Robert F. Stockton

Robert Field Stockton (August 20, 1795 – October 7, 1866) was a United States Navy commodore, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican–American War. He was a naval innovator and an early advocate for a propeller-driven, steam-powered navy. Stockton was from a notable political family and also served as a U.S. senator from New Jersey.
Biography.
Robert F. Stockton was born at Morven, Stockton Street, Princeton, New Jersey, into a political family; his father Richard Stockton was a U.S. senator and Representative, and his grandfather, Judge Richard Stockton was Attorney General for New Jersey and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Robert F. Stockton was of English descent, and his family had been in what is now the United States since the early colonial period.
Early naval service.
Stockton was appointed a midshipman in the U.S. Navy in September 1811, shortly after his 16th birthday, and served at sea and ashore during the War of 1812. After that conflict, Lieutenant Stockton was assigned to ships operating in the Mediterranean, in the Caribbean and off the coast of West Africa. He was the first naval officer to act against the slave trade and captured several slave ships. Stockton along with Dr. Eli Ayers of the American Colonization Society negotiated a treaty that led to the founding of the state of Liberia. One source describes that he "leveled a pistol at King Peter's head and thereby convinced the latter to sell some of his territory".
Business affairs.
During the later 1820s and into the 1830s, he primarily devoted his attention to business affairs in New Jersey. In addition, Stockton owned and operated the Tellurium gold mine in Goochland County, Virginia and Fluvanna County, Virginia, purchasing it in 1848, after its discovery in 1832 by G.W. Fisher. The birth of his son John P. Stockton, later also a U.S. senator representing New Jersey, occurred during this time.
In 1835, he purchased a property in Monmouth County, New Jersey, called "Sea Girt". The property was purchased in 1875 by a group of land developers, with the name of Stockton's estate ultimately leading to the choice of the name Sea Girt, New Jersey, when the borough was established in 1918.
Resumes active naval service.
In 1838, Stockton resumed active naval service as a captain. He served in the European area, but took leave in 1840 to undertake political work. Offered the post of U.S. Secretary of the Navy by President John Tyler in 1841, he declined the offer, but worked successfully to gain support for the construction of an advanced steam warship with a battery of very heavy guns.
This ship became , the Navy's first screw-propelled steamer. The ship was designed by John Ericsson. Stockton commanded her when she was completed in 1843. The ship was armed with two long 225 pounder wrought iron guns, called the ""Peacemaker" and the "Oregon"". Although he was the deviser of the defective gun, Captain Stockton's political influence allowed him to be absolved of all responsibility for the February 1844 explosion of the gun, the "Peacemaker", on board the ship. The explosion killed two cabinet secretaries and several others.
Cleared by the court of any wrongdoing in the explosion incident, Stockton was sent by President James K. Polk to Texas. Stockton carried with him Polk's offer to annex Texas, sailing on the "Princeton" and arriving in Galveston. Stockton's observations while in Texas made him aware of the looming war with Mexico, a fact he communicated directly to Polk once he arrived back in Washington. No vessel during the Mexican war was more useful than the "Princeton" in the Gulf of Mexico. The records of the Navy Department showed she performed more service than all the rest of the Gulf squadron put together.
Mexican–American War.
Conquest of California
On July 23, 1846, Commodore Stockton arrived in Monterey, California, and took over command from the ailing Commodore John D. Sloat of the Pacific Squadron of U.S. naval forces in the Pacific Ocean. Commodore Sloat had previously raised the US flag, without resistance, at Monterey, but had no plan to conduct any further military operations on shore and once relieved, sailed home to the United States, leaving Commodore Stockton in command of all US forces. Stockton's command ship was and his combined fleet of three frigates with about 480 men each, one ship of the line with about 780 men and up to four sloops with about 200 men each as well as three storeships made him the strongest force in California as well as the senior military commander and military governor. He was the main driving force in continuing to take possession of Alta California.
On August 11, 1846, Commodore Stockton marched on Pueblo de Los Angeles to meet in battle with General Castro's army. Upon learning of the imminent arrival of Commodore Stockton, Castro retired, leaving behind all his artillery and made off in the direction of Sonora. Immediately after these events Stockton dispatched a courier (the celebrated Kit Carson) to inform Washington of the proceedings and details of his conquest of California.
On December 6, 1846, Stockton learned that General Stephen Kearny had arrived in California with a small force and that he was besieged by vastly superior enemy forces at the Battle of San Pasqual. Kearny was among the wounded and in command of only 60 weary dragoons mounted on tired mules who were in a perilous position and under attack from a Californio-Mexican cavalry force under Andrés Pico. But for Commodore Stockton's immediate decision to take personal command of a relief column, the outcome could have been disastrous for Kearny.
Later, the combined forces consolidated control over San Diego, and in January 1847 won the minor skirmishes at the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and Battle of La Mesa taking back control of Los Angeles. Faced with the approximate 200 men under John C. Fremont's California Battalion as well as Stockton and Kearny's troops, the Californios sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Cahuenga, which ending fighting in Alta California. Stockton, as senior military authority and military governor of the occupied territory, authorized John C. Fremont's appointment to succeed him as military governor and commander of the California Battalion militia force. When General Kearny finally arrived with orders to assume control of the temporary government Stockton turned over control to Kearny.
Political pursuits.
Stockton resigned from the Navy in May 1850 and returned to business and political pursuits. In 1851, he was elected as a Democrat from New Jersey to the United States Senate, where he sponsored a bill to abolish flogging as a Navy punishment. He resigned on January 10, 1853, to serve as president of the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company, a position he held until 1866.
He was a delegate to the unsuccessful Peace Conference of 1861 that attempted to settle the secession crisis; instead the American Civil War began later that year. In 1863, he was appointed to command the New Jersey militia when the Confederate Army invaded Pennsylvania. Stockton died at Princeton, New Jersey, in October 1866, and is buried in the Princeton Cemetery.
Legacy.
Four U.S. Navy ships have been named in his honor. The cities of Stockton, California, Stockton, Missouri, and Fort Stockton, Texas, are named in his honor, as is the borough of Stockton, New Jersey, Stockton Street in San Francisco, and Fort Stockton, San Diego, California, which is now a ruin, but was occupied during the Mexican–American War. In Mariposa County, California Stockton Creek is named after him due to a mine he owned in the California Gold Rush. In Liberia, Stockton Creek, a tidal channel that connects the Mesurado River and the Saint Paul River, and that separates Bushrod Island from the mainland in Monrovia, is also named for him.
Formerly Commodore Stockton Elementary School in San Francisco between Clay and Pacific Streets was named after him.
Stockton Street in San Jose was named after him and his Garden Alameda San Jose neighborhood. In Sacramento, Stockton Boulevard is the historic thoroughfare linking Sacramento and Stockton, now superseded by Highway 99 and Interstate 5.
The actor Gregg Barton played Stockton in the 1966 episode "The Firebrand" of the syndicated western television series, "Death Valley Days". Robert Anderson (1920–1996) was cast as General Kearny, with Gerald Mohr as Andrés Pico and Will Kuluva as Pío Pico. The episode is set in 1848 with the establishment of California Territory and the tensions between the outgoing Mexican government and the incoming American governor.


Ella Koblo Gulama

Paramount Chief Ella Koblo Gulama OBE, GCOR (26 January 1921 – 9 September 2006) was a Sierra Leonean paramount chief and politician. In 1957, she became the first elected female Member of Parliament in Sierra Leone. She was re-elected in 1962. During the government of Milton Margai, Gulama became Sierra Leone and sub-Saharan Africa's first female Cabinet Minister.
Gulama represented Sierra Leone abroad and her travels took her all over Africa, Europe, North America and the Middle East. In 1957 as a guest of the State Department, she toured the United States for 4 months during which she met with Vice-President Richard Nixon.
Biography.
Early life and education.
On 21 January 1921, Gulama was born into one of Sierra Leone's most powerful families in the town of Moyamba, Moyamba District in the Southern Province of British Sierra Leone. Her mother was Lucy Gulama and her father Paramount Chief Julius Gulama were both ethnic Mendes. Like his father, Paramount Chief Momoh Gulama, Julius was Paramount Chief of Kaiyamba Chiefdom.
Ella was educated at the Harford School for Girls in Moyamba, and the Women Teacher's College, then at Fourah Bay College in Freetown.
Marriage.
In 1944 Gulama married the powerful Paramount Chief Bai Koblo Pathbana II of Marampa, Masimera Chiefdom, an ethnic Temne. Their cross-tribal union was a shining example of national cohesion.
From 1944 to 1952 Gulama resided at Lunsar where she was chief Consort. The couple had seven children, including Frances, Francis Obai, Jubilee, Alex Soccoh, June, Julius Maada, and Jilo.
Koblo was multilingual and spoke fluent English, Mende, Temne, and Sherbro.
Political career.
Gulama had a distinguished career in politics and was a pioneering female leader. Her life was defined by service. She was a member of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), which her father helped establish. In 1957 Gulama embarked on a political career and became a Member of the Moyamba District Council. She was the first woman to be elected to Sierra Leone's House of Representatives as Paramount Chief Member for Moyamba District. In 1962 she was re-elected and Prime Minister Milton Margai made her a Cabinet Minister. She was the first woman to hold a ministerial post in sub-Saharan Africa. From 1960 to 1967 Gulama was President of the Federation of Women's Organisations in Sierra Leone.
During her chieftaincy, she had the streets of Moyamba paved and hired a British construction company to install clean tap water.
In the 1967 general elections Gulama regained her seat and was serving in the government of Sir Albert Margai. However the opposition All People's Congress (APC) had narrowly won a parliamentary majority. A power struggle between the candidates, Margai of the SLPP and Siaka Stevens of the APC ensued, destabilising the country and resulting in a rapid succession of military coups.
When Steven's APC party eventually ascended to power and began their 30-year grip on Sierra Leone. Gulama was accused of collaborating with her brother-in-law David Lansana in his coup d'état against Stevens. She placed under arrest and held at Pademba Road prison for over a year. She was later exonerated and released. While she was in prison Stevens appointed her husband Paramount Chief Bai Koblo Pathbana II to his cabinet. Her estranged husband's acceptance of the position strengthened the innuendo that Gulama's relationship with Sir Albert Margai was mouch more than a professional one. Gulama was briefly forced into political exile after Sir Albert Margai lost power.
In the early 1970s, Gulama revamped her political career and became the leader of the APC Women's Organisation of Moyamba District. From 1985 to 1991 Gulama served as the president of the National Organization for Women (Sierra Leone). In 1992, she was unanimously re-elected Paramount Chief of Kaiyamba Chiefdom. Gulama collaborated with several NGOs to develop the infrastructural and agriculture of her Chiefdom and district.
Sierra Leone Civil War.
The mercenary Revolutionary United Front (RUF) ravaged Sierra Leone and devastated Moyamba District, killing tens of thousands of people and destroying everything Gulama had spent her life building up. When the rebels began a campaign to assassinate every paramount chief in the country. Chief Bunduka of Kailahun District and Paramount Chief Bonai Fei of Bo were brutally executed by the rebels. When Gulama's chiefdom was attacked and the rebels set fire to her compound and burned it to the ground. Gulama was forced to refugee to the nation's capital Freetown.
She returned to Moyamba and began the re-construction of her Chiefdom and Moyamba District but Gulama's health began to fail her. Nevertheless, she was able to continue her service to her country with the Sierra Leone Export Development and Investment Corporation (SLEDIC) (1994–1996) as one of the directors of The Sierra Leone Commercial Bank Limited.
Feminism.
One of Gulama's passions was the promotion of education for girls and the improvement of the female condition in Sierra Leone. She served at her alma mater, Harford School for Girls as a member of the Board of Governors. Gulama was also a member of the Sierra Leone government Scholarship Advisory Board and the Bursary Committee of Fourah Bay College.
United Methodist Church.
Gulama was a Christian and very active at the United Methodist Church. She was vice-president of the church's Conference on Finance and Administration from 1985 to 1991.
Awards and honours.
She was the recipient of several awards including the MBE in 1959, the OBE in 1965 from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth for "public services as Minister without Portfolio", and a Grand Commander of the Order of the Rokel from President Ahmed Tejan Kabbah.
Death.
Gulama died on 10 September 2006. On 24 September 2006 thousands of mourners gathered to attend her memorial service in at Trinity United Methodist Church in Moyamba. At the service she was described as "a woman of substance", by President Ahmed Tejan Kabbah who added:
 Madam Ella Koblo-Gulama has lived an exemplary life, as a mother, wife and stateswoman whose fortitude has earned her high respect.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 978

United Nations Security Council resolution 978, adopted unanimously on 27 February 1995, after recalling all previous resolutions on Rwanda, including 935 (1994) and 955 (1994), the Council instructed Member States on the arrest and detention of persons responsible for acts during the Rwandan genocide, within the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR).
The security council expressed its concern about reports of genocide and systematic violations of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda. Such reports were confirmed by the Commission of Experts pursuant to Resolution 935. There was also concern regarding attacks against refugees who voluntarily wish to return to Rwanda and the situation in the refugee camps. It was asserted that those responsible for the acts would be brought to justice.
Addressing Member States, the Council called for the arrest of persons in their territory for whom there was sufficient evidence that they were responsible for acts carried out within the jurisdiction of the ICTR. Countries that arrested suspects were to inform the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali and the Prosecutor Richard Goldstone at the ICTR of relevant details concerning their identity, the cause for their detention and evidence against them. The relevant countries were also asked to co-operate with representatives from the International Committee of the Red Cross and investigators at the ICTR.
All attacks on people at the refugee camps on the borders of Rwanda were strongly condemned and the council called for the prevention of such acts. States in which territory the attacks took place in were urged to take action in accordance with the national and international law and to detain and gather evidence against those responsible.
Resolution 978 was non-binding on member states, as Chapter VII was not invoked.


CP Nel Museum

The CP Nel Museum is a museum in Oudtshoorn, South Africa, which houses exhibits depicting the role of the ostrich trade in the town's history, as well as the cultural history and lifestyle of the people of the Little Karoo region, as it was during the Victorian era and early 20th century.
History.
The original building was designed and erected in 1906 by a local British architect, Charles Bullock, and was opened in 1907 as the Oudtshoorn Boys' High School. A school hall was added to the building in 1912 by J.E. Vixeboxse.
By 1963, when Oudtshoorn's single-sex schools were amalgamated, the building was in such a state of disrepair that it was almost demolished. However, a petition by the school's alumni convinced the National Monuments Commission to withdraw this recommendation. The Education Department decided instead to sell the building. It was renamed in honour of Colonel CP Nel, who had bequeathed a valuable collection of antiques to the public. These antiques were transferred to the building in 1972, and the CP Nel Museum was officially opened.
In 1979, the building was declared a national monument.
Present.
The school hall has been repurposed as the "Ostrich Hall" in order to exhibit the history of the ostrich in the Little Karoo's development. It includes in its displays a rock that has carved into it an image of running ostriches, which was discovered in the Sahara Desert. "Feather-boom fashions" are also on display. The museum also exhibits an early 20th-century pharmacy; a crockery collection; military history and weapons; musical instruments; and a garage of historical vehicles.
The CP Nel Museum is one of a few secular museums in the world to house a synagogue. At the suggestion of Isidore Barron, who had been a member of the museum's Board of Trustees, the Jewish gallery was opened in 1973. This room is a reconstruction of the old St. John Street Synagogue as it was in 1896, and depicts the contribution of Oudtshoorn's Lithuanian Jewish community to the ostrich industry. The synagogue is still occasionally used for services.
The ticket price includes admission to the Le Roux Townhouse, which is decorated in authentic Victorian-era furniture, and depicts a "feather palace" during the Ostrich booms.
In 2014, the museum updated its material to recognise the historical forced removals of non-whites from Oudtshoorn, and made its explanatory notes available in English, Afrikaans, and Xhosa, the three official provincial languages of the Western Cape.
Architecture.
The building is a specimen of late Victorian, Colonial-style architecture, and the hall is built in the New Republican style.
The museum's 30-metre-high clock tower is adorned with Corinthian ornaments and is topped with a wrought-iron dome. The clock was made in England in 1902, and was transported in parts to Mossel Bay and then over the Outeniqua Mountains via ox-wagon. It had been ordered by Oudtshoorn resident Pierre Olivier in 1904, who decided to donate it to what was then the local boys' school. The clock was built into the tower in 1907.
The building's sandstone facade is considered one of the finest examples of stone masonry in the Little Karoo. Willem Adriaan Cruywagen, the Minister of National Education who declared the building a national monument, gave the following reasoning for the certification:


List of rulers of Lete (Malete)

List of Rulers of Balete (baMalete).
Territory located in present-day Botswana.
Kgôsikgolo = "Paramount Chief"


Olukumi people

The Olukwumi people is a subgroup of the Igbo people of the Aniocha North area of the Delta State, Nigeria. The Olukwumi occupy eight communities west of the Niger river, and are together known today as the Odiani Clan in Aniomaland. Historically, the Odianis are the Yoruba clans in the Anioma cultural area. Ukwu Nzu (Eko Efun) town is the historical headquarters of the Olukwumi people and is traditionally headed by the Obi of Ukwu Nzu, Agbogidi The present Obi is H.R.M. Obi Ogoh 1. Olukwumi villages select leaders through the Okpala Obi system, which is the Okpala (gerontocracy) of the Igbos. The Odianis today are known as Igbo people in Delta State, together with the Ezechime who and Idumuje clan . The Anioma people are those from Aniocha (Enuani and Olukwumi), Ndokwa (Ukwuani), Ika, and Oshimili areas of Delta State.
Geography.
The Olukwumi are native to an area just west of the Niger River's right bank. The area is rich in Chalk and Kaolin deposits which is known as "Nzu" in Igbo language and "Efun" in Yoruba, which has been traditionally mined and used by the people of the area for various cultural purposes.
Etymology.
The word "Olukwumi" is said by some to mean "My confidant" or "My friend" in Yoruba.
History.
According to Olukwumi oral tradition, Olukwumi are is a blend of aboriginal Igbos and migrants from the Owo, Akure or the Akoko, depending on the Olukwumi town in question.
Due to the subsequent blend and proximity of their settlements with Enuani speakers, they today speak both the Olukwumi and Enuani dialect dialects of Igbo language. Prayers and recitals in their native dialect are also being encouraged, while making conscious efforts to speak the language to their children and in their communities as a whole. Of the towns in the Odiani clan, only Ugbodu and Ukwu-Nzu are bilingual; the rest are solely Enuani-speaking.
According to a report in the "Sunday Tribune" of October 24, 2010, they have also started to organize recitation and oratory quizzes and competitions in Olukwumi to preserve the dialect. Linguists are also documenting the language. For 40 years, Chief G B Nkemnacho, a lawyer of Olukwumi origin has documented his people's history as told by its elders as life experiences and oral tradition.


Reinier Por

Reinier or Reiner Por (died 7 January 1653 at Fort Frederik Hendrik, near Mahébourg) was the Dutch opperhoofd or governor of Mauritius from 1648 to 1653. Five years after his death the first Dutch colony was briefly abandoned, to be re-established at the same location in Grand Port in 1666.


Treasury single account

Treasury Single Account (TSA) is a financial policy in use in several countries all over the world. It was proposed by the federal government of Nigeria in 2012 under the Jonathan Administration and was fully implemented by the Buhari Administration. to consolidate all inflows from all agencies of government into a single account at the Central Bank of Nigeria.
Background.
Efficient management and control of government's cash resources rely on government banking arrangements. Nigeria, like many middle income countries, employed fragmented systems in handling government receipts and payments. Establishing a unified structure as recommended by the IMF, where all government funds are collected in one account would reduce borrowing costs, extend credit and improve government's fiscal policy among other benefits to government. The IMF also recommends the establishment of a legal basis to ensure its robustness and stability. The introduction of the Treasury Single Account policy therefore was vital in reducing the proliferation of bank accounts operated by ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) towards promoting financial accountability among governmental organs. The compliance of the policy in Nigeria created challenges for majority of the MDAs. Commercial banks in Nigeria remitted over 2 trillion Naira worth of idle and active governments deposits with full implementation of this policy in 2016. Meanwhile, the bankers committee of the country has declared their support for the policy. Through Remita, the integrated electronic payments and collections platform developed by a company called [[SystemSpecs], the TSA initiative has enabled the Federal Government of Nigeria to take full control of over 3 trillion Naira ($15 billion) of its cash assets as at the end of the first quarter of 2016.
Reactions to the introduction of Treasury Single Account.
The operation of the Treasury Single Account in Nigeria has not been without controversies. On Tuesday, 10 November 2015, [[Dino Melaye]], a Nigerian senator representing [[Kogi]] West, raised a motion that the operation of the treasury single account (TSA) be investigated for possible corruption. He claimed that "the appointment of REMITA, an e-collection agent, is a gross violation of section 162 (1) of the Nigerian Constitution and the banks and other Financial Institutions Act." He claimed the constitution only recognised a banking institution to be the collector of government funds, that Remita was not a bank.
The provision of the Constitution cited by Melaye states, “the federation shall maintain a special account to be called the federation account into which all revenues collected by the government of the federation except the proceeds from the personal income tax of the personnel of the Armed Forces of the Federation, the Nigeria Police Force, the ministry or department of government charged with foreign affairs and the residents of the FCT, Abuja.” According to Melaye, the total inflow of 1% commission charged and received by [[SystemSpecs]] for all revenue collected on behalf of the government from the various ministries, departments and agencies to be 25 billion Naira as of November, 2015 was fraud and must be returned to the account of the Central Bank of Nigeria. The senate consequently ordered its committee on finance and public accounts to "commence an investigation into the use of Remita (which it erroneously described as an e-collection agent) since the inception of the TSA policy.
[[Ayo Fayose]], Governor of [[Ekiti State]], introduced a political angle to the controversy when he alleged that the funds collected through of TSA were used to finance governorship elections in [[Bayelsa]] and [[Kogi]] States by the [[All Progressives Congress]], apart from enriching "a single company in one month."
25 billion Naira is the negotiated commission of one per cent of 2.5 trillion Naira - total amount of monies collected by Remita for the Federal Government of Nigeria. However, the Federal Government of Nigeria through the office of The Minister of Information and Culture [[Lai Mohammed]] debunked the opinion that the TSA policy was not intended to loot the Nigeria treasury. The minister in his statement attempted to absolve the administration of President Muhammadu Buhari when he claimed that the TSA contract was signed during the administration of President [[Goodluck Jonathan]] The CBN in an attempt to justify their position released a letter to the press titled “Commencement of Federal Government independent revenue collection under the Treasury Single Account (TSA) initiative”. In the letter, the CBN debunked all the allegations made by Melaye as being misleading. At the height of the controversy, the [[Central Bank of Nigeria]] (CBN), instructed SystemSpecs to return of all the revenues made so far on the contract, a directive, which SystemSpecs obeyed without delay as a "business decision".
In a letter reportedly written to President Muhammadu Buhari by [[John Obaro]], Founder and Managing Director of [[SystemSpecs]], developers of the Remita application, the allegation that SystemSpecs pocketed 25 billion Naira was refuted. Obaro explained that the one per cent commission was negotiated prior to the signing of the contract; and the one per cent commission was shared by SystemSpecs, participating commercial banks and the Central Bank of Nigeria in the ratio of 50:40:10 respectively. According to findings by PremiumTimes,'Remita' is not "an agency" but an application/software for executing payment instructions and collection of government revenue. The software facilitates the payment of government revenue from financial institutions to a TSA in the CBN. The report cited holes in Melaye's accusations and termed them "misleading."
The Joint Senate investigative committee absolved [[SystemSpecs]] of any wrongdoing as “the committee could not ascertain the deduction/collection of twenty-five billion Naira (N25 billion) by SystemSpecs as 1% fee charged for the use of its Remita platform within the period under investigation.” This was contained in section 6.1.16 on pages 16 and 17 of the committee’s report.
General references.
[[Category:Banking in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Presidency of Muhammadu Buhari]]


List of colonial governors of Togo

This article lists the colonial governors of Togo. It encompasses the period when the country was under colonial rule of the German Empire (as Togoland), military occupation of the territory by the Allies of World War I (during the Togoland Campaign of the African theatre), as well as the period when it was a Class B League of Nations mandate and a United Nations trust territory, under the administration of France (as French Togoland) and the United Kingdom (as British Togoland) respectively.
List.
French Togoland.
For continuation after independence, "see: "List of presidents of Togo
British Togoland.
For continuation after independence, "see: "List of heads of state of Ghana


Mzilikazi

Mzilikazi Khumalo ( 1790 – 9 September 1868) was a Southern African king who founded the Mthwakazi Kingdom now known as Matebeleland, in what became British South Africa Company-ruled Rhodesia and is now Zimbabwe. His name means "the great road". He was born the son of Mashobane kaMangethe near Mkuze, Zululand (now known as KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa), and died at Ingama, Matebeleland (near Bulawayo, Zimbabwe). Many consider him to be the greatest Southern African military leader after the Zulu king Shaka. In his autobiography, David Livingstone referred to Mzilikazi as the second most impressive leader he encountered on the African continent.
Leaving Zululand.
Mzilikazi was originally a lieutenant of Shaka but he and Shaka realised that they had created two centres of power and, out of mutual respect and admiration, they parted ways. Shaka was satisfied that Mzilikazi had served the Zulu Nation well and he rewarded Mzilikazi cattle and soldiers. He first travelled to Mozambique but in 1826 he moved west into the Transvaal due to continued attacks by his enemies. He absorbed many members of other tribes as he conquered the Transvaal. He attacked the Ndzundza kraal at Esikhunjini, where the Ndzundza king Magodongo and others were kidnapped and subsequently killed at Mkobola river.
For the next ten years Mzilikazi dominated the Transvaal. Many falsely state that during this period, there was mass murder known locally as the "Mfecane" -- although this word is not known to the Zulu vocabulary but likely refers to the Mfekane tribe which was scattered all over because of violent attacks inflicted by Zwide kaLanga, King of the Ndwandwe, who was under his mother's influence. (She collected skulls of conquered chiefs because it made her feel powerful.) Mzilikazi eliminated all opposition and reorganised the captured territory to suit the new Matabele order. In 1831, after winning a battle against the Griqua people, Mzilikazi occupied the Griqua lands near the Ghaapse mountains. He used scorched earth methods to maintain a safe distance from all surrounding kingdoms. The death toll has never been satisfactorily determined, but it is believed (arguably falsely) that the region was so depopulated that the Voortrekkers were able to occupy and take ownership of the Highveld area without opposition in the 1830s.
Meeting the Boers.
Voortrekkers began to arrive in Transvaal in 1836, resulting in several confrontations over the next two years during which the Matabele suffered heavy losses. By early 1838, Mzilikazi and his people were forced northwards out of Transvaal altogether and across the Limpopo River. Further attacks caused him to move again, at first westwards into present-day Botswana and then later northwards towards what is now Zambia. He was unable to settle the land there because of the prevalence of tsetse fly which carried diseases fatal to oxen. Mzilikazi therefore travelled again, this time southeastwards into what became known as Matabeleland (situated in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe) and settled there in 1840.
After his arrival, he organised his followers into a militaristic system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka; under his leadership the Matabele became strong enough to repel the Boer attacks of 1847–1851 and persuade the government of the South African Republic to sign a peace treaty with Mzilikazi in 1852.
Matebele Kingdom.
While Mzilikazi was generally friendly to European travellers, he remained mindful of the danger that they posed to his kingdom. In later years he refused some visitors access to his realm. The Europeans who met Mzilikazi include Henry Hartley, hunter and explorer; Robert Moffat, missionary; John Mackenzie, missionary; David Hume, explorer and trader; Andrew Smith, medical doctor, ethnologist and zoologist; William Cornwallis Harris, hunter; and the missionary explorer David Livingstone.
During the tribe's wanderings north of the Limpopo, Mzilikazi became separated from the bulk of the tribe. They gave him up for dead and hailed his young heir Nkulumane as his successor. However, Mzilikazi reappeared after a traumatic journey through the Zambezi Valley and reasserted control. According to one account, his son and all the chiefs who had chosen him were put to death on his orders. A popular belief is that they were executed by being thrown down a steep cliff on the hill now called Ntabazinduna ["hill of the chiefs"].
Another account claims that Nkulumane was not killed with the chiefs, but was sent back to the Zulu Kingdom with a sizeable delegation which included warriors. During his journey south, he passed through the Bakwena territory in the northwestern Transvaal, near Rustenburg. At the time the Bakwena were struggling to repel repeated attacks from a neighbouring king, who laid claim to the territory that they occupied. Nkulumane assisted the Bakwena by leading his impi ["regiment"] in a battle in which Nkulumane himself killed the neighbouring chief.
Following this victory the Bakwena convinced Nkulumane to settle in their territory, arguing that it would be futile to return to the Zulu kingdom as his father's enemies would probably kill him. Nkulumane settled and lived with his family in that area until his death in 1883. His grave, covered in a concrete slab, is on the outskirts of Rustenburg in Phokeng. The site of Nkulumane's grave is incongruously referred to as Mzilikazi's Kop ["hill"], even though it is his son who is buried there.
After resuming his role as King, Mzilikazi founded his Nation at Ntabazinduna mountain and his first Capital was at Inyathi where he ended up meeting his old friend Robert Moffart whom he had met at the Transvaal when he was coming from Kruman which was a year when his son (Nkulumane) was born, the Capital at Inyathi was abandoned in 1859 when one of his senior wives Queen Loziba passed away. His next Capital was established at Mhlahlandlela in Matopo district where he is buried and this became his second and last capital until he died at eNqameni near Gwanda in 1868 on September the 5th.


Olowu of Owu Kingdom

The Olowu of Owu is the paramount Yoruba king of Owu kingdom. The first Olowu of Owu (son of Oduduwa's daughter) is also one of the original kings in Yorubaland.
The Owu Kingdom is ruled by princes selected from six ruling houses: "Amororo", "Otileta", "Ayoloye", "Akinjobi", "Akinoso" and "Lagbedu". The king is assisted by appointed chiefs known as "Ogboni"s and Ologuns. The Balogun heads the chiefs and has under him Otun, Osi, Seriki, Aare Ago and Jagunna. Ogboni chiefs consists of the Akogun, Obamaja, Orunto, Oyega, Osupori and Omolasin. Olosi is the Ifa priest of the Olowu. Originally, the Owu Kingdom had 3 townships namely Owu, Erunmu and Apomu. By tradition, the Olowu is selected by six kingmakers but two more chieftaincies were added to this number in 1964, those of the Balogun and the Olosi.
Ogboni tradition was not originally part of the people of Owu's culture. It was borrowed from the Egbas after the Owus settled in Abeokuta. Hence, the reason the Owus do not have "Iledi" (Ile Ogboni), the traditional house of the Ogbonis.
In 2006, under the kingship of Oba of Owu, Oba Olusanya Adegboyega Dosunmu (Amororo II), the Owu palace administrative process was reorganized. The Ogboni and Ologun system of chiefs were revamped, and a new Olowu-in-Council emerged. It consists of a Cabinet of seven chiefs, including:


Sidi Bennour

Sidi Bennour (Berber: ⵙⵉⴷⵉ ⴱⵏⵏⵓⵕ, Arabic: سيدي بنور) is a city in Sidi Bennour Province, Casablanca-Settat, Morocco. Historically speaking, the name derives from the name of a famous sufi saint called Abi Yannur (Arabic: أبي يَنّور); "Sidi" is a common Arabic title attributed to a male Muslim who is a descendant of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad and/or is pious. His full name was Abi Yannur Abdullah Bin Wakris, a Moroccan Berber who lived in the 12th century . He is renowned for being one of the teachers of Abu Ayyub Assariyah _ a famous Moroccan sufi _ whose mausoleum is located in the city of Azemmour.The little information about his life can be found in books about Moroccan sufism such as (Unsu Al Faqir) by Ibn Al Khatib and (Attashawuf Ila Rijal Attasawuf) by Ibn Azayyat. Sayyidi/Sidi Bennour is south of the city of El Jadida and northwest of the former imperial city, Marrakech. According to the 2004 census, Sidi Bennour has a population of 39,593; however, since becoming the municipality of the newly formed Sidi Bennour province in 2011, the population has significantly increased.


Rasoherina

Rasoherina (1814 – 1 April 1868) (also Rasoherina-Manjaka) was Queen of Madagascar from 1863 to 1868, succeeding her husband Radama II following his presumed assassination.
Early years.
Rasoherina, niece of Queen Ranavalona I, was born Princess Rabodozanakandriana in 1814, the daughter of Prince Andriantsalamanandriana, of Ambohitraina and Princess Rafaramanjaka (Ramirahavavy). As a young woman, she married Raharolahy (Raharola), a successful statesman in his own right who received 15 state honors and served as Secretary to the Embassy to Great Britain (1836–37), Second Minister for Foreign Affairs in French matters (1862), Minister for the Interior (1862–64), Counselor of Government (1864–65) and Governor of Toamasina (1865). The couple divorced in 1847 and that same year she was married to Ranavalona's son and heir, Rakoto. When he succeeded his mother in 1861 as King Radama II, she was crowned with him as queen consort.
Accession to the throne.
Rasoherina acted as queen consort for only two years before her husband's political decisions succeeded in displeasing his ministers to such an extent that a coup was organized in which Radama II was believed assassinated. A study conducted in the 1960s provides evidence that Radama in fact survived the assassination attempt and lived to old age as a regular citizen outside the capital, although rumors to this end were never proven to be true at the time, and the evolution of life at court pursued its course as if Radama had died. The day of his believed death in 1863, the council of Hova government officials responsible for organizing the coup, headed by the brothers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony, invited Rabodo to succeed to the throne on the condition that she sign a contract stipulating conditions that in effect created a constitutional monarchy placing the real ruling power in the hands of the Prime Minister. These conditions included the suppression of "tangena" (a traditional trial by ordeal) as well as the monarchy's defense of freedom of religion. Rabodo was crowned on 13 May 1863 under the throne name of Rasoherina.
Reign.
The real power of the kingdom at the beginning of Rasoherina's reign was Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony, instigator of the coup against her husband. The Prime Minister entered into a political marriage with Rasoherina a few weeks after the crowning. Rainivoninahitriniony effectively operated unhindered in his running of state affairs at court where the conservative faction empowered under Ranavalona I was still active under the leadership of her former prime minister, Rainijohary. However, Rainivoninahitriniony's progressives formed a majority in the Queen's Council and their advocacy for a moderately pro-European policy of modernization won out over the reversal of the policies of Radama II that were demanded by Rainijohary's conservatives.
However, Rainivoninahitriniony became increasingly despotic and exhibited habitual drunkenness and frequent violence as his power grew, reportedly threatening Queen Rasoherina at knife point on several occasions. One year after taking the throne, Rasoherina deposed Rainivoninahitriniony, appointed his younger brother Rainilaiarivony as prime minister in his stead and contracted a political marriage with him in turn.
 During the reign of Queen Rasoherina, ambassadors were sent to London and Paris and Sunday markets were prohibited. The controversial Lambert Charter enacted by Radama II was declared void, much to the displeasure of France; a sum of 240,000 ariary (~ 1,200,000 French francs) was paid to France in reparations for the breach of this lucrative trade agreement. On 27 June 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. On 14 February 1867, she signed a treaty with the United States of America that limited the importation of weapons and the export of cattle. A treaty with France was under consideration during her reign but was not signed into effect until after her death and the succession of Ranavalona II to the throne.
Succession conspiracy and death.
In the final days of the queen's life, a succession conspiracy came to light that would have removed Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony from power and ensured the succession of a prince named Rasata to the throne upon Rasoherina's death. On Friday, 27 March 1868, at two in the afternoon, a massive crowd armed with guns and swords attempted to storm the Rova of Antananarivo, residence of Queen Rasoherina. Disgraced former Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony was believed to be the chief instigator of the action as he would have re-established himself as Prime Minister and ruled through young Rasata's puppet government. The rebel group successfully captured a number of key figures, including the head of the Queen's Guard; a group of guards, however, managed to escape and raced to notify Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony who was visiting Ambohimanga where Queen Rasoherina was gravely ill from dysentery. The Prime Minister gave the order to arrest the conspirators, several of whom were promptly captured upon the soldiers' return to the city. At five in the evening, Rasoherina delivered a public address, asking those favorable to her rule to walk with her through the capital; a massive crowd paraded with her through the city, demonstrating their support for her continued authority. The queen then delivered a speech at Andohalo ordering the public to turn in any known conspirators to bring them to justice, before returning to the Rova to reassume her royal duties. The windows along the route to the palace were reportedly all ordered shut, either to protect the Queen from projectiles or to keep the nobles inhabiting the upper town from viewing the advanced state of her infirmity.
The queen died four days later, on 1 April 1868. On her deathbed, she was received into the Roman Catholic Church and conferred the care of her two orphaned adoptive children, Prince Ratahiry and Princess Rasoaveromanana, to her first cousin and successor, Ramoma, another of Radama II's wives, who would succeed her and take the throne name Ranavalona II.


Northern Nigeria Marketing Board

The Northern Nigeria Marketing Board was a statutory commodity board authorized to fix producer prices of export commodities within the Northern region of Nigeria. It was also responsible for licensing buying agents and the purchasing export commodities in the region.
The board was previously named the Northern Region Marketing Board, a regional board that had earlier superseded the national and commodity specific Nigerian Groundnut Marketing Board after constitutional restructuring in 1954.
The major revenue earner for the board was groundnut and the Northern region was one of the world's major exporter of the produce post-World War II and up to the early 1970s. Purchases by the board increased from 178,000 tonnes in the 1949/1950 buying season to 787,000 tonnes in the 1963/1964 season. In the 1960s, excess funds of the board was contributed funds to the development of Ahmadu Bello University, Hamdala Hotel, Kaduna, Kaduna Textiles, and Bank of the North.
The board is now defunct.
History.
The board's history dates back to 1949 when the colonial government initiated a statutory monopoly institution for groundnut marketing. In 1954, self government became established within the regions and the groundnut board became the foundation for the Northern Region Marketing Board. About 32 million pounds from the groundnut board was transferred to the new regional organization.
In 1962, the organization began drawing funds through the means of a commercial bill issued drawn on the national produce and marketing company, exporters of the produce to Europe.
Functions
Some aims and functions of the board included price stabilization through the means of setting a fixed price for each buying seasons and to minimize fluctuations in prices. It also included promotion of agricultural research and development, purchase of export commodities, fixing prices for all grades of groundnuts, cotton, benniseeds, oil palm, soya beans and Cocoa within the Northern Region, appointment of license buying agents and marketing, shipping, and storage of export products.
Pricing.
A key part of the initial purpose of the marketing board was price stability, fixing producer prices whereby excess surplus is saved during rainy times to be used to subsidize farmers during lean times. However, in 1962, this policy was changed and surplus was mandated to be used for developmental purposes. Between the years 1947 to 1961, the surplus earning of the firm was approximately, 32 million pounds. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the producer price was competitively lower than its competition in Niger Republic, this induced smuggling or producers shifting to plant other crops, in addition, a drought in the Sahel region affected production lowering the volume of purchase by the board.


Association of the Representatives of Bunyoro-Kitara

The Association of Representatives of the Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom CLBG "(ARKBK)" is a non-profit charity and NGO in the West-Ugandan kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara. It was established by royal charter on August 27, 2009 by Omukama ("King") Solomon Iguru I and is incorporated under the Ugandan Companies Act. Its purpose is to promote the Kingdom internationally and to support development programs for the region. The organisation aims to remain neutral in regards to political and religious matters.
The ARKBK's main director is the King of Bunyoro. The ARKBK is managed by its President and governed by its board of directors.
Objectives.
The primary objective of the ARKBK is to develop the Bunyoro-Kitara area into a prosperous region of Africa through public relations, active development work, support of other corporations' development work, promotion of the area's financial opportunities to encourage corporate investment and generally carry out tasks set out by the King of Bunyoro.
Membership.
Members of the association must be approved personally by the King of Bunyoro, must sign a 9-point declaration and must provide a clean police record, copy of their passport, curriculum vitae and other documents. Most members work alone in their home country to make contacts for the King and to obtain donations in cash and materials that can be used for developing the region.
There are several different ranks within the ARKBK, explained below and as can be seen in the adjacent diagram:
Focal points.
The ARKBK seeks to help develop four main areas; Living conditions, Education, Accessibility (both physically in the Kingdom but also via internet) and Natural resources (e.g. exploitation of crude oil deposits, afforestation and farming). In these areas, the King has pointed out several areas of interest/focus:
Awards and institutions of the ARKBK.
The ARKBK has several awards and institutions:
Medal of Honor.
The Medal of Honor may be awarded by the President to anyone within the organisation who has done a great deal of work to promote the Kingdom and the association.
Hospitality Industry Award.
The Hospitality Industry Award is a royal seal of approval given to companies that specialize in hospitality. The award is meant to encourage the Ugandan hospitality industry to continue its development and bring tourism to the Kingdom.
The award is not exclusive to Uganda but may be awarded to a member of the hospitality industry anywhere in the world. The award can also be given as an honorary award to companies with outstanding merit and who have done remarkable work to promote tourism.
The award plaque has the logo of the Hospitality Industry Award, a golden pineapple, and the motto of the award "Quality – Inspired".
Goodwill program.
The ARKBK, and also the Kingdom, has a goodwill program primarily intended for public figures (e.g. politicians, actors) who actively wish to support the work of ARKBK and the development of the Kingdom. A goodwill officer of the Kingdom does not have any powers or responsibilities in the Kingdom. The title is an honor which may be used to promote oneself and the Kingdom. There are different ranks that may be applied for (e.g. Goodwill Ambassador, Goodwill Consul), each with its own processing fee that goes primarily to charity.
Royal Orders.
Currently the Kingdom has three Royal Orders and a hall of fame as listed below.
Royal Warrant Holder Society.
Royal Warrants are a mark of recognition to regular suppliers of goods and services to the Royal Household of the Kingdom Bunyoro-Kitara. The decision to award Royal Warrants is made only by the King. All details regarding the use of the Royal Warrant are regulated by separate rules and contracts. The award is normally valid for 5 years and must then be re-awarded. The award is given to a specific person (Grantee) of a corporation, and this person is solely responsible for the proper use of the award.
Royal purveyors are entitled to use the Royal Coat of Arms and the text "By appointment to HM Omukama Rukirabasaija Agutamba Solomon Gafabusa Iguru I" on their products.
Royal Society of the Kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara.
The Royal Society is meant to bring together scientists of the world, and especially Uganda, to help improve the economy and living conditions of the Ugandan and Bunyoro people.


Prime Minister of Ethiopia

The Prime Minister of Ethiopia is the head of government and chief executive of Ethiopia. The Prime Minister is the most powerful figure in Ethiopian politics and is the Commander-in-chief of the Ethiopian Armed Forces. The official residence of the prime minister, is "national palace" in Addis Ababa. Abiy Ahmed Ali (PhD) is the fourth Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Prime Minister since the new constitution formed the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is a parliamentary republic with the President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of government. However, unlike in most parliamentary republics, the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia explicitly vests executive power in the Council of Ministers and names the Prime Minister as chief executive, with the President limited to an almost entirely ceremonial role.
The Prime Minister is elected from the members of the House of Representatives. The nominee then presents a government platform and must receive a vote of confidence in order to become prime minister. In practice, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the House of Peoples' Representatives.
Origins and history.
The heads of government of Ethiopia have been Chief Ministers (1909–1943), and then Prime Ministers (1943–present). Since 1995 Ethiopia follows a Parliamentary system of government.
The Prime Minister's position is stronger on paper than his counterparts in other parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system. In most other parliamentary systems, the head of state or his or her official representative (i.e., the monarch or president or governor-general) is nominal chief executive, but in practice is bound to act on the advice of the prime minister. Thus, the head of state "de facto" holds a purely ceremonial position, while the prime minister is the actual head of government, chief executive, and leading political figure. In Ethiopia, however, the Prime Minister is both "de jure" and "de facto" chief executive.
The prime minister is expected to become a member of the House of Peoples' Representatives within six months of beginning their tenure, if they are not a member already. The prime minister is expected to work with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature.
Role and power of the prime minister.
After each election, President of Ethiopia invites the leader of the majority party or the party with the highest number of seats in the House of Peoples' Representatives to form a government at the federal level and exercise its powers. In practice the prime minister nominates the cabinet ministers.
The prime minister is also the commander-in-chief of the Ethiopian National Defense Force. The prime minister, in consultation with the Cabinet, schedules and attends the sessions of the Houses of Parliament and is required to answer the question from the Members of Parliament to them as the in-charge of the portfolios in the capacity as Prime Minister of Ethiopia. The prime minister represents the country in various delegations, high level meetings and international organisations that require the attendance of the highest government office.
Security.
The bodyguards of the Ethiopian Prime Minister are equipped with the TAR-21 assault rifle.


Dejazmach Zegeye

Dejazmach Zegeye Birru was the son of Dejazmach Birru Aligaz. He was the ruler of Yejju until the emergence of Ras Welle Betul. Dejazmach Zegeye had four sons and a daughter: Wagshum Gwangul, Dejazmach Ali, Dejazmach Hailu, Dejazmach Aligaz, and Woizero Hirut.
After the death of Ali Birru, Yejju was ruled by Dejazmach Zegeye Birru, who consolidated his rule of Yejju and at the same time extended it as far as River Ubuye, near the border with Tigray. However, the relationship between Dejazmach Zegeye and that of Emperor Yohannes IV became strained, when the emperor detached the land beyond Alla Wuha and gave it to Ras Gebre Medhin of Tigray as a sign of affection. Apparently this was a time when the Dervishes were moving towards Metema. To defend the motherland from the Dervishes, the emperor ordered Zegeye to mobilize an expeditionary force to Metema. Zegeye pretended that he was ill, but was forced to maneuver his soldiers against the invaders. Still under the pretense of illness, Zegeye went on a stretcher from Yejju to Metema. In Metema, Emperor Yohannes IV died and when Zegaye saw the death of the emperor, he jumped off the stretcher and came back to Yejju.
After his release from Maqdala, Ras Welle Betul, who was the brother of Menelik's wife Empress Taytu Betul, went to Shewa to visit Menelik II whom he knew while in prison in Maqdala under Emperor Tewodros II. After a brief stay, Menelik II bestowed on Welle the title of Ras and appointed him governor of Yejju. This, however, led Dejazmach Zegeye to take up arms against Welle in Lasta. They met at battle, which is sometimes called Dengobat and at other times Gelesoi. There, Dejazmach Zegeye was killed.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 402

United Nations Security Council Resolution 402, adopted on December 22, 1976, after hearing from the Minister of Foreign Affairs for Lesotho, the Council expressed concern at South Africa's decision to close the border with Lesotho in many areas in an attempt to pressure the country to recognise the "independence" of the bantustan Transkei. After recalling previous resolutions, the Council praised Lesotho for not recognising Transkei and stated it will organise economic assistance to the country from the organisation itself and other countries to help it overcome the blockade by South Africa.
The resolution went on to ask the Secretary-General to monitor the situation in the region and to later report to the Security Council.
No details of the voting were given, other than that it was "adopted by consensus".


Emil Holub

Emil Holub (7 October 1847 – 21 February 1902) was a Czech physician, explorer, cartographer, and ethnographer in Africa.
Early life.
Holub was born in Holice in eastern Bohemia (then within the Austrian Empire, now the Czech Republic) in the family of municipal doctor. After studying at German-language grammar school in Žatec (Saaz), he was admitted at Prague University where he obtained a degree as a doctor of medicine (1872).
Expeditions in Africa.
Inspired to visit Africa by the diaries of David Livingstone, Holub travelled to Cape Town, South Africa shortly after graduation and eventually settled in Dutoitspan near Kimberley to practise medicine. After eight months, Holub set out in a convoy of local hunters on a two-month experimental expedition, or "scientific safari", where he began to assemble a large natural history collection.
In 1873, Holub set out on his second scientific safari, devoting his attention to the collection of ethnographic material. On his third expedition in 1875, he ventured all the way to the Zambezi river and made the first detailed map of the region surrounding Victoria Falls. Holub also wrote and published the first book account of the Victoria Falls published in English in Grahamstown in 1879.
After returning to Prague for several years, Holub made plans for a bold African expedition. In 1883, Holub, along with his new wife Rosa (1865–1958) and six European guides, set out to do what no one had done before: explore the entire length of Africa from Cape Town all the way to Egypt. However, the expedition was troubled by illness and the uncooperative Ila tribesmen and Holub's team was forced to turn back in 1886.
Holub mounted two exhibitions, highly attended but ending up in financial loss, in 1891 in Vienna and in 1892 in Prague. Frustrated that he was unable to find a permanent home for his large collection of artefacts, he gradually sold or gave away parts of it to museums, scientific institutions and schools.
Later Holub published a series of documents, contributing to papers and magazines, and delivering lectures. His early death came in Vienna on 21 February 1902, from lingering complications of malaria and other diseases he had acquired while in Africa.
Further reading.
In German.
Gabriele Riz: Leben und Werk des Afrikaforschers Emil Holub. 1847–1902. Diplomarbeit. Universität Wien, Wien 1985.


OVGS 6th Class L 4-6-0


Maka Jiba

Maka Jiba (died 1764) was the ruler of Bundu in West Africa between around 1720 and 1764.
Maka Jiba regained power in Bundu for his Sissibe clan in 1720 at the end of a protracted internal conflict.
Bundu successfully fought off an attack from Futa Toro between 1747 and 1751.
Maka Jiba initiated an inconclusive war against the Bambuk town of Farabana in the Falémé River valley, with no definite result during his lifetime.
He died in 1764.
Maka Jiba was the maternal cousin of Karamokho Alfa, who launched a successful "jihad" in Fouta Djallon.
Both men studied in Fugumba under the famous scholar Tierno Samba.
However, there are no records of Bundu participation in the "jihad", perhaps because of the internal troubles in Bundu at that time, or perhaps because Maka Jiba was not greatly interested in the cause.
References.
Citations
Sources


United Nations Security Council Resolution 527

United Nations Security Council resolution 527, adopted unanimously on 15 December 1982, having heard representations from Moshoeshoe II of Lesotho, the Council condemned, alongside a General Assembly resolution, an attack by South Africa on Lesotho, resulting in damage and the deaths of 40 people.
The resolution demanded compensation to Lesotho for the attack, which it also commended for allowing those fleeing apartheid to have sanctuary in the country. It also called on Member States to provide economic assistance to Lesotho. South Africa refused to pay compensation.
The Council reiterated the use of peaceful means to resolve international problems, requesting the Secretary-General to enter into consultations with the Government of Lesotho on humanitarian issues, and to report back to the Council regularly on the implementation of the resolution.


Messay Dego

Messay Dego (; born February 15, 1986) is an Ethiopian-born Israeli former footballer and a manager.
Personal life.
Dego is the younger brother of another Israeli football player, Baruch.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 407

United Nations Security Council Resolution 402, adopted on May 25, 1977, after recalling Resolution 402 (1976), the Council noted with concern the continued harassment of the people of Lesotho by South Africa in violation of the resolution. It also recognised the burden that had been placed upon Lesotho with regard to its decision not to recognise the "independent" bantustan Transkei by South Africa.
The Council commended the Government of Lesotho for its decision not to recognise Transkei, and endorsed the report by the Mission to Lesotho and the Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim's call for international assistance to Lesotho. The Resolution also called upon the Secretary-General to continue to monitor the situation and report back any developments.
The resolution was adopted without a vote.


Elections in Guinea-Bissau

Elections in Guinea-Bissau take place within the framework of a multi-party democracy and a semi-presidential system. Both the President and the National People's Assembly are directly elected by voters.
Electoral history.
Although Portuguese colonies elected members to the National Assembly, it was not until the 1960s that an elected body was created to represent the territory of Portuguese Guinea. A 15-seat Legislative Council was created in 1963, although only a minority of members were elected by a franchise restricted by literacy and tax-paying requirements.
Arguably the first elections to take place under universal suffrage were those organised by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), a pro-independence rebel group that occupied most of the territory by the early 1970s. The PAIGC organised a series of elections to regional councils in the 11 regions that they controlled, whose members then elected a National Assembly. Although the vote was open to all residents over the age of 17, voters were presented with a single list of PAIGC candidates to approve or vote against. The lists were approved by 97% of voters.
In the same year the Legislative Council became the Legislative Assembly, with five of the 17 members to be elected directly. However, the restrictive franchise requirements and PAIGC occupation of much of the country meant that only 7,824 people were registered to vote. The election was held on a non-partisan basis.
Following formal independence in 1974, parliamentary elections were held between December 1976 and January 1977. These were held using the same system as the 1972 elections, although voters in some parts of the country voted for unofficial candidates, leading to the PAIGC's vote share dropping to 80%. Elections were held under the same format in 1984 and 1989, with the PAIGC lists being approved by 96% of voters in 1989.
Multi-party democracy was introduced in May 1991, and general elections were held after several delays in 1994. The President was elected by public vote for the first time using a two-round system; João Bernardo Vieira of the PAIGC narrowly defeated Kumba Ialá of the Party for Social Renewal (PRS) by 52%–48% in the second round of voting. The PAIGC received 46% of the vote in the National People's Assembly elections, winning a majority of the seats.
Following a civil war that resulted in the overthrow of Vieira, general elections were held for a second time in late 1999, with a presidential runoff in January 2000. This time Ialá defeated the PAIGC candidate and acting President Malam Bacai Sanhá. The PRS emerged as the largest party in the National People's Assembly, but held only 38 of the 102 seats; the PAIGC finished third behind the Resistance of Guinea-Bissau-Bafatá Movement.
Ialá was overthrown in a coup in September 2003, and after several delays, parliamentary elections were held in March 2004. The PAIGC re-emerged as the largest party, but failed to win a majority of seats and formed a government together with the PRS. Presidential elections were held the following year, and although Malam Bacai Sanhá of the PAIGC received the most votes in the first round, he was defeated by the now-independent candidate João Bernardo Vieira in the second.
The next parliamentary elections were held in 2008 and resulted in a landslide victory for the PAIGC, which won 67 of the 100 seats. Vieira was assassinated in March 2009, and presidential elections resulted in a victory for Sanhá at the third attempt. Sanhá died in January 2012, and early elections were required to elect a successor. A first round was held in March, but the run-off between Carlos Gomes Júnior of the PAIGC and Ialá was cancelled after a military coup on 12 April.
A transition to civilian rule was completed in 2014 after general elections saw José Mário Vaz become President after defeating independent candidate Nuno Gomes Nabiam in the runoff, whilst the PAIGC retained its parliamentary majority, winning 57 of the 102 seats in the expanded National People's Assembly.
Electoral system.
President.
The President is elected using the two-round system.
National People's Assembly.
The electoral system used between 1972 and 1989 involved voters electing regional councils, which in turn elected the members of the National People's Assembly. Voters were presented with a single list of PAIGC candidates to approve or vote against, although in some elections people voted for unofficial candidates. A voter turnout of at least 50% was required to validate the election in each sector.
The country's current electoral law was passed on 15 May 1985. The National People's Assembly has 102 directly elected members; 100 are elected from 27 multi-member constituencies, with one single-member constituency representing citizens living abroad in Africa, and one for citizens living in Europe. Voters are required to be at least 18 years old and hold Guinea-Bissau citizenship, whilst candidates had to be at least 21.


History of Nairobi

The earliest account of Nairobi's history dates back to 1899 when a railway depot was built in a brackish African swamp occupied only by a pastoralist people, the Maasai, the sedentary Akamba people, as well as the agriculturalist Kikuyu people who were all displaced by the colonialists. The railway complex and the building around it rapidly expanded and urbanized until it became the largest city of Kenya and the country's capital. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase "Enkare Nyirobi", which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, Nairobi is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun."
Pre-independence.
The former swamp land occupied by the city now was once inhabited by the herding people, the Maasai, under the British East Africa protectorate when the British decided to build a railroad from Mombasa to Kisumu on the edge of Lake Victoria in order to open East Africa and make it accessible for trade and encourage colonial settlements. The Maasai were forcibly removed to allow white ranchers to use the land.
In 1896, work on the railway began. A British railroad camp and supply depot for the Uganda Railway was built in the Maasai area in 1899. The building soon became the railway's headquarters and a town grew up surrounding it, named after a watering hole known in Maasai as "Ewaso Nyirobi," meaning "cool waters." The location of the Nairobi railway camp was chosen due to its central position between Mombasa and Kampala, as well as its proximity to a network of rivers that could supply the camp with water. Its elevation made it cool enough for comfortable residential living. Furthermore, at 1661 meters above the sea level, the temperatures are too low for the mosquitoes carrying malaria to survive.
The town was totally rebuilt in the early 1900s after an outbreak of plague and the subsequent burning down of the original town.
By 1905, Nairobi was a humming commercial center and replaced Mombasa as capital of the British East Africa. The city expanded, supported by the growth in administrative functions and in tourism, initially in the form of British big game hunting. As the British colonialists explored the region, they began using Nairobi as their first stop. This prompted the colonial government to build several grand hotels in the city for British tourists and big game hunters.
Nairobi continued to grow under British rule, and many Britons settled within the city's suburbs. The continuous expansion of the city began to anger the Maasai, as the city was devouring their land to the south, as well as the Kikuyu people, who felt that the land belonged to them. In 1919, Nairobi was declared to be a municipality by the British.
In February 1926, E.A.T. Dutton passed through Nairobi on his way to Mount Kenya and, seeing the progress and the ambitious plans the city was making, foresaw a city of paved roads, landscaped avenues and parks, impressive cathedrals, museums, art galleries, theatres and office buildings. He predicted that Nairobi would become a city of beauty, although he noted that much needed to be accomplished before the ambitious municipal plan was completed and until then Nairobi would remain "a slatternly creature, unfit to queen it over so lovely a country".
Unrest.
In 1915 the British passed laws restricting the ownership of land to whites. Then followed high taxes and low wages. Blacks were forced to carry identification cards. In 1921 Harry Thuku founded the Young Kikuyu Association and began organizing protests as people became more open about their grievances against the British. On March 14, 1922 he was arrested. His arrest caused a general strike in Nairobi in which thousands of Africans protested and the British government reacted by shooting 56 protesters, 25 of whom died, the shocking people worldwide, even the British. Although Thuku was exiled to a remote desert oasis, this was only the beginning of unrest that continued with escalating severity.
The Thuku riots reinforced a segregationist method of town planning, as a means to control the African population in Nairobi.
After the end of World War II, the friction developed into the Mau Mau Uprising. Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's future president, joined the Kikuyu Central Association after moving to the urban Nairobi from a small village, becoming its general secretary in three years, a step that lead to his becoming Kenya's first prime minister and then Kenya's first president. Pressure exerted from the local people on the British resulted in Kenyan independence in 1963, with Nairobi as the capital of the new republic.
Because the area around Nairobi continued to be a popular attraction for British big game hunters, to protect the animals the Nairobi National Park was established by Britain in 1946, the first national park in East Africa. It remains unique in 2008 in that it is the only game reserve bordering on a capital city in the world.
Post-independence.
After independence, Nairobi grew rapidly and this growth put pressure on the city's infrastructure. Power cuts and water shortages were a common occurrence, though in the past few years better city planning has helped to put some of these problems in check.
In 1975 Nairobi was the host city of the 5th Assembly of the World Council of Churches.
The U.S. embassy in the heart of Nairobi was bombed on August 7, 1998 by Al-Qaida, as one of a series of U.S. embassy bombings. Over two hundred civilians were killed in the embassy and another 213 persons in the surrounding area with more than 5,000 people injured. The effects were widespread and devastating. The embassy was completely destroyed and another forty buildings severely damaged. A seven-story building collapsed killing at least 60 people.
The growth of Nairobi has put pressure on the government to develop and maintain protected lands such as the Nairobi National Park. The new residential areas for the growing human population are making inroads into lands that have been traditionally the migration routes for huge animal herds.
Following the disputed Kenyan presidential election, 2007, serious violence broke out in Nairobi. In the Mathare slum, Kikuyu and Luo gangs burned more than 100 homes.
On September 21, 2013, a mass shooting broke out in the luxurious "Westgate" shopping mall in Nairobi's Westlands neighbourhood, killing at least 68 people. The attacks were claimed by the Somalian militant group Al-Shabaab.


Igwe Okafo

Igwe Okafo (born 1830–1891) was the 16th Obi of Otolo and Igwe of Nnewi kingdom. He was the traditional supreme ruler and spiritual leader in Nnewi, an Igbo city in Nigeria. He is a member of the Nnofo Royal lineage and the successor to his father Eze Ukwu. Unlike most Igbo monarchies, there were kings of Nnewi before the arrival of Europeans.


Lewanika

Lewanika (1842–1916) (also known as Lubosi, Lubosi Lewanika or Lewanika I) was the Lozi Litunga (King) of Barotseland from 1878 to 1916 (with a break in 1884-5).
A detailed, although biased, description of King 'Lubossi' (the spelling used) can be found in the Portuguese explorer Alexandre de Serpa Pinto's 1878–1879 travel narrative "Como eu atravessei a África" ("How I Crossed Africa", in English translation).
Biography.
In December 1882 the missionary Frederick Stanley Arnot reached Lealui, the capital of Barotseland, after traveling across the Kalahari Desert from Botswana. King Lewanika kept him for the next eighteen months, then allowed him to move on, but in a westward direction rather than eastward as he had planned.
While detained, Arnot taught the king's children to read and undertook some evangelism.
Arnot was present when Lewanika received a proposal from the Ndebele for an alliance to resist the white men. Arnot may have helped Lewanika to see the advantages of a British protectorate in terms of the greater wealth and security it would provide.
Arnot left Bulozi in 1884 to recover his health and to escape a brewing rebellion against Lewanika.
When Lewanika crushed the rebellion, George Westbeech described the scene: "The flat from Lia-liue to Mongu, a distance of twelve miles without a bush, is even now covered with skeletons and grinning skulls..." Before this event, his name had simply been "Lubosi"; after it, he had taken on the name "Lewanika" (meaning "Conqueror").
Lewanika brought Barotseland, now part of Zambia, under British control in 1890, when he agreed with Cecil Rhodes for the region to become a protectorate under the British South Africa Company (BSAC). However, he felt deceived by the BSAC terms as they worked in practice, and he appealed, unsuccessfully, to the British Crown. Lewanika told Dr James Johnston how he had written to the British asking that his kingdom should be made a British Protectorate. He had waited years for a reply and then men had arrived with papers claiming that they had the power to make this happen. The King was reassured as the local missionary. Monsier Coillard, was his interpreter at the meeting and the King was reassured by Coillard's confidence in these men. Lewanika had been thankful that his wish had been granted and he had sent two enormous elephant ivory tusks as a present for Queen Victoria. Lewanika was incensed to find that the men were from a South African company and that the ivory tusks were not with Queen Victoria but as ornaments in the directors board room. Johnston assisted Lewanika in writing a letter of protest. Lewanika was to prove a great help to Johnston as he was able to command assistance for Johnston from nearby subordinate chiefs.
In 1902, Lewanika visited London for the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, where he was treated with respect and had an audience with King Edward and an informal meeting with the Prince of Wales. When asked what he would discuss with the British sovereign, he said "When we kings meet we always have plenty to talk about".
Family.
Lewanika's eldest son was named Litia, and succeeded as Yeta III on his father´s death. His third son Imwiko succeeded his brother in 1945, but died three years later and was succeeded by a third brother, Mwanawina III. On his death in 1968, a fourth brother Mbikusita reigned as Litunga from 1968 to 1977 as Lewanika II. A newspaper-article from 1902 mentioned two sons, Imasiku and Lubosi, who were educated in the UK at the time, and a son-in-law called Ishi-Kambai. One of his daughters worked as a teacher in his capital, and another was reported to have died while he was in the United Kingdom in 1902.
Lewanika's youngest daughter was Her Royal Highness Lundambuyu Dorcas Lewanika, who ruled as Mboajikana in Kalabo District, from 1959 to 1995. She has two children Maureen Mwangala Mutau and Martin Mwanangombe Mutau, however she fostered many children and orphans.
The Lewanika name continues to be used as part of a family name, for instance by Lewanika II's children Akashambatwa Mbikusita-Lewanika, a Zambian statesman and Inonge Mbikusita-Lewanika, a former ambassador of the Republic of Zambia in the United States.


Ghanaian Canadians

Ghanaian Canadians are Canadians of full or partial Ghanaian ancestry. Ghanaians who became naturalized citizens of Canada preferably refer to themselves as "Ghanaian Canadians".
Overview.
Ghanaians first immigrated to Canada in the 1960s. Many Ghanaians reside in the Toronto area, although quite a few can be found in other parts of Canada. Although characterized by their religious involvement, Ghanaian Canadians seem to have reservations about integrating into broader Canadian community.
Languages.
Most Ghanaian Canadians speak English fluently as it is the official language of communication in Ghana. Most also speak local languages in addition to English, the most popular being Twi. Other spoken languages are Fante, Ga, Ewe, Dagbani, Nzema, Gonja, and Kasem. Ghanaians have an easier time adapting to life in Canada than other immigrants because their homeland of Ghana has the English language as the official language and it is spoken by the majority of Ghana's population.


Ruganzu II Ndoli

Ruganzu II Ndoli was Mwami of the Kingdom of Rwanda since 1510 until death in 1543. He was the son of King Ndahiro V Cyamatare and Nyirangabo-ya-Nyantaba.Ruganzu II is the most renowned king of Rwanda. He was a great warrior and was alleged to have performed miracles. His life and reign pervade many legends in the
history of Rwanda. Ruganzu Ndoli is said to have been raised by her Aunt in the Kingdom of Karagwe and his descendants include Ndoli Amani in Rwanda. Ruganzu, who is said to have left a mark on the Rwanda region, who is said to have returned in 1510 from the kingdom of Karagwe ka Bahinda, where he had been exiled with his aunt Nyabunyana and came to liberate Rwanda from the hands of foreigners after eleven years exile, young and inexperienced.
It is believed that he ascended the throne in 1510, the same year that Henry VIII of England was enthroned, and died 1543 from the shooting of an arrow in the eye.


List of rulers of Rolong

List of Rulers of baRôlông.
Territory located in present-day Botswana.
Kgôsikgolo = "Paramount Chief"
At this point the Barolong found themselves separated by the Botswana - South Africa border. There are other Barolong in South Africa with different leaders but emanating from the same ancestry.


Italians of Ethiopia

Italians of Ethiopia are the immigrants from Italy who moved to live in Ethiopia as far back as the 19th century, and their descendants. King Menelik II did not allow the sale of lands belonging to Ethiopia to Italians (Eritrea) and probably allowed France (Djibouti) to solidify his centralized power and have external trading partners. Most of the Italians moved to Ethiopia after the Italian conquest of Abyssinia in 1936. Italian Ethiopia was made of Harrar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara and Scioa Governorates in summer 1936 and became a part of the Italian colony Italian East Africa, with capital Addis Abeba and with Victor Emmanuel III proclaiming himself Emperor of Ethiopia.
History.
The 1880s were marked by the so-called "Scramble for Africa" and the Berlin Conference of 1884–85. When the Italians began to vie with the British and French for influence in the area. Asseb, a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, was bought by in March 1870 from the local Afar sultan, vassal to the Ethiopian Emperor, by an Italian company, which by 1890 led to the Italian colony of Eritrea being established. From then on, the Kingdom of Italy had traded and set up large tracts of farm land up to the borders with Ethiopia. As the Italian colonists moved further inland from the agreed upon borders of Eritrea which had been agreed upon in the Treaty of Wuchale, Emperor Menelik II saw this as an invasion of his country, whereas the Italian King Umberto of Italy referred to Article 17 of the treaty to justify Italian claims to the land.
Conflicts between the two countries resulted in the Battle of Adwa in 1896, whereby the Ethiopians defeated Italy and remained independent, under the rule of Menelik II. At the time, Italy had only been unified for less than a few decades, and support for the war was minimal, especially among Southern Italians who were forcibly conscripted. Anti-war riots and demonstrations broke out across Italy and in the city of Pavia the population came out to blockade the railroad to prevent Italian troops from leaving for Ethiopia. Many Italian prisoners of war were treated very well, and many given over to noble families for work on their estates, while others with specialized skills were used in the construction of the newly formed capital of Addis Ababa, such as St George's Cathedral. Italy and Ethiopia signed a provisional treaty of peace on 26 October 1896.
Shortly after the Fascist government under Benito Mussolini forcibly came to power, he began a campaign to expand the African colonial possessions of Italy in the 1930s. In October 1935, Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and invaded Ethiopia. Emperor Haile Selassie went exile to avert the genocide in the hands of Italians in war and appeal to the society of the nations the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa on 2 May 1936 and the Fascists entered the city on 5 May, after several bloody battles which included the Fascist army's use of mustard gas in battle against the Geneva Protocol of 1929 (of which Italy was a signatory).
Victory was announced on 9 May 1936 and Mussolini declared the creation of the "Italian Empire". The Italians merged Eritrea, Italian Somalia, and newly occupation Ethiopia into Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, A.O.I.). Among the war crimes committed under the orders of Mussolini was the robbing of one of the so-called Axum Obelisks(properly termed a 'stele' or, in the local Afro-Asiatic languages, hawelt/hawelti as its form is not topped by a pyramid).
The Italian King Victor Emmanuel III added Emperor of Ethiopia to his titles, a title not welcomed by the many nations that were part of the society of the nations.
From 1936 to the start of World War II Mussolini controlled much of Ethiopia, but a guerrilla war raged in areas of Ethiopia still controlled by resistance ethiopian linked to Haile Selassie (who was exiled in Great Britain) and the royal family remaining in Ethiopia, including the efforts of Ras Imru Haile Selassie who was captured on December 19, 1936 and taken to prison on the Island of Ponza until freed after the Armistice of Cassibile
During Italian occupation.
According to official statistics of the Italian government, in October 1939 the Italian Ethiopians were 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85.3%) and 5,209 female (14.7%), most of them living in urban areas.
Only 3,200 Italian farmers moved to colonize farm areas, mainly because of the danger of Ethiopian guerrilla (still controlling nearly 1/4 of Ethiopia highlands as of 1940).
Ethiopia (divided between the administrative provinces of Scioa, Oromo, Sidamo, Harar, and Amara) was part of the Italian Empire from 1936 to 1941. The Italians constructed huge and expensive infrastructure projects, that drained the Italian economy but reduced in those years the unemployment in the Kingdom of Italy. They did 18,794 km (11,678 mi) of new roads asphalted: in 1940 Addis Ababa was connected by state-of-the-art roads to Asmara and Mogadishu called "Via dell'Impero".
Furthermore, 900 km (559 mi) of railways were reconstructed or initiated/planned (like the railway between Addis Abeba and Assab), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: "Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia" (Cotton industry); "Compagnia etiopica del latte e derivati" (Milk industry); "Cementerie d'Etiopia" (Cement industry); "Compagnia etiopica mineraria" (Minerals industry); "Impresse electriche d'Etiopia" (Electricity industry); "Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi" (Armament industry); "Industria per la birra dell'AOI" (Beer industry); "Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)" (Mechanic & Transport industry).
There was an urban project for the enlargement of Addis Ababa, but these architectural plans -like all the other developments- were stopped by World War II.
After World War II.
After WWII, the Italian Ethiopians were given a full pardon by the newly returned Emperor Haile Selassie, as he saw the opportunity to continue the modernization efforts of the country. He declared that no reprisals would be taken against the Italians, and many remained for decades, until the overthrow of the Emperor in the Ethiopian Civil War in 1974. Nearly 22,000 Italo-Ethiopians took refuge in Italy during the 1970s. Their main organization in Italy is the Associazione Italiana Profughi dall'Etiopia ed Eritrea (A.I.P.E.E.).
In recent years, some Italian companies have returned to operate in Ethiopia, and a large number of Italian technicians and managers arrived with their families, residing mainly in the metropolitan area of the capital.
Contemporary relations.
In the mid-1990s despite a previous arrangement with the Dergue regime under Menghistu in the 1970s to cede the Obelisk of Axum to Italy in exchange for medical facilities and forgiving an accumulated debt to the Italian government, a populist movement made up of Italians and Ethiopians (both in country and expatriates around the world) began to petition the then current Italian government to return the obelisk, an event which eventually culminated in its repatriation in 2005 to Axum, the city of its creation.
Ethiopia has the largest concentration of Italian schools and cultural institutes in Africa (such as the Scuola Statale Italiana of Addis Abeba), which foster and promote Italian and Ethiopian culture and are free to the public The Italian firm Salini Costruttori was chosen by the Ethiopian government to design and build the Millennium or Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile river which when completed will be the largest dam and hydroelectric plant in Africa. As the Italian engineers had helped to build the first railway from Addis to Djibouti in the past, the Ethiopian government has contracted them again to expand the railroad network along with India and China. For the last 20 years Italy has continued to be among the top 5 trading partners with Ethiopia and a major investor in the Ethiopian economy.


Edward Brandis Denham

Sir Edward Brandis Denham (1876 – 2 Jun 1938) was a British colonial administrator. He served as Governor of the Gambia (1928–1930), British Guiana (1930–1935) and Jamaica (1935–1938).
Life.
Edward Brandis Denham was educated at Malvern College and Merton College, Oxford. Joining the colonial service as a cadet in the Ceylon Civil Service, he later served as colonial secretary of Mauritius (1920–1923) and acting governor of Kenya (1923–1928). He became Governor of the Gambia in November 1928, finding it hard to deal with the general strike called by the Bathurst Trade Union in late 1929. In January 1930 he left the Gambia to become Governor of British Guiana.
He was appointed Governor of Jamaica by the colonial office in 1935. His short three-year stint was troubled with political and social unrest. There had been serious riots at the docks in Kingston and Falmouth in May and October 1935. 1938 opened with a cane cutters' strike on Serge Island Estate in the parish of St. Thomas. In response, Governor Denham fired off anxious telegrams to the colonial office in London. To head off trouble, Governor Denham appointed commissions to investigate wage rates and unemployment, followed by emergency public works initiatives.
The Governor found the islands' problems complex and difficult to solve. Denham thought the real problems of Jamaica were less economic than political. The recent emergence of a group of well-educated mixed-raced Jamaican politicians posed the main threat to British colonial rule. Imperialism and democracy proved difficult to merge, but a system of democratic ruling of the Jamaican people allowed Sir Edward Denham to continue his rule of the islands.
Denham died of a heart attack at Kings House, the Governors' residence, on the 2nd of June 1938. On Friday 3 June 1938 the crew of HMS Ajax (22) buried the Jamaican Governor's body at sea at sunset outside the three-mile limit offshore after his bronze coffin was taken to the ship on a gun carriage. King George VI sent a cable to Jamaica "I have learned with the deepest regret of the death in Jamaica of Sir Edward Denham. Captain General and Governor-in-chief. In him, the Empire has lost a public servant of long experience and distinguished ability. His death is a grave loss to the colony and will, I know, bring sorrow to the hearts of all my people in Jamaica".
In 1944, six years after his death, Jamaicans were granted universal adult suffrage, an idea initiated by Governor Edward Denham. An area in the western section of Kingston called 'Denham town' is named after him and in his memory the "Sir Edward Denham Memorial Prize" is awarded at Royal College Colombo since 1939.