Ducoudray Holstein Expedition

The Ducoudray Holstein Expedition was an attempt by commercial interests to invade Puerto Rico and declare it the independent "Republica Boricua" in 1822.
In the 1820s there was a plot to invade Puerto Rico, declare its independence from Spain, proclaim the Republica Boricua and establish its capital in Mayagüez. This invasion was different from all its precursors since none before had intended to make Puerto Rico an independent nation, and use the Taino name Boricua as the name of the republic. It was also intended more as a mercantile venture than a patriotic endeavor. It was the first time an invasion intended to make the city of Mayagüez the capital of the island.
The enterprise was conceived and carefully planned, organized and directed as a for-profit commercial enterprise by general Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein, a Germano-French veteran of the Napoleonic wars and of the Bolivarian wars.
Background.
In 1819, Ducoudray Holstein moved to Curaçao, there he began socializing with wealthy French foreigners living in western Puerto Rico that conducted business with Curaçao. These foreigners resented the restrictions on commerce and sea transportation by the Spanish Authorities on the island as a consequence to the insurgent activities of Simon Bolivar in Venezuela. They courted Ducoudray because of his military experience, with the intention of making him interested in leading an armed movement to invade Puerto Rico to convert the island into a republic. For this thus group of foreigners would give him support in any way possible and they counted on a simultaneous general rebellion organized by them amongst the black slaves of the island. Even though they counted on the help of the slaves, the political program of the República Boricua, inspired on European Republican Ideals, it did not include the emancipation of the slaves.
While Ducoudray Holstein was in Curaçao he was visited by numerous men including: A. Mattei (“Matthey”), a businessman of French origin with connections in Puerto Rico, George Curiel a Jewish businessman established beforehand in Saint Thomas who in 1819 would return to his native Curaçao, a sailor whose surname was Bouyet, believed to be Juan Bautista Buyé, a contrabandist of French origin and a collaborator of Roberto Cofresí (a beach in Cabo Rojo bears his name). Ducoudray also socialized with a lawyer from the United States called Baptiste Irvine, and editor for the "New York Columbian", who would later be a diplomatic agent of the US in Chile. Irvine maintained contacts in Curaçao with Marcow, one of the Marcovich brothers and immigrant sailors from Ragusa, Yugoslavia, who also resided in Curaçao.
On March 1, 1822 Ducoudray moved from Curaçao to Saint Tomas, where he had been before, and on April 6, 1822 he obtained there a passport to Puerto Rico. On April 20, 1822 the Curacayian Francis de Chelo informed the mayor of Aguadilla, don Juan Martínez de Acevedo, about a conspiracy of insurgent corsairs that were organizing in the Venezuelan port of La Guaira, that was composed of three mayor ships and four “flecheras”. Each one of those ships would transport three hundred men for disembarking, furthermore the ones that would be brought in the “flecheras” to take the ports of Ponce and Aguada. Afterward on May 18, 1822 the mayor of Aguadilla informed everything to Coronel don José Navarro, Superior Political Chief, “Intendente General” and Interim Governor of the island.
Preparations.
Ducoudray Holstein's expedition found economic support in Fajardo, Naguabo, Guayama, Mayagüez and Hormigueros, in Puerto Rico, and in Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore and New York City. He also found a group of experienced officers, and troops ready in an instant to begin the invasion. The Ducoudray Holstein expedition obtained financial support from influential people through wealthy foreigners in Puerto Rico, and other influential sectors in the United States. The expedition was expensive, but the support he received was plentiful. Included were a number of large well-armed ships, whose owners knew the risk that ran their ships taking part in this bellicose endeavor. The troops were mercenary forces whose officers where French.
In the course of these efforts Ducoudray and his family moved to San Tómas in the Danish Virgin Islands. From there Ducoudray traveled to Philadelphia in the United States where he found much support and hired several ships. On August 10, 1822, don Juan Leamy, the Spanish Vice-Consul in Philadelphia, reported that a Frenchman surnamed "Wischaur" was recruiting 200 men for an expedition. The secret agent in Puerto Rico for the expedition was Peter Dubois, a mulatto, native from Guadeloupe, living in Daguao, a barrio of Naguabo. In Philadelphia, Ducoudray and Irvine, alongside forty other persons leased a brig, the "Mary", for $20,000 from its owner Thomas Wattson, who knew the purpose of the expedition. The Mary was armed with two cannons. They also leased a Dutch brig, the Eendracht. They acquired numerous rifles, pistols, cartridges, gunpowder and other munitions of war, a cargo of flour and left Philadelphia en route to the Antilles in August 1822. A boat from Baltimore and one from New York will also join them on the high seas.
Three neighbors from Fajardo appeared on September 13, 1822 before Don Francisco González de Linares, first Civil Governor of Puerto Rico, to inform him that they had discovered the existence of a revolutionary movement for the independence of the island, this movement had support abroad and had many followers on the island, among whom was a resident Frenchman from Fajardo called don Pedro Dubois; Derzá, a Dutchman from Guayama and José Vicente Roman, a Saint Tomas resident of Puerto Rico since 1811. After June 26, 1821 when an insurgent squadron led by a such Villanueva had appeared in view of the port of Mayagüez intending to seize the port battery and set fire to the city, all of Puerto Rico remained on alert. On that occasion the insurgents were rejected by the neighbors of Mayagüez. The military Department of Western Puerto Rico (which covered from Aguadilla to Guayanilla), the Spanish army had 29 individuals assigned to Mayaguez and Aguadilla forts, but it was obvious that such defenses were completely inadequate. By 1822, in the neighboring Danish island of San Tomas there were heightened rumors of an invasion to Puerto Rico, island in which fields and coasts were being carefully monitored in order to avoid the formation and organization of expeditionary groups that could launch an attack against it.
Under instructions, seven hundred citizens of France and Germany, under the orders of the Ducoudray Holstein had departed from Boston, headed to the island of San Tomas with nine schooners to form an expedition against Puerto Rico. The Ducoudray expedition arrived on September 16, 1822, at the Swedish island of San Bartolomé (France gave the island to Sweden in 1784) and there it left the Selina and the Andrew Jackson, vessels which were part of the expedition. Ducoudray wanted to go first to La Guaira in two boats to find Colombian reinforcements, but it was not necessary to bring these. Meanwhile, Simon Bolivar launched his first call for a congress to meet representatives of the Hispanic peoples of the Americas to join efforts and finish his liberating work. On board the Brig "Mary", which brought 125 men under his command, Ducoudray Holstein wrote a letter to Mr. Boyé asking him to get the money required from Curiel to recruit one hundred men, indicating that once the boats returned from Mayagüez he would send 300 Daalders to his wife through an agent of the republic, may it be Curiel or anyone else.
Spanish authorities in Puerto Rico were well aware of what was happening, because the Governor of San Bartolomé, Johan Norderling, told them two brigantines and a schooner - part of the expedition commanded by Ducoudray Holstein, consisting of eight to nine ships with four hundred to five hundred men, six thousand rifles and large collection of gear to attack Puerto Rico - had arrived from New York and Boston to the island of San Bartolomé, which was a neutral port and a base of operations accessible to all, bound for the Dutch Island of Curaçao. They preferred to wait for the expedition to take shape and for all the involved vessels to meet in the Antilles. Another communication from New York reported Puerto Rican authorities that some local separatists had forwarded the sum of twenty-four thousand pesos to finance the costs of this expedition. Furthermore, all this was then confirmed by reports of don , Commander of the base of Puerto Cabello in Costa Firme; of the Count of Ligny, Spanish agent in Santómas; don Juan Leamy, Spanish Vice-Consul in Philadelphia; and the Secretary of State in Madrid.
Disclosure and arrests in Curacao.
In the midst of his journey between San Bartolomé island and the port of La Guaira (Venezuela), Ducoudray and Irvine confronted a storm and rough seas which caused failures in two ships and forced them to change their plans. The owners of vessels decided to interrupt his trajectory and enter the port of Curaçao, where they arrived on September 21, 1822. The Brig Eendracht came under the command of Captain Gold, and the Brig, the Mary came under the command of captain Aaron Burns, commissioned by Ducoudray as captain of the Boricua Navy. Ducoudray and Irvine arrived in Curaçao in the company of a manager, five colonels, one hundred officers and many other Frenchmen which would integrate his projected expedition Puerto Rico, and with a good number of young men from the United States who, as mercenaries, would form part of the same expedition. For the most part these were respectable citizens. Among them was P. Heiliger, probably of the same Heyliger family from the island of San Eustaquio which was very prominent in Santa Cruz and was well established in Hormigueros and the northern coast of Mayagüez. Dutch authorities in Curaçao under pressure from the Spanish authorities in Puerto Rico decided to intervene. The Brig the Eendracht arrived credited by fake Dutch papers as a result Governor Paul R. Cantzlaar, Secretary William Prince, judge Serurier (Daniel Serurier, President of the Curaçao Tribunal of Justice), the Chief Executive Prosecutor Mr. Isaac James Rammelmann Elsevier, proceeded to confiscate the ship. The other brig, the Mary, in different circumstances, since its papers were in order, but it was also loaded in men and arms, was also intervened and put under surveillance by the Dutch authorities. Ducoudray, who had disembarked and was staying in attorney Elsevier house as a guest was arrested on September 23, 1822 and authorities occupied the valuable cargo of weapons that they brought. Also the proclamations and other documents that incorporated the true nature of their business and plans of landing by Añasco, where they would be joined by the men gathered by Peter Dubois in Puerto Rico to then take the city Mayagüez by military force, which was destined to establish the headquarters initially and then the Council of State and the capital city of the Boricua Republic.
Disembarking the valuable cargo of Ducoudray expedition ships, Curaçao's Dutch authorities found 6,000 rifles, 500 carbines, 150 pairs of pistols, 12 campaign cannons, 6 campaign gun carriages, 200 mounts, 15 cartridges barrels, 60 barrels of gunpowder and two boxes, one containing printed proclamations prepared in advance to be used as goals of the invasion were being achieved, and which revealed the purpose of the expedition, and the other filled with Cockades of four colors for the clothing of the expeditionary forces. It is likely that other vessels that were part of the expedition and never came to Curaçao were captured by general don Francisco Tomás Morales Spanish field marshal.
The Danish Governor of San Tomas; Peter Carl Frederick von Sholten wrote on October 8, 1822 to the Governor and Captain General of Puerto Rico don Miguel de la Torre, who had only a month in Office, offering information about the mulattos Pierre "Bidet" and Louis or François "Pinau" and telling him that the projected expedition had been prepared by a Frenchman called "Tonet", who in the past had been Governor of Guadalupe and was now a well-known agent of then Haitian President Jean Pierre Boyer. Peter Dubois was arrested by the authorities of Puerto Rico which occupied important documents. He was tried for the crime of conspiracy with foreigners, found guilty and executed on October 12, 1822 in the presence of slaves from several ingenios involved in the plot, in Guayama and in the vicinity of Añasco, place chosen by Ducoudray Holstein to carry out the landing of troops because of its lack of fortifications with artillery and its convenient proximity to Mayaguez.
Republica Boricua.
The expedition called for the proclamation of the República Boricua or Boricua Republic in Spanish. The word Boricua came from Boriken, the Taino name for the island of Puerto Rico.
One of the documents the plotters prepared beforehand was a "Solemn act of the Declaration of Independence" there they wrote: "“The Spanish government has given us the most forcible proofs of its tyranny, its bad faith, and of its incapacity to protect and to govern us”". In the same document they held the Spanish king responsible for treating: "“us a subjects, as slaves; it has been deaf to our just and lawful remonstrances,”" and later writing that "“Fully impressed with these truths, we declare solemnly before the Almighty God, before the whole Universe, that we are resolved to suffer a similar tyranny no longer. A free, independent, and wise Government will give us happiness, strength, and consistency”". Later on the declaration appoints the general-in-chief of the expedition (Ducoudray-Holstein) as president and provisional civil, political, and military chief until a National Congress could be assembled to discuss the project of a constitution and the installation of legislative, judicial, and executive powers.
Another document of Ducoudray-Holstein comprised orders to the officers of the expedition. It informed them "“to cause the inhabitants to forget that you are strangers”." He maintained that the soldiers try to learn Spanish, and to be virtuous by not using foul language, not drinking and not partaking in games of chance. The Republica Boricua was going to give people full citizenship, equality of rights and duties, regardless of" “their skin color, their religion, and their birth place.”" Foreigners Americans; regardless of color, would make part of this new republic. The new republic was also envisioned of being made up of" “thousands of foreigners” "that would arrive.
The new republic would have a constitution. It would give equality to citizens of the new nation including freedom of religion. The new country would open its ports and its custom fees would be low. The republic's organization was also envisioned by the plotters. Each municipal council would send a deputy to the central council. Also political prisoners arrested by the Spanish would be liberated. On the other hand, the slave population of the island would not be freed since that would mean the collapse of the local economy. The government would be a liberal one, and in some time a congress and an improved constitution would be drafted. There would be separation of the three powers.
Mayagüez, capital of the Boricua Republic.
Apart from Mayagüez being the cradle and the capital of the Freemasons in Puerto Rico, which was perhaps the best source of support and contacts, general Ducoudray Holstein had many reasons to make the capital of the Republic Boricua, Mayagüez since in the western area of Puerto Rico resided many of their more affluent advocates, it had a significant French population, given that it was the site where many French immigrants who managed to flee the French Saint Domingue were established. Furthermore, the Bay of Mayagüez was the largest and had one of the best ports of the island, the Ensenada of Mayagüez had the largest and fastest-growing population in Puerto Rico. The city lacked fortifications which could impede the invasion, and its port was the most active on the island, which, for being so distant from San Juan, would take longer for the Spanish forces to reach from the capital of San Juan.
Trials.
Ducoudray Holstein and Baptiste Irvine were judged in Curaçao during more than ten months as mercenaries and for disturbing the peace for sailing using false Dutch papers. Ducoudray claimed he had always kept well aware of the nature of his expedition to the Governor of Curaçao, and their damaged vessels had sought an emergency shelter in the neutral port of Curaçao, and that he was entitled to receive an equal treatment as another distinguished traveler in a foreign country, therefore had done nothing that deserved to deprive him of his liberty or his right to receive the hospitality of the place. He indicated that if Curaçao was neutral, there was no cause or reason to stop him nor to seize anything, because his expedition was not aimed against the Netherlands. He also pointed out that his accusers were a gang of bandits and pimps and that everything the Governor and his henchmen were interested in was to enrich themselves unfairly staying with ships, money, load, the accoutrements of war and other spoils of the Ducoudray Holstein expedition, which had cost more than 150,000 Rijksdaalders, excluding the value of the ships, all in clear detriment of prestige in the Netherlands. This gave rise to the most damaging murmurings and was public scandal.
The Civil Governor of Puerto Rico, Gonzalez de Linares insistently claimed shipment of Ducoudray - Holstein and other prisoners to Puerto Rico, but Dutch authorities in Curaçao refused to do so. Eventually Ducoudray Holstein and Baptiste Irvine were found guilty, sentenced to death and their possessions were confiscated by the Dutch authorities because of their alleged criminal acts. Ducoudray Holstein expressed that he did not fear for his life, because their executioners would not dare kill him when everyone knew that there was no evidence to justify such a thing. In fact, Leonard Sistare, who was convicted of altering the paper of the brig The Eendracht, had been allowed to leave Curaçao without receiving punishment or suffering any penalty.
When Ducoudray Holstein and Irvine appealed to the Superior Court of The Hague in the Netherlands, the appeal was denied. Then they requested a reconsideration of that judgment and this resource was also denied, but discomfort and the public outcry grew in such a way and came to have such a magnitude that the Governor, informed by his spies, instructed the President of the Court to grant the appeal. When everything seemed lost for them, they were granted that third appeal. Then the King of the Netherlands, William I of Orange-Nassau, received the advice of his Council of State and pardoned them, probably due to the influences of Lafayette and the government of the United States, which immediately allowed Ducoudray Holstein to immigrate to their country. The Minister of The Colonies of the Netherlands ordered the Governor of Curaçao to suspend all legal proceedings, which should be annulled and their records destroyed, that the accused be treated according to their ranks and education, released and that their expenses be paid until they reach a place chosen by them.
Aftermath.
When deported, Ducoudray Holstein sailed to the United States while Irvine, who was American, decided to move to Caracas, where he remained until 1824, when he moved to Puerto Cabello, the most important stronghold of Venezuela.
The President of the United States, James Monroe and John Quincy Adams, the United States Secretary of State, denied any involvement in this matter on the other hand three major U.S. citizens, including Sergeant Major Andrews, a former officer of the Army and Mr. Agnew, an influential landowner and ship owner who provided a good part of the funds for the expedition, and Mr. Baptiste Irvine who was the second in command of the Ducoudray expedition.
On April 5, 1824 Ducoudray arrived in New York City with María del Carmen, his wife and his sons decided on settling in the United States. He taught a course on military tactics and altered his own name, using instead of his name, and as first name, the surname Lafayette, perhaps to conform to the American way of using names or to honor his friend whom he owed his life and freedom, because that same year, at the behest of the United States Congress, the Marquis de Lafayette was invited by President James Monroe to visit United States, something that made on July 12, 1824. Lafayette was baptism godfather to the eldest son of Ducoudray, who was called La Fayette in honor of his godfather.
The Ducoudray family, with their three children, settled in the village of Seneca, on the outskirts of Albany and near Geneva in the State of New York, and since then the General retired to live the quiet life of a university professor teaching at Geneva College (today Hobart & Smith) in New York and in the Albany Female College. Ducoudray Holstein died in Albany in 1839 and his remains rest in the rural cemetery in the city. His family continued to live there for 25 years until the death of his son Lafayette D. Holstein in 1864. He had reduced the Ducoudray surname to a mere middle initial to have his surname be simply Holstein.


Battle of Karuma Falls

The Battle of Karuma Falls was one of the last battles in the Uganda–Tanzania War, fought between Tanzania and Uganda Army troops loyal to Idi Amin on 17 May 1979. Soldiers of the Tanzania People's Defence Force attacked Ugandan forces at the bridge over the Nile River at Karuma Falls. Tanzania's 205th Brigade was tasked with advancing from Masindi to Gulu, taking a route which passed over the Karuma Falls Bridge. The brigade assaulted the crossing on the morning of 17 May with tanks and artillery and one of its battalions ran over the bridge to attack the Ugandan positions. The Ugandans destroyed a TPDF tank, delaying the Tanzanians long enough to board buses and retreat to Gulu. The Tanzanians secured Karuma Falls before capturing Gulu several days later.
Background.
In 1971 Idi Amin launched a military coup that overthrew the President of Uganda, Milton Obote, precipitating a deterioration of relations with the neighbouring state of Tanzania. Amin installed himself as President and ruled the country under a repressive dictatorship. In October 1978 Amin launched an invasion of Tanzania. Tanzania halted the assault, mobilised anti-Amin militant groups, and launched a counter-offensive.
In a matter of months, the Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) and its Ugandan rebel allies (unified under the umbrella organisation, Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF)) defeated the Uganda Army in a number of battles, and occupied Kampala, Uganda's capital, on 11 April 1979. With his military disintegrating, Amin's rule collapsed. Having escaped from Kampala, he traveled to a succession of cities in eastern and northern Uganda, urging his remaining forces "to go back and fight the enemy who had invaded our country", even as he prepared to flee into exile. Most Uganda Army units opted to surrender, desert or defect to the Tanzanian-led forces, but some decided to continue to fight for Amin's defunct regime. The Tanzanians and the UNLF allies continued their advance to secure eastern and northern Uganda.
Prelude.
The TPDF's 205th Brigade, which had occupied the town of Masindi, was ordered to capture Gulu. The TPDF's two brigade-strong "Task Force", was instructed to secure the West Nile District. Both paths required the TPDF to take the Kampala–Gulu Road, which passed over the Nile River via the bridge at Karuma Falls. It was decided that the 205th Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Muhiddin Kimario, would advance first and secure the crossing. The bridge, which lay south of Gulu, was one of three such crossings over the Nile in Uganda, and it had been frequently used by Amin's agents to dump the bodies of executed dissidents into the river. Area residents also reported that bodies of Ugandan soldiers who had been killed in combat were disposed of there. Anti-Amin militants of Yoweri Museveni's Front for National Salvation were originally supposed to seize the location before Kampala fell, but moved too slowly. A group of Uganda Army soldiers maintained a roadblock at the Karuma Falls Bridge, where they harassed and robbed passing civilians.
The 205th Brigade's advance was delayed due to a gasoline shortage, and by the time the requisite fuel had arrived in Masindi, the unit was two days behind schedule. Kimario had his men move faster to make up for the lost time so as to not interfere with the plans of the Task Force, which was following them. The evening before the brigade was to cross the river, a reconnaissance team spotted a company of Uganda Army soldiers at the bridge. Since the rough terrain in the area made crossing elsewhere difficult, Kimario decided that a direct attack on the bridge would be necessary.
Battle.
On the morning of 17 May 1979 the 205th Brigade advanced towards the south end of the Karuma Falls Bridge. The Tanzanians saw a large group of Ugandan soldiers gathered to the north of the bridge near a blind corner of the Gulu road. The 205th Brigade conducted a 10-minute artillery barrage of the northern bank of the river. The Ugandans did not respond, leading Kimario to assume that they had fled. However, when the Tanzanians began advancing, the Ugandan troops subjected them to small-arms fire. Three Tanzanian tanks moved to the front of the brigade's column, and the Ugandans reacted by initiating a mortar barrage.
One mortar shell narrowly missed a tank, and several Tanzanian soldiers were quickly killed. Kimario left his Land Rover to take sight of the battle, and shortly thereafter it was struck and destroyed. A Tanzanian battalion led by Lieutenant Colonel Ahmed Mazora charged across the bridge under the cover of their own artillery, which summarily eliminated the Ugandan mortar team. Seeing the Tanzanians bearing down on their positions, the Ugandans turned and retreated towards Gulu. Mazora's men pursued them with the assistance of three tanks. When the vehicles crossed the bridge, their commander decided to move them up to higher ground so they would have a better position to open fire. As one of the tanks turned, a Ugandan soldier emerged from behind a boulder and launched a rocket-propelled grenade. The tank was struck and caught on fire, but its crew managed to evacuate. The action gave the Ugandans enough time to board their three buses and retreat down the road. Four additional Tanzanian tanks crossed the bridge and attempted to pursue them, but the buses were faster and successfully withdrew.
Casualties.
The tank destroyed at Karuma Falls was the only TPDF tank lost due to enemy action during the war. Journalists Tony Avirgan and Martha Honey stated that six Tanzanians were killed in the battle, while journalist Baldwin Mzirai wrote that four died. The Associated Press (AP), citing Tanzanian military sources, said that three were killed. The AP also reported that six Tanzanians were wounded and that 12 Ugandans were killed. Tanzanian Lieutenant Colonel Steven Isaac Mtemihonda stated that his comrades "counted more than eight dead bodies" in the Ugandans' former positions.
Aftermath.
The Tanzanians secured Karuma Falls, and stationed a large detachment nearby to guard the road. The 205th Brigade continued its advance towards Gulu—which had been abandoned by the Uganda Army—and captured it a few days later without any resistance. The Tanzanian arrival coincided with widespread mob violence, as Acholi civilians attacked members of ethnic groups associated with Amin's government. The Acholi had suffered under Amin, and consequently sought revenge. There were numerous lynchings in and around Gulu, at least one of which was condoned by a Tanzanian officer. Other Tanzanian troops tried to stop the massacre and subsequent looting, but were unwilling to open fire on the crowds. Many members of the targeted groups—those of West Nile origin—fled the town and sought refuge in Catholic missions, which were placed under the protection of Tanzanian sentries.
The war ended on 3 June, when the TPDF reached the Sudanese border and expelled the last pro-Amin forces from Uganda. Remnants of the Uganda Army subsequently reorganised in the north-western border regions and launched a rebellion against the new Ugandan government in 1980. The TPDF withdrew from the country in 1981.


Battle of Gallabat

The Battle of Gallabat (also called the Battle of Metemma) was a territorial warfare fought on 9–10 March 1889 between the Mahdist Sudanese and Ethiopian forces. It is a critical event in Ethiopian history because "Nəgusä Nägäst" (or Emperor) Yohannes IV was killed in this battle, and because it was the last major battle on the Ethiopian front of the Mahdist War. The fighting occurred at the site of the twin settlements of Gallabat (in modern Sudan) and Metemma (in modern Ethiopia), so both names are commonly used and either can be argued to be correct.
Background.
When the Mahdists rebelled against the Egyptians, many Egyptian garrisons found themselves isolated in Sudan. As a result, the British, who had taken over the government of Egypt, negotiated the Treaty of Adowa with Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia on 3 June 1884 whereby the Egyptian garrisons were allowed to evacuate to Massawa through Ethiopian territory. After that, the Mahdist Khalifa, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, considered the Ethiopians as his enemies and sent his forces to attack them.
The twin communities of Gallabat and Metemma were located on the trade route from the Nile to Gondar, the old Imperial capital; the Mahdists used these communities as their base for attacks on Ethiopia. These raids led to a Mahdist defeat by Ras Alula on 23 September 1885 at Kufit.
Sack of Gondar.
A few years later, the Negus of Gojjam, Tekle Haymanot (a vassal of Emperor Yohannes) attacked the Mahdists at Metemma in January 1887 and sacked the town. In response, that next year the Mahdists under Abu Anga campaigned out of Metemma into Ethiopia; their objective was the town of Gondar. Tekle Haymanot confronted him at Sar Weha on 18 January 1888, but was badly defeated. The Mahdists proceeded to Gondar, and set about ransacking the town. Churches were pillaged and burnt, and many inhabitants have carried away into slavery.
Despite this damage to the historic capital, Emperor Yohannes held back from a counter attack due to his suspicions of Menelik II, then only the ruler of Shewa. He wanted to campaign against Menelik, but the clergy and his senior officers pressed him to handle the Mahdist threat first. The Abyssinians under "Ras" Gobana Dacche did defeat the Mahdists in the Battle of Guté Dili in the province of Welega on 14 October 1888. Following this victory, the Emperor accepted the advice of his people, and according to "Alaqa" Lamlam concluded "if I come back I can fight Shewa later on when I return. And if I die at Matamma in the hands of the heathens I shall go to heaven."
Battle.
In late January 1889, Yohannes mustered a huge army of 130,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry in Dembiya. The Sudanese gathered an army of 85,000 and fortified themselves in Gallabat, surrounding the town with a huge "zariba", a barrier made of entwined thorn bushes, replicating the effect of barbed wire.
On 8 March 1889 the Ethiopian army arrived within sight of Gallabat, and the attack began in earnest the next day. The wings were commanded by the Emperor's nephews, Ras Haile Maryam Gugsa over the left wing and Ras Mengesha the right. The Ethiopians managed to set the "zariba" alight, and, by concentrating their attack against one part of the defense managed to break through the Mahdist lines into the town. The defenders suffered heavy losses and were about to break down completely, when the battle turned unexpectedly in their favour.
The Emperor Yohannes, who led his army from the front, had shrugged off one bullet wound to his hand, but a second lodged in his chest, fatally wounding him. He was carried back to his tent, where he died that night; before he died, Yohannes commanded his nobles to recognize his natural son, Ras Mengesha, as his successor. The Ethiopians, demoralized by the death of their ruler, began to melt away, leaving the field—and victory—to the Mahdists.
According to David L. Lewis, the Mahdists were unaware of the Emperor's death until "stench from the rapidly decaying imperial corpse alerted a spy, and the nearly beaten Sudanese thundered out of their "zariba" to scatter the downcast Ethiopians like starlings." A few days later (12 March) the forces of the Mahdist commander, Zeki Tummal, overtook Rasses Mangasha and Alula and their remaining followers near the Atbara River, who were escorting the Emperor's body to safety. The Mahdists inflicted heavy losses upon the Ethiopians and captured the body of the dead Emperor, whose head they cut off and sent back to Omdurman as a trophy.
Aftermath.
The death of the Emperor caused a period of political turmoil in Ethiopia. Although Yohannes on his deathbed named his son Ras Mengesha as his heir, and begged Ras Alula and his other nobles to support him, within a matter of weeks Menelik II was recognized throughout Ethiopia as the new emperor.
For the Mahdists the consequences were severe, as many of their best soldiers had perished in the battle, seriously weakening their military strength. The Khalifa prudently decided to stop offensive actions against Ethiopia and the conflict dwindled to small-scale cross-border raiding.


William Platt

General Sir William Platt (14 June 1885 – 28 September 1975) was a senior officer of the British Army during both World War I and World War II.
Early years.
Platt was educated at Marlborough College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
On graduating from the latter, Platt was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Northumberland Fusiliers in August 1905. From 1908 to 1914 he served on the North-West Frontier in India where he won the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and was mentioned in despatches for the first of six such citations. Platt was promoted to lieutenant in June 1909 and captain in November 1914.
First World War.
From 1914 to 1918, Platt fought in France and Belgium on the Western Front during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1916, he was appointed brigade major of the 103rd (Tyneside Irish) Brigade, a Kitchener's Army formation, and was promoted brevet major in December 1916. Between 1916 and 1917, Platt was a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2) of the 21st Division, another Kitchener's Army formation. In 1917, he was made a GSO2 of II Australian and New Zealand Army Corps in France. This corps was later reformed as the British XXII Corps. In 1918 he was appointed GSO1 in the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel.
Between the wars.
After attending the Staff College, Camberley from 1919 to 1920, Platt was GSO1 of the 37th Division. In 1920 he once more became a brigade major, this time of the 12th Brigade, Eastern Command and then until 1922 Galway Brigade, Irish Command, after which he returned to regimental duties. Platt's permanent rank was advanced to major in January 1924, simultaneous with the award of brevet lieutenant colonel status. In March 1924 Platt once again received an appointment as brigade major, this time for two years in Egypt. In late 1927 Platt returned to the War Office in London, taking the post of Deputy Assistant Adjutant General on the Adjutant-General's staff. His promotion to substantive lieutenant colonel rank came in 1930 simultaneous with his transfer to the Wiltshire Regiment to command its 2nd Battalion. On completion of this tour of duty in January 1933 Platt was promoted full colonel, and appointed as the GSO1 of the 3rd Division, Bulford. In October 1934 Platt was given command of 7th Infantry Brigade in the rank of temporary brigadier. From 1937 to 1938, he was aide-de-camp to the King and in late 1938 Platt was promoted to major general to take up the appointment as Commandant of the Sudan Defence Force. In this role he carried the Arabic title of "al-qa'id al-'amm" ("the Leader of the Army") and was often referred to simply as "the Kaid". He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1939.
Second World War.
As a result of the threat from Italian forces in Italian East Africa, Platt's modest forces in Sudan were reinforced in late 1940 and early 1941, primarily by the arrival of the Indian 4th Infantry Division and the Indian 5th Infantry Division. In recognition of his larger corps-sized command he was promoted acting lieutenant general in January 1941. He commanded the forces invading Italian East Africa from Sudan during the East African Campaign. After re-taking the abandoned Kassala railway junction in Sudan on 18 January 1941, Platt advanced into Eritrea and captured Agordat on 28 January. He next faced strong Italian resistance at Keren. From 3 March to 1 April, Platt's leadership played a large part in the successful outcome of the Battle of Keren. The Eritrean capital, Asmara, was taken by the Indian 5th Infantry Division on 1 April while Keren was still being mopped up by the Indian 4th Infantry Division. After the battle of Keren, Platt lost the Indian 4th Infantry Division which returned to Egypt. On 8 April, the port city of Massawa surrendered. The forces still under Platt then marched on Amba Alagi.
Platt's forces, advancing from the Sudan, met the forces of Lieutenant General Alan Cunningham, advancing from Kenya, at Amba Alagi. A large Italian force under Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, was dug in at Amba Alagi in what it considered impregnable positions. The Battle of Amba Alagi started on 3 May. On 18 May, the Duke of Aosta surrendered his embattled force and the campaign in East Africa was all but over.
From 1941 to 1945, Platt was the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the East Africa Command, which although no longer a theatre of war was an important source of manpower. Platt raised seventeen new battalions of the King's African Rifles. From 1942 to 1954, Platt was the honorary colonel of the Wiltshire Regiment. His lieutenant general rank was made permanent in May 1941 and he was promoted to general in January 1943. He retired from the army in April 1945.
Honours and awards.
In addition to his British honours, Platt also received the Egyptian Order of the Nile (1st Class) in 1942, the Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia in 1945, and the French Légion d'Honneur in 1945.
Aftermath.
After his retirement from the army Platt joined his family's business, Mather & Platt, where he served as a director until 1957.


Hindenburg Programme

The Hindenburg Programme of August 1916 is the name given to the armaments and economic policy begun in late 1916 by the Third (OHL, headquarters of the German General Staff), Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff. The two were appointed after the sacking of General Erich von Falkenhayn on 28 August 1916 and intended to double German industrial production, to greatly increase the output of munitions and weapons.
Background.
Third OHL.
On 29 August 1916, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff were appointed as heads of (OHL, German General Staff) of the German army, after the sacking of General Erich von Falkenhayn, who had commanded the armies of Germany since September 1914. The new commanders, who became known as the Third OHL, had spent two years in command of (, Supreme Commander of All German Forces in the East) on the German section of the Eastern Front. Hindenburg and Ludendorff had demanded reinforcements from Falkenhayn to fight a decisive campaign against Russia and intrigued against Falkenhayn over his refusals. Falkenhayn held that decisive military victory against Russia was impossible and that the Western Front was the decisive theatre of the war. Soon after taking over from Falkenhayn, Hindenburg and Ludendorff had no choice but to recognise the wisdom of the emphasis given by Falkenhayn to the Western Front, despite the crisis in the east caused by the Brusilov Offensive (4 June – 20 September) and the Romanian declaration of war on 28 August.
Prelude.
Cambrai conference.
On 8 September, Hindenburg and Ludendorff held a conference at Cambrai with the chiefs of staff of the armies of the (army of the west) as part of a tour of inspection of the Western Front. Both men were dismayed at the nature of trench warfare that they found, in such contrast to the conditions on the Eastern Front and the dilapidated state of the . The Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme had been extraordinarily costly; on the Somme, casualties had been suffered from 24 June to 28 August. The battle had required the use of and by September, one division each day had to be withdrawn and replaced by a fresh one. The Chief of Staff of the new (Army Group German Crown Prince) reported that conditions at Verdun were little better and that the recruit depots behind the army group front could supply only of the casualty replacements needed. From July to August the had fired the equivalent of of field gun shells, for the receipt of only Germany and the munitions shortage was worsening.
The 1st Army, on the north side of the Somme, reported on 28 August that
It was known in Germany that the British had introduced the Military Service Act 1916 (conscription) on 27 January 1916 and that despite the huge losses on the Somme, there would be no shortage of reinforcements. At the end of August, German military intelligence calculated that of the divisions in France, fresh. The French manpower situation was not as buoyant but by combing out rear areas and recruiting more troops from the colonies, the French could replace losses until the 1918 conscription class became available in the summer of 1917. Of the divisions in France, in reserve and another could be obtained by swapping tired units for fresh ones on quiet parts of the front.
Ludendorff admitted privately to (Lieutenant-General) Hermann von Kuhl, the Chief of Staff of (Army Group Rupprecht of Bavaria) who wrote in his diary that
On 29 August, Hindenburg and Ludendorff reorganised the army groups on the Western Front, by incorporating all but the 4th Army in Flanders into the army group structure on the active part of the Western Front. The administrative reorganisation eased the distribution of men and equipment, yet made no difference to the lack of numbers and to the growing Franco-British superiority in weapons and ammunition. New divisions were needed and the manpower for them and replacements for the losses of 1916 had to be found. The superiority in manpower enjoyed by the Entente and its allies could not be surpassed but Hindenburg and Ludendorff drew on ideas from (Lieutenant-Colonel) Max Bauer of the Operations Section at OHL, the supreme headquarters in Mézières, for a further industrial mobilisation, to equip the army for the (battle of equipment/battle of attrition) being inflicted on it in France, which would only intensify in 1917.
Hindenburg Programme.
Bureaucracy.
Following the adoption of the programme, the main administrative novelty of the third OHL was the (Supreme War Office), founded on 1 November 1916, with General Wilhelm Groener, a railway expert, as the head. The new body was intended to by-pass the War Ministry as well as create the structure of a command economy, with a militaristic organisation intended to facilitate management and a subordinate level of six departments organised along bureaucratic lines.
Army.
Hindenburg and Ludendorff demanded domestic changes to complement their changes of strategy. German workers were to be subjected to a ( Auxiliary Services Law) which from November 1916, made all Germans from old subject to compulsory service. The new programme was intended to treble artillery and machine-gun output and double munitions and trench mortar production. Expansion of the German Army and output of war materials caused increased competition for manpower by the army and industry. In early 1916, the German Army had in recruit depots and another in March, when the 1897 class of conscripts was called up. The army was so flush with men that plans were made to demobilise older classes and in the summer, Falkenhayn ordered the raising of another for an army of The costly battles at Verdun and the Somme had been much more demanding on German divisions and they had to be relieved after only a few days in the front line, lasting about 14 days on the Somme. A larger number of divisions might reduce the strain on the and realise a surplus for offensives on other fronts. Hindenburg and Ludendorff ordered the creation of another 22 divisions, to have an army of 179 divisions by early 1917.
The men for the divisions created by Falkenhayn had come from reducing square divisions with four infantry regiments to triangular divisions with three, rather than a net increase in the number of men in the army. Troops for the extra divisions of the expansion ordered by Hindenburg and Ludendorff could be found by combing out rear-area units but most would have to be drawn from the pool of replacements, which had been depleted by the losses of 1916. Although new classes of conscripts would top up the pool of replacements, keeping units up to strength would become much more difficult once the pool had to maintain a larger number of divisions. By calling up the 1898 class of recruits early in November 1916, the pool was increased to men in February 1917 but the larger army would become a wasting asset. Ernst von Wrisberg, of the (head of the Prussian Ministry of War section responsible for raising new units), had grave doubts about the wisdom of expanding the army but was over-ruled by Ludendorff.
Ammunition.
The German Army had begun 1916 equally well provided for in artillery and ammunition, massing field and heavy artillery shells for the beginning of the Battle of Verdun. Four million rounds were fired in the first fortnight and the 5th Army needed about trains a day to replace consumption. The Battle of the Somme further reduced the German reserve of ammunition and when the infantry was forced out of the front position, the need for (defensive barrages), to compensate for the lack of obstacles, increased. Before the war and the Allied naval Blockade of Germany, nitrates for explosives manufacture had been imported from Chile. Production of propellants could continue only because of the industrialisation of the Haber process for the synthesis of nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen but this took time to achieve. Under Falkenhayn, the procurement of ammunition and artillery had been based on the output of propellants, since the manufacture of ammunition without sufficient propellants and explosive fillings was pointless. Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted firepower to replace manpower and ignored the principle of matching means and ends.
Explosives.
To meet existing demand and to feed new weapons, Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted a big increase in propellant output to a month. In July 1916, the output target had been raised from which was expected to cover existing demand and the extra of output demanded by Hindenburg and Ludendorff could never match the doubling and trebling of artillery, machine-guns and trench mortars. The industrial mobilisation needed to fulfil the Hindenburg Programme increased demand for skilled workers, (recalled from the army) or exempted from conscription. The number of increased from men, of whom deemed (kv, fit for front line service), at the end of 1916 to men in October 1917 and more than two million by November, being kv. The demands of the Hindenburg Programme exacerbated the manpower crisis and constraints on the availability of raw materials meant that targets were not met.
War economy.
The Hindenburg Programme was provided with a legal basis in the Auxiliary Service Law, implemented on 6 December. The German Army returned workers to the war economy and exempted from conscription from September 1916 to July 1917. Steel production in February 1917 was short of expectations and explosives production was below the target, which added to the pressure on Ludendorff to retreat to the Hindenburg Line. Despite the shortfalls, by the summer of 1917, the artillery park had increased from guns and from guns, many being newer models of superior performance. Machine-gun output enabled each division to have and machine-guns and for the number of (MGA, machine-gun sharpshooter detachments) to be increased. The greater output was insufficient to equip the new divisions and existing divisions which still had two artillery brigades with two regiments each, lost a regiment and the brigade headquarters, leaving three regiments. Against the new scales of equipment, British divisions in early 1917 had and machine-guns and the French and machine-guns.
Slave labour.
The imposition of compulsory labour for prisoners of war and deported Belgian and Polish workers began in August 1915. Three decrees of increasing severity were issued between 15 August 1915 and 13 May 1916. On 26 October 1916, 729 people who were unemployed or "work-shy" were picked up and by the time that deportations ceased on 10 February 1917, 115 deportation operations had taken place. The hope of OHL to obtain 20,000 workers per week was not realised and only 60,847 deportations were achieved. The army took the Belgians to camps where a deliberately harsh regime was imposed to coerce the victims into signing employment contracts under duress to make them "volunteers". Conditions in the camps were so poor that in a few months, 1,316 inmates died; despite the rigours, only 13,376 Belgians capitulated, the odious treatment meted out by the Germans creating anger and bitterness, rather than docility. The Pope condemned the deportations and neutral opinion, particularly in the United States, was more outraged than at any time since the massacres of August 1914. Well-attended rallies were held in many cities and attempts by the US President, Woodrow Wilson, to mediate a peace deal with the combatants were a failure. US opinion became overwhelmingly pro-Entente over the winter of 1916–1917.
Aftermath.
Analysis.
Ludwig von Mises called the Hindenburg Programme a command economy. Enterprises "not important to the war economy" were closed to supply more workers. In 2014, Alexander Watson wrote that the Auxiliary Service Law was drastically revised in the Reichstag by (SPD), () and the (FVP) deputies, to confound the attempt by the OHL to create a "command economy" at the expense of the working class. Extensive concessions to the working class were included in the law, with the establishment of a committee to supervise its implementation. Hindenburg later denounced the concessions as insufficient and "positively harmful"; industrialists, looking forward to a captive workforce to exploit, were aghast at being compelled to work with workers' committees and conciliation organisations. The main aim of the law, to deny workers' mobility was thwarted and with it went the possibility of centralised organisation of manpower. The super-profits anticipated by employers were limited by the prospect of improved pay and conditions being recognised as a valid reason to change jobs. The attempt by the third OHL to reorganise the war economy through compulsion was a failure but the law was effective in substituting workers of lesser physical fitness for those capable of military service. Concessions to organised labour were valuable in retaining the co-operation of the unions during the unrest of 1917.
The German army had reached its peak of manpower in 1916 and the Hindenburg Programme had been intended to reduce the burden on the remaining manpower by substituting machines. In 1917, the had managed to withstand the attacks of the French and the British, while offensive operations had been conducted on the eastern and southern fronts. The coalition against Germany increased its output of war materiel even more than the increase of the Hindenburg Programme, an industrial competition that Germany could not win; the programme worsened the labour shortage in Germany. The theoretical changes in German defensive tactics had greater effect than the increase in the size of the army and the output of weapons. British attacks in 1917 were much more competent than those of 1916 but German defensive methods were adapted to negate the effect of the maturing of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The Battle of the Somme (1 July – 18 November 1916) had cost the about and the Second Battle of the Aisne (16 April – 9 May 1917), the main part of the Nivelle Offensive, cost another The Third Battle of Ypres (31 July – 10 November) added casualties.
Casualties in the Third Battle of Ypres led to the average number of men in an infantry battalion falling from and in October, congestion on the railway lines behind the 4th Army led to more shortages. The 4th Army had a ration strength of and which needed of each just for daily maintenance. The change to a defence based on firepower, using the extra weapons and munitions produced by the Hindenburg Programme, needed more trains to carry ammunition to the front. On 28 July, the 4th Army fired trains' worth of ammunition, exceeding the record on the Somme. On 9 October, the 4th Army was firing worth per day, shells being fired during the battle. The trains had to compete for space on the railways with food supplies and troop transports, which created severe difficulties for . Men, horses and fuel were taken from agricultural production for the army and munitions, which caused food shortages and food price inflation, leading to Germany coming to the verge of starvation at the close of 1918.
References.
Books
Journals


Order of Constitutional Merit

The Order of Constitutional Merit is a civil order of merit established by royal decree on 18 November 1988. The order is granted those who have carried out activities in service of the Spanish Constitution and its values and established principles. It may be granted to people and groups both public or private, Spanish or foreign. Recipients are treated as an "Excellency".
Appearance.
The order has a distinctive oval medal, made of sterling silver with gold plating. The obverse is the coat of arms of Spain on a blue background and the legend "Constitutional Merit". The badge of the Order of Constitutional Merit hangs from a silk ribbon equally divided in red and yellow parts. The Medal of Constitutional Merit hangs from a twisted silk cord of red and yellow. Groups and organizations are awarded a Plaque of Honor with the insignia of the order.


Mohmand blockade

The Mohmand blockade (1916–1917) was a blockade formed by a series of blockhouses and barbed wire defences, along the Mohmand border on the North West Frontier by the Indian Army during World War I. The blockade began after a number of Mohmand raids into Peshawar. The most important engagement occurred on 15 November 1916, at Hafiz Kor, when a Mohmand force was defeated. The blockade was eventually lifted in July 1917 when the Mohmands finally submitted.


Jowaki Expedition

The Jowaki Expedition was a British punitive expedition in India, occurring between 1877 and 1878. It started when the British government in India proposed to reduce the payment of the Jowaki Afridi tribe in the Northwest Frontier. The Jowaki were paid to guard in the Kohat Pass and in retaliation for a reduction in payment they raided British territory. The expedition ended in January 1878 when tensions died down.
Background.
In the 1870s, the British colonial government in India paid the Jowaki Afridi tribe a tribute payment to guard the Kohat Pass. At the time the Jowaki Afridi were the most powerful Pathan tribe in the northwest frontier. In 1875, local tribes in the area of the Kohat Pass including the Jowaki objected against a road running though the pass. The final straw was in 1877 when the Jowaki had their payment reduced by the colonial government.
Course.
In 1877 the British government in India proposed reducing the allowance to the Jowaki Afridi tribe for guarding the Kohat Pass. In response the tribe cut the telegraph wire and raided into British territory, leading to two British sorties into its territory. The first sortie of three columns in 1877 was led by Colonel Frederic David Mocatta, 3rd Sikh Infantry and the second of two columns in 1877-1878 by two brigadier generals, Charles Patton Keyes and Campbell Claye Grant Ross.
In response the Jowaki entered the village of Shakkote and murdered almost all of the Sepoy guard of 18 men and stole British rifles. The same day the colonial government issued a war proclamation against the Jowaki, stating that if they don't give away the Shakkote murders, return the stolen British rifles, and indemnity pay 30,000 rupees as a guarantee of their future good behaviour, the British will advance into their territory. The Jowaki said they weren't going to agree to any terms and were ready to fight.
In response, a British Punjab Frontier Force of 1,500 troops, under the command of Frederic David Mocatta, was dispatched to the area. Shortly afterwards they were joined by a larger of 5,900 troops under the command of Brig. Gens. Keyes and Ross.
On 9 November 1877, the 3rd Sikh Infantry advanced on the Paiya Valley where they met little resistance from the Jowaki Afridi. After some skirmishes in the area, they moved onto the Shindai Valley, pushing back a Jowaki force stationed there. By 1 December they had pushed the Jowaki out of their stronghold in Jummu and chased them through the Naru Khula gorge. In January 1878 the 3rd Sikh Infantry returned to Jummu.
At the end of that same month, 50 men of Jowaki tribe met with British commanders in the Paiah Valley for peace talks. In the end, they refused the British conditions and continued guerrilla assaults. Guerrilla assaults included the burning of the disputed road in Kohat pass. Even though peace was never made, that was the end of the Jowaki Expedition.


Battle of Khushab

The Battle of Khushab (Persian: جنگ خوشاب) took place on 7 February 1857 and was the largest single engagement of the Anglo-Persian War. Having taken Borazjan without a fight, the British expeditionary army under Sir James Outram was in the process of withdrawing to Bushehr when it was ambushed by a far larger Persian force under Khanlar Mirza, drawn up in battle order to its rear. The battle ended with a Persian victory and the withdrawal of British troops from Ahvaz, Iran.
The distinguishing action of the battle was the charge of the 3rd Bombay Light Cavalry (now amalgamated into The Poona Horse) against an infantry square of the 1st Khusgai Regiment of Fars, in which two Victoria Crosses were won. The recipients were the commander's adjutant Lieutenant Arthur Thomas Moore, who first broke into the square, and Captain John Grant Malcolmson, who then extricated Moore. Only twenty of the five hundred soldiers in the square escaped. Having beaten off the ambush, the British continued their withdrawal to Bushehr.


Battle of Telpaneca

The Battle of Telpaneca was an engagement fought during the United States occupation of Nicaragua in 1927.
At about 1:00 am on the 19 September a force of around 200 rebel troops, loyal to Augusto César Sandino, attacked the small garrison of Telpaneca under the command of Marine First Lieutenant Herbert S. Keimling. Keimling's garrison included twenty men of the 5th Marines and a force of twenty-five Nicaraguan National Guardsmen. The first sound of the fight occurred when a rebel soldier tossed an improvised explosive at the marine barracks but it exploded without hurting anyone and only served to alert the sleeping garrison. Not long after the bombing the rebels opened up with rifle fire while the garrison was still dressing themselves. The rebels then charged the barracks under cover of fog but were beaten back by accurate fire. At that point the battle was a skirmish in which both sides engaged at a further range until about 2:30 am when the fog began to lift. The rebels then began collecting their dead and wounded and within another half-hour the fighting had ceased. Keimling estimated the loss of the enemy to be twenty-five killed and twice as many wounded while sustaining one marine killed in action, a second who died of wounds and one Nicaraguan guard who was seriously wounded.
Sandino lost one of his "generals" with the death of Salgado, and this latest defeat in a string of defeats, forced Sandino to adopt a guerrilla war.


Gwalior campaign

The Gwalior campaign was fought between the British and Maratha forces in Gwalior in India, December 1843.
Background.
The Maratha Empire controlled much of central and northern India and had fallen to the British in 1818 giving the British control over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. The Maharaja of Gwalior had died and a young child was appointed as the Maharaja with British support. However, Marathas in Gwalior saw the failed British campaign in Afghanistan as an opportunity to regain independence and removed the young Maharaja. Lord Ellenborough, foreseeing the possibility of the Marathas in Gwalior attempting independence had formed the "Army of Exercise" near Agra. After attempts to negotiate failed, the British advanced in a two-pronged attack. The British, under the command of Gen. Sir Hugh Gough clashed with Maratha forces, under the command of Maharaja Scindia, in two battles on the same day; 29 December 1843.
Battle of Maharajpore.
The Maratha army had 14 battalions, 1,000 artillerymen with 60 guns, and 6,000 cavalry at Maharajpore. The British faced them with troops from the 40th Regiment of Foot with the 2nd and 16th Native Infantry Regiments forming the central column, the 39th Regiment of Foot with the 56th Native Infantry Regiment and a field battery forming the left column and the 16th Lancers with two troops of horse artillery as well as other artillery forming the right column.
The center column advanced to attack where they believed the main enemy force was located. However, during the night the Marathas had moved and the British were surprised as they came under heavy fire from the Maratha artillery in their new positions. The central column then received the order to take the battery positions which they did under continuous heavy fire from shot, grape, canister, and chain. The guns were to the South-East Maharajpore with two battalions of Maratha troops for each battery and in Maharajpore with seven battalions for each battery and the British fought hand to hand with the Marathas, both sides taking heavy casualties, to clear the positions. The Marathas fought intensely and few escaped the battle. The British finally defeated the Marathas with 797 men killed, wounded, or missing. The Marathas were estimated to have lost 3000 to 4000 men.
Battle of Punniar.
The Marathas at Punniar (29 December 1843) numbered about 12,000 men and occupied the high ground near Mangore. As the British Army approached, they immediately attacked the Maratha positions, driving them from the hill.
Aftermath.
After the defeat of the Maratha forces in Gwalior, the British disbanded their army and established a force in the state that the government of Gwalior maintained. A British governor was appointed at Gwalior Fort. The British soldiers who participated in the campaign were awarded a medal; the Gwalior Star.


Governor of Kinsale

The Governor of Kinsale was a military officer who commanded the garrison at Kinsale and Charles Fort in County Cork. The office became a sinecure and in 1833 was to be abolished from the next vacancy.


Alexander Zeitlin

Alexander Zeitlin (28 August 1900, in Russia – 19 April 1998) was a Russian-American military leader. He was prominent in the US Air Force major hydraulic press design program following the Second World War and Korean War years. He and his colleagues worked on "The Heavy Press Program of the U.S.A.F." that began in earnest in 1950.
Career.
Heavy Press Program.
The Heavy (Forging) Press Program were installed at Alcoa Cleveland, Ohio and Wyman Gordon, North Grafton, Massachusetts. The two Forging Press manufacturers were Loewy Hydropress Inc. (Loewy) and Mesta Machine of Pittsburgh, PA. At Loewy, Zeitlin was involved in the design and construction of the 35,000 ton press code-named "MINOR" and the 50,000 ton code-named "MAJOR" forging presses.
For strategic reasons, two other "Minor" and "Major" forging presses and were built by Mesta Machine and were commissioned at Alcoa Cleveland, Ohio, during the same time period. Both had a 50,000-ton forge capacity and were powered by hydraulic systems with forging flows of 12,000 Gallons per Minute (45,000 Liters/min.) at 4,500 (PSI 310 bar), Loewy Presses were a pull-down design using columnar plate design while the Mesta design used moving platens with round columns. Both the 50,000-ton presses are listed as National Historic Engineering Landmarks.
The Loewy forging press made the Boeing 747 main wing beams and all the B2b Stealth Bomber forgings at Wyman-Gordon.
Bliss Barrogenics.
In the 1960s Zeitlin continued his work as Vice President of Bliss Barrogenics of Mount Vernon, NY continually focused on the heavy press industry. During that period the Soviets had built two 65,000 Metric Ton (72,000-US Ton) presses and were rumored to be building larger presses.
Press Technology Corporation.
He formed Press Technology Corporation (PTC) of White Plains, NY. With his 'right-hand man', Adam Zandel (of Forest Hills, NY) the company led proposals for larger presses. In the 1980s and into the 90's PTC, Zietlin and Zandel were central in promoting and supporting the strategic U. S. need for construction for 100,000-ton and 200,000-ton "Super Presses". PTC developed complete detailed plans and proposals for all project phases. Suppliers for all major components and systems had been identified and bids were ready for Air Force approval. Several ex-Loewy senior designers and engineers including engineers who had worked on the original presses at Alcoa and Wyman Gordon were available.
As the political scene changed, aircraft frame development moved to use composites, which delayed and possibly eliminated the need for these larger presses.
Zeitlin's work included several key US government and classified military projects. Zeitlin alone and PTC worked on several other military projects and developed several patents. For example, PTC patented a press frame concept for an enormous 500,000-ton forging press and also patented press designs incorporating composite materials.
Personal life.
Alexander Zeitlin was born in Russia 28 August 1900 in Russia and died April 19, 1998, in White Plains, Westchester, NY.


Capture of Carthage (439)

Carthage was captured by the Vandals from the Western Roman Empire on 19 October 439. Under their leader Genseric, the Vandals crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into Africa and captured Hippo Regius in August 431, which they made the capital of their kingdom. Despite an uneasy peace with the Romans, Genseric made a surprise attack against Carthage in October 439. After capturing Carthage, the Vandals put the city to the sack and made it the new capital of their kingdom.
Background.
In Gaul.
In 406 the Vandals advanced from Pannonia travelling west along the Danube without much difficulty, but when they reached the Rhine, they met resistance from the Franks, who populated and controlled Romanized regions in northern Gaul. Twenty thousand Vandals, including Godigisel himself, died in the resulting battle, but then with the help of the Alans they managed to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 406 the Vandals crossed the Rhine, probably while it was frozen, to invade Gaul, which they devastated terribly. Under Godigisel's son Gunderic, the Vandals plundered their way westward and southward through Aquitaine.
To Spain.
In 409, Godigisel's son Gunderic led the Vandals across the Pyrenees. They appear to have settled in Spain in two detachments. One, the Asdingi, occupied Galicia; the other, the Silingi, occupied Andalusia. Twenty years of bloody and purposeless warfare with the armies of the empire and with their fellow-barbarians, the Goths and the Suevi, followed. The Silingian Vandals were almost exterminated, but the remains of the Alani, a Turanian people from Iran, marched across Spain and took possession of Andalusia.
Over to Africa.
In 428 or 429 the Vandals set sail for Africa, upon an invitation probably received from Bonifacius, count of Africa, who had fallen into disgrace with the court of Ravenna. Gunderic was now dead, and supreme power was in the hands of his bastard brother, Genseric (Gaiseric). Genseric was short and had a limping gait, was reckless with human lives and proficient at war. Probably in the month of May 428 he assembled all his people on the shore of Andalusia which in total numbered 80,000. The passage was carried out Bonifacius's ships. Soon, Bonifacius, returning to his old loyalty, asked his new allies to return and leave Africa. They, of course, refused, and Bonifacius turned against them, too late. Notwithstanding Bonifacius's opposition, the progress of the Vandals was rapid, and by May 430 only three cities of Roman Africa (Carthage, Hippo and Cirta) remained untaken.
Siege of Hippo and capture of Carthage.
The siege of Hippo (May 430 to July 431) ended unsuccessfully for the Vandals. Peace was made on 30 January 435 between the emperor Valentinian III. and Gaiseric. The emperor was to retain Carthage and the small but rich proconsular province in which it was situated, while Hippo and the other six provinces of Africa were abandoned to the Vandals.
Gaiseric observed this treaty until it no longer suited his purpose. On 19 October 439, without any declaration of war, he suddenly attacked Carthage and took it. The Vandal occupation of this great city, the third among the cities of the Roman empire, lasted for 94 years.
Gaiseric seems to have counted the years of his sovereignty from the date of its capture. Though most of the remaining years of Gaiseric's life were passed in war, plunder rather than territorial conquest seems to have been the object of his expeditions. He made, in fact, of Carthage a pirate's stronghold and attacked, in his words, "the dwellings of the men with whom God is angry,"
He created probably the only barbarian fleet and was for 30 years the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean. Gaiseric's sack of Rome in 455, undertaken in response to the call of Licinia Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, was only the greatest of his marauding exploits. He took the city without difficulty, and for 14 days, in a calm and business-like manner, emptied it of all its movable wealth. The sacred vessels of the Second Jewish Temple, brought to Rome by Titus, are said to have been among the spoils carried to Carthage by the conqueror. Eudoxia and her two daughters were also carried into captivity. One of the princesses, Eudocia, was married to Hunneric, eldest son of Gaiseric; her mother and sister, after long and tedious negotiations, were sent to Constantinople.


Battle of Friedberg (Hessen)

The Battle of Friedberg, also called the Battle of Limburg, took place on 10 November 1793 between the French and the Prussian troops, during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Battle.
While the Austrians saw themselves on the eve of losing their possessions in Belgium, the Prussian army, which had scarcely escaped from France, hastened to the aid of the Palatinate invaded by General Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine. After having protected Koblenz by leaving a division there, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel settled in and around Limburg, where he considered himself well-situated to block French progress. On 8 November Custine ordered Colonel Jean Nicolas Houchard to assemble all his detachments, and to attack the Prussians in Limburg. Louis Dominique Munnier was to support the attack with his corps.
Houchard surprised the Prussians, who, believing themselves safe in Limburg, had established negligible defenses. The French quietly installed their batteries before the enemy even thought of defending themselves. Nevertheless, after some hesitation, the Prussians brought out their troops, who threw themselves into battle, sowing some confusion. French artillery fire forced them to retreat. The French expelled the Prussians from the city, who retreat to Montabaur, while the French fortified themselves in their conquest. The entire battle took 90 minutes.


Axevalla House

Axevalla House ("Axevalla hus") is the ruins of a medieval castle in the parish of Skärv in the municipality of Skara, Västergötland, Sweden. It is located on a headland by Lake Husesjön, east of the heathland of Axevalla Hed and halfway between the cities Skara and Skövde.
History.
The castle was first mentioned in 1278, when Magnus Ladulås was taken prisoner there during a feast by his host Peter Porse. A further reference was made to the castle as the new castle in Axavald ("novum castrum in Axsawaldh") in 1315, and again in 1321, when it was called "the New House", suggesting it replaced an earlier construction.
When Magnus Ladulås died in 1290, the kingdom was divided between his sons Birger, Erik and Valdemar. Axevalla was given to Duke Erik, and after his death in 1318 as a prisoner at Nyköpings hus, his widow Ingeborg Håkansdotter – mother of the still underage King Magnus – received the estate as her residence.
Her contacts with the mighty Danish family Porse was considered a threat to the Swedish Crown, as Axevalla House was an important defence in the ongoing wars between the Nordic countries. It was therefore decided against Ingeborg's will, that the castle should be returned to the Crown. Failing to reach a peaceful agreement, the castle was besieged in 1323. The conflict ended with the Peace of Skara in 1326, where it was decided that Ingeborg Håkansdotter should relinquish Axevalla House and instead move to the estate of Dåvö in Munktorp in Västmanland. Her ”dangerous liaisons” had been broken.
In early 14th century, the castle was remodelled.
The main fortress measured 52 x 44 metres and was surrounded by fortifications, ramparts, and a moat. Palissades stretched into the lake and the stone road leading to the castle was surrounded by swamp.
In 1367, it fell into the hands of King Albrekt of Mecklenburg. Subsequent to his defeat at Åsle in 1389, it passed to Queen Margaret of Denmark and became a residence for Danish sheriffs. Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson tried unsuccessfully to capture it in 1434, and after a second siege in 1436, the peace negotiations were suspended. The sheriff did however voluntarily turn the castle over to the Swedes shortly after.
It would be fair to assume that Axevalla House formed part of a defence line against Danish forces.
During the battles between kings Charles VIII of Sweden and Christian I of Denmark, it was attacked by an uprising of disgruntled farmers and burnt to the ground. It was never rebuilt. The castle is depicted in Suecia antiqua et hodierna, a collection of engravings collected during the middle of the 17th century by Erik Dahlbergh. Hardly any visible traces now remain of the building above ground.


Operation Masterdom


Battle of Desna

The Battle of Desna, also known as the Crossing of the Desna River, was a three-day operation which took place on 11 to 13 November 1708 during the Swedish invasion of Russia in the Great Northern War. The Swedes under Charles XII tried to prevent the Russians from seizing the town of Baturyn, by crossing the river of Desna which was strongly defended by a Russian army of 4,000 men under Ludwig Nicolaus von Hallart. On 11 November the Swedes attempted to build a bridge going over the river, however, the heavy fire from the Russians made for slow progress and so, on 12 November, Berndt Otto Stackelberg with 600 men crossed the river on rafts to cover the ongoing construction of the bridge. The Russians counterattacked but were fiercely repulsed by the outnumbered Swedish defenders. The Russians retreated on 13 November leaving about 356 men dead while having another 1,000 wounded. The crossing had been successful and was often compared to Alexander the Great's crossing of the Granicus. However, the Swedes were too late to defend Baturyn and the city had already been destroyed in the Sack of Baturyn.


Rothenberg Fortress

Rothenberg Fortress () is a fortress on the eponymous hill, 588 m, near Schnaittach in the Franconian Jura.
Beginnings.
The first fortifications were probably built between 1300 and 1330 by Dietrich von Wildenstein. He sold it in 1360 to the emperor and Bohemian king, Charles IV, who had the fort upgraded into a border castle in order to protect his Bohemian allodial estate.
"Ganerbenburg".
In 1478, Count Palatine Otto II set the condition for Rothenberg Castle to become a joint-fief or "Ganerbenburg". 44 co-vassals who, together with the town of Rothenberg and market town of Schnaittach, acquired the castle as a so-called mesne fief or "Afterlehen", were given relatively little property and few rights, but the community of co-vassals formed a strong alliance to which other members of noble families in the area could be attached. The castle also had several rights of patronage in the Nuremberg area. The community of co-vassals had the characteristics of a type of union called an "Einung". At the time of Silvester von Schaumberg the castle was a "wasp's nest" - which even princes feared to fall out with.
The community of co-heirs nominated a burgrave.
Fortress.
In the 18th century an important Rococo fortress, based on a French prototype, was built on the site by the Elector of Bavaria and German Emperor, Charles VII. Construction lasted from about 1729 to 1750. Two bastions were named after him and his wife, Maria Amalia. From time to time up to 400 soldiers were garrisoned here. It was built on an older and smaller fortification that was slighted, which in turn had been built on the remains of an even older ruined castle.
The site was built to geometric principles. Because they wanted to avoid blind spots, bastions were built to a star-shaped design. The overall plan was a polygon with a bastioned tower at each corner. The crest of the embankment was kept low in order to minimise the target area. The outer defences on the north side began with a gently rising glacis, followed by a covered way and a moat. Behind that, and scarcely higher than the glacis, rose the main rampart. This was designed to be difficult to shell because the wall was protected by the glacis.
The site of the fortress on a hill ridge resembled that of medieval castles, that were often built on high points that were very difficult to access. In this case, the hillside thus protected the fortress to the south, east and west from being stormed, but not from the powerful siege guns of that time.
The fortress was built entirely of brickwork. This was sixteen metres high on all sides and had vaulting on the inside, ten metres high.
There were two, two-storey barrack buildings inside the fortress, an armoury, the garrison headquarters and a church. The garrison lived in the fortress with their families. Protected water supplies came from a fortress well and, later, by the "Schneckenbrunnen" well, built in 1759-67, in the counterguard outside the fortress.
Built to counter the imperial city of Nuremberg only 25 kilometres away, the fortress was intended to guard the Bavarian border and the Electoral Bavarian enclave near Schnaittach from the city.
In 1806 Napoleon annexed Franconia to the Kingdom of Bavaria and Rothenberg then became superfluous to the Bavarian Army as a border fortress. It continued to be used, however, as a fortress prison.
In 1838 the Bavarian Minister of War sold the entire inventory, including doors, beams and everything that could be removed. The fortress was abandoned and fell into ruins. It was used as a quarry for the construction of Nuremberg Central Station.
In 1876 explosive demolition testing was carried out on the ravelin.
The site may be visited as part of a guided tour. The underground casemates are out of bounds from November to April in order protect bats.
Southward of the ruins you can find a cemetery. 1083 people were buried on this place.


S. P. E. Trichard

Stephanus Petrus Erasmus Trichard (23 January 1847, Ohrigstad - October 1907, Kenya) was the son of Carolus Tregardt, and the grandson of Louis Tregardt. He took part in most campaigns against rebellious African tribes in the ZAR, as well as the storming of Amajuba in the First Boer War and the defence against the Jameson Raid. After his participation in the Second Boer War, he took part in an organized emigration to east Africa, where he died.
ZAR citizen and officer.
As a young man, he participated in the ZAR's campaigns against Mapoch, the Swazis and Sekhukhune. During the people's assembly at Paardekraal, he was elected fieldcornet of Middelburg and the neighbourhood of Olifants River, and shortly afterwards takes part in the military operations at Bronkhorstspruit and Majoeba. Initially, he was commander in Middelburg, and played an active role during military expeditions against Mapoch (1883–1884), Malaboch, Modjadji and Makgoba (1894–1895).
State artilerist.
Shortly after, Trichard and the Middelburg commando make an important contribution to the fight against Jameson and his fellow invaders (1896), he was promoted in 1897 to commander of the State Artillery. The post was vacant after the death of Lieutenant-Colonel Henning P. N. Pretorius (1844–1897), and Trichard's appointment was not undisputed among the officers of the State Artillery. In the same year, the State Artillery undertook the Swaziland expedition, and in 1898 action was taken against Magato. The State Artillery was already regarded as a close elite corps, thanks to his predecessor, but under Trichard it was modernized and expanded.
Second Boer War.
Lieutenant-Colonel Trichard and General Piet Joubert were opposed to the building of forts around Pretoria, and Trichard in the run-up to the Second Boer War advocated a more lenient policy towards England. During the Second Boer War, he fought on the Natal front, where he was involved at Dundee and Ladysmith. Then he fell back with the Boers to the Orange Free State and was involved in the conflicts at Brandfort and later on at Donkerhoek in the ZAR.
At the battle of Dalmanutha in August 1900, he successfully demonstrated the State Artillery's capabilities, but it would also ring their unit's death bell. The cannons' usefulness in the coming war phase had come to an end and they had to be systematically destroyed. The corps was divided into different units, and in October 1900 the Transvaal Executive Board had to declare Trichard's post redundant. However, retaining his rank, he led a division of the Middelburg commando until the end of the war.
As a previously wealthy farmer from the Middelburg district, Colonel Trichard submitted a claim for damages after conclusion of peace. The £300 which was offered to him, he threw at the officer's feet. His experiences during the Second Boer War he recorded in about 110 pages.
Land seeker.
Colonel Trichard's son Charles (C.J.) now considered the possibility of emigration to Madagascar, an area which had been explored years before by his grandfather Carolus. The Trichards were among a group of "bittereinders" (diehards) who attend a planning meeting in Ermelo on January 7, 1903, The six men who formed part of a delegation here for a "Landseeking expedition" to German East Africa to explore for settlement, had excluded the Trichards for the time being. Colonel Trichard however did join the dozen of the Great Commission, under the leadership of Piet C. Joubert, who departed from Lourenco Marques in May 1904. At Trichard's insistence, they visited Madagascar, which was also examined as a destination by the Reitz brothers and General Manie Maritz. They visited Tamatawe and Tananariwe, and received by Governor General Joseph Gallieni, who authorized them to undertake a fact-finding journey. After exploring the east coast, they decided against settling because of three reasons, namely the official status of the Catholic Church, endemic malaria and the strong oriental influences.
From Madagascar, they traveled to Dar es Salaam, where they renewed the negotiations of 1903. They received permission to view the environment of Mount Meru, and returned soon after to the Transvaal, where their plans were completed in July 1904. In 1905, Trichard and his son Charles departed together with the Piet Joubert-trek to German East Africa. He eventually settled at Nakuru in Kenya, but died there during a hunting trip in October 1907.


Santiago Surrender Tree

The site of the Santiago Surrender Tree (also known as the "Tree of Peace" or ), located in Santiago, Cuba, marks where Spanish forces surrendered to U.S. forces on July 17, 1898, at the end of the Spanish–American War.
Background.
The ceiba tree had been the site of previous prisoner exchanges. On July 1, 1898, U.S. and Cuban troops had taken Fort El Viso, El Caney and San Juan Hill. These victories led to the U.S. victory at Santiago de Cuba.
Current status.
Per United States law, the site is to be maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission since 1958. The tree is now gone, but cannon and plaques continue to mark the surrender site.


Franco-Syrian War

The Franco-Syrian War took place during 1920 between the Hashemite rulers of the newly established Arab Kingdom of Syria and France. During a series of engagements, which climaxed in the Battle of Maysalun, French forces defeated the forces of the Hashemite monarch King Faisal, and his supporters, entering Damascus on July 24, 1920. A new pro-French government was declared in Syria on July 25, headed by 'Alaa al-Din al-Darubi and eventually Syria was divided into several client states under the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon. The British government, concerned for their position in the new mandate in Iraq, agreed to declare the fugitive Faisal as the new king of Iraq.
Background.
Near the end of World War I, the Egyptian Expeditionary forces of Edmund Allenby captured Damascus on September 30, 1918, and shortly thereafter on October 3, 1918, Hashemite ruler Faisal entered Damascus as well, in the final stages of the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans. On October 5, 1918, with the permission of General Allenby, Faisal announced the establishment of an Arab constitutional government in Damascus.
Following the implementation of the initially secretive 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement, which divided the occupied remnants of the Ottoman Empire between France and Britain, French military administration was established in the Levant. General Henri Gouraud was appointed as representative of the French government in the Middle East and commander of the French Army of the Levant, centered in Syria.
While events transpired in Europe that would eventually render the Arab Kingdom of Syria into a French mandate, it would also catalyze Syrian nationalist societies like al-Fatat (the Young Arab Society) to make preparations for a national congress. These Syrian nationalist societies advocated complete independence for an Arab Kingdom, uniting the Arab world under the Hashemite ruler Faisal. The first official session of the Syrian Congress was held on June 3, 1919 and al-Fatat member Hashim al-Atassi was elected its president. On June 25, the King-Crane Commission arrived in Damascus to a flurry of leaflets which said “Independence or Death”. On July 2, 1919, the Syrian Congress passed a number of resolutions pertaining to the formation of Syria as a completely independent constitutional monarchy with Faisal as king, asking for assistance from the United States, and the refusal of any rights claimed by the French. The hopes of Faisal that either the British or Americans would come to his aid and intervene against the French quickly faded with what many consider the defining catalyst for the creation and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria: the Anglo-French Agreement. The Anglo-French Agreement provided for the withdrawal of British troops from Syria and signaled the end of the British military involvement in Syria.
Eventually, Faisal would be forced into negotiations with Clemenceau in January 1920 which stipulated that the French would uphold the existence of the Syrian state and would not station troops in Syria as long as the French government remained the only government supplying advisers, counselors and technical experts. News of this compromise did not bode well with Faisal’s vehemently anti-French and independence minded supporters who immediately pressured Faisal to reverse his commitment to France, which he did.
Elkier Sabhi.
On March 25, 1920 a man by the name of Elkier Sabhi who would lead a pack of around 300 rioters in Damascus to attack a French post of around 1,200 soldiers what followed was only 3 Frenchmen died, while 150 of the 300 rioters would die in the pursuing battle, Sabhi himself managed to kill 2 of the 3 dead Frenchmen while others just fled being shot at by the French. Sabhi's men were armed with sticks, compared to the French who were armed with rifles. Sahbi was sentenced to death after being captured in Damascus by local cooperative authorities on March 29, 1920 when he had "the blood of the French" he bragged about in his t-shirt. On April 1, 1920 he killed himself after awaiting trial by stabbing himself from a small kitchen knife he found off the floor. Right before Sahbi's suicide he bragged about how Syrians were the cradle of civilization and protectors of Islam while the French were merely Frog-loving barbarians, this angered the French high command who sought to persecute him from life imprisonment to death.
On April 1, 2006, the Syrian government claimed to have Sabhi's shirt in a museum in Damascus, although this is largely denied by many figures including Bashar al-Assad himself.
Warfare chronology.
Countrywide revolts.
In the aftermath of the Clemenceau negotiations in January 1920, violent attacks against French forces occurred sporadically across Syria and effectively the Syrian Congress assembled in March 1920 to declare Faisal the king of Syria, as well as to officially set up the Arab Kingdom of Syria with Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister. An independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was proclaimed in Damascus on March 8, 1920, in an apparent dispute with the French over the nature of its rule.
This action was immediately repudiated by the British and French and the San Remo Conference was called together by the League of Nations in April 1920 to explicitly establish the mandate of the French over Syria. Shortly, the war of Syrian Arab nationalists with the French became a devastating campaign for the new proclaimed Arab Kingdom of Syria. Several violent incidents in the region initiated by Arab militias, like the Battle of Tel Hai, led to further international support of the French.
The League of Nations having given the French Mandate of Syria as planned, the French General Gouraud issued an ultimatum to the Syrian government to disband its troops and submit to French control. Worried about the results of a long bloody fight with the French, King Faisal himself surrendered on July 14, 1920, but his message would not reach the general and King Faisal’s defense minister Yusuf al-'Azma, who ignoring the King, led an army to Maysalun to defend Syrian Arab Kingdom from French advance. The Hashemite government of Damascus submitted reluctantly to the French ultimatum and disbanded its troops.
Battle of Maysalun.
In spite of King Faisal's acceptance of France's ultimatum, Yusuf al-'Azma refused to give in. He raised a small body of disbanded troops and civilians, poorly armed relative to the modern, well-equipped professional French Army, and led them to Maysalun. Although he had no illusions about the outcome of the battle, al-'Azma wanted to make it clear that Syria would not surrender without fighting, in order to deny the French occupation any legitimacy. The Battle of Maysalun resulted in a crushing Syrian defeat. The French forces under the command of General Mariano Goybet easily defeated the Syrian forces. Yusuf al-'Azma was killed in the battle.
Final stages.
The final stage of the war took place on July 24, 1920, when the French forces entered Damascus without any resistance. The next day, the Arab Kingdom of Syria was abolished, and French rule officially reinstalled.
Aftermath.
Following the San Remo conference and the defeat of King Faisal's short-lived monarchy in Syria at the Battle of Maysalun, the French general Henri Gouraud established civil administration in the territory. The mandate region was subdivided into six states. They were the State of Damascus (1920), State of Aleppo (1920), Alawite State (1920), Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921) (modern-day Hatay in Turkey) and the State of Greater Lebanon (1920), which became later the modern country of Lebanon.