Prehistoric Armenia

Prehistoric Armenia refers to the history of the region that would eventually be known as Armenia, covering the period of the earliest known human presence in the Armenian Highlands from the Lower Paleolithic more than 1 million years ago until the Iron Age and the emergence of Urartu in the 9th century BC, the end of which in the 6th century BC marks the beginning of Ancient Armenia.
Paleolithic.
The Armenian Highlands have been settled by human groups from the Lower Paleolithic to modern days. The first human traces are supported by the presence of Acheulean tools, generally close to the obsidian outcrops more than 1 million years ago. Middle and Upper Paleolithic settlements have also been identified such as at the Hovk 1 cave and the Trialetian culture.
The most recent and important excavation is at the Nor Geghi 1 Stone Age site in the Hrazdan river valley. Thousands of 325,000 year-old artifacts may indicate that this stage of human technological innovation occurred intermittently throughout the Old World, rather than spreading from a single point of origin (usually hypothesized to be Africa), as was previously thought.
Neolithic.
The sites of Aknashen and Aratashen in the Ararat plain region are believed to belong to the Neolithic period. The Mestamor archaeological site, located to the southwest of Armenian village of Taronik in the Armavir Province, also shows evidence of settlement starting from the Neolithic era.
The Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region is one of the earliest known prehistoric cultures in the area, carbon-dated to roughly 6000 - 4000 BC. The Shulaveri-Shomu culture in the area was succeeded by the Bronze Age Kura-Araxes culture, dated to the period of ca. 3400 - 2000 BC.
Bronze Age.
An early Bronze-Age culture in the area is the Kura-Araxes culture, assigned to the period between c. 4000 and 2200 BC. The earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain; thence it spread to Georgia by 3000 BC (but never reaching Colchis), proceeding westward and to the south-east into an area below the Urmia basin and Lake Van.
From 2200 BC to 1600 BC, the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture flourished in Armenia, southern Georgia, and northeastern Turkey. It has been speculated that this was an Indo-European culture. Other possibly related cultures were spread throughout the Armenia Highlands during this time, namely in the Aragats and Lake Sevan regions.
Early 20th-century scholars suggested that the name "Armenia" may have possibly been recorded for the first time on an inscription which mentions Armanî (or Armânum) together with Ibla, from territories conquered by Naram-Sin (2300 BC) identified with an Akkadian colony in the current region of Diyarbekir; however, the precise locations of both Armani and Ibla are unclear. Some modern researchers have placed Armani (Armi) in the general area of modern Samsat, and have suggested it was populated, at least partially, by an early Indo-European-speaking people. Today, the Modern Assyrians (who traditionally speak Neo-Aramaic, however, not Akkadian) refer to the Armenians by the name Armani. Thutmose III of Egypt, in the 33rd year of his reign (1446 BC), mentioned as the people of "Ermenen", claiming that in their land "heaven rests upon its four pillars". Armenia is possibly connected to Mannaea, which may be identical to the region of Minni mentioned in The Bible. However, what all these attestations refer to cannot be determined with certainty, and the earliest certain attestation of the name "Armenia" comes from the Behistun Inscription (c. 500 BC).
The earliest form of the word "Hayastan", an endonym for Armenia, might possibly be Hayasa-Azzi, a kingdom in the Armenian Highlands that was recorded in Hittite records dating from 1500-1200 BC.
Between 1200 and 800 BC, much of Armenia was united under a confederation of tribes, which Assyrian sources called Nairi ("Land of Rivers" in Assyrian").
Iron Age.
The main object of early Assyrian incursions into Armenia was to obtain metals. The iron-working age followed that of bronze everywhere, opening a new epoch of human progress. Its influence is noticeable in Armenia, and the transition period is well marked. Tombs whose metal contents are all of bronze are of an older epoch. In most of the cemeteries explored, both bronze and iron furniture were found, indicating the gradual advance into the Iron Age.


2006 in Taiwan

Events from the year 2006 in Taiwan, Republic of China. This year is numbered Minguo 95 according to the official Republic of China calendar.


Kamarupa

Kamarupa (; also called Pragjyotisha or Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa), an early state during the Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, was (along with Davaka) the first historical kingdom of Assam.
Though Kamarupa prevailed from 350 CE to 1140 CE, Davaka was absorbed by Kamarupa in the 5th century CE. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day Guwahati, North Guwahati and Tezpur, Kamarupa at its height covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, Bhutan and northern part of Bangladesh, and at times portions of what is now West Bengal and Bihar.
Though the historical kingdom disappeared by the 12th century to be replaced by smaller political entities, the notion of Kamarupa persisted and ancient and medieval chroniclers continued to call this region by this name. In the 16th century the Ahom kingdom came into prominence and assumed for itself the political and territorial legacy of the Kamarupa kingdom.
Etymology.
"Pragjyotisha" seems to have been the name of the city and the adjoining areas (city-state) while "Kamarupa" came to be the name of the country later and used synonymously. The earliest use of the name "Kamarupa" to denote the kingdom is from the 4th-century. The 10th-century Kalika Purana mentioned that country got its name from Kamadeva (Kama), who regain his form (Rupa) back from ashes here.
Antecedents.
Kamarupa is not included in the list of sixteen Mahajanapadas from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE; nor does it or the northeast Indian region find any mention in the Ashokan records (3rd century BCE)—it was not part of the Mauryan Empire. The 3rd-2nd century BCE "Baudhayana Dharmasutra" mentions Anga (eastern Bihar), Magadha (southern Bihar), Pundra (northern Bengal) and Vanga (southern Bengal), and that a Brahmana required purification after visiting these places—but it does not mention Kamarupa, thereby indicating it was beyond the ambit and recognition of the Brahminical culture in the second half of the first millennium BCE.
The first dated mention comes from the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" (1st century) where it describes a people called Sêsatea, and the second mention comes from Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century) which calls the region "Kirrhadia" after the Kirata population. Arthashastra (early centuries of the Christian era) mentions "Lauhitya", which is identified with Brahmaputra valley by a later commentator. These early references speak about the economic activity of a tribal belt, and have nothing to say about their kingdoms.
The earliest mention of a kingdom comes from the 4th-century Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta that calls the kings of Kamarupa and Davaka frontier rulers ("pratyanta nripati"). The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the kingdom in the 7th century, then ruled by Bhaskaravarman. The corpus of Kamarupa inscriptions left by the rulers of Kamarupa at various places in Assam and present-day Bangladesh are important sources of information. Nevertheless, local grants completely eschew the name Kamarupa; instead they use the name Pragjyotisha, with the kings called "Pragjyotishadhipati".
Boundaries.
The kingdom in the fourth century was small but soon engulfed the entire Brahmaputra valley and beyond. According to the 10th century Kalika Purana and the 7th century Xuanzang, the western boundary was the historical Karatoya River. The eastern border was the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari ("Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini", given in Kalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya. The southern boundary was near the border between the Dhaka and Mymensingh districts in Bangladesh. Thus it spanned the entire Brahmaputra valley and Northeast India and at various times included parts of present-day Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
This is supported by the various epigraphic records found scattered over these regions. The kingdom appears to have broken up entirely by the 13th century into smaller kingdoms and from among them rose the Kamata kingdom in the west and the Ahom, Dimasa and the Chutiya kingdoms in the east with the Baro-Bhuyans ruling intervening areas.
State.
The extent of state structures can be culled from the numerous Kamarupa inscriptions left behind by the Kamarupa kings as well as accounts left by travellers such as those from Xuanzang. Governance followed the classical "saptanga" structure of state.
Kings and courts: The king was considered to be of divine origin. Succession was primogeniture, but two major breaks resulted in different dynasties. In the second, the high officials of the state elected a king, Brahmapala, after the previous king died without leaving an heir. The royal court consisted of a "Rajaguru", poets, learned men and physicians. Different epigraphic records mention different officials of the palace: "Mahavaradhipati", "Mahapratihara", "Mahallakapraudhika", etc.
Council of Ministers: The king was advised by a council of ministers ("Mantriparisada"), and Xuanzang mentions a meeting Bhaskaravarman had with his ministers. According to the Kamauli grant, these positions were filled by Brahmanas and were hereditary. State functions were specialised and there were different groups of officers looking after different departments.
Revenue: Land revenue ("kara") was collected by special tax-collectors from cultivators. Cultivators who had no proprietary rights on the lands they tilled paid "uparikara". Duties ("sulka") were collected by toll collectors (Kaivarta) from merchants who plied keeled boats. The state maintained a monopoly on copper mines ("kamalakara"). The state maintained its stores and treasury via officials: "Bhandagaradhikrita" and "Koshthagarika".
Grants: The king occasionally gave Brahmanas grants ("brahmadeya"), which consisted generally of villages, water resources, wastelands etc. ("agraharas"). Such grants conferred on the donee the right to collect revenue and the right to be free of any regular tax himself and immunity from other harassments. Sometimes, the Brahmanas were relocated from North India, with a view to establish "varnashramdharma". Nevertheless, the existence of donees indicate the existence of a feudal class. Grants made to temples and religious institutions were called "dharmottara" and "devottara" respectively.
Land survey: The land was surveyed and classified. Arable lands ("kshetra") were held individually or by families, whereas wastelands ("khila") and forests were held collectively. There were lands called "bhucchidranyaya" that were left unsurveyed by the state on which no tax was levied.
Administration: The entire kingdom was divided into a hierarchy of administrative divisions. From the highest to the lowest, they were "bhukti", "mandala", "vishaya", "pura" (towns), "agrahara" (collection of villages) and "grama" (village). These units were administered by headed by "rajanya", "rajavallabha", "vishayapati" etc. Some other offices were "nyayakaranika", "vyavaharika", "kayastha" etc., led by the "adhikara". They dispensed judicial duties too, though the ultimate authority lay with the king. Law enforcement and punishments were made by officers called "dandika", (magistrate) and "dandapashika" (one who executed the orders of a "dandika").
Political history.
Kamarupa, first mentioned on Samudragupta's Allahabad rock pillar as a frontier kingdom, began as a subordinate but sovereign ally of the Gupta empire around present-day Guwahati in the 4th century. It finds mention along with Davaka, a kingdom to the east of Kamarupa in the Kapili river valley in present-day Nagaon district, but which is never mentioned again as an independent political entity in later historical records. Kamarupa, which was probably one among many such state structures, grew territorially to encompass the entire Brahmaputra valley and beyond. As the Gupta Empire weakened, the Varmans, of indigenous origin, began asserting themselves politically by performing horse sacrifices and culturally by claiming semi-divine origins. Under the rule of Bhaskaravarman Kamarupa reached its political zenith and the lineage of the Varmans from Narakasura, a demon, became a fixed tradition. The Mlechchha dynasty, another set of indigenous rulers and the Pala dynasty that followed, too asserted political legitimacy by asserting descendancy from Narakasura.
Varman dynasty (c. 350 – c. 650).
Pushyavarman (350–374) established the Varman Dynasty, by fighting many enemies from within and without his kingdom; but his son Samudravarman (374–398), named after Samudragupta, was accepted as an overlord by many local rulers. Nevertheless, subsequent kings continued their attempts to stabilise and expand the kingdom. The Nagajari Khanikargaon rock inscription of 5th century found in Sarupathar in Golaghat district of Assam adduces the fact that the kingdom spread to the east very quickly. Kalyanavarman (422–446) occupied Davaka and Mahendravarman (470–494) further eastern areas. Narayanavarma (494–518) and his son Bhutivarman (518–542) offered the "ashwamedha" (horse sacrifice); and as the Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskarvarman avers, these expansions included the region of Chandrapuri "visaya", identified with present-day Sylhet division. Thus, the small but powerful kingdom that Pushyavarman established grew in fits and starts over many generations of kings and expanded to include adjoining possibly smaller kingdoms and parts of Bangladesh.
After the initial expansion till the beginning of Bhutivarman's reign, the kingdom came under attack from Yasodharman (525–535) of Malwa, the first major assault from the west. Though it is unclear what the effect of this invasion was on the kingdom; that Bhutivarman's grandson, Sthitavarman (566–590), enjoyed victories over the Gauda of Karnasuvarna and performed two aswamedha ceremonies suggests that the Kamarupa kingdom had recovered nearly in full. His son, Susthitavarman (590–600) came under the attack of Mahasenagupta of East Malwa. These back and forth invasions were a result of a system of alliances that pitted the Kamarupa kings (allied to the Maukharis) against the Gaur kings of Bengal (allied with the East Malwa kings). Susthitavarman died as the Gaur invasion was on, and his two sons, Suprathisthitavarman and Bhaskarvarman fought against an elephant force and were captured and taken to Gaur. They were able to regain their kingdom due probably to a promise of allegiance. Suprathisthitavarman's reign is given as 595–600, a very short period, at the end of which he died without an heir.
Supratisthitavarman was succeeded by his brother, Bhaskarvarman (600–650), the most illustrious of the Varman kings who succeeded in turning his kingdom and invading the very kingdom that had taken him captive. Bhaskarvarman had become strong enough to offer his alliance with Harshavardhana just as the Thanesar king ascended the throne in 606 after the murder of his brother, the previous king, by Shashanka of Gaur. Harshavardhana finally took control over the kingless Maukhari kingdom and moved his capital to Kanauj. The alliance between Harshavardhana and Bhaskarvarman squeezed Shashanka from either side and reduced his kingdom, though it is unclear whether this alliance resulted in his complete defeat. Nevertheless, Bhaskarvarman did issue the Nidhanpur copper-plate inscription from his victory camp in the Gaur capital Karnasuvarna (present-day Murshidabad, West Bengal) to replace a grant issued earlier by Bhutivarman for a settlement in the Sylhet region of present-day Bangladesh.
Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655 – c. 900 CE).
After Bhaskaravarman's death without an heir and a period of civil and political strife the kingdom passed into the hands of Salasthambha (655–670), possibly as erstwhile local governor and a member of an aboriginal group called Mlechchha (or Mech). This dynasty too drew its lineage from the Naraka dynasty, though it had no dynastic relationship with the previous Varman dynasty. The capital of this dynasty was Haruppeshvara, now identified with modern Dah Parbatiya near Tezpur. The kingdom took on feudal characteristics with political power shared between the king and second and third tier rulers called "mahasamanta" and "samanta" who enjoyed considerable autonomy. The last ruler in this line was Tyāga Singha (890–900).
Pala dynasty (c. 900 – c. 1100).
After the death of Tyāgasimha without an heir, a member of the Bhauma family, Brahmapala (900–920), was elected as king by the ruling chieftains, just as Gopala of the Pala Empire of Bengal was elected. The original capital of this dynasty was Hadapeshvara, and was shifted to Durjaya built by Ratnapala (920–960), near modern Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings, Dharmapala (1035–1060) had his capital at Kamarupanagara, now identified with North Guwahati. The last Pala king was Jayapala (1075–1100).
Around this time, Kamarupa was attacked and the western portion was conquered by the Pala king Ramapala.
Breakup and End of Kamarupa.
Western Kamarupa.
Ramapala could not keep control for long, and Timgyadeva (1110–1126) ruled western Kamarupa independently for some time. His son Kumarapala sent Vaidyadeva against Timgyadeva who installed himself at Hamshkonchi in the Kamrup region. Though Vaidyadeva maintained friendly relationships with Kumarapala, he styled himself after the Kamarupa kings issuing grants under the elephant seal of erstwhile Kamarupa kings and assuming the title of "Maharajadhiraja", though he did not call himself "Pragjyotisadhipati" like the Kamarupa kings did. He controlled a portion of Kamrup, Goalpara and North Bengal but not Kamarupanagara, the seat of the last Kamarupa kings.
Central Kamarupa.
It is estimated that with the withering away of the Kamarupa kingdom, parts of Kamrup, Darrang and Sonitpur districts on the north bank of the Brahmaputra river came under the control of one Bhaskara. A single inscription (1185) gives a list of four rulers that have been called the Lunar dynasty—Bhaskara, Rayarideva, Udayakarna and Vallabhadeva—with their reign dated to 1120–1200.
Southern Kamarupa.
In the Sylhet region, there emerged rulers called Kharabana, Gokuladeva, Narayana and Kesavadeva.
Kamarupa Proper.
Kamarupa proper was confined to the south bank of Brahmaputra, with the power center still at Kamarupanagara, with three rulers associated with it: Prithu, Samudrapala and Sandhya.
In 1206 the Afghan Muhammad-i-Bakhtiyar passed through Kamarupa against Tibet which ended in disaster, the first of many Turko-Afghan invasions. The ruler of Kamarupa at this point was Raja Prithu (d. 1228, called Britu in Tabaqat-i Nasiri), who is sometimes identified with Visvasundara, the son of Vallabhadeva of the Lunar dynasty, mentioned in the Gachtal inscription of 1232 A.D. Prithu withstood invasions (1226–27) from Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah of Gauda who retreated back to his capital to defend it from Nasiruddin Mahmud but was defeated, captured and killed in 1228. Nasir-ud-din installed a tributary king but after his death in 1229 the control of Kamarupa lapsed back to local rulers.
Beginning of Kamata.
From among the local rulers, there emerged a strong ruler named Sandhya (c.1250–1270), the "Rai of Kamrup", with his capital at Kamarupanagara, the seat of the last Pala kings. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Iuzbak, a governor of Gaur for the Mamluk rulers of Delhi, attempted an invasive attack on Sandhya's domain in 1257; and Sandhya, with the help of the spring floods that same year, captured and killed the Sultan. Subsequent to this attack, Sandhya moved his capital from Kamarupanagara to Kamatapur (North Bengal) and established a new kingdom, that came to be called Kamata.
At that time, western Kamarupa was the domain of the Koch and Mech peoples. In other parts of the erstwhile Kamarupa the Kachari kingdom (central Assam, South bank), Baro Bhuyans (central Assam, North bank), and the Chutiya kingdom (east) were emerging. The Ahoms, who would establish a strong and independent kingdom later, began building their state structures in the region between the Kachari and the Chutiya kingdoms in 1228.


Princess Ki

Princess Ki (紀皇女) was a Japanese princess during the Asuka period of Japanese history. She was a daughter of Emperor Tenmu and Lady Ōnu, whose father was Soga no Akaye. Her brother was Prince Hozumi and her sister Princess Takata.
Genealogy.
Some people say that she was once a wife of Prince Karu, a grandson of Empress Jitō, but no clear evidence exists.
The "Man'yōshū" includes some poems of her love of Prince Yuge, a son of Princess Ōe. No other historical materials recording about her life are existing. No records say that she married him.


Irinosawa Site

 is an archaeological site with the ruins of a late 4th century AD Kofun period settlement located in what is now the city of Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The site received protection by the central government as a National Historic Site in 2017.
Overview.
The Irinosawa site is located at an altitude of 49 meters on the southernmost side of a hill sandwiched by the Sakogawa and Nisakogawa rivers, and extends 430 meters north to south and 450 meters east to west. It contains the ruins of many pit dwellings in an extremely dense configuration not found in any other known Kofun period settlement, and was surrounded by a moat. One of the pit dwellings was found to contain two bronze mirrors, 28 iron items and over 200 beads (including several jade "magatama") , In addition, many relics have been excavated from other pit building ruins, and two more mirrors. The density of artifacts is highly unusual, but the presence of mirrors is a major mystery, as at the time bronze mirrors were considered sacred ritual items which were in the possession of only the highest rulers and to have several in one ordinary dwelling, let alone in multiple coexisting buildings is unprecedented. Much of the pottery shards found are of a type common in the Kansai region or Japan, and many of the glass beads originated from outside the Japanese archipelago. As the pit dwellings contained no hearth or evidence of habitation, it has been speculated by archaeologists that the buildings are warehouses, possibly a trade center, or possibly an outpost of the Yamato state, which was expanding its influence into the region even during the 4th century AD. The defensive nature of the building arrangement and the fact that many of the buildings appear to have been intentionally destroyed by fire led some weight to this theory, as Yamato influence was spreading over the opposition of the local Emishi tribes.
It was excavated in 2017 in conjunction with construction work on a bypass for Japan National Route 4


Madog Elfed

Madog Elfed (Modern Welsh spelling; Madawc Elvet in standardised Middle Welsh spelling) is a hero mentioned in the medieval Welsh poem "Y Gododdin", set sometime around 600, who fights and dies at the Battle of Catraeth. His real place in history has been the subject of debate.
The name "Madog" appears several times in "Y Gododdin". In one stanza, it is associated with the epithet "Elfed":
This is the only stanza clearly to refer specifically to a 'Madog Elfed', but the other mentions of a 'Madog' are usually assumed to refer to the same character: the poem has warriors returning to 'Madog's tent' ('Pebyll Madawc'). Stanza 31 mentions him in passing alongside other fallen warriors. It is possible but not certain that we are to imagine Madog as king of Elfed.
The Elfed in Madog's epithet has traditionally been assumed to refer to the Brittonic kingdom of Elmet in what is now West Yorkshire, in which case "Y Gododdin" provides interesting evidence for the salience of this kingdom in either post-Roman history, later Welsh literary imagination, or both. However, recent work has suggested that the name "Elfed" could have occurred elsewhere in Britain too, including Elvet near Durham, and Elvet Hundred in Carmarthenshire, and that Madog Elfed might in fact have been imagined to have come from either of those.


Wali Khan (khoja)

Wali Khan (sometimes spelled Vālī-khan) was a member of the Ak Taghliq clan of East Turkestan Khojas, who invaded Kashgaria from the Kokand during the Afaqi Khoja revolts on several occasions in the 1850s, and succeeded in ruling Kashgar for a short while.
Although Ak Taghliks had been expelled from Kashgaria by the Qing in the 1760s, they had not abandoned their hopes of reconquering the region, and regularly invaded it from their base in Khanate of Kokand. Wali Khan followed in the footsteps of his father, Jahangir Khoja, his uncle Yusuf, and cousin Katti Torah, who had all invaded Kashgaria with various success through the first half of the 19th century.
He invaded Kashgaria in 1852 (with Divan Quli), 1855 (with Husayn Ishan Khoja), and most famously in 1857. Wali Khan, who was reputed for his brutality and tyranny, let a rebellion in 1855 and began by attacking Kashgar.
Chinese were massacred and the daughters and wives of the subordinates of the loyalist Turki governor were seized. Adolphe Schlagintweit, a German, was executed by beheading by Wali Khan and his head put on display. Wali Khan was infamous for his cruelty and if courtiers "raised their eyes" to him he would murder them, when the call to prayer was made by a muezzin and his voice was too loud the muezzin was murdered by Wali Khan. A 12,000 strong Chinese army crushed and defeated the 20,000 strong army of Wali Khan in 77 days of combat. Wali Khan was abandoned by his "allies" due to his cruelty. The Chinese inflicted harsh reprisals upon Wali Khan's forces and had his son and father in law executed in harsh manners.
In the West Wali Khan is mostly known for his execution of the German explorer Adolf Schlagintweit in 1857, but his cruelty found many other reflections in the local legends. It is said that he killed so many innocent Muslims that four or six minarets were built from the skulls of the victims ( "kala minara" ); or that once, when an artisan made a sabre for him, he instantly tested the weapon with the words, "Well, I'll try it now," by cutting off the artisan's son head, who had come with his father and was standing nearby. Then, with the words, "Yes, it's a really good sabre," he presented artisan with a gift. This treatment did not make Kashgarians miss the khoja too much when he was defeated by the Chinese troops after ruling the city for four months.
The local Uyghurs of Altishahr grew to hate and despite Wali Khan for his forcible introduction of Kokandi culture and suppression of Kashgari culture and for his brutality.
In 1865, after Kokand Khanate had been successfully invaded by the Russian and its ruler Alimqul killed, Wali Khan joined a large group of Kokandian officials who decided to try their luck in Kashgaria. They appeared in Kashgar in September 1865, but had to submit to the fellow Kokandian Yaqub Beg, who had already firmly established himself as the ruler of the city. Wali Khan's followers attempts to bring him to power again very easily foiled by Yaqub Beg, who had Wali Khan arrested and sent to Yangihissar under armed guard, where he was later poisoned.


2003 in the Palestinian territories

Events in the year 2003 in the Palestinian territories.
Incumbents.
Palestinian National Authority (non-state administrative authority)
Events.
Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
The most prominent events related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict which occurred during 2003 include:
Notable Palestinian militant operations against Israeli targets
The most prominent Palestinian militant acts and operations committed against Israeli targets during 2003 include:
Notable Israeli military operations against Palestinian militancy targets
The most prominent Israeli military counter-terrorism operations (military campaigns and military operations) carried out against Palestinian militants during 2003 include:


Ogawa Domain

The was a feudal domain in Owari Province, Japan. Historically, "Ogawa" has also been written as 小川 and 小河. The area was controlled by Ogawa Castle.
History.
The area was under control of the Mizuno clan since the 15th century. During the Battle of Sekigahara in the Sengoku period, Mizuno Nobumoto, Mizuno Tadamori, and Mizuno Tadashige all fought under the banner of Tokugawa Ieyasu. In 1601, because of the support of the Mizuno clan, Mizuno Wakenaga,was given control of the Ogawa Domain, which produced 9,820 "koku". In 1606, Wakenaga was transferred to the nearby Shinshiro Domain, which produced 10,000 "koku". The Ogawa Domain was eventually merged with the Owari Domain


Police services of the Empire of Japan

The of the Empire of Japan comprised numerous police services, in many cases with overlapping jurisdictions.
History and background.
During the Tokugawa bakufu (1603–1867), police functions were based on a combination of appointed town magistrates of "samurai" status, who served simultaneously as chiefs of police, prosecutors and judges. These magistrates were assisted by a professional police force led by officers whom were also of "samurai" status. In turn, the "samurai" officers were assisted by deputized commoners known as "jittemochi", whom were granted powers of arrest. The citizenry was organized into "gonin-gumi" (Five-family associations), the forerunner of the "tonarigumi," whose members were collectively responsible for the actions and activities of any one of their members. The official formula used in feudal times to inform a subject that he had been placed under arrest was to simply shout "Go yo!" – the expression was also used to mean "Official business!" or "Clear the way!".
As part of the modernization of Japan after the Meiji Restoration, the new Meiji government sent Kawaji Toshiyoshi on a tour of Europe in 1872 to study various law enforcement systems. He returned impressed with the structure and techniques of the police forces of France's Third Republic and of Prussia as models for the new Japanese police system. With the establishment of the Home Ministry in 1873, his recommendations were implemented, and civilian police powers were centralized at the national level, although implementation was delegated to the prefectural level.
Under the Home Ministry, the also had quasi-judicial functions, including the power to issue ordinances, regulate business licenses, construction permits, industrial safety and public health issues, in addition to its criminal investigation and public order functions. The centralized police system steadily acquired responsibilities, until it controlled almost all aspects of daily life, including fire prevention and mediation of labor disputes.
During the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, the lack of an organized, trained standing army forced the central government to use units from the police bureau as militia to suppress the uprising.
After 1911, a separate department, the Special Higher Police ("Tokko"), was established specifically to deal with political crimes and counter-espionage, similar to Special Branches in Commonwealth of Nations. The "Tokko" investigated and suppressed potentially subversive ideologies, ranging from anarchism, communism, socialism, and the growing foreign population within Japan, but its scope gradually increased to include religious groups, pacifists, student activists, liberals, and ultra-rightists. The "Tokko" also regulated the content of motion pictures, political meetings, and election campaigns.
The military fell under the jurisdiction of the "Kempeitai" for the Imperial Japanese Army and the "Tokkeitai" for the Imperial Japanese Navy, although both organizations had overlapping jurisdiction over the civilian population.
In Shanghai, the Japanese Consular Police was established and kept under the control of the Japanese consulate in order to apprehend Japanese wanted for crimes committed against the state.
After the Manchurian Incident of 1931, military police assumed greater authority, leading to friction with their civilian counterparts. After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, police regulated industry and commerce to maximize the war effort and to prevent speculation and hoarding, mobilized labor, and controlled transportation.
Civil police services were also set up overseas (in Korea, Kwantung Leased Territory, Taiwan, Karafuto, some extraterritorial Japanese dependencies in Shanghai, Peking and Tientsin before the war on the Chinese mainland). Later, from the 1930s period to the Pacific War, other similar but "native" civil police services operated in Manchukuo, Mengjiang and the Nanking Nationalist Government. The police and security services in South Seas Mandate and occupied Pacific areas were the charge of the "Tokeitai".
The Tokyo metropolitan area came under the jurisdiction of the Teikoku Keishichō (帝國警視廳) or Keishichō, which was personally headed by Kawaji from 1874, and from which he could direct the organization of the national police system.
The vague wording of the Peace Preservation Laws gave all police organizations wide scope for interpretation of what constituted "criminal activity", and under the guise of "maintenance of order", the police were allowed broad powers for surveillance and arrest. Lack of accountability and a tradition of 'guilty until proven innocent' led to many of the brutalities carried out by the police forces. In rural areas especially, the police had great authority and were accorded the same mixture of fear and respect as the village head. The increasing involvement of the police in political affairs was one of the foundations of the authoritarian state in Japan in the first half of the twentieth century.
After Japan's surrender in 1945, the American occupation authorities retained the prewar police structure until a new system was implemented and the Diet of Japan passed the 1947 Police Law creating the new decentralized system with , and the . But this system didn't match Japanese national situation, so complete restructuring created a more centralized system with the National Police Agency and prefectural police departments under the 1954 amended Police Law.
Service weapons.
At the beginning of modern police systems, only senior officers were permitted to wear a sword, so most constables had only a baton. Then, in 1882, all officers started to be issued a sabre.
Only some elite detectives, bodyguards, or SWAT units such as the Special Security Unit of the TMPD were issued pistols. Basically, FN Model 1910 or Colt Model 1903 were used for open-carry uses, and FN M1905 or Colt Model 1908 Vest Pocket for concealed carry uses. And in the border area like Karafuto Prefecture and Korea, there were some armed police units with military small arms.


Hachinohe Domain

 was a "tozama" feudal domain of Edo period Japan It is located in Mutsu Province, in northern Honshū. The domain was centered at Hachinohe Castle, located in the center of what is now the city of Hachinohe in Aomori Prefecture.
History.
On the death of the 2nd "daimyō" of Morioka Domain, Nanbu Shigenao while under house arrest in Edo, the Tokugawa shogunate intervened in the succession and by order of Shōgun Tokugawa Ietsuna divided the 100,000 koku domain into Morioka Domain (80,000 koku) and Hachinohe Domain (20,000 koku). Hachinohe Domain thus had a somewhat ambiguous status in that it is sometimes regarded as a sub-domain of Morioka Domain although it had not been created by the Nanbu clan. It was also subject to the normal "sankin kotai" regulations, and was allowed to maintain a castle (which was normally permitted only to independent domains).
During official investigations into the untimely deaths of its first two "daimyō". Morioka Domain insisted that Hachinohe was not part of their territory and therefore not their responsibility. Furthermore, in 1812, when the domain's residence in Edo burned down, and the 10th "daimyō" of Morioka Domain, Nanbu Toshitaka, refused to assist with its rebuilding, citing the "independence" of Hachinohe.
In July 1871, with the abolition of the han system, Hachinohe Domain became Hachinohe Prefecture, and was merged into the newly created Aomori Prefecture in September 1871.
List of daimyō.
Nanbu Naofusa.
 was the 1st "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the 7th son of Nanbu Toshinao, the 1st "daimyō" of Morioka Domain, and was originally named . In 1664, his elder brother, Nanbu Shigenao (the 2nd "daimyō" of Morioka Domain) died while under house arrest in Edo without an heir. The Tokugawa shogunate decided to divide the 100,000 "koku" Morioka Domain into two parts, with 20,000 "koku" forming a domain based at Hachinohe Castle under Nanbu Naofusa. His courtesy title was "Saemon-no-suke", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. He died four years later at age 41 under circumstances so suspicious that the shogunate sent investigators. The investigators could find no proof that Morioka Domain was involved; and Morioka Domain strongly contended at the time that Hachinohe was not a subsidiary, but was completely independent and therefore not their responsibility.
Nanbu Naomasa.
 was the 2nd "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the eldest son of Nanbu Naofusa and became "daimyō" in 1668 at age 7 on the death of his father. His courtesy title was "Tōtōmi-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. In 1672, an agreement on borders was made with Morioka Domain. Naomasa was noted as a scholar; however a series of crop failures due to inclement weather occurred in the Enpō era (1673-1680) caused economic problems for the domain, which was compounded by the expenses needed for "sankin-kōtai", which was imposed on the domain by the Tokugawa shogunate in recognition of its “independent” status. He served as a in the shogunal administration in 1688 and 1689. As of 1695, the first survey was made of Hachinohe Domain, which recorded a population of 58,507 He died in 1699 at age 39. As with his father, he was possibly poisoned by agents from Morioka Domain, although this was never proven. His wife was a daughter of Nanbu Yukinobu. His grave is at the temple of Konchi-in in Minato, Tokyo.
Nanbu Michinobu.
 was the 3rd "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the fourth son of Nanbu Shigenobu, the 3rd "daimyō" of Morioka Domain and was posthumously adopted as heir to Nanbu Naomasa. His courtesy title was "Tōtōmi-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. He was a multitalented person, noted for his knowledge of literature, horsemanship, the Japanese tea ceremony, "waka" poetry, and "kemari". He also codified the laws of the domain and suppressed inflation. However, in the famine of 1703, it was recorded that 16,745 people died in Hachinohe. This was followed by an earthquake and tsunami in 1707. His wife was the daughter of Matsudaira Nobutsuna, daimyō of Sasayama Domain. He died at the age of 44 and his grave is at the temple of Nanshu-ji in Hachinohe.
Nanbu Hironobu.
 was the 4th "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the eldest son of Nanbu Michinobu, and became "daimyō" at the age of seven on the death of his father. His courtesy title was "Kai-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. During his tenure, a complete survey of the domain’s lands was undertaken, and the Hachinohe Sansha Matsuri festival began; however, the domain continued to be plagued by frequent crop failures due to inclement weather. Per a census in 1732, the domain had 56,401 inhabitants He died at the age of 33, and his grave is at the temple of Konchi-in in Minato, Tokyo.
Nanbu Nobuoki.
 was the 5th "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the eldest son of Nanbu Hironobu, and became "daimyō" at the age of 16 on the death of his father. His courtesy title was "Tōtōmi-no-kami" (later "Saemon-no-suke"), and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. His wife was the daughter of Oda Nagaaki, daimyō of Shibamura Domain. During a famine in 1749, it was recorded that 3000 people died. Further famines occurred in 1753 and 1756, by which time the population of Hachinohe had dropped to 45,367. This was followed by large earthquakes, tsunami and further crop failures in 1762 and 1763. Nobuoki retired from public life in 1765 and died in 1773.
Nanbu Nobuyori.
 was the 6th "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the eldest son of Nanbu Nobuoki, and became "daimyō" in 1765 at the age of 18 on the retirement of his father. His courtesy title was "Kai-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. He established a han school in 1770 to improve the calibre of his samurai. In 1769 caused great damage. He fell ill in February 1781, and turned the domain over to his son. he died a few months later at the age of 35. His grave is at is at the temple of Konchi-in in Minato, Tokyo.
Nanbu Nobufusa.
 was the 7th "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the eldest son of Nanbu Nobuyori, and was presented in formal audience to Shōgun Tokugawa Ieharu in November 1780. He became "daimyō" in 1781 at the age of 16 on the death of his father. His courtesy title was "Ise-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. His wife was the daughter of Mizoguchi Naoyasu, the daimyō Shibata Domain. He was a noted a "haikai" poet. During his tenure, the domain suffered severely from the Great Tenmei famine of 1783 during which 30,000 of the 65,000 inhabitants died and he was forced to borrow large sums of money from local merchants. Unable to repay these debts, Naoyori was forced to raise a number of the merchants to samurai status. A further famine occurred in 1795 causing a peasant’s revolt. He turned the domain over to his brother in 1796, and retired from public life. He died in 1835 at age 59.
Nanbu Nobumasa.
 was the 8th "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the third son of Nanbu Nobuyori, and became "daimyō" in 1796 at the age of 16 on the retirement of his brother Nanbu Nobufusa. His courtesy title was ‘’Saemon-no-suke‘', and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. His wife was the daughter of Okubo Tadaaki, the "daimyō" of Odawara Domain. He undertook strong measures to rectify the domain’s finances, including encouraging the planting of soy beans and the creation of domain monopolies on certain products and industries. The measures were initially successful, albeit highly unpopular, and when the Tenpō famine of 1834 struck, there was a widespread uprising. He retired from public life in 1842 and died in 1847 at age 66.
Nanbu Nobuyuki.
 was the 9th and final "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain. He was the 14th son of Shimazu Shigehide, "daimyō" of Satsuma Domain and was adopted into the Nanbu clan in 1838, officially becoming "daimyō" of Hachinohe Domain in 1842 on the death of Nanbu Nobumasa. During the Bakumatsu period, he sided with the Tokugawa shogunate against the Satchō Alliance, and during the Boshin War, took his domain into the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei. However, his allegiance to the Tokugawa clan over his own relatives in Satsuma was somewhat uncertain, and he maintained a secret diplomacy with pro-imperial Kubota Domain, which enabled the domain to survive the Meiji Restoration without loss of status. He was appointed domain governor under the new Meiji government on June 22, 1868. With the abolition of the han system in 1871 he retired from public life. He died in 1872.
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Hachinohe Domain consisted of a discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.


Komoro Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. It is located in Shinano Province, Honshū. The domain was centered at Komoro Castle, located in what is now part of the city of Komoro in Nagano Prefecture.
History.
The area which later became Komoro Domain was repeated contested between the Uesugi clan, the Takeda clan and the Later Hōjō clan during the Sengoku period, changing hands repeatedly. After Toyotomi Hideyoshi annihilated the Hōjō clan in the Siege of Odawara in 1590, he awarded Komoro as a 50,000 "koku" holding to Sengoku Hidehisa. The marked the start of Komoro Domain. He was confirmed in his status by Tokugawa Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara, and his son, Sengoku Tadamasa was transferred to Ueda Domain in 1622.
Komoro was part of the holdings of Kōfu Domain from 1622-1624, but was revived as an independent domain for Matsudaira Norinaga from 1624-1647. On his death without an heir, the domain was placed under Matsumoto Domain for a year, until the transfer of Aoyama Munetoshi, who was raised from "hatamoto" status. He subsequently served as "Osaka jōdai" from 1662, and Komoro was given to Sakai Tadayoshi, formerly of Isesaki Domain. Sakai was demoted to Tanaka Domain in Suruga Province in 1679. The next ruler of Komoro was Nishio Tadanari, formerly of Tanaka Domain. He made great efforts to undo the damage caused by the misgovernment of Sakai Tadayoshi, but was transferred to Yokosuka Domain in 1682. Komoro was then given to a junior branch of the Matsudaira clan from 1679 to 1702.
In 1702, Makino Yasushige was transferred to Komoro from Yoita Domain in Echigo Province. This at last brought stability to the administration of the domain, as the Makino clan continued to rule until the Meiji restoration.
During the Boshin War, the 10th "daimyō", Makino Yasumasu quickly supported the imperial side, and participated in the Battle of Hokuetsu and was assigned to guard Usui Pass. However, in September 1869 he was forced to suppress an attempted coup d’etat within his own domain.
In July 1871, with the abolition of the han system, Komoro Domain briefly became Komoro Prefecture, and was merged into the newly created Nagano Prefecture.
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Komoro Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.
List of daimyō.
! #||Name || Tenure || Courtesy title || Court Rank || "kokudaka"||Notes


Fukiake Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan, located in Shimotsuke Province (modern-day Tochigi Prefecture), Japan. It was centered on Fukiage "jin'ya" in what is now part of the city of Tochigi. Fukiage was ruled through all of its history by a junior branch of the Arima clan.
History.
The Arima clan ruled Kurume Domain (210,000 "koku") in Chikuzen Province. Arima Yoritsudo, the third son of the founder of the domain, Arima Toyouji, was allowed to found his own branch of the clan, and served as a "hatamoto" to "Shōgun" Tokugawa Hidetada and to his son, Tokugawa Tadanaga, with revenues of 10,000 "koku", although he was not formally styled as a "daimyō". His descendants served the Kii-branch of the Tokugawa clan for several generations. In 1726, "shōgun" Tokugawa Yoshinobu raised Arima Ujinori to the status of "daimyō" of Ise-Saijō Domain (10,000 "koku"). Five generations later, his descendants transferred the seat of the domain to Goi Domain in Kazusa Province in 1781. Another five generations later, in 1842, Arima Ujishige moved the seat of the domain once again, to Fukiage.
His son, Arima Ujihiro, inherited the domain in 1862, but was only age 2 at the time, and the administration of the domain remained in the hands of its "Karō". The domain attacked Ashikaga Domain in its support of the suppression of the Mito rebellion in 1864, but quickly sided with the pro-imperial cause in the Boshin war of the Meiji restoration and fielded troops in suppression of the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei in 1868. In March 1869, a group of nine samurai of the domain stormed its Edo residence, and assassinated the "Karō", who had been discovered to have embezzled funds provided by the government for the assistance of the families of the domain’s samurai who had fallen in battle.
After the abolition of the han system in July 1871, Fukiage Domain became part of Tochigi Prefecture.
The domain had a population of 6,826 people in 1473 households, of which 383 were samurai in 106 households per a census in 1870.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Fukiage Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. Due to its history, its territory was divided between Shimotsuke and Ise Provinces.


Shimabara Domain

The was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It is associated with Hizen Province in modern-day Saga Prefecture.
In the han system, Shimabara was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of "kokudaka", not land area. This was different than the feudalism of the West.
History.
The Arima clan, who were "Kirishitan daimyōs", ruled over Shimabara Domain in the late Muromachi period from Hinoe Castle and Hara Castle. In 1614, the Tokugawa Bakufu banned Christianity and replaced Arima Naozumi with Matsukura Shigemasa. Matsukura, who strictly enforced the prohibition against Christianity with mass executions, also severely raised taxes to pay for the construction of his new Shimabara Castle from 1618 to 1624. This oppression of the peasants was a major factor leading to the Shimabara Rebellion.
After the rebellion was suppressed, the domain was given to the Kōriki clan. It then passed to the Fukōzu-Matsudaira family, who ruled it from 1669 until 1871 (with a brief hiatus from 1749 to 1774, during which the domain was ruled by the Toda clan, cousins of the Fukōzu-Matsudaira).
In the Bakumatsu period, Matsudaira Tadachika became an influential official in the Tokugawa administration. However, the final "daimyō" of Shimabara, Matsudaira Tadakazu pledged Shimabara domain in support of Emperor Meiji in the Boshin War, proved his loyalty by committing his troops to the northern campaign against the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei, fighting at Akita and Morioka.
List of "daimyōs".
The hereditary "daimyōs" were head of the clan and head of the domain.


Hayato people

The , which is Japanese for "falcon-people", were a people of ancient Japan who lived in the Satsuma and Ōsumi regions of southern Kyushu during the Nara period. They frequently resisted Yamato rule. After their subjugation they became subjects of the government under Ritsuryō, and the Ministry of the Military had an office known as the in charge of their governance. The name also came into use by samurai as a title, . In modern times, Hayato is a Japanese male given name.
History and culture.
The Hayato might have been the same as the Kumaso group of around the same time, but while the Kumaso are mentioned in the more legendary portions of the Nihon Shoki, the Hayato are recorded in various historical texts until the beginning of the Heian period. Though the Kumaso are generally portrayed as rebellious, the Hayato are listed among the attendants of emperors and princes from as early as Emperor Nintoku's reign. This, along with a mention of Hayato crying before the grave of Emperor Yūryaku after his death, suggests that the Hayato were naturalized as personal servants by the late 7th century.
Even after pledging allegiance to the Japanese court, the Hayato continued to resist its rule. After the establishment of Ōsumi Province in 713, the Ōsumi Hayato fought back in 720 with the Hayato Rebellion, but were defeated in 721 by an army led by Ōtomo no Tabito. The Handen-Shūju system was implemented in their lands in 800. The population of Yamato immigrants in Kagoshima prefecture in the early 8th century has been estimated at around 9,000 people and one-seventh of the total population. By this estimate, the Hayato population of the time can be calculated as consisting of around 54,000 people (not including Hayato emigrants to Honshū).
The Hayato were made to emigrate to the Kinai region, and were active in the protection of the court, the arts, sumo, and bamboo work. Many lived in Yamashiro Province, in the south of modern Kyoto. There remains an area called in Kyōtanabe, Kyoto, where many Ōsumi Hayato lived. These were the Hayato governed by the "Hayato-shi".
The language spoken by the Hayato is not known, except for two words and several personal names documented in contemporary sources. Based on this material, it has been proposed that the Hayato may have been of Austronesian origin. Their culture is also believed to be unique from those of other regions of Japan. In particular, their folk song and dance became famous in the Kinai region as the . An excavation of Heijō Palace discovered wooden shields with a distinctive reverse-S-shaped marking. These shields match those described in the "Engishiki", which the Hayato used in court ceremonial functions. The Hayato had roles in various state ceremonies, including those for the new year, imperial enthronement, and visiting foreign officials.
According to the ancient records of Hizen province, the Gotō Islands were also inhabited by a people resembling the Hayato. The New Book of Tang describes a minor king of , and this Haya has also been interpreted as referring to the Hayato.
There are three types of graves archaeologically associated with the Hayato: the widely distributed around the border of Kagoshima and Miyazaki prefectures, the of the southern Satsuma peninsula, and the found north of the Satsuma peninsula. Another large group of tunnel tombs is located near the Ōsumi area of Kyotanabe. Because of the proximity and because the gravelly soil of the area is not suited to such tombs, these may also be associated with the Hayato.
In Japanese mythology, the deity Umisachihiko is considered the ancestor of the ruler of the Ata Hayato. The Hayato Dance may be intended to portray Umisachihiko's pain at being outdone by his younger brother Yamasachihiko.
Skeletal findings.
Anthropological research on human skeletons of the Kofun period on southern Kyushu has shown that male skeletons found inland differ from those on the Miyazaki plain. Inland skeletons resembled those of Jōmon people and northwestern Kyushu Yayoi people, and some groups on the plain also resembled northern Kyushu Yayoi people. Additionally, skeletons excavated from late Yayoi-period ruins on Tanegashima are smaller than those found on Kyushu, and show signs of artificial cranial deformation.


Education in the Empire of Japan

Education in the Empire of Japan was a high priority for the government, as the leadership of the early Meiji government realized the need for universal public education in its drive to modernize Japan.
Education policy during Meiji era.
During the Edo period, education that were given to the commoners and outcasts were limited to none. What these low-class people did learn was generally geared towards the basic and practical subjects such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. By the late 1860s, the Meiji leaders had established a system that declared equality in education for all in the process of modernizing the country.
After 1868 new leadership set Japan on a rapid course of modernization. The Meiji leaders established a public education system to modernize the country. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and teacher autonomy. Such ideas and ambitious initial plans, however, proved very difficult to carry out. After some trial and error, a new national education system emerged. As an indication of its success, elementary school enrollments climbed from about 30% percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees.
In 1871, the Ministry of Education was established. Elementary school was made compulsory from 1872, and was intended to create loyal subjects of the Emperor. Middle Schools were preparatory schools for students destined to enter one of the Imperial Universities, and the Imperial Universities were intended to create westernized leaders who would be able to direct the modernization of Japan. In December, 1885, the cabinet system of government was established, and Mori Arinori became the first Minister of Education of Japan. Mori, together with Inoue Kowashi created the foundation of the Empire of Japan's educational system by issuing a series of orders from 1886. These laws established an elementary school system, middle school system, normal school system and an imperial university system. With the aid of foreign advisors, such as American educators David Murray and Marion McCarrell Scott, normal schools for teacher education were also created in each prefecture. Other advisors, such as George Adams Leland, were recruited to create specific types of curriculum.
By 1890, Imperial Rescript on Education was signed to articulate government policy on the guiding principles of education on the Empire of Japan. The Imperial Rescript along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until the end of World War II.
With the increasing industrialization of Japan, demand increased for higher education and vocational training. Inoue Kowashi, who followed Mori as Minister of Education established a state vocational school system, and also promoted women's education through a separate girls' school system.
Compulsory education was extended to six years in 1907. According to the new laws, textbooks could only be issued upon the approval of the Ministry of Education. The curriculum was centered on moral education (mostly aimed at instilling patriotism), mathematics, design, reading and writing, composition, Japanese calligraphy, Japanese history, geography, science, drawing, singing, and physical education. All children of the same age learned each subject from the same series of textbook.
1912–1937.
During the Taishō and early Shōwa periods, from 1912-1937, the education system in Japan became increasingly centralized. From 1917-1919, the government created the , which issued numerous reports and recommendations on educational reform. One of the main emphases of the Council was in higher education. Prior to 1918, "university" was synonymous with "imperial university", but as a result of the Council, many private universities obtained officially recognized status. The Council also introduced subsidies for families too poor to afford the tuitions for compulsory education, and also pushed for more emphasis on moral education.
During this period, new social currents, including socialism, communism, anarchism, and liberalism exerted influences on teachers and teaching methods. The led to teachers unions and student protest movements against the nationalist educational curriculum. The government responded with increased repression, and adding some influences from the German system in an attempt to increase the patriotic spirit and step up the militarization of Japan. The Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors became compulsory reading for students during this period.
Specialized schools for the blind and for the deaf were established as early as 1878, and were regulated and standardized by the government in the Blind, Deaf and Dumb Schools Order of 1926. Blind people were encouraged toward vocations such as massage, acupuncture, physical therapy, and piano tuning.
1937–1945.
After the Manchurian Incident of 1931, the curriculum of the national educational system became increasingly nationalistic and after the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the curriculum became increasingly militaristic and was influenced by ultranationalist Education Minister Sadao Araki.
In 1941, elementary schools were renamed and students were required to attend vocational training schools on graduation, which mixed vocational and basic military training (for boys) and home economics (for girls). The "Seinen Gakkō" also conducted classes at night for working boys and girls.
Normal schools were renamed , and were often affiliated with a university. The "Senmon Gakkō" taught medicine, law, economics, commerce, agricultural science, engineering or business management. The aim of the "Senmon Gakkō" was to produce a professional class, rather than intellectual elite. In the pre-war period, all higher school for women were "Senmon Gakkō".
After the start of the Pacific War in 1941, nationalistic and militaristic indoctrination were further strengthened. Textbooks such as the "Kokutai no Hongi" became required to be read. The principal educational objective was teaching the traditional national political values, religion and morality. This had prevailed from the Meiji period. The Japanese state modernized organizationally, but preserved its national idiosyncrasies. Emphasis was laid on the Emperor worship cult, and loyalty to the most important values of the nation, and the importance of ancient military virtues.
After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the United States Education Missions to Japan in 1946 and again in 1950 under the direction of the American occupation authorities abolished the old educational framework and established the foundation of Japan's post-war educational system.


Toba Domain

 was a Japanese domain of the Edo period, located in Shima Province (part of modern-day Mie Prefecture), Japan. It was centered on Toba Castle in what is now the city of Toba.
History.
During the Sengoku period, most of Shima Province came under the control of Kuki Yoshitaka, a retainer of Oda Nobunaga, who had a fleet of armored ships and controlled maritime traffic around Ise Bay. The Kuki clan fought on both sides during the Battle of Sekigahara, with Kuki Yoshitaka siding with the western forces loyal to Toyotomi Hideyori, and his son Kuki Moritaka, joining the eastern armies of Tokugawa Ieyasu.
With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, Kuki Moritaka was confirmed as "daimyō" of Toba, initially with revenues of 35,000 "koku", growing to 55,000 "koku" under his son Kuki Hisataka, who was transferred to Sanda Domain in Settsu Province.
The Kuki were replaced by the "tozama" Naitō clan, which ruled Toba to 1680. The domain then reverted to "tenryō" status under the direct control of the shogunate for one year. It then came under the control of the Doi clan (1681–1691), Ogyu-Matsudaira clan (1691–1710), Itakura clan (1710–1717), and Toda-Matsudaira clan (1717–1725) before finally coming under the Inagaki clan (1725–1871), where it remained until the Meiji Restoration.
As with all domains, Toba Domain was not a single contiguous holding, but was geographically scattered over a wide area. During the Bakumatsu era it ruled all of Shima Province (37 villages in Toshi District and 19 villages in Ago District) as well as 8 villages in Iino District, 4 villages in Taki District, and 5 villages in Watari District, all in Ise Province.
During the Boshin War, Inagaki Nagayuki remained loyal to the Shogunate, and as a result was fined heavily by the Meiji government and forced into retirement. His son, Inagaki Nagahiro became domain governor, and after the abolition of the han system in July 1871, Toba Domain became "Toba Prefecture", which merged with the short-lived "Watarai Prefecture" in November 1871, which later became part of Mie Prefecture.


Honda Suketsugu


Koga Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. It is located in Shimōsa Province, Honshū. The domain was centered at Koga Castle, located in what is the city of Koga in Ibaraki Prefecture.
History.
During the Muromachi period, Koga was the seat of the Kantō kubō, under the Ashikaga clan, who vied with the Uesugi clan and with the Later Hōjō clan for control of eastern Japan. Ashikaga Ujinohime was the last Koga-kubo and owner of Koga domain of the Ashikaga lineage.
When Toyotomi Hideyoshi defeated the Hōjō at the Siege of Odawara, the area fell into his hands, and was subsequently assigned (along with the rest of the Kantō region) to Tokugawa Ieyasu. Ieyasu assigned Koga Castle to his grandson-in-law, Ogasawara Hidemasa as "daimyō" of Koga Domain, with assessed "kokudaka" of 30,000 "koku".
Afterwards, the domain was reassigned every couple of generations to a large number of "fudai daimyō" clans, spending the longest time under the control of the Doi clan (1633–1681, 1762–1871).
During the Boshin War, the Tokugawa shogunate ordered the domain to provide guards on the foreign settlement at Yokohama. However, the domain capitulated almost immediately on the approach of the imperial forces. The final "daimyō" of Koga, Doi Toshitomo, served as domain governor until 1871, and was awarded the title of "shishaku" (marquis) under the "kazoku" peerage system. Koga Domain subsequently became part of Ibaraki Prefecture.
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Koga Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.


Isawa Castle

 was an early Heian period "jōsaku"-style Japanese castle located in what is now part of the city of Ōshū, Iwate in the Tōhoku region of far northern Honshu, Japan. The site was proclaimed a National National Historic Site in 1922.
History.
In the late Nara period, after the establishment of a centralized government under the "Ritsuryō" system, the Yamato court sent a number of military expeditions to what is now the Tōhoku region of northern Japan to bring the local Emishi tribes under its control. The Emishi were able to successfully resist the Japanese for several decades; however, in 802 AD, the "Chinjufu-shōgun" Sakanoue no Tamuramaro led an expedition with 4000 troops from the ten provinces of eastern Japan (Suruga, Kai, Sagami, Musashi, Kazusa, Shimōsa, Hitachi, Shinano, Kōzuke and Shimotsuke) and built Isawa Castle as his stronghold within Emishi territory in the valley of the Kitakami River.
With the defeat of the Emishi chieftain Aterui, many of the Emishi tribes in the Shiwa District submitted to Japanese rule. In 803 AD, Shiwa Castle was established in what is now part of the city of Morioka to serve as an administrative center of the imperial government. However, the site was prone to flooding, and in 811 AD, and Shiwa Castle was abandoned in favor of Tokutan Castle approximately ten kilometers to the south. The garrison at Isawa Castle was reduced to 700 men in 815 AD, of whom many were local Emishi (known as ) in the service of the Yamato court. By the middle of the 9th century, mention of Isawa Castle largely disappears from the historical record, although it reappears as a stronghold of Abe no Munetō in the Zenkunen War against the forces central government led by Minamoto no Yoriyoshi. It may have been destroyed by the Gosannen War of 1083.
Overview.
Excavation research revealed that Isawa Castle was a square castle surrounded by double moat and wooden palisade measuring 670 meters on each side and thus enclosing an area of 460,000 square meters. At the center was a government office complex in a separate enclosure, with dimensions of 90 meters on each side. The site is located about 15 minutes by bus from Mizusawa Station on the JR East Tohoku Main Line.


Tubaki Krishnappa Nayak

Tubaki Krishnappa Nayak was an army commander in service of the Vijayanagar emperor, Krishna Deva Raya.He served as the first Nayak or Viceroy of Gingee from 1509 to 1521.
Early life.
The "Varadambika Parinayam"' states that in 1509, Krishna Deva Raya sent a huge army of over 100,000 men headed by generals, Vaiyappa Nayak, Tubaki Krishnappa Nayak, Vijayaraghava Nayak and Venkatappa Nayak into the south to conquer the whole of the present-day Tamil Nadu. On successful subjugation of the Chola and Pandya kingdoms, Krishna Deva Raya divided the region into three governorates and placed each of them under a Nayak or viceroy - Madurai, Thanjavur and Gingee. Krishnappa Nayak was made the Nayak of Gingee.
Reign.
Krishnappa Nayak reigned from 1509 to 1521. On the whole, his reign was peaceful and he was able to devote his time to construction activity. Tubaki Krishnappa Nayak and Vaiyappa Nayak are credited with having constructed temples at Srimushanam and Thirukkoilur. Krishnappa Nayak is also credited with the construction of the granaries in the Gingee Fort, the Kalyana Mahal and the walls surrounding the three Gingee hills. A number of small townships and villages emerged during his reign.
Death.
Krishnappa Nayak died in 1521 and was succeeded by Achutha Ramachandra Nayak.


Maeda Toshinaka


Takanabe Domain

The was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It was associated with Hyūga Province in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu.
In the han system, Takanabe was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of "kokudaka", not land area. This was different from the feudalism of the West.
History.
Takanabe was previously called Kushima; it was granted to Akizuki Tanezane by Toyotomi Hideyoshi after Tanezane's surrender during the subjugation of Kyushu in the late 1580s. Akizuki Tanezane retained control of the fief after the Battle of Sekigahara, as he had been on the side of Ishida Mitsunari but switched allegiances while in Ōgaki Castle, killing the Western Army's commanders there and opening the castle to the Eastern Army. In 1604 Tanezane moved his residence to Takanabe Castle; the domain became formally known as Takanabe 69 years later, in 1674. The domain's income rating was 30,000 "koku" until 1689, when the 4th generation lord, Akizuki Tanemasa, granted 3000 "koku" to his younger brother; Takanabe's income remained at 27,000 "koku" for the remainder of its history.
The famed lord of the Yonezawa Domain, Uesugi Yōzan (Harunori), was the 2nd son of the 6th generation Takanabe lord, Tanemitsu.
Takanabe's domain school, Meirin-dō, was founded in 1778; it brought great acclaim to Takanabe as a center of education.
The domain was abolished in 1871, and became Takanabe Prefecture. It passed through incorporation into various prefectures before finally becoming part of Miyazaki Prefecture. Its former ruling family became "shishaku" (viscounts) in 1884.
List of "daimyōs".
The hereditary "daimyōs" were head of the clan and head of the domain. At Takanabe. the Tokugawa shōguns granted 27,000 "koku" to the Akizuki clan from the early 1600s to 1868.


Theodwin of Lobbes

Theodwin was abbot of Lobbes Abbey from 737 until his death some time around 750. During his abbacy he added Fontaine-Valmont (now part of Merbes-le-Château) to the abbey's domains. Unlike his predecessor, Ermin of Lobbes, and his successor, he was not a bishop alongside being abbot.


Nanbu-Date border mounds

The are a series of earth mounds constructed in the early Edo period to mark the border between the feudal domains of Morioka Domain (i.e. “Nanbu territory”) and Sendai Domain (i.e. i.e. “Date territory”) in Mutsu Province of northern Japan. Such boundary markers were common under the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled from 1602 to 1865; however, the number of markers and their excellent state of preservation led the grouping in the modern municipalities of Kitakami and Kanegasaki in Iwate Prefecture to be designated a National Historic Site. on January 31, 2000.
Background.
In the year 1642, the Tokugawa shogunate re-confirmed the Nanbu clan and the Date clan in their holdings, and drew a boundary between the two feudal domains from Mount Komagatake in the Ōu Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. The boundary was defined physically by having a series of large earth mounds erected as boundary markers. In 1688, an additional series of smaller mounds was built to further delineate the boundary. In the 11 kilometer stretch currently designated as a National Historic Site, 17 large mounds and 198 small mounds are preserved.
The protected area is currently maintained as part of the “Michinoku Folk Village” open-air museum and is a two minute walk from JR East Kitakami Station.


2002 in the Philippines

2002 in the Philippines details events of note that happened in the Philippines in the year 2002.


Maeda Toshiaki I


Tsugaru Nobuhira

 was the second "daimyō" of Hirosaki Domain in northern Mutsu Province, Honshū, Japan (modern-day Aomori Prefecture). His courtesy title was "Etchū-no-kami," and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade.
Biography.
Tsugaru Nobuhira was born in 1586 as the third son of Ōura Tamenobu, head of the Ōura clan. In 1596, with his two elder brothers Nobutake and Nobukata, he is known to have converted to Christianity.
In 1600, at the Battle of Sekigahara, he accompanied his father as part of Tokugawa Ieyasu's Eastern Army, and served in Ieyasu's retinue. At the same time, his elder brother Nobutake was at Osaka Castle and served as a page to Toyotomi Hideyori. This was a similar situation as with the Sanada clan, where two brothers fought on opposing sides, which ensured the clan's survival whichever side won. Ōura Tamenobu was also on good terms with Ishida Mitsunari, the leader of the pro-Toyotomo Western Army, and provided protection for Ishida's son and daughter in Tsugaru after the defeat of the Western Army. As a reward for his services at the battle of Sekigahara, the clan was given only a nominal 2000 "koku" increase in "kokudaka" with an estate in Kōzuke Province. Also after the battle, Ōura Tamenobu changed the clan name to "Tsugaru".
On Tamenobu’s death in 1607, Nobuhira became head of the Tsugaru clan over the objections of a faction which supported his nephew Tsugaru Kumachiyo (1600–1623), the young son of Nobutake. This was the first of many "O-Ie Sōdō" internal conflicts in the Tsugaru clan during the Edo period. An "O-Ie Sōdō" placed the domain in danger of attainer, but the issue was resolved through the arbitration of the Tokugawa shogunate giving Nobuhira the title of "daimyō".
From 1609 to 1611, Nobuhira rushed to complete Takaoka Castle, demolishing other castles in his domains for buildings and materials to speed up construction. The completed castle, with its huge five-story donjon was on a scale far larger than typical for a 47,000 "koku" "daimyō". To secure his position vis-à-vis the Tokugawa shogunate, he married Tokugawa Ieyasu's niece (the widow of Fukushima Masayuki), Mate-hime (1589–1638). Nobuhira was already married at the time to Tatsu-hime, a daughter of Ishida Mitsunari. She was demoted in status to concubine and exiled to the clan's small subsidiary holding in Kozuke Province.
In 1614, Nobuhira dispatched his forces in support of the Tokugawa at the Osaka Winter Campaign. He was ordered initially remain on garrison duty in Edo before being told to return to his home domain to guard against unrest from other northern domains who might come out in support of the Toyotomi. In June 1619, Ieyasu demoted Fukushima Masanori from Hiroshima Domain to Hirosaki Domain, with the Tsugaru clan ordered to be transferred to Echigo Province. The Tsugaru clan strongly protested this move and, through the assistance of the influential priest Nankōbō Tenkai, were able to get the Fukushima clan transferred to Nakajima Domain in Shinano Province instead.
In September 1627, a lightning strike set the five-story donjon of Takaoka Castle on fire, which caused a warehouse filled with gunpowder to explode. The fire quickly spread to other parts of the castle and surrounding castle town. The castle was rebuilt on a smaller scale, and was renamed Hirosaki Castle in August 1628. Nobuhira developed Aomori port on Mutsu Bay as a main port for shipping to Edo, and for transit to the northern island of Ezo. He took steps to increase the rice production in his province by developing new paddy fields, irrigation, and by bringing in craftsmen and artisans from other parts of Japan.
Nobuhira died on January 14, 1631, at the clan residence in Edo. His grave is at the temple of Shinryō-in (a subsidiary of Kan'ei-ji) in Taitō-ku, Tokyo.
Nobuhira was succeeded by his eldest son, Tsugaru Nobuyoshi by his first wife Tatsuhime. Nobuhira had nine sons and four daughters. His second son, Tsugaru Nobufusa, by his second wife Mate-hime was given a 5000 "koku" "hatamoto" holding in Kuroishi, and was the ancestor of the future "daimyō" of Kuroishi Domain.


Battle of Xiao

The Battle of Xiao or Yao () was a battle between Qin and Jin, both of which were major principality states during the Spring and Autumn Period of Zhou dynasty. It occurred in 627 BC at the Xiao Mountains, a branch of the Qinling Range between Yellow River and Luo River, in modern-day Henan province of China.
Before the Battle.
In 632 BC, the Battle of Chengpu broke out between Jin and Chu. The Chu was defeated, and the Duke Wen of Jin became one of Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn Period. State of Zheng was an ally of Chu, so after the battle, Jin planned to invade Zheng for revenge. In 630, Jin attacked Zheng and besieged its capital city. Qin also joined the force of Jin as Duke Mu of Qin was a follower to the Duke Wen of Jin.
Zhu Zhiwu, a person from Zheng, visited Duke Mu of Qin at night. He told the Duke Mu of Qin that if Zheng was conquered, there would be no benefit to Qin because they did not share a border at that time. On the other hand, Jin would occupy Zheng's territory. It would make Jin stronger and a greater threat to Qin. He pointed out that if Qin gave up attacking the city, Zheng would be willing to be an ally of Qin in the future to potentially fight against Jin. He successfully persuaded Duke Mu of Qin to retreat. Before going back, Duke Mu of Qin appointed three generals to stay at Zheng in order to help Zheng defend their capital city. The alliance between Jin and Qin then collapsed.
Jin failed to conquer Zheng because of the lack of support from Qin. Two years later, Duke Wen of Jin died. His son succeeds the crown as Duke Xiang of Jin. Meanwhile, state Qin gradually became stronger under Duke Mu's reign. Qin defeated several small states and extended its territory towards Zheng. As Zheng was not so far away anymore, Qin began to think about conquering Zheng. At this time, those three generals who had stayed with Zheng sent a message to Qin that if the army of Qin attacked Zheng, they would open the northern gate of Zheng's capital city to coordinate with the campaign.
Jian Shu, a governor of Qin, disliked the idea of attacking Zheng. He asked Duke Mu to abandon this plan because it might cause a potential crisis. However, Duke Mu had made his mind and continued the plan. In 627 BC, the duke appointed Baili Mengming (son of Baili Xi), Xi Wi Shu and Bai Yibing as generals to launch a surprise attack to Zheng. To enter the territory of Zheng, Qin army had to pass by the northern gate of Luoyang, the city in which the king of the Zhou lived. The king of Zhou was regarded as the son of heaven. According to traditional manners, soldiers needed to take off their helmets when passing by the city of Luoyang. The Qin soldiers, however, did not do so. People in the city were astonished, and some people pointed out that Qin soldiers could not win the war because they were too arrogant.
When the Qin army reached State of Hua, a hunter from Zheng noticed them. The hunter knew that there was not enough time for him to run back to Zheng to warn everybody, so he decided to fool the Qin army on his own. He paid tribute to the generals of Qin in the name of Zheng. After receiving the tribute, the generals of Qin thought that Zheng knew they were coming and was well prepared for the war, so they gave up the plan of attacking Zheng. Instead, they conquered Hua and retreated. In reality, Zheng did not know anything about the coming Qin army.
The battle at Xiao.
The Duke Xiang of Jin learned what Qin was trying to do. He was annoyed because he knew that Qin was not only trying to conquer Zheng but also trying to challenge the authority of Jin. To give Qin a lesson, Duke Xiang of Jin allied with the Jiang Rong tribe (a Rong people living in the Han River valley) to launch a campaign against Qin. They planned to ambush Qin in the Xiao Mountains which was on the route of Qin's retreat. The army of Qin led by those three generals were still retreating from Hua, and they were not prepared to fight against the mighty Jin. These two forces collided at Xiao. The Jin army was superior and easily won the battle. Three generals of Qin were all captured by Jin.
After that, Wen Ying, who was a concubine of Duke Wen of Jin, also a daughter of Duke Mu of Qin, entreated Duke Xiang of Jin to release the three generals so that they would be punished in Qin, which was the desire of Duke Mu of Qin as she said. Her entreaty was accepted by Duke Xiang of Jin and the three generals were released and went back to Qin later.
When the three generals returned, Duke Mu of Qin put on white clothes to wait for them, crying that it was all his fault because he had not listened to Jian Shu's advice. Therefore, the three generals were not punished by Duke Mu of Qin.
As a result of this battle, Jin solidified its status as the most powerful state in northern China for the next several decades. Qin suffered a significant loss. About 30,000 men, most of whom were elite soldiers in the army, were killed in the battle. For a long period of time after the battle, Qin had no power to continue its eastward expansion. Instead, they turned around and began to expand towards the west. During this process, they clashed with several barbarians and nomadic groups and conquered several smaller states in the west and northwest. The westward expansion helped Qin to build up its power and laid the root for its being a strong state and the eventual unification of China.


Hiroshima Domain

The was a domain of the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1601 to 1871.
The Hiroshima Domain was based at Hiroshima Castle in Aki Province, in the modern city of Hiroshima, located in the Chūgoku region of the island of Honshu. The Hiroshima Domain was ruled for most of its existence by the "daimyō" of the Asano clan and encompassed Aki Province and parts of Bingo Province with a "Kokudaka" system value of 426,500 "koku". The Hiroshima Domain was dissolved in the abolition of the han system in 1871 by the Meiji government and its territory was absorbed into Hiroshima Prefecture.
History.
In 1589, Hiroshima Castle was commissioned by Mōri Terumoto, head of the powerful Mōri clan and a member of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Council of Five Elders. In 1591, Terumoto relocated to Hiroshima while it was still under construction, using it as his base to rule his domain covering most of the Chūgoku region. Following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the Mōri were forced out of Hiroshima by Tokugawa Ieyasu and relocated their base to Hagi Castle, losing most of their eastern territories. The Hiroshima "han" (domain) was subsequently established with Fukushima Masanori as its "daimyō" (feudal lord), covering Aki Province and parts of neighboring Bingo Province. However, nineteen years later, Hiroshima Castle suffered extensive flood damage and Fukushima repaired it in violation of the Tokugawa shogunate's laws on the construction and repair of castles (see "buke shohatto"). The shogunate then ordered Fukushima to Kawanakajima Domain, and awarded Hiroshima to the Asano clan, who ruled it for the remainder of the Edo period. Under the Tokugawa "Kokudaka" system for domains the Hiroshima Domain was assessed at 426,500 "koku", the sixth-largest domain in Japan, excepting those held by the Tokugawa-Matsudaira dynasty.
In 1871, the Hiroshima Domain was formally dismantled along with all the other domains in Japan following the Meiji Restoration. The introduction of the "Fuhanken sanchisei" saw the replacement of the provinces and domains with the prefecture system, and territory of the Hiroshima Domain was organized into Hiroshima Prefecture.
"Daimyō" of Hiroshima.
Asano clan:


Fujiwara no Kiyonari

 was a Japanese noble of the Nara period. He was the third son of the "sangi" Fujiwara no Umakai, the founder of the Fujiwara Shikike. He held no court ranks or titles.


2004 in Russia

Events from the year 2004 in Russia.
Events.
The Moscow Manege fire.
Sport.
2004 Summer Olympics - Afina - 3rd place


Afrasiab murals

The Afrasiab murals, also called the Paintings of the Ambassadors, is a rare example of Sogdian art. It was discovered in 1965 when the local authorities decided the construction of a road in the middle of Afrāsiāb mound, the old site of pre-Mongol Samarkand. It is now preserved in a special museum on the Afrāsiāb mound.
Description.
The paintings dates back to the middle of the 7th century CE. They were probably painted between 648 and 651 CE, as the Western Turkic Khaganate, members of which appear abundantly in the mural, was in its last days before its fall in 657 CE, and the Tang Dynasty was increasing its territory in Central Asia. On the four walls of the room of a private house, three or four countries in neighbouring Central Asia are depicted. On the northern wall China (a Chinese festival, with the Empress on a boat, and the Emperor hunting), on the Southern Wall Samarkand (i.e.; the Iranian world: a religious funerary procession in honor of the ancestors during the Nowruz festival), on the eastern wall India (as the land of the astrologers and of the pygmies, but the painting is much destroyed there).
The topic on the main wall, the western wall facing the entrance is debated between specialists. Kökturk soldiers are escorting ambassadors coming from various countries of the world (Korea, China, Iranian principalities etc.). There are three main hypotheses. The leading expert on Sogdian painting, the excavator of Panjikent, B. Marshak points out that Sogdian painting, gods are always depicted on the top of the main wall. However, as the Turks are guiding the embassies but are not themselves ambassadors, it has been suggested also that the Turkish Qaghan, then lord of inner and central Asia, might be depicted there. A Chinese text is indeed saying that the idea of the "Four Lords of the World", here China, India, Iran and Turks, is depicted on the walls of palaces near Samarkand precisely during this period, and this would perfectly fit the four walls of this room. The last hypothesis makes use of an inscription mentioning the king of Samarkand to propose the idea that the ambassadors are presenting their gifts to him.
The four walls of the palatial room in Afrasiab seem to depict the four principal civilizations in play in central Asia at that time: a Chinese depicting Chinese scene, a panel for India, an Iranian panel with the depiction of a religious ceremony during Nowruz, and possibly a Turk panel, showing numerous ambassadors being guided by Turkic officer towards a ruler, who could be a Turk Khagan.
Inscription mentioning Varhuman and the ambassadors.
In the murals of Afrasiab, an inscription mentioning Varhuman has been found. It is written in Sogdian:
Western Turk officers and courtiers.
In contrast with the ambassadors fron various countries, the Western Turks in the mural do not bear gifts. They are considered are attendants to the scene, and military escorts to the foreign ambassadors. They are all recognizable by their long plaits.
The ambassadors from various countries may have been paying hommage both to king Varkhuman and possibly Western Turk Khagan Shekui, who were both nominal vassals of China. The numerous Turkish officers and courtiers who are present may suggest the predominance of the Western Turks at the court of Samarkand during this time period.
In the mural, the Western Turks are ethnic Turks, "Nushibis", rather than Turkinized Sogdians, as suggested by the marked Mongoloid features and faces without beards. They are the most numerous ethnic group in the mural, and are not ambassadors, but rather military attendants. Their depiction offers a unique glimpse into the costumes of the Turks in the 6-7th century CE. They typically wear 3 or 5 long long plaits, often gathered together into a single long one. They have ankle-long monochromic sleeved coats with two lapels. This fashion for the collar is first seen in Khotan near Turfan, a traditional Turkic land, in the 2nd-4th century CE. They have low black sharp-nosed boots. They wear gold bracelets with lapis lazuli or pearls.
Overview.
There are four walls, with murals in various states of preservation. There were two registers, an upper and lower one, but the upper register of the murals was essentially destroyed by bulldozers during the construction works that led to the discovery of the murals.
Various reconstructions for the whole mural have been proposed.
Restoration.
In early 2014, France declared that it would finance the restoration of the Afrasiab painting.
References.
"Royal Nawrūz in Samarkand: Acts of the Conference held in Venice on the Pre-Islamic Afrāsyāb Painting", ed. M. Compareti and E. de La Vaissière, Rome, 2006.


Tamil Nadu under the Vijayanagar Empire

The extension of the Vijayanagar Empire into the Tamil country began with the southern inroads made by Sangama kings between 1356 and 1378. With the destruction of the Madurai Sultanate in 1377-78, most of the present-day Tamil Nadu, eventually, came under the rule of the Vijayanagar Empire. The rule of the Vijayanagar kings was characterized by the restoration of religious freedom to the Hindu majority which was denied by the Madurai sultans and a revival of music, arts and crafts. The rule of the Vijayanagar kings also witnessed the steady decline of Tamil language as the new rulers patronized Kannada and Telugu over Tamil. The Vijayanagar Empire's hold over the Tamil country collapsed in the mid 16th century as the kingdom itself disintegrated into a number of petty chieftainships.
History.
The Vijayanagar kingdom was founded by two brothers Harhara and Bukka who were captured by the Emperor of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and forcibly converted to Islam but later escaped and renounced their new faith and launched a crusade against the Muslim invaders. In 1336, they founded the city of Vijayanagar on the banks of the Tungabhadra which they made their capital and undertook repeated campaigns against the northern invaders. The campaigns eventually culminated in the overwhelming defeat of the forces of the Delhi Sultanate and restoration of Hindu rule in South India.
Literature.
Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil speaking regions ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention on the cultivation of Tamil literature, some poets were patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, "Sivaprakasap-perundirattu", on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, Tattuvarayar, wrote a shorter anthology, "Kurundirattu", that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose "Irusamaya Vilakkam" was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.


Sases

Sases, also known as Gondophares IV Sases (Kharosthi: 𐨒𐨂𐨡𐨂𐨥𐨪 𐨯𐨯 ', '), was an Indo-Parthian king who ruled in northwestern parts of India in modern Pakistan. He is only known from coins and ruled for at least 26 years during the mid-1st century CE.
Sases apparently succeeded Abdagases in Sindh and Gandhara, and at some point during his reign assumed the name/title Gondophares, which was held by the supreme Indo-Parthian rulers. His coins show the Greek deity Zeus, forming a benediction sign (possibly Vitarka mudra), and incorporate the Buddhist symbol of the triratana.
With the modern datings supplied by Robert Senior, Gondophares IV is a likely candidate for several possible historical references to Indo-Parthian kings of the 1st century AD. Traditionally, these references have been thought to be about Gondophares I, as earlier scholars did not realise that "Gondophares" became a title after the death of this king, just as the name of the first emperor, Augustus, in the Roman Empire, was used by all later emperors as a title.
Tradition of a visit by St. Thomas.

One Gondophares is connected to St Thomas in early Christian traditions embodied in the "Acts of Thomas". In it Thomas was sold in Syria to Habban, an envoy of Gondophares, and travelled in slavery by sea to India, was presented to Gondophares to undertake the erection of the building the king required:
Thomas instead spent all the king's money on alms, and as a consequence was imprisoned by him. Allegedly, Gondophares ultimately rehabilitated Thomas and recognized the validity of Christianity.
Passing on to the realm of another king, named in the Syrian versions as "Mazdai" (thought to refer to the Kushan king Vasudeva), he allegedly suffered martyrdom before being redeemed. St Thomas thereafter went to Kerala and baptized the natives, whose descendants form the Saint Thomas Christians.
The magnificent cathedral at Troyes in France is famous for its exquisite architecture and magnificent stained glass windows, one of which, apparently, has a representation of the famous Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.
The material of much of the "Acts" as well as some of its unmistakably unorthodox theology, made its historicity dismissible for many centuries. "Gondophares" was dismissed as an invention. Then in 1854 General Alexander Cunningham reported ("Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal" vol.xxiii. pp. 679–712) that since the British had been in Afghanistan an estimated 30,000 coins bearing Greek and Indian legends had been found in Afghanistan and the Punjab. The mintings covered three centuries after the conquests of Alexander: coins in the hoards were minted for Scythian conquerors and for Parthian kings such as Gondophares, who thereby emerged from pious legend into history (Medlycott 1905), even though most of these coins belonged to the first Gondophares. Cunningham said that these coins were "highly interesting" on account of "the strong probability that this Gondophares is identical with the king Gandaforus who put Saint Thomas to death". He went on to say:
The great power of Gondophares, and discovery of a coin of Artabanus countermarked with the peculiar monograph of all the Gondopharian dynasty, make it highly probable that the Indo-Parthian Abdagases was the same as the Parthian chief, whose revolt is recorded by Tacitus (Annal. XV.-2) and Josephus (Antiqua. XX. iii.-2). This surmise is very much strengthened by the date of the revolt, A.D. 41, which would make Gondophares a contemporary of Saint Thomas.
Phraotes.
It has also been suggested that one Gondophares may be identical with Phraotes, a Greek-speaking Indo-Parthian king of the city of Taxila, met by the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana around 46 CE according to the Life of Apollonius Tyana written by Philostratus. The Gondophares who fits this date is Gondophares IV Sases. Like the Acts of Thomas it is doubted if there is any truth in the story given by Philostratus, and most scholars see Phroates as a stock name deployed by Philostratus in what is otherwise an opportunity for him to deploy his sophist training.


Maeda Toshikata


2000 in Israel

Events in the year 2000 in Israel.
Events.
Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
October.
Notable Palestinian militant operations against Israeli targets
The most prominent Palestinian militant acts and operations committed against Israeli targets during 2000 include:
Notable Israeli military operations against Palestinian militancy targets
The most prominent Israeli military counter-terrorism operations (military campaigns and military operations) carried out against Palestinian militants during 2000 include:


Edo Shigenaga

Edo Shigenaga was the second head of the Edo clan. He first settled and lent his name to the fishing village Edo that eventually grew to become Tokyo. He was also known as Edo Taro.
In 1180, Shigenaga was asked by Minamoto no Yoritomo to cooperate in his uprising against rule of the Taira in Kyoto. Hesitant at first, Shigenaga eventually helped Yoritomo overthrow the Taira rule. Yoritomo granted Shigenaga seven new estates in Musashi Province, including Kitami in what is now Tokyo's western Setagaya Ward.


Prince Yamashiro

 was the eldest son of one of the most famous figures in Japanese history, Prince Shōtoku. Yamashiro claimed the right to Imperial succession in 628, following the death of Empress Suiko. However, he lost the claim to Prince Tamura who ascended to the throne as Emperor Jomei, having enjoyed the support of powerful court noble Soga no Emishi.
He and his family committed suicide when their home was attacked by Emishi's son, Soga no Iruka, in 643. Some scholars believe Yamashiro to have been the poet-scholar Sarumaru no Taifu, about whom nearly nothing is known.