire about the arrest status of Bruno Lopes. Unprovoked, the MP found that police brutally attacked the 6 individuals, and used a number of racial slurs. The attack included physical beatings as well as the individuals being shot with rubber bullets. One police officer was reported to have said, "They're all going to die, you f*cking blacks." The 6 individuals were then detained for two days, during which beatings and torture continued. Much of the torture was explicitly motivated by racial hatred. One officer was reported to have said "You do not know how I hate your race, I want to exterminate you all from this land, you have to deport yourself, and if I told you, you would all be sterilized." Another said, "You're going to disappear, you, your race and your shitty neighborhood!" The two days of beatings reportedly left blood all over the floor, which investigators reported observing as members of the police station attempted to clean up the floor "stained red". Originally the internal inspection authority of the police had found no evidence of mistreatment, but the investigation by UNCT and MP demonstrated that this was categorically untrue.
As of September 7, 2017, it does not appear that any of the 18 officers have faced criminal justice for their actions. 4 of the 18 officers continue to work in the same police station. Others have left the station but it does not appear to be as a result of any penalty for their actions.
March 2020 A Portuguese court found three border force officers guilty of fatally beating a Ukrainian man detained at Lisbon Airport, in a case that has led the government to break up the country’s immigration service (SEF). Ihor Homenyuk, 42, died two days after being held on arrival. He slowly suffocated after being left alone, face down on the floor with several broken ribs, his hands cuffed behind his back and legs taped together, said a doctor who carried out the autopsy.
Racism and violent crime rise.
Crime was a major source of discontent, and sentiment that Portugal was becoming increasingly unsafe since the country turned a destination to several thousand emigrants after 1990, led to the dismissal of Internal Administration Minister Fernando Gomes in the early 2000s on the heels of gang violence that made headlines. Along with the gang crime wave, which involved large groups of youths, many of them descendants of immigrants from the former Portuguese colonies who live in several neighbourhoods around Lisbon, wreaking havoc on commuter train lines and robbing gasoline (petrol) stations, the country was also shocked by attacks on nightclubs, and a rise of violent crime related with local and international organized crime which includes a number of gangs particularly active in Greater Lisbon and Greater Porto areas. A large proportion of convicts by violent crime are foreigners and many people tend easily to blame immigrants or ethnic minorities for that type of crime.


David Cunningham of Auchenharvie

David Cunningham of Auchenharvie (d. 1659) was the absentee owner of Auchenharvie Castle and a courtier in London. A large number of his letters are preserved in the National Records of Scotland.
Life at court.
David Cunningham was a member of the circle of Sir Adam Newton, who lived at Charlton House, Kent. Newton, a fellow Scot, had been the tutor of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. After Prince Henry's death in 1612, Newton and Cunningham continued to be administrators and collectors for the Welsh and duchy incomes which funded Prince Charles' household. This income passed to Prince Charles, and continued as a separate income stream when he became king.
Cunningham wrote letters to his cousin David Cunningham of Robertland, who was grandson of the royal master of work David Cunningham of Robertland. The letters advise his younger cousin on aspects of their estate business and interests. He also discusses taking Newton's son Sir Henry Newton on an educational trip to France. On the death of Adam Newton in 1629 Cunningham and Peter Newton were charged as his executors to rebuild St Luke's Church at Charlton. The Cunningham arms can still be seen carved on the pulpit.
Cunningham continued to administer revenue from Wales and duchy lands for Charles I as king: in 1633 he paid Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Berkshire £100 for keeping horses for Charles. Some of his accounts of this income survive in the National Archives and at Ayrshire Archives. They include payments for the lodgings of the painter Daniël Mijtens and the armourer Arnold Rotsipen, minor improvements in the park at Ampthill, and old wardrobe debts from the funeral of King James.
Nicholas Stone the master mason who worked with Inigo Jones recorded David Cunningham to be his "great good friend" and "very noble friend" when he paid for the monument of Sir Thomas Puckering, for Adam Newton's brother-in-law, at St. Mary's Warwick and for Adam Newton's own tomb at St. Luke's Charlton. Cunningham was involved in the business affairs of Newton's daughters, Jane Enyon and Elizabeth Peyto, whose husband Edward Peyto built at Chesterton, Warwickshire.
One of Cunningham's letters describes with enthusiasm the formation of a secret brotherhood of courtiers, comprising the Scottish "cubicular" or bedchamber servants. In June 1629 he hurt himself badly playing football. Around the same time he received a royal command for him to supervise building work at Berkhamsted Place in 1629. His account for this survives, counter-signed by Thomas Trevor, surveyor of works at Windsor Castle. The improvements at Berkhamsted were for the convenience of Jane Murray, the widow of Secretary Murray, and her young family which included Anne, Lady Halkett and Elizabeth Murray who married Adam Newton's heir, Sir Henry Newton.
Cunningham bought clothes in London for his cousin Sir David Cunningham of Robertland to wear in Edinburgh during the coronation visit of King Charles in 1633. The designs followed the colours and styles of clothes made by the king's tailor Patrick Black. On 1 May 1633, Cunningham advised:"Sir, you needed not in your letter to instruct me to be lavish of your purse for I am apt enough to transgress that way, yet I will put you to as little charge as I can: but your honour and reputation being engaged at such an extraordinary time as this, (the like whereof I hope shall not be seen in my days) we must not stand too much on saving."
Several warrants authorizing Sir David to pay accounts for the education of the royal children survive. Cunningham was directly involved in the education of Scottish aristocrats, including Hugh Montogmerie, the future Earl of Eglinton, and his brothers who came to him to see London in November 1634 after a sojourn in Paris. In November 1635 he hoped to help Henry Montgomerie be made a gentleman of Prince's bedchamber.
Cunningham urged his cousin to marry Elizabeth Heriot, the daughter of the cloth merchant and royal financier Robert Jousie and widow of a goldsmith James Heriot. He wrote in 1635 that "she is yet a widow but not like to continue, being much importuned with sundry suitors of quality".
Cunningham came with the court to Oxford in 1636 and described a masque in another letter to his cousin, the spectacle represented (if his description can be trusted) the reconciliation of Catholic and Protestant interests in the form of baked pies:an invention of pyes walking, the one half representing English Bishops, with my lord's grace of Canterbury conducting them, th'other half foreign Cardinalls, with the Pope leading them, and both came to the King at table, one on his right hand and t'other on his left and both were received and made friends.
Cunningham seems to have been involved in the building of a house in Lincoln's Inn Fields now called "Lindsey House", which he sold to Henry Murray (d. 1672), a son of Secretary Murray and a groom of the king's bedchamber, in 1641. The house was completed between 1539 and 1641, and has been associated with Inigo Jones and Nicolas Stone. The building with its pilasters stuccoed to look like stone fits the ideal of 17th-century building regulations in the city.
In 1639 Robert Johnstone LLD, a friend of George Heriot who had been Robert Jousie's executor, made Auchenharvie the overseer of his will and bequeathed him an Arabian gold coin. Cunningham and the other supervisor, Lord Johnstone were to employ £3,000 in good works in Scotland.
A survey of rentals in the Cunninghame district of Ayrshire circa 1640 listed him at £1553, among the largest landowners in the county.
In September 1651, after the Royalist defeat at the battle of Worcester, he was a prisoner in Chester Castle, with the Earl of Derby, the Duke of Lauderdale, and Mr Lane.
Cunningham died in 1659, and was buried at Charlton, in the church that he had helped to restore on 7 February. He made his will on 18 January. Records of a later dispute over his estate, state that he had died a debtor in the King's Bench prison. In his will, Cunningham specified debts owing to him that totalled some £30,000, and declared debts he owed of about £6,000. A creditor obtained administration of his estate in 1665, but this award was set aside by the Prerogative Court of Canterbury in 1695, when Sir James Cunningham, administrator of Sir David Cunningham of Robertland and his son, obtained administration.


William Collins (Roundhead)

William Collins was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1654 to 1659. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War.
Biography.
Collins was probably the son of John Collins of King's Norton, who was fined £10 for not taking knighthood on 4 March 1631. In the Civil War, Collins became a captain in the Parliamentary army. On 11 May 1644, he was added to the Committee for Worcestershire by the House of Commons. He became a sub-commissioner of the Grand Excise for Worcestershire on 25 February 1650. On 7 October 1651 the Committee for Compounding made an order that he be a commissioner for Worcestershire after a request on 1 October by Nicholas Lechmere that Capt Wm. Collins may be added to the Committee while Col. John James was not attending. On 14 March 1654 he was made sole sub-commissioner for Worcestershire.
In 1654, Collins was elected Member of Parliament for Worcester in the First Protectorate Parliament. He was an Assessment Commissioner for county and city of Worcester in 1656. In 1656 he was re-elected MP for Worcester in the Second Protectorate Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Worcester in 1659 for the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was Governor of Worcester on 9 July 1659 when the Council of State ordered him to assemble his troops in response to Sir George Booth's rising. On 4 January 1660 Capt. Collins wrote from Worcester College to the Army Commissioners "I have given order for the speedy drawing of my troop together for their march according to your directions, but their necessities for want of pay are very great, having been on hard duty for eight weeks, to preserve the peace of this country, which was much disturbed by highway robbers, being considerable parties, and supposed to be of the old enemy, they riding in the posture of soldiers ; for this time they have had no money but what I have borrowed, and lent them, besides three years arrears formerly due to them. I shall according to your orders, as soon as I possibly provide to march, give notice thereof to Col. Hacker."


Worshipful Company of Mercers

The Worshipful Company of Mercers is the premier Livery Company of the City of London and ranks first in the order of precedence of the Companies. It is the first of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies. Although of even older origin, the company was incorporated under a Royal Charter in 1394, the company's earliest extant Charter. The company's aim was to act as a trade association for general merchants, and especially for exporters of wool and importers of velvet, silk and other luxurious fabrics (mercers). By the 16th century many members of the company had lost any connection with the original trade. Today, the Company exists primarily as a charitable institution, supporting a variety of causes. The company's motto is "Honor Deo", Latin for "Honour to God".
Etymology.
The word "mercer" derives from the Latin "merx, mercis", "merchandise" from which root also derives the word "merchant". The words "mercero" and "mercier", still used in Spanish and French respectively, have meanings similar to "haberdasher", although the medieval mercers would not have recognised any relationship to that trade which was covered by the separate Worshipful Company of Haberdashers.
Mercer foundations.
In education, the company has administered St Paul's School since 1509 (and its prep school St Paul's Juniors), St Paul's Girls' School since 1904, two prep schools in London, The Hall School and Bute House, and retains close links with Collyer's College, Dauntsey's School, Abingdon School, Peter Symonds College and Gresham College, all founded by mercers. In recent times the company has founded a City Technology College (Thomas Telford School) and two City Academies (Walsall Academy and Sandwell Academy).
There was also a Mercers' School which was granted its first charter in 1447, and closed in 1959 when pupil numbers fell. The school was most recently based in Barnard's Inn in Holborn, now the home of Gresham College.
In 2011, the Mercers co-sponsored a new academy school, Hammersmith Academy, specialising in creative and digital media and information technology, located in Hammersmith.
The school was established in a new building, with support from the Mercers and the Worshipful Company of Information Technologists.
Mercers' Hall.
The Mercers' Company is based at Mercers' Hall, 6 Frederick's Place in the City of London. From the 14th century onwards the Company held its meetings in the Hospital of St. Thomas of Acon on Cheapside. Between 1517 and 1524 the Company built the Mercer's Chapel on this land, with the first Mercers' Hall above it, fronting Cheapside. The building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The second Hall, designed by Edward Jarman and John Oliver, opened in May 1676. The Hall was extensively refurbished during the period 1877 to 1881 (the porch of the 1676 building is now incorporated into the facade of Swanage Town Hall). The frontage was remodelled by George Barnes Williams and the interiors were redesigned by John Gregory Crace, the renowned Victorian designer. The Hall was destroyed by fire in 1941 during the Blitz. The third and present Mercers' Hall was opened in May 1958. The architect was E. Noel Clifton of Gunton and Gunton. The Hall incorporates fittings from the old Hall, including some 17th-century woodwork and Victorian stained glass. The Mercers' Company is the only City Livery Company to have its own private chapel.
Membership.
Children whose father or mother was a member of the Company at the time of their birth have an automatic right to become Mercers by 'patrimony'.
Most other members have a family connection to the company and obtain their Freedom by Redemption. Under this process applicants are recommended for membership after an interview and, if approved, they pay a sum of money called a 'fine'.
Other people can also become Members by Redemption. Membership is sometimes granted because the Company wishes to honour the individual. Notable Members who joined the company by Redemption are Thomas More and Winston Churchill.
One other route to membership is by apprenticeship, but this has not happened recently. In the early days this was a very usual route; an apprentice would be 'bound' to a Member for a term of about seven years but in exchange the member was required to teach the apprentice such that he was worthy of membership by the end of the term, when he became a 'Freeman', for he was no longer bound. Freemen of a Livery Company are also Freemen of the City of London, which used to carry certain privileges, such as the right to drive a flock of sheep without charge over London Bridge.
Coat of arms.
The origin of the "Mercers' Maiden", the heraldic emblem of the company, is not known. Unlike most of the City livery companies, the Mercers had no early grant of arms but the 1425 charter granted a common seal. A few impressions of the early seal survive showing a greatly simplified version of the present coat of arms. The fifteenth century Wardens' Accounts reveal that, even then, the Company required the device of the Maid's Head to be displayed on its property. In 1530 the Company stated to the College of Heralds that they had no arms but only a Maid's Head for their common seal and in 1568 the Heralds registered the seal as the company's arms.
In 1911 the College of Arms confirmed the arms and granted the company a crest and motto, 'Honor Deo' (Honour to God). The grant blazons the arms: "Gules, issuant from a bank of clouds a figure of the Virgin couped at the shoulders proper vested in a crimson robe adorned with gold the neck encircled by a jeweled necklace crined or and wreathed about the temples with a chaplet of roses alternately argent and of the first and crowned with a celestial crown the whole within a bordure of clouds also proper".
Current activities.
Every year the Mercers' Company publishes an annual review of their activities. The property portfolio includes 90 residential flats in Covent Garden. In an average year they might give away £7m, about one-sixth of the total charitable contributions for the 110 livery companies.
Mercers.
Among famous Mercers were:


William Beckford (politician)

William Beckford (baptised 19 December 1709 – 21 June 1770) was a well-known political figure in 18th-century London, who twice held the office of Lord Mayor of London (1762 and 1769). His vast wealth came largely from his plantations in Jamaica and the large numbers of enslaved Africans working for him. He was, and is, often referred to as Alderman Beckford to distinguish him from his son William Thomas Beckford, author and art collector, and from his nephew William Beckford of Somerley (1744-1799), author and planter. During his life, Beckford and his family owned 13 sugar plantations, over 22,000 acres of land, and about 3,000 enslaved Africans.
Early life.
In 1709, William was born in the colony of Jamaica, the son of Peter Beckford, Speaker of the House of Assembly there, and the grandson of Colonel Peter Beckford, sometime Governor of the colony. He was sent to England by his family in 1723 to be educated. He studied at Westminster School, and made his career in the City of London.
Between 1736 and 1744, William Beckford travelled back and forth between Jamaica and England, serving in the Jamaican militia, and as an elected representative of the island's Assembly.
Involvement in slavery.
Beckford's grandfather was Governor of Jamaica, and reputedly owned 20 Jamaican estates, 1200 slaves and left £1,500,000 in bank stock when he died in 1710. He left the vast majority of this wealth to his son Peter Beckford. When Peter Beckford (junior) died in 1735, the young William Beckford inherited his vast estate, as the sole surviving legitimate son.
William Beckford was one of 13 children, but inherited the sole interest in 13 sugar plantations in Jamaica and owned approximately 3,000 enslaved Africans because his older brother, another Peter Beckford, died in 1712. He also served in the Jamaican National Assembly before returning to England in 1744.
In 1760, slaves rose up in revolt on his estate at Esher, in Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica, and they joined Tacky's War, which embroiled the Colony of Jamaica in a series of rebellions throughout the decade.
Domestic life.
In 1744 Beckford bought an estate at Fonthill Gifford, near Salisbury, Wiltshire. He made substantial improvements to the property but it was largely destroyed by fire in 1755. "I have an odd fifty thousand pounds in a drawer: I will build it up again," Beckford promptly declared, and rebuilt it as Fonthill Splendens.
On 8 June 1756, aged 47, he married Maria Marsh, daughter of the Hon. George Hamilton. His only child by this marriage was William Thomas Beckford, born at Fonthill Splendens in 1760. Beckford also had eight children born out of wedlock who were left legacies in his will.
From 1751 until his death, his London residence was at 22 Soho Square, which became the centre of his political activities.
Political life.
He became an alderman in 1752, a Sheriff of London in 1756 and was then elected Lord Mayor of London first in 1762 and again in 1769. He was returned as Member of Parliament (MP) for the City of London in 1754. As a rich patron, he used his 'interest' in favour of William Pitt the Elder, sponsoring and encouraging his political rise, supporting the Whig cause in general and the West Indies sugar industry (from which his fortune came) in particular.
In September 1758 he wrote to Pitt advising him on the advisability of attacking the French colony of Martinique:
Although some laughed at his faulty Latin, his wealth, social position and power obliged people to respect him. He hosted sumptuous feasts, one of which cost £10,000. On one occasion six dukes, two marquises, twenty-three earls, four Viscounts, and fourteen barons from the House of Lords joined members of the House of Commons in a procession to honour him, followed by one of these banquets. He also drew some popular support due to his promotion of political liberalism, in opposition to the party of the 'King's Friends'.
In March 1770 following the release of John Wilkes, of whom Beckford had been an ardent supporter, Beckford decorated his house with a large banner, which according to Horace Walpole bore the word "Liberty" written in embroidered white letters. A few weeks later, on 23 May, Beckford publicly admonished George III. Breaking contemporary protocol he asked the King to dissolve Parliament and to remove his civil councillors, referring to "our happy constitution as it was established in the Glorious and Necessary Revolution". King George was reportedly more enraged by the breach of protocol than by the nature of the request, yet it attracted the support of the Common Councilmen of London who expressed their gratitude by erecting a monument in the Guildhall, London including a life-size statue of Beckford "(pictured)", surmounting a stone tablet on which the words Beckford had used to admonish the king are engraved in gold.
Legacy.
In 1929, the London County Council renamed a school in Broomsleigh Street, West Hampstead as Beckford Primary School. In 2020, as part of the Black Lives Matter movement, the London Borough of Camden announced they would rename the school. Possible new names include Beryl Gilroy, after the school's first black headteacher.


Richard Aldborough

Richard Aldborough (1607 – October 1648) of Ellenthorpe Hall, Aldborough, Yorkshire was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1625 and 1644 He supported the Royalist side in the English Civil War.
Aldborough was the son of Arthur Aldborough (1585 - after 1653) and his wife Elizabeth Holland, daughter of
Richard Holland of Denton, Lancashire. He was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge.
Aldborough was elected Member of Parliament for Aldborough in 1625 and 1626. In April 1640, he was elected to represent Aldborough in the Short Parliament and re-elected in November 1640 for the Long Parliament, but was disabled from sitting in 1643 for supporting the king. Although his father had the Parliamentarian army quartered on his estates in 1644 the family supported the King during the Civil War. Aldborough was treated as a delinquent and his estates at Humberton were sequestrated. Following his death his son William begged Parliament for the release of the estates in 1650.
He is thought to have died in exile in Rotterdam in 1648, predeceasing his father. He had married in 1627, Alice, the daughter of William Mallory of Studley, Yorkshire and had 4 sons. Following his death his son William begged Parliament for the release of the estates in 1650. Richard's father sold Aldborough manor and most of his other estates in 1653.


Prague Hotel

The Prague Hotel is located at 1402 South 13th Street on the southwest corner of South 13th and William Streets in the heart of the Little Bohemia neighborhood of Omaha, Nebraska. Designed by Joseph Guth and built in 1898, this building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.
History.
In 1869, Vaclav Stepanek built the first Czech dance hall where Prague Hotel now stands. Gottlieb Storz built the Prague Hotel in 1898, as a three-story brick building that provided Nebraska's Czech immigrants with familiarities in their new country. It opened on June 1, 1898. In addition to a 25-room hotel, it included a restaurant and a tavern. A sign in the tavern window proclaimed in Czech, ""Pražská Pivnice, Dámy Jsou Vítány", which translated to English meant "Prague Hotel, Ladies Are Invited"". The tavern closed in 1942. For more than forty years it had remained the only hotel catering to Bohemians between Chicago and the Pacific Coast.
In 1987 the building was rehabilitated and converted into apartments. Local architectural firm Prochaska & Associates won awards for their renovation work on the building.


Tzvi Hersh Mordechai Bonhardt

Tzvi Hersh Mordechai Bonhardt of Peshischa-Vurka (Yiddish: צבי הירש מרדכי באנהאַרד פון פשיסחה-ווארקא; Polish: Hersz Mordechy z Przysuchy; September 26, 1826 - December 7, 1866) was a 19th-century Polish Hasidic Rebbe and scholar who headed a Hasidic court in Przysucha.
Biography.
Tzvi Hersh Mordechai Bonhardt was born on September 26, 1826 in Przysucha, Poland. His father Avraham Moshe Bonhardt controversially succeeded his grandfather, Simcha Bunim of Peshischa as the Peshischa rebbe in 1827 and subsequently died the following year, leaving Tzvi Hersh Mordechai Bonhardt and his sister, Sarah Hadas Bonhardt without a father. He was thus raised by his mother Braindel Faiga Raphael's (the granddaughter of Yaakov Yitzchak Rabinowicz) and the Vurka Rebbe, Israel Yitzhak Kalish, whose daughter Tziporah he married. Israel Yitzhak Kalish, helped Tzvi Hersh Mordechai to establish his own Hasidic court in Przysucha under the jurisdiction of Vurka. Tzvi Hersh Mordechai was said to have been very much like his illustrious grandfather and was known for his rationalistic and individualistic approach to Hasidism that defined the Peshischa movement. He and his wife had nine children, the most notable of which Yitzhak Bonhardt (1857–1934) was the Rebbe of Zwoleń.


Moravian Indian Grants

Moravian Indian Grants were three tracts of land in Tuscarawas County, Ohio granted by the federal government in the eighteenth century to a group of Christian Indians. In the nineteenth century, these natives moved west, and the government sold the land to white people.
Background.
In 1772, Moravian missionaries established communities in the Tuscarawas River valley in present-day Tuscarawas County, Ohio. Three communities of Christian converts from the Delaware and Mohican Indian peoples were established. In May, 1772 came Schoenbrunn, followed by Gnadenhutten in October that year and Salem in 1780. During the American Revolutionary War, they found themselves between British-allied Indian tribes to their west and American settlers to their east. On March 8, 1782, American militiamen came to Gnadenhutten, rounded up the Indians and executed 96 men, women and children in the Gnadenhutten massacre. When it was learned in the East that these victims had not participated in massacres on settlers as previously thought, Congress acted to provide reparations to them.
Legislative action.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established a procedure for sale of government land in what is now Ohio. It read in part:
And be it further ordained, That the towns of Gnadenhutten, Schoenbrun, and Salem, on the Muskingum, and so much of the lands adjoining to the said towns, with the buildings and improvements thereon, shall be reserved for the sole use of the Christian Indians, who were formerly settled there, or the remains of that society, as may, in the judgment of the geographer, be sufficient for them to cultivate.
The surveys never made it west to the Tuscarawas Valley, so this act had no practical consequence.
In September 1788, the congress modified the ordinance to direct that a town of 666 and 2/3 acres in a tract of 4000 acres around each of the three towns should be surveyed as quickly as possible and then title should be vested in the Society of the United Brethren in trust for propagating the faith among the Indians. Again nothing happened.
The Act of June 1, 1796 established the United States Military District in the Tuscarawas Valley and elsewhere. It also provided in section 5
That the said Surveyor General be, and he is hereby, required to cause to be surveyed three several tracts of land, containing four thousand acres each, at Shoenbrun, Gnadenhutten, and Salem; being the tracts formerly set apart ... for the society of the United Brethren for the propagation of the gospel among the heathen; and to issue a patent or patents for the said three tracts to the said society, in trust ...
Retrocession.
On February 24, 1798, a patent was issued to the Society for the tracts, but few Indians chose to live there. The Moravians also expended large sums on improvements. In March, 1823, Congress directed that arrangements should be made to purchase the title from the Indians. On August 4, 1823 at Gnadenhutten, Lewis Cass for the United States, and Lewis David de Schweinitz for the Moravians reached agreement on a sale. Cass also made agreement with a number of Indians at Detroit on November 8, 1823. Congress accepted the agreements on May 26, 1824, and directed the tracts be divided into lots and sold. The lots were surveyed in 1825 by F. Wampler, Deputy Surveyor.
The lots were sold at the courthouse in New Philadelphia, Ohio, and unsold lots later sold at the land office in Zanesville, Ohio. The Christian Indians received $400 per year, and the Moravians received enough to repay their debts from improvements.
Surveys.
The tracts were not surveyed with the usual rectangular survey system of the Public Land Survey System. They were independent of the survey of the surrounding United States Military District.


Prazaroki

Prazaroki (, , ) is an agro-town in Vitebsk Region, Belarus.
History.
In 1666, the village was bought by Justynian Szczytt, who became a founder of the Franciscan cloister at Prazaroki.
During World War II, Jews of the town were murdered in a mass execution perpetrated by an Einsatzgruppen.


2003 Belarusian municipal elections

2003 24th convocation local councils of Republic of Belarus elections were held on 2 March.
General information.
"24th convocation" local councils of Republic of Belarus elections were held on 2 March 2003 under plurality voting. Official turnover was 73.4%. 23469 deputies of all levels were elected.


Abraham Burrell

Abraham Burrell (1589–1657) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1645 to 1653. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War.
Burrell was born in London, the son of Richard Burrell, and was baptised at St Benet Gracechurch on 18 January 1589. His father owned tenements in London and Burrell and his brothers also managed these properties. In 1622 he acquired the manor of Shapwick, Somerset. He showed early antipathy towards the King when in 1639 he refused to contribute towards the cost of the Bishops War against the Scots. In 1640 he sold Shapwick Manor to Sir Samuel Rolle, Hugh Fortescue, and Henry Rolle, and in 1641 acquired the manor, grange, watermill, etc. of Medloe Highfield, Huntingdonshire.
In September 1645, Burrell was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Long Parliament after the previous member inherited a peerage. Burrell was unusual in writing an agreement with his electorate in which he undertook to demand no payment from the burgesses. He was a member of the committee for Huntingdonshire, and a commissioner of the High Court of Justice in 1649, but refused to take part in the trial of the King.
Burrell died in 1657, and a memorial was erected to him in the church of St James, Little Paxton.
Burrell married Elizabeth Butts, daughter of Richard Butts of Ham Court, Chertsey in 1617. They had four daughters, one of whom, Elizabeth, married Sir Drayner Massingberd, a parliamentary colonel.


John Barkstead

John Barkstead (died 1662) was an English Major-General and Regicide.
Barkstead was a goldsmith in London; captain of parliamentary infantry under Colonel Venn; governor of Reading, 1645: commanded regiment at siege of Colchester; one of the king's judges, 1648; governor of Yarmouth, 1649, Lieutenant of the Tower of London, 1652; M.P. for Colchester, 1654, and Middlesex, 1656; knighted, 1656: escaped to continent, 1660; arrested, 1662; brought to England and executed.
Biography.
The date of Barkstead's birth is unknown, was originally a goldsmith in the Strand, and was often taunted by Robert Lilburne (a leveller) and the royalist pamphleteers with selling thimbles and bodkins. "Being sensible of the invasions which had been made upon the liberties of the nation, he took arms among the first for their defence in the quality of captain to a foot company in the regiment of Colonel Venn". On 12 August 1645 he was appointed by the House of Commons governor of Reading, and his appointment was agreed to by the Lords on 10 December. During the Second Civil War he commanded a regiment at the siege of Colchester.
In December 1648 Barkstead was appointed one of the judges of King Charles I. Referring, at his own execution, to the king's trial, he says: "I was no contriver of it within or without, at that time I was many miles from the place, and did not know of it until I saw my name in a paper . . . what I did, I did without any malice". He attended every sitting during the trial except that of 13 January. During the year 1649 he acted as governor of Yarmouth, but by a vote of 11 April 1650 his regiment was selected for the guard of parliament and the city, and on 12 August 1652 he was also appointed Lieutenant of the Tower of London. Cromwell praised his vigilance in that capacity in his first speech to the parliament of 1656: "There never was any design on foot but we could hear of it out of the Tower. He who commanded there would give us account, that within a fortnight, or such a thing, there would be some stirring, for a great concourse of people were coming to them, and they had very great elevations of spirit". As Lieutenant of the Tower Barkstead's emoluments are said to have been two thousand a year.
In the parliament of 1654 Barkstead represented Colchester, in that of 1656 Middlesex. In November 1655, during the Rule of the Major Generals he was appointed major-general of the county of Middlesex and the assistant of Sir Philip Skippon in the charge of London. His services were rewarded by knighthood (19 January 1656) and by his appointment as steward of Cromwell's household.
Barkstead's conduct as Lieutenant of the Tower was attacked by all parties, and he was charged with extortion and cruelty. In February 1659 he was summoned before the committee of grievances, was obliged to release some prisoners, and was in danger of a prosecution.
At the Restoration Barkstead was one of the seven excepted both for life and estate (6 June 1660), but he contrived to escape to Germany, "and to secure himself became a burgess of Hanau." In 1662, however, he ventured into Holland to see some friends, and Sir George Downing, the king's agent in the United Provinces, having obtained from the states a warrant for his apprehension, seized him in his lodgings with John Okey and Miles Corbet. The three prisoners were immediately sent to England, and, as they had been previously outlawed, their trial turned entirely on the question of identity. Barkstead, with his companions, was executed on 19 April 1662. He showed great courage, thanked God he had been faithful to the powers he had served, and commended to the bystanders "the congregational way, in which he had found much comfort."
At the end of 1662 Samuel Pepys was commissioned by Earl of Sandwich and Sir Henry Bennet, Secretary of State, to search the Tower of London for £7,000, supposed to have been the proceeds of Barkstead's corrupt Governorship and hidden by him in or near the Governor's Lodgings. Pepys' four searches of the Bell Tower cellars and garden yielded nothing.


Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right

The Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right (MIRN-PDP, ) was a Portuguese political party. It became an official political party on 7 March 1979 and was officially dissolved on 12 June 1997 ("Acórdão" 674/97 of the Constitutional Court) as it was found to be inactive since 30 June 1984. It took part in only one election, the 1980 legislative election, as a part of a coalition of right-wing parties, but failed to win any seats.
History.
The party was created, as a political movement, in 1977. It became an official political party on 7 March 1979. It was led by president General Káulza de Arriaga, and vice-president Jorge Morais Barbosa.
Before the 1980 legislative election, the MIRN-PDP first attempted to take part in the Democratic Alliance, but was turned down. It instead joined a coalition with the Christian Democratic Party and a movement called National Front, but the coalition performed worse than when the Christian Democratic Party ran alone in the 1979 legislative election (23,819 in 1980 vs. 72,514 in 1979).
PNR's leader José Pinto Coelho took part in MIRN manifestations in 1980.


Serbian royalty


Elections in Great Britain

Elections in the Kingdom of Great Britain were principally general elections and by-elections to the House of Commons of Great Britain. General elections did not have fixed dates, as parliament was summoned and dissolved within the royal prerogative, although on the advice of the ministers of the Crown. The first such general election was that of 1708, and the last that of 1796.
In 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland replaced the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland. For the period after 1801, see Elections in the United Kingdom.
Elections.
For details of the national elections of Great Britain, see:
Political factions.
Politics in Great Britain was dominated by the Whigs and the Tories, although neither were political parties in the modern sense but loose alliances of interests and individuals. The Whigs included many of the leading aristocratic dynasties who were most committed to the Protestant settlement of the throne, with later support from the emerging industrial interests and rich city merchants, while the Tories were associated with the landed gentry, the Church of England and the Church of Scotland.
Members of Parliament needed to appeal to a much smaller electorate than is the case today, especially in the boroughs. In the case of the rotten and pocket boroughs, a majority of the votes was usually controlled by one person, or by a small group. This gave less power to organized political parties and more to influential individuals, some of whom had themselves elected in the constituencies they controlled. Such seats were also sold for hard cash. Thus, many members were fundamentally Independents, even if they attached themselves to one party or another during their parliamentary careers.
Members of Parliament and Parliamentary constituencies.
The constituencies which elected members in England and Wales remained unchanged throughout the existence of the Parliament of Great Britain.
Local elections.
There were few local elections in the Kingdom of Great Britain as the concept is now understood. Local government existed only in rudimentary forms, and much of the civil administration of the counties was carried out by the unelected Quarter Sessions and by magistrates. In the City of London, annual elections were held to the Corporation of London, but on a limited suffrage, and some improvement commissioners were elected by ratepayers, if not co-opted, while the borough and city corporations elsewhere were generally not directly elected.
For further information on local corporations during this period, see the reforming Municipal Corporations Act 1835.


Abdera, Spain

Abdera was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.
Name.
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription (). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for "servant" or "slave"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.
It appears in Greek sources as "tà Ábdēra" () and "Aúdēra" (), "Ábdara" (), and "tò Ábdēron" ().
History.
It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica.
Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.
Coins.
The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town's main temple with two erect tunas as its columns. Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town.


Sardinia Nation

Sardinia Nation (, SN) is a minor separatist and socialist political party in Sardinia, Italy. Its long-time leader is Bustianu Cumpostu.
History.
The party was founded by Anghelu Caria in 1994, in continuity with the Independentist Sardinian Party (PSIn), of which Caria had been founder and leader. After Caria's sudden death, Bustianu Cumpostu was elected new leader by defeating Gavino Sale, who would lead the party's left-wing faction for five years, before leaving in 2001.
In the 1996 general election SN won 4.3% in single-seat constituencies (11.6% in Tortolì and 9.6% in Iglesias), despite being present only in ten constituencies out of fourteen, and 2.3% for proportional representation, due to competition from the Sardinian Action Party (PSd'Az), which gained 3.8%.
In the 1999 Sardinian regional election SN had its best result ever, as Cumpostu received 5.8% of the vote for president, while the PSd'Az gained 8.3% with Franco Meloni. However, as Cumpostu did not surpass the 6% threshold and the party list stopped at 1.8%, the party did not get into the Regional Council.
Both for the 2001 general election and the 2004 regional election SN formed an alliance with the PSd'Az. This led Sale, who refused any collaboration with not parties being considered not fully committed to independence, and his faction to leave the party in 2001 to form Independence Republic of Sardinia (iRS). In the election the Sardist electorate was very fragmented (also because of the presence of the Sardinian Democratic Union, UDS, which ran on a "nationalist" platform) and most of SN former voters voted Sale for President (1.9%) and the iRS party list (0.7%), while only a minority voted for SN (0.4%).
SN won 1.1% of the vote in the 2006 general election and 0.7% in 2008. In the 2009 regional election the party formed a "nationalist" left-wing alliance with To the Left for Independence, a communist party, and other minor separatist groups, but gained only 0.5%, while Sale (iRS) 3.1%.
In the 2014 regional election the party unsuccessfully sought to join the coalition led by Michela Murgia (centred on Project Republic of Sardinia), in list with alike separatist parties, and finally decided not to take part to the election.
Popular support.
The electoral results of SN in Sardinia since 1994 are shown in the table below.