Kale Kye-Taung Nyo

Kale Kye-Taung Nyo (, ; also spelled Kale Kyetaungnyo or Kalekyetaungnyo; 1385–1426) was king of Ava from 1425 to 1426, and governor of Kale Kye-Taung (Kalay) from 1406 to 1425. A top military commander during the reigns of kings Minkhaung I and Thihathu of Ava, Prince Min Nyo came to power in 1425 by overthrowing his eight-year-old nephew King Min Hla with the help of his lover Queen Shin Bo-Me. But Nyo himself was overthrown less than seven months later in 1426 by his fellow senior commander and long-time rival Gov. Thado of Mohnyin.
The eldest son of King Tarabya of Ava, Prince Nyo was the heir presumptive during his father's brief reign in 1400. He did not succeed to the throne but became a son-in-law of the successor, his half-uncle King Minkhaung I (r. 1400–1421), who in 1406 sent him to govern Kale, a remote Shan state in the northwest. The prince proved a loyal and able vassal, keeping the frontier region quiet while leading several campaigns in Ava's long running war against Hanthawaddy Pegu between 1408 and 1423. Nyo and Thado rose to be the deputy commanders-in-chief in 1412, and after the death of Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa in 1415, the duo became the leading commanders of the Ava military.
Nyo was initially loyal to Minkhaung's successor King Thihathu (r. 1421–1425). After having led the successful 1422–1423 campaign against Pegu, he quietly turned against his half-cousin the king, who spent much of his time away from the palace. The prince became involved with Bo-Me, a disenchanted queen of Thihathu, and the couple managed to have Thihathu assassinated in 1425. Three months later, Bo-Me's faction assassinated Thihathu's successor Min Hla, and placed Nyo on the throne.
The new king never had firm control beyond the Ava (Inwa) capital region. He received only tepid support from the vassals in the south, and almost no support in the north where his rival Thado was based. After losing the subsequent brief civil war, Nyo and Bo-Me fled the capital in 1426, and he died on the run a few days later. Like his father, Nyo reigned less than seven months. He is sometimes referred to as the last king of the founding dynasty of Ava.
Early life.
Min Nyo was born to Princess Min Hla Myat and Crown Prince Hsinbyushin 10 October 1385. He was the first child of the couple, who were first cousins, and the eldest grandchild of the reigning king of Ava, Swa Saw Ke (r. 1367–1400). Nyo had at least one younger sister Min Hla Htut. He grew up at the palace in Ava (Inwa) where his father was groomed to be the next king by his grandfather. At 15, Nyo became the heir presumptive in 1400 when his father became king with the title of Tarabya.
But just seven months later, King Tarabya was assassinated by Gov. Thihapate of Tagaung. Despite being the eldest and only son, Nyo was not a factor in the ensuing power struggle. The main contender for the throne was Nyo's maternal granduncle Gov. Maha Pyauk of Yamethin, who commanded a 10,000-strong army. The court led by Chief Minister Min Yaza, which had already executed Thihapate, did not consider Nyo ready to face Maha Pyauk; instead they nominated Nyo's half-uncle Prince Min Swe of Pyinzi. Indeed, Swe himself was reluctant to take on Maha Pyauk. It was only through the efforts of Prince Theiddat, Swe's younger brother, who managed to assassinate Maha Pyauk that Swe gained power. Swe ascended the throne with the title of Minkhaung on 25 November 1400.
Minkhaung years (1400–1421).
Nyo readily submitted to the new king. For his part, Minkhaung did not deem his "soft-spoken" half-nephew as a threat, and did not purge him. Over the next few years, the young prince developed into what Minkhaung and Min Yaza called "intelligent and able" leader and commander. Minkhaung married Nyo to his daughter Saw Nant-tha, by one of his junior queens. In 1406, Minkhaung, who was planning to announce his eldest son Minye Kyawswa as his heir apparent, considered Nyo for the governorship at one of the northern border Shan states, in consultation with Chief Minister Min Yaza. The vassal states under consideration were Mohnyin and its 19 districts ("mueangs"); Onbaung and its 30 districts; Maw and its 47 districts; and Kale (Kalay) and its nine districts. Ultimately, following Yaza's advice, the king decided on Kale. Minkhaung moved Gov. Anawrahta of Kale to become "king" of the newly conquered Arakan, and sent Nyo to take over Kale, located at the edge of the Chin Hills about northwest of Ava.
Nyo took what was probably a hardship assignment in stride. Unlike Theiddat, he did not protest Minkhaung's subsequent appointment of Minye Kyawswa as heir apparent. (A bitter Theiddat defected to Pegu in 1407.) Instead, Nyo invested in governing the Shan-speaking frontier state. Although he was immediately greeted with a rebellion by a local chief, the new "sawbwa" was able to bring the rebel chief into the fold just by using diplomacy. The Ava court was impressed. Indeed, the Ava-born prince became so attuned to the local issues that the Ava court began referring to him as "Kye-Taung" Nyo (Nyo of Kye-Taung, another name of Kale).
Nyo proved an able and loyal vassal. When the Forty Years' War between Ava and Pegu flared up again in 1408, Nyo went to the front, first serving under King Minkhaung, and then under Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa. By the Hsenwi campaign of 1412, Nyo and Gov. Thado of Mohnyin had emerged as the main deputies of Minye Kyawswa, the commander-in-chief. As recounted in the chronicles, Nyo and Thado made their name by personally leading the charge on their war elephants and driving back the enemy into the walled city of Hsenwi. Indeed, Nyo was by Minye Kyawswa's side in the battle of Dala against Pegu on 13 March 1415 but he could not keep up with the crown prince, who was mortally wounded deep behind the enemy lines. After Minye Kyawswa's death, Nyo and Gov. Nawrahta of Salin briefly became interim co-commanders-in-chief of the Ava forces.
But the leadership soon passed to Minkhaung's middle son Minye Thihathu, who was about nine years younger and had far less military experience than Nyo. Nonetheless, Nyo served under Thihathu with distinction. In the 1417–1418 campaign, it was Nyo's army that captured the heavily stockaded Fort Hmawbi, prompting King Razadarit at Pegu (Bago) to evacuate to Martaban (Mottama). Only the arrival of the rainy season of 1418 stopped the advance to Pegu. It was the last campaign during Minkhaung's and Razadarit's reigns, both of which ended within two months of each other in late 1421.
Thihathu years (1421–1425).
When Thihathu succeeded to the throne in 1421, Nyo readily pledged allegiance to his half-cousin. The new king had sufficient trust in Nyo that he appointed Nyo as one of the two overall commanders of the 1422–1423 campaign against Pegu. Nyo commanded the naval invasion force (6000 troops, 700 war boats, 200 cargo boats) while his counterpart Thado invaded with an 8000-strong army (including 500 cavalry and 30 war elephants). The campaign was a success. The Ava forces captured the entire Irrawaddy delta, and forced Prince Binnya Ran, the main pretender to the Pegu throne, to propose a peace treaty with terms favorable to Ava, including a marriage alliance between Thihathu and Princess Shin Saw Pu, Ran's sister. Thihathu accepted the proposal, and came to the south to sign the treaty in early 1423.
The treaty marked a key turning point. Back in Ava, Thihathu is said to have spent most of his time with Queen Shin Saw Pu and concubines away from the palace. According to the chronicles, it was the king's unending affection for Shin Saw Pu that drew the ire of the powerful queen Shin Bo-Me. Said to be a dashing beauty in her own right, Bo-Me plotted to overthrow the king, and by 1425 had found a willing partner in Nyo. Gov. Le Than Bwa of Onbaung (modern Thibaw) also joined their cause. In August 1425, based on the time and location provided to them by Bo-Me, Le Than Bwa and his men assassinated the king at his country estate in Aung Pinle.
However, despite Bo-Me's intense lobbying for Nyo, the court instead chose Thihathu's eight-year-old eldest son Min Hla as king. Bo-Me did not give up. About three months later, the powerful queen managed to assassinate the boy king. Her faction at the court this time successfully rallied around Nyo.
Reign (1425–1426).
Weak support base.
Nyo ascended the throne with Shin Bo-Me as his chief queen by his side in November 1425. He immediately tried to garner support from his vassals, by giving and promising lavish gifts. The strategy seemed to worked with most of the central and southern vassals, including Gov. Thray Sithu of Myinsaing, Gov. Thinkhaya of Toungoo and Gov. Thihapate of Taungdwin, who pledged their allegiance to the new king in Ava. In the case of Gov. Tarabya II of Pakhan, Thihathu's younger brother with a legitimate claim to the throne, Nyo also gave Queen Shin Saw Pu to further appease his half-cousin. However, Gov. Min Maha of Prome, Ava's southernmost state, did not acknowledge. In the north, Nyo received almost no support; only Baya Gamani of Singu and Le Than Bwa of Onbaung supported him.
The main reason was that Gov. Thado of Mohnyin (in present-day Kachin State) actively opposed Nyo. A loyalist of Minkhaung and Thihathu, Thado had been incensed by the news of Thihathu's assassination, which he heard from his 12-year-old son, who as a page of Thihathu had escaped the assassination. Over the next two months, Thado went on to secure the support of most of the northern Shan states (except Le Than Bwa's Onbaung).
Civil war.
A brief civil war ensued. Although he controlled less territory, Thado was the aggressor. In February 1426, Thado marched south with an army, and his two teen-age sons sailed down the Irrawaddy with squadrons of war boats and cargo ships. Nyo had set up defenses on both sides of the Irrawaddy with Le Than Bwa and 2000 troops defending the east bank and Thray Sithu and another 2000 troops at Thissein (modern Shwebo Township), about north of Ava, on the west bank. The main army defending the capital was largely made up of units from the vassals that had pledged allegiance to him such as Myinsaing, Toungoo, Taungdwin and Pakhan.
Despite the preparations, Thissein fell quickly after a daring surprise attack from the river side by Thado's sons. The fort's defenses, which included 50 war boats, had not expected an attack by the Mohnyin navy as the Mohnyin army had not yet shown up. Indeed, after the capture of Thissein, the sons had to wait for their father's army to arrive for another ten days. At Thissein, Thado paused, and recruited more troops from the region. Then the enlarged forces of Mohnyin attacked Wetchet, where Thray Sithu was waiting with 3000 troops. Ava troops put up a fight but the town eventually fell. Thray Sithu and his deputy Sokkate, old commanders of the Forty Years' War fame, either fell in action or were captured as they are not mentioned in the chronicles afterwards. The command of Ava frontline defenses now passed to Le Than Bwa, now stationed near Sagaing, across the river from Ava. Instead of attacking head-on, Thado successfully persuaded Le Than Bwa to leave the fight by giving the "sawbwa" a substantial amount of gold and silver.
Le Than Bwa's departure created a panic across the river. As Mohnyin troops closed in, the vassal rulers of Toungoo, Taungdwin and Pakhan renounced their ties to Nyo, and withdrew to their respective regions, taking their regiments with them. Nyo was now in a bind. He could neither defend Ava nor retreat to a loyal vassal region from which he could continue the fight. (He could not retreat to his old fief of Kale, as Mohnyin troops now controlled all routes to the north.) He accepted the advice of Baya Gamani, one of his few remaining loyalists, that he leave for Arakan, the disorganized former kingdom to the west where he might find support.
Death.
Circa 15 May 1426, under the cover of darkness, Nyo and Bo-Me fled the capital. In the end, only Gamani came with them; all other commanders, including Gamani's younger brother Yazathingyan, stayed behind and surrendered. Guarded only by Gamani's single battalion, Nyo and Bo-Me first ventured south by land along the Irrawaddy before sailing down to Salin. From there, they trekked west. Just a few days later, as they prepared to cross the Arakan Hills at Pe-Lun-Taung, west of present-day Shwesettaw, Nyo suddenly fell ill and died. Like his father, he ruled less than seven months. During his short reign, he restored the 12th-century Shwe Paung Laung Pagoda in Sagaing District.
After Nyo's death, Gamani, ignoring Bo-Me's fierce protests, stopped the journey, and waited to be arrested at Shwesettaw. When Bo-Me was brought before the new king in a royal palanquin befitting a crowned queen, the feisty queen reportedly dismissed Thado, who hailed from a more distant branch of the royal family, by saying someone "smells like a servant". Nonetheless, she became a queen of his.
Historiography.
Some historians consider Nyo to be the last king of the first dynasty of Ava, and Mohnyin Thado to be the founder of the next dynasty while others consider both kings to be of the same dynasty. Among the main royal chronicles, only the "Yazawin Thit" states that Nyo belonged to the previous dynasty of Thayet (သရက် ဆက်) whereas Thado founded a new one, Thado Mohnyin (သတိုး မိုးညှင်း ဆက်).
The following is a list of the key events of Nyo's life as reported in the chronicles.
Ancestry.
Min Nyo's parents were first cousins. He was descended from the Pagan royal line from both sides.


Pakualaman

Pakualaman (Javanese: "Kadipaten Pakualaman"; also written Paku Alaman, Hanacaraka: , Dutch-spelling: "Pakoe-alaman") is a minor Javanese princely state within the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. It was created in 1812 when Natakusuma (later Prince Paku Alam I) was rewarded for helping the British quell the conflict in Yogyakarta in June 1812. It became the mirror-image of the Mangkunegaran principality in the territory of the Susuhunanate of Surakarta.
A Pakualaman Corps of 100 cavalry (later 50 cavalry and 100 infantry) was established, but was never to become as significant as the Mangkunegaran Legion, and disbanded in 1892. Due to Paku Alam VIII's role in the Indonesian independence movement, a law was passed to give the position of vice-governor of the Yogyakarta Special Region to the reigning Prince Paku Alam at any particular time. Meanwhile, the Sultans of Yogyakarta were to hold the governor's office on a hereditary basis.
Etymology.
The name "Paku Alam" translates literally into "nail of the universe" or "nail of the world" in English ("paku" means "nail" and "alam" means "universe" or "world").
Formation.
Kadipaten Pakualaman, also known as Nagari Pakualaman or Praja Pakualaman, was established on March 17, 1813, when Prince Notokusumo, son of Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono I with his Concubine was crowned by Governor-General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (Governor General of British East Indies who ruled at that time) as "Kangjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati" (abbreviated K. G. P. A.). The use of the later title "Kangjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya" (K. G. P. A. A.) was only used by Paku Alam V. The status of this princely state was similar to that of the Mangkunegara in Surakarta.
Starting from the Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat dispute under Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono II against the government of the Governor-General Herman Willem Daendels of the French-Netherlands (under French influence during King Louis Bonaparte of French-Holland). Daendels sent his troops to attack the Yogyakarta Palace in December 1810 to quell the rebellion of Raden Ronggo (K.A.A. Ronggo Prawirodirdjo III, regent of Madiun, and political adviser of Sultan Hamengkubuwono II) which eventually resulted in the forced decline of Hamengkubuwono II from the throne. The power was transferred to G.R.M. Soerojo who was appointed as regent (regent) with the title Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono III. Sultan Hamengkubuwono II's half-brother, Prince Notokusumo, and his son Notodiningrat, who supported the rebellion were also captured by the Dutch in Semarang and taken to Batavia.
In 1811, Dutch-French colonial rule on Java was captured by the British with Capitulation of Tuntang in August 11, 1811, and the British sent Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles to lead this colony with the position of Lieutenant Governor General. Raffles tried to get support from local authorities, one of whom was Sultan Hamengkubuwono II (known as Sultan Sepuh). He sent Captain John Robinson to Yogyakarta to return Hamengkubuwono II to his throne and lowered R.M. Suryo (Hamengkubuwono III) again to become the crown prince with the title "Kangjeng Pangeran Adipati Anom" (K.P.A.A.) on December 10, 1811.
Princely state.
Kadipaten Pakualaman, Nagari Pakualaman and Praja Pakualaman are the official names used by the smallest monarchy in southern Central Java. The monarchy founded in 1813 was in the form of a Kadipaten or a princely state. The government was run by Pepatih Pakualaman together with Resident / Governor of the Dutch East Indies for Yogyakarta. Pakualaman's status changes over time. In 1813–1816 was a dependent state under the Government of the United Kingdom of East India (East Indian). Furthermore, in the year 1816–1942 was the dependent state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the status of Zelfbestuurende Landschappen in the Dutch East Indies. From 1942 to 1945 was part of the Japanese Empire with Kooti status under the supervision of the Army XVI Army Ruler.
Starting in 1945 this small country joined and became a part of Indonesian republican territory. Then with the Yogyakarta Sultanate it formed a joint government until 1950 when officially they were made into a "Daerah Istimewa" (special region) inside Indonesia and no longer operate as an independent country.


Vivere pericoloso

Vivere pericoloso (or in another source, vivere pericolosamente ) is a phrase in the Italian language, which means "to live dangerously". Usually, the phrase is used for dangerous things, such as people living in dangerous areas because of disaster, and in fear of recurrence.
In Indonesia, this phrase was popularized by Indonesia's first president Sukarno in 1964 when his state address on the 19th anniversary of the nation's independence was entitled "Tahun Vivere Pericoloso" (The Year of Living Dangerously, abbreviated as "Tavip"), roughly a year before the coup attempt by the 30 September Movement.
The title of the address inspired Christopher Koch, an Australian author, to write a novel published in 1978 titled "The Year of Living Dangerously", which was then made into a film with the same title. The 1982 film starring Mel Gibson, Sigourney Weaver and Linda Hunt tells the story of the events in Jakarta before and after the 30 September Movement launched its action.
The phrase was later used by the newspaper "Sinar Harapan" as a title of its critic corner.


Fort Duurstede

Fort Duurstede is a 17th-century colonial Dutch fort in Saparua, Indonesia The fort originally protected Saparoea village. A navigation guide from 1878 advises: "There is good anchorage near this fort in the westerly monsoon in about 12 fathoms."
The fort is open to the public and has been heavily restored.


Communist Party of Indonesia (Red)

The Communist Party of Indonesia (Red) (, PKI Merah) was a political party in Indonesia. It was formed through a split away from the main Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1947, as a section of the secondary party leadership broke with PKI. The group included Mohamad Djoni (a demagogue from East Sumatra), Amir Hoesin and L.A. Kasim. On March 8–9, 1947 they founded PKI Merah. At the founding meeting of PKI Merah, Djoni was elected chairman, Hoesin party secretary and Kasim treasurer of the party. The split in the PKI had been provoked by differences of opinion on Sardjono's leadership in the party, rather than polemics on theory. Djono had revolted against Sardjono's openness towards the possibility of entering into negotiations with the Netherlands, a position which Djono saw as a deviation from the revolutionary path.
Soon after its foundation, PKI Merah sent a delegation to president Sukarno to seek recognition.
PKI reacted to the split condemning PKI Merah, stating that PKI was the sole genuine Marxist-Leninist party in Indonesia. Furthermore, the PKI argued that PKI Merah was the product of anti-Marxist/anti-Communist reaction. However, immediately after the split PKI tried to downplay the importance of PKI Merah (Sardjono called PKI Merah a mere 'atom in the universe of international communism'). However, PKI soon shifted its attitude to the splinter party, and in Magelang a special meeting was held to condemn PKI Merah.
In July 1948, PKI Merah was one of twenty political parties that signed a declaration in support of the National Program.


Upper Myanmar

Upper Burma (, also called Upper Myanmar) refers to a geographic region of Burma (Myanmar), traditionally encompassing Mandalay and its periphery (modern Mandalay, Sagaing, Magway Regions), or more broadly speaking, Kachin and Shan States.
In the Burmese language, people originating from Upper Burma are typically called "a-nya tha" (), whereas those from Lower Burma are called "auk tha" ().
The term was first used by the British to refer to the central and northern area of what is now modern day Burma (Myanmar). After the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, Lower Burma was annexed by the British Empire, while Upper Burma remained independent under the Burmese Empire until the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. Upper Burma was also known as Burma proper and the Kingdom of Ava. Historically, Upper Burma was predominantly Bamar (whereas Lower Burma was historically Mon-speaking until the early 19th century), while the Frontier Areas, as designated by the colonial administration, included ethnic minority areas, such as the Shan States and modern Kachin State.
This distinction between Upper and Lower Burma is also found in some government departments (for instance, the Ministry of Education has departments assigned to Upper or Lower Burma), while some newspapers make a distinction between the two bodies. The Burmese language edition of "The Myanmar Times" is an example; the newspaper devotes a section to news from Upper Burma. In terms of linguistic differences, there are minute differences between the variants of Burmese spoken by Upper Burmese, especially in vocabulary choice (such as kinship terms that differentiate the maternal and paternal sides of a family, which is not made in Lower Burmese speech). However, there is remarkable uniformity in the Burmese spoken throughout the Irrawaddy River valley, which also includes the delta-lying and coastal region of Lower Burma.


Babad Dalem

Babad Dalem is a historical account from Bali, Indonesia, which exists in a large number of versions of varying length. The title may be translated as "Chronicle of Kings", although the Balinese babad genre does not quite accord to Western-style chronicles. There are dated manuscripts from the early 19th century onwards, and the original version was very likely written in the course of the 18th century. The author was probably a Brahmin tied to the Klungkung Palace, the most prestigious of the nine pre-colonial royal seats of Bali.
The text is a blend of myth, legend and history, and traces the history of Balinese kingship back to the Javanese roots in the age of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire (1293-c. 1527). The forces of Gajah Mada, the chief minister (patih) of Majapahit, invade Bali and subjugate the island (an event dated in 1343 in the Javanese poem Nagarakrtagama). A Javanese nobleman called Sri Aji Kresna Kepakisan, the grandson of a Brahmin, is installed as the vassal ruler of Bali, with his residence in Samprangan in the Gianyar regency. In the next generation the seat of the raja is moved to Gelgel in the Klungkung regency, where a strong kingdom takes shape. The collapse of Majapahit on Java later on leaves Gelgel as the heir of the classical Javanese civilization. The account follows the fortunes of the Gelgel kingdom until its fall, historically dated in 1686.
A continuation of the Babad Dalem, sometimes called Babad Ksatria, follows the history of Klungkung, the successor kingdom of Gelgel. It was authored in the second half of the 19th century, with a later version including a brief account of the fall of Klungkung in 1908.
The great value of the Babad Dalem as a source of Balinese cultural values and perceptions of kingship is generally recognized by the scholars. Its value as a source of past events on Bali is controversial. The older versions contain few calendrical dates, and the babad genre seems more concerned with origins than with the exact chronology of events. Comparisons with external (in particular Dutch and Javanese) historical materials suggest that important aspects of the history of Gelgel have been left out or altered in the Babad Dalem.


Dathopa Tissa II of Anuradhapura

Dathopa Tissa II was King of Anuradhapura in the 7th century, whose reign lasted from 664 to 673. He succeeded his brother Dappula I as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by Aggabodhi IV.


Shengle

Shengle (盛樂) was the capital of the Xianbei kingdom of Dai and the first capital of the Northern Wei dynasty in the 4th century. The ruins of ancient Shengle is located at present-day Xiyaozi and Tuchengzi village, Shengle Township of Horinger County, 40 kilometre south of Hohhot, Inner Mongolia.
During the Han dynasty, the city was part of the Dingxiang Commandery and known as Chengle County. Towards the end of the dynasty, the commandery was abandoned due to Xiongnu invasions. The city was then settled by Tuoba Liwei (219-277), the first leader of the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei. In 315, Tuoba Yilu became the first King of Dai and made Shengle the northern capital of Dai. Tuoba Gui, the grandson of the last Dai King, founded the Wei empire. In 398, he moved the capital to the city of Pingcheng (Datong) in Shanxi Province. The site would later become the capital of the Zhenwu County of the Liao Empire.
Parts of the rammed-earth walls of the ancient city are still intact. The peripheral walls run 1,550 meters from east to west and 2,250 meters from north to south.


Battle of Karasounk

The Battle of Karasounk, i.e. the Forty, took place in 863 when some Muslim emirs attacked Armenia, defended by Prince Ashot Bagratouni with, according to reports, 40,000 men. The Armenians defeated the 80,000 Muslims decisively on the shores of the Araxes.


Audumbaras

The Audumbras, or Audumbaras were a north Indian tribal nation east of the Punjab, in the Western Himalaya region. They were the most important tribe of the Himachal, and lived in the lower hills between Sirmaur, Chamba and Yamuna.
They issued coinage from the 1st century BCE, when they seemingly gained independence from the Indo-Greeks. The silver coins of the Kunindas, the Vemakas and the Audumbaras closely follow the coins of Apollodotus II in their characteristics (weight, size and material). Their coins are found in the area of Pathānkot, Gurdāspur District.Their favorite deities were Mahādeva or Shiva, and also Kārtikeya, standing with a spear in right hand.
They are also known as Audumbara or Audumbatira. It is a name of the tribe. They are the same people as the Odemboerce of Pliny. Hist Nat VI 23. Professor Lassen mentions them as the name of the people of Kutch of Gujarat state. They appear in the Ganapatha of Panini of 5th Century B.C. K K Das Gupta has attempted to show that they existed even in Brahmana period. They were enterprising people having prosperous trade and commerce.
Their capital was Kotesvara or Kachchhesvara. Mahabharat Chapter 52.
A. Cunningham has also mentioned about them in the archaeological survey report V page 155 and also his book Ancient Geography of India at page 254. Kotesvara was a celebrated place of pilgrimage on the western shore of Kachh, close to Indus and to the great ocean. It is on the bank of Kori branch of Indus. There was a temple of Shiva in the middle of city. The meaning of Kotesvara is 10 million Ishvara. It is the name of Shiva. Audumvara like other tribes namely Sibi, Mujavats and Mahavrises were worshipers of Shiva, whereas Aryans worshiped Vishnu in the earliest times. Kotesvara is now only a small village and the temple Kotesvara is still there and worshipped.
Kachh is also called Rann of Kachh. The word Rann is evidently a corruption of Irana, which means a salt land (Amarkosha). It is the Eirinon of the periplus of the Erythraean sea.
There was another place Audumvara in Punjab which is the present city Pathankot. It was also known as Pratishsthana. It is on Jalandhar Jammu road about 80 km before Jammu. It was also known as Dahmeri, Dhamari, Dhammeri etc., which is apparently a corruption of Sanskrit name Audumvara of the country and tribe, whose coins have been found in Kangra (In Himachal Pradesh), Pathankot, Ropar and Hoshairpur (Punjab). From the coins of 200 B.C. – 48 A.D. it appears that for some time Audumvara were under Indo-Greek and after that under Kusanas. The Prakrit legends Aduinvarisa – ‘of the Audumvara’ appears on the copper coins and pieces of Audumbara tribe in Punjab. The word Audumvara refers either the people connected to the Fig tree, Audumvara or where the tree was grown in abundance.
It appears that a section of Audumvara tribe migrated to Gujarat, may be due to internal conflict or some aggression. In course of time these people merged into local population.


Duan Qingbo

Duan Qingbo (; February 1964 – 13 October 2019) was a Chinese archaeologist. He served as the chief archaeologist of the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor and Dean of the School of Cultural Heritage of Northwest University in Xi'an. He discovered the large-scale drainage system of Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum and a high-ranking noble tomb in the mausoleum precinct. He also spent over two years surveying more than of the Great Wall on foot.
Life and career.
Duan was born in February 1964 in Ruicheng County, Shanxi, China. He graduated from Northwest University in Xi'an with a bachelor's degree in archaeology in 1985. He later earned a Ph.D. in archaeology in 2008.
He began working at the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology in 1988, where he served as deputy director of the Qin–Han Archaeological Research Office and director of the Sui–Tang Archaeological Research Office.
In 1998, Duan was appointed chief archaeologist of the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor. In the following decade, he led the excavation of the mausoleum precinct. His team discovered the ruins of China's three oldest and largest que towers, the mausoleum's large-scale underground dam and drainage system, and a large double-ramped noble tomb that ranks only below Qin Shi Huang's own mausoleum in importance. He oversaw the publication of three excavation reports, in 1999, 2000, and 2002.
Duan's excavations led him to the conclusion that the underground realm of the mausoleum imitated the real organization of the court in the emperor's lifetime, with terracotta officials, musicians, even acrobats and realistic bronze waterfowl, in addition to the famous Terracotta Army. He also found that the emperor might have employed people from west Eurasia, as the structure of the mausoleum bore similarities to the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, which had been built a century earlier in today's Turkey.
Duan found that the Epang Palace, recorded in histories as a luxurious palace which symbolized Qin Shi Huang's tyranny and greed, was actually never built except for its foundation. In his 2018 book, "Qin Mausoleum: A Dust-Laden Empire", he argues that Qin Shi Huang had been vilified by Han dynasty historians such as Sima Qian, who have cemented the emperor's reputation as a cruel and tyrannical ruler.
In 2006, he was appointed leader of the Shaanxi Great Wall Survey Team and spent the next two years surveying of the Great Wall in Shaanxi on foot. He subsequently surveyed parts of the Great Wall in neighbouring Gansu province.
In 2009, Duan returned to his alma mater to teach at the School of Cultural Heritage of Northwest University. He served as deputy dean of the school from 2010 to 2014 and as dean from 2017 until his death. He advised 48 graduate students at the university.
Duan authored more than 10 books and about 100 research papers. He received over 10 national, provincial, and ministerial awards.
Death.
Duan was diagnosed with kidney cancer and had one of his kidneys surgically removed in 2016. In May 2019, it was discovered that his cancer had metastasized to his lung. He underwent another surgery in July 2019, but died on 13 October 2019 in Xi'an, aged 55. He was survived by his wife Wu Chun (吴春).


Independence Day (Myanmar)

Independence Day () is a national holiday observed annually in Myanmar every 4 January. The date celebrates Myanmar's Declaration of Independence from the British rule on 4 January 1948.
Origin.
In the 19th century, following three Anglo-Burmese Wars, Burma was colonized by Britain. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during the Second World War. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting.
Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942–44, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Burma as a unified state. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals backed by the British assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.
On 4 January 1948 at 4.20 am, the nation became an independent republic, named the "Union of Burma" in which the time was chosen for its auspiciousness by an astrologer, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth.


John Cartier

John Cartier (23 May 1733 – 25 January 1802) was a British colonial governor in India. He served as Governor of Bengal from 1769 to 1772.
Early career.
Cartier first arrived in India as a writer in the service of the British East India Company. He was expelled from Dacca in 1756 while serving there as an assistant. After fleeing with other fugitives to Fulta, he joined Clive of India and helped in the retaking of Bengal, for which he was praised by the Court of Directors of the British East India Company. Cartier's career accelerated after the Battle of Plassey. In 1761 Cartier became chief of the Dacca factory. By 1767 he was Second in the Calcutta Council.
Governor of Bengal.
On 26 December 1769 Cartier succeeded Harry Verelst as Governor of Bengal. Cartier was governor at time of the Bengal famine of 1770, during which one-third of the populace died. Cartier was blamed for ignoring warnings about the impending disaster but was able to use a magazine of grain to feed fifteen thousand people every day for some months. In response to the crisis, the Court of Directors sent a three-person commission to Bengal to assess the situation. En route, however, the ship carrying the three members foundered at sea. The Court of Directors did not send a replacement and recalled Cartier. Warren Hastings was selected as his replacement; he took office on 28 April 1772.
Cartier became a High Sheriff of Kent in 1789. Unusually the previous incumbent, James Bond, continued from the year before and Cartier served only for the latter part of the year.
Cartier died in Bedgbury, Kent on 25 January 1802 and was buried at Goudhurst, Kent. He was eulogized by Edmund Burke for his government of Bengal. His wife Stephana, the daughter of Stephen Law (Governor of Bombay), survived him and also died in Bedgbury on 22 August 1825.


Bombay Courier

The Bombay Courier was an English language newspaper, first printed in 1790 in Bombay, India by William Ashburner. It followed the Bombay Herald, founded in 1789, and succeeded the Bombay Gazette, founded in 1791. In 1847, it merged with the Bombay Telegraph to form the Telegraph and Courier.


Cambodia Constituent Assembly

The Cambodian Constituent Assembly was a body elected in 1993 to draft a constitution for Cambodia as provided in the Paris Peace Accord. The writing of the Cambodian Constitution took place between June and September 1993 and it resulted in the transformation of the political situation of Cambodia from civil-war-marred, autocratic oligarchy to a Constitutional Monarchy. Achieved under the guidance, auspices and funding of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), the drafting of the constitution was the culmination of a larger, $1.6 billion effort to end the decades-old Cambodian Civil War and bring the warring parties into political, rather than military competition. The result of the process was the creation of a constitution for Cambodia that, at least on paper, guarantees free political competition, regular elections, equal rights and representation and universal suffrage.
Background.
Cambodia, like many of its neighbours, had no pre-colonial history or conception of constitution and rule of law. The balance of power between rulers and their subjects was such that a king and his central state in Cambodia ruled largely through influence and unofficial channels. David P. Chandler, the premier Cambodia historian, explains, "a Cambodian king, like most Chinese emperors, could rule only by extending networks of patronage and mutual obligations outward from his palace, at first through close associates and family members but becoming diffuse--and more dependent on local power-holders--at the edges of the kingdom." Into the 19th century, most of the rural population had only a rough conception of their king. According to Chandler, rural people generally believed the king to have power over the weather, to "dispense true justice" and to be "the only political source of hope among peasants." That said, his legitimacy came much more from charisma, genealogy and cosmology than from his fairly enforcing a system of laws.
The notion of regimented legal and judicial systems was only really introduced to Cambodia with the advent of French colonialism in the 19th century. With such concepts came the notion of defining and restricting state power in formal law. The process was cemented with the withdrawal in 1953 of the French from Cambodia and the 1947 constitution they left behind. Drafting of the 1993 constitution would draw heavily on both the 1947 constitution and the 1989 constitution that had been drafted by the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). This sourcing was both of convenience and because each of the previous constitutions was strongly favorable to the two leading parties at the Constituent Assembly, the royalist FUNCINPEC (Front Uni National pour un Cambodge Indépendant, Neutre, Pacifique, et Coopératif, or "National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia.") and the incumbent CPP (Cambodian People's Party). The 1947 constitution featured the strong monarchy and pre-civil war structure favored by FUNCINPEC. The 1989 constitution was similarly favored by the CPP, its writers, because of the strong favor it showed to the existing political order.
Paris Peace Accords.
The Paris Peace Accords were in 1991, and sought to settle once and for all the political violence that had plagued Cambodia since the 1960s. It was designed to put an end to the civil war in Cambodia, usher out the occupying Vietnamese army and establish free, fair and peaceful elections. Parties to that accord, namely Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, Canada, China, France, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Soviet Union, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Vietnam and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, created the Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, a far ranging document that outlined the reconstruction effort. The mandates for that agreement were, as articulated in the nine parts thereof, Arrangements During the Transitional Period, Transitional Period, United Nations, Transitional Authority in Cambodia, Supreme National Council, Withdrawal of Foreign Forces and its Verification, Cease-fire and Cessation of Outside Military Assistance, Elections, Human Rights, International Guarantees, Refugees and Displaced Persons, National Communities, Communes and Representation.
The writing of the constitution and the transition to democracy were but a part of the larger disengagement and normalization process outlined at the Paris Peace Accords. Though it was to culminate with the complete transformation of Cambodia to a constitutional democracy, the process was separated into six steps. As outlined by Harvard's Professor Stephen Mark in a report for the United States Institute of Peace, those steps were:
Annex V of the Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict, called Principles for a New Constitution for Cambodia, consisted of six principles that were to guide the drafters of the new Cambodian constitution in creating a liberal democracy. They were derived from a United Nations recommendation issued during the drafting of Namibia's constitution in 1982. Those Principles were:
The term "liberal democracy," as expressed in the fourth principle, was introduced to the discourse over the constitution apparently by Prince Sihanouk during previous negotiations with the warring Cambodian factions and international bodies. It has been speculated that he referred to his hopes for the future of Cambodia thus because he assumed that such language was what the American and European parties to the Accords were looking for. It has been noted that "liberal democracy" was far from the political system that he engineered for himself at independence. That term is nowhere in the final agreement defined, though eight elements of democratic elections are articulated. Those eight elements are: the regular occurrence of elections, "genuine" and manipulation-free elections, guarantee of the right to vote, guarantee of the right to stand for election, universal suffrage, equal suffrage (the equity of each vote), private and secret ballots and the fair ability of all persons and groups to organize for and participate in the electoral process through public discourse.
Constituent Assembly.
The Paris Peace Accord had provided for the election, under UNTAC, of a Constituent Assembly to draft the constitution according to the Six Principles. These elections were held between May 23 and May 28, 1993. Despite quite widespread threats of election-day violence from the Khmer Rouge and a series of assassinations and acts of intimidation on the part of members of most parties, participation was strong. Over 90% of registered voters, some 4.5 million Cambodians went to the polls across the country, more than half on the first day alone. On June 10 the results were certified as having been free and fair by the Special Representative of the secretary-General on the behalf of the Secretary-General and the United Nations. In a surprise electoral victory, FUNCINPEC lead the vote with 45%, which translated into 58 seats in the Constituent Assembly. The CPP followed with 38% or 51 seats. The BLDP won 3.7% or 10 seats, and the LDP and MOLINAKA each garnered 1.3% and one seat.
As per their UNTAC deadline, the Constituent Assembly began meeting to draft the Constitution on June 14 as the flag of the former Kingdom of Cambodia was raised. During its first session, the Assembly adopted a resolution making Prince Norodom Sihanouk the Head of State retroactive until 1970, thereby nullifying the 1970 coup d’état that had deposed him. The next day King Sihanouk in turn formed a Joint Administration (GNPC) with Prince Ranariddh of FUNCINPEC and Hun Sen of the CPP as Co-chairmen.
Writing of the constitution began on June 14 and proceeded slowly. By June 30, the constituent assembly had only elected a president and two vice presidents, and drafted its Rules of Procedure. The Assembly created within itself two committees for the drafting of the constitution. The first was the 13-member Committee on Drafting the Constitution which was chaired by BLDP leader Son Sann. The second was the committee on Rules and Procedures.
The drafting of the constitution continued apace, though the hot and wet Cambodian summer. In late August UNTAC was shown a draft of the constitution. It apparently gave unacceptable power to the chief of state and inadequate protection of the rights of citizens and foreign residents. The draft also lacked any provisions for an impartial and independent judiciary. Finally, UNTAC representatives found it lacking any prohibition against torture. Only some of the suggestions that UNTAC submitted were accepted and integrated into the constitution.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk and the Constitution.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk had, throughout the drafting process, sent conflicting messages to the Assembly and the Cambodian people regarding his approval of a return to monarchy. In interviews and letters, he gyrated widely between approving and even demanding a position as the head of state, and on the other hand insisting that the controversy of monarchy was too divisive for demoralized Cambodia.
Prince Sihanouk left for North Korea during the summer of the drafting of the constitution to pursue his favorite past time, filmmaking. In the first days of September a delegation representing FUNCINPEC and the CPP flew to Pyongyang. They brought with them two drafts of the constitution. One articulated a republic and the other, not so different, a constitutional monarchy. Following some dialogue, the Prince and the delegation agreed on the Constitutional Monarchy for Cambodia.
Ratification.
Five days of open discussion were held in September regarding the draft constitution. The discussions, finally held in the full Constituent Assembly, were followed widely and closely by a populace watching on televisions and listening on radios. Delegates to the Assembly agreed quite easily on the fundamental notion of a Constitutional Monarchy, but were in less agreement regarding some details. There was strong disagreement over whether to require a two-thirds majority for all legislation. The CPP was strongly in favor, as such a provision would guarantee them a continued stranglehold over Cambodian politics despite their electoral minority. Despite strong FUNCINPEC resistance, the CPP succeeded in maintaining the two-thirds threshold.
Restoration of the monarchy.
A final draft of the constitution for a constitutional monarchy in Cambodia was ratified by the Constituent Assembly on September 21. The constitution received the vote of far more than the two-thirds of the Assembly required to ratify, with 113 votes in favor of ratification, five against, and two abstentions. Prince Sihanouk signed the constitution into law on September 24, 1993, formally establishing the Kingdom of Cambodia. Prince Sihanouk was formally elected King of Cambodia and was sworn in on the same day in an austere ceremony of his own request. The oath was taken in the throne room, and Queen Monique was also sworn in as his consort. King Norodom Sihanouk bowed and smiled to the audience, dabbing lustral water behind his own ears, which paralleled the bathing rite in a Cambodian coronation.
In a deeply conciliatory gesture, the reinstated king hugged several Khmer Rouge soldiers who had just defected. First Prime Minister Prince Ranariddh, standing by, said, "There are no more red or yellow Khmers. There are just Khmers."


Architecture of Almaty

The city of Almaty (Kazakhstan) has notable examples of architecture, particularly from the 19th century period. These include characteristic designs in neo-Russian style from major architects including Andrei Pavlovich Zenkov, Paul Gourdet, and others.
Almaty is referred to as “The garden city” on account of its green plantations. During the 19th century, a large number of theatres, museums and apartment houses were built. The city’s apartment houses are called “Khrushchyovka” and “Stalinka” due to the peculiarities of architectural approaches in their construction.
History.
In 1854, the Tsarist government built a military fortification on the left bank of the Almaty river. The construction was supervised by Major Peremyshelsky and engineer-lieutenant Aleksandrovsky. By the autumn of the same year, construction work was completed.
From 1855, Russian settlers began to arrive to the city. With their arrival, the area of Almaty began to develop rapidly, and a few prominent buildings were constructed during this time including the Little Stanitsa and the Tatar Slobodka. In 1856, the "State Garden" (now the Central Park of Culture and Rest) was built. In 1857, the first water mill was built in the area of the Tatar Sloboda. Almaty also began to develop industry and crafts, including breweries, and wool factories.
On May 28, 1887 a major earthquake destroyed 1798 brick houses and killed 322 people. After the earthquake, numerous notable buildings were constructed including the House of the Regiment of Military Assembly, the Cathedral, the House of Public Assembly, and others.
In 1896, the Kyzyl Tan building was commissioned by the merchant Verny Iskhak Gabdulvaliev. The building is currently well known in Kazakhstan. Located on Zhibek Zholy Avenue, its structure is made up of lacy wooden cornices, figured columns on pediments, and scaly covering the dome crowned by a small spire. Its construction was concluded in 1912. The building was designed by architect Paul Gourdet, who is credited for most of Almaty’s urban architecture of the time. His approach to architecture involved a “new-Russian” style, which is evident in some of his designs including the Medical College, the Voznesensky Cathedral, the merchant Shakhvorostov's house, the former Women's College, the former City Orphanage, and numerous other buildings.
Andrei Pavlovich Zenkov is another prominent architect and major contributor to some of Almaty’s most notable buildings. He is credited to building Ascension Cathedral, the House of Gabdulvaliev (Tulebayev-Pasteur), the church house (on the north side of the Cathedral). He is also credited for redesigning the Men’s Gymnasium of Verny after it was destroyed by the 1887 earthquake. At the time, Zenkov was in charge of the construction projects of the Semirechye regional government. He developed the building’s wooden extensions. Professor of Architecture VA Nilsen noted that "... their architecture differs from the Tashkent original using stucco facades with a more subtle drawing of details carried out under the guidance of architect Gourde.”
The Pugasov Manor.
The Pugasov Manor in Almaty is located on Kirov and Kalinin Street. In 2000, it became a restaurant under the same name. In 2004, the historic building burned down. In its place, a new building was erected preserving the original Pugasovka layout.
French Consulate.
Almaty’s French Consulate was originally the house of the merchant dynasty of Shahvorostov. It is located on 99 Furmanov Street. The building was previously used as the commissariat of the Turkestan Territory, the Semirechensky sponge of the RCP (b), the medical school, the children's infectious hospital, the hospital, the medical museum and the US Embassy in Kazakhstan.


Punial State

Punial State was formerly a princely state (under the British it was a "Special Political District" of the Gilgit Agency and not a Princely State) in the northwest part of the Northern Areas which existed until 1974. The state bordered the Gilgit Tehsil to the south, the former princely state of Yasin to the west, Ishkoman to the north and Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor) to the northwest. The state capital was the town of Sher Qila. The area of Punial now forms the above named tehsil of Ghizer District.
Punial was an independent principality for several centuries. The British gained control of the area and the neighbouring valleys by mid 19th century followed by a military engagement of severe intensity. The first Rah of Punial was Isa Bagdur of katur Dynasty, succeeded by his son Akbar Khan, who in 1913 was deposed by the British and replaced by his son, Anwar Khan, succeeded in turn by his son Jan Alam.
Raja Nasir ul Din of puniyal.
Raja Nasir ul Din alias Jan Alam grandson of Esa Bahdur and the last ruler of Brosh dynasty in Punial.
Jan Alam sustained two out of three uprisings against the autocratic rule by people of Punial.
The first uprising was in 1895 which resulted in the First Constitution (Dastoor ul amal ) of Punial in 1898 by Raj.
Second uprising was instigated by father of Jan Alam (Raja Anwar Khan) the ruler himself to contain his cousin Khan Bahdur by depriving him from the privileges given in the first dastoor ul amal in 1935. This uprising resulted in amendments in the first dastoor and abolished various categories of people like Darkkhan, Raihat and gushpur etc.
The third uprising in 1951 was initiated by Syeds (father and uncle of Pir Karam Ali Shah). The uprising suppressed for the time being but it was converted into a movement and spread over to other regions like Nagar and resulted into end of autocratic rule in 1971 by Bhutto as part of his nationwide reforms by abolishing the princely states.
This area and other neighbouring states were never ruled directly by Kashmir.


Alexander Nikolaevich Manvelov

Alexander Nikolaevich Manvelov ( Alexandre Manvelishvili. ) (6 April 1824 – 2 April 1906) was a general of imperial Russia, Active Privy Councillor and a patron to several Russian civilian institutions.
Biography.
Alexander Manvelov (Manvelishvili) was born on 6 April 1824 into the noble Georgian family of Manvelishvili from Guria, then part of the Russian Empire. The family had been in Russian service since 1738. Alexander received education in a private boarding school and entered military service as non-commissioned officer in 1841.
On 11 January 1864 Manvelov was appointed commander of the Chuguyevsky Lancer regiment and got promoted to major general two years later. From 1869 to 1871 he was in charge of the Russian Leib Guard horse regiments and four years later from 27 July 1875 to 30 August 1885 he would be commanding the 8th Cavalry Division, and be elevated to the rank of lieutenant general in 1876.
During the Russo-Turkish War he led his division as vanguard of the 12th Army Corps and advanced through Iași and Bucharest towards the Danube river in order to establish a 60 kilometer line along its riverbed. His troops captured numerous Ottoman ferries that were to supply their fortified garrisons in Nikopol and Vidin. The same ships where then used to get the Russian army across the river. Manvelov and his division participated in numerous successful military operations in Bulgaria and then joined the war efforts in Turkey proper. For his actions general Manvelov received the Gold Sword for Bravery in 1879.
In 1885 the prince was promoted to General of the cavalry, one of the highest military ranks at that time and retired as commander in the reserve forces. On 1 August 1887 he became honorary patron in the Office of the Institutions of Empress Maria. He was also Active Privy Councillor and patron of the Saint Petersburg ophthalmic clinic and Smolny Institute. He died on 2 April 1906 in Saint Petersburg.
Awards.
Three times Order of Saint Vladimir

Three times Order of Saint Anna

Three times Order of Saint Stanislaus

Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky

Order of the White Eagle

Order of Philip the Magnanimous


Nationalist Democracy Party

Nationalist Democracy Party () was a former political party in Turkey.
Background.
About one year after the coup of 1980, all political parties were closed by the military regime, or the so-called National Security Council or () regardless of their political views, on 16 October 1981. For approximately one and half year, there were no legalised political parties. Finally, MGK decided to allow the formation of new parties with severe restrictions on their activities. National Democracy Party was the very first party to be founded in 1983.
The history.
The party was founded on 16 May 1983. The president of the party was Turgut Sunalp (1917-1999), a retired general who had also been Turkish ambassador to Canada between 1976-1983. MGK permitted only three parties to participate in the elections held on 6 November 1983. Contrary to expectations National Democracy Party could receive only 23.3% and became the smallest party in the parliament. The support further dropped to 7.1% in the local elections held on 25 March 1984. The rapid loss of support resulted in disintegration of the party. In the congress held on 13 July 1985 Ülkü Söylemezoğlu replaced Turgut Sunalp. On 4 May 1986 the party dissolved itself. The members formed three groups. 18 MPs attended Motherland Party and 22 MPs attended True Path Party. The rest founded a short lived party named Free Democratic Party ().


United Nations Security Council Resolution 939

United Nations Security Council resolution 939, adopted on 29 July 1994, after recalling all relevant resolutions on Cyprus, the Council discussed the implementation of confidence-building measures as part of a wider process to settle the Cyprus dispute.
The Council reaffirmed that the status quo was unacceptable, noting the United Nations position that there should be a single Cyprus consisting of two politically equal communities in a bi-communal and bi-zonal federation, excluding union with another country or secession.
The Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was requested to begin consultations with Security Council members, Guarantor Powers, and with leaders of the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus on ways to approach the Cyprus problem in a manner that would lead to results. In this context, all parties were urged to co-operate with the Secretary-General. A report was requested by the end of October 1994 concerning a programme for achieving an overall solution to the dispute and the implementation of the confidence-building measures.
Resolution 939 was adopted by 14 votes to none, while Rwanda was absent from the meeting.


Raven Crown

The Raven Crown (Dzongkha: དབུ་ཞྭ་བྱ་རོག་ཅན་; Wylie: "dbu-zhva bya-rog-can") is worn by the Kings of Bhutan. It is a hat surmounted by the head of a raven.
History.
The hereditary monarchy of the Wangchuck dynasty in the independent Himalayan State of Bhutan was established in 1907. The first king of the Wangchuck dynasty, "Gongsar" Ugyen Wangchuck (1862–1926), was a charismatic figure who came to power against a turbulent background of incessant and complex feuding in that chaotic warrior state.
He adopted as the unique symbol of his authority a satin and silk crown surmounted by the head of a raven. The bird represents a form of "Mahakala", Bhutan's guardian deity. The prototype of the founding monarch's Raven Crown had first been devised as a battle helmet for his father, Jigme Namgyel (1825–1881). Known as the Black Ruler, he had worn it in bloody struggles against his many rivals within the country and against the British who tried, unsuccessfully, to subdue him.
The story of the Wangchuck dynasty's rise and triumph moves from a picture of turmoil and chaos to one of relative peace and stability.
The Raven Crown today is the official crown worn by the Kings of Bhutan. The Raven is the national bird of Bhutan. The raven is known locally as "Jaroq". At one time it was a capital crime to kill a raven in Bhutan.
The satin and silk crown topped with an embroidered raven's head


Intharacha

Intharacha or In Racha (, ); ; "King Indra"), extended as Intharachathirat or In Rachathirat (, ; ; "King Indra of High Kings"), variably known as Nakhon In (, ; ; "Indra of City") and Nakharin (, ; ; "Indra of City"), was a Thai royal title historically given to rulers of Suphan Buri. It may refer to:


Aggabodhi V of Anuradhapura

Aggabodhi V was King of Anuradhapura in the 8th century, whose reign lasted from 726 to 732. He succeeded his father Manavanna as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his brother Kassapa III.


Lahuradewa

Lahuradewa (Lat. 26°46'12" N; Long. 82°56'59" E) is located in Sant Kabir Nagar District, in Sarayupar (Trans-Sarayu) region of the Upper Gangetic Plain in Uttar Pradesh state of India. The Sarayupar Plain is bounded by the Sarayu River in the west and south, Nepalese Terai in the north and the Gandak River in the east.
The site is noted to have been occupied as early as 9,000 BCE, and by 7,000 BCE it provides the oldest evidence of ceramics in South Asia.
Excavations reported earliest archaeological sites in South Asia for cultivation of rice, with Lahuradewa Period IA giving samples that were dated by AMS radiocarbon to the 7th millennium BCE.


George Hose

George Frederick Hose (3 September 1838 – 26 March 1922) was an Anglican clergyman, Bishop of Labuan and Sarawak from 1881 to 1909.
Hose was born on 3 September 1838 in Brunswick Place, Cambridge, the son of Frederick Hose, a clerk, and his wife, Mary Ann Knight. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he gained an MA and ordained in 1861. He began his career with curacies at Roxton and Marylebone. He was Chaplain of Malacca then Archdeacon of Singapore before his elevation to the Episcopate.
In 1877 he promoted the founding of the Straits Asiatic Society, later the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, and subsequently served as the society's president from 1878 to 1908.
He retired in 1909 and died on 26 March 1922. His son Edward Shaw Hose was a civil servant in Malaya and was also President of the Asiatic Society.


History of Bali

The history of Bali covers a period from the Paleolithic to the present, and is characterized by migrations of people and cultures from other parts of Asia. In the 16th century, the history of Bali started to be marked by Western influence with the arrival of Europeans, to become, after a long and difficult colonial period under the Dutch, an example of the preservation of traditional cultures and a key tourist destination.
Geological formation.
The island of Bali, like most of the islands of the Indonesian archipelago, is the result of the tectonic subduction of the Indo-Australian plate under the Eurasian plate. The tertiary ocean floor, made of ancient marine deposits including accumulation of coral reefs, was lifted above the sea level by the subduction. Layers of Tertiary limestone lifted from the ocean floor are still visible in areas such as the Bukit peninsula with the huge limestone cliffs of Uluwatu, or in the northwest of the island at Prapat Agung.
The local deformation of the Eurasian plate created by the subduction has encouraged the fissuring of the crust, leading to the appearance of volcanic phenomena. A string of volcanoes line the northern part of the island, along a west–east axis in which the western part is oldest, and the eastern part newest. The highest volcano is the active strato-volcano Mount Agung, at 3,142 m (10,308 ft).
Volcanic activity has been intense through the ages, and most of the surface of the island (outside of the Bukit Peninsula and Prapat Agung) has been covered by volcanic magma. Some old deposits remain (older than 1 million years), while most of the central part of the island is covered by young volcanic deposits (less than 1 million years), with some very recent lava fields in the northeast due to the catastrophic eruption of Mount Agung in 1963.
Volcanic activity, due to the thick deposits of ashes and the soil fertility it generates, has also been a strong factor in the agricultural prosperity of the island.
At the edge of the subduction, Bali is also at the edge of the continental Sunda shelf, just west of the Wallace line, and was at one time connected to the neighbouring island of Java, particularly during the lowering of the sea level in the Ice Ages. Its fauna and flora are therefore Asian.
Paleolithic and Mesolithic occupation.
Bali being part of the Sunda shelf, the island had been connected to the island of Java many times through history. Even today, the two islands are only separated by a 2.4 km Bali Strait.
The ancient occupation of Java itself is accredited by the findings of the Java man, dated between 1.7 and 0.7 million years old, one of the first known specimens of "Homo erectus".
Bali also was inhabited in Paleolithic times (1 my BCE to 200,000 BCE), testified by the finding of ancient tools such as hand axes were found in Sembiran and Trunyan villages in Bali.
A Mesolithic period (200,000-30,000 BCE) has also been identified, characterized by advanced food gathering and hunting, but still by Homo Erectus. This period yields more sophisticated tools, such as arrow points, and also tools made of animal or fish bones. They lived in temporary caves, such as those found in the Pecatu hills of the Badung regency, such as the "Selanding" and the "Karang Boma" caves. The first wave of Homo Sapiens arrived around 45,000 BCE as the Australoid people migrated south, replacing Homo Erectus.
Neolithic: Austronesian migrations (3000-600 BCE).
From around 3000 to 600 BCE, a Neolithic culture emerges, characterized by a new wave of inhabitants bringing rice-growing technology and speaking Austronesian languages. These Austronesian peoples seem to have migrated from South China, probably through the Philippines and Sulawesi. Their tools included rectangular adzes and red slipped decorated pottery.
Forests and jungles were cleared for the establishment of cultures and villages. They also made some plaited craft and a small boat was also found. Their culinary habits included pork-eating and betel-chewing. They are thought to have focused on mountain cults. They buried some of their more prestigious dead in oval stone sarcophagi, with human heads or zoomorphic figures sculpted on them. The bodies were either deposited in the sleeping position, or folded in two or three for compactness.
An important neolithic archaeological site in Bali is that of Cekik, in the western part of the island.
These same Austronesian people are thought to have continued their expansion eastward, to occupy Melanesian and Polynesian islands around 2000 years ago. The cultural traits of this period are still clearly visible in the culture of Bali today, and connect it to the cultures of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean.
Bronze Age: arrival of Dong Son culture (600 BCE-800 CE).
A Bronze Age period follows, from around 600 BCE to 800 CE. Between the 8th and 3rd century BCE, the island of Bali acquired the "Dong Son" metallurgical techniques spreading from Northern Vietnam. These techniques involved sophisticated casting from moulds, with spiral and anthropomorphic motifs. As mould fragments have been found in the area of Manuaba in Bali, it is thought that such implements were manufactured locally rather than imported. The raw material to make bronze (copper and tin) had to be imported however, as it is not available on Bali.
Numerous bronze tools and weapons were made (axes, cooking tools, jewellery), and ceremonial drums from that period are also found in abundance, such as the "Moon of Pejeng", the largest ceremonial drum yet found in Southeast Asia, dated to around 300 BCE.
The stone sarcophagi were still in use during that period, as bronze artefacts were also found in them.
Ancient historical period: Indianized kingdoms (800-1343 CE).
The ancient historical period is defined by the appearance of the first written records in Bali, in the form of clay pallets with Buddhist inscriptions. These Buddhist inscriptions, found in small clay stupa figurines (called "stupikas") are the first known written inscriptions in Bali and date from around the 8th century CE. Such stupikas have been found in the regency of Gianyar, in the villages of Pejeng, Tatiapi and Blahbatuh.
This period is generally closely associated with the arrival and expansion of Buddhism and Hinduism in the island of Bali. The Belanjong pillar ("Prasasti Blanjong") in southern Sanur was inscribed in 914 with the mention of the reign of the Balinese king Sri Kesari. It is written in both the Indian Sanskrit language and Old Balinese language, using two scripts, the Nagari script and the Old Balinese script (which is used to write both Balinese and Sanskrit). It is dated 4 February 914 CE according to the Indian Shaka calendar.
The stone temple of Goa Gajah was made around the same period, and shows a combination of Buddhist and Hindu (Shivaite) iconography.
Inter-marriages between Java and Bali royalty also occurred, as when king Udayana Warmadewa of the Warmadewa dynasty of Bali married a Javanese princess, sister of the Emperor of Java Dharmawangsa. Their son became the great ruler of East Java Airlangga, who ruled on both Java and Bali. In the 12th century, descendant of Airlangga are also known to have ruled over Bali, such as Jayasakti (1146–50) and Jayapangus (1178–81).
The island of Java again started to encroach significantly on Bali with the invasion of the Singhasari king Kertanegara in 1284, as reported in the Nagarakertagama (canto 42, stanza 1).
Contacts with China were also important during this period. Chinese coins, called "Kepeng" were in use in Bali from the 7th century. The traditional Barong is also thought to be derived from the Chinese depiction of a lion. According to recent Balinese legends, the 12th-century king Jayapangus of Bali is said to have married a Chinese princess.
Middle historical period: Majapahit dynastic rule (1343-1846).
Majapahit Golden Age.
The Majapahit Empire rule over Bali became complete when Gajah Mada, Prime Minister of the Javanese king, defeated the Balinese king in Bedulu in 1343. The Majapahit capital in Bali was established at Samprangan and later Gelgel. Gelgel remained the paramount kingdom on Bali until the second half of the 17th century.
The rule of the Majapahit marks the strong influx of Javanese culture into Bali, most of all in architecture, dance and the theatre, in literature with the introduction of the Kawi script, in painting and sculpture and the wayang puppet theatre. The few Balinese who did not adopt this culture are still known today as "Bali Aga" ("Original Balinese") and still live in a few isolated villages.
With the rise of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago, the Majapahit empire finally fell, and Bali became independent at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. According to some myth the Javanese aristocracy fled to Bali, bringing an even stronger influx of Hindu arts, literature and religion. According to later chronicles the dynasty of Majapahit origins, established after 1343, continued to rule Bali for 5 more centuries until 1908, when the Dutch eliminated it in the Dutch intervention in Bali (1908). In the 16th century, the Balinese king Dalem Baturenggong even expanded in turn his rule to East Java, Lombok and western Sumbawa.
Around 1540, together with the Islamic advance, a Hindu reformation movement took place, led by Dang Hyang Nirartha, leading to the introduction of the "Padmasana" shrine in honour of the "Supreme God" Acintya, and the establishment of the present shape of Shiva-worshipping in Bali. Nirartha also established numerous temples, including the spectacular temple at Uluwatu.
European contacts.
The first direct or indirect news of Bali by some European travelers can be traced back to Marco Polo and other possible travelers and traders via the Mediterranean Sea and Asia.
The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão reached its northern coast. It was the first expedition of a series of biannual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century usually traveled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition.
The Magellan expedition (1519–1522), through Elcano, is thought to have possibly sighted the island, and early Portuguese and Spanish charts mention the island under various names such as "Boly", "Bale" and "Bally". Sir Francis Drake briefly visited the island in 1580.
In 1585, the Portuguese government in Malacca sent a ship to establish a fort and a trading post in Bali, but the ship foundered on the reef of the Bukit peninsula and only five survivors could make it ashore. They went into the service of the king of Gelgel, known as the Dalem, and were provided with wives and homes.
In 1597, the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived in Bali with 89 surviving men (out of 249 who had departed). After visits to Kuta and Jembrana, he assembled his fleet in Padang Bai. Enthusiastic, he christened the island "Young Holland" ("Jonck Hollandt"). They were able to meet with the Dalem, who produced for them one of the Portuguese who had been in his service since 1585, Pedro de Noronha.
A second Dutch expedition appeared in 1601, that of Jacob van Heemskerck. On this occasion, the Dalem of Gelgel sent a letter to Prince Maurits, a translation of which was sent by Cornelis van Eemskerck. This letter was subsequently used by the Dutch in their claims to the island:
Slave and opium trade.
Dutch records of contacts with Bali in the 17th and 18th century are extremely scarce. Although the VOC was very active in the Maluku Islands, Java and Sumatra, it took little interest in Bali. The opening of a trading post was attempted in 1620, with the mission given to the First Merchant Hans van Meldert to purchase "rice, beasts, provisions, and women". The enterprise was abandoned in the face of hostile relations with the kings of Bali, and Meldert returned with only 14 female slaves.
Besides these attempts, the VOC left the Bali trade to private traders, mainly Chinese, Arab, Bugis and occasionally Dutch, who mainly dealt with opium and slave trade. According to Hanna, "Balinese slaves were highly prized both in Bali and overseas. Balinese male slaves were famous for their manual skills and their courage, the females for their beauty and artistic attainments".The kings of Bali would typically sell as slaves opponents, debtors, criminals or even orphans or widows. Such slaves would be used in Batavian households, the Dutch Colonial Army, or sent abroad, the biggest market being French Mauritius. Payment to the Balinese kings would usually be made in opium. The main port for this trade was the harbour of Buleleng in north Bali.The English also started to make various attempts to participate in the Balinese trade, to the great worry of the Dutch.
Local conflicts.
Attempts were made for alliances between the Dutch and the Balinese in their conflicts with the Mataram Sultanate of Java. In 1633, the Dutch, who were themselves at war with Mataram sent an ambassador, Van Oosterwijck, to obtain the collaboration of the King of Bali in Gelgel, who was apparently preparing a similar offensive against Mataram. The attempt failed however. When Mataram invaded Bali in 1639, Dewa Agung requested Dutch help in vain, and finally succeeded in repelling Mataram alone. After 1651 the Gelgel kingdom began to break up due to internal conflicts. In 1686 a new royal seat was established in Klungkung, four kilometers north of Gelgel. The rulers of Klungkung, known by the title Dewa Agung, were however unable to maintain power over Bali. The island was in fact split in nine minor kingdoms (Klungkung, Buleleng, Karangasem, Mengwi, Badung, Tabanan, Gianyar, Bangli, Jembrana). The various kingdoms fought a succession of wars among themselves, although they accorded the Dewa Agung a symbolic paramount status. This situation lasted until the coming of the Dutch in the 19th century.
Franco-Dutch alliance with Bali (1808).
For a brief period, in 1806–1815, the Netherlands became a province of France, and Bali was thus in contact with a Franco-Dutch administration. Napoleon handpicked a new Governor-General, the "Iron Marshall" Willem Daendels, sent ships and troops to reinforce the East Indies against British attacks, and had military fortifications built through the length of Java. A treaty of alliance was signed in 1808 between the new administration and the Balinese king of Badung, to provide workers and soldiers for the Franco-Dutch defensive effort, but Java fell to the British in 1811, and the agreement was not implemented.
Conflict with Great Britain (1814).
During the British occupation of the East Indies by Stamford Raffles (which lasted from 1811 until 1816, right after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire), the British made fruitless advances to the Balinese kings. Raffles' abolition of slavery on the contrary triggered the indignation of the Rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem, who sent a military expedition against Blambangan, where they fought British Sepoys in February 1814. In May, Raffles sent an expeditionary force to Bali under Major General Nightingale to obtain assurances of "submission".> Raffles himself visited the island in 1815.
Return of the Netherlands (1816).
The British returned the East Indies to the Netherlands in 1816. After that, the Dutch endeavoured to reassert and reinforce their control over their colonial possessions. This would open the way to a much more assertive Dutch presence in the East Indies and Bali. Raffles, still looking for an island to colonize, finally settled on Singapore.
A first special commissioner named H.A. van der Broek was sent to sign "concept contracts" with the Balinese kings, which the kings did not accept, but became quasi-valid in the mind of the Dutch.
Meanwhile, a few European traders managed to act as intermediaries between Bali and Europe, such as the Danish merchant Mads Lange, nicknamed the "White king of Bali".
Modern historical period (1846-present).
Dutch colonial control expanded across the Indonesian archipelago in the nineteenth century, to become the Dutch East Indies. In Bali, the Dutch used the pretext of eradicating opium smuggling, arms running, plunder of shipwrecks, and slavery to impose their control on Balinese kingdoms.
Northern Bali campaigns (1846-49).
A series of three military expeditions occurred between 1846 and 1849; the first two were initially countered successfully by Jelantik. The "kingdoms of Buleleng and Bangli waged continuous disputes, and in 1849 Bangli assisted the Dutch in their military expedition against Buleleng", permitted the Dutch to take control of the northern Bali kingdoms of Buleleng and Jembrana. The king of Buleleng and his retinue killed themselves in a mass ritual suicide, called a "puputan", which was also a hallmark of the subsequent Dutch military interventions.
Colonial administration.
Subsequently, the Dutch established a colonial administration in northern Bali. They nominated a member of the royal family as regent, and attached to him a Dutch Controller.
The first resident Controller was Heer van Bloemen Waanders, who arrived in Singaraja on 12 August 1855. His main reforms included the introduction of vaccination, the banning of self-sacrifice or "suttee", the eradication of slavery, the improvement of the irrigation system, the development of coffee production as a cash crop, the construction of roads, bridges and port facilities for improved commerce and communication. The Dutch also drastically revamped and increased the tax revenues from the people and from commerce, especially of opium. By the mid-1870, Buleleng was visited by 125 European-style ships annually, and another 1,000 local ships. Christianization was attempted but proved a total failure.
Uprising occurred, necessitating further Dutch intervention. In 1858, the Balinese nobleman Njoman Gempol raised a rebellion by claiming that the Dutch were exploiting Java. A fourth military expedition was sent in 1858 with 12 officers and 707 infantrymen and eliminated the rebellion, sentencing Njoman Gempol to exile in Java.
Another rebellion was led by Ida Mahe Rai against which was sent a fifth military expedition in 1868, consisting of 800 men under Major van Heemskerk. Initially unsuccessful, the expedition was reinforced by 700 men and a new commander, Colonel de Brabant, and prevailed with only two officers and 10 soldiers killed.
Lombok and Karangasem campaign (1894).
In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control. A war of the Rajas between 1884 and 1894 gave another pretext to the Dutch to intervene. In 1894, the Dutch defeated the Balinese ruler of Lombok, adding both Lombok and Karangasem to their possessions.
Southern Bali campaigns (1906-08).
A few years later, with the pretext of stopping the plundering of shipwrecks, the Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 in the Dutch intervention in Bali (1906), leading to the elimination of the royal house of Badung and about 1000 deaths. In the Dutch intervention in Bali (1908), a similar massacre occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung, sealing the end of the Majapahit dynasty which had ruled the island, and the total rule of the Dutch over Bali. Afterwards the Dutch governors were able to exercise administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture was generally left intact.
The Dutch military interventions however were followed closely by the western press which supplied a steady stream of reports of the violent, bloody conquest of the southern part of the island. The disproportion between the offense and harshness of the punitive actions was pointed out. The image of the Netherlands as a benevolent and responsible colonial power were seriously affected as a consequence. The Netherlands, also under criticism for their policies in Java, Sumatra and the eastern island, decided to make amends, and announced the establishment of an "Ethical policy". As a consequence, the Dutch in Bali turned students and protectors of Balinese culture and endeavoured to preserve it in addition to their initial modernization role. Efforts were made at preserving Bali culture and at making it a "living museum" of classical culture, and in 1914, Bali was opened to tourism.
In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature", and western tourism first developed on the island.
Second World War and Indonesian independence.
Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II with the declared objective of forming a "Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere" that would liberate Asian countries from Western domination. Future rulers such as Sukarno were brought forward by the Japanese. Sukarno famously said: "The Lord be praised, God showed me the way; in that valley of the Ngarai I said: Yes, Independent Indonesia can only be achieved with Dai Nippon...For the first time in all my life, I saw myself in the mirror of Asia". The harshness of war requisitions made Japanese rule more resented than Dutch rule. Most of all, independence was strongly desired among the populace.
Following Japan's Pacific surrender in August 1945, the Balinese took over the Japanese weapons. The following month Bali was liberated by the British and Indian 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender. Once the Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year.
The Dutch with their return to Indonesia reinstated their pre-war colonial administration. One Balinese, Colonel Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai, by then 29 years old, rallied his forces in east Bali at Marga Rana, where they were trapped by heavily armed Dutch troops. On 20 November 1946, in the Battle of Margarana, the Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance.
In 1946 the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the United States of Indonesia when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province.
Post Indonesian independence.
The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be "transmigrated" to different parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting these traditional values. Politically, this was represented by opposing supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs.
An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto. The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population. With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members. As a result of the 1965-66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency, and his "New Order" government re-established relations with western countries.
The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form, and the resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country. Rather than destroy Bali's culture, "in Bali's case, tourism has helped to reinforce a separate sense of Balinese identity, and given Balinese players in Indonesian society the means by which to support their island's idea of uniqueness".
In 1999, about 30,000 hotel rooms were available for tourists. As of 2004, the island achieves over 1,000,000 visitors per year, versus an initial "planned" level of 500,000 visitors, leading to overdevelopment and environmental deterioration: ""The result has been polluted and eroded beaches, shortages of water, and a deterioration "of the quality of life of most Balinese". Political trouble has also affected the island, as the bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely affected tourism, bringing much economic hardship to the island.
Professor Adrian Vickers wrote in 2004 that "the challenge of the twenty-first century will be to restore tourism while making Bali livable". Tourism has strongly picked up again, with a 28% increase in the first quarter of 2008 with 446,000 arrivals. By the end of 2008, tourism in Bali had fully recovered, with more than 2 million visitors, but the long term livability of Bali, plagued with overdevelopment and traffic jams, remains an issue.


Silakala Ambosamanera of Anuradhapura

Silakala Ambosamanera was King of Anuradhapura in the 6th century, whose reign lasted from 526 to 539. He succeeded his father Upatissa II as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his son Dathappabhuti.


Hachimanyama Kofun (Maebashi)

The is a Kofun period burial mound located in what is now the Asakura neighborhood of the city of Maebashi, Gunma Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1949.It is one of the Asakura-Hirose Kofun Cluster of over 150 tumuli from the 4th to 6th century in the foothills of Mount Akagi, which also includes the Maebashi Futagoyama Kofun.
Overview.
The Hachimanyama Kofun is located almost parallel to the right bank of the Hirose River, and is orientated facing southeast. It is a , which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above, with a total length of 130 meters, making it one of the largest in the Kantō region. It can be dated to the latter half of the 4th century AD due to a layer of pumice ash that was deposited by an eruption of Mount Asama found under the tumulus. The surface was originally covered in "fukiishi", some of which towards the bottom of the mound are unusually large. No "haniwa" have been uncovered. The tumulus appears to have had a shallow moat with a width of 25 to 30 meters. Although the detailed structure of the mound has not been investigated yet, it is believed to have a gravel-lined burial chamber. Due to finds in ongoing investigations, the area covered by the National Historic Site designation was extended in 1980, again in 2003, and again in 2020.


Pigranes

Pigranes was a 4th-century Sasanian military officer active during the reign of Shapur II (). According to Ammianus Marcellinus, on 29 May 363, when the forces of the Roman Emperor Julian () besieged the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon, Pigranes along with his fellow officers Narseus and Surena were defeated and forced to flee to the interior of the city walls.


Flag of Kamchatka Krai

The flag of Kamchatka Krai, in the Russian Federation, is a horizontal bicolour of white and blue charged with an emblem. The emblem is a modification of the Coat of arms of Kamchatka Krai: three snow-capped volcano peaks on the backdrop of a red sun framed by an ornament.
The flag was adopted in February, 2010 by the Legislative Assembly of Kamchatka Krai, and came into use July 1, 2010.
Before 2007 the territory that is now Kamchatka Krai was two federal subjects called Kamchatka Oblast and Koryak Autonomous Okrug and thus their respective flags were used instead.


Kawayan Torogan

The Kawayan "Torogan (also Torogan sa Kawayan")" "is a traditional Maranao "torogan" (house) built by Sultan sa Kawayan Makaantal in Bubung Malanding, Marantao, Lanao del Sur. Being the last standing example of the house of the elite members of the Maranao tribe, and the only remaining habitable "torogan, "it was declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines in 2008. The location of the structure is in Marawi City according to a 2008 declaration, however, the location was shifted into Marantao in 2015 according to another declaration. The recently updated 2018 PRECUP currently states that the Kawayan Torogan is in Pompongan-a-marantao, a barangay (village) of Marawi City, not of Marantao town. The confusion has caused scholars to push for the declaration of the kawayan torogan in Marantao as a National Cultural Treasure, as well. The National Commission for Culture and the Arts has no official statement regarding the issue yet.
Features of the Torogan.
A "torogan, "which literally translates as "a place for sleeping”, is the stately house of elite members of the Maranao tribe in the province of Lanao del Sur in the island of Mindanao, Philippines. As the house of the "datu" or "sultan", it is a symbol of status and leadership. It is known for its traditional vernacular architecture, the pre-Islamic style tracing to Indian architectural influence; and has been called "the prime example of the architectural genius of Filipinos". This style of great-house has a single large hall with no permanent partitions and is divided only into sleeping areas under a widely flaring, ridged roof. Its dominant feature is the unique floor end beams, known as "panolongs", which have butterfly-shaped projections and are carved alternately with the traditional Maranao symbols of "niaga or naga" (serpent or dragon) and "pako rabong armalis" (asymmetrical growing fern). Unique designs through carvings and paintings are also found on the house's facade panels and interior posts. It is built above the ground using massive tree trunks on rounded boulders as a measure against earthquake, wood rot and infestation of termites. It also includes the "gibon" or "paga" known as the room of the datu's daughter; the "bilik", a hiding place at the back of the sultan’s headboard. Entrance is usually located near the datu's bed.
"Torogan "also serves as a courthouse and hall for community meetings and its courtyard as ritual areas for weddings and coronations. It also embodies the height of the "okir" decorative tradition.
Declaration as a National Cultural Treasure.
Under Presidential Decree No. 374, which amends certain sections of Republic Act no. 4846 or "The Cultural Properties Preservation and Protection Act", the National Museum is one of the lead agencies tasked to declare National Cultural Treasures. The declaration for the Kawayan "Torogan "was made through Museum Declaration no. 4 in 2008.
The specifically declared "torogan" known as the Kawayan "torogan "is the last standing example of traditional Maranao vernacular architecture in the Philippines and the only remaining habitable "torogan" there.
Current state.
Unfortunately, the Kawayan "torogan" needs immediate rehabilitation. Some parts of the house were reported to be collapsed. In an architectural documentation of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, the complete rehabilitation would need the government to allocate ₱ 2.5 million. Aside from the Kawayan torogan, many other torogans in Lanao are in the same condition, prompting conservationists to campaign for their restorations. However, with the lack of a Department of Culture, the money needed for the restorations are far-fetched. In 2016, a bill seeking to formally establish a Department of Culture was filed in Congress. The bill is expected to pass into law in 2019.


Dabha, Gujarat

Dabha is a town and former Koli Princely State in Gujarat, western India.
History.
Dabha was a Fifth princely state and taluka, comprising eight more villages, covering twelve square miles in Mahi Kantha.
It had a population of 1,307 in 1901, yielding a state revenue of 4,379 Rupees (mostly from land), paying tributes of 150 Rupees to the Gaikwar Baroda State and 53 Rupees to the nearby Amliyara State.