Beledougou

Beledougou (fr. Bélédougou) is an historic region of the pre-colonial Bambara Empire in today's central Mali. In the Bambara language the name literally means "County of the gravel".
A dry land on the interface of the Sahel and the wetter Sudan, it was populated by a loose confederation Bambara farming communities. Its area falls in today's Koulikoro Region, primarily in Kolokani Cercle, Koulikoro Cercle, Banamba Cercle, and parts of Nara Cercle. Much of pre-colonial Beledougou remained staunchly animist after the fall of the Bambara Empire. In 1915, it was the scene of a major revolt against French forced conscription, in a rising led by Koumi Diosse Traore.


Sundaygar Dearboy

Michael Davies (born July 20, 1972), popularly known by his stage name Sundaygar Dearboy, is a Liberian singer, songwriter and record producer from District 2, Grand Bassa County. He sings primarily in Bassa and Liberian English and has released several studio albums, including "See Boyee", "Don’t Live With Woman" (2007) and "Rebirth" (2012). He was named the Liberian Musician of the Year in 2005-2006, and has produced 13 albums to date.
Life and music career.
Sundaygar Dearboy was born in District 2, Grand Bassa County, Liberia. He is the father of two and the guardian of several others. Dearboy graduated with a degree in criminal justice from AME Zion College. He is the project manager for Liberia Trading & Investment Company (LINTRACO), one of Liberia's trading groups. Dearboy has a significant following among Liberians in the diaspora, particularly in the United States. Speaking on the challenges currently facing the Liberian music industry, Dearboy said, "Not many local artists listen to other music and try to emulate or learn from them. Plus, the local market is not accustomed to promoting what belongs to them. They prefer something from outside. Perhaps, the generally quality of production does not meet the standard as those produced in other countries."
Dearboy produced "Let Us Vote Ma Ellen", the official campaign song for the Unity Party; it was released during Ellen Johnson Sirleaf's 2005 presidential campaign. Following the song's release, Dearboy's music career hit a political low for nearly four years. He revived his music career by releasing "Bayjay", a song endorsed by the Liberian populace. "Bayjay" won Song of the Year at the 2005 Liberian Entertainment Awards.
In 2007, Dearboy released "Don't Live With Women", an album that contains the single "Bayjay" and the song "Evil Genius". The album was sponsored by Cellcom and launched at the Antoinette Tubman Stadium. On June 10, 2012, Dearboy released his eight studio album "Rebirth". Distributed by RK Enterprises, it features guest appearances from Tupee, Carol Kaifumba and Ghanaian artist Odefor. The album comprises 7 songs, including "Gbema", "Zima-Day" and the dancehall track "Monkeh". In June 2013, "The Inquirer" newspaper reported Dearboy and several other musicians criticized and belittled the establishment of the Arts & Culture Council of Liberia. They said the organization does not, in any way, represent the views and aspirations of the Liberian entertainment industry.
Notable performances.
On May 26, 2007, Dearboy performed at UNIBOA's 17th National Convention in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. On December 13, 2013, he and other Liberian musicians performed at the National County Sports Meet (NCSM) official kick off, an event sponsored by the Liberia National Culture Union (LINU) and the Ministry of Information, Cultural Affairs and Tourism (MICAT).
NPFL controversy.
In 2008, Dearboy admitted to being a member of Charles Taylor's defunct National Patriotic Front of Liberia rebel movement. During the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) public hearings, Dearboy said he was forcefully enlisted into the NPFL, in 1992, while searching for his girlfriend in Grand Bassa County. Three witnesses stated that Dearboy raped a young woman and murdered several men, women, and children in Grand Bassa County during the civil war. Dearboy denied the accusation leveled against him and expressed penitence for his role in the rebel movement, saying, "The past is what no one is in control of. No one is reading my mind except God. But I want to say if I hurt anyone during the war, I am sorry, very, very sorry from the depth of my heart. I am sorry for whatever role I played during the revolution."
Personal life.
In an interview with Radio France Internationale in 2015, Dearboy said 19 members of his family died from the 2014 Ebola outbreak.


Battle of Narungombe

The Battle of Narungombe was fought between the German Empire and Portugal during the East African Campaign of World War I.
The battle honour "Narungombe" has been granted to the Ghana Regiment, King's African Rifles and the South African 7th and 8th Infantry Regiment.


Sikiru Ajibowu Adeyiga

Oba Sikiru Ajibowu Adeilo Adeyiga is a Nigerian monarch. He is the current king of Irolu Remo. A town under Ikenne local government, and part of the 33 rulers under Akarigbo of Remo.
Early life.
Oba Sikiru Adeyiga was born on October 1, 1938 to the family of Alhaji Ismaila Adeyiga and Alhaja Nimota Oladunni Adeyiga.
He started his primary education in 1946 only to complete a supposed six years course in 1955, spending nine years at primary school in Irolu due to his playful attitude.
Kingship.
He was installed as the new king of Irolu in 1991 following the death of the previous king Oba Ogunlesi
He faced competition for the title, and he was advised he need to kill his competitors for him to ascend the throne of the late king he however claim that he turned down the advice.
He was nominated by his family and unanimouslyly endorsed by seven king makers, one of his co-contestants, Adetoye Odujeko dragged him to court where he claimed that he was not a member of the ruling family asked to nominate a candidate for the vacant throne.
He construct a new palace for the town
During the 2019 general election he urged traditional rulers not to interfere in the election, by letting its people decide for themselves


Dinkoro Coulibaly

Dinkoro Coulibaly was the ruler of the Bambara Empire from 1755 to 1757. Successor and relative of empire founder Bitòn Coulibaly, Dinkoro soon lost control of the empire in a succession of military coups. Dinkoro was assassinated in 1757, and succeeded by his brother, Ali Coulibaly. The empire fell briefly into civil war before Ngolo Diarra seized control in 1766 and reasserted stability.


Free Socialist Party of Burundi

The Free Socialist Party of Burundi (, abbreviated Parsocilibre) was a political party in Burundi. Parsocilibre was founded in March 1961. It was led by Michel Buyoya (former president if UPROHUTU) and Pascal Baranyikwa. The party supported constitutional monarchy. It had its office in Kayanza.


Haimro Alame

Haimro Alame (also known as Haimro Almaya and Aimeru Almeya; איימרו עלמיה; born June 8, 1990) is an Israeli runner. In the 2014 European Team Championships he took second in the 5000 metres, and in the 2015 European Games in Baku, he came in third in the 5000 m. Alame was as of 2018 the Israeli record holder at 10,000 metres. He qualified in the marathon to represent Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics.
Biography.
Alame emigrated from Ethiopia to Israel in 2004. His track club is Hapoel Athletic Oren Hasharon.
Alame was as of 2019 the Israeli national record holder at 10,000m. As of 2018 his personal bests were 10,000m: 28:09.42; 5000m: 13:52.76; 1500m: 3:47.73.
He came in 1st in the Israeli national championships in the 1500m in 2014, 5000m in 2013/2014/2015/2016, and 10,000m in 2014. Alame won the 2015 Israeli Cross Country Championships (10.7km). In 2013 he set the course record in the 10000m in the Jerusalem Marathon with a time of 31:19. He won the 2017 Tel Aviv International Half Marathon, and came in 2nd in the 2018 Tiberias Half Marathon. In 2018 he came in 10th in the IAAF World Half Marathon team event.
In the 2014 European Team Championships Alame took second in the 5000 m behind Hayle Ibrahimov. Representing Israel at the 2015 European Games in Baku, he came in third in the 5000m, with a time of 14:38.96 min behind Roman Prodius and Hayle Ibrahimov, and earned a bronze medal.
Marathon.
In the marathon Alame came in 22nd in Rotterdam in 2017. He won the 2019 Tiberias Marathon with a time of 2:15:16. As of 2020 his personal best in the marathon was 2h07:45.
Alame qualified in the marathon to represent Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics. He qualified after running the 2019 Valencia Marathon in 2:11:02 hours, the third-best Israeli time ever.


Jacob Borghorst

Jacob Borghorst, also Borchorst, was the fourth Commander of the Dutch Cape Colony from 1668 to 1670. He was in ill health for most of his period as Commander, and left most of the administration to his subordinates. Borghorst and his family returned to the Dutch Republic in 1670.
Background.
Borghort's family came from North Holland. He entered service with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) as an assistant in India and was promoted to "onderkoopman" (junior merchant) in 1646. In 1653, he left to become a merchant in Ceylon, leaving in March 1663 as a second-in-command. He served briefly as administrator in Colombo, and several briefings to Jan van Riebeeck in 1655 bear his signature.
On December 24, 1664, after a successful career in the service of the VOC, he left Batavia for the Netherlands on the , serving as vice-commander on one of the ships in Pieter de Bitter's return fleet. The fleet stayed in Cape Town from March 11 to April 22 of 1665 to resupply. During their return voyage, the Second Anglo-Dutch War broke out, and the valuable merchant fleet sought shelter in the neutral harbor of Bergen, Norway, but the Royal Navy did not respect the neutrality treaty and blockaded the port. In the resulting Battle of Vågen, De Bitter defeated the English but the latter captured the "Phoenix" on September 13, 1665.
Borghorst was plundered of eight bags of gemstones, which he had purchased in Europe to carry all the fortune he had built up over the year. This likely required him to start over with the VOC, who appointed him to the Cape as Commander in 1667.
Tenure as Commander.
Borghorst left Texel, Netherlands, for the Cape on December 27, 1667 aboard the transport ship , commissioned by the full Lords Seventeen of the VOC in Amsterdam. The ship carried 268 on a difficult journey: poor weather forced two stays in English harbors (only 6 months after the end of the war) as well as in Cape Verde, at the time a Portuguese colony. Most of the crew got sick and 25 of them died during the voyage.
Borghorst arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on 16 June 1668, feeling weak and sick. On Sunday the 17th, Commander Cornelis van Quaelberg, not yet aware of his dismissal, came aboard to greet Borghorst, who came to the fort later that day. On the 18th, Van Quaelberg summoned the entire Political Council of the Colony to a meeting there to discuss the Lords Seventeen's letter replacing him. Due to delays in transferring financial records and inventory, the post (and with it the keys to the gates and stores) were not fully transferred to Borghorst until August 2. Given his illness, most of his duties were handled by bureaucrats such as the fiscal Cornelis de Cretzer, who would later fulfill the same function for equally frail Commander Pieter Hackius and die tragically in slavery in Algeria. Borghorst found the task unbearable and petitioned for dismissal immediately after arrival. The VOC appointed Jan van Aelmonden, a Batavia merchant, as his successor, but he could not arrive in time. Therefore, Hackius was appointed as such and Borghorst continued to serve as commander.
During his tenure as Commander, expeditions were launched inland and down the coast: a small village was founded near Saldanha. Borghorst encouraged grain cultivation and raised cattle himself, but was accused of taking the side of the Khoikhoi in disputes with settlers. He finished the canal from Zacharias Wagenaer's reservoir to the harbor, part of which was rediscovered during the building of the Golden Acre shopping center.
Departure.
Hackius and his family arrived on board the ship on March 18, 1670, and formally took office on the 25th of that month. On April 17, Borghorst formally resigned and left for the Netherlands on the .
Borghorst apparently was a bachelor in the Cape, and it is unknown if he ever married.


Sanaag

Sanaag (, ) is an administrative region ("gobol") in eastern Somaliland. Sanaag has a long coastline facing the Gulf of Aden to the north, and is bordered by the region of Sahil to the west, Sool to the south and Somalia to the east. Its capital city is Erigavo.
History.
The Sanaag region and Somaliland in general is home to numerous archaeological sites, with rock art, ancient ruins, buildings and cairns found at numerous sites like Gudmo Biyo Cas, Heis, Maydh, Haylan, Qa'ableh, Qombo'ul, Gelweita and El Ayo to name a few. However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on local history and facilitate their preservation for posterity.
Geography.
Environment.
A severe drought in the region in the early part of the 21st century caused an 80% or greater loss of livestock, though two good rainy seasons in 2004–2005 helped restore the area. Over a 15-year period of analysis, from 1988–2003, there was a 52% loss of forest and a 40% loss of grassland, and a 370% increase in bare land. Soil erosion due to weather and human activities and clearing of wood and brush for such uses as charcoal and fuel are issues leading to a degradation of the environment.
Economy.
In recent history, the Sanaag region normally maintained a diverse economy, producing and then exporting to other regions, it produced livestock, frankincense, and leather for export, this was happening while the region lacked basic infrastructure, but sadly, after the outbreak of civil war the region's economy collapsed from loss of markets and dilapidated infrastructure has never helped, and lack of investment. Now the region only supports one main economy, livestock rearing. The Somali livestock ban imposed by Gulf countries in which was Sanaag's largest market has virtually destroyed the economy in the region, reducing purchasing power and forcing pastoralists in the region to survive on subsistence activities.
Demographics.
The region is mainly inhabited by people from the Somali ethnic group, principally the Habar Yoonis and Habar Jeclo sub-clans of the Isaaq and the Dhulbahante and Warsangali sub-divisions of the Harti Darod.
Districts.
According to the UN, the region of Sanaag is divided into 3 districts as follows:


Zwangendaba

Zwangendaba kaZiguda Jele Gumbi (c. 1785 – 1848) was the king of the Ngoni people for more than thirty years, from approximately 1815 to his death in 1848. He was the younger brother of Somkhanda kaZiguda Jele who remained with the Gumbi clan in Kwazulu-Natal in areas of Pongola. After being driven from the eastern region of what is now South Africa, near modern Swaziland, by the Zulus during the Mfecane, Zwangendaba led his people, then called the "Jele", on a migration of more than lasting more than twenty years. Their journey took them through the areas now known as Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi to the western part of Tanzania, where Zwangendaba set up a base at Mapupo. The Ngoni, once a small tribe, extended their dominion even further through present-day Tanzania, Malawi, and Zambia when they fragmented into five separate groups following his death.
Zwangendaba was a leader of a section of the Ngoni people who broke away from the rule of Shaka the Zulu king who was his relative. Using many of Shaka's methods of rule such as rigid discipline in military and social organisation, he knitted his tribe and the unfortunate people abducted along the way into a cohesive unit. With his people he migrated north into tropical Africa, and is believed to have destroyed many of the structures at Great Zimbabwe on passing through. The migration proceeded across the Zambezi in 1835 on a day when there was a total eclipse of the sun. The river was said to have parted and opened to make way for him and his people. Advancing north, ravaging the countries they crossed, they eventually arrived in the south west of what is now Tanzania. On the death of Zwangendaba, the Ngoni split into three groups, one settling in Malawi, one in Songea (Tanzania) and a third group migrated north to Mbogwe in Usumbwa where they fought with the famous Mirambo of Unyamwezi.


Silumelume

"Mulena Yomuhulu Mbumu wa Litunga" Selumelume Muimui (or Silumelume) was a Chief of Barotseland in Africa.
Family and life.
Silumelume was a son of the King Mulambwa Santulu and thus grandson of King Mwanawina I.
Lozi people believed that he was a descendant of god Nyambe.
He became a king in 1835 after his father died, but his brother Mubukwanu was not pleased with that.
Death.
Silumelume was in fact chosen by the nation's council, but he was soon assassinated, perhaps on the instructions of his brother, who thereupon succeeded him.
He was killed by Mwene Siengale during a session of the Khotla and was buried at Namaweshi.
Children.
His wife is unknown, but his children were Maselokwa and Kutauka (gender unknown).


Mahamane Haidara

Mahamane Alassane Haidara (born 1 January 1910 in Tombouctou, Mali; died 17 October 1981 in Tombouctou) was a politician from Mali who was elected to the French Senate in 1948.
He was the President of the National Assembly from 1961 to 1967.


El Jadida

El Jadida or al-Jadida (; ), is a port city on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, located 100 km south of the city of Casablanca, in the province of El Jadida and the region of Casablanca-Settat. It has a population of 220,181 as of 2020.
From the sea, El Jadida's old city has a very "un-Moorish" appearance because of its massive Portuguese-built walls of hewn stone, one of the Seven Wonders of Portuguese Origin in the World. The "Portuguese Fortified City of Mazagan" was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, on the basis of its status as an "outstanding example of the interchange of influences between European and Moroccan cultures" and as an "early example of the realisation of the Renaissance ideals integrated with Portuguese construction technology". According to UNESCO, the most important buildings from the Portuguese period are the cistern, and the Manueline Church of the Assumption.
The city, and particularly its neighboring town of Sidi Bouzid, becomes extremely busy in the summer season with an influx of mainly Moroccan holiday-makers. Nearby is the five-star resort complex of Mazagan, which attracts some middle-class Moroccans as well as many international visitors from the Arabian Peninsula as well as from Europe and beyond. Mazagan complex has a golf course designed by Gary Player, casino, nightclub and restaurants. Between Mazagan complex and El Jadida is the Pullman Hotel, attached to which is Royal Golf El Jadida, another 18-hole course. The presence of nearby ports and factories is responsible for the pollution of El Jadida's beaches.
The city is expanding as of 2014, partly as a result of increased activity at the nearby Jorf Lasfar port and its industrial zone.
Names.
El Jadida's former names were: Cap Soleis, Portus Rutilis, Rusibis, Mazighen (Arabic: "مازيغن", Berber: "ⵎⴰⵣⵉⴳⴻⵏ"), al-Breyja (Arabic: "البريجة"), Mazagão (Arabic: "مازاگاو", Berber: "ⵎⴰⵣⴰⴳⴰⵡ"), al-Mahdouma (Arabic: "المهدومة") and Mazagan (Arabic: "مازاگان", Berber: "ⵎⴰⵣⴰⴳⴰⵏ"),
Landmarks.
Portuguese cistern.
Expanded since 1514, this former warehouse (possibly an armory) was converted into a cistern in the sixteenth century. The underground chamber, measuring 34 meters by 34 meters, was constructed with five rows of five stone pillars. The cistern is famous especially for the thin layer of water that covers the floor, and which creates fine and ever-changing reflections from the little light there is and the spartan shapes of the columns and the roof. Its visual qualities are such that several movies have been filmed within the cavernous space, of which Orson Welles' "Othello" is the best known internationally.
Fortress of Mazagan.
The design of the Fortress of Mazagan is a response to the development of modern artillery in the Renaissance. The star form of the fortress measures "c" 250m by 300m. The slightly inclined, massive walls are "c" 8m high on average, with a thickness of 10m, enclosing a patrolling peripheral walkway 2m wide. At the present time the fortification has four bastions: the Angel Bastion in the east, St Sebastian in the north, St Antoine in the west, and the Holy Ghost Bastion in the south. The fifth, the Governor's Bastion at the main entrance, is in ruins, having been destroyed by the Portuguese in 1769. Numerous colonial-era Portuguese cannons are still positioned on top of the bastions.
The fort had three gates: the Seagate, forming a small port with the north-east rampart, the Bull Gate in the north-west rampart, and the main entrance with a double arch in the centre of the south rampart, originally connected to land via a drawbridge. A ditch, "c" 20m wide and 3m deep, formerly filled with seawater, surrounded the fort. During the time of the French Protectorate the ditch was filled in with earth and a new entrance gate was opened leading to the main street, the Rua da Carreira, and to the Seagate. Along this street are situated the best preserved historic buildings, including the Catholic Church of the Assumption and the cistern.
History.
El Jadida, was first known as "al-Breyja" when it was seized by the Portuguese in 1502. Then, it became known as "Mazagão". The Portuguese built a citadel in 1514, and a larger fortification in 1541. The Portuguese would continue to control the city until 1769, when they abandoned Mazagão, their last territory in Morocco. Upon their forced departure, the Portuguese destroyed the Governor's Bastion and evacuated to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, where they founded a new settlement called "Nova Mazagão" (now in Amapá). The city was then taken over by Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah in 1769 and remained uninhabited, having been dubbed al-Mahdouma ("The Ruined"). Eventually, Sultan Abd al-Rahman of Morocco ordered that a mosque be built and the destroyed portions of the city rebuilt. The reinvigorated city was renamed al-Jadida, or "The New".
Climate.
El Jadida has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csa"). In winter there is more rainfall than in summer. The average annual temperature in El Jadida is . About of precipitation falls annually.
Education.
The city houses many post-secondary academic institutions:
Chouaib Doukkali University, including the following institutions:
Office of Vocational Training and Promotion of Labor (OFPPT), including the following institutions:
and:
Nearby cities.
Near El Jadida, are located the city of Azemmour in the northeast and the town of Sidi Bouzid in the southwest. Within a perimeter of around 120 km or less, are located Casablanca, Berrechid, Settat, Sidi Bennour, Oualidia, Youssoufia, Safi.
Twin towns – sister cities.
El Jadida is twinned with:


History of Madagascar

The history of Madagascar is distinguished clearly by the early isolation of the landmass from the ancient supercontinent containing Africa and India, and by the island's late colonization by human settlers arriving in outrigger canoes from the Sunda islands (Malay Archipelago) and from East Africa. These two factors facilitated the evolution and survival of thousands of endemic plant and animal species, some of which have gone extinct or are currently threatened with extinction due to the government not allocating resources to help the growing population, causing many people to resort to harmful environmental practices as a way of survival. Over the past two thousand years the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins including Austronesian, Bantu, Arab, South Asian, Chinese and European. The majority of the population of Madagascar today is a mixture of Austronesian and Bantu settlers. Despite popular belief, there has been no genetic input from Arabs or Indians, although one tribe, the Antemoro, claims descent from Somali Arab traders.
Centuries of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu, Malay, Arabic, French and English influences. Most of the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy, however, reflects an almost equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu. Other populations often intermixed with the existent population to a more limited degree or have sought to preserve a separate community from the majority Malagasy.
By the Middle Ages, over a dozen predominant ethnic identities had emerged on the island, typified by rule under a local chieftain. Among some communities, such as the Sakalava, Merina and Betsimisaraka, leaders seized the opportunity to unite these disparate communities and establish true kingdoms under their rule. These kingdoms increased their wealth and power through exchanges with European, Arab and other seafaring traders, whether they were legitimate vessels or pirates.
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, pirate activity in the coastal areas of Madagascar was common. The purported free pirate colony of Libertatia was established on Île Sainte-Marie, originally populated by local Malagasy. The Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves in exchange for European firearms and other goods. Throughout this time, European and Arab seafarers operating in the Indian Ocean traded with coastal communities, and Europeans made several unsuccessful attempts to claim and colonize the island. Beginning in the early 19th century, the British and French competed for influence in Madagascar.
By the turn of the 19th century, King Andrianampoinimerina had reunited the highly populous Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at Antananarivo. His son, Radama I, began to exert its authority over the island's other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by a foreign power as the ruler of the greater Merina Kingdom. Over the 19th century, a series of Merina monarchs engaged in the process of modernization through close diplomatic ties to Britain that led to the establishment of European-style schools, government institutions and infrastructure. Christianity, introduced by members of the London Missionary Society, was made the state religion under Queen Ranavalona II and her prime minister, highly influential statesman Rainilaiarivony. Political wrangling between Britain and France in the 1880s saw Britain recognize France's claim to authority on the island, leading in 1890 to the Malagasy Protectorate, which was unrecognized by the government of Madagascar. The French launched two military campaigns known as the Franco-Hova Wars to force submission, finally capturing the capital in September 1895. This sparked the widespread Menalamba rebellion against French rule that was crushed in 1897; the monarchy was held responsible and dissolved, and the queen and her entourage exiled to Reunion and later Algeria, where she died in 1917. Following conquest, the French abolished Slavery in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed.
In French Madagascar, Malagasy were required to fulfill corvée labor on French-run plantations, which generated high revenues for the colonial administration. Opportunities for Malagasy to access education or skilled positions within the colonial structure were limited, although some basic services like schools and clinics were extended to coastal areas for the first time. The capital city was largely transformed and modernized, and the royal palaces were transformed into a school and later a museum. Although Malagasy were initially prevented from forming political parties, several militant nationalist secret societies emerged, of which the most prominent was Vy Vato Sakelika, founded by Ny Avana Ramanantoanina.
Many Malagasy were conscripted to fight for France in World Wars I and II, and during the latter Madagascar came under Vichy control before being captured and occupied by the British in the Battle of Madagascar. At the Brazzaville Conference of 1944, Charles de Gaulle gave colonies the status of overseas territory and the right to representatives in the French National Assembly; when a bill proposed by Malagasy delegates of the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache for Madagascar's independence was not passed, militant nationalists led an unsuccessful Malagasy uprising (1947–1948), during which the French military committed atrocities that deeply scarred the population. The country gained full independence from France in 1960 in the wake of decolonization.
Under the leadership of President Philibert Tsiranana, Madagascar's First Republic (1960–1972) was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France. This period was characterized by continued economic and cultural dependence upon France, provoking resentment and sparking the "rotaka", popular movements among farmers and students that ultimately ushered in the socialist Democratic Republic of Madagascar under Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975–1992) distinguished by economic isolationism and political alliances with pro-Soviet states. As Madagascar's economy quickly unraveled, standards of living declined dramatically and growing social unrest was increasingly met with violent repression on the part of the Ratsiraka government. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democratic Third Republic (1992–2009). Under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka, and Marc Ravalomanana. This latter was ousted in the 2009 Malagasy political crisis by a popular movement under the leadership of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in what was widely characterized as a coup d'état. Rajoelina ushered in the Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010 and ruled Madagascar as president of the High Transitional Authority without recognition from the international community. Elections were held on December 20, 2013 to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance.
First inhabitants and settlements (500 BCE–700 CE).
Archaeological evidence for date of first settlement.
The earliest unambiguous evidence of human presence in Madagascar was found at Andavakoera and dates to 490 CE. There is some evidence for earlier human presence, but it is ambiguous or not widely studied yet. Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.
There is potential evidence in the form of a cutmarked subfossil lemur bone from a palaeontological site, Taolambiby, in the southwest. One date was obtained, calibrated 530 to 300 BCE (Godfrey & Jungers 2003). The cutmarking looks plausible, but there is a potential problem of old carbon from the limestone landscape compromising the date, and there are no associated artifacts or archaeological sites in the vicinity. Nearly contemporaneous potential evidence comes from cannabis or humulus pollen which occurs in a pollen column from the central highlands at an interpolated date of c. 2200 Before Present (BP). There is a hypothesis that cannabis may have reached Africa 3000 years ago.
In 2009, archaeological excavations at Christmas River (south-central Madagascar) by Pat Wright and James Hansford located a purported elephant bird kill site, with bones showing human cut marks. These were dated to 8,500 BCE, but as yet there is no indication as to the identity of the hunters.
Necho II's Phoenician expedition c. 595 BCE circumnavigated Africa but did not see Madagascar when passing through the Mozambique Channel, as it stayed within sight of land. The island was likely uninhabited.
There is no archaeological evidence for human occupation in the highlands until around 1200.
Finally, a cutmarked pygmy hippo bone from Ambolisatra has been dated and calibrated to between 60 BCE and 130 CE (2 SDs), but it is from a coastal swamp without indications of settlement in a heavily karstic region. Moreover, a similar bone from the same collection from a nearby site gave two widely divergent dates of 2020 and 3495 BP (MacPhee & Burney 1991). Transient visits to Madagascar that did not result in enduring settlement cannot be ruled out, and may have left some traces.
A common Austronesian origin: The "Vahoaka Ntaolo".
Factual information about the peopling of Madagascar remains incomplete, but much recent multidisciplinary research and work in archaeology, genetics, linguistics, and history confirms that the Malagasy people were originally and overwhelmingly Austronesian peoples native to the Sunda Islands. They probably arrived on the west coast of Madagascar with outrigger canoes ("waka") at the beginning of our era or as much as 300 years sooner according to archaeologists, and perhaps even earlier under certain geneticists' assumptions. On the basis of plant cultigens, Blench proposed the migrations occurred "at the earliest century BCE". Archaeological work of Ardika and Bellwood suggests migration between 500 and 200 BCE.
The Borobudur Ship Expedition in 2003–2004 affirmed scholars' ideas that ships from ancient Indonesia could have reached Madagascar and the west African coast for trade from the 8th century and after. A traditional Borobudur ship with outriggers was reconstructed and sailed in this expedition from Jakarta to Madagascar and Ghana. As for the ancient route, one possibility is that Indonesian Austronesians came directly across the Indian Ocean from Java to Madagascar. It is likely that they went through the Maldives where evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present. The Malagasy language originated from the Southeast Barito language, and Ma'anyan language is its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords. It is known that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Malay and Javanese people in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD. These pioneers are known in the Malagasy oral tradition as the "Ntaolo", from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*tau-ulu", literally 'first men', from "*tau", 'man', and "*ulu", 'head; first; origin, beginning. It is likely that those ancient people called themselves *"va-waka", "the canoe people" from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*va", 'people', and "*waka" 'canoe'. Today the term means 'people' in Malagasy.
The Southeast Asian origin of the first Malagasy people explains certain features common among the Malagasy, for instance, the epicanthic fold common among all Malagasy whether coastal or highlands, whether pale, dark or copper skinned. This original population ("vahoaka ntaolo") can be called the "Proto-Malagasy". They are the source of:
As for the cause of the coming of these Austronesians, the history of the Indian Ocean from the early first millennium CE is still poorly understood. One can only assume that the island of Madagascar played an important role in trade, particularly that of spice trade (especially cinnamon) and timber between Southeast Asia and the Middle East, directly or through the African coast and Madagascar.
"Vazimba" and "Vezo".
The first known concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island, although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced "tavy" (slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.
By 600, groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central highlands ("Imerina"), where they particularly planted taro ("saonjo") and probably rice ("vary"). These "Vahoaka Ntaolo", hunters-gatherers and farmers, who decided to settle "in the forest", especially in the forests of the central highlands are known by the tradition as the Vazimba (from "*ba/va-yimba-" 'those of the forest', from "*yimba-" 'forest' in Proto–Southeast Barito, today "barimba" or "orang rimba" in Malay). Rafandrana, an ancestor of the Merina royal dynasty, for example, is known to have been a Vazimba. Rafohy and Rangita, the two founding queens of the Merina royalty, were also called Vazimbas.
On the other side, the fishermen who, from the beginning, remained on the southwestern coast (probably the coasts of the first landing) were, according to the linguists, probably originally called the "Vezo" (from "*ba/va/be/ve-jau" – "those of the coast", borrowed from Proto-Malayo-Javanese, today "veju" in Bugis, "bejau" in Malay, and "bajo" in Javanese), which today is still the name of a Southwestern tribe.
After the arrival of the newcomers (see below), as growing population density necessitated higher crop yields, irrigated rice paddies emerged in Betsileo country by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout the central highlands a century later. Zebu were introduced around 1000 by Bantu-speaking migrants from the African Great Lakes region (see below), who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.
Traders, explorers, and immigration (700–1500).
By the mid-first millennium (ca 700) until about 1500, the inner Vazimbas as much as the coastal Vezos clans welcome new visitors or immigrants. These goods and/or slave traders from the Middle East (Shirazi Persians, Omani Arabs, Arab Jews, accompanied by Bantus from southeast Africa), and from Asia (Gujarat Indians, Malays, Javanese, Bugis) were sometimes integrated within the coastal Vezos and the inner Vazimbas clans.
Omani Arabs (from the 7th century).
The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century when Omanis established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as the sorabe alphabet), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. During this early period, Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the East African coast that gave Africa a trade route to the Silk Road and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships. There is evidence that Bantu or Swahili sailors or traders may have begun sailing to the western shores of Madagascar as early as around the 6th and 7th century.
According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Bantus and Arabs to settle in Madagascar came as refugees from the civil wars that followed the death of Muhammad in 632.
Beginning in the 10th or 11th century, Arabic and Zanzibari slavers worked their way down the Swahili coast in their dhows and established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. Notably they included the Zafiraminia, traditional ancestors of the Antemoro, Antanosy and other east coast ethnicities. The last wave of Arab immigrants, the Antalaotra, immigrated from Swahili colonies. They settled the northwest of the island (the Mahajanga area) and introduced, for the first time, Islam to Madagascar.
Arab immigrants, though few in number compared to the native Austronesians and Bantus, nevertheless left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins in certain regions come from Arabic origins, as do cultural features such as the practice of circumcision, the communal grain-pool, and different forms of salutation (such as "salama").
Neo-Austronesians: Malays, Javanese, Bugis, and Orang Laut (from the 8th century).
According to oral tradition, new Austronesian clans (Malays, Javanese, Bugis, and orang-orang laut), historically referred to in general, regardless of their native island, as the "Hova" (from Old Bugis "uwa", "commoner") landed in the north-west and east coast of the island. Adelaar's observations of Old Malay (Sanskritised), Old Javanese (Sanskritised) and Old Bugis borrowings in the initial Proto-Southeast-Barito language indicate that the first Hova waves came probably in the 7th century at the earliest. Marre and Dahl pointed out that the number of Sanskrit words in Malagasy is very limited compared with the large number now found in Indonesian languages, which means that the Indonesian settlers must have come at an early stage of Hindu influence, that is ca. 400 AD.
The Hova were probably derived from Indonesian thalassocracies. Their leaders were known as the "diana" in the Southeast and "andriana" or "raondriana" in the Center and the West (from "(ra)-hadi-an", "lord" or "master" in Old Javanese, modern Javanese "raden", also found in the Bugis noble title and the Tagalog word for "king" "hari"). They for the most part allied with Vazimba clans:
With the arrival of Islam, Persian and Arab traders soon supplanted the Indonesians on the coast of Africa and eventually extended their control over the Comoro Islands and parts of the coast of Madagascar. Meanwhile, with competition in the new joint naval powers of Song China and Chola South India, the thalassocracies of Indonesia were in rapid decline, though the Portuguese still encountered Javanese sailors in Madagascar in the sixteenth century.
Bantus (from the 9th century).
There is archaeological evidence that Bantu peoples, agro-pastoralists from East Africa, may have begun migrating to the island as early as the 6th and 7th century. Other historical and archaeological records suggest that some of the Bantus were descendants of Swahili sailors and merchants who used dhows to traverse the seas to the western shores of Madagascar. Finally some sources theorize that during the Middle Ages, Arab, Persian and Neo-Austronesian slave-traders brought Bantu people to Madagascar transported by Swahili merchants to feed foreign demand for slaves. Years of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu influences. There are consequently many (Proto-)Swahili borrowings in the initial Proto-SEB Malagasy language. This substratum is especially significantly present in the domestic and agricultural vocabulary (e.g. "omby" or "aombe", "beef", from Swahili "ng'ombe"; "tongolo" "onion" from Swahili "kitunguu"; Malagasy "nongo" "pot" from "nunggu" in Swahili).
Europeans (from 1500).
Europe knew of Madagascar through Arab sources; thus "The Travels of Marco Polo" claimed that "the inhabitants are Saracens, or followers of the law of Mohammed", without mentioning other inhabitants. Other than its size and location, everything about the island in the book describes southeastern Africa, not Madagascar. European contact began on August 10, 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India. The Portuguese traded with the islanders and named the island "São Lourenço" (Saint Lawrence). In 1666, François Caron, the director general of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon (now Réunion) and Isle de France (now Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast. On Île Sainte-Marie, a small island off the northeastern coast of Madagascar, Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famous pirate utopia of Libertatia in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favorite haunt for pirates. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. Sailors sometimes called Madagascar "Island of the Moon".
European settlements.
By the 15th century, Europeans had wrested control of the spice trade from the Muslims. They did this by bypassing the Middle East and sending their cargo-ships around the Cape of Good Hope to India. The Portuguese mariner Diogo Dias became the first European to set foot on Madagascar when his ship, bound for India, blew off course in 1500. In the ensuing 200 years, the English and French tried (and failed) to establish settlements on the island.
Fever, dysentery, hostile Malagasy, and the trying arid climate of southern Madagascar soon terminated the English settlement near Toliara in 1646. Another English settlement in the north in Île Sainte-Marie came to an end in 1649. The French colony at Tôlanaro (Fort Dauphin) fared a little better: it lasted thirty years. On Christmas night 1672, local Antanosy tribesmen, perhaps angry because fourteen French soldiers in the fort had recently divorced their Malagasy wives to marry fourteen French orphan-women sent out to the colony, massacred the fourteen grooms and thirteen of the fourteen brides. The Antanosy then besieged the stockade at Tôlanaro for eighteen months. A ship of the French East India Company rescued the surviving thirty men and one widow in 1674.
In 1665, François Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today's Réunion and Mauritius respectively). In the late 17th century, the French established trading-posts along the east coast.
Pirates and slave-traders.
Between 1680 and 1725, Madagascar became a pirate stronghold. Many unfortunate sailors became shipwrecked and stranded on the island. Those who survived settled down with the natives, or more often, found French or English colonies on the island or even pirate havens and thus became pirates themselves. One such case, that of Robert Drury,
resulted in a journal giving one of the few written depictions of southern Madagascar in the 18th century.
Notable pirates including William Kidd, Henry Every, John Bowen, and Thomas Tew made Antongil Bay and Île Sainte-Marie (a small island 12 miles off the northeast coast of Madagascar) their bases of operations. The pirates plundered merchant ships in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. They deprived Europe-bound ships of their silks, cloth, spices, and jewels. Vessels captured going in the opposite direction (to India) lost their coin, gold, and silver. The pirates robbed the Indian cargo ships that traded between ports in the Indian Ocean as well as ships commissioned by the East India Companies of France, England, and the Netherlands. The pilgrim fleet sailing between Surat in India and Mocha on the tip of the Arabian Peninsula were a favorite target, because the wealthy Muslim pilgrims often carried jewels and other finery with them to Mecca. Merchants in India, various ports of Africa, and Réunion showed willingness to fence the pirates' stolen goods. The low-paid seamen who manned merchant ships in the Indian Ocean hardly put up a fight, seeing as they had little reason or motivation to risk their lives. The pirates often recruited crewmen from the ships they plundered.
With regard to piracy in Malagasy waters, note the (semi-)legendary accounts of the alleged pirate-state of Libertalia.
Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, certain Malagasy tribes occasionally waged wars to capture and enslave prisoners. They either sold the slaves to Arab traders or kept them on-hand as laborers. Following the arrival of European slavers, human slaves became more valuable, and the coastal tribes of Madagascar took to warring with each other to obtain prisoners for the lucrative slave-trade. Instead of spears and cutlasses, the tribesmen fought with muskets, musket-balls, and gunpowder that they obtained from the Europeans, conducting fierce and brutal wars. On account of their relationship to the pirates, the Betsimisaraka in eastern Madagascar had more firearms than anyone else. They overpowered their neighbors, the Antankarana and Tsimihety, and even raided the Comoro Islands. As the tribe on the west coast with the most connections to the slave trade, the Sakalava people also had access to guns and powder.
Today, the people of Madagascar can be considered as the product of mixing between the first occupants, the "vahoaka ntaolo" Austronesians ("Vazimba"and "Vezo") and those arrived later ("Hova" neo-Austronesians, Persians, Arabs, Africans and Europeans).
Genotypically, the original Austronesian heritage is more or less evenly distributed throughout the island. Researchers have noticed the "Polynesian motif" everywhere: an old marker of Austronesian populations from before the great immigration to the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia. This fact would require a starting common home among the Proto-Malagasy "vahoaka ntaolo" (gone west to Madagascar) and the ancestors of the current Polynesians (left for the Pacific Islands in the East) between 500 BCE – 1 CE.
Feudal era (1500–1895).
Rise of the great kingdoms.
Those new immigrants of the Middle Ages were a minority in numbers, yet their cultural contributions, political and technological to the neo-Vazimba and neo-Vezo world substantially altered their society and is the cause of the major upheavals of the sixteenth century that led to the Malagasy feudal era.
On the coasts, the integration of the East Asians, Middle Easterns, Bantus and Portuguese led to the establishment of the kingdoms of the Antakarana, Boina, Menabe and Vezo on the west coast, the Mahafaly and Antandroy in the south, and the Antesaka, Antambahoaka, Antemoro, Antanala and Betsimisaraka on the east coast.
In the interior, the struggle for hegemony between the different Neo-Vazimba clans of central highlands, called the "Hova" by the coastal Neo-Vezo clans, led to the creation of the Merina, Betsileo, Bezanozano, Sihanaka, Tsimihety and Bara kingdoms.
The birth of these kingdoms/tribes essentially altered the political structure of the ancient world of the Vahoaka Ntaolo, but for the most part the common language, customs, traditions, religion and economy was preserved.
Among the Central Kingdoms, the most important were the Betsileo kingdoms (Fandriana, Fisakana, Manandriana, Isandra) to the south, and the Merina kingdoms to the north. These were definitively unified in the early 19th century by Andrianampoinimerina. His son and successor Radama I (reigning 1810–1828) opened his country to foreign influence. With the support of the British, he extended its authority over much of the island. From 1817, the central Merina kingdoms, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka, unified by Radama I were known to the outside world as the Kingdom of Madagascar.
Sakalava.
The island's West clan chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbors, first with Arab, Persian and Somali traders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India, and later with European slave traders. The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created. Madagascar functioned as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such as Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar. By the Middle Ages, large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe (centered in what is now the town of Morondava) and of Boina (centered in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.
The island's chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably East Africa, the Middle East and India. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centered in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.
According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara). They quickly subdued the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance was Andriamisara; his son Andriandahifotsy (c1610-1658) then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe) and a northern kingdom (Boina). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.
The Sakalava rulers of this period are known through the memoirs of Europeans such as Robert Drury, James Cook, Barnvelt (1719), Valentyn (1726).
Merina monarchy.
King Andrianampoinimerina (1785–1810) and his son, Radama I (1810–1828) succeeded in uniting nearly all of Madagascar under Merina rule. These kings and their successors descended from a line of ancient Merina royalty who ruled the lands of Imerina in the central Highlands of Madagascar since at least the 16th century. Even prior to their eventual domination and unification of the entire island, the political and cultural activities of Merina royalty were to leave an indelible mark on contemporary Malagasy identity.
With the establishment of dominion over the greater part of the Highlands, Andrianampoinimerina became the first Merina monarch to be considered a king of Madagascar. The island continued to be ruled by a succession of Merina monarchs until the last of them, Ranavalona III, was deposed and exiled to Algeria by French forces who conquered and colonized the island in 1895.
King Andrianampoinimerina.
Andrianampoinimerina, grandson of King Andriambelomasina and successor to his uncle King Andrianjafy, successfully reunited the fragmented Merina kingdom through a combination of diplomacy, strategic political marriages and successful military campaigns against rival princes. Andrianampoinimerina distinguished himself from other kings by codifying laws and supervising the building of dikes and trenches to increase the amount of arable land around his capital at Antananarivo in a successful bid to end the famines that had wracked Imerina for decades. The king ambitiously proclaimed: "Ny ranomasina no valapariako" (“the sea is the boundary of my rice-field”), and by the time of his death in 1810 he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes, laying the groundwork for expansion of his kingdom to the shores of the island.
King Radama I (1810–1828).
Andrianampoinimerina's son Radama I (Radama the Great) assumed the throne during a turning-point in European history that had repercussions for Madagascar. With the defeat of Napoléon in 1814/1815, the balance of power in Europe and overseas shifted in Britain's favor. The British, eager to exert control over the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, had captured the islands of Réunion and Mauritius from the French in 1810. Although they returned Réunion to France, they kept Mauritius as a naval base which would maintain trade links throughout the British Empire. Mauritius's governor, in a bid to woo Madagascar from French control, recognized Radama I as King of Madagascar, a diplomatic maneuver meant to underscore the idea of the sovereignty of the island and thus to preclude claims by any European powers.
Radama I signed treaties with the United Kingdom outlawing the slave trade and admitting Protestant missionaries into Madagascar. As a result of these treaties Protestant missionaries from Britain would spread British influence in Madagascar; while outlawing the slave trade would weaken Réunion's economy by depriving the island of slave laborers for France's sugar plantations. In return for outlawing the slave trade, Madagascar received what the treaty called "The Equivalent": an annual sum of a thousand dollars in gold, another thousand in silver, stated amounts of gunpowder, flints, and muskets, plus 400 surplus British Army uniforms. The governor of Mauritius also sent military advisers who accompanied and sometimes led Merina soldiers in their battles against the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. In 1824, having defeated the Betsimisaraka, Radama I declared, "Today, the whole island is mine! Madagascar has but one master." The king died in 1828 while leading his army on a punitive expedition against the Betsimisaraka.
Queen Ranavalona I (1828–1861).
The 33-year reign of Queen Ranavalona I, the widow of Radama I, was characterized by an increase in the size of the Kingdom of Madagascar as it conquered neighboring states as well as an effort to maintain the cultural and political sovereignty of Madagascar in the face of increasing foreign influence. The queen repudiated the treaties that Radama I had signed with Britain and, in 1835 after issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, she expelled British missionaries from the island and began persecuting Christian converts who would not renounce their religion. Malagasy Christians would remember this period as "ny tany maizina", or "the time when the land was dark". During her reign regular warfare, disease, slavery, difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice
(Tangena ordeal) resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign, with Madagascar's population reducing from 5 million in 1833 to 2.5 million in 1839.
Unbeknownst to the queen, her son and heir, the crown-prince (the future Radama II), attended Roman Catholic masses in secret. The young man grew up under the influence of French nationals in Antananarivo. In 1854, he wrote a letter to Napoléon III inviting France to invade and uplift Madagascar. On June 28, 1855 he signed the Lambert Charter. This document gave Joseph-François Lambert, an enterprising French businessman who had arrived in Madagascar only three weeks before, the exclusive right to develop all minerals, forests, and unoccupied land in Madagascar in exchange for a 10-percent royalty payable to the Merina monarchy. In years to come, the French would show the Lambert Charter and the prince's letter to Napoléon III to explain the Franco-Hova Wars and the annexation of Madagascar as a colony. In 1857, the queen uncovered a plot by her son (the future Radama II) and French nationals in the capital to remove her from power. She immediately expelled all foreigners from Madagascar, sparing her son. Ranavalona died in 1861.
King Radama II (1861–1863).
In his brief two years on the throne, King Radama II re-opened trade with Mauritius and Réunion, invited Christian missionaries and foreigners to return to Madagascar, and re-instated most of Radama I's reforms. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, and Rainivoninahitriniony, the prime minister, engineered a coup d'état in which Radama II was strangled to death.
Queen Rasoherina (1863–1868).
A council of princes headed by Rainilaiarivony approached Rabodo, the widow of Radama II, the day after the death of her husband. They gave her the conditions under which she could succeed to the throne. These conditions included the suppression of trial by ordeal as well as the monarchy's defense of freedom of religion. Rabodo, crowned queen on May 13, 1863 under the throne name of Rasoherina, reigned until her death on April 1, 1868.
The Malagasy people remember Queen Rasoherina for sending ambassadors to London and Paris and for prohibiting Sunday markets. On June 30, 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. With the United States of America she signed a trade agreement that also limited the importation of weapons and the export of cattle. Finally, with France the queen signed a peace between her descendants and the descendants of the "Emperor of France". Rasoherina married her Prime Minister, Rainivoninahitriniony, but public outcry against his involvement in the murder of Radama II soon forced his resignation and exile to Betsileo country south of Imerina. She then married his brother, Rainilaiarivony, head of the army at the time of Radama II's murder who was promoted to the post of Prime Minister upon the resignation and exile of his older brother. Rainilaiarivony would rule Madagascar from behind the scenes for the remaining 32 years of the Merina monarchy, marrying each of the final three queens of Madagascar in succession.
Queen Ranavalona II (1868–1883).
In 1869, Queen Ranavalona II, previously educated by the London Missionary Society, underwent baptism into the Church of England and subsequently made the Anglican faith the official state religion of Madagascar.
The queen had all the "sampy" (traditional royal idols) burned in a public display. Catholic and Protestant missionaries arrived in numbers to build churches and schools. The reign of Queen Ranavalona II proved the high water mark of British influence in Madagascar. British goods and weapons arrived on the island by way of South Africa.
Queen Ranavalona III (1883–1897).
Her public coronation as queen took place on November 22, 1883 and she took the name Ranavalona III. As her first order of business she confirmed the nomination of Rainilaiarivony and his entourage in their positions. She also promised to do away with the French threat.
End of the monarchy.
Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property seized from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War ("Hova" as a name referring to the Merina aristocrats). At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In Europe, meanwhile, European diplomats had worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to establish control over the Sultanate of Zanzibar, ceded its rights over the island of Heligoland to Germany and renounced all claims of influence in Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled the end of the Madagascan political independence. Rainilaiarivony had succeeded in playing the various European powers against one another, but now France could act without fear of British support towards the Madagascans.
In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of the Betsiboka River to the capital, Antananarivo, taking the city's defenders by surprise (they had expected an attack from the much closer east coast). Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896 the French Parliament voted to annex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family sent into exile in Algeria.
International recognition and modernization of the Kingdom (1817–1895).
The kingdom of Madagascar continued its transformation throughout the 19th century from a locally grown monarchy into a modern state.
Before Radama I the Malagasy language was written in a script known as sorabe. In 1820 under the direction of David Jones, a Welsh missionary of the London Missionary Society, Radama I codified the new Malagasy Latin alphabet of 21 letters which replaced the old sorabe alphabet. By 1830 the Bible was the first book written in this new Malagasy Latin alphabet. It is the oldest complete translation of the bible into a sub-Saharan African language.
The United States and the Kingdom of Madagascar concluded a commercial convention in 1867 after which Queen Rasoherina and Prime Minister Rainilaiarivoy exchanged gifts with president Andrew Johnson. A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was then signed in 1881.
During the reign of Ranavalona I, early attempts at industrialization took place from 1835 under the direction of the French Jean Laborde (a survivor of a shipwreck off the east coast), producing soap, porcelain, metal tools and firearms (rifles, cannons, etc.)..
In 1864 Antananarivo opened the first hospital and a modern medical school. Two years later appeared the first newspaper. A scientific journal in English ("Antananarivo Annual") was released from 1875. In 1894, on the eve of the establishment of colonial rule, the schools of the kingdom, mainly led by the Protestant missions, were attended by over 200,000 students.
French colonization.
In the Berlin Treaty, the British accepted the claims of France to exert its influence on Madagascar, and a treaty of alliance between France and Madagascar was signed on December 17, 1885 by Queen Ranavalona III.
Disagreements on the implementation of this treaty served as a pretext for the French invasion of 1895, which first met little resistance. The authority of the Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, in power since 1864, had become very unpopular with the public.
The British accepted the imposition of a French protectorate over Madagascar in 1890 in return for recognition of British soverienigty over Zanzibar (subsequently part of Tanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area. The intention of the French was initially to maintain the protectorate in order to control the economy and foreign relations of the island. But later, the outbreak of the Menalamba rebellion and the arrival of General Gallieni (responsible for "pacifying" the country) in 1896 led to the colonization of the island and the exile of the queen to Algeria.
In 1904–1905 Madagascar was the scene of a large-scale uprising by various tribes and tribal leaders, among whom Kotavy, a former French corporal who defected to the rebels, filled a preponderant role.
Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria during World War II. Prior to the implementation of the Final Solution, Nazi Germany had considered the Madagascar Plan, which would have relocated European Jews to Madagascar. After France fell to the Germans in 1940, the Vichy government administered Madagascar until 1942, when British and Commonwealth troops occupied the strategic island in the Battle of Madagascar. The United Kingdom handed over control of the island to Free French Forces in 1943.
Revolt and decolonization (1947–1960).
In 1948, with French prestige at a low ebb, the French government, headed by Prime Minister Paul Ramadier of the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party, suppressed the Madagascar revolt, a nationalist uprising.
The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic, proclaimed on October 14, 1958, became an autonomous state within the French Community. On March 26, 1960 France agreed to Madagascar becoming fully independent. On June 26, 1960 Madagascar became an independent country and Philibert Tsiranana became its first president.
Independence.
First Republic (1960–1972).
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (or "colons") still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism.
In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana had to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This régime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.
On February 5, 1975, Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava became the President of Madagascar. After six days as head of the country, he died in an assassination while driving from the presidential palace to his home. Political power passed to Gilles Andriamahazo.
Second Republic (1972–1991).
On June 15, 1975, Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka (who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalizing much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind. Ratsiraka's original seven-year term as President continued after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections.
In the 1980s, Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power.
Eventually, opposition, both within and without, forced Ratsiraka to consider his position and in 1992 the country adopted a new and democratic constitution.
Third Republic (1991–2002).
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Despite being a strong proponent of a liberal, free-market economy, Zafy ran on a ticket critical of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. During his presidency the country struggled to implement IMF and World Bank guidelines that were, on the short term, suicidal politically.
As president Zafy was frustrated by the restraints placed upon the powers of his office by the new constitution. His quest for increased executive power put him on a collision course with the parliament led by then Prime Minister Francisque Ravony. Zafy eventually won the power he sought after but suffered impeachment at the hands of the disenfranchised parliament in 1996 for violating the constitution by refusing to promulgate specific laws.
The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and unexpectedly resulted in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka.
He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and the World Bank led to widespread privatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but the incumbent rejected this position. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and violent clashes took place. Ravalomanana claimed that fraud had occurred in the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent gained international recognition, and Ratsiraka had to go into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued activities in Madagascar.
Post-Ratsiraka.
Ravalomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2001 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, to end corruption and to realise the country's potential.
Ratsiraka went on trial ("in absentia") for embezzlement (the authorities charged him with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and the court sentenced him to ten years' hard labour.
Ravalomanana is credited with improving the country's infrastructure, such as roads, along with making improvements in education and health, but has faced criticism for his lack of progress against poverty; purchasing power is said to have declined during his time in office. On November 18, 2006, his plane was forced to divert from Madagascar's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports of a coup underway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport; however, this alleged coup attempt was unsuccessful.
Ravalomanana ran for a second term in the presidential election held on December 3, 2006. According to official results, he won the election with 54.79% of the vote in the first round; his best results were in Antananarivo Province, where he received the support of 75.39% of voters. He was sworn in for his second term on January 19, 2007.
Ravalomanana dissolved the National Assembly in July 2007, prior to the end of its term, following a constitutional referendum earlier in the year. Ravalomanana said that a new election needed to be held so that the National Assembly would reflect the changes made in this referendum.
He became involved in a political standoff after he closed the TV station belonging to Antananarivo mayor Andry Rajoelina. In January 2009, protests which then turned violent were organized and spearheaded by Andry Rajoelina, the mayor of the capital city of Antananarivo and a prominent opponent of President Ravalomanana.
The situation fundamentally changed on March 10, 2009 when army leaders forced the recently appointed defense secretary to resign (the previous one had decided to resign after the killings by the presidential guard on February 7, 2009). They also announced that they gave the opponents 72 hours to dialogue and find a solution to the crisis before they would take further action. This move came after the leaders of the main military camp had announced a day earlier that they would not execute orders coming from the presidency any more since their duty was to protect the people, and not to oppress them, as groups of the military had done over the last few days.
On March 16, 2009, the army seized the presidential palace in the centre of Antananarivo. Ravalomanana was not in the palace at the time. He handed his resignation to the army, which then decided to hand over power to his fierce political rival, Andry Rajoelina. The second round of the postponed presidential elections was held in December 2013 and the results were announced in January 2014. The winner and the next president was Hery Rajaonarimampianina. He was backed by Rajoelina who led the 2009 coup and still was very influential political figure.
In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.
In 2019, an epidemic of measles killed 1,200 people.


Mawanda of Buganda

Mawanda Sebanakitta was Kabaka (King) of the Kingdom of Buganda, between 1738 and 1740. He was the twenty second (22nd) Kabaka of Buganda.
Claim to the throne.
He was the third son of Kabaka Ndawula Nsobya, the 19th Kabaka of Buganda. His mother was Nakidde Luyiga of the Ngo clan, the fourth (4th) of his father's seven (7) wives. Mawanda killed his brother Kabaka Kikulwe Mawuba and seized the throne around 1738. He established his capital at Katakala.
Married life.
He is recorded to have married seven (7) wives:
Issue.
His children included the following:
The final years.
A group of princes in the royal court conspired to murder Kabaka Mawanda in 1740. The group included Prince Mwanga Sebanakitta, who ascended the throne after Kabaka Mawanda's demise. Kabaka Mawanda was buried at Meerera at first, but was exhumed in 1864 and re-buried at Serinnya.
Quotes.
"Mawanda had qualities which endeared him to the people. He was brave and fearless."
"Kabaka Mawanda (1730-60) had consolidated the monarchy as the overriding centre of power in Buganda through the administrative reforms he carried out, creating a parallel system of administration, the Bitongole whose officials were directly responsible to the Kabaka and reached down to villages."


The Finnish dormitory in Taichung

The Finnish dormitory in Taichung, Taiwan, was a facility that was run by the Finnish Missionary Society in Taichung during the years 1968–1997. From 1973 on the dormitory was located within the campus of Morrison Academy. This dormitory was the subject of a master's thesis in pedagogy in Helsinki University in 1987.
The dormitory was run by ca. 20 different Finnish missionaries, longest of whom served Seppo and Marja-Liisa Salko, who are the only employees there mentioned by Tapani Ruokanen in his 1978 book as well as in the dissertation of Mirja Pesonen, which dealt with Taiwan as a mission field of the Finnish Missionary Society. The dormitory has been a subject of intense media interest in Finland in 1999, 2001 and 2013.
The following is a description of the dormitory mainly during the years 1968–80, which is the time period covered by Anne Ijäs in her 1987 master's thesis. No such account of the later years exists.
Background.
The Finnish Missionary Society began missionary work in Taiwan in 1956. The first family with children was sent there in 1959. The first Finnish child in the mission field became of school age in 1963, and he was enrolled in Morrison Academy, an American school that was located in Taichung. Morrison had been founded in 1952. By 1965, a total of four Finnish children attended Morrison, and they all lived in the dormitory of the school.
The discussion leading up to the founding of the Finnish dormitory.
From 1965 on, the schooling of the Finnish missionary children in Taiwan began to be contemplated seriously. There were two alternatives: either a Finnish school would have to be founded on the island, or the children would have to attend Morrison, and a Finnish dormitory would be arranged for these children.
According to Ijäs, the following arguments were put forward in this discussion:
Arguments for a Finnish school.
The arguments for a Finnish school were the following:
Arguments against a Finnish school.
The following arguments against a Finnish school were put forward:
Arguments for Morrison Academy.
The following points were seen as positive with the children attending Morrison:
Arguments against Morrison Academy.
The following points were seen as negative with the children attending Morrison:
The question of the school vs. dormitory is resolved.
The board of the mission field came to the conclusion that establishing a Finnish school on the island was a project that was too large in scale to be undertaken by the Finnish Missionary Society. It was also felt that after a four-year elementary school the families would have to return to Finland in order that the children could proceed with their education. Also the bad experiences of the Norwegians in Taiwan were taken into account. It was also pointed out that Morrison was widely known as “the best school in Asia.” When it was taken into account that the Christian world view of this school was similar to that of the missionaries and that at Morrison the children would learn “the universally useful English language”, the decision was made that the children would attend Morrison and live in a Finnish dormitory. However, even as late as 1970, the leadership of the mission society in Finland was still in favor of establishing a Finnish school on the island.
Premises.
First premises.
The dormitory began its operation in rented premises in the autumn of 1968, with Miss Ursula Zidbeck as the head and only Finnish employee. The premises were small, but each of the six students had their own room, and the school was located within a few minutes’ walk from the dormitory. Thus the students came to the dormitory for their lunches.
Second premises.
In the autumn of 1970, Miss Pirjo Lahti, a business college graduate, replaced Zidbeck. During Lahti's tenure, Morrison Academy had to relocate, as the city zoning was changed and a main road was planned right across the campus. The school moved to an area outside the city at the time, and the Finnish dormitory likewise moved to a place nearer the new location, again into rented premises. The distance to the school was now ca. five kilometers.
In 1971 the board of the mission field applied for money from the mission society in order to purchase a lot for a new dormitory. The board of the mission field agreed with the suggestion from Morrison that they build the dormitory on campus, on a lot given to them. One of the advantages of this decision was that the dorm would be in an area that was guarded by the school. This was a great advantage in a country where thefts were quite common.
While the dormitory still operated in rented premises, a new couple from Finland, Seppo and Marja-Liisa Salko, arrived in the autumn of 1971 to Taiwan to work in the dormitory. The missionaries in Taiwan had requested specifically for this kind of a couple. The plan was that they would begin immediately at the dorm, but as they had just had a baby, they spent their first year in language school, and Pirjo Lahti continued at the dorm. The Salkos began in the dormitory in the autumn of 1972, and Miss Lahti took on other responsibilities in Taiwan.
Permanent premises.
The mission board in Taiwan bought a triangular lot from Morrison for the new dormitory. It was located in the so-called Faculty Row. When making plans for the dormitory building, the Finnish missionaries turned to the head of the Finnish private school in Swakopmund, Namibia. The headmaster of the school in Swakopmund, Mr. Juhani Olanterä sent some suggestions in a letter he wrote to the Finns in Taiwan.
There were several twists and turns in the planning of the dormitory building. The first plans were made for a building that turned out to be too large for the lot. The floor plan also caused disagreements within the body of Finnish missionaries. For example, the excessively large number of entrances, at least five of them into the main building, caused controversies. In the end it was Seppo Salko who said the last word on the floor plan. The building included a Finnish sauna, separate bathrooms for boys and girls, and next to these, a room in which the children could play. In the summer of 1976, the boys’ bathroom was changed into a piano room, which was soundproof and was accessed from the room designated for children's playing. The floor plan of the building was published by "Suomen Kuvalehti" in 2001.
The construction work also had quite a few turns. A change was announced in city zoning regulations, to take effect in July 1973, and only those buildings that had a roof at that time were allowed to be completed. The mission headquarters made the decision to build the house only on 25 April 1973, and the construction was begun on 7 May 1973.
The official regulations on building were complex, and in addition to these difficulties, Salko only spoke Mandarin Chinese, whereas the construction workers spoke the Taiwanese dialect. The city zoning necessitated a special permit, and on top of everything else, the constructor was engulfed in gambling debts and left the work unfinished. Finally the building was completed on 15 December 1973, and the residents could move in.
In 1978 the premises were deemed too small for the number of children and adolescents living in the dorm, and thus a storehouse on the lot was converted into two additional rooms during the summer of that year. The students who lived there from then on were mainly highschoolers, boys and girls in alternating years.
Atmosphere and the daily routine during 1973–1980.
According to Ijäs, the atmosphere in the dormitory that was taken to use in 1973 was that of a normal home. “There was a direct entrance [i.e. a door] from the bedroom of the employees to the livingroom.” Later, by 1982, this door was no longer in use. Otherwise the homelike nature of the building was evident in the textiles used, in that there were flowers in the building and that the institution did not have any kinds of written rules, none whatsoever.
One of the most important tasks for the Salkos was maintaining a Finnish identity. This was facilitated e.g. by the fact that the children had their own surrogate “grandmother”, that, is Marja-Liisa Salko's mother Marjatta Raulamo, who came twice on extended visits, first for three months in the spring of 1974, and then for the entire school year 1976–1977.
The number of the students varied from four students in the autumn of 1969 to 22 students in the autumn of 1978. The ages were between 5 and 19 years of age.
There were also Chinese employees, usually two, one who helped in cleaning the house and another whose task it was to prepare food.
Ijäs quotes from Marjatta Raulamo the “working schedule” of the dormitory in 1976, which was the following:
Instruction given in the dormitory.
Instruction during Ursula Zidbeck’s tenure.
During Miss Zidbeck's it seems that little instruction was given to the children at the dormitory. Lessons in Finnish history, geography and the Finnish language were given for one hour on four days of the week. Each evening Finnish stories or books for children and adolescents were read aloud, and an evening devotion was held before the smallest children were due to go to bed.
In addition, there was the following programme during the week:
The older students read the "Seven brothers" by Aleksis Kivi, the smaller children were engaged in handicrafts, and stories were read to them, songs were sung, and the children read on their own. The reading activity was hampered by the lack of suitable books, as the only books available were those that Miss Zidbeck owned personally from the time that she had attended elementary and secondary school.
Instruction during Pirjo Lahti’s tenure.
During Pirjo Lahti's tenure the instruction seems to have been as modest as it was during her predecessor's time. However, no information concerning the instruction was filed in any archives. She tried to hold lessons in Finnish history, but the older students were not interested in this subject matter. Stories were read aloud to the younger children. Finnish flag days were observed.
Instruction during the Salkos’ tenure up to 1980.
During the Salkos’ tenure books used in Finnish comprehensive schools were obtained. At first Finnish instruction was given on Saturdays, on those weekends when the children did not go to their homes, but in 1978 an arrangement was arrived at with Morrison, according to which the Finnish instruction for elementary and middle schoolers was arranged during the school days. Elementary school classes were taught by Marja-Liisa Salko, and middle school classes by Seppo Salko. In middle school, these lessons were held during the hours when the children had elective classes. However, the Finnish children did not have a choice in this matter.
Instruction of Finnish history.
In high school at Morrison, there were two compulsory subjects in social studies that all students normally had to take. These were US History and US Government and Life. In 1979 it was agreed with Morrison that Finnish students would have to take only one of these subjects, while instead of the other they took a compulsory course in Finnish history. This involved 160 hours of study, and the exams were given by the Kauriala High School in Hämeenlinna, Finland, via correspondence.
Instruction of the Swedish.
Instruction of the Swedish language was begun already when Simo and Tarja Lipasti took care of the dormitory on a temporary basis during 1975–1976. The study materials were ordered from Finland. Beginning in the autumn of 1978, a Swedish speaking Finn, Miss Gunilla Ståhl, a missionary with the Finnish Covenant Church provided the instruction. The textbooks were obtained from Finland. As the time period examined by Ijäs ends in 1980, it is not possible to say how long the instruction in Swedish lasted.
Other subjects taught at the dormitory.
Other subjects taught at the dormitory included geography, Finnish nature and Finnish civics. The textbooks included e.g. books by Lappalainen called "Perusmaantieto" (‘The Basics of Geography’) and Lappalainen et al., "Kansalaistaito ja ympäristöoppi 3–4". (‘Civics and environmental awareness 3–4’).
Support of the State of Finland.
In 1973 the Finnish Missions Council, to which The Finnish Missionary Society also belongs, wrote an initiative to the Finnish Ministry of Education, asking that the Government of Finland give financial support to the Finnish children whose parents were abroad in missionary work and who were of the age in which they had compulsory education. In 1974 the Ministry of Education informed the missions that they had allotted moneys for this purpose, and in 1977 the Ministry gave orders on how expatriate Finnish children's schooling would be given financial assistance from Finland. As a result of this, The Finnish Missionary Society sent its first application to the Ministry in 1976, and this resulted in financial aid of 80 000 Finnish Marks to be used for the education of Finnish children in Namibia, Ethiopia and Taiwan. After this, the mission society sent an application to the ministry every year.
This financial aid was used for complementary education in Finnish and/or Swedish language, and for the salaries of the teachers, for study materials, mailing expenses of the study materials and for other expenses.
Possibilities of further education.
The possibilities of further study in Finland was something that the Mission Society wanted to find out in the autumn of 1979. Helsinki University stated that it would not give anyone a right to study at the university solely on the basis of a high school diploma from Morrison. Graduates from Morrison should first be accepted into some foreign university of similar institution, which issued doctor's degrees. After that a Morrison graduate could apply for Helsinki University as a foreign student. It turned out that each university or institution of higher learning in Finland had its own rules and regulations on the matter. By 1987, the number of Finnish graduates from Morrison was 17, and six of them studied in Finnish universities at the time, four had graduated from institutions that could be described as college level, and two studied in the United States. Two former students had themselves become missionaries in Taiwan
Hobbies.
Music.
The music teachers at Morrison were able to teach students to play almost any instrument. Thus many of the students of the Finnish dormitory played various instruments. Many of them played both the piano and some other instrument. In 1978, 14 students played the piano, and at times there were as many as three pianos at the dormitory, on which the students could practice.
The other instruments included the violin, the cello, the flute, the clarinet, the oboe, the trumpet, the saxophone, and the baritone horn. When there were a significant number of music students living at the dormitory, an orchestra was formed, led by Marja-Liisa Salko. They performed mainly in the dormitory's Christmas and spring festivities and at some events at Morrison.
Morrison had several orchestras and brass bands, in which the Finnish students also played, and also several choirs in which they sang.
Sports.
From middle school on, it was possible engage in extracurricular sports at Morrison. Some of the events included soccer, basketball, and athletics. Training in these sports took place after the school day, and matches and meets were arranged between Morrison, on the one hand, and Chinese schools and other American schools on the island, on the other.
Other hobbies.
Other hobbies included hiking in the mountains, which was done on a regular basis. It seems that photography was also a popular hobby, as the dormitory had its own darkroom from 1979 on. The school also provided an opportunity to pursue this hobby, as both a newspaper and a yearbook were published every year.
The girls had both a drama club and a Bible study group. The boys played intramural tournaments in table tennis, in which championship of the dormitory was determined. The younger girls were also active in girl guides and the younger boys had an Indian club and a father-son club.
In 1978 a group from the dormitory went to Taipei to cheer for a Finnish women's soccer team, which participated in an international tournament involving teams from 13 countries.
Home evenings.
At least during the school year 1978–79, there was a so-called “home evening” after sauna. The children were divided into groups, and on each night one group would organize some kind of a programme for the entertainment of all.
Festivities and other occasions.
Festivities during the school.
Certain festive occasions were part of the normal year of the dormitory, mainly Christmas celebration and a spring event to mark the end of the school year. The latter coincided with the end of the Morrison school year and their graduation ceremonies.
During the time period described by Ijäs, a “Finnish evening” was arranged in 1979 for the Finnish students in elementary and middle school and their teachers. Also the closest neighbours, the personnel of the Norwegian dormitory, were invited for an evening in October. Ijäs says that cooperation and mutual aid treaty of sorts existed between these two dormitories.
The Finnish Independence Day was celebrated in the same way as in Finland, with the flag of Finland and with blue and white candles, i.e. candles with the colours of the national flag.
Special occasions outside the school.
During Christmas holidays an event called St. Stephen's Day's songs were arranged for those Finns who lived in Taichung. This event highlighted the cohesion of the Finnish community in town. Also the eve of Midsummer was observed with the Taichung Finns.
During July, the Taiwan Missionary Fellowship was arranged in Taichung for all missionaries in Taiwan, and the Finns were accommodated at the dormitory during these meetings.
The dormitory after 1980.
After 1980 the dormitory was in a state of transition, the main change being that the smallest children were no longer sent to the dormitory in Taichung, but by 1987 they had been allowed to attend the Morrison branch schools, mainly in Kaohsiung and in Taipei, and they could now live at home with their parents.
There was also a new regulation concerning the Finnish employees of the dormitory: their work at the dormitory was now limited to two terms. In practice, this rule was violated almost immediately, when Seppo and Marja-Liisa Salko were sent for their fourth term in 1987.
Supporters of the dormitory.
In his 1978 book "Tehtävä Aasiassa" (’A Mission in Asia’), Tapani Ruokanen says that the following Finnish congregations and organizations supported the dormitory financially at that time: The Virolahti, Mänttä, Ristijärvi congregations and the Kaleva congregation from Tampere, as well as the Teachers Mission Union in Finland.
Suspicions of pedophilia in the dormitory.
In 1999, the Finnish Missionary Society released news that it had commissioned study into the Finnish dormitory in Taiwan. The study was conducted by an independent expert group called Metodi Team Inc. The study was commissioned because many of the former wards at the dormitory had psychological problems. The team interviewed more than 100 persons, of whom roughly a third had lived at the dormitory, and roughly half had been employed by the FMS in Taiwan. The study showed that many of the former wards had been sexually abused in their childhood.
At first the FMS requested a police investigation, but soon they found that they are not a party in the matter, at least not from a judicial point of view, and they withdrew the request.
Investigations and articles by "Suomen Kuvalehti".
The Finnish newsmagazine "Suomen Kuvalehti" published in 2001 several articles on the Finnish dormitory in Taichung. The most important articles appeared on 8 June 2001, on the eve of the FMS annual convention, which was held on the following day.
A journalist affiliated with the newsmagazine travelled to Taiwan to investigate the dormitory, the alleged scene of crime, which the Finnish police had not done; they merely interviewed persons who were acquainted with the place. It turned out that the area of the house was “350 m², it felt large, it was a labyrinth-like place, the walls were made of brick, and the rooms in which the children had lived had airconditioning. Above the ceiling there was an empty attic, where a man could stand up straight. The journalist Pesonen had walked from one end of the house to the other, and no one below had noticed his movements. According to the witness, in the living room one could not hear what was going on at the other end of the house.”
"Suomen Kuvalehti" had interviewed two formed residents of the dormitory, who said that they had been abused sexually while living in the dormitory. In addition to this, the parents of one of these former students had been interviewed.
The newsmagazine had several questions it directed at the Finnish police:


Ndaba kaMageba

Ndaba kaMageba was King of the Zulu. He was the son of Mageba, and was chief of the Zulu from 1745 to 1763.