Fall of Plered

The Fall of Plered (also spelled Pleret) was the capture of the capital of the Mataram Sultanate by the rebel forces loyal to Trunajaya in late June 1677. The attack on Plered followed a series of rebel victory, notably in the Battle of Gegodog and the fall of most of Mataram's northern coast. The aged and sick King Amangkurat I and his sons offered an ineffective defense, and the rebel overran the capital on or around 28 June. The capital was plundered and its wealth taken to the rebel capital in Kediri. The loss of the capital led to the collapse of the Mataram government and the flight of the royal family. The king fled with his son the crown prince and a small retinue to Tegal and died there, passing the kingship to the crown prince, now titled Amangkurat II, without any army or treasury.
Background.
Progress of the Trunajaya rebellion.
The Trunajaya rebellion began in 1674 as raids by the rebel forces against the cities of the Mataram Sultanate. In 1676, a rebel army of 9,000 invaded Java from their base in Madura. They routed a much larger royal army in the Battle of Gegodog in northeast Java (October 1676), took most of Java's north coast and campaigned successfully in the interior central and east Java. In the same year, the rebels arrived at Taji, the eastern entrance to the capital district, and was joined by the men of Raden Kajoran, Trunajaya's powerful father-in-law. The combined forces was defeated by loyalist forces led by Mataram's royal princes, but Kajoran escaped and joined Trunajaya. Despite the defeat, Kajoran continued to cause trouble for Mataram in districts east of the capital. In early 1677, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Batavia decided to ally itself with Mataram. A fleet led by Cornelis Speelman sailed to Trunajaya's capital in Surabaya in April, northeastern coast of Java, and took the city after hard fighting in May. Following the defeat, Trunajaya retreated inland, establishing a new capital in Kediri.
The court at Plered.
Amangkurat I's father and predecessor Sultan Agung built an artificial lake in an area which became known as Plered, east of his court at Karta. In 1647, shortly after taking the throne, Amangkurat built his royal residence near the lake and moved the court there. In contrast to Karta, which was made of wood, the royal compound at Plered was built of brick. Amangkurat continued to expand this complex up to 1666.
Opposing forces.
According to Jacob Couper, a VOC envoy to Mataram, in March 1677 the rule of King Amangkurat I was visibly collapsing. The king was ill and his four eldest sons, the crown prince (later Amangkurat II), Pangeran Puger (later Pakubuwana I), Pangeran Martasana and Pangeran Singasari were manoeuvring for power. The royal guards, as well as the guards of the princes were available for defending of the capital, but disunity among the four princes prevented an effective defense.
Rebel forces in this sector consisted of Madurese troops, as well as Javanese forces from East Java and central northern coast. They were led by Raden Kajoran, the head of the important and powerful family in the area (Kajoran is in today's Magelang Regency). The Kajoran family was interrelated by marriage to the royal family, but he was alarmed at the king's brutality which had resulted in the death of many noblemen at court. Raden Kajoran was also the father-in-law of Trunajaya. The forces of Pangeran Purbaya, the king's cousin, also joined the rebels. The crown prince later identified the forces who overran Mataram to be from Madiun, Pati, Kudus and Grobogan and the men of Kajoran and Purbaya.
Capture of Plered.
Kajoran renewed military operations in the capital district in April 1677. The accounts of the military operations are unclear, but in June royal forces, under command of King Amangkurat I's four eldest sons (the crown prince as well as Pangeran Puger, Pangeran Martasana and Pangeran Singasari) were defeated in battle after heavy fighting. The king himself was aged and grievously ill and unable to lead his troops. Superior rebel operations, and the lack of unity among the princes contributed to the rebel victory. In addition, the king's cousin Pangeran Purbaya, defected to the rebel side along with his followers, and the loyal princes were unable to rally their people to fight.
The capital was now "beyond defending". Conflict arose between the crown prince and his brother Pangeran Puger. The king put Puger in charge of the defense of the capital, awarding him the title "Susuhunan Ingalaga" ("king on the field of battle").
Amid anarchy and panic, the king fled the court, in the middle of the night, possibly on or around 28 June, with a small retinue. Soon afterwards, rebel forces entered and sacked the court. The demoralized defenders under Puger soon fled. Rebels entered and plundered the compound of the king, and those of the absent princes, accompanied by much fire-raising. The royal treasury of at least 300,000 Spanish reals were taken by rebels.
Flight and death of Amangkurat I.
Sources disagree on the details of the royal family's flight. According to the Dutch historian H. J. de Graaf, the king and his sons fled separately. Among his sons, the king encountered Puger and Singasari, who refused to come with him and later the crown prince, who did. According to Javanese accounts, the king instructed Puger, Singasari and Martasana to form a new defence to the west of the capital, while he took the crown prince and a younger son Pangeran Arya Mataram travelling northwest. The king travelled through areas not yet under rebel control: west through Bagelen, then the mountainous region of Banyumas, and then north towards Tegal on the coast. He travelled in a palanquin due to his illness, and was unmolested save for (according to Javanese accounts), an attempted robbery by villagers of Karanganyar who were unaware of his identity.
According to de Graaf, he went to Tegal in order to meet with a VOC official on a ship but died on the way. According to the Javanese accounts, the aged and ill king, certain of his imminent death, went to Tegal because he wished to be buried there. Tegal was in his mother's country and he sent his officials ahead to built a grave for him in Tegalwangi, few kilometers south of the coast. As he laid dying, he ceremonially handed over the regalia to the crown prince, and instructed him to recapture the court with the Dutch's help. He then died, and his body was washed, prayed over and taken to the burial site in Tegalwangi. He was buried on 13 July and thirteen VOC soldiers from the ship off Tegal attended the burial. He was given the posthumous name "Seda-ing-Tegalwangi" ("He who died in Tegalwangi").
Aftermath.
After his father's death, the crown prince became King Amangkurat II, but he had no court, no army and no treasury. He was accepted by the Javanese gentry and by VOC officials in Tegal, but could not establish his authority elsewhere in Java. The governor of Cirebon, a vassal of Mataram since 1660 refused to pay homage. His brother Pangeran Puger occupied the capital after the rebels left, and made a rival claim to the kingdom. Aware of his difficult position, the new king sailed to Jepara to meet with the VOC commander Speelman and renewed the Mataram-VOC alliance. In exchange for VOC assistance, he was obliged to promise a large sum of money and geopolitical concessions. The Trunajaya rebellion would continue until 1680 and Puger's pretension to the throne until 1681. Unable to take Plered from his brother, in 1680 Amangkurat II built a new capital in the district of Pajang, and called it Kartasura.


Sri Baduga Maharaja

Sri Baduga Maharaja (Sundanese: ) or Sang Ratu Jayadewata (born 1401) was the great king of the Hindu Sunda kingdom in West Java, reigned 1482 to 1521 from his capital in Pakuan Pajajaran. He brought his kingdom greatness and prosperity.
King Jayadewata often linked with King Siliwangi, the semi-legendary great king of Sunda. Sri Baduga's reign was remembered as the age of peace and prosperity among Sundanese people. Some historian suggests, that the legendary king Siliwangi of Pajajaran, popular in Sundanese oral tradition and literature, was actually based upon him. However, other historian suggests that King Siliwangi might be inspired by other Sunda king.
Historiography.
The historical record of his reign can be found in Batutulis inscription, discovered in Bogor, where he is known in his formal stylized name "Sri Baduga Maharaja Ratu Haji di Pakwan Pajajaran Sri Sang Ratu Dewata". The inscription was created not during Sri Baduga's reign, but later in 1533 by Sri Baduga's son, King Surawisesa, to honor and commemorate his late father.
Reign.
The stylized name: "Sri Baduga Maharaja Ratu Haji di Pakwan Pajajaran Sri Sang Ratu Dewata" literally means "His Majesty Maharaja King of Pakuan Pajajaran, His Excellency King of deities". Most of literature recognize his name as "Sri Baduga Maharaja" while other argues that it was only the title to address the king, as "Baduga" corresponds to "paduka", the footwear of kings. According to Hindu etiquette the king is held so high that common people should not directly address the king by his name, but through his shoes. Thus his real name is Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata.
According to Batutulis inscription, he is the son of Rahyang Niskala and the grandson of Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana. King Jayadewata become the king of the unified kingdom of Sunda and Galuh. He transferred the capital city from Kawali Galuh to Pakuan Pajajaran. One of the Pantun legends tells vividly about a beautiful royal procession of queen Ambetkasih and her courtiers moving to the new capital of Pakuan Pajajaran, where her husband awaits.
The Batutulis inscriptions mentioned that the King has embarked in several public projects. Among others are erecting the wall and dug the defensive moat around his capital in Pakuan (modern Bogor), built "Gugunungan" religious sacred mounds, built "Balay" or pavilions, also created Samida forest as a conservation forest. He also built a dam and create a lake called Sanghyang Talaga Rena Mahawijaya. The lake is probably functioned as hydraulic project for rice agricultural purpose, and also a recreational lake to beautify his capital city.
The tradition hailed that King Jayadewata ruled justly from his palace of Punta Bima Sri Narayana Suradipati Madura at Pakuan Pajajaran and his reign is celebrated as the golden age for Sundanese people.


Lai Teck

Lai Teck (real name Phạm Văn Đắc; 1901–1947), was a leader of the Communist Party of Malaya and Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army. A Vietnamese of mixed Sino-Vietnamese descent, prior to his arrival in Malaya, Lai Teck was believed to have led his life as Truong Phuoc Dat until 1934, during which Dat disappeared and Lai Teck appeared.
Biography.
Lai Teck was a shadowy character whose real name and background are unknown. He was believed to be born under the name of Hoang A Nhac or Phạm Văn Đắc in the Bà Rịa (now Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu Province) in 1901. According to his successor Chin Peng, He curiously chose the party alias 'Wright' which, given the Chinese pronunciation of English words beginning with the letter 'r' soon became distorted to Lai Te. This was further mangled, depending on who was writing or speaking English, to 'Loi Teck', 'Lai Teck' and 'Lighter'.
Lai Teck was believed to have served the French as a spy in Indo-China but been uncovered. It was subsequently alleged that he was recruited by the British security services and brought to Singapore in 1934 to infiltrate the Communist Party of Malaya. At this he was highly successful, and by using the British police to pick off his rivals within the Party he rose through the hierarchy and attained the Communist Party of Malaya leadership as its Secretary General in April 1939. Perhaps because of this, he steered the Party on a course of non-confrontation with the British and wholly embraced the Communist International's new line of co-operation with the United States and the Western European powers against Nazi Germany and Japan.
Although many of the CPM's top personnel managed to flee Singapore before it fell, Lai Teck did not and was picked up in a Japanese sweep shortly after in early March 1942. Although most communists were executed by the Japanese, Lai Teck walked free a few days later. Based on later evidence, including documents in Japanese archives, it now appears most likely that Lai Teck saved his life by promising to act as a Japanese agent.
In August 1942 Lai Teck arranged for a full meeting which included the CPM's Central Executive Committee, state party officials, and a group leaders of the MPAJA to be held at the Batu Caves, about ten miles north from Kuala Lumpur. On 1 September 1942, more than 100 senior CPM and MPAJA members gathered at a small village near the Caves for a secret conference, the Japanese staged a surprise raid at dawn. In the ensuing lopsided skirmish most of the CPM and MPAJA high command were destroyed. Lai Teck, who should have been at the meeting, wasn't. Subsequently, he claimed that he had been unable to attend because his car broke down.
Disappearance.
In 1946, faint rumours which had been circulating within the party about disloyalty on the part of Lai Teck began to receive more substantiation. This was exacerbated by the restlessness of the rank and file, especially the younger members, who favoured radical action. Lai Teck was removed from some sensitive posts, and an investigation was begun into his activities. A full meeting of the Central Executive Committee was scheduled for 6 March 1947 at which the complaints against Lai Teck were to be aired in his presence. Lai Teck did not attend but instead absconded with the bulk of the Party's funds, hiding first in Singapore, then going to Hong Kong and later to Thailand.
Aftermath.
With Lai Teck gone, the party elected a new leader, Chin Peng. According to Chin Peng, he personally went to Bangkok and Hong Kong in 1947, contacted the communist party organizations there and asked them to help him to track down and kill Lai Teck; both the Vietnamese and Thai communists assisted Chin Peng in the manhunt; and eventually, Chin Peng was told by the Thai Communist leader that Lai Teck was accidentally killed in Bangkok some time when three Thai Communists tried to capture him. Lai Teck was suffocated during the struggle; he was later put into a gunny sack and tossed into the Menam River.


Pajani System

The Pajani System was a system of appointing government officials in Nepal.
History.
The Pajani System has deep roots in history of Nepal and has been used by Licchavi, Malla, and Early Shah, Rana period rulers.
The Pajani System ended in late 1970s.
Procedure.
In the Pajani System, the Head of State could directly appoint, transfer or dismiss government servants. Annual Pajani ceremonies were held and re-appointment and dismissal of the officials was set for a period of one year, based on loyalty.


List of titles and honours of Bhumibol Adulyadej

Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand received numerous decorations and honorary appointments as monarch of Thailand. Thai monarchical titles or styles are listed in order of degrees of sovereignty, nobility, and honor:
Honorary doctorates.
In 1997 the king captured the world record for the most honorary degrees—136— held by anyone.
Foreign academic.
In August 1962 the Australian National University refused to award the king an honorary doctorate on the grounds that he had not completed his degree at the University of Lausanne. The refusal prompted a minor diplomatic row between the university and the Thai government.


Minkhaung (disambiguation)

Minkhaung (also spelled Mingaung or Minhkaung) was a Burmese royal title, and may refer to:


Saint Bartholomew Monastery

Saint Bartholomew Monastery (, "Surb Barduğimeosi vank' "; Western Armenian: "Surp Part'uğimeosi vank' ") was a medieval Armenian monastery in the historic province of Vaspurakan, 23 km north-east from the town of Başkale, in present-day Turkey's Van Province, near the Iranian border. The monastery was built on the traditional site of martyrdom of Bartholomew the Apostle, who is reputed to have brought Christianity to Armenia in the first century. Along with Thaddeus the Apostle, Bartholomew is considered the patron saint of the Armenian Apostolic Church. It was a prominent pilgrimage site prior to the Armenian Genocide. Today, it is heavily ruined and the dome entirely gone.
History.
Early history.
According to tradition the monastery was founded by the Arsacid King Sanatruk in the first century on the tomb of Bartholomew the Apostle, who healed him from leprosy. Other sources say it was founded in the 4th or 6th century. However, the monastery is first mentioned in the 13th century, when it was most likely built. Hampikian wrote that it was the hall that was founded in the 13th century in front of the entrance of an preexisting church. Murad Hasratyan suggested that the main church was built in the 13th century on the foundations of an older basilica.
It rose to prominence in the 14th century. In 1316 father Hakob participated in the Church Council of Adana (). Pope John XXII in 1321 suggested him in a letter to adopt the Roman Rite. A gospel was replicated at the monastery in 1339 and "Historical Compilation" by Vardan Areveltsi in 1398. A gospel was reproduced at the monastery by the scribe Margar in 1487 and 1490. The monastery was one of the major monasteries of medieval Armenia.
Modern period.
In 1647 the monastery of St. Bartholomew formed a single congregation with the nearby monastery of Varagavank. Father Kirakos repaired the monastery in 1651. A 1715 earthquake destroyed its dome and undermined the walls. The dome was rebuilt by Hovhannes Mokatsi of Lim in 1755–60.
The monastery prospered in the second half of the 19th century. A school was opened at the monastery. The monastery's dome was once again ruined in 1860 and rebuilt in 1878. In the late 19th century the monastery was the seat of the diocese which covered Aghbak, Gavar, Julamerk, Salmast, and Urmia. It included around 100 Armenian villages and large territories of pastures, fields, and forests. It was a prominent pilgrimage site.
Architecture.
The traditional tomb of Bartholomew the Apostle was in a sacristy in the northern portion. The tomb bore the text: «Այս է տապան հանգստեան սբ. Բարդուղիմէոսի սրբազան առաքելոյ առաջին լուսաւորչին Հայաստանեաց աշխարհի» ("Ays ē tapan hangstean sb. Bardughimēosi srbazan arakeloy arajin lusaworchin Hayastaneats' ashkharhi.") ("This is the ark of rest of the holy apostle St. Bartholomew [who was the] first Enlightener of Armenia".
To the west of the main church was the gavit (narthex), which was stylistically similar and, essentially, a continuation of the church. The gavit had a skylight dome in the center. A tower with a small bell stood further to the west of the gavit. The façades of the church and the gavit were decorated with pilasters. The western façade of the gavit had a large portal with the sculpture of, what was believed to be, Bartholomew the Apostle on a horseback, killing a dragon. At the top of the portal there was a semi-circular sculpture of the Holy Trinity. The portal and the sculptures are considered one of the finest in Armenia.
Destruction and current state.
The monastery was abandoned in 1915 during the Armenian Genocide although a last mass was allowed by Levon Tutundjian [de Vartavan] to be given by a priest, in the presence of his soldiers, on August 14, 1916, a day before the Assumption of Mary. Tutundjian, who was attached to the French Mission in the Caucasus, and his troops spent part of the summer 1916 in the monastery sleeping in the monks' cells.
The whole structure is now very heavily ruined and the dome is entirely gone. Sources differ on how it was destroyed. The Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute states that it was blown up by the Turkish military. The destruction by the Turks of the basilica is described by François Balsan in his book "Les Surprises du Kurdistan". Murad Hasratyan wrote that it was also ruined in a 1966 earthquake.
In 1990, due to the Kurdish insurgency in south-eastern Turkey, the entire site of the monastery came under control of the Police Special Operations Department (Özel Harekât), which had a base around it. According to the Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute as of 2009 it was "strictly prohibited to take photos of the monastery and come close to the standing ruins of the Armenian temple because of the regime of high security around the site." It remained inaccessible to visitors until 2013 when the local police station was moved to another location as the PKK and the Turkish government agreed on a cease fire and a solution process started. The site is now managed by the Turkish Ministry of Culture.
In July 2011, Van Governor Munir Karaloğlu visited the site and gave instructions to launch works to restore the church. As of 2014, no steps were taken to restore the monastery or prevent it from collapsing. In 2014 Anadolu Agency and "Agos" mentioned the monastery as a candidate of being restored in the upcoming years. Van Province Culture Director Muzaffer Aktuğ stated in February 2014 that the restoration works would start within that year and noted that it would boost tourism.
Cultural references.
In the 1878 novel "Jalaleddin", Raffi describes the monastery and its location in detail.


San Agustin Parish Church (Bay, Laguna)

St. Augustine Parish Church (Filipino: "Simbahan at Parokya ni San Agustin") is the only Augustinian Roman Catholic church in Bay, Laguna, in the Philippines. The church was first administered by Augustinians friars and later transferred to the Franciscans.
History.
It is historically considered as the oldest Roman Catholic church in the Province of Laguna upon the early conquest and establishment of La Laguna.
The first church of Bay was constructed made of light material of bamboo and nipa by the first ever catholic missionaries in Laguna, the Augustinian friars of Provincia del Santisimo Nombre de Jesus. Augustinians. It was built along the shore of Laguna Lake (now Brgy. "San Agustin") the town church itself was under supervision of Prior provincial otself no other than Fray Martin de Rada (de Herada in some documents) under the patronage of the order's major patron St. Augustine in 1571. It became a parish on April 30, 1578. In 18th century, the ecclesiastical administration of Bay was transferred to the Orden of Franciscan Minors (OFM), with Father Domingo Martorel as its new parish priest on November 23, 1737. From the original site along the lake, the church was transferred to its present site later known as "poblacion", or town center. In 1804 a structure made of bricks and wood was built under the supervision of Fray Geronimo Hervas OFM. construction of the church continued until the tenire of Fray Pedro Moya in 1864.
When the most devastating earthquakes in the Philippines struck in 1880, the Luzon earthquake, the church suffered some damage such as the church roofings. The earthquake also brought number fatalities within the townspeople.
When the regular clergy(missionaries) abandoned the Philippines in 1898-1899 due to the Philippine Revolution against Spain and in 1899-1903 at Philippine–American War, the Bay church and convent was administered by the Secular Clergy by the Archidiocese of Manila. Another turmoil came into the town that the church were heavily damaged during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and the break-out of the Second World War from 1942 to 1945. When the peace time came in 1953 the church was gradually rebuilt by Father Alejandro Vermorel. When the Archdiocese of Lipa was created, the church was transferred to the newly created Archdiocese of Lipa as of April 16, 1967.
In 1980s the Canonical administration of Bay Church were transferred again to the newly created Diocese of San Pablo


Resistance Movement named after Petr Alexeev

The Resistance Movement named after Petr Alexeev (DSPA; ; "Dvizheniye soprotivleniya imeni Petra Alekseyeva", "DSPA") was a left-wing political organization in Russia. It was created in 2004 by Dmitriy Jvania, a journalist and political activist from Saint Petersburg. The DSPA's main activities took place in Saint Petersburg, with several divisions in other cities. The movement was named after revolutionary worker Petr Alekseev.
Ideology objectives.
DSPA members believed the expansion of capitalism leads to greater exploitation of poor people, the growth of social inequality, lost freedom and ecological disasters. The DSPA proposed an alternative society based on a socialist planned economy and rational use of resources with the mandatory cultivation of civil and working self-management.
The DSPA stood up for non-violent campaigns of direct action and socialist agitation, providing “here and now” events using available resources. The movement’s ideology rejected the rise to power of the organized group. The main objective of the DSPA’s activities was organizing a large-scale civil resistance movement.
Other objectives.
All decisions within the movement were taken by consensus. Anyone who agreed with the DSPA’s charter and participated in the movement’s actions was considered a DSPA member.
History.
Before organizing its “here-and-now” campaigns, the movement had a preparation period. During this period all members discussed the movement’s theory, ideology and practice, and established relations with other left-wing groups and organisations.
The main line of activity of the DSPA was street campaigns. On average, in a month the movement provided 3-4 “here-and-now” actions. The DSPA considered that such actions would draw people’s attention to socially relevant issues, and made these issues a subject of public discussion.
Cooperation with working and civil movements.
Along with street campaigns, DSPA took part in labor movements and in civil initiatives directed against illegal construction. In 2011, DSPA representatives attended the founding conference of the Russian Socialist Movement.


Queen Kesang Choden

Ashi Kesang Choden (born 21 May 1930) is the Queen Grandmother of Bhutan. She participates in royal duties of her own accord. She is the only queen grandmother in the world. In Bhutan she is called "The Royal Grandmother".
Education.
She was educated at the St Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, India, as well as the House of Citizenship, London.
In her reminiscence, the Queen notes:
Marriage and family.
She married to Crown Prince of Bhutan ("Druk Gyalsey"), Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, at the Ugyen Pelri Palace, Paro, on 5 October 1951.
She became Queen consort of Bhutan in 1952 when her husband, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, ascended to the throne upon the death of his father. In 1953 she was expecting her first child, a daughter. Her first daughter arrived earlier than she expected as she was waiting for a Western doctor and her mother to travel to Thimphu to help with the delivery. The previous Queen, "Ashi" Phuntsho Choden, her maid, and the Bhutanese doctor Phenchun helped to deliver her daughter.
Royal duties.
In 1972, she was appointed regent when her husband was ill. She has also been a patron of annual prayers conducted for the well-being and security of the King, country, and the people. She provides subsistence allowance to about 200 monks and tshampas (lay monks) in various monasteries in Bumthang, Dokar Phurdrub Gompa and Euto Gompa in Paro, Nyala Gompa in Trongsa and Jangsa Gompa in Kalimpong, India. She also has a keen interest in preserving the unique art, architecture and cultural heritage of Bhutan and in promoting research and scholarship on the kingdom. She often visits religious places in Bhutan and India.
In commemoration of the Royal Grandmother's 87th birth anniversary, a book titled "The Heart of a Sacred Kingdom, Her Majesty the Royal Grandmother Ashi Kesang Choden Wangchuck: A Lifetime of Service to the People and Kingdom of Bhutan" was published on Sunday 21 May 2017.


John A. Hull

John Adley Hull (August 7, 1874 – April 17, 1944) was a Judge Advocate General in the U.S. Army and an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Hull was born in Bloomfield, Iowa to Civil War officer and longtime Iowa Congressman John A.T. Hull and his wife, Emma Gregory Hull. He received a law degree from the University of Iowa College of Law.
At the beginning of the Spanish–American War, he enlisted in the Iowa National Guard and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and Judge Advocate for the U.S. Volunteers. In 1901, he was appointed a major in the Judge Advocate General's Corps. He would serve as legal advisor to Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison from 1913 to 1921.
He married Norma Bowler King at Fort Myer, Virginia, in 1919. She would divorce him on May 22, 1934, in Reno, Nevada.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge nominated him to be judge advocate general of the Army with the rank of major general, a position he held until 1928 when he retired from the Army. In 1927, it was thought he would succeed Leonard Wood as Governor-General of the Philippines, but Coolidge instead chose past and future cabinet member Henry L. Stimson.
In February 1930, Hull served as Chief Legal Advisor to Stimson's successor as Governor General of the Philippines, Dwight F. Davis. He served in that position until 1932, when President Herbert C. Hoover appointed him Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. He resigned from the court on February 1, 1936. Earlier Philippine President Manuel Quezon had ruled that the Court of Appeals Act provided for only Philippine judges.
He died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. on April 17, 1944.


Mohnyin Thado

Mohnyin Thado (, ; Mohnyin Mintaya; 1379 – 1439) was king of Ava from 1426 to 1439. The ethnic Burman "saopha" (chief) of Mohnyin came to power after overthrowing King Kale Kye-Taung Nyo and his queen Shin Bo-Me in 1426. His reign marks the plateauing of Ava's power. Left exhausted by the Forty Years' War with Hanthawaddy Pegu (Bago) in the south, and long-running wars against various Shan States in the north, Ava was no longer in a position to expand. Mohnyin Thado spent his 12-year reign keeping restive regions of Ava in one piece. He never controlled Toungoo. He had to tolerate the governors of other regions who treated him as at best a senior. Hanthwaddy aided the Toungoo rebellion in 1426 and seized the region in 1436. But the two kingdoms did not resume a full-scale war.
In 1438, Mohnyin Thado renumbered the Burmese calendar by subtracting two years on the advice of a court astrologer. The change did not stick as he died a year later.
King Alaungpaya of Konbaung Dynasty claimed descent from Mohnyin Thado.
Ancestry and early life.
Mohnyin Thado was born Min Nan Si (also known as Udain ) to a minor nobility family that attended King Swa Saw Ke's court. He was born in Nyaungyan (near Meiktila). He was a 7th generation descendant of kings Naratheinkha and Sithu I of Pagan, and a great grandson of Kyawswa I of Pinya. He was also a descendant of Chief Minister Yazathingyan of Pagan through his great-great grandmother Khin Hpone, who was a daughter of Gen. Yanda Pyissi, the younger son of Yazathingyan.
As a youngster, Nansi was given a small region east of Shwebo in fief by King Swa Saw Ke. The king also made him an attendant of his sons Minkhaung and Theiddat, who were sent to their respective fiefs away from Ava. The princes lived as wandering minstrels and nat dancers, one of the older attendants playing a drum, another the horn, and so on. They strayed down to Taungdwingyi, and then crossing over to Minbu District and lived at Ngape and Padein.
Saopha of Mohnyin.
When Minkhaung became king in 1400, he brought his young attendants to court. In 1406, Nansi served under Prince Minye Kyawswa in one of the crucial campaigns against the Hanthawaddy Kingdom in the Forty Years' War. He fought his way into Prome (Pyay) with pack-ponies carrying rice. Having provisioned the garrison, he fought his way out through the Hanthawaddy lines. Minkhaung was so pleased with Nansi's wartime performance that in 1410 he made Nansi the Saopha (Chief) of the Shan State of Mohnyin, and in addition gave the youngster in marriage his queen of five months, Shin Myat Hla, daughter of Thihapate, Lord of Taungdwin. At Mohnyin, he gained the title of "Mohnyin Thado" (Lord of Mohnyin) that he would be known thence. Despite his mainly Burman heritage—he had a small amount of Shan blood as he was a descendant of Kyawswa I of Pinya—he successfully ruled Mohnyin, a restive Shan state which had launched numerous raids into Ava territories for decades. (Inter-marriage blur the lines of ethnicity among the ruling elite in Upper Burma and the Shan realm during this period.)
Accession.
In 1426, two successive kings of Ava (Thihathu and his 8-year-old son Min Hla) were assassinated by the designs of Queen Shin Bo-Me, who put her lover Kale Kye-Taung Nyo, the Saopha of Kale, on the throne. Mohnyin Thado refused to submit to the usurpers, and came down with his army to Ava, forcing the usurpers to flee the capital. He became the new king of Ava on 16 May 1426 or 20 May 1426. Nyo later died in the jungle. Queen Bo-Me, a dashing beauty who had already been queen of four kings Tarabya, Minkhaung I, Thihathu and Kale Kye-Taung Nyo, was brought back and made a junior queen of Mohnyin Thado. According to the Burmese Chronicles, when Mohnyin Thado enquired about her health after she was brought back from the forest, she replied insultingly "I think I smell a slave." The king had a residence built for her within the walls of the palace.
Reign.
Mohnyin Thado's reign marks the plateauing the Ava Kingdom, though it was not of his making. After the Forty Years' War (1385–1424) with Hanthawaddy Pegu (Bago) in the south, and long-running wars against various Shan States in the north, Ava by Mohnyin Thado's reign was thoroughly exhausted, and no longer in a position to expand. Unlike his predecessors Swa Saw Ke and Minkhaung who launched the wars, Mohnyin Thado spent his 12-year reign keeping restive regions of Ava in one piece. Taungdwingyi, Yamethin, Pinle, and above all Toungoo, under princes of much the same standing as himself went their own way and treated him as best a senior.
Toungoo rebellion (1426–1440).
He found it difficult to control the mainly Burman region of Toungoo (Taungoo), over which Ava had only nominal suzerainty. When Thinkhaya, the ruler of Toungoo, came to Ava in 1426, he was treated almost as equal by Mohnyin Thado. Mohnyin Thado tried to encircle Toungoo by making his brother the governor of Tharrawaddy, an adjacent region of Toungoo, and staying on good terms with King Binnya Ran I of Hanthawaddy. Nonetheless, Thinkhaya formed an alliance with Binnya Ran, decided to raise a rebellion and laid siege to Prome. However Binnya Ran simply wanted to keep Ava occupied, and was not eager to restart a war with Ava. He sent envoys to Ava, asking for a princess of Ava as the price of alliance. Mohnyin Thado was so angry that he kept the envoys for three months without audience, and had to be dissuaded from killing them. He finally decided to ally with Hanthawaddy and gave his niece to the Hanthawaddy king. Toungoo remained out of his reach for the rest of his reign.
Other regions.
Mohnyin Thado did not have much authority over other regions of the kingdom either. The rulers of regions as close to Ava such as Yamethin and Pinle, which controlled the all important Kyaukse granary behaved like sovereigns. Pinle was ruled by Minye Kyawhtin, son of the famous warrior prince Minye Kyawswa. On top of that, Shan raids continued. The Shan state of Hsipaw (Thibaw) attacked Myedu and the northern frontier in Shwebo district, and even for eight months drove him out of his palace, withdrawing only on payment of a large sum.
Flight of Shin Sawbu (1430).
When he came to power, he took Shin Sawbu, who was a queen of Thihathu of Ava and the elder sister of Binnya Ran I of Hanthawaddy, from Minye Kyawhtin of Pakhan to whom she had been given after Thihathu was assassinated. As Mohnyin Thado bestowed his affections elsewhere, Shin Sawbu planned to flee Ava. In 1430, she fled Ava with the help of two ethnic Mon monks who were studying in Ava. At Pegu, her brother Binnya Ran received her with great honors.
Relics from Ceylon.
In 1430, two monks returned from Ceylon with five relics. The king built the monks a huge monastery two miles west of Sagaing, and nearby a pagoda named Yadanazedi, now called Payabyu, to enshrine the relics.
Alteration of Burmese Calendar (1438).
In 1438, at the turn of Burmese calendar year 800, Mohnyin Thado on the advice of a court astrologer decided to renumber the calendar by subtracting two years. When the monks cautioned him that kings who alter the calendar die, he said ""If I must die, let me die. I will not be put in a song as a king who was afraid to do his duty"." The king died just over a year later, and his change of the calendar was discarded. He was succeeded by his son Minye Kyawswa.
Death.
Mohnyin Thado died circa May 1439 at age 59.


Ryukyuan assimilation policies

Ryukyuan assimilation policies are a series of practices aimed at the Ryukyuan people with the intent of assimilating them into Japanese culture and identity beginning shortly before the Disposition of Ryukyu in 1879 and continuing to the present day.
Background.
In 1879, the Japanese Empire abolished the Ryukyu Domain, exiling its monarch to Tokyo. Okinawa Prefecture was established out of the newly acquired territory. The Amami Islands were already a part of Japan due to the Satsuma Invasion of Ryukyu, and were made a part of Kagoshima Prefecture after the fall of the Satsuma Domain.
History.
Years after the annexation, Japan started to implement assimilation policies into the Ryukyu Islands. A famous example was the dialect cards (方言札, "hōgen fuda"), which were given out to students who spoke a Ryukyuan vernacular at school. Punishments for card-holders were often corporal.
The mainland Japanese also looked down on Ryukyuan culture as being "backwards", accelerating the process even further. The same phenomenon happened in diaspora communities as well, including Hawaii, where local Okinawans were often stereotyped negatively by other Nikkei immigrants.
Discrimination heightened during World War II, where many Okinawans were killed for speaking Okinawan under the suspicion of spying.


Kaem Ling

Kaem Ling ('monkey cheeks') () is a flood control measure based on the vision of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The idea stems from his observation that monkeys store bananas in their cheeks, conserving them to eat later. He applied this concept to the problem of flooding in Bangkok. Storing excess water in north Thailand would slows its progress towards Bangkok and allow it to be used when rainfall slackened. The monkey cheeks concept was the inspiration for the design of Chulalongkorn University's Centenary Park by Kotchakorn Voraakhom.


Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa

Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa (, ; 28 October 1766 – 6 August 1853) was a Konbaung-era Burmese poet, composer, playwright, general and statesman. In a royal service career that spanned over six decades, the Lord of Myawaddy served under four kings in various capacities, and was a longtime secretary to King Bagyidaw. Multi-talented Sa is best remembered for his innovative contributions to classical Burmese music and drama, as well as for his brilliant military service.
Sa composed many songs in various styles drawn from different traditions, wrote several plays and dramas including translated works from Thai and Javanese dramas, and brought innovations to Burmese theater. He invented the 13-string Burmese harp and introduced marionette plays to the Ava court. Sa was also an able military commander who led King Bodawpaya's annexation of Manipur in 1813. As the commander of Arakan theater under Gen. Maha Bandula in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–1826, Sa achieved a few battlefield victories in an otherwise disastrous war for the Burmese.
After the war, he became minister of Army and was given Myawaddy as his fief in 1828. Sa led the Burmese diplomatic efforts to have the British abandon their claims to Kabaw Valley in 1830. He was imprisoned from 1836 to 1839 by King Tharrawaddy, who overthrew Bagyidaw. Sa held no further public office after his release from prison, but continued to write songs and plays for kings Tharrawaddy and Pagan.
Early life.
Maung Sa was born 28 October 1766 (10th waning of Thadingyut 1128 ME) at Migyaungtet Chaung village, near Sagaing to a family line of courtiers more than two hundred years old. His father Pauk Kyaw was a son of the Royal Household Guards, and his mother Nyein Tha was a granddaughter of Binnya Gyandaw, a minister in the court of King Thalun. He was schooled at the Parama Monastery in the capital Ava. Still a teenager, Sa married Ma Aye, daughter of the King's goldsmith Nyun of Sagaing. Sa worked as a goldsmith and dealer. His wife died in 1785, when he was just 19. After the death of his wife, Sa briefly became an itinerant player of "kye-waing" (brass gongs) in U Tayoke's orchestra in Ava. Sa quickly gained recognition as an accomplished musician, and was noticed by Crown Prince Thado Minsaw who was bringing together a circle of innovative young artists in his private court. Still 19, Sa joined the Royal Service to become a royal page, a kind of apprenticeship only open to members of gentry and nobility.
Career.
Artist.
One of his first assignments in the royal service was to record the stories of traditional Burmese spirits Thirty Seven Nats, along with their traditional rituals, dances and music. He accomplished the task with the aid of musicians Tayoke and Myat Tha. In 1789, the 23-year-old Sa was placed in a Royal Commission consisted of princes and ministers, charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. (Siamese court musicians and artists captured from Ayutthaya in 1767 had been staging performances in the Burmese court, and training Burmese professional actors in Siamese style.) With the help of Siamese artists, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese Panji tales into Burmese Yama Zatdaw and Enaung Zatdaw. With Enaung, Sa wrote the dialogue, songs, musical scores, arrangements and stage directions. Sa also updated the 7-string Burmese harp into a 13-string one.
He composed over forty classical "thachin-gans", "kyos", "bwes" and "patpyos". Influenced by Siamese and Mon music, Sa experimented with different musical styles. He wrote many "Yodaya" (Burmese for Ayutthaya) style songs: "htat-tunts", "ngu-ngits", "khameins", "frantins", "keet-muns", "htanauks", ale-mes, "phyinchars", "bayet-le-swes", and "phyin-chins;" some are for oboes and others for brass-gongs. He also wrote three types of songs in Mon style. In 1820, Sa resumed his compilation of the stories of the Thirty-Seven Nats, in collaboration with Kawi Deva Kyaw, a leading Nat medium, and historian U Nu. In the same year he experimented with marionette shows, in consultation with Thabin Wun, Curator of Dramatic Arts.
After the First Anglo-Burmese War, Sa continued to write plays but spent more time on music. He collected songs from all sources, Siamese, Burmese, Mon, and from all levels: songs sung at court, songs sung by spirit worshipers, songs sung at feasts and folk songs. He continued his experiments in blending the various musical traditions of the country. Ever the curious, Sa taught himself some Hindi and some Latin hymns.
Military commander.
In 1808, Sa was named Herald and Commander of Warboat "Pye Lon Yu", and later "atwinwun" (secretary) to the new Crown Prince Bagyidaw. In February 1814, Commander Sa with the title Ne Myo Zeya Thura led a Burmese army of 1500 soldiers and 150 cavalry into Manipur to place Marjit Singh on the Manipuri throne. At 53, Sa became secretary to the king, when Bagyidaw ascended to the Burmese throne in 1819.
When war broke out with the British in March 1824, Sa was assigned as a general under Supreme Commander Maha Bandula in the Arakan theater. In May 1824, Sa led a column (about 4000) into Bengal, and defeated British troops in the Battle of Ramu, 10 miles east of Cox's Bazar on 17 May 1824. He then joined Bandula's column on the march to defeat British forces at Gadawpalin, and went on to capture Cox's Bazar. Sa's success caused extreme panic in Chittagong and in Calcutta but a cautious Bandula stopped Sa from proceeding too far ahead.
Sa was left to command remaining Burmese troops in Arakan after Bandula and the main battalions were ordered to withdraw from Arakan by Bagyidaw to meet the British invasion in Yangon in August 1824. Sa held on to Arakan throughout 1824 when the main focal point of the war played out in Yangon. After Gen. Archibald Campbell finally defeated Gen. Bandula in the Battle of Yangon in December 1824, the British turned their sights to Arakan. On 1 February 1825, an invasion force of 11,000 soldiers supported by a flotilla of gun boats and armed cruisers along the coast and a squadron of cavalry under the command of Gen. Morrison attacked Burmese positions in Arakan. Despite their superior numbers and firearms, the British had to fight Sa's depleted Burmese forces for nearly two months before they reached to the main Burmese garrison at Mrauk-U, Arakan's capital. On 29 March 1825, the British launched their attack on Mrauk-U. (At the same time, Campbell also launched an attack on Bandula's positions in the Battle of Danubyu.) After a few days of fighting, the Burmese at Mrauk-U were defeated on April 1, coincidentally the same day Maha Bandula fell at Danubyu. Sa and remaining Burmese forces evacuated and left Arakan. The British proceeded to occupy the rest of Arakan. Sa saw firsthand the destructive power and discipline of the British army.
Statesman.
After the war, Sa remained a close adviser to the king. In 1828, Bagyidaw made Sa his Army Minister with Myawaddy as his fief. Sa's fiefdom covered all the land at the confluence of the Made and Irrawaddy Rivers, including 14 villages and a town, in present-day Magwe Division. Now known as Myawaddy Mingyi (Lord of Myawaddy) with a noble style Thiri Maha Zeya Thura, Sa led Burmese diplomatic negotiations with the British resident envoy to Ava, Major Henry Burney. While Sa was unable to get back Arakan and Tenasserim, Sa was able to convince Burney to abandon the British claims on Kabaw Valley as part of Manipur. Starting in the late 1820s, Sa directed translation of English language newspapers for the king and the court.
Prisoner.
In 1836, Prince Tharrawaddy, who was also a commander in the war, rebelled against his brother King Bagyidaw. As Bagyidaw's secretary, Sa was duly arrested by Tharrawaddy. When Tharrawaddy became king in 1837, he stripped Sa of his lordship and imprisoned him for two more years in road gang. Sa was released from prison in 1839 after he composed songs for a royal marionette show and for he had long been a favorite of Tharrawaddy's daughter Princess Supayagyi. Sa was then 73 and held no further public office. He continued to write songs for kings Tharrawaddy and Pagan. He died on 6 August 1853 (1st waxing of Wagaung 1215 ME) at age 86, soon after King Mindon ascended the throne.


Hidarnes II

Hidarnes II was a king of Orontid Armenia, who reigned at the start of the 5th century BC.
Hidarnes was the son of Hidarnes I and his successor. An epitaph was found on Armavir walls related to Hidarnes II choosing his wife. She must have perfect looks, slim body, white skin, beautiful neck, delicate nose, straight teeth. Hidarnes II had all these features and was trying to preserve the nobility of the dynasty.


Khandpara State

Khandpara State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. It was located in present-day Nayagarh district, Odisha.
The state was bounded in the north by the Mahanadi River. The main town was Kantilo, but the capital was at Khandpara (Khandapada).
History.
Khandpara State is said to be founded by Jadunath Singh Mangaraj, the youngest son of Raja Raghunath Singh of Nayagarh, who retained possession of four Garhs or forts, as his share, viz. Kadua, Ghuntasahi, Saradhapur, and Khedapada, which are located in Nayagarh region. Jadunath Singh is also said to have received the title Mangaraj from the Gajapati Maharaja. In the reign of Raja Narayan Singh Mangraj, Khandpara extended on the east up to Banki, on the west to Balaramprasad in Daspalla, on the north to Kantilo, and on the south up to Jogiapali.
The last ruler signed the instrument of accession to the Indian Union on 1 January 1948, merging his state into Odisha forming a part of the Nayagarh district.
Rulers.
The rulers of Khandpara State bore the title of Raja. The emblem of the Khandpara royal family was the head of a tiger; state symbols were identical in neighboring Nayagarh State.


Supayalay

Supayalay (; 1863 – 25 June 1912) was a junior queen consort of the Konbaung dynasty, and was married to her half-brother Thibaw Min, the last monarch in the dynasty. She was one of the three only queens of King Thibaw.
Early life.
Supayalay, born in 1863 at the Royal Palace, in Mandalay as Hteik Supayalay, was the youngest of three daughters between King Mindon and Hsinbyumashin. She was a full-blooded sister of Supayagyi and Supayalat. She received the appanage of Yamethin and was therefore known as the Princess of Yamethin, with the royal title Sri Suriya Singha Ratna Devi.
Exile.
The royal family's reign lasted just seven years when Thibaw Min was defeated in the Third Anglo-Burmese War and forced to abdicate by the British in 1885. On 25 November 1885 they were taken away in a covered carriage, leaving Mandalay Palace by the southern gate of the walled city along the streets lined by British soldiers and their wailing subjects, to the River Irrawaddy where a steamboat called "Thuriya" (Sun) awaited. They were exiled to the remote coastal town of Ratnagiri in India, where they lived for over 30 years. Her sister Supayagyi and the queen mother were sent to Tavoy (now Dawei). She died on 25 June 1912 at Ratnagiri, India.


Traikutaka dynasty

The Traikutakas were a dynasty of Indian kings who ruled between 388 and 456. The name "Traikutakas" seems to be derived from the words for a three-peaked mountain ("Tri-kuta"). The Traikutakas are mentioned in Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, in which they are located in the area of northern Konkan. The dominions of the Traikutakas further included Aparanta and northern Maharashtra.
The coins of the Traikutaras are found extensively in southern Gujarat, and southern Maharashtra beyond the Ghats. Their design is very close to that of the Western Satraps, from which they probably inherited some territories, and traces of the obverse legend with Greek letters can still be seen.
Traikuta rule of Aparanta or Konkan begins in A.D. 248 (Traikuta era) exactly the time of Abhira Ishwarsena rule, hence Traikutas are identified with the dynasty of Abhiras.
The Traikutakas reckoned in a specific era, known as the Traikutaka era, or usually the Kalachuri or Chedi era, starting in 249.
Trikuta-Abhiras.
It is generally supposed that Traikutakas were a different dynasty of Abhira, and hence are sometimes called Abhira-Traikutakas . Indradutta, Dahrasena & Vyaghrasena were well known kings from this dynasty. Traikutikas were known for their Vaishnava faith, who claimed to be Yadav of Haiheya branch and Dahrasena performed Ashvamedha yajna too
Traikutaka rulers.
The following Traikuta rulers are known from the coins and inscriptions of Gupta period-


Jaro Evangelical Church

The Jaro Evangelical Church is the first and oldest Baptist congregation in the Philippines (first Protestant church outside Manila and second Protestant church in the Philippines both after the Central United Methodist Church (Manila) which was established in 1899). The church was established on February 28, 1900 by Eric Lund, a Swedish Baptist missionary working under the auspices of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, the foreign mission arm of the present day American Baptist Churches USA.
Jaro Evangelical Church's inception from the beginning is catalyst to the foundation (which it shares a strong association with) of Central Philippine University, the first Baptist and second American university in the Philippines and in Asia, an institution of higher learning founded through the benevolent grant of an American industrialist and philanthropist, John D. Rockefeller in 1905.
History.
With the coming of the Americans with a new political doctrine of separation of church and state, there was no more state church like during the Spanish time. The first Protestant sect to arrive in West Visayas were Baptists.
On February 28, 1900, Dr. Eric Lund and Braulio Manikan of the American Baptist Missionary Union arrived in Iloilo City followed by Rev. Charles Briggs.
Manikan was from Aklan but had been converted to Protestantism while in the United States.
In 1900, they both constructed the church in the Philippines. It was a simple bamboo chapel at Castilla Street in Jaro City, Iloilo.
At the same time, Lund and Manikan corroborated by Placido Mata, Vicente Doronila and Pascual Araneta translated the Bible to Hiligaynon vernacular – Ang Bagong Katipan (New Testament) and Ang Daan nga Katipan (Old Testament).
In 1904, Rev. Charles Briggs opened out stations in Pavia, La Paz and Hinaktakan. In 1905, Lund helped organized the Baptist Training School and the Jaro Industrial School (now Central Philippine University), spread to Capiz where they established a Home School (now Filamer Christian University).
In 1923, a new church was built at the Plaza Jaro (the present site). Lastly, in 1950, a newer church (the present one) was built on the same site under Rev. Elmer Fridell. In 1952, the church was finished and was dedicated with Dr. Peter Hugh Lerrigo, the former president of Central Philippine University where he delivered his dedication message.
During the World War II, the church was used by the Japanese Imperial Army. After the war, services resumed in the church where Rev. Vaflor and United States Army Chaplain Weavers preached.


Economic Deindustrialisation of India

The Economic Deindustrialisation of India refers a period of reduction in industrial based activities within the Indian economy from 1757 to 1947.
The deindustrialisation of India started when the Indian economy was colonised under the British Empire. The Indian Economy was ruled under the British East Indian Company Rule from 1757 to 1858. This ruling period mainly involved British protectionist policies, restricting sales of Indian goods and services within Britain while exposing Indian markets to British goods and services, without tariffs and quotas.
By the 19th century, the British empire had overtaken the Indian economy as the world's largest textile manufacturer.
From 1858, the Indian economy was ruled directly under the British Imperial Rule, also known as the Rule under the British Raj. India continued to be ruled directly under the British until the end of the deindustrialisation period in 1947.
Economy of India Prior to Deindustrialisation.
The Mughal Economy is well known for the building of the Mughal Road system, establishing the Rupee as a standardised currency, and the unification of the country. Prior to deindustrialisation, India was one of the largest economies in the world, accounting for approximately one quarter of the global economy. Mughal India is considered to be one of the richest periods among early modern Islamic cultures. The Indian economy specialised in industrialisation and manufacturing, accounting for at least one quarter of the world's manufacturing output before the 18th century.
Under the Mughal Empire, agricultural production had increased particularly food crops such as barley, rice and wheat and other non-food crops such as opium and cotton. By the middle of the 17th century, India had begun to grow large amounts of foreign crops including maize and tobacco.
Economy of India During Deindustrialisation.
Company Rule (1757-1858).
The Company Rule in India refers to areas in the Indian subcontinent which were under the rule of British East Indian Company. The East Indian Company began its rule over the Indian subcontinent starting with the Battle of Plessey, which ultimately led to the vanquishing of the Bengal Subah and the founding of the Bengal Presidency in 1765, one of the largest subdivisions of British India.
Capital amassed from Bengal following the Battle of Plessey assisted in investment in textile manufacturing during textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, increasing the wealth of the British and ultimately contributing to deindustrialisation in Bengal. Furthermore, under Company rule, large Indian markets were exposed to British goods which were sold in India without any forms of protection while local Indian producers were heavily taxed. Protectionist policies were set up by the British empire to restrict the sale of Indian good and services overseas although raw materials used in textile manufacturing such as cotton were imported to Britain factories and worked. These manufactured textiles were resold by the British in India and eventually led to the British Industrial Revolution, resulting in Britain overtaking India as the largest cotton textile manufacturer in the world by the 19th century. Economic policies implemented by Britain allowed for a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources and turned India into a captive market for Britain.
Following the annexation of Oudh under British rule in 1856, all of the Indian subcontinent up to the Himalayas and most of Burma was ruled by the Company or local rulers which were allied with the Company at the tie. During the Company rule period, the British East Indian Company had established four main headquarters across the Indian subcontinent. The major British territories across the Indian subcontinent included the Bengal Presidency, Bombay Presidency, Madras Presidency and the North-Western Provinces.
The Company rule and the expansion of the British East India Company continued up until the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Ultimately, the Company rule ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, although the British East India Company was formally dissolved by Act of Parliament in 1874.
Rule under the British Raj (1858-1947).
The rule of the Indian economy under the British Raj refers to the period of the British's direct imperial rule over India from 1858 to 1947, which mainly arose due to revolt against the Company rule by Indians. This marked the formal conquest of India by the British.
Under rule of the British Raj, the Indian economy was in a state of stagflation and further deindustrialisation while the British economy went through the Industrial Revolution. Several economic policies implemented by the British Raj also caused a severe decrease in Indian handicraft (and handiloom) sectors of the economy, particularly resulting in a large decrease in demand for employees, goods and services. Although the Raj did not provide capital to the British economy, due to Britain's declining position in the steel making industry in comparison to the US and Germany, the Raj had steel mills set up in India. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) first operated in Bihar in 1908 and later became the largest and leading steel producer in India in 1945.
Large amounts of investments by the private and public British investors contributed to a revamped railway system in India, mainly being used for economic growth and military use. This led to the creation of the fourth largest railway system in the world. At first however, the initial use of the railway system was by private British companies. In 1837, the first train used on the railway system for freight transport ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras. In 1853, the railway began to be used for passenger travel services from Bombay to Thane, eventually expanding throughout most of the Indian subcontinent. During the First World War, the trains were used to transport troops and grain to other countries such as Britain and South Africa, although by the end of the war, the railway system was largely deteriorated.
During the Great Depression, the Indian economy was not significantly impacted and the government was mainly focused on the shipping of gold to Britain. The most significant economic impact on the Indian economy was deflation, which directly impacted the debt of villagers, and overseas trading of jute in Benghal, a key trading element through the 1920s which had significantly decline during the early 1930s. Furthermore, declining prices of jute and other food crops severely impacted large scale farmers in India. In contrast, sugar became a largely traded crop and a successful industry in the early 1930s.
Aftermath.
India finally became its own independent nation on 15 August 1947, free from the rule of the British Raj.
India had undergone socialist reforms from the 1950s to 1990s. Prior to economic liberalisation, India experienced low rates of annual economic growth known as the "Nehruvian Socialist rate of growth" and low rates of per capita income growth.
Numerous steel plants were set up in the 1950s by prime minister Nehru under the belief that India had needed to maximise steel production in order for the economy to succeed. This led to the formation of Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL), a government owned company and the establishment of three steel plants throughout the India during the 1950s.
In 1991, the Indian economy underwent economic liberalisation. Through which, India transitioned to a more service and market based sector, with particular emphasis on expanding foreign and private investment within India. Furthermore, in response to deindustrialisation, liberalisation included reductions in import tariffs and taxes, as well as ending many Public Monopolies. Majority of the changes were implemented as a condition for a $500 million loan by the IMF and World Bank to bail out India's government in December 1991.
By the end of the 20th century, India had transitioned towards a free-market economy, through which there was a major decline of state control over India's economy and increased financial liberalisation.
Economic Data.
Prior to deindustrialisation, the Indian economy accounted for roughly 25% of the global economy. Economic data collected by the OECD shows that growth during the Mughal Empire's reign was more than twice faster than it was around five hundred years prior to the Mughal era. Under the British Raj rule, from 1880 to 1920, the Indian economy's GDP growth rate and population growth rate increased at approximately 1%.
Following deindustrialisation, India's share of the global economy had dropped to approximately 4% in the 1950s.
India's annual growth rate remained approximately around 3.5% prior to economic liberalisation. Per capita income growth had averaged around 1.3% per year.
India's GDP growth rate slowly increased to 7% in the 2018-19 period.
During 2018, India became the fastest emerging economy in the world. India is predicted to return as one of the three largest economies in the world by 2034.
By 2025, it is expected that the Indian working age population will account for at least one quarter of the world economy's working age population.
By 2035, the five largest cities in India are expected to have economies similar in size to middle income economies.


Chaudayyadanapura

Chaudayyadanapur is a small village in Ranebennur taluk of Haveri District in Karnataka state of India. All facets of Indian civilisation (religion, art and poetry) are exemplified in an exquisite Mukteshwara temple, with the highest degree of refinement.
Introduction.
Northern Karnataka is one of the richest areas of India in monuments of great artistic value. It was the time of the greatest expansion of the Kalamukha Lakulasaiva movements and of the rise of Virashaivism.
Shivapur, the old name of Chaudadanapur (Chaudayyadanapur) saint, a 12th-century social reformer Basaveshwar, donated this village to Ambigara Chaudayya (a boatman). So the name is Chaudayyadanapur or Chaudadanapur.
The temple of Mukteshwar at Chaudayyadanapur in Ranebennur Taluk is a beautiful representative of the style and the high culture of that time.
The Mukteshwar Temple.
The Mukteshwar Temple is a single cella temple in Jakkanachari style. Similar temples were built under the patronage of Kalachuris of Kalyani or Seuna dynasties. This temple is a jewel of architecture of the 11th–12th centuries. It was built during the heyday of the kingdom ruled by the Kalyani Chalukyas and the Seunas of Devagiri. It is dedicated to an Udbhava (spontaneously born) Lingam named Mukteshwar.
The dome of the temple is hollow and is closed by the slabs of the stupi. Shikhara of the Mukteshwara temple is 2.2 m in its axis at the base. The stupi is made of three beautiful lotiform mouldings diminishing in size and a lotus bud with its base.
Kannada inscriptions.
History.
The history of Mukteshwar Temple at Chaudayyadanapur is known through seven inscriptions in medieval Kannada, engraved on large steles. They provide information on the local rulers, kings of Guttala (Gupta ascendancy), on some constructions in the temple complex, on diverse donations to the deity.
They provide the details on a prominent religious leaders. Inscriptions introduce Muktajiyar, a Lakulasaiva saint, and Shivadeva, a Virashaiva saint, who entered the place on 19 August 1225 and led there a long life of renunciation, asceticism and spiritual elevation. The legacy of this age of intense Shaivism is a jewel of architecture and sculpture.
Conservation and restoration.
There is a need of immediate conservation and restoration for the Narasimha temple Narasapur.


Saint Gregory the Great Parish Church (Indang)

The St. Gregory the Great Parish Church (Filipino: "Simbahan ng Parokya ni San Gregorio Magno") commonly known as Indang Church is a Roman Catholic church in the municipality of Indang, Cavite, Philippines, under the Roman Catholic Diocese of Imus.
Church history.
Indang, originally "Indan", was originally a chapel (or "visita") of Silang under the Jesuits. The church's historical marker stated that the church was established as a mission station of Father Angelo Armano in 1611 and a separate parish in 1625 under the advocacy of St. Gregory the Great. Even before it became a full-pledged parish, the parish had established devotion to St. Francis Xavier. A huge part of the stone church was built during the term of Father Luis Morales from 1672 to 1676 and was finished on 1710. Diocesan priests served the parish starting in 1768 and it was later transferred to the Dominicans in 1891. The church was burned during the Philippine revolution against the Spaniards. It was restored under the auspices of Msgr. Mauro de Leon in 1953 and Father Cornelio Matanguihan in 1987.
Features.
Upon entering the church, elegantly carved doors will be seen first together with the impressive carvings on the choir loft balcony. Built during the 18th century, it has an impressive rose-colored trompe l'oil paintings on its ceiling. Several commemorative gravestones can also be seen in the walls and pillars of the church. The retablo has three levels of niches for images of saints. Unlike the elegant rose-colored ceiling, restoration works on the "retablo" involved repainting, with red and gold. At the central niche is the image of the town's patron, St. Gregory the Great. Located at the right side of the altar is a painting of St. Michael and the Archangels. The pulpit of the church carries the Jesuit monogram surmounted by the image of the Christ child as a sign of being a parish under the Jesuits before the Suppression of the Society of Jesus of 1768.
The church of Indang was one of the first churches in Cavite to use galvanized iron as its roofing in 1869. The adjacent old convento has wide windows and wrought iron work along the sides.
Devotions.
Indang was dedicated under the chaplaincy of Pope St. Gregory the Great ("also San Gregorio Magno"). In one incident, the local parish priest found a big, rolled picture at the back of the church together with burnt trash. It was found out to be a painting of the seven archangels. Since then, the devotion to the archangels also grew in the town together with the intercession of St. Gregory the Great giving the parish of Indang eight patrons. The icon of the archangels is currently found at the right side of the altar. Several miracles are attributed to St. Gregory and the seven archangels including the peaceful stay of the Japanese soldiers during the war and a failed attempt to raid the town, by bandits.


Dantidurga

Dantidurga (reigned 735–756 CE), also known as Dantivarman or Dantidurga II was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. His successor was his uncle Krishna I who extended his kingdom to all of Karnataka.
The Ellora record of Dantidurga narrates that he defeated the Chalukyas in 753 and took the titles "Rajadhiraja" and "Parameshvara". The inscription calls him son of Indra II. The Samangad inscription (modern Kolhapur district, Maharashtra) states his mother was a Chalukyan princess from Gujarat called Bhavanaga. The same inscription states he defeated the invincible "Karnata-Bala" of the Badami Chalukyas. Further he defeated the kings of Lata (Gujarat), Malwa, Tanka, Kalinga and Sheshas (Nagas) in central India and performed many sacrifices. Though he conquered the Chalukyan Empire, it is clear from the Vakkaleri inscription of 757 that the Chalukyan Emperor Kirtivarman II retained control over his southern provinces up to the year 757. His daughter was married to a Pallava King Nandivarman II of Kanchi. Dantidurga helped Nandivarman recover Kanchi by warring against the Chalukyas.
The Navasari grant (c.739) throws light on his achievements in the era prior to Rashtrakuta independence. The Arab intention might have been to make inroads into South India. However, to the south of the Mahi River lay the powerful Chalukyan empire. The Chalukya viceroy at Navsari, Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, decisively defeated the invading Arab forces as documented in the grant. The "Tājika" (Arab) army defeated was one that had attacked "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, Maurya and Gurjara" kings. Viceroy Pulakesi subsequently received the titles "Solid Pillar of Deccan" ("Dakshināpatha-sādhāra") and the "Repeller of the Unrepellable" ("Anivartaka-nivartayitr"). The Rashtrakuta prince Dantidurga, who was subsidiary to Chalukyas at this time, also played an important role in the battle.
Dantidurga was a clever diplomat but at the same time used military power to expand his empire's boundaries. By 750 AD Dantidurga had brought Madhya Pradesh and Southern Gujarat under his control.


Binjiang Province

Binjiang Province was one of the provinces of Manchukuo. It was created in 1934 when the old Jilin Province was split into:
In 1937 Binjiang Province was split into:


Thirteen Martyrs of Bagumbayan

The Thirteen Martyrs of Bagumbayan () were Filipino patriots in the Philippines who were executed by musketry on January 11, 1897, for cooperating with the Katipunan during the Philippine Revolution against Spain.


Popa Sawrahan

Popa Sawrahan () was the 20th king of Pagan Dynasty of Burma and the eighth king of "Tampavati period" of Bagan. He was notable for restarting the Burmese calendar in Bagan history and one of the two Sawrahan kings of Bagan Dynasty.
He was advised to reign over Pagan by his student, Queen Singharaj (). In 640 AD (562 Burmese Year), he encountered "Khachapañja kein" () or "The number needed to demolish year number". He subtracted 560 years from year 562, leaving a remainder of 2 years. Burmese people have been counting from the year two without restarting the calendar again.
Legend.
Sawrahan is the former monk seized the throne after King Htun Chit died in 613 CE. He launched the Burmese calendar on 21 March 640 CE, with the starting date of 22 March 638. (According to scholarship, the Burmese calendar was actually launched at Sri Ksetra (Pyay/Prome) by the Pyu.) Popa Sawrahan made peace with the royal line by giving his daughter to Shwe Ohnthi, son of Htun Chit and rightful heir, and making his son-in-law the heir apparent. Popa Sawrahan died in 640 soon after his new calendar was launched, and Shwe Ohnthi succeeded, restoring the Pyusawhti line.


Jungle Mahals

Jungle Mahals, literally 'jungle estates', was a district formed by British possessions and some independent chiefdoms lying between Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore and the hilly country of Chota Nagpur in what is now the Indian state of West Bengal. The district was located in the area known as the Jungle Terry, a thickly forested region inhabited by tribal groups such as the Santhal people Bhumij
History.
The vagueness of the jurisdiction caused inconvenience. In 1805, Regulation XVIII was passed whereby the areas known as Jungle Mahals was separated from the jurisdiction of the Magistrates of the districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura and Midnapore and placed under a Magistrate of Jungle Mahals. The district thus formed was composed of 23 parganas and mahals.
By Regulation XIII of 1833, the district of Jungle Mahals was broken up. The estates of Senpahari, Shergarh and Bishnupur were transferred to Burdwan District and the remainder constituted the Manbhum District.


Former Arikabe-juku Honjin

The is a former "honjin" on the Ōshū Kaidō highway connecting Edo with northern Mutsu Province in the Tōhoku region of Japan. It is located in what is now part of the city of Kurihara in Miyagi Prefecture. The site was given protection as a National National Historic Site in May 1971.
Overview.
The Ōshū Kaidō was one of the five routes of the Edo period and was built to connect Edo (modern-day Tokyo) with Mutsu Province and the present-day city of Shirakawa, Fukushima Prefecture, and points further north to Ezo. As with the other "Kaidō", post stations where travelers could rest on their journey were established at regular intervals.
Arakabe was established as one of the five "shukuba" on the Ōshū Kaidō by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1619, and the large residence of the Satō clan, who had served as generation of village headmen, received the designation of "honjin". The "daimyō" of Matsumae, Hachinohe, Morioka and Ichinoseki Domains used this "honjin" during their "sankin kōtai" processions to-and-from Edo. Several repairs were made over the years, including changing the roof from its original thatch to roof tiles; however, the gate, "Kura" and other minor structures remained unchanged. The original "honjin" burned down in 1744 and the present structure dates from that reconstruction.
After the Meiji restoration, Emperor Meiji made two official visits to the Tōhoku region and stayed at the Arakebejuku "honjin" in 1876 and in 1881. Since those visits, the main gate of the "honjin" has been permanently closed. The interior of the building is closed to the public but houses important historical materials that convey aspects of the Edo period and the management of the inn station,
The Former Arakabejuku Honjin is located approximately 15 minutes by car from Tohoku Expressway Wakayanagi Kanari IC.


Sahib I Giray

Sahib I Giray (1501–1551) was Khan of Kazan for three years and Khan of Crimea for nineteen years. His father was the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. Sahib was placed on the throne of Kazan by his ambitious brother Mehmed of Crimea and driven out of Kazan by the Russians. He became Khan of Crimea with Ottoman support and was expelled by the Turks for disobedience. During his reign Crimean troops fought for the Turks and also fought in the North Caucasus. In 1532-1584, during the long reigns of Sahib I Giray, Devlet I Giray and Mehmed II Giray, Crimea was at the height of its power.
Family and early life.
Sahib's grandfather was Hacı I Giray (c. 1441–1466), the founder of the Giray dynasty. His father was Mengli Giray (1478–1515). Mengli’s sons included Mehmed I Giray (1515–1523), Saadet I Giray (1524–1532), Sahib I Giray (1532–1551) and Mubarak. Ğazı I Giray (1523–24) and İslâm I Giray (1532) were sons of Mehmed. His successor, Devlet I Giray (1551–1577), was a son of Mubarak.
Sahib's wives were Fatima Sultan and Khanbike Sultan, sister of the Circassian Prince Mashuk Kanukov. His mother-in-law Nur-Sultan was the mother of Muhammed Amin of Kazan.
His Kalgas (deputy and designated heir) were his nephew Islyam I Giray, Saadet's son Akhmed and his son Emin.
In 1510–11 Sahib accompanied his mother-in-law Nur Sultan to Moscow and Kazan. During the reign of Mehmed I Giray (1515–1523) Sahib was imprisoned for a long time.
Khan of Kazan (1521–1524).
The khanate of Kazan was unstable and usually alternated between pro- and anti-Russian khans. By custom, khans had to be descendants of Genghis, which Sahib indeed was. After the death of Mohammad Amin (1502–19) the anti-Russian faction wanted to bring Sahib from Crimea, but the Russians imposed their vassal Shahgali (1519–1521) instead. In the spring of 1521, at the request of the anti-Russian faction, Sahib entered Kazan and Shahgali fled to Muscovy.
To return to Crimea, the ambitious Mehmed of Crimea had now placed his brother on the throne of Kazan. The next step was to take the Khanate of Astrakhan, which he did in 1523. The Nogais feared Mehmed's growing power and killed him. Crimea passed to Mehmed’s son Gazi, who was quickly replaced by Mehmed’s and Sahib’s brother Saadet I Giray (1524–1532). Saadet was more cautious than his brother Mehmed, wanted to consolidate his rule in Crimea and gave little support to his brother in Kazan.
Hoping to return to Kazan, in the summer of 1521 khans Mehmed of Crimea and Sahib of Kazan made a joint raid on Muscovy. Sahib raided Nizhny Novgorod and Vladimir, joined his brother Mehmed and raided the outskirts of Moscow. They took a huge number of captives and returned to their khanates.
In the autumn of 1522 Sahib raided eastern Muscovy. In August-September 1523 Moscow sent a force down the Volga under their ally Shahgali, plundering villages along the river before reaching Kazan and turning back. In September Russia founded the fort of Vasilsursk. In October Sahib raided Galich and returned with many prisoners.
Sahib sent an ambassador to Saadat, the new khan of Crimea, asking for cannon, muskets (?пищали) and Janissaries but Saadet refused. In the spring of 1524 Sahib declared himself an Ottoman vassal, but this did not help. In the spring of 1524 Moscow sent a huge army under Ivan Belsky against Kazan and Sahib fled. He was replaced by Safa Giray of Kazan, said to be the son of Sahib's brother Fetikh.
Return to Crimea (1524–1532).
In the summer of 1524 Sahib reached Crimea, where Saadet imprisoned him. In autumn he was released and assisted Saadet against their rebellious nephew İslâm I Giray. In 1525–26 and 1528–1530 he was Saadet’s Kalga. In 1531 Sahib helped defeat the Shirin clan. Howorth (1880) recorded that Sahib made a pilgrimage to Mecca and in 1532 accompanied Sulieman in a war in Hungary.
Khan of Crimea (1532–1551).
In May 1532 Saadet I Giray voluntarily renounced the position of khan and left for Istanbul. İslâm I Giray returned to Crimea and was proclaimed khan. The Ottoman Sultan did not recognize him and in the fall appointed Sahib as Crimean khan. He arrived with Turkish troops and was recognized by the Crimean nobles. İslâm, after a five-month reign, became Sahib's Kalga and was given possession of Perekop and Ochakiv. In the spring of 1534 İslâm revolted. He was repulsed from Crimea and fortified himself in Perekop. Saadet’s son Akhmed was made Kalga, but was killed in 1537 on Sahib’s order. Sahib’s son Emin then became Kalga. In 1537 Sahib drove İslâm out of Perekop. He fled to the Nogais and was killed by Baki-Beg, the Karachi Beg of the Mangit clan.
In terms of domestic policy, Sahib founded the new capital of Bakhchisarai 2km downstream from the old capital of Salachik (prior to this, the nearby cliff-fort of Chufut-Kale and before that Stary Krym had served as capitals). Sahib expanded the harbor of Gozlev/Yevpatoria, giving the khanate its own port. He tried to weaken the great nobles by bringing their leaders to court and elevating the lesser nobles, and tried to sedentarize the Nogais.
When Sahib went to war he was accompanied by a guard of musketeers, wagons and field artillery. The main force was tribal cavalry.
In 1538 Sahib joined forces with Suleiman the Magnificent to fight the Moldavian ruler Petru Rareș, resulting in the Ottoman occupation of Ochakov and the separation of the Budjak coast from Moldavia.
In 1539 Sahib marched to the Taman peninsula to punish the Circassians for their attacks on Muslims. Kansavuk, the leader of the Zhaney tribe, bought him off with gifts to the Khan, Sultan and Turkish governor of Kaffa. A search in the mountains for the guilty parties failed. On the way back the Crimeans looted some Circassian villages.
In the winter of 1539/40 Sahib and his son Emin raided Lithuania and possibly Muscovy. The campaign was successful, but the returning troops suffered much from the cold.
In 1541 Sahib and Emin raided Muscovy. The runaway Prince Semyon Belsky promised to show them a ford over the Oka River, but they were late due to quarrels between Sahib and Baki-Beg. The Russians blocked the river bank with artillery and the Crimeans went home, taking a little loot.
In 1542 Sahib and Emin returned to the North Caucasus because Kansavuk had not fulfilled his promises, including the delivery of slaves. They entered the mountains, were attacked at night, were victorious, and returned with much loot.
1544 the Kabardian Prince Elbozady arrived in Crimea asking for help against his rebellious subjects. The Tatars marched east, defeated a night attack by the Kabardians and returned with many captives.
In 1545 Astrakhan was captured and Yamghurchi of Astrakhan was driven out.
In 1546 10000 Nogais under Ali-Mirza attacked Crimea to avenge the capture of Astrakhan. The Crimeans surrounded them near Perekop and utterly defeated them by blasting them with artillery and musket fire. After the battle Sahib ordered many of the prisoners executed.
Overthrow and death (1551).
Some time before 1551 Sahib had requested that his nephew Devlet Devlet I Giray) be sent from Istanbul so that he could be made khan of Kazan. In reality, Sahib was trying to gain control of a potential rival. In 1551 Suleiman the Magnificent ordered Sahib to march against Persia. This was much further east than the Crimeans had ever gone. Sahib replied that his warriors were poorly equipped and could not withstand a long march. The sultan began to doubt the loyalty of his vassal and decided to replace him with Devlet. Sahib was told that Devlet was appointed Khan of Kazan and that Sahib should march against the Zhaney tribe of Circassians who had revolted and were attacking pilgrims returning from Mecca.
Before leaving, Sahib sent a large force under Emin, his son and Kalga, to Perekop to guard against an attack while his army was away. Sahib crossed to the Taman Peninsula, chased the culprits into the mountains, won a battle and took a large amount of loot and captives. Meanwhile Devlet arrived by land at Akkerman with 1000 Janissaries and 60 cannon. He took ship to Gozlev (Evpatoria), marched southeast and captured Bakhchiserai. When Emin learned of this he marched south but only got to the Alma River (it flows west to the sea between Evpatoria and Sevastopol). His whole army crossed over to Devlet's side and Emin was killed. When word of the coup reached Sahib he was abandoned by his army. He was imprisoned in the fortress of Taman and killed by his great nephew Bulyuk Giray under orders from Devlet. All of Sahib’s children and grandchildren were killed by order of Devlet. Devlet had Sahib buried with honors at Salachik near Bakhchisarai. Devlet I Giray (1551–1577) then became khan. When Devlet's successor was ordered to fight the Persians he went.


Bardak Siah Palace

Bardak Siah Palace is the name of the site of an ancient Achaemenid Persian palace situated in the ancient city of Temukan near the township of Borazjan in the northern part of Bushehr Province of Iran. The site was unearthed in 1977 by Iranian archeologists headed by Ehsan Yaghmai
Further excavations at the site in 2005 led to a fragmentary sculpture featuring the head of the Achaemenid emperor Darius the Great (r. 521 BC-485 BC) with a servant carrying an umbrella behind him as well as four pieces of gold in the form of thick folded sheets with a combined weight of about three kilograms buried beside one of the main hall’s columns. Yaghmaii said he believed the gold sheets may have inscriptions on them and may have been deliberately folded and hidden during antiquity.
An inscription was also recovered with handwriting in the Neo-Babylonian language.
The capitals of the palace had been decorated with the images of eagles and lions. The eagle was a symbol of power and wisdom during the Achaemenid era. Pieces of the capitals, including eyes, wings, fangs, and snouts, have been discovered during previous excavations. Such images can be seen at Persepolis as well. Six bronze coins were also discovered beside the statue as well as some ornaments made of ivory and several fragments of lapis lazuli and ironstone with the handle.
The archaeological team began the excavations in early winter under the supervision of Yaghmaii, whose earlier team had discovered the Darius Palace in 1977. Darius' Palace is somewhat similar to the Apadana Palace in Persepolis. The palace had 36 columns. Sixteen bases of the columns were unearthed during the first phase of the excavations. Each column rose to about 20 to 23 meters.
Built during the Achaemenids' zenith, the palace had been destroyed by fire in a war.


Phulra

Phulra or Kingdom of Phulra (ریاست پھلڑا) was a Muslim princely state in the days of British Raj and ruled by the Tanoli tribe of Mughal Barlas confederation, located in the region of the North West Frontier to the east of the nearby parent princely state of Amb (Tanawal).
The territory covered by the state remains part of the present-day Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as a Union Council of the tehsil of Mansehra.
History.
The state was founded in 1828, when Mir Painda Khan Tanoli, the ruler of Amb, granted the area of Phulra as a small principality to his brother, Maddad Khan Tanoli. There is some uncertainty as to whether Phulra ranked as a full princely state of India before 1919, and until then it may have had the status of a feudatory landed estate or jagir, but it was given British imperial state recognition as Phulra was recognised as a princely state in 1919 and 1921, in the official Imperial Gazetteer of Indian Empire. Phulrah had been under suzerainty of the Raja of Kashmir until 1889, when it accepted a British protectorate, entering indirect rule.
In 1947, soon after the British had departed from the Indian subcontinent, the last ruler of Phulra signed an Instrument of Accession to the new Dominion of Pakistan, and Phulra was a princely state of Pakistan from then until September 1950, when it was incorporated into the North West Frontier Province following the death of its last ruler.
Dynasty.
The state was ruled by a collateral line of the hereditary Tanoli Nawabs (rulers) of Amb. Amb and Phulra together were sometimes referred to as "Feudal Tanawal".
Descendants of Maddad Khan.
Maddad Khan, the original Khan of Phulra, had two branches of offspring i.e. a senior branch and a junior branch. After the State of Phulra was abolished, both these branches continue to be represented in the area. The descendants of its last Nawab Khan Abdul Latif Khan Tanoli, remained in the area as private residents.
Of the junior branch, Maddad Khan Tanoli had four sons from one wife:, Ameer Khan Tanoli, Abdullah Khan Tanoli, Arsla Khan Tanoli and Hussain Khan Tanoli ،{(his son safiullah khan Tanoli played a ministry role under the khan-i-Zaman khan Tanoli and then his successor Muhammad Farid khan Tanoli ruler of amb state)}. From second wife Bahadur Khan Tanoli was one other surviving son. There descendants are living in Gojra village, Masand, Doga, shergarh ,Kangra colony and in Rawalpindi. They are all private citizens today.


Tarout Island

Tārūt Island () is an island in the Persian Gulf belonging to the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, connected by two causeways to Qatif. It is six kilometers from the coast, and is the longest island in the Persian Gulf after Qeshm Island, extending from Ra’s Tannurah in the north to Qatif in the west. The island has an area of 70 square kilometers, and a population (2010) of 77,757. It contains a number of towns and villages, including Tārūt itself, Deyrah, and Darīn.
History.
Tarout's history dates back to pre-5000 BC. It is considered as one of the most ancient sites that were inhabited by humans, as well as one of the oldest areas along the Arabian Peninsula.
Tarout was the heart of Dilmun Kingdom and had a major role in the history of the region since 3000 BC. Human habitation in this area over the centuries was very large and archaeological discoveries were found until recently, which is rare in most parts of the world's archaeological sites.
The Island had a significant role in trade activity in the entire Persian Gulf region. It was a central point for trade between Mesopotamia and along the coastal areas in the east of the Arabian Peninsula. Its strong relationships with many of the urbanized areas along the region were well known.
The Christian practice that a marriage was only valid if blessed by a priest was first mandated by a synod of Christians living in the region held in Darin in 676 CE by Patriarch George I—chief bishop of the Church of the East, one of the two main churches of the Syriac Christian tradition.
History of the name.
The ancient Arabic name for the place was apparently 'Ishtarut (عشتروت); in the Greek Geographia of Ptolemy it is called Tharrō (θαρρώ); on a map Ptolemy’s Geographia published in Latin in 1578 it appears as "Tharro". Ishtarut or Ashtaroot, which means (love and war god), as was believed by the Babylonians, the Canaanites and Phoenicians.
In the Middle Ages the island was often called Dairin or Daryn, for one of its cities.; Darīn is actually the name of its main harbor, and there have also been more modern attempts to rename it Darīn. The Treaty of Darin was signed on the island in 1915 between Ibn Saud and the United Kingdom.
Archaeology.
Archaeological finds indicate that the island has been inhabited since 5000 BC; and it was later home to people from the civilization of Dilmun, Akkadians, Assyrians and Persians. Later it was occupied by the Persian Empire, the Islamic Empire; it was colonized by the Portuguese and later made part of the Ottoman Empire.
The most important collections found in the Tarout was pure golden statue representing Ashtaroot goddess. The statue was found placed on the ground in one of the palm groves in the Tarout.
There are many other statues, copper and pottery vessels and traditional weapons found in the Tarout that are displayed in the Riyadh Museum. It also contains a Portuguese fort which is located in Al Deyrah. The Portuguese castle was repaired in the 951H, which had been built on the ruins of former settlements and one of the oldest ones, dating back to over 5,000 years ago.
The site consists of the Fortress of Al-Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab Al Fehani, which was built in 1303H as well as the Fortress of Abu Al-leaf, which is located between the Tarout and Al Qatif, in addition to the three mosques on the old road from Al Qatif.
In 1959 a man cleaning a street discovered rocks with Sabaean inscriptions on them. The most famous artefacts found on Tārūt were unearthed by Danish archaeologists in 1968; they excavated shards of pottery dating back to 4,500 BC, and others from 3000 BC. When the municipality of Qatīf wanted to build a causeway to Tārūt in 1962 they took sand from the hill known as Tell Rafī’ah, and found Stone Age artifacts, including pottery, and a statue. The last discovery was in 1993 on Tell Rafī’ah. Sometimes archaeological ruins are discovered by accident; something that occurred when a car repair workshop was being renovated and tombs dating back to 2000 BC were found.
Many vessels have been found on Tārūt carved from steatite, particularly from Tell Rafī'ah; the designs are very artistic and include representations of cats, nude men, and motifs connected with the sea and fishing. The source of the steatite was actually in South Western Persia, but the carving industry seems to have been a local one.
Among the ancient statues discovered in Tārūt is one of a naked man made out of dark grey stone. It was found in the 1950s by a man ploughing his field. It is 94 cm high, and the man is standing in a reverential posture, with wide eyes. It is almost certainly Sumerian in origin, though it was found about 1000 kilometers from the nearest city of Sumer. It is a very high quality object, but was almost destroyed by the superstitious villagers, who thought it had something to do with spirits ("jinn"), and so cut it in half and beheaded it. It has been restored and now stands the National Museum of Riyadh.
In 1962 when some of the inhabitants of the village of Rabī'iyah were replacing their former thatched houses with buildings of stone and plaster, a man climbing some of the hills looking for stones, they chanced upon a jar, and then discovered a number of graves, which experts later suggested were likely to be Jewish in origin. They also found many earthenware vessels at the same site. At Khārijīyah in the north of Tārūt many clay figurines have also been found.
Transport.
Sea port.
Tarout Island represents one of the most important sea ports in all parts of Saudi Arabia.
In ancient times, the island was a vital seaport to receive boats from the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Tarout was a metropolis on the island, which took its name from its castle, which is located in the heart of the island, surrounded by small villages.
Tarout Castle.
Tarout Castle is located in the center of Tarout Island at the edge of Al Deyrah village. The castle was built in the period from 1515 to 1521. So far it is unknown who built it, although some archeologists suggest that it was built by the residents of Qatif and Tarout to protect them from Portuguese attacks, while some researchers indicate that the castle was built by the Portuguese to protect themselves from Turkish attacks, but they were forced to hand it over in 1559 and they withdrew from the Tarout island of to Awal Island,(now Bahrain).
The castle is consisting of 4 towers. Its courtyard is a rectangle with a central deep well, which is believed to be used to store provisions during the times of blockage. King Abdul Aziz Dara is enjoying a lot of archaeological material of historical significance, which was discovered at the Tarout Heritage Palace. The later found material is an ancient army cannon going dating back to the same time, which is currently being shown in the Dammam Regional Museum.


Yang Rongguo

Yang Rongguo (, 1907–1978) was a Chinese academic and philosopher who was involved in the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign of the Cultural Revolution.
Yang initially began his study of Confucius with a publication in 1947 which was revised and published again in 1973. During the Cultural Revolution he was a professor at Zhongshan University. He published an article on July 7, 1973 in "People's Daily" entitled "Confucius-A Thinker Who Stubbornly Upheld the Slave System." This article, coupled with his republication of work, brought him into significance. He began publicly connecting Lin Biao, the fallen Chinese leader now condemned as a rightist, with Confucius, who had long been campaigned against. Yang connected not only Lin, but also generalized Liu Shaoqi and other ousted leaders as Confucian followers. Confucius was a more significant target than before, however, and was a stand-in for Premier Zhou Enlai, who was not criticized by name. Among Yang Rongguo's points was that Confucius had suppressed societal changes in his era, and that Zhou Enlai had been doing similar things by working towards the rehabilitation of ousted CCP leaders in 1972, including Deng Xiaoping.