Heinz Gronau

Heinz Gronau (1 January 1912 - 28 October 1977) was a communist resistance activist during the Hitler years. He was transferred to Buchenwald concentration camp in 1938. At the concentration camp he became a leading figure in the (covert and illegal) . He survived the war and in 1946 joined the (semi-militarised) police service in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. A succession of promotions followed. In 1966 he was promoted to the rank of Major general in the East German Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment. During the final years of his career he combined his overtly military posting with command of at the Ministry for State Security ("""Stasi!"). The department was a specialist intelligence section of the ministry, tasked with attending to the intelligence needs of the ministry's armed units.
Life.
Provenance and early years.
Heinz Gronau was born in Leipzig, where his father worked as a printer. He grew up and attended school locally, in nearby Treuen, and then, between 1926 and 1930, trained for work as a dental technician. By 1931 he was performing a leadership role with the local Young Communists. As he completed his apprenticeship European economies were undergoing the full backwash from the Wall Street Crash, and Gronau spent the next three years unemployed. Meanwhile, in 1930 he joined the Communist Party. Till 1933 he served as a member of the regional leadership team for Saxony ("Bezirksleitung Sachsen") with the Young Communists. Both before and after 1933 Gronau took part in the struggle against National Socialist populism In 1933 he was arrested and briefly detained in what at least one source refers to as "protective custody" four times. Meanwhile, between 1933 and 1935, as the , he was able to support himself through casual work between 1933 and 1935. Gronau was arrested again in 1935: this time there was no quick release. Instead he faced trial. Charged with high treason, he was sentenced to a thirty-month jail term following conviction.
Buchenwald.
He completed his sentence at a prison in Zwickau in 1938, but instead of being released, he was now detained at the recently opened Buchenwald concentration camp near Weimar. Initially he was sent to work at the camp's "Electricians' Workshop". Later he was sent to join the "Electro-plating" section. Here he took part in covert resistance activities and worked in the "military section" of the , a shadowy conspiratorial grouping of inmates with communist pasts, a significant number of whom would turn up after 1949 in positions of power and influence in the Soviet sponsored German Democratic Republic (East Germany). Over the years the IMO acquired a considerable stockpile of weapons for future use. They also had access to significant supplies of effective poison, much of it in the form of gases acquired by Gronau in the electro-plating workshops where he worked. Gronau was involved in constructing and installing secret radio transmitters and receivers. He was also among those who manufactured stabbing and cutting weapons for possible future use while in the camp.
Leipzig.
The weapons store that the inmates had collected found a use on 11 April 1945 when Gronau participated in a "self-release" operation with other Buchenwald camp inmates. By this time, from the perspective of any guards who had not fled in response to the report of atrocities committed by the Red army advancing rapidly from the east, the camp was being evacuated by the German government, and there are reports of many thousand inmates being forced to join the evacuation marches, but Gronau appears not to have been among these. War ended, formally, during the first week of May 1945. Heinz Gronau made his way home to Leipzig, which had been liberated from National Socialism by US forces during April 1945. However, the leaders of the United States and Soviet Union had already agreed between them a post-war division of Germany whereby the whole of Saxony would be administered by the Soviet Union. In July 1945 US forces therefore withdrew from Leipzig and the surrounding region, leaving the city to which Gronau had returned administered as part of the Soviet occupation zone. During 1945/46 he was placed in charge of the city's social and youth welfare office.
Police service.
It was only in 1946 - at least formally - that Gronau joined the quasi-military police service of the Soviet occupation zone (rebranded and relaunched in October 1949 as the German Democratic Republic / East Germany), taking charge of the local police stations at Rochlitz and Großenhain, small towns and regional administrative centres both located between Leipzig and Dresden. Promotion followed quickly. During or before 1948 he became the Dresden-based deputy head of the police authority for Saxony. It was also in 1948 that he undertook a course at the "Höhere Polizeischule" ("Higher Police Academy") in Berlin. Confirmation that those in charge had marked him out for fast track promotion (and of the quasi-military nature of the police service in the Soviet occupation zone) came at the end of the year: during 1948/49 Heinz Gronau took part in a special course in tank warfare at the specialist at Ryazan, a short distance to the southeast of Moscow.
Police-Stasi interface.
In November 1950, promoted to the rank of "Inspector", Gronau was appointed to take charge of "Hauptabteilung I" The department was responsible for "defence and people's police preparedness/liaison", with the newly launched Ministry for State Security ("Stasi"). At the start of 1953 he was promoted, in respect of his police service position, to the rank of chief inspector: he continued to exercise the same set of responsibilities in respect of the burgeoning Ministry for State Security till 28 February 1953. In 1953 Gronau was raised to the rank of colonel and given command of the Blumberg Border Police unit. Further promotions within the border force followed. In 1957/58 he was appointed head of the border service department, and then deputy chief of staff to the , under the leadership of .
Between 1958 and 1962 Heinz Gronau attended the KGB Academy in Moscow, studying for a degree at the "Grenztruppen-Fakultät" ("Border Force Faculty"), and emerging with a "Diplom-Militärwissenschaftler" ("loosely, "Military sciences"") degree. In 1962 Gronau took over from as commander of the MfS (better remembered by the soubriquet it was granted in 1967, as the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment), remaining in the post for a decade. It was a decade dur8ng which, in 1966, he received his final military promotion, this time to the rank of "Generalmajor" ("Major general").
Later years.
Generalmajor retired in 1972, which was the year of his sixtieth birthday. He died on 28 October 1977. In a warm public tribute, the party central committee described him a "a passionate patriot and internationalist [and] a true friend of the Soviet Union"..Unsere Partei trauert um einen Genossen, der unermüdlich seine ganze Kraft, seine revolutionären Erfahrungen und Fähigkeiten für den Aufbau und den Schutz des Sozialismus einsetzte. Er war ein glühender Patriot und Internationalist, ein treuer Freund der Sowjetunion ...
Personal.
Sources on the private lives of leading East German political and military figures are generally screamingly silent about spouses and children. It may be because she lived to a good age, and was significantly younger than her husband, that Margit Gronau is a partial exception. Her burial records are unexpectedly informative. Dr. Margit Gronau was born in 1921 and died, more than a quarter century after reunification, in 2017. She had a university-level education, receiving a doctorate in 1968 from the in Berlin. The name "Margit" suggests that (unless she was born abroad) Margit Gronau's family probably came originally from northern Germany.
Recognition (selection).
In 1986 the 23rd "Polytechnic Secondary School" (today known as the "Gutenberg Secondary School") at Berlin-Hohenschönhausen was renamed as the "Heinz-Gronau-Oberschule".
In 1987, at a ceremony attended by Dr. Margit Gronau as well as , the 23rd "Polytechnic Secondary School" in central Leipzig, was also renamed to honour Heinz Gronau.


Court of Exchequer (Ireland)

The Court of Exchequer (Ireland) was one of the senior courts of common law in Ireland. It was the mirror image of the equivalent court in England. The Court of Exchequer was one of the four royal courts of justice which gave their name to the building in which they were located, which is still called the Four Courts, in Dublin.
History.
According to Elrington Ball the Irish Court of Exchequer was established before 1300, and by 1310 it was staffed by the Chief Baron of the Irish Exchequer and at least one associate Baron of the Exchequer. The early Barons were not required to be qualified lawyers, and in 1400 complaints were made about their lack of legal expertise. In 1442 it was suggested that the administration of the Irish Government would be improved if the Chief Baron was a properly trained lawyer. This criticism was principally aimed at Michael Gryffin, the incumbent Chief Baron, who apparently had no legal qualifications.
Later in the fourteenth century the Court moved briefly to Carlow, which was then closer to the centre of the Pale (that part of Ireland which was under secure English rule) than was Dublin, but local disturbances in Carlow soon brought it back to Dublin.
Although the workload of the Court of Exchequer in the early centuries was less heavy than that of the Court of King's Bench (Ireland), it became notorious for slowness and inefficiency; an eighteenth-century Baron, John St Leger, spoke of the Court being in a state of "confusion and disorganisation almost past remedy". Due to its inefficiency, it lost a good deal of business to the other courts, especially to the Court of Chancery, in the course of the eighteenth century. The death of Thomas Dalton, the Chief Baron, in 1730 was believed by his friends to have been hastened by his heavy workload.
The Court of Exchequer's reputation was further damaged by its judgment in "Sherlock v. Annesley." In itself a routine property dispute between two cousins, the lawsuit revived the long-standing quarrel between the English House of Lords and the Irish House of Lords as to which House was the final court of appeal from the Irish courts. The decision of the Barons of the Exchequer that they were obliged to implement the decree of the English House infuriated the Irish House, which imprisoned the Barons for contempt. To resolve the matter the British Government passed the Declaratory Act 1719, removing the power of the Irish House of Lords to hear appeals. This Act became notorious in Ireland as the Sixth of George I, and quite unfairly the judges of Court of Exchequer bore the brunt of the blame for it: as one of the Barons, John Pocklington, remarked "a flame burst forth, and the country's last resentment was visited upon us."
By the mid nineteenth century the Exchequer had overtaken the Court of King's Bench as the busiest common law court, and the death of Chief Baron Woulfe, in 1840, was widely blamed on his crushing workload (indeed Woulfe, who suffered from chronic ill health, had been warned that the job would kill him, and had been most reluctant to accept it).
Abolition.
On the passing of the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (Ireland) 1877, the Court of Exchequer was merged with the other Courts of common law and the Court of Chancery (Ireland), and became a division of the High Court of Justice in Ireland. In a further reorganisation of the Court system in 1897 the Exchequer Division was abolished. The last Chief Baron, Christopher Palles, retained his rank until he retired in 1916, by which time his reputation for judicial eminence was so high that, despite his advanced age (he was eighty-four) and increasing physical frailty, the Government only accepted his resignation with great reluctance.


Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act

The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966 was enacted by the United States Congress to guarantee that federal grants were being spent on set projects in urban redevelopment. It was enacted as a broad urban planning program meant to revitalize cities and improve the welfare of people living in underdeveloped neighborhoods. The act provided aid to cities rebuilding blighted areas, while also offering measures that dealt with mass transit, beautification, conservation, water and air quality, public safety, and support for the arts and humanities.
History.
During the 1960s, President Lyndon B. Johnson initiated the expansion of federal grant programs for construction projects. In an effort to increase the need to coordinate these projects, the act helped coordinate projects for urban renewal, highways, transit, and other construction projects. These projects focused on the support of cities and metropolitan development. Therefore, Johnson remarked that the legislation 'recognizes that our cities are made of people, not just bricks and mortar."
During this time, Urban renewal gained both support and criticism. Individuals like Democrat Richard C. Lee, mayor of New Haven, Connecticut, and Democratic Congressman Robert Giaimo supported the continuation of anti-poverty programs with federal assistance. Critics of the bill feared the act would be too costly, and some argued against the “desegregation implicit in the ghetto busting bill.”
In June 1966, the House Committee on Banking and Currency Subcommittee on Housing held four weeks of hearings on housing and urban development legislation. Several bills were merged within the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1966, which was reported to the full committee on June 28, 1966. The House and Senate held a conference on October 17 and 18, 1966, and the conference report was approved by the Senate on October 18 and by the House on October 20. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966 into law on November 3, 1966.
Section 204.
It asserted the federal interest in improving the coordination of public facility construction projects "to obtain maximum effectiveness of federal spending and to relate such projects to areawide development plans." It further required that all applications for the planning and construction of facilities be submitted to an areawide planning agency for review. The agency was required to be composed of local elected officials. The objective was to encourage the coordination of planning and construction of physical facilities in urban areas.
Impact.
The act provided grants that would pay up to eighty percent of the cost of developing city demonstration programs and technical assistance from the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In response to these new requirements, many urban areas started new planning agencies or commissions to include elected officials on their policy boards. By the end of 1969, only seven metropolitan areas lacked an areawide review agency.
This Act allows the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development to provide financial and technical assistance to enable cities to plan and carry out programs designed to improve the quality of urban life in the United States. Projects included within this act that qualify for assistance include comprehensive plans to rebuild or revitalize disadvantaged areas. The United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is expected to emphasize the initiative of local civilians in the planning, development, and implementation of the demonstration programs.


Statutes of Nieszawa

The Nieszawa Statutes () were a set of laws enacted in the Kingdom of Poland in 1454, in the town of Nieszawa located in north-central Poland. The King Casimir IV Jagiellon made a number of concessions to the Polish nobility and the gentry (szlachta) in exchange for their support in the Thirteen Years' War. Among other things, the Statutes required the King to seek the lords' approval when issuing new laws, when levying the mobilisation of armed forces (pospolite ruszenie), or when imposing new taxes. The Statutes strengthened the position of some of the nobility at the expense of less agreeable estates.
With the Statute of Nieszawa, King Casimir (1427–1492) – who was a brother of Władysław III of Poland (1424–1444), the new King of Hungary – also managed to take further advantage of the political split between the richest and most influential Polish families, and the much broader class of "szlachta". The statute substantially limited the power of the former in exchange for the new privileges bestowed upon the latter. From then on, "szlachta" consent was required in the passing of new laws, as well as, for the declaration of war. Equally important, was the significant reduction in the autonomy of the Church controlled by Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki (one of the most powerful magnates). It allowed the king to appoint Catholic bishops himself.


Rodrigo Gularte

Rodrigo Muxfeldt Gularte (13 July 1972 – 29 April 2015) was a Brazilian citizen who was executed in Indonesia by firing squad for drug trafficking.
Gularte was diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. According to news reports, he did not realise he was going to die until minutes before his execution.
Early life.
Rodrigo Gularte was born into a wealthy family in the southern Brazilian city of Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná. He was a keen surfer and relatives remember him as a tall, gentle, polite and kind young boy who slipped into depression, and became involved in drugs after his parents divorced when he was 13.
His first treatment for drug addiction was at 16, when relatives say they had noticed signs of bipolarity. Other treatments would ensue, without success, and Gularte developed depression coupled with the use of drugs. His mother Clarisse tried to help him with work. Gularte gained, for example, a restaurant to administer, paid by his mother. He also had a son with autism, born when he was 21, Jimmy Gularte, with whom he had little contact. But his contact with drugs of all kinds, continued. During his 20s he travelled through Latin America with friends, drinking and taking various kinds of drugs.
Sponsored by his mother, Rodrigo traveled through Latin America to the United States, Africa and Europe - consuming all kinds of drugs. "I thought these trips would do him well, he would wind down, get rid of bad influences," says his mother Clarisse. The result was the opposite. Increasing his addiction, Rodrigo returned in 1994 to Curitiba. At 24, without work or study, nocturnal, Rodrigo was involved in a serious traffic accident after leaving a party, drunk and drugged. To avoid his arrest, Mrs. Clarisse admitted her son to rehab. After six months of detoxification, in 1996, Rodrigo tried to change his life. He became an entrepreneur, but two restaurants of his failed. In 1999, he passed the entrance exam to liberal arts at the Federal University of Santa Catarina. In the middle of the course, he dropped out. He then returned to travelling through Europe and Latin America bringing in various types of cannabis. In 2004, the opportunity arose to take the surfboards stuffed with cocaine to Indonesia.
Arrest.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Bali was an international destination for young travellers attracted by a hippie vibe, surf culture and electronic dance music parties where cocaine and ecstasy were available at clubs, as was marijuana, supplied by Italian and Brazilian drug traffickers who often used young surfers as mules. Gularte lived in Florianópolis since 1999 when he was arrested in August 2004 with 6 kg of cocaine hidden in surfboards. The arrest, along with two other men who lived in the capital, took place at Jakarta airport in Indonesia. The trio was caught with eight boards stuffed with six kilos of cocaine, but Rodrigo took over sole responsibility for the transportation of narcotics.
Conviction and imprisonment.
He was sentenced to death on 7 February 2005 by Indonesian government. During his early period in prison, Gularte shared a cell with fellow Brazilian convicted Marco Archer Moreira.
After his conviction, Gularte tried to commit suicide in prison in 2006. His mental health was worsening
and a diagnosis of paranoid schizophrenia with delusions and hallucinations was detected. There was a recommendation that he should be transferred to a psychiatric hospital. However Indonesian authorities did not allow his transfer since the experts were hired by the defense. The Gularte family tried, without success, to obtain clemency for him by saying doctors have diagnosed him as paranoid schizophrenic, which would normally allow him to be transferred to a psychiatric facility. The Brazilian government called for him to be spared the death penalty for humanitarian reasons.
Execution.
Gularte was executed in Indonesia on 29 April 2015 at Nusa Kambangan, Central Java, Indonesia. He had been sentenced to death for drug trafficking, and the sentence was executed by a firing squad. According to his lawyer, Gularte did not know he would be shot. Roman Catholic priest Charlie Burrows was with Gularte minutes before the execution, at the request of the family and the condemned. Before his death Gularte received spiritual comfort and last rites of the Roman Catholic Church.
Gularte's body was taken to the Saint Carolus Hospital, in Jakarta. Gularte's photo, and a cross with his name and the date of his birth and his death were beside the coffin. His body was transported to Brazil, where he was buried at the request of Gularte.
A day after Gularte's death, a Catholic Mass was celebrated in honour of him.
Rodrigo Gularte's body was concealed and buried in Curitiba, Paraná, on 3 May 2015, after a Mass celebrated in honour of him.
Reactions.
According to the Brazilian government, Gularte's death is a "serious event" in relations between Brazil and Indonesia. The note says that Brazil will work in international human rights bodies for the abolition of the death penalty.
A government's statement against death penalty applied by Indonesia was read by the Secretary General of Foreign Affairs, Sérgio Danese, during an interview given at Itamaraty.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon expressed "deep regret" for the execution of eight convicted of drug trafficking in Indonesia, including Rodrigo Gularte. Ki-moon expressed deep regret at the executions carried out in Indonesia, despite numerous requests in the country and internationally to interrupt it.


Olga Kudeshkina

Olga Borisovna Kudeshkina (; born 1951) is a Russian former judge of the first qualification class of the Moscow City Court, Candidate of Legal Sciences. She was deprived of the status of a judge after she made public allegations of political interference in the justice system of Russia.
Biography.
Olga Kudeshkina was born in 1951. In 1976 she graduated from the Law Faculty of Kemerovo State University, Soviet Union (USSR). The topic of her dissertation was "Systematization of domestic legislation" (). She worked as a people's judge of the city of Kemerovo, and then as a judge of the regional Kemerovo court. From November 6, 2000 to May 2004, she worked as a judge of the Moscow City Court.
Deprivation of the status of a judge.
In May 2003, Kudeshkina began to re-examine the criminal case against the senior special investigator of the Investigative Committee of Russia Pavel Zaytsev, who was involved in the Three Whales Corruption Scandal. During the trial in the Zaytsev case, the chairman of the Moscow City Court, , summoned Kudeshkina several times to her office with the requirement to report on the details on the judicial proceedings. Yegorova advised to Kudeshkina to "follow the desires of the prosecutor", but Kudeshkina refused.
On July 23, 2003, Yegorova withdrew the case from Kudeshkina's proceedings.
In October 2003, Kudeshkina put forward her candidacy in the elections to the State Duma of Russia. On December 1, she gave an interview to the Echo of Moscow radio station about the actions of Olga Yegorova and the pressure on the judge. Kudeshkina also gave an interview to the newspapers "Izvestia" and "Novaya Gazeta".
In May 2004, the qualification board of Moscow on the complaint of Yegorova made a decision to deprive Kudeshkina of the status of a judge.
Kudeshkina v. Russia.
Kudeshkina filed a complaint with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). On February 26, 2009, the ECHR recognized that the Russian Federation had violated Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, that provides the right to freedom of expression, and ruled that Kudeshkina demonstrated facts of influence on her by the Moscow City Court and by the prosecutors. The ECHR also awarded her compensation in the amount of 10,000 euros.
Despite the decision of the ECHR, the Moscow City Court on December 18, 2009 refused to review the decisions on Kudeshkina's complaint against the decision to deprive her of the status of a judge, and on March 10, 2010, the Supreme Court of Russia upheld this decision.
Personal life.
Kudeshkina is married to a former employee of the KGB of the USSR.


Jay C. Smith

Jay C. Smith (June 5, 1928 – May 12, 2009) was a high school principal in Pennsylvania who was convicted and sentenced to death in 1986 for the 1979 murder of Susan Reinert and her two children, Karen and Michael. He spent six years on Pennsylvania's death row until his conviction was overturned by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court due to prosecutorial misconduct.
Smith's daughter Stephanie Hunsberger, and her husband were reported missing in 1978 and never have been found.
Smith was principal of Upper Merion Area High School in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania. Reinert and her colleague, William Bradfield, were teachers at the same school, where Reinert taught English. In 1983, Bradfield was convicted of conspiracy to commit the same murders; he was the sole beneficiary of Reinert's life insurance. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and died in 1998.
Smith died on May 12, 2009 of a heart condition.


Mikhail Makarov

Mikhail Olegovich Makarov (March 12, 1962–1988), also known as The Executioner, was a Soviet serial killer, who from February to May 1986 committed three murders and one attempted murder in Leningrad. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1988.
Biography.
Mikhail Makarov was born on March 12, 1962 in Leningrad to a working-class family. He graduated from 8th grade of secondary school, after which he entered a vocational school and became a member of the Komsomol. After serving in the military after college, he returned to Leningrad and got a job as a travelling fitter at Lengidroenergospetsstroy. Makarov soon married, but his family life was unsuccessful. He lived with his wife's relatives, who constantly reproached him for his inability to get a single apartment from the management of the company he worked at, calling him a "parasite" and a "loser"..
In his spare time, the future killer was fond of reading detective literature and watching movies on the topic. According to him, he "wanted to experience the same feeling as criminals, murderers and rapists." Makarov often fantasized about how he would kill his wife's parents, but he realized that in this case he would become the first suspect and did not risk putting his fantasies to life. Makarov explained his intention to start a criminal life with a desire to "get money to buy a cooperative apartment".
Crimes.
In February 1986, Makarov attacked a 10-year-old schoolboy. The offender entered the apartment under the pretext of writing a note to the neighbors, struck the child many times with a screwdriver in the chest and head, and then, having searched the apartment, took all the money and seemingly valuable items. The boy pretended to be dead in order to save his life, but because of his injuries, he remained disabled forever. Before leaving, Makarov put out a cigarette on the victim's body, but the boy, in spite of the severe pain, did not even stir, as a result of which Makarov thought he was dead and quietly left the crime scene.
The first murder he committed was on April 7, 1986, killing an 11-year-old named Dasha. He raped her and struck her at least 30 times with a sharpened screwdriver, after which he robbed the apartment, stealing money, jewelry and various valuable and low-value things, including children's toys.
The next murder was that of a pensioner – a WWII veteran who served during the Siege of Leningrad. She went to the garbage disposal while Makarov was in the stairwell, searching for another apartment to burgle. The woman, having seen the unfamiliar man, reproached him - "everyone goes here". Because of this, the insulted Makarov dragged her into an apartment and struck the woman 51 times with a screwdriver, but did not rob the place, since, according to him, "there was nothing to profit from".
Just a few weeks later, Makarov killed a 5-year-old girl named Masha. This time, wanting to lead the investigators astray, he decided to pretend that he the killer was an insane man. In order to do so, he trashed the apartment and smeared shilajit on the walls. In addition to money, jewelry and low-value items, the book "A Thousand and One Nights" from the publishing house "Irfon" in Dushanbe was stolen from the apartment. However, Makarov made a major mistake. Usually tracking down children on the street, this time he began walking around the apartments in search of a suitable victim. He broke into an apartment under the guise of being an employee of a children's library, but he saw the boy's mother open the door for him and immediately fled. The woman managed to remember the suspicious man well, and soon the police already had a facial composite of the suspect.
Arrest, trial and execution.
Makarov decided to take the stolen book to a second-hand bookstore that advertised in a newspaper that they were buying rare editions of books. The seller noticed blood on one of the pages, and after Makarov left, the man called police. Using the shop's documents, the authorities identified the person who had brought the book. On the same day, he was detained near his apartment while returning from the grocery store. After his capture, he immediately confessed to his crimes – three murders and one attempted murder.
He also showed a basement on the outskirts of Leningrad, in which police officers found a cache with part of the loot. The other part, in his own words, Makarov had sold to passers-by or friends. Some of the things stolen at the crime scene were presented to his wife's parents, after which they lagged behind him for some time with reproaches.
On November 27, 1987, Makarov was sentenced to death by firing squad. He soon wrote a petition for a pardon, in which he asked to be sent to Afghanistan in order to "atone for the blood". The petition was rejected, and in 1988 he was executed.


Public Debt Acts

In the United States, Public Debt Acts are Acts of Congress which set the debt ceiling on the National debt of the United States.
United States.
The United States Public Debt Act of 1939 eliminated separate limits on different types of debt.
The Public Debt Act of 1941 raised the aggregate debt limit on all obligations to $65 billion, and consolidated nearly all federal borrowing under the U.S. Treasury and eliminated the tax-exemption of interest and profit on government debt.
Subsequent Public Debt Acts amended the aggregate debt limit: the 1942, 1943, 1944, and 1945 acts raised the limit to $125 billion, $210 billion, $260 billion, and $300 billion respectively.
In 1946, the Public Debt Act was amended to reduce the debt limit to $275 billion. The limit stayed unchanged until 1954, the Korean War being financed through taxation.


Alexander Danieliuk-Stefanski

Alexander Danieliuk-Stefanski (also Stefański or Ștefanski; 30 November 1897, Warsaw – 21 August 1937, Moscow) was a Polish communist politician, active in Poland and in the Soviet Union. From 1931 to 1936, he oversaw the activities of Romanian communists in exile to the Soviet Union, and served as General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party (PCdR). During the period, he was seconded by Elena Filipescu, who was also his lover.
Names.
Likely born as "Aleksander Danieliuk", the activist changed his name to "Stefański", a variant which he used during the time he was active in the Second Polish Republic. Occasionally referred to as "Ștefanski" by Romanian-language sources, he also used pseudonyms "Gorn" (or "Horn"), "Edmund", "Olek" and "Grigorescu". In Romanian historiography, he also known as "Alexander Ștefanski-Gorn" or "Alexandru Ștefanski".
Biography.
Of probable Ukrainian ethnicity, Danieliuk-Stefanski was a member of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party since 1915, taking part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and becoming affiliated with the Bolshevik faction. A member of the Communist Party of Poland (KPP) in 1919 and a citizen of Poland, he was one of the Polish party's leading members during the late 1920s, representing it to the Comintern's Executive Committee fifth session. Becoming known as a supporter of Adolf Warski, who was being disgraced by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, Danieliuk-Stefanski was stripped of his offices within the KPP and sent to work for the Comintern. Before 1931, he was present in Warsaw.
Around the time of the Romanian Communist Party's Fifth Congress in 1931, Béla Kun, who was at the time a leading Comintern figure directed the party to replace its entire leadership, including the general secretary Vitali Holostenco—appointing Stefanski, who was at the time still a member of the KPP, to head the Romanian party as the general secretary. The reshuffling of the PCdR's leadership structure also signified a boost in the political careers of, among others, Filipescu, Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Bela Breiner, Gheorghe Stoica, Nicolae Goldberger, and Vanda Nicolski, all of whom were nominated to the Central Committee.
This was an attempt to resolve factional disputes as well as assert Stalin's control over the local party. The core group of activists welcomed Stefanski's appointment as a positive step in the PCdR's history. Historian Vladimir Tismăneanu believes this acceptance of Stalinism on the part of the Romanian group marks a clear break with the legacy of the Socialist Party of Romania, from which the PCdR had emerged during the 1920s. Because of the party's illegality forced the leadership underground, Stefanski and his politburo actually directed the PCdR from exile in Berlin. However, the Fifth Congress also brought important changes in Romania, where an internal faction came to emerge under the supervision of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, future leader of Communist Romania.
The PCdR's representative to the thirteenth Executive Comintern Committee session, Stefanski barely spoke Romanian but, assisted by his lover Filipescu, played an important role in developing the "popular front" platform that allowed the PCdR to help instigate the Grivița Strike of 1933. At the time, under the pseudonym "Maria Ciobanu", Filipescu was the Deputy General Secretary.
Stefanski was deposed by Stalin and the Comintern in 1936, after a new move to ensure the PCdR's adherence to their policies, being succeeded by Boris Stefanov. He was executed in the Soviet Union, a victim of the Great Purge. Several of his close Romanian allies were also killed during those years, with notable exceptions such as Pătrăşcanu and Vanda Nicolski. The former rose to preeminence in Romania after 1944, while the latter became a collaborator of PCdR activist Ana Pauker during World War II.
Alexander Stefanski was rehabilitated in the People's Republic of Poland in 1955.


Rufe Persful

Rufe Persful (May 25, 1906 Salina, Kansas – May 16, 1991 Santa Barbara, California) was an American criminal, convicted for murder, kidnapping and robbery. He was considered one of the most dangerous criminals of his era by the authorities. Convicted of the murder and robbery of an elderly man at the age of 18, he was sentenced to 15 years in Arkansas State Penitentiary, but unlike a standard prison, it involved farm labour. He was given the task of shooting fellow inmates with a shotgun if they attempted to escape. He killed and disabled many prisoners during his time at the Arkansas Penitentiary, punctuated by periods of parole as a reward for his prison protection, and then re-offending and being sent back to resume his role. In December 1934, Persful was convicted for kidnapping and robbery in Paragould, Arkansas and sentenced to 20 years, after which he was transferred to United States Penitentiary, Atlanta. Two inmates recognized him from Arkansas and word spread of his killing of fellow inmates and he began being severely abused. He was transferred to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary a year later but was recognized and continued to be tortured by his fellow inmates because of his past offenses. In 1937, it was Persful who attempted to cut off his hands in sheer desperation of his experiences at Alcatraz and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He was eventually sent to McNeil Island Penitentiary where he was again recognized and suffered much abuse from his fellow inmates, despite being heavily watched over by the prison staff. He was released in April 1948 and moved in with a relative in Gary, Indiana, never to be convicted of a crime again.
Biography.
At the age of 18, he was convicted with the murder and robbery of an elderly man, and was sentenced to 15 years in one of the Arkansas Department of Correction's prisons, farm labor rather than prison; at Tucker Prison Farm, he was given the duty of "high power", shooting fellow inmates in the belly button if they attempted to flee from the fields. After shooting a prisoner who tried to escape, his sentence was reduced to 9 years but he was almost immediately released on parole. About 18 months later, he was indicted for shooting a woman in the back with a shotgun but was never tried for attempted murder. Back at the prison farm, he resumed his position and shot another prisoner attempting to escape and was paroled again as a reward. After several months, he committed an armed robbery and was sentenced to 5 years in the penitentiary, but again resumed his "high power" position, during which he killed one and permanently crippled three others who attempted to flee. A circuit judge refused him parole but after he killed four prisoners attempting to escape in October 1933, he was released on parole for a fourth time 8 months later.
In December 1934, Persful was convicted for the kidnapping of a nightwatchman in Paragould, Arkansas and robbing the Schug Brothers of some $1000 with his companion Riley Gunn before being caught in Osceola, Missouri. He was sent to United States Penitentiary, Atlanta to serve twenty years. Despite Atlanta's reputation as a prison where inmates stuck together, two convicts knew Persful from the Arkansas penitentiary and word spread of his killing and maiming of fellow prisoners and of his shooting a woman in the back, and he began being severely beaten and bullied by his fellow inmates. The Atlanta prison officials eventually learned of the frequent abuse and violence facing Persful, and in December 1935 sent him to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary. However, he continued to be unpopular with the inmates, many of whom had transferred to Alcatraz from Atlanta and knew of his history.
Once he was shifted to the Alcatraz prison, his heinous crime in Tucker, Arkansas of murdering a female prisoner who was pregnant, to camouflage rape, was also exposed. Once his misdeed was exposed by the prison doctor, the issue became a widely publicized national scandal involving murders of inmates by other inmates and this brought Homer Stille Cummings, the US Attorney General and J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director to Alcatraz twice to verify the issue and cross check with Carl Janaway who was also his inmate at Tucker and had been attacked by Rufe Persful.
He was involved in a brutal fight with Francis Keating, a former inmate of Atlanta who called him a "shotgun son of a bitch" and Persful was sent to solitary confinement in D-Block. Persful became one of the most guarded inmates of Alcatraz due to his reputation and was carefully watched during dining to ensure he was not assaulted by his fellow inmates. Nonetheless, Persful continued to be heavily abused and in fear of his life, in September 1936 he sent a letter to James A. Johnston, the prison warden, informing him of what was common knowledge in the prison of his past exploits and why the fellow inmates resented him, asking for a transfer to McNeil Island. His request was rejected.
Rufe's paranoia, while in Alcatraz, was also due to the strict silence enforced there by Warden Johnston; the silence rule was resented by many other inmates also. As a result, some nine months later (after his request for transfer to McNeil Island was rejected) during the course of duties when he was working in the garage area to sweep and clean trash he took out an axe from a fire truck parked in the building and cut off four fingers of the left hand to seek attention and get transferred to the medical center in Springfield, Missouri on grounds of insanity. The guard and another inmate took away the hatchet from Rufes and put a tourniquet on his wrist to stop the bleeding. He was said to have grinned maniacally as he sliced his four fingers off. Persful was taken to the prison hospital, where he had to be forcibly restrained as the staff treated him, as he had a desire to cut off his other hand and his feet. However the sequence of this incident is disputed as it is also mentioned that Persful's fingers were cut off due to his hand getting jammed while closing the workshop door.
In the 1979, Don Siegel-Clint Eastwood film "Escape from Alcatraz", Persful's hand mutilation was enacted in the movie. This scene is disputed due to the fact that the lead up to the June 1962 escape from Alcatraz actually took place nearly 25 years later, and neither Frank Morris or Clarence and John Anglin were imprisoned at Alcatraz when the Persful incident occurred. Following this incident a policy change (one of the very few made during the history of the prison) in the prison rules of Alcatraz regarding silence was made for the good. As the incident received publicity in the news media, James V. Bennett, the then Director of the Bureau of Prisons, clarified that the incident was of mental derangement of Rufes.
In the months following the mutilation incident, Persful's mental health continued to decline; he would frequently complain of there being an alligator living in his cell and he attempted to make nooses out of bed linen and towels to hang himself. He was assessed by the prison psychiatrist to be suffering from "Dementia praecox", hebephrenic type and in January 1938 he was sent to Springfield Medical Centre via Fort Leavenworth. He was also called the most "wanton killer" as his killings covered six men, his wife and child and probably many more. It is also conjectured that he killed three men purposely as they were black prisoners.
He was transferred then to McNeil where he was heavily booed in the dining hall just days after arriving as the word quickly got out of his history amongst inmates. He was closely monitored by guards at McNeil Island, and his job was to clean the cells after the inmates had departed on their own tasks to avoid confrontation with them. In November 1941, the warden of McNeil requested a transfer back to Alcatraz in confinement in D-Block, but it was declined due to him likely becoming insane again. Several months later attempts were made to place him in a group cell at McNeil but his cell mates warned staff that they would murder him, so he was sent back to his single cell. Persful was beaten 18 months later when a fellow prisoner was given access to his cell during his cleaning duties, after which Persful requested permanent locking inside his cell for the rest of the duration of his sentence. The warden declined his request and he was beaten a further two times when security relapsed before being released from prison in April 1948.
After release from prison, Persful moved in with a relative in Gary, Indiana, and was never convicted of a crime for the rest of his life. He died in 1991.


Prada gender discrimination case

The Prada female discrimination case was the first luxury fashion lawsuit on women's rights appeared in the global media. The case was filed in Japan by Prada ex-employee Rina Bovrisse accusing Prada of sexual harassment and female discrimination in the workplace. Prada denied all charges and countersued Bovrisse for defamation. As the female judge who dismissed Bovrisse's case, Reiko Morioka, said in 2012: discrimination is “acceptable for a luxury fashion label and that a well-compensated female employee should be able to withstand a certain level of harassment.” Prada counter-sued for alleged defamation. Bovrisse, not satisfied with the ruling, took the issue to United Nations Economic and Social Council. The UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has called for Japan's State party to introduce new regulations that would make sexual harassment in the workplace illegal.
Background.
Rina Bovrisse graduated from Parsons The New School for Design and, during her 18-year fashion career, worked at some of the world's largest luxury fashion companies including Chanel SA and Prada USA. She worked at offices in New York, London, Hawaii and Paris. On the strength of her resume, Prada Japan hired Bovrisse, a Japanese national, in April 2009 as senior retail operations manager, responsible for overseeing 500 employees and 42 stores in Japan, Guam, and Saipan.
Prada Japan CEO Davide Sesia toured some of Japan's 40 shops alongside newly hired Bovrisse. After this tour, Sesia told Bovrisse that fifteen shop managers and assistant managers needed to “disappear” because they were ugly, fat, or did not have “the Prada look.” Soon after, Senior Human Resources Manager Hiroyuki Takahashi gave demotion-transfer orders to thirteen of these employees, officially citing their poor sales numbers. H.R. Manager said, “We don’t like her teeth or body shape.” Then sent a demotion or transfer to the most remote area, if refused, had to give in the resignation. Ladies over 30 years old were considered old. They were normally demoted to and transferred to some countryside outlet from top No. 1 salesperson as manager, to entry-level salesperson at an outlet. They used to call outlets “garbage bins for old ladies.
In 2009, a female employee was physically abused. She didn’t have hair due to stress and depression from work. She said, she had been harassed but she was not worth because she was 40 years old. Every time the boss was angry, he would call her into the office and yell at her for an hour and throw a mobile phone at her face.
On Sept. 29, 2009, the Prada Japan H.R. manager came to Bovrisse's office at 7 p.m. and said, “Can I talk to you for a second?” He said, “I’m giving you an H.R. warning. You will have to change your hairstyle. And you will have to lose weight. The CEO is so ashamed of your ugliness that he won’t introduce you to any visitors from Milan.” He laughed and said, “Well, I fired [Prada brand] Miu Miu’s manager because she didn’t have good teeth.” Bovrisse e-mailed Prada's Global COO in Milan for help. He told her to send him all the evidence and no one would get fired. A few days later after she submitted the evidences, she was called in the office by the Prada Japan CEO and fired for "Bringing negative energy to the company by voicing sexual harassment". Prada Japan's CEO and H.R. Manager sent her home, accused her of unexcused absence and firing was her imagination. Bovrisse got in touch with a lawyer, because she didn't know the law in Japan. Her lawyers recommended that she should go back to work and put a tape recorder on her leg under her skirt. She went back to work, but there was no computer on her desk. Prada H.R. Manager then, told her she was creating trouble by voicing these complaints [about] company policy, making up a story, bothering people's work and because of these troubles, she was getting demoted and transferred from senior executive to salesperson. Her lawyer received a pre-written resignation form that said, “As was discussed and agreed, please sign your resignation”. They went back to the recording, and there was no such conversation. H.R. Manager told her lawyer, “Oh yes, we did talk about resignation. She was the one who said that she feels really bad that she created all this trouble at work, so she wanted to resign” The lawyer told him that “the last conversation she had, she had recorded and printed it on paper, and there is no conversation of resignation.” Prada's H.R. person hung up the phone. After that, Prada cut her health benefit and pension plan, everything. Prada responded by purging her from the company, accusing her of mental illness and escalate it until she never came back. This resulted Bovrisse to file a labor complaint on December, 2009.
Litigation.
On December 10, 2009, Bovrisse filed a complaint against Prada before an industrial tribunal, alleging sexual harassment and discrimination against women, violating women's rights in the workplace. On March 12, 2010, the judge declared that the parties had failed to settle, which would permit formal litigation to commence.
On March 19, 2010, Bovrisse filed a civil suit against Prada alleging violations of women's rights – Labor complaint moved up to a civil case against Prada alleging violations of women's rights. Prada countersued for damaging the company's image. The case was dismissed on October 26, 2012. Bovrisse, citing concerns of threats by the judge and suspicion of political intrigue, did not appeal this decision. Instead, she took her case to the United Nations. On April 30, 2013, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights published a counter-report, and on May 17, 2013, the United Nations Economic and Social Council released a statement to the Government of Japan urging to introduce new regulations that would make sexual harassment in the workplace illegal.
On May 15, 2010, a former Prada manager filed a civil lawsuit against Prada alleging violations of women's rights.


Nicodemus National Historic Site

Nicodemus National Historic Site, located in Nicodemus, Kansas, United States, preserves, protects and interprets the only remaining western town established by African Americans during the Reconstruction Period following the American Civil War. The town of Nicodemus is symbolic of the pioneer spirit of African Americans who dared to leave the only region they had been familiar with to seek personal freedom and the opportunity to develop their talents and capabilities. The site was named, at least in part, for a legendary African-American slave featured in abolitionist Henry Clay Work's "Wake, Nicodemus (1864)." It is a mystical story of an old slave died away and buried in a hollow tree who had asked to be awakened on the Day of Jubilee.
Buildings.
The historic site contains five buildings:
History.
Nicodemus was founded in 1877, led by Rev. W.H. Smith, a black minister, and W.R. Hill, a white land developer, and five other black men who formed the Nicodemus Town Company and began visiting churches in Kentucky to encourage people to move to Kansas.
Kansas was a free state, part of the Underground Railroad and home to abolitionist John Brown. Handbills and flyers distributed by the company called Nicodemus a place for "African Americans to establish a black self-government."
By the mid-1880s Nicodemus was a small, bustling town. There were two newspapers, three general stores and at least three churches. The town had a number of small hotels, an ice cream parlor, bank, livery and a number of homes. The population was an estimated 700 at the town's heyday.
To ensure growth the town needed the railroad. The residents of Nicodemus made several attempts to reach out to various railroad companies in an attempt to attract a rail line to Nicodemus, but it was all to no avail. The railroad passed to the south. Over time people moved closer to the railway and established a new town called Bogue. Bogue has a population of 173 today.
Perhaps one of Nicodemus' most famous residents is Veryl Switzer. Switzer was an All-American football player for Kansas State in 1951, 1952 and 1953. He went on to play two seasons for the National Football League Green Bay Packers, before taking leave to serve in the U.S. Air Force. He resumed his professional career with the Packers after 2½ years in the military. He later went on to play for the Calgary Stampeders and the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League before retiring.
Switzer is now farming , in Nicodemus, and is one of the top investors in the creation of a flour mill there. A co-op was formed in 1999; and, while "Promised Land Flour" and "Nicodemus Pancake Mix" are being marketed, the flour mill has not yet been built.
The site is still home to several descendants of the original settlers. It was designated a National Historic Site by an Act of Congress in 1996.
Sources: The Kansas Guidebook by Marci Penner, Copy. 2005 and The Associated Press


Thomas Cusacke

Thomas Cusacke (died c.1496) was an Irish barrister and judge, who held the offices of Attorney General for Ireland and Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. He should not be confused with his much younger cousin Sir Thomas Cusack, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, who was a child of about six when the elder Thomas died.
Elrington Ball states that he belonged to a junior branch of the well-known landowning Cusack family of County Meath. He was thus a cousin of John Cusack of Cussington: John was the father of the Lord Chancellor, Sir Thomas Cusack, and ancestor, through his granddaughter Catherine Colley (née Catherine Cusack-Wellesley) of the Duke of Wellington.
Thomas is first heard of in London in 1472, when he was a law student: he went to London, in his own words: "so as to thoroughly ground himself in the King's law", and he was given a licence to import grain into Ireland. He was appointed Attorney General for Ireland in 1480.
Like nearly all the senior Irish judges in that era he was a client of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, who was almost all-powerful in Ireland for more than 30 years. Kildare and his faction made the mistake of supporting Lambert Simnel, a pretender to the English Crown, who was decisively defeated at the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487. The victorious King Henry VII was merciful to the Irish rebels (as indeed he was to Simnel himself, who became a servant in the Royal household). He issued a royal pardon for the great majority of the rebels, including Cusacke, who became Lord Chief Justice in 1490.
Henry's policy of clemency had its limits, and his strong suspicion that the Anglo-Irish nobility were aiding another pretender to the Throne, Perkin Warbeck, led to Kildare's temporary downfall in 1494. The new Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir Edward Poynings, undertook a general purge of the Irish judges, including Cusacke who was replaced by the eminent English lawyer Thomas Bowring.
From 1496 onwards Kildare regained much of his influence. Some of his former allies on the bench returned to office, but no more is heard of Cusacke, which suggests that he had died sometime between 1494 and 1496.


Maria Restituta Kafka

Maria Restituta Kafka (1 May 1894 – 30 March 1943) was an Austrian nurse of Czech descent and religious sister of the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity (Sorores Franciscanae a Caritate Christiana). Executed by the government in Nazi-run Austria, she was declared a martyr and beatified by the Catholic Church.
Life.
Early life.
She was born Helena Kafková in (, then part of Austria-Hungary, now part of Brno in the Czech Republic) on 1 May 1894, the sixth daughter of Anton Kafka, a shoemaker, and his wife, Maria Stehlík. When she was two years old, her family moved to the Brigittenau neighborhood of Vienna, the imperial capital, and home to a Czech migrant community, where she grew up. As a young girl, she worked first as a housemaid and then as a salesgirl in a tobacco shop. In 1913 she became a nurse at the municipal hospital in the Lainz neighborhood of the city.
While working as a nurse, Kafka met members of the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity () and entered their congregation the following year, at the age of 20. She was given the religious name of Maria Restituta, after a 4th-century Christian martyr. After her completion of the novitiate and her profession of simple vows in the congregation, she returned to work at the Lainz Hospital, where she remained until 1919. While working there, she promoted the practice of holistic medicine for the patients.
In 1919, after the First World War, Kafka was transferred to a hospital in the suburban town of Mödling, eventually becoming its leading surgical nurse.
Conflict and martyrdom.
The Mödling hospital was not spared the effects of the 1938 Anschluss, in which Germany annexed Austria. Kafka was very vocal in her opposition to the new regime, which had immediately begun to implement the Nuremberg Laws established by the Nazi Party in Germany upon its acquisition of power. "A Viennese cannot keep her mouth shut", she said. When a new hospital wing was constructed, Kafka kept to traditional Catholic practice and hung a crucifix in every room. The Nazi authorities demanded that the crosses be taken down, threatening her dismissal, but she refused. The crucifixes were not removed, nor was Kafka, since the Franciscan community said that they could not replace her.
Kafka continued in her vocal criticism of the Nazi government and several years later was denounced by a doctor who strongly supported the regime. On Ash Wednesday 1942 (18 February of that year), while coming out of the operating theater, Kafka was arrested by the Gestapo and accused, not only of hanging the crucifixes, but also of having dictated a poem mocking Hitler. On 29 October 1942 she was sentenced to death by the guillotine by the "Volksgerichtshof" for "favouring the enemy and conspiracy to commit high treason". The authorities offered to release her if she would leave the convent, but she refused.
When a request for clemency reached the desk of Martin Bormann, head of the Nazi Party Chancellery, he replied that her execution would provide "effective intimidation" for others who might want to resist the Nazis. Kafka spent the rest of her days in prison, where she was noted for caring for other prisoners. During this period, she wrote in a letter from the prison:
It does not matter how far we are separated from everything, no matter what is taken from us: the faith that we carry in our hearts is something no one can take from us. In this way we build an altar in our own hearts.
Kafka was sent to the guillotine on 30 March 1943. She was 48 years old.
Veneration.
On 21 June 1998, on the occasion of Pope John Paul II's visit to Vienna, Kafka was beatified by him. She was the first female martyr of Vienna.
Kafka, the only Religious Sister to be formally condemned to death under the Nazi regime, was commemorated in Rome on the evening of 4 March 2013, in the Basilica of San Bartolomeo all'Isola on Tiber Island, with a liturgy of the word at which Cardinal Christoph Schönborn presided. During the service, the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity gave to the basilica a small cross which Kafka had worn on the belt of her religious habit. The relic was placed in the chapel there which remembers the martyrs of Nationalist Socialism.
In Kafka's honor, the western half of Weyprechtgasse, a lane running before Mödling Hospital, was renamed "Schwester-Maria-Restituta-Gasse". Also there is a park named in her honor in her native Husovice: "Park Marie Restituty".
There was consecrated catholic church of beatified Maria Restituta Kafka, in September 2020.


Liverpool Court of Passage

The Liverpool Court of Passage was, at the time of its abolition, a local court of record which actively exercised a civil jurisdiction comparable to or greater than that of the county court for the district in which it was situated.
Procedure.
The procedure of this court was amended by the Liverpool Court of Passage Act 1896 (59 & 60 Vict c 21).
Jurisdiction.
As to the jurisdiction of this court, see the Liverpool Corporation Act 1921 (11 & 12 Geo. 5. c. lxxiv.).
Admiralty jurisdiction
See sections 2 to 4 of the Administration of Justice 1956.
Abolition.
The Liverpool Court of Passage was abolished by section 43(1)(b) of the Courts Act 1971.
Offices
Any judicial or other office in the Liverpool Court of Passage was abolished by section 44(1)(b) of the Courts Act 1971.
Section 44(2) conferred a power to make regulations to provide for the compensation of persons who suffered loss of employment or loss or diminution of emoluments attributable to the effect of section 44(1)(b) or to the abolition of the Liverpool Court of Passage.
Transitional provisions
Transitional provisions were made by section 43(2) of, and Part III of Schedule 5 to the Courts Act 1971.
Public Records.
Records of the Liverpool Court of Passage are public records within the meaning of the Public Records Act 1958.


Road and Trails Fund Act

In 1913 the Roads and Trails Fund Act in the United States created a permanent Federal fund which states could use to cover 10% of the cost for road construction or reconstruction, supervising, inspecting, actual building, and incurrence of all costs incidental to the construction or reconstruction of a road.


Propination laws

Propination laws were a privilege granted to Polish szlachta that gave landowners a monopoly over profits from alcohol consumed by their peasants. Propination is a historical right to distill spirits.
In many cases, profits from propination exceeded those from agricultural production or other sources.
These laws usually included:
These laws first appeared in the 16th and were widespread by the 17th century. They lasted until 1845 (Prussian partition), 1889 (Galicia) and 1898 (Russian Partition).
Propination was the main cause for massive alcoholism in Poland; also, because taverns in rural region were leased nearly exclusively to Jews who took part in enforcing these privileges, it was also a major reason for anti-semitism among peasants.


Babar Ahmad

Babar Ahmad (; born London, England, May 1974) is a British Muslim of Pakistani descent who spent eight years in prison without trial in the United Kingdom from 2004 to 2012 fighting extradition to the United States. The US accused him of providing material support to terrorism via a website that he set up in the UK in 1996 to publish stories about the conflicts in Bosnia and Chechnya, but which in 2000–2001 allowed two articles to be posted on the site offering support to the then Taliban government in Afghanistan. The US accepted that the website was operated from the UK but claimed jurisdiction because one of the servers hosting the website was located in the US. He fought a public eight-year legal battle, from prison, to be tried in Britain but the British Crown Prosecution Service concluded that there was "insufficient evidence to prosecute" him.
In 2009, the High Court in London awarded Ahmad £60,000 compensation after the London Metropolitan Police admitted that its officers had subjected him to "serious gratuitous prolonged unjustified violence" and "religious abuse" during his arrest which led to 73 injuries. It was revealed that the officers, who abused Ahmad were also accused of dozens of other assaults on black and Asian men but the four officers were acquitted by a jury in June 2011. In October 2015, a London High Court of Justice judge ruled that PC Mark Jones, one of the officers acquitted in the Ahmad case, assaulted and racially abused two Arab teenage boys in another case.
In 2011, celebrities and senior British lawyers backed a public campaign which led to 140,000 British citizens signing a UK Government e-petition calling for him to be tried in the UK. His case was subsequently debated twice in the British Parliament. Ahmad was finally extradited to the US in October 2012, having become the longest-serving British prisoner to be detained without trial in the UK. He spent the next two years in solitary confinement at a US Supermax prison. In December 2013, after his first year in solitary confinement and after being in prison for over nine years without trial, Ahmad pleaded guilty to two of the charges against him as part of a plea bargain that would allow him to return home within the year. He pleaded guilty to "conspiracy and providing material support to terrorism."
In July 2014, US federal Judge Janet Hall sentenced Ahmad to an unexpectedly lenient sentence of 12-and-a-half years in prison, meaning that with credit for time served he only had another 12 months to serve. Judge Hall concluded that Ahmad was never interested in terrorism, stating, "There was never any aid given by these defendants to effectuate a plot. By plot, I mean a terrorist plot ... Neither of these two defendants were interested in what is commonly known as terrorism ..." Hall stated that Ahmad "never supported or believed in or associated with Al-Qaida or Osama bin Laden."
Judge Hall described Ahmad as a "good person" who she believed posed no threat to the public and stated she had weighed the seriousness of his crime with his good character after reading thousands of letters of support and hearing from British prison officials who described him as an exemplary inmate. Judge Hall said "It appears to me that he [Babar] is a generous, thoughtful person who is funny and honest. He is well liked and humane and empathetic... This is a good person who does not and will not act in the future to harm other people."
Ahmad was released in July 2015 and returned to the UK where Metropolitan Police officers welcomed him at London Heathrow Airport then offered to drive him home to his family. Upon his release he stated, "Eleven years of solitary confinement and isolation in ten different prisons has been an experience too profound to sum up in a few words here and now... In October 2012, I was blindfolded, shackled and forcibly stripped naked when I was extradited to the US." He added that "US and UK government officials" had treated him with respect after his release.
In March 2016, he told The Observer in his first press interview since his release that he was "wrong and naive" to advocate support for the Taliban government back in 2001.
Early life and education.
Babar Ahmad was born and brought up in Tooting, London. His parents emigrated to Britain from Pakistan in 1963. His father worked as a Foreign Office civil servant for 30 years and his mother is a retired science teacher.
Ahmad was educated at Emanuel School, where he won academic prizes and obtained outstanding results at both GCSE and A-Level. He then went to university and obtained a master's degree in Engineering from the University of London in 1996.
Before imprisonment.
Ahmad fought on and off in the Bosnian War from 1992 until 1995. Before his imprisonment in August 2004, Ahmad was working in the IT department at Imperial College, University of London. In December 2003 Babar was arrested at his home in Tooting, South London. In March 2009, the London Metropolitan Police agreed to pay Ahmad £60,000 in damages after admitting he was subjected to "violent assault and religious abuse" during the arrest raid.
US prosecution of Ahmad and extradition battle.
Babar Ahmad was re-arrested in London on 5 August 2004 on charges of providing material support to terrorism. An affidavit filed with the US court detailed that Ahmad established Azzam.com, a website established in 1996 that later solicited support for Chechen insurgents and the Taliban regime in 2000/01. It further stated that items recovered from a house used by Ahmad included a floppy disk containing a detailed description of the movements of the US Fifth Fleet battlegroup. Ahmad was later indicted by a grand jury of US citizens in October 2004. Another man, Syed Talha Ahsan, was indicted in 2006 of involvement with Ahmad and with the battlegroup information in the document. In 2008, a US former navy seaman, Abu Jihad, was indicted and convicted of disclosing the classified information on the battlegroup but he was cleared of terrorism charges. However, when sentencing Ahmad on 16 July 2014, federal district Judge Janet Hall ruled that "nothing was done with the information" found in Ahmad's possession so, "the battle group document, besides showing that the Navy enlisted man was a traitor to his country, it also shows that Mr. Ahmad and Mr. Ahsan had absolutely no interest in operational terrorist actions that would harm the United States."
US extradition documents stated that "at all times material to the indictment" Babar Ahmad was resident in London. The Crown Prosecution Service declared in July 2004 and December 2006, as did the UK Attorney General Lord Goldsmith in September 2006, that there was "insufficient evidence" to charge Ahmad with any criminal offence under UK law.
Having been refused bail, Ahmad was detained in prison until his extradition on 5 October 2012. On 17 May 2005, Senior District Judge Timothy Workman approved his extradition at Bow Street Magistrates' Court, stating: "This is a troubling and difficult case. The defendant is a British citizen who is alleged to have committed offences which, if the evidence were available, could have been prosecuted in this country".
In September 2005, Sadiq Khan, Member of Parliament for Tooting, presented a petition of 18,000 signatures to the Home Secretary Charles Clarke asking for Babar Ahmad to be tried in the UK, instead of being extradited.
On 16 November 2005, Clarke approved his extradition to the United States.
On 28 November 2005, the UK Parliamentary Home Affairs Select Committee raised serious concerns about the one-sided UK-US extradition arrangements and, in particular, the case of Babar Ahmad.
In a House of Commons emergency debate on 12 July 2006 about UK-US extradition, MPs from all parties raised concerns at the case of Babar Ahmad. His name has also been mentioned repeatedly in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords in relation to UK-US extradition.
On 30 November 2006, Ahmad lost his appeal at the High Court. On 4 June 2007, the House of Lords refused to grant him leave to appeal to them.
On 10 June 2007, the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg (France) ordered the UK Government to freeze Babar Ahmad's extradition until they had fully determined his final appeal.
In 2009, the High Court in London awarded Ahmad £60,000 compensation after the London Metropolitan Police admitted that its officers had subjected him to "serious gratuitous prolonged unjustified violence" and "religious abuse" during his arrest which led to 73 injuries. It was revealed that the officers, who abused Ahmad were also accused of dozens of other assaults on black and Asian men. The revelation lead the Mayor of London Boris Johnson to order an independent review of the case. In 2010, the review led the Crown Prosecution Service to announce that four serving police officers would face criminal charges for assaulting Ahmad. The four officers were acquitted by a jury in June 2011. In October 2015, a London High Court of Justice judge ruled that PC Mark Jones, one of the officers acquitted in the Ahmad case, assaulted and racially abused two Arab teenage boys in another case.
On 8 July 2010, the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe, at Strasbourg, imposed a temporary stay on the extradition of Ahmad "et al." to the United States to face terrorism charges, until the Court was satisfied that he would not be liable or subject inhumane treatment. The Court based its judgement on the European Convention on Human Rights, which is incorporated as the Human Rights Act 1998 in English and British law. In past cases, the ECtHR had ruled to prevent the United Kingdom and the British Government from deporting, extraditing or repatriating terrorism suspects to other countries, where they would be subject or liable to, or where there was a likelihood that they would be subject or liable to, torture, or to degrading or inhumane treatment.
In "Babar Ahmad and Others v The United Kingdom" the legal representatives of the litigants, argued that extradition to a country, where they might be imprisoned for life, with no possibility of release on parole, and where the penal regime is in comparison excessively harsh, amounted also to degrading or inhumane treatment, and that the extradition therefore ought to be refused.
On 22 June 2011, the Houses of Parliament Joint Committee on Human Rights urged the UK government to change the law so that Ahmad's perpetual threat of extradition is ended without further delay.
In November 2011, celebrities and senior British lawyers backed a public campaign which led to 140,000 British citizens signing a UK Government e-petition calling for him to be tried in the UK. His case was subsequently debated twice in the British Parliament.
On 10 April 2012, the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg (France) ruled that Ahmad could be extradited to the United States.
On 24 April 2012, the BBC reported the testimony of a British man convicted of plotting to blow up an aircraft, from the trial of Adis Medunjanin in New York City. Saajid Badat alleged that he was radicalised by Babar Ahmad but when sentencing Ahmad in July 2012, Judge Janet Hall ruled, "As to whether he [Mr Ahmad] radicalized anyone, I don't understand that. I think that the only person radicalized in this case is the cooperating witness. It's pretty clear to me that Mr. Ahmad is not responsible for radicalizing him. He may have played a role in getting the cooperating witness to go to Afghanistan to get training, but even the cooperating witness acknowledges that, unlike what Mr. Ahmad wanted him to do, which was to return to England to complete his education, he turned away from that and was, in fact, radicalized by Khaled Sheikh Mohammed and Osama bin Laden whom he met in Afghanistan."
Ahmad was extradited from the UK to the United States on 5 October 2012. The removal process took place on the evening, when Babar Ahmad and Talha Ahsan were taken from HM Prison Long Lartin, to RAF Mildenhall in Suffolk, which is used by the US Air Force, from where he was placed into the physical custody of the awaiting United States officials. Three other terror suspects in unrelated cases were also extradited at the same time. Ahmad later stated that he was "blindfolded, shackled and forcibly stripped naked" during his extradition. He landed in Connecticut on the morning of 6 October.
After spending two years in solitary confinement at a US Supermax prison he pleaded guilty to "conspiracy and providing material to support to terrorism".
In 2014, US federal Judge Janet Hall sentenced Ahmad to an unexpectedly lenient sentence and concluded that Ahmad was never interested in terrorism, stating, "There was never any aid given by these defendants to effectuate a plot. By plot, I mean a terrorist plot ... Neither of these two defendants were interested in what is commonly known as terrorism ..." She described Ahmad as a "good person" who she believed posed no threat to the public and stated she had weighed the seriousness of his crime with his good character after reading thousands of letters of support and hearing from British prison officials who described him as an exemplary inmate. Judge Hall said "It appears to me that he [Babar] is a generous, thoughtful person who is funny and honest. He is well liked and humane and empathetic... This is a good person who does not and will not act in the future to harm other people."
In July 2015, Ahmad was released from prison in the US and returned to the UK. Upon his release he stated, "Eleven years of solitary confinement and isolation in ten different prisons has been an experience too profound to sum up in a few words here and now... In October 2012, I was blindfolded, shackled and forcibly stripped naked when I was extradited to the US." He added that "US and UK government officials" had treated him with respect after his release.
Police abuse case.
Babar Ahmad was first arrested at his Tooting home on 2 December 2003 by UK anti-terrorist police of 1 Unit 1 Area Territorial Support Group based at the high security Paddington Green Police Station. By the time he arrived in the custody suite of the police station, he had sustained at least 73 injuries, all later documented by both police and independent doctors, as well as in photographic and video evidence.
He filed a formal complaint that was supervised by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). He complained that officers had beaten him with fists and knees, stamped on his bare feet with boots, rubbed metal handcuffs on his forearm bones, sexually abused him, mocked the Islamic faith by placing him into the Muslim prayer position and taunting, "Where is your God now?", and applied life-threatening neck holds to him until he felt he was about to die. Officers denied the claims, saying Ahmad had battled like a "caged tiger" during his arrest, adding his injuries were either self-inflicted or caused by a legal tackle that took him to the ground when he was first detained.
On 10 September 2004, the Crown Prosecution Service announced that there was "insufficient evidence" to prosecute any of the police officers involved in the attack. However, on 17 January 2005 the IPCC declared that PC Roderick James-Bowen (born 1971) would face internal police disciplinary procedures over the alleged assault.
On 13 April 2005, PC James-Bowen was cleared at a Police Misconduct Tribunal held at Woolwich Crown Court. Metropolitan Police Commander Andre Baker, the President of the Tribunal, stated that PC James-Bowen should be "commended, not castigated... for his great bravery" in arresting Ahmad.
On 18 March 2009, Babar Ahmad was awarded £60,000 compensation at the High Court in London after the Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Paul Stephenson admitted that he had been the victim of a "serious, gratuitous and prolonged attack" during the December 2003 raid on his house, which had resulted in 73 injuries.
On 26 March 2009, Mayor of London Boris Johnson announced an inquiry into the Babar Ahmad case with external judicial oversight by retired judge Sir Geoffrey Grigson, to report back to the Metropolitan Police Authority.-
On 3 November 2009, following his acquittal in a separate racial abuse trial, 42-year-old PC Mark Jones of 1 Area TSG was named as being involved with the attack on Babar Ahmad. The Director of Public Prosecutions, Keir Starmer QC, announced that he was taking the case "very seriously" while considering whether to prosecute PC Jones and the other officers involved in the alleged assault on Babar Ahmad.
In August 2010, it was announced that Police Constables Nigel Cowley, John Donohue, Roderick James-Bowen and Mark Jones would be prosecuted for their part in the alleged assault on Babar Ahmad. The trial began on Tuesday, 3 May 2011, at Southwark Crown Court, London. On 3 June 2011, they were found not guilty. The jury had not been informed of the 2009 police admission, nor the £60,000 compensation.
In October 2015, a London High Court of Justice judge ruled that PC Mark Jones, one of the officers acquitted in the Babar Ahmad case, assaulted and racially abused two Arab teenage boys in another case.
Monitoring of MP visit to Ahmad.
On 3 February 2008, the "Sunday Times" newspaper reported that UK anti-terrorist police had covertly bugged prison visits between Babar Ahmad and his local MP, Sadiq Khan, Member of Parliament for Tooting. The bugged conversations took place at Woodhill Prison in May 2005 and June 2006.
This information was reportedly leaked to the press by the police officer who had conducted the covert surveillance of the visits. The bugging allegedly contravened both legal privilege and the Wilson Doctrine that had outlawed surveillance of MPs in 1966. Following widespread international media coverage of the revelation, the then Secretary of State for Justice, Jack Straw MP, announced in Parliament that he had asked a retired High Court judge, Sir Christopher Rose, to conduct an official inquiry into the affair.
The Rose Inquiry reported back to the House of Commons later in February 2008, stating that the police had done nothing wrong, causing some commentators to dismiss the report and to criticise Rose for failing to interview the police officers who had bugged Khan.


Bethesda Academy

Bethesda Academy (previously known as Bethesda Home for Boys) is a boys' school and former orphanage located in unincorporated Chatham County, Georgia, in the United States, near Savannah. Its historic building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.
History.
It was founded in 1740 as an orphanage by evangelist George Whitefield, in the 18th century on his 500 acre (1,600 m²) land grant about south of Savannah, in the newly founded colony of Georgia. Whitefield called the orphanage Bethesda, which means "House of Mercy," for he hoped many acts of mercy would take place there. On March 25, 1740, construction began on the orphanage buildings. The main house was two stories high with twenty rooms. Two smaller buildings were built behind the orphanage; one was designed to be an infirmary and the other a workhouse.
Whitefield wanted the orphanage to be a place of strong Calvinist influence with a wholesome atmosphere and strong discipline. Boys were taught trades so that they could earn a living as adults. Younger children learned spinning and carding, and all boys were taught mechanics and agriculture. Whitefield hoped that the orphanage would become the foundation of a university.
While the children grew most of the orphanage food, the enterprise was more expensive than anticipated, and Whitefield went into debt. Benjamin Franklin suggested that due to the scarcity of workmen and materials in Georgia, it might be better to move the orphanage and its children to Philadelphia. Whitefield refused to move the orphanage because his contributors donated money specifically for the Georgia project.
At his death, Whitefield bequeathed the orphanage and his slaves to the Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, a charitable sponsor in England. He asked her to maintain the orphanage under its existing principles, and establish a college. However, she was not able to provide the oversight from away, and the orphanage almost closed.
In 1773, fire destroyed the home. Three years later, the American Revolution stymied plans to add a college. After several administrative changes, a new building and society, the Bethesda Home for Boys was established on the same site.
Bethesda and slavery.
In the early 18th century, slavery had been outlawed in Georgia. In 1749, Whitefield campaigned for its legalization, arguing that the territory would never be prosperous unless farms were able to use slave labor. He began his fourth visit to America in 1751 advocating slavery, viewing its re-legalization in Georgia as necessary to make his plantation profitable. Partially through his campaigns and written pleas to the Georgia Trustees, it was re-legalized in 1751. Whitefield then purchased slaves to work at Bethesda Orphanage. To help raise money for the orphanage, he also employed slaves at his Providence Plantation. When Whitefield died, he bequeathed his slaves to the Countess of Huntingdon.
Modern times.
Bethesda has not been an orphanage for many years, but continues to focus on youth in the greater Savannah area. Bethesda is a private boarding and day school for boys in grades 6-12 and, in April 2011, the Bethesda Home for Boys was renamed Bethesda Academy to better reflect their mission and commitment to the education of young men. In 2015, Bethesda kicked off its 275th Anniversary year.


R v Bartle

R v Bartle, [1994] 3 SCR 173 is a leading Supreme Court of Canada decision on the right to retain and instruct counsel under section 10(b) of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" ("Charter"). The Court held that a police officer is required to hold off on his or her investigation upon arresting an individual until the detainee has been informed of his or her rights and given sufficient information and access to contact a private lawyer or duty counsel. The case applied the earlier Supreme Court of Canada decision "R v Brydges". The judgment was released with three other decisions: "R v Pozniak", "R v Harper", "R v Matheson" and "R v Prosper".
Background.
Police investigation.
On 22 June 1991, Kenneth Bartle was arrested for impaired operation of a motor vehicle. The police officer then read the following to Bartle from a pre-printed card:
<poem>You have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay.
You have the right to telephone any lawyer that you wish.
You also have the right to free advice from a Legal Aid lawyer.
If you are charged with an offence, you may apply to the Ontario Legal Aid Plan for legal assistance.</poem>
Bartle advised that he understood. The officer did not mention the existence of duty counsel, which could give immediate legal advice, or that there was a 24-hour toll-free number for legal aid.
The officer asked Bartle if he wanted to speak to a lawyer "now", notwithstanding there was no telephone in the area. Bartle advised the officer that he had five or six beers at a baseball game that evening.
Upon arrival at the police station, the officer again asked Bartle if he wished to speak to a lawyer "now". Bartle said no. Bartle then provided two samples of his breath, indicated that he had a blood alcohol content over the legal limit, and was charged accordingly.
Trial.
The trial was held in the Ontario Court of Justice (Provincial Division). Bartle testified he waived his rights to counsel because he did not know whom to call or whom he could get hold of. The trial judge found there was no requirement for the police to advise Bartle of the existence of duty counsel or the toll-free number, and that there was no "Charter" infringement.
Summary conviction appeal.
The summary conviction appeal was heard in the Ontario Court of Justice (General Division). The appeal judge found there was a requirement for the police to advise Bartle of the existence of duty counsel and the toll-free number, and that there was a "Charter" infringement. He went on the exclude the breath samples as evidence under section 24(2) of the "Charter".
Court of Appeal.
The appeal from the summary conviction appeal was heard in the Court of Appeal for Ontario. The court unanimously found that a detainee is not required to be advised of the existence of duty counsel or the toll-free number unless the circumstances warrant it ("i.e.", the detainee expresses concern about the availability of duty counsel). Consequently, there was no "Charter" infringement.
Reasons of the Court.
There were two issues before the court: (1) does section 10(b) of the "Charter" require the police to advise a detainee of the existence of duty counsel; and (2) if so, should the evidence in Bartle's case be excluded under section 24(2) of the "Charter"?
Section 10(b).
Lamer CJ wrote the majority decision. The majority found that the proper application of "Brydges" required the police to advise a detainee in all cases the existence of duty counsel and the toll-free number. Otherwise, a detainee cannot make an informed decision about whether to call a lawyer.
In a concurring opinion, La Forest J agreed with the majority's decision entirely. McLachlin J also wrote a concurring opinion, agreeing with the majority's decision. She also found that Bartle's rights to counsel were infringed because he should have specifically been told he had the right to be told that he had the right to speak to counsel prior to incriminating himself before being charged.
Although disagreeing with the majority on the ultimate issue (see below), Gonthier J agreed with the majority's decision on the scope of rights to counsel.
In a dissenting opinion, L'Heureux-Dubé J disagreed the police were required to always inform a detainee of existence of duty counsel or the toll-free number, since there is no constitutional requirement for such programs to exist in the first place.
Section 24(2).
Since the majority found that there was an infringement of the "Charter", the next issue was whether the evidence should be excluded under section 24(2). In applying the test in "R v Collins" (which has since been overtaken by the test in "R v Grant"), the majority found that the evidence should be excluded, as the breath samples were compelled by statute. The majority also found that if the Crown wants to argue that a detainee would have made the same decision notwithstanding a "Charter" infringement, the Crown has the burden of proving that. The majority ultimately found that a court must not speculate on what a detainee might have done or said.
La Forest J agreed with the majority, although he did not find the case for exclusion overwhelming. McLachlin J also agreed with the majority's decision.
L'Heureux-Dubé J found that even if she agreed with the majority on the first issue, she would not have excluded the breath readings. The breach was not serious, and the public is put at a very high risk due to drinking and driving.
Although Gonthier J agreed with the majority on the first issue, he agreed with L'Heureux-Dubé J's dissenting opinion on whether the evidence should be excluded.


Real Audiencia of Lima

The Real Audiencia and Chancery of Lima () was a superior court in the New World empire of Spain, located in the city of Lima, capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was created on November 20, 1542 as was the viceroyalty itself, by the Emperor Charles V. The Audiencia began functioning in 1543 and initially had jurisdiction over the entire viceroyalty—virtually all of Spanish-controlled South America and Panama. Later other "audiencias" were established in the Viceroyalty. The Audiencia functioned until 1821 when the forces of José de San Martín entered Lima.
Subsequent divisions.
In 1559 part of the territory of the Lima Audiencia was separated and given over to a new Audiencia of Charcas, and in 1563 an Audiencia of Quito was established with jurisdiction over the northern territories of the viceroyalty. By the time the "Recopilación de Leyes de Indias" was published in 1680, the territory of the Lima Audiencia was defined in Law V of Title 15 as:
In the City of the Kings Lima, head of the provinces of Peru, shall reside another of our Royal Audiencias and Chancellery, with a viceroy, governor and captain general and lieutenant ours, who shall be president; eight judges of civil cases ["oidores"]; four judges of criminal cases ["alcaldes del crimen"]; and two crown attorneys ["fiscales"], one for civil cases and one for criminal ones; a bailiff ["alguacil mayor"]; a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials; and which shall have for district the coast from said city until the Kingdom of Chile exclusive, and until the Port of Paita inclusive; and inland to San Miguel de Piura, Cajamarca, Chachapoyas, Moyobamba and Los Motilones, inclusive and until El Collao, exclusive, along the borders determined for the Royal Audiencia of la Plata, and the City of Cusco and its [dependencies], inclusive, sharing borders in the north with the Royal Audiencia of Quito; in the south with the one of La Plata and in the west with the South Sea and in the east with undiscovered provinces, according to what is contained in, and pointed out, in Law 14 of this title.


Ulla Berghammer

Ulla Berghammer (born Ursula Much; 26 December 1887 - 24 September 1957) was a German politician. During 1946/47 she was a member of the which preceded the Landtag of Rhineland-Palatinate, charged with creating a new state constitution.
Life.
Ursula Much was born at Bad Tölz, in the rolling alpine foothills to the south of Munich. She was one of her parents' thirteen recorded children. When she was 14 her mother died in the aftermath of a childbirth: Ursula devoted the next few years to the care of her younger siblings. This meant that after leaving middle school she was not able to progress her school education further.
In 1908 Ulla Much married the local master builder, Konrad Berghammer. Their daughter was born in 1909 and their son in 1920. In between those years, in 1911 they relocated to Frankenthal in connection with Konrad Berghammer's work. Despite being a long way to the west, Frankenthal in the Palatinate had been administered as part of Bavaria since 1816 thanks to the haggling between political leaders that had followed the Congress of Vienna. During the First World War Ulla Berghammer became a volunteer worker at a welfare centre and worked as a cook in a factory canteen. Details are sparse, but in 1920 she was honoured with the . 1920 was also the year in which, thanks to Konrad Berghammer's work, the family moved again, this time to Landau in the south of the region.
In 1929, as politics in Germany became increasingly polarised, Ulla Berghammer became a member of the Catholic Centre Party. The same year she became a member of the municipal council. The context changed abruptly after the Nazis took power and lost little time in transforming Germany into a one-party dictatorship. The Catholic Centre Party was outlawed and Ulla Berghammer, as a member of it, was taken for a time into "protective custody". Landau is within a day's walking distance of the frontier with France, and after her release she helped fellow citizens who encountered persecution (and, as conditions deteriorated, death) because they were Jewish, to escape. Again, however, sources are short on detail.
After in May 1945 she again involved herself in politics. She was a founding member of the local which in December 1945 renamed itself as the Christian Democratic Union. It was as a CDU delegate that she participated in the set up in August 1946 on the orders of General Kœnig. the commander in charge of the French occupation zone. She remained a member of the assembly till its final meeting on 25 April 1947 but was not a member of its successor body, the Landtag of Rhineland-Palatinate. The of 1946/47 comprised 147 members. Only 6 were women, however. Ulla Berghammer was the eldest of the 6.
In 1949 Ulla Berghammer suffered a serious stroke, after which she was no longer to care for herself. Ulla and Konrad moved to Munich where she was looked after by her daughter till her death in 1957.