Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency

The presidency of Herbert Hoover began on March 4, 1929, and ended on March 4, 1933, when Franklin D. Roosevelt was inaugurated as 32nd President of the United States.


Lane County History Museum

Lane County History Museum, located on the county fairgrounds in Lane County in Eugene, Oregon, United States, has ongoing exhibits on the Oregon Trail, the county courthouse, historic vehicles, selections of artifacts from across the county, and photographs. The museum also provides research materials by appointment in their closed stack library, school tours, a variety of public events, and runs an annual grant program for heritage outreach projects. The museum and the Lane County Clerk's Building near the museum entrance are both administered by the Lane County Historical Society.
Museum collections and archives.
The museum displays ongoing exhibits using their large collection of historic artifacts; antique vehicles from a buckboard wagon to a 1910 Model-T Ford; and the Lane County Clerk's Building. Exhibits on a variety of topics change bi-annually, featuring up to date research and featuring hundreds of artifacts and images. At present, the museum houses an artifact collection of over 10,000 items related to the history of the county, displayed in changing exhibits on a variety of subjects.
Lane County History Museum also houses an archive featuring a collection of materials about Lane County dating back to 1847, including more than 300,000 photographs depicting residents, industries, and street scenes. The collection also includes manuscripts, maps, newspaper clippings, and academic work related to Lane County. In addition, the museum has continued to display memorable favorites like one of the most complete prairie schooners that crossed the country on the Oregon Trail in 1851, as well as a hemlock section with a carving made in 1867, and the original staircase from the 1898 county courthouse.
History.
Early days, 1937–1950.
Lane County legislator E. O. Potter sponsored a bill approved by the Oregon legislature, authorizing establishment of county history museums. The "Lane County Pioneer Museum and Veterans Memorial Commission" was established in 1935, with Cal Young, known as "Mr. Lane County", as chair. Young had led Lane County's "Oregon Trail Pageant" since 1926, with historical costumes, ox teams, and covered wagons on parade annually. He had also collected a number of artifacts at his farm from pioneer days of the previous century, including a prairie schooner.
By 1937, F. L. Chambers and E. G. Boehnke arranged a property trade with the federal government—land for a new post office site, in exchange for the old post office building to house the county's history museum. Pioneer relics were stored in the basement of the old post office, but other federal agencies needed offices during the war years, so the space was never used as a museum. In 1951, the first Lane County History Museum, described as "a small warehouse museum", , was built at the Lane County Fairgrounds to house the growing collection of pioneer relics. By 1954, to display big logging wheels, the museum added a shed, and a covered passage for other vehicles. In 1957 the oldest building in Lane County, the Lane County Clerk's Building was move to the site.
Cal Young became the caretaker for the first few years; when he announced, "I'm getting too old for this museum business", Mrs. E. E. Foss was named the first curator of the museum.
1950–1999.
By the early 1950s, the Lane County Pioneer Society was established to support the museum's development.
To compensate for budget cuts due to a recession in the early 1980s, Friends of the Lane County Historical Museum formed in 1984 as a non-profit organization to keep the museum alive. By 1985, funding (and staffing) had been partially restored. By 1987, county officials had considered funding a $30,000 study on whether to build a "Forest Heritage Center" that would incorporate the museum's collection with exhibits on forestry management, logging, and milling. The estimated cost of such a center was $3-to-$4 million; neither the study nor the center was funded. Four years later, even as the museum was characterized by a local reporter as "perennially short of operating revenues and staff", the county administrator proposed cutting a third of the museum's $170,000 operating budget. Intense lobbying of the county's budget committee resulted in partial restoration of the museum's budget, with the provision that "the organization come up with a plan to wean the museum from the general fund". Museum supporters advocated use of the county's car rental tax and room tax funds to restore the museum's funding.
By 1996, Lane County contracted with the newly formed Lane County Historical Society (LCHS) to manage the museum, subsidized by part of the county's Transient Room Tax designated for tourism promotion.
2000–present.
In 2003, Lane County Historical Society board hired its current director, Bob Hart, with plans to focus on enlarging the facility and updating the exhibits. In March 2006, the merger of the Lane County Historical Society with the Friends of the Lane County Historical Society was finalized.
Under Hart's direction, the museum has displayed exhibits on a broad range of modern history topics, such as the history of local law enforcement, "Tie Dye & Tofu", "Weird and Wonderful", wine, medical history, logging, contemporary Native American culture, and most recently toys. The museum has also developed interactive outreach presentations such as a "Hands-on U.S. History Traveling Trunk" targeting school children in grades four through twelve, "McKenzie River Stories", which invited guests to record their own stories about the county's main water source, and special events where Director Bob Hart played historical figures Thomas Condon or Joseph Meek.
The museum began digitizing its collection of 300,000 historic photos in 2009, making them available online. A special selection of curated images is also available for browsing.
The museum's subsidy was reduced in 2008 to allow greater county support for Lane County Parks, and was reduced again in 2010, from over $210,000 annually to just over $182,000. In 2012, additional budget cuts required layoffs of three museum employees, whose work Hart said would be covered by recruiting ten additional volunteers. Even with the continuing budget cuts, the museum staff has formed collaborations and extended help to other local museums, and the LCHS and museum were awarded a stewardship certificate for loaning a part-time curator to the Springfield Museum.
LCHS has as yet been unsuccessful in its quest to either enlarge the current quarters of the museum or to relocate it in another facility. When the downtown Eugene Post Office became available in 2010, Hart not only supported its preservation, he reminded the county of the historic claim the Lane County Historic Museum had on the previous post office property. Use of the vacant Post Office building for a new museum was eventually supported by Mayor Kitty Piercy in her state of the city address in 2013. The museum is currently undergoing a number of updates, including exterior renovations and complete exhibit overhauls in their present building.


Nibley, Oregon

Nibley is an unincorporated historic community in Union County, Oregon, United States, about 11 miles east of La Grande on Oregon Route 237 in the Grande Ronde Valley.
Nibley was founded by Mormon businessmen Charles W. Nibley and George E. Stoddard. The two men purchased from A. B. Conley, and the town was named after Charles Nibley. Charles Nibley, David Eccles, and George Stoddard organized the Oregon Sugar Company in 1898 and soon opened the first sugar beet processing plant in the Pacific Northwest in La Grande, which was eventually owned by the Amalgamated Sugar Company.
Beet production was less than expected, so the men organized the Oregon Land Company and purchased the Nibley property in 1900 to attract experienced beet farmers from their home state of Utah. By 1902 Nibley was a flourishing village with 20 families and a post office, but beet production continued to be low because of lack of water (as Nibley anticipated irrigation becoming available) and unfavorable weather.
In 1905 there was a typhoid epidemic and more bad weather. The Oregon Sugar Company factory in La Grande was closed in 1906, the town ceased to exist on December 29, 1906, and the post office shut down.
As a company town, Nibley was not considered a proper town by some historians. Nibley, Utah was also named for Charles W. Nibley.


Zacatepec Chatino

Zacatepec Chatino is an indigenous Mesoamerican language, one of the Chatino family of the Oto-Manguean languages. It is often referred to as " ChaqF tinyaJ KichenA tziC, Chatino de San Marcos Zacatepec," or "Chatino de Zacatepec" as it is distinct from other Chatino languages in the region. Zacatepec Chatino is part of the Eastern Chatino languages. It is spoken in the town of San Marcos Zacatepec, a town of approximately 1,000 people and inhabited by an indigenous group known as the Chatino people. The language was once spoken in the village of Juquila, but is now virtually extinct with two surviving speakers in the area (Villard 2015).
Zacatepec Chatino is a highly endangered language as it is spoken by about 300 Chatinos whom are all above 50 years of age.
Classification.
Chatino refers to three closely related modern languages; the three being Eastern Chatino, Tataltepec Chatino, and Zenzontepec Chatino of the Zapotecan branch. Zacatepec Chatino falls under the Eastern Chatino branch.
Zacatepec Chatino, being part of Chatino language family, has shallow orthography. It is more conservative than many other varieties of Eastern Chatino as it conserves many non-final unstressed vowels which have been lost in other varieties.
History.
Little is known about the history of Zacatepec Chatino but according to Stéphanie Villard who studied and presented her thesis on the language, it has been on a decline for the past 40 years as natives continue to expand their ties with non-Chatino communities. With the help of the Zacatepec Chatino Documentation Project, Villard has uncovered some of the remnants of the language with the help of many natives from the area. The project includes visits in 2005 and 2006 by Hilaria Cruz, Emiliana Cruz, Megan Crowhurst as well as preliminary analysis of tones in H. Cruz y Woodbury in 2006. It also includes intensive work since 2006 by Stéphanie Villard, including 150 hours of audio, a sketch, papers on sandhi and inflection and grammar as well as short visits concentrating on textual documentation, tone, & morphology
Although Spanish is the official language in San Marcos Zacatepec, Oaxaca, many government officials communicate in Zacatepec Chatino. A study conducted by Villard revealed that majority of the younger population are monolingual Spanish speakers.
Geographic distribution.
Zacatepec Chatino is only spoken in San Marcos Zacatepec, Oaxaca in the Sierra Madre region of Mexico.
Dialects/Varieties.
Since Zacatepec Chatino is unintelligible with other Chatino varieties, it does not have any other dialects or varieties associated with it.
Phonology.
Vowels.
Villard (2015) reports that Zacatepec Chatino presents voicing of non-continuant after nasals, vowel harmony, and contrastive nasal vowels. It also lacks labial phonemes and has 4 levels of pitch ranging from low to high. It also presents 15 specific tonal sequences that can define 15 Lexical classes.
Its phonology presents a rich tonal system with a large inventory of phonemic tonal sequences as well as intricate sandhi patterns.
The vowels in Zacatepec Chatino are and may be oral or nasal.
/a/ does not present any restrictions in its distribution. /a/ is pronounced [a] and may be slightly nasalized. Here are some examples:
"nǎ [na"] thing
"pa̋[pa"] dad
"kwā ́[kwa]" already
"mpaà ̋ [mba:"] godfather
"Wyàa̋[bja:]" Santos Reyes Nopala, Oaxaca
"chǎʔ [t͜ʃaʔ"] word
/e/ does not occur after the nasal stop /n/. /e/ can be long in final syllables and short in non final syllables. Here are some examples:
"traʔwē ́ [traʔwe]" middle
"tikèʔ  [tikeʔ"] aroused
"siyěʔ [sijeʔ]" dressed up
"tsaʔwě [t͜saʔwe]" good
"nkyaseʔ [ŋgjaseʔ]" it got deflated
n"kyanè   [ŋgjanɛ"]̃ he/she sprayed it
"nkyaʔwè  [ŋgjaʔwe]" it got split
/i/ occurs in final as well as non-final syllables of roots followed by a /ʔ/. It is slightly restricted in its distribution. Here are some examples:
"pi̋[pi]" poult
"pìi̋[pi:]" fair skinned, pale
"lyiʔ̋ [li̻ ʔ]" parrot
"mpiʔ̋ [mbiʔ]" dram
"kiiʔ [ki:ʔ]" fire
The distribution of /u/ is highly restricted. /u/ in monosyllabic words is rare. /u/ can be long in final syllables but is always short in non-final syllables. Here are some examples:
xǔʔ [ʃuʔ] oldster
chūú [t͜ʃu:] Jesus
sùntū ̋[suntu] issue (from Spa. asunto)
bùrrū ̋[bur̥u] donkey (from Spa. burro)
kuʔwǐ [kuʔwi] drunk
suti [suti] his/her father
tuʔwa [tuʔwa] his/her mouth
/o/ is restricted as well. It does not occur after the nasal stop /n/ and similarly to /u/, /o/ does not occur after the labiovelars /kw/ or /w/. Here are some examples
Tyò ̋ [to̻ ] Pedro
kōō [ko:] fog
yo [jo] guy
yoo [jo:] soil
pìxō ̋[piʃo] peso
Grammar.
Morphology.
San Marcos Zacatepec is considered a head-marking language as it is synthetic and analytic. Some functions are the language are mixed; for example, person marking can be signaled through tone contrast and/or nasalization, encliticization, or also by a separate word.
Its verbal morphology features a large inventory of allomorphs of its aspectual morphemes, which makes its verbal paradigms appear extremely irregular.
The sequence classes are “morphological”—some are specialized by part-of-speech, by inflectional category, or loan provenance, while others are open ended and general.
Syntax.
The basic word order is VSO but there are other orders present. Here is an example of the Chatino Language VSO:
Some morphemes, such as the marker "ʔin" have various functions in the grammar as it is a dative marker. The dative marker introduces human direct objects, indirect objects, and also marks alienable possession.
Compounding patterns play an important role and word formation. the use of combinations of 'light nouns’ or semantically poor nouns and semantically rich adjectives (or nouns, although very rarely) is very prolific in the language. Villard provides us with an example of such formations: the light noun "nu" ‘the one who’, often occurs as a head noun in noun phrases, as in "nu kīʔyó 'man"' (the one who is male) or "nu kunāʔán" 'woman' (the one who is female).
Vocabulary.
There are 15 lexical tone classes defined by 15 tone sequences. The sequences pertain to any noncompound stem but have different realizations depending on the number of moras in the stem. The sequence classes are “morphological”—some are specialized by part-of-speech, by inflectional category, or loan provenance, while others are open ended and general. Sequence class identity—not tones—determines tonal ablaut behavior and tonal inflectional classes. The progressive aspect is associated with an M tone which generates composed sequences beyond the original 15


Howard Baum Site

Howard Baum Site (also called Clark's Work) is a Hopewell tradition earthworks site located in Ross County, Ohio, in the United States. The work is located near the north fork of Paint Creek. It was described, in 1848, as "one of the largest and most interesting in the Scioto valley."
History and location.
The site is located on the north fork of Paint Creek. In the mid-19th century, it was located on the property of W.C. Clark, hence the other name - "Clark's Work". The site dates back to the late Prehistoric period.
Excavation history.
Visit to the site by Squier and Davis in mid-19th century.
The site was visited by Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis in the mid 19th-century. They wrote about the site in their 1848 book, "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley". Squier and Davis believed that the site was used as a fortification. Within the main work are multiple smaller works, which they believed were of religious significance. It was described as being shaped like a parallelogram at 2800 feet by 1800 feet, with "corners somewhat rounded."
The creekside section of the work has a wall four feet in height, which runs alongside the bank. An exterior ditch traces the wall, which raises in height to six feet by 35 feet at the base. The ditch that follows matches the dimensions. During their visit, they noted that where the ravine had deepened over time, the ditch had washed away. The site encloses 111 acres of land. Inside of the work are two smaller works: a perfect circle at 350 feet in diameter and a semi-circle that is 2,000 feet in circumference. The semi-circle has seven mounds within it. Three are connected to each other, totaling 30 feet high, 500 feet long, and 180 feet wide.
To the right of the work is a smaller work covering 16 acres. It's a square shape, totaling 850 feet in size. Each side has an entrance in the center of it. Each entrance is 30 feet wide. Each gate has a small mound that accompanies it, and there are two other entrances on two outer corners, without mound accompaniment. There is no ditch around the smaller square work. Additional mounds are located throughout the area. One area of the main fortification was broken down, creating a gully which flowed with water from a nearby spring.
Based on their excavations, the stated that "nearly all mounds examined were places of sacrifice, containing altars,". They also confirmed that the site was also used as a fort. Squier and Davis stated that the amount of labor required to build the works was "immense," and that the embankments total three miles in length with approximately three million cubic feet of soil being used to build it.
20th-century.
A 1981 paper, "Faunal Remains from the Howard Baum Site, Ross County, Ohio", discusses the finding of 1,522 animal remains discovered in the groundmass at the site. The remains found included those of turkey, deer, elk, and other species.


Battle of Little Muddy Creek

The Battle of Little Muddy Creek, also known as the Lame Deer Fight, was fought on May 7–8, 1877, by United States soldiers and scouts against a village of Miniconjou Lakota and Northern Cheyenne. The battle occurred near Little Muddy Creek in Montana Territory, near present-day Lame Deer, Rosebud County.
Background.
On May 1, 1877, Colonel Nelson A. Miles led a mixed force of his own 5th Regiment, the 22nd Regiment, and the 2nd Cavalry Regiment out of Fort Keogh in search of Miniconjou Lakota under Lame Deer. On the Tongue River, Indian scouts found a trail heading west to Rosebud Creek, and Miles followed with his command of 471 officers and enlisted men.
Battle.
Spotting a camp of 61 lodges on Little Muddy Creek, Colonel Miles left his infantry and moved in with cavalry under Captain Edward Ball and mounted infantry under Lieutenant Edward W. Casey. The mounted force reached Lame Deer's sleeping village before dawn at 4:30 a.m. Company H of the 2nd Cavalry under Lieutenant Lovell H. Jerome and the mounted infantry under Casey began the fight with a mounted charge into the village. One of the army's Indian scouts, Hump, called to the Lakota and Cheyenne that Miles wanted to negotiate with them.
Lame Deer approached Miles accompanied by his nephew Iron Star and two others. Miles told Lame Deer to lay down his rifle, which he did, but cocked and facing forward. When White Bull, one of Miles's scouts, tried to take Iron Star's rifle, he fired, with the bullet going through White Bull's coat. Lame Deer grabbed his weapon on the ground and fired it at Miles, the bullet just missing him and killing his orderly, Private Charles Shrenger. Chaos ensued. Several soldiers and Lakota were hit in the gunfire. Lame Deer was shot down by a volley of 17 bullets fired by men of Company L, 2nd Cavalry. Companies F, G, and L of the 2nd Cavalry then attacked the small and defenseless Indian village, destroying it and capturing about 450 horses, killing half of them.
Aftermath.
The army had four men killed and ten wounded in the engagement, while the Lakota suffered from 5–14 killed, and about 20 wounded and 40 captured. Five Congressional Medals of Honor were awarded to soldiers for their actions during the battle:
A Purple Heart was awarded to David L. Brainard on January 27, 1933; one of only 12 awarded for the American Indian Wars.
Order of battle.
United States Army, Colonel Nelson A. Miles
Native Americans, Chief Lame Deer


Tom Jeffords

Thomas Jefferson Jeffords (January 1, 1832 – February 19, 1914) was a United States Army scout, Indian agent, prospector, and superintendent of overland mail in the Arizona Territory. His friendship with Apache leader Cochise was instrumental in ending the Indian wars in that region. He first met Cochise when he rode alone into Cochise's camp in 1871 to request that the chief come to Canada Alamosa for peace talks. Cochise declined at least in part because he was afraid to travel with his family after the recent Camp Grant Massacre. Three months later he made the trip and stayed for over six months during which time their friendship grew while the negotiations failed. Cochise was unwilling to accept the Tularosa Valley as his reservation and home. In October 1872, Jeffords led General Oliver O. Howard to Cochise's Stronghold, believed to be China Meadow, in the Dragoon Mountains. Cochise demanded and got the Dragoon and Chiricahua Mountains as his reservation and Tom Jeffords as his agent. From 1872 to 1876, there was peace in southern Arizona. Then renegade Apaches killed Nicholas Rogers who had sold them whiskey and the cry went out to abolish the reservation and remove Jeffords as agent. Tom Jeffords embarked on a series of ventures as sutler and postmaster at Fort Huachuca, head of the first Tucson water company trying to bring artesian water to that city, and as prospector and mine owner and developer. He died at Owl Head Buttes in the Tortolita Mountains 35 miles north of Tucson.
Early life.
Tom Jeffords was born in Chautauqua County, New York, where his father was trying to earn enough money to purchase a farm. When Tom was seven, he moved the family to Ashtabula, Ohio, in the Western Reserve. Tom and his brothers sailed the Great Lakes and Tom became a ship's captain while still in his early twenties. Bored and in search of wealth, Tom followed the gold rush to Pike's Peak in 1859 building the road from Leavenworth to Denver. From there he pursued the San Juan Gold Rush of 1860 to Taos County, New Mexico, and that same year followed the Colorado Gold Rush to Gila City in Arizona. He soon moved on to the Pinos Altos, New Mexico, gold rush. The Civil War found Tom near Fort Craig and he participated in the Battle of Valverde as a civilian courier. Jeffords accepted an assignment from Colonel Edward Canby to ride over 500 miles alone across Apache country to Fort Yuma, California, where Colonel James Carleton was coming with the California Column. Since Confederate forces had invaded southern New Mexico and occupied the countryside as far as Tucson, Colonel Canby needed a brave courier who knew the route through the wilds along the Gila River to carry messages. Tom Jeffords returned east to Arizona Territory in 1862 as a scout with the lead companies of the California Column. He remained with the Army as a civilian scout throughout the war as the Army engaged Navajo, Apache and Comanche Indians and kept the Texans out of New Mexico.
Bascom Affair.
Open war with the Chiricahua Apaches had begun in 1861, when Cochise, one of their chiefs, was accused by the Army of kidnapping an 11-year-old Mexican boy, Felix Ward, stepson of Johnny Ward, later known as Mickey Free. Although the abduction was probably the work of Pinal Indians, a clear trail led to Cochise's doorstep. Reassignment of two companies of dragoon cavalry to Fort Breckinridge on the lower San Pedro River had forced the Pinal, Coyotero and other Western Apaches to alter their raiding routes so that they swung east toward the Chiricahua Mountains and Apache Pass.
Lieutenant George Nicholas Bascom was sent with 66 men of Company C, 7th Infantry, which he commanded, to get the boy back. Johnny Ward went along as interpreter. The lieutenant invited Cochise to his camp for parley and they retired to the lieutenant's tent for lunch and talk along with his brother, Coyuntura, and Ward. Bascom told Cochise that he wanted the boy and Ward's stolen livestock.
This was not the first time that Cochise had been forced to return stolen stock. Captain Richard S. Ewell had been out to Apache Pass twice before to recover stock and had sworn he would, "proceed to force them to terms the next time".
Cochise said he did not have them but thought he knew who did. Bascom told the chief he would be a hostage against the boy's safe return. Cochise's father and brothers had been slain by Mexicans during parley and his people had been poisoned. Hearing that he would be a hostage, Cochise pulled his knife, slashed the ties of the tent, and escaped up Overlook Ridge. His brother, his son and nephew, two warriors and his wife remained as hostages.
Meeting the next day, Cochise violated the flag of truce and took his own hostage. In following days, he took three more. Surrounded by what he believed were 500 Apaches, Bascom sent for aid. The first to arrived was Surgeon Bernard Irwin, who took three more hostages on his way to rescue Bascom while leading only eleven men. He was awarded the Medal of Honor 32 years later for this action.
Cochise killed and possibly tortured his four hostages. Two troops of dragoons arrived under command of Lieutenants Isaiah Moore and Richard Lord, both senior to Bascom. Moore took command. Irwin proposed hanging the six Apache hostages (the woman and boys were released at Fort Buchanan). Bascom demurred but, outranked, allowed the hanging.
Cochise, formerly inclined toward peace with the white settlers, now joined other Apache chiefs in hostility to them. It was not long before the Army retaliated, and the war was on.
Between 1867 and 1869, Jeffords was the superintendent of a mail line from Tucson to Socorro. He apparently gave people to understand that he had met Cochise during this period and negotiated a peace for his mail riders. This is very unlikely as they were attacked as often, seldom, after he took charge as before.
In 1871 President Grant sent General Oliver Howard to the Arizona Territory with orders to end the Apache wars by negotiating treaties with the tribes. Howard was an apt choice, as he had been head of the Freedmen's Bureau, the agency responsible for assisting freed black slaves after the Civil War. General Howard enlisted the help of Jeffords in concluding these treaties. Learning of his work with the Freedmen's Bureau, Jeffords knew that Howard was honorable and would be respected by Cochise, and eventually conducted the general into Cochise's camp. A treaty was signed in 1872, ending the decade-long war with the Chiricahua Apaches.
Cochise requested that his people be allowed to remain in the Chiricahua Mountains and that Jeffords be made Indian agent for the region. These requests were granted, and the Indian raids subsided.
Settlers branded Jeffords "Indian lover" and wrote scathing reports to politicians back in Washington. In 1875, he was removed as the federal agent and the Chiricahua Apaches were relocated to the San Carlos Reservation. Cochise was spared this; he had died of natural causes about a year after signing the now broken treaty. The Apache wars began again, but were ended in 1886 with the surrender of Geronimo, the last Apache leader.
Later life and death.
Jeffords relocated to Tombstone, AZ, where he was part owner of a number of mines. He staked claims in the Huachuca, Dos Cabezas, and Chiricahua Mountains. With Nicholas Rogers and Sidney De Long, he staked a claim to the famed Brunckow Mine in 1875 and remained in control of it into the 1880s. He was a partner in a mine in the Santa Ritas and head of a company trying to supply water to the city of Tucson. He lived out the last 22 years of his life in the Tortolita Mountains north of Tucson, Arizona, at a homestead near the Owlhead Buttes. He died on February 19, 1914, and was buried in Tucson's Evergreen Cemetery.
A monument was dedicated to Jeffords in Evergreen Cemetery in 1964.
In popular culture.
The story of Jeffords, General Howard, Cochise, and the Apache wars was told in historically-based but dramatized form in a novel by Elliott Arnold called "Blood Brother". The novel was adapted into the Delmer Daves's film "Broken Arrow" (1950). James Stewart played Jeffords in the movie. It was later adapted into a 1956 television show that ran for 72 episodes, in which John Lupton played Jeffords.


Timeline of Matanzas

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Matanzas, Cuba.


Frederick Lansing

Frederick Lansing (February 16, 1838 – January 31, 1894) was a U.S. Representative from New York.
Biography.
Born in Manheim, New York, Lansing attended the Little Falls Academy, New York.
He studied law.
He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and practiced in Watertown, New York.
He served during the Civil War in the Eighth New York Cavalry; was acting adjutant of that regiment from June 23 to October 11, 1863.
He was a member of the New York State Senate (21st D.) from 1882 to 1885, sitting in the 105th, 106th, 107th and 108th New York State Legislatures.
Lansing was elected as a Republican to the 51st United States Congress, holding office from March 4, 1889, to March 3, 1891.
He died on January 31, 1894, in Watertown, New York, and was interred in Brookside Cemetery.


Russian Mexicans

According to the 2000 Mexican census, 1,293 Russian citizens were resident in Mexico.
Migration history.
After the anti-Jewish pogroms of 1881, Mexico frequently came under consideration as a possible refuge for Russian Jews seeking to emigrate. In June 1891, Jacob Schiff, an American Jewish businessman with railroad interests in Mexico, wrote to Ernest Cassel to enquire about the possibility for settlement of Russian Jews there. However, Russian Jews would not begin to arrive in significant quantities until the 1920s.
Pryguny in Baja California.
From 1905 to 1906, about 50 families of Spiritual Christian Pryguny (colloquially known as Molokans), who arrived in Los Angeles from Russia, sought a rural location, and relocated to of land they had purchased in Guadalupe, Baja California in Mexico. Theirs would become the most successful "Prygun" colony cluster in North America. There, they build houses largely in the Russian style, but of adobe rather than wood, and grew a variety of cash crops including mostly wheat, alfalfa, grapes, and tomatoes. Their village was originally quite isolated, reflecting their desire to withdraw from society, but in 1958, road construction in the area resulted in an influx of Mexican and other settlers; some chose to flee encroaching urbanization, and returned to the United States. By the 1990s, only one family remained in the area.


Charles Manigault Morris

Charles Manigault Morris (May 7, 1820 – March 22, 1895) was an officer in the United States Navy and later in the Confederate States Navy. Morris was a descendant of several of the most prominent Northern and Southern families in colonial America.
Early life.
Morris was born in Adams Run, South Carolina on May 7, 1820. He was the youngest son of Col. Lewis Morris (1785–1863) of New York and his wife Elizabeth (née Manigault) Morris (1785–1822) of South Carolina, who married in 1807. Among his siblings was Gabriella Manigault Morris (wife of John Mease Butler and sister-in-law of Pierce Mease Butler), Margaret Ann Morris (wife of John Berkley Grimball), Henry Manigault Morris (who married M. Georgia Edwards), and Richard Lewis Morris (who married Anne Elizabeth Dunwoodie). In 1822, when Charles was just two years old, his mother and older brother Lewis were killed during a hurricane on Sullivan's Island. In 1837, his father remarried to Amarinthia Lowndes, a daughter of James Lowndes and granddaughter of Gov. Rawlins Lowndes. From his father's second marriage, he had three half-siblings, including Lewis Morris (b. 1842), who lived in Paris. Although they lived in the South, his father maintained control of Morris family property around Morrisania in New York.
His paternal grandparents were Maj. and Brevet Lt. Col. of the Continental Army Lewis V. Morris (eldest son of Continental Congressman and signer of the Declaration of Independence Lewis Morris who was the third and last Lord of Morrisania Manor) and Ann B. (née Elliott) Morris (a sister-in-law of U.S. Representative Daniel Huger). His maternal grandparents were architect Gabriel Manigault (a son of Peter Manigault, the wealthiest person in British North America in 1770) and Margaret (née Izard) Manigault (a daughter of Continental Congressman and U.S. Senator from South Carolina Ralph Izard). He was also distant cousin of Confederate General Arthur Middleton Manigault, and a great-nephew of Arthur Middleton.
Career.
In December 1837, he entered the United States Navy as a midshipman. He was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant in 1851, serving "with honor during the Mexican War." In 1853, he was Lieutenant on the USS "Mississippi" with Commodore Matthew C. Perry's expedition to Japan. While in Japan, Morris received gifts from Emperor Kōmei. In 1860, he was First Lt. of the USS "Marion" with the Africa Squadron off the coast of Africa.
He resigned his commission on January 29, 1861, following South Carolina's secession and was ordered to the command of the CSS "Huntress", side-wheel steamer, in Savannah. In March, he was appointed a First Lieutenant in the Confederate States Navy. From 1861 to 1863, Morris served on the Savannah, Georgia Station where he married his second wife.
After John Newland Maffitt became ill at Brest, France, Morris took over in January 1864 as commander of the CSS "Florida". As commander, he captured "Electric Spark", "Harriet Stevens", "Golconda", "Margaret Y. Davis", and USS "Mondamin" along the coast of the United States. Morris then crossed the ocean to Tenerife in the Canary Islands before cruising back to Brazil capturing the "B.X. Hoxie", "Cairaissanne", "David Lapsey", USS "Estella", "George Latimer", "Southern Rights", "Greenland", "Windward", "William C. Clark", and "Zelinda". In October 1864, however, his ship was illegally captured in a Brazilian harbor by the Union Navy. Morris and most of his crew were ashore when his ship was boarded in the middle of the night while at anchor in neutral waters. During the remainder of the American Civil War, he served abroad as an agent of the Confederate States government.
Later life.
Following the war, Morris and his family settled in England. After the War, his wife took an interest in the education of President Jefferson Davis' daughter, Margaret "Maggie" Davis at the convent in France. In 1880, he returned to the United States and lived the rest of his life in Baltimore, Maryland.
Personal life.
Morris was twice married. His first wife was Hannah Heyward Troup (1830–1854), a daughter of Camilla Heyward Brailsford and James McGilvary Troup. After her death in 1854, he married Clementina Hansen McAllister (1832–1907), a daughter of George Washington McAllister of Strathy Hall, Georgia (and namesake of Fort McAllister), in November 1861. His second wife was a first cousin of Archibald McAllister, a U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania during the Civil War. Together, they were the parents of:
Morris died at his home, 908 St. Paul Street in Baltimore, on March 22, 1895. His funeral service, led by the Rev. Dr. John Sebastian Bach Hodges, was held at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Baltimore. His pall-bearers were Gen. John Gill, Henry Thompson, Capt. Fitzhugh Carter, John Carey, Capt. Yates Stirling, John W. Williams, John I. Middleton and Gen. Joseph Lancaster Brent. After the funeral, his body was sent to New York where was laid to rest in the family vault at St. Ann's Church in Morrisania. His widow died on August 24, 1907.


Treaty of Colerain

The Treaty of Colerain was signed at St. Marys, Georgia in Camden County, Georgia, by Benjamin Hawkins, George Clymer, and Andrew Pickens for the United States and representatives of the Creek Nation, for whom Indian trader Langley Bryant served as an interpreter, on June 29, 1796, proclaimed on March 18, 1797, and codified as . Colerain was a small community and the site of a U.S. Indian factory founded by James Seagrove.
This treaty affirmed the binding of the Treaty of New York (1790). The Treaties of Hopewell and the Treaty of Holston (1791) established boundary lines between the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokee, and the U.S. The Treaty of Colerain bound the Creek Nation to acknowledge the boundaries established in those treaties.
It also established the boundary line between the Creek Nation and the United States. At the time of this treaty, the boundaries between Spanish Florida and the U.S. had not yet been established. This treaty formally allowed the Creek chiefs to acknowledge the negotiation for delineating the Georgia-Florida boundary with Spain.
The treaty contained a provision that the President of the U.S. may establish a trading or military outpost.
The United States demanded that the Creeks give up their American prisoners and also return all "citizens, white inhabitants, negroes and property" taken by the Creeks.
The treaty describes when it would take effect. After the treaty had been signed but not yet promulgated, the U.S. Senate requested modification of two articles of the treaty. The first modification stipulated that the military or trading posts would be under the control of the United States. The second modification stipulated that if the U.S. no longer required the use of those posts, the locations would revert to the Creek people.


MV Motor Princess

MV "Motor Princess was a vehicle and passenger ferry built for Canadian Pacific in 1923. She was later renamed, Pender Queen then Pender Lady".
"Motor Princess" was built in 97 days at by Yarrows Ltd. in Esquimalt. She was built for the Canadian Pacific Railway Company's B.C. Coast Service.
"Motor Princess" had a main car deck as well as space for cars on the front half of the upper deck, connected to the main car deck with a ramp. She was a wooden-hulled vessel and the first diesel powered vessel in CP's fleet. She had a cruising speed of 14.5 knots. (Turner, 129)
Robert Turner describes the passenger amenities in his book, "The Pacific Princesses":
"Naturally, emphasis was on automobile facilities, but passengers were far from neglected. Though her lounge space was limited compared to the spacious equivalent quarters on the larger ships in the [CP] fleet, the Motor Princess was nonetheless well appointed. On both sides of the upper car deck, carpeted lounges were provided with large windows for viewing the scenic Gulf Islands. In addition, the after two-fifths of the upper deck were devoted to a combination dining room and social hall with hardwood flooring. Two staterooms were also provided on the compact ship, and ample open deck space was available for leisurely strolls and relaxing in the sun during the summer months." (129)
Turner cites the construction of the "Motor Princess" as being a turning point in ship construction for CP. From then on, almost all new ships would be more friendly towards transporting cars. (Turner, 129)
Service.
When first built, "Motor Princess" was placed on the Bellingham - Sidney route. She remained on this run for 3 years. (Kline and Bayless, 95 ; Turner, 129) CP moved "Motor Princess" north to operate between Vancouver and Nanaimo, in 1926. In 1929, she was placed on a route between Steveston (south of Vancouver) and Sidney (near Victoria).
In 1950, the CP was forced to remove "Motor Princess" from passenger service due to changed federal regulations regarding wooden vessels. For the next 5 years, she was used to carry freight between Vancouver and Victoria. (Turner, 193)
"Motor Princess" was sold to the Gulf Islands Ferry Company in 1955 who removed the wooden superstructure and replaced it with a steel one. The new ferry bore no resemblance to the old wooden freighter/ferry, she now had an open car deck and just a small upper deck for passengers/crew. She was then put into service in the Gulf Islands. (Turner, 193)
In 1961, "Motor Princess" joined B.C. Ferries with the rest of the Gulf Island Ferry Company fleet. BC Ferries bought the company's ferries and terminals on 1 September 1961 for $249,823 and renamed her "Pender Queen" in 1963. BC Ferries continued to operate "Pender Queen" in the Gulf Islands. (Griffiths and Cadieux, 42)
One event in the life of "Pender Queen" with B.C. Ferries was recorded by Garth Griffiths and Capt. H.L. Cadieux in their book, Dogwood Fleet. They relate a story of "Pender Queen" losing engine power one night near North Pender Island. She was barely rescued from going aground by "Queen of Saanich" under the command of Captain Amodeo. (Griffiths and Cadieux, 97)
"Pender Queen" was retired from service in 1980 and sold a year later for $75,300. According to Gary and Patricia Bannerman, it was sold to a Saltspring Island company. (Bannerman, 170) In June 2003 the vessel sunk in Naden Harbour on the north end of the Queen Charlotte Islands and later scrapped.


San Miguel de Allende

San Miguel de Allende () is the principal city in the municipality of San Miguel de Allende, located in the far eastern part of Guanajuato, Mexico. A part of the Bajío region, the city lies from Mexico City, 86 km (53 mi) from Querétaro, and from the state capital of Guanajuato. The city's name derives from two persons: 16th-century friar Juan de San Miguel, and a martyr of Mexican Independence, Ignacio Allende, who was born in a house facing the city's central plaza. San Miguel de Allende was also a critical epicenter during the historic Chichimeca War (1540–1590) where the Chichimeca Confederation defeated the Spanish Empire in the initial colonization war. Today, an old section of the town is part of a proclaimed World Heritage Site, attracting thousands of tourists and new residents from abroad every year.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the town was in danger of becoming a ghost town after an influenza pandemic. Gradually, its Baroque/Neoclassical colonial structures were "discovered" by foreign artists who moved in and began art and cultural institutes such as the Instituto Allende and the Escuela de Bellas Artes. This gave the town a reputation, attracting artists such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, who taught painting.
This attracted foreign art students, especially former U.S. soldiers studying on the G.I. Bill after the Second World War. Since then, the town has attracted a significant number of foreign retirees, artists, writers and tourists, which has shifted the area's economy from agriculture and industry to commerce catering to outside visitors and residents.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated the Protective town of San Miguel and the Sanctuary of Jesús Nazareno de Atotonilco as a World Heritage Site in 2008. The area of designation includes part of the town San Miguel de Allende and part of the town of Atotonilco, which are about 14 kilometers apart. The World Heritage Site is highlighted by a core zone of 43 hectares in San Miguel de Allende's well-preserved historic center, filled with buildings from the 17th and 18th centuries. The other part of the World Heritage Site fourteen kilometers north, at the Sanctuary of Atotonilco, has a core zone of .75 hectares surrounded by a buffer zone of about 4.5 hectares.
History.
Founding of the city.
Before the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century, San Miguel was an indigenous Chichimeca village called Izcuinapan. Then a small chapel was built near Izcuinapan by Juan de San Miguel. He decided to dedicate the Spanish town to the Archangel Michael. However, Spanish colonization and attempts to enslave women, men, and children to work the silver mines quickly created a hostile environment with the Chichimeca Confederation natives. The Chichimecas began defending their ancestral lands against invasion by Spanish soldiers and colonizers. In 1551, the Guamare people of the Chichimeca Confederation attacked Spanish military posts and settlements. This overt hostility, along with multiple failed attempts by the Spanish to provide water to their own settlements in the area, caused the original location to be pushed out.
The village was officially re-established in 1555 by Juan de San Miguel's successor, Bernardo Cossin, and indigenous leader Fernando de Tapia. It was refounded both as a mission and as a military outpost. The new site was a mile east of the old one at a place with two fresh water springs (called Batán and Izcuinapan) and with terrain better suited for defense. The two springs supplied all of the town's water until the 1970s.
Colonial period.
By the mid-16th century, silver had been discovered in Guanajuato and Zacatecas, and a major road between this area and Mexico City passed through San Miguel. Indigenous attacks on caravans continued and San Miguel became an important military and commercial site. This led to the forty-year Chichimeca War. The viceroy in Mexico City granted lands and cattle to a number of Spaniards to motivate them to settle the area. He also gave indigenous groups limited self-rule and excused them from taxation. The location of the town would make it a melting pot as Spanish, indigenous peoples, and later criollos exchanged cultural influences.
Eventually, major roads would connect the town with the mining communities in San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas, and the rest of the state of Guanajuato. Serving travelers' needs and providing supplies to mining camps made the town rich. Textile manufacture was a major industry in the town. Locals claim that the serape was invented here. By the mid-18th century the city was at its height, and this was when most of its large mansions, palaces, and religious buildings were constructed. Most still remain. The town was also home to the area's wealthy hacienda owners. At that time, it was one of the most important and prosperous settlements in New Spain with a population reaching 30,000. By comparison, in the mid-18th century Boston had a population of only 16,000 and New York 25,000. The town's apogee came during the transition period between Baroque and Neoclassical architecture, and many of the mansions and churches show both influences. Mansions built in San Miguel are larger than normal for a settlement of its size.
Independence.
The prominence of the city declined at the beginning of the 19th century, mostly due to the Mexican War of Independence. However, it played an important early role in this conflict. It is the birthplace of two significant figures of the war, Juan Aldama and Ignacio Allende. Both were involved in a conspiracy against the colonial government in Mexico City, along with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. When this conspiracy was discovered, the warning to Hidalgo and Allende passed through this town and onto Dolores (Hidalgo), just to the north. This prompted Hidalgo's "Grito de Dolores" assembling the insurgent army on 15 and 16 September 1810. The new insurgent army first came to San Miguel, stopping at a religious sanctuary in Atotonilco just outside. Hidalgo took a standard bearing an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe from here; this standard is now in the Museo del Ejercito in Spain. Then the army entered San Miguel proper, to name officers and to free prisoners in the local jail. San Miguel was the first Mexican town to gain its independence from Spain.
While there was no further military action in the immediate area, economically the town waned as agriculture suffered and the population declined. This continued for most of the rest of the 19th century as the country was torn between Liberal and Conservative factions vying for power. After the war, the town was declared a city by the state congress in 1826 and its name was modified to San Miguel de Allende in honor of Ignacio Allende.
There was some economic recovery near the end of the 19th century during the rule of Porfirio Díaz. During this time, dams, aqueducts and railroads were built. Agriculture made a comeback with the introduction of fruit orchards. However, decline returned with the end of mining in almost all of the state of Guanajuato. Between this and the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, San Miguel almost became a ghost town. What remained was preserved as the new Mexican government, under the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), declared San Miguel a "Historic and Protected Town" in 1926, establishing guidelines and restrictions aimed at keeping its colonial appearance. Historian Lisa Pinley Covert denies that such an event occurred in 1926, yet acknowledges that a federal law of 1926 nationalized many Catholic properties in the city, even if historic preservation had not been the motivation.
20th century to the present.
American artist and writer Stirling Dickinson arrived in 1937 and should be credited with creating the first wave of advertising abroad about San Miguel's virtues. Dickinson met Peruvian intellectual, author and painter, Felipe Cossio del Pomar who had the idea of establishing an art colony in the heart of Mexico. The first art school was established in 1938 in an old convent—still in use provisionally as a school, after having been soldiers' barracks—which Cossio del Pomar secured from then Mexican president Lázaro Cárdenas. The school was called Bellas Artes, and continues to exist today, locally known as Bellas Artes or Centro Cultural El Nigromante. In the 1940s, Dickinson would also assist Cossio del Pomar and Enrique Fernández Martinez, the former governor of the state of Guanajuato, to establish what became the Instituto Allende. Despite their rural location, both schools would find success after the World War II. U.S. veterans studying under the G.I. Bill were permitted to study abroad, and these schools took advantage of that fact to attract former soldiers as students. Enrollment at the schools rose and this began the town's cultural reputation. This attracted more artists and writers, including José Chávez Morado and David Alfaro Siqueiros, who taught painting at the Escuela de Bellas Artes. This, in turn, spurred the opening of hotels, shops and restaurants to cater to the new visitors and residents. Many of the American veterans who came to study in San Miguel would later come back to retire, some marrying and raising international families such as the Vidargas, Andre, Maxwell, and Breck families.
The town's cultural, foreign and cosmopolitan nature has continued since that time. The city took on a bohemian quality starting in the 1950s with the party ambiance of many resident expats and artists. In the 1960s, Cantinflas promoted the area among his friends in the film industry. Hippies were taken in for haircuts by the authorities in the 1970s, and now the town is generally too expensive for the backpacking travelers of the 21st century. The growing attraction of the town and its colonial buildings created a vibrant real estate market, which until recently has not been affected by Mexico's fluctuating economy. Many of the old "ruins" of colonial houses have been sold for more than a house in Mexico City.
The city and nearby sanctuary were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in July 2008. It was chosen both for its well-preserved Baroque colonial architecture and layout and for its historic role in the Mexican War of Independence. The area that has been inscribed includes 64 blocks of the historic center and the sanctuary of Atotonilco with the title "Villa Protectora de San Miguel el Grande y el Santuario de Jesus Nazareno de Atotonilco".
Demographics.
Despite being less than 5% of the total municipal population, foreign residents have considerable cultural and economic impact. Most foreign residents are retirees from the United States, Canada, and Europe attracted by the mild climate, cultural opportunities, and low crime. It is only a ten-hour drive from the U.S. border. Many of the home buyers are from this segment of the population as well. Estimates of foreign residents range from 20,000 to 25,000, with at least half of these from the United States. The large foreign presence has established a number of institutions here, most notably the Biblioteca Pública in the former convent of Santa Ana, which has the second-largest English-language book collection in Mexico and serves as a community center for foreigners. There is also a chapter of the Lion's Club ( 1987). A post of the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars is located there, as well as Mexico's only Audubon Society chapter.
While the town and municipality have grown since the coming of foreigners in the 1940s, the highest rates of growth occurred between 1980 and 2000, rising from 77,624 to 110,692, or about 43%. However, since that time growth has slowed and as of the 2005 census, the population stood at 139,297. Most of the drop has been due to the fall in birthrates. However, the overall population of the municipality is young: about 40% is under the age of 15, with those between 15 and 64 making up about 54% of the population. While the majority of the population of the municipality of Allende lives in a collection of small rural communities that do not exceed 2,500 people, the largest single population center is the town of San Miguel de Allende, which houses 59,691 people, about 44% of the municipality's population. The next three largest towns each have populations smaller than 3,000 people: Los Rodríguez (2,768), Colonia San Luis Rey (1,850), and Corral de Piedras de Arriba (1,701).
These smaller communities are populated by the municipality's indigenous groups, mostly Otomi and Nahuas. The Otomi are the largest group, accounting for just under 38% of the municipal population. The Nahuas follow at about 20%. Other groups include the Mazahua, Huasteca and Purépecha. However, according to the 2002 census, only 520 people speak an indigenous language, 472 of whom also speak Spanish.
Catholicism is practised by 96% of the population, with most others being Protestants, among them Evangelicals. The municipality is home to three institutions of higher education, the Instituto Tecnológico SSC, a campus of the Universidad Tecnólogica de León, and the Universidad Tecnológica de San Miguel de Allende. The city also has bilingual schools that follow the curriculum of the American educational system. As of 2000, 17.5% of the population is considered to be illiterate, compared to 12.1% for the rest of the state.
Landmarks.
Historic core zone.
The historic core zone of San Miguel was defined by the federal government in 1982 and adopted by UNESCO in 2008. This is a 43 hectare area, partly defined by Insurgentes to the north, Quebrada to the west, and Terraplen and Huerta to the south. Two buffer zones totaling about forty hectares are adjacent to the core zone.
At the entrance of the city stand the statues of Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama, Miguel Hidalgo and Josefa Ortiz de Dominguez, with one of the Archangel Michael in the center. While the outlying areas of the town and municipality have changed over time, the historic center remains much as it was 250 years ago. The layout of the center of the city is mostly a straight grid, as was favored by the Spanish during colonial times. However, due to the terrain, many roads are not straight. There are no parking meters, no traffic signals and no fast food restaurants. These roads are lined with colonial-era homes and churches. With a few exceptions, the architecture is domestic rather than monumental, with well-tended courtyards and rich architectural details. The houses have solid walls against the sidewalks, painted in various colors, many with bougainvillea vines falling down the outside and the occasional iron-grated window. Many of the larger structures have large entrances that once accommodated horses and carriages.
"Jardín Allende" (Allende Garden) is the town's main plaza, which serves as a venue for music concerts and other cultural activities. The plaza includes formal landscaping and wrought-iron benches throughout, and is a center of social activity in San Miguel.
In the historic center, there are an estimated two thousand doors, behind which there are at least two thousand courtyards of various sizes. Many of these have been restored to their former colonial state, with façades of ochre, orange and yellow, windows and doors framed by handcrafted ironwork and made of hewn wood. The interior roofs are flat, of heavy mortar supported by large beams. Very few structures have atriums or front yards; instead, open private space is behind the main façade in courtyards. These courtyards are where the private gardens were, protected from dust, excess water and crime.
The town is noted for its streetscapes with narrow cobblestone lanes, that rise and fall over the hilly terrain. It is still a small city, and at night, many wander the narrow streets in relative safety. Several publications have named it one of the top 10 places to retire. The town has attracted residents such as Jose Guadalupe Mojica, Pedro Vargas and Cantinflas. Additionally, indigenous Otomis and Nahuas (Chichimecas) can be seen on the streets, as they come from rural communities to trade and attend church.
Since the 1920s, steps have been taken to preserve the historic center's charm. The first set of protections was put into place by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) when it was declared a national monument. This required all restoration and new construction to conform to the area's colonial architecture. To preserve the city's trademark colonial look, a civil society regulates the renovation and maintenance of the city, especially its historic center. This includes aspects such as traffic, garden spaces and the kinds of social events that may be held. The town has also put effort into preserving the cobblestone streets. The most recent designation is that of a World Heritage site, along with the religious sanctuary in nearby Atotonilco, which also puts restrictions and protections into place.
About half of the colonial buildings have been partially or fully converted into businesses such as stores, restaurants, galleries, workshops and hotels. Since there is no zoning, residential and commercial establishments are mixed. Although it is small and rural, it has a wide variety of restaurants, specialty shops and art galleries. Around the historic center there are over 80 bars and cantinas as well as various nightclubs.
In September 2010, the first contemporary architectural structure arrived in the historic colonial center with the opening of Hotel Matilda. The hotel's four buildings have a modern design, with public areas decorated with the art works of contemporary Latin artists, many of them very large pieces. Only the exterior street wall, along Calle Aldama, reflects the colonial style.
The oldest part of the town is the El Chorro neighborhood. This is where the village of San Miguel was moved to in 1555. The Nahuatl name for the area was Izcuinapan or "place of dogs", and according to legend, dogs led Juan de San Miguel to this area to find this spring. This area is the home of the Parish of San Miguel, the Jardin Principal () and an earlier church called the San Rafael or Santa Escuela Church.
La Parroquia de San Miguel Arcángel, the current parish church of San Miguel, is unique in Mexico and the emblem of the town. It is one of the most-photographed churches in Mexico and the two tall towers of its neo-Gothic façade can be seen from most parts of town. The church was built in the 17th century with a traditional Mexican façade. The current Gothic façade was constructed in 1880 by Zeferino Gutierrez, an indigenous bricklayer and self-taught architect. It is said Gutierrez's inspiration came from postcards and lithographs of Gothic churches in Europe; however, the interpretation is his own and more a work of imagination than a faithful reconstruction. In front of this façade is a small atrium, which is guarded by a wrought iron fence. There is a monument in the atrium dedicated to Bishop José María de Jesús Diez de Sollano y Davalos. The San Rafael or Santa Escuela Church is located to the side of the parish. It was founded by Luis Felipe Neri de Alfaro in 1742. The main façade has two levels with arches, pilasters, floral motifs and a frieze on the first level. The second level has a choir window framed by pink sandstone. The bell tower is Moorish. According to legend, this older chapel was the site of the first Christian ceremony in San Miguel.
At the entrance of the main church, there is an inscription which states that Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and his brother Jose Joaquin served as priests here. There is another one acknowledging Gutierrez's work on the façade. The interior of the church still has the original 17th-century layout and interior design, but the church was looted several times during Mexico's history so much of its decoration is lost. However, one significant image here is the "Señor de la Conquista", which was made of cornstalk paste by indigenous people in Michoacán. The sacristy contains a painting depicting the founding of the town in 1542 and its subsequent move to Izcuinapan in the El Chorro neighborhood. There is a small crypt under the altar with access through a small door to the right. This crypt contains the remains of former bishops of the church and other dignitaries, including a former president of Mexico. It is opened to the public one day each year, on 2 November, Day of the Dead.
In front of the church complex is the Plaza Allende, popularly known as Jardin Principal (), but most often referred to simply as "el jardin". It was designed in French style, with wrought iron benches and filled with Indian laurel trees. It is a popular place to sit and relax and bands often play in the kiosk on weekends. In addition to the parish, other important structures, such as the Ignacio Allende House, the Canal House and the municipal palace overlook the garden.
The Centro Cultural Ignacio Ramirez, also called the Escuela de Bellas Artes or El Nigromante, is housed in the former Hermanas de la Concepción () convent. The Concepcion convent and adjoining church were founded in 1775 by a member of the De la Canal family, María Josefina Lina de la Canal y Hervás. In the latter 19th century, the convent was closed by the Reform Laws and it remained empty until the mid-20th century. The Escuela de Bellas Artes was established in 1938 by Peruvian Felipe Cossío del Pomar and American Stirling Dickinson. This and other art institutions began to attract American exchange students who came to study and live. The cultural center today is part of the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA) and is often referred to by locals as "Bellas Artes". It is a two-story cloister surrounded an extremely large courtyard with large streets and a large fountain in the middle. It houses art exhibits, classrooms for drawing, painting, sculpture, lithography, textiles, ceramics, dramatic arts, ballet, regional dance, piano and guitar.
One hall of the old convent is dedicated to a mural by David Alfaro Siqueiros along with students from the art school, but it was never finished. The complex has a museum, an auditorium, two art galleries and the Las Musas restaurant. Next to the cultural center is the Inmaculada Concepcion Church, locally known as Las Monjas (). It was originally constructed as part of the convent. The church was constructed between 1755 and 1842 with an elegant cupola added by Zeferino Gutierrez in 1891, inspired by the Les Invalides in Paris. The cupola is octagonal and decorated with Corinthian columns in the lower area and the upper area has a window with a balustrade and statues of saints. Topping the cupola is a lantern window with a statue depicting the Immaculate Conception. Inside, there are paintings by Juan Rodriguez Juarez.
The Casa de Allende (Allende House) museum was the home of Ignacio Allende, who was a principal figure in the early part of the Mexican War of Independence. The structure was built in 1759 with Baroque and Neoclassical elements, located next to the San Miguel parish church. The museum it houses is officially called the Museo Histórico de San Miguel de Allende, and it is one of many "regional museums" of Mexico. This kind of museum focuses on the history of the local area from the prehistoric period to the present, especially the area's role in Mexico's national history. The lower floor contains exhibits about the founding of the town, its role in protecting the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Road and more. The upper floor contains exhibits related to Ignacio Allende and some of the rooms are preserved as they looked when he lived there. There are 24 rooms that chronicle the history of the area from the foundation of the town to the Ruta de la Plata (), the genealogy of Ignacio Allende and the Mexican War of Independence. It was remodeled as part of the preparations for Mexico's Bicentennial. The restored museum was re-inaugurated by President Felipe Calderon in 2009.
The Casa del Mayorazgo de la Canal dates from the 18th century, constructed by Mariano Loreto de la Canal y Landeta. During the late colonial period, this house was the most important secular building, being home to the De la Canal family, one of the wealthiest in New Spain. The original construction was inspired by French and Italian palaces of the 16th to 18th centuries. The house is considered to be a transitional work between Baroque and Neoclassical, as its façade was redesigned by Manuel Tolsá in the early 19th century. The façade is Neoclassical with the coat of arms of the family. The main portal has two levels with an arch and a relief of an eagle on the keystone. The main door is profusely decorated with high reliefs. Today, it houses the Casa de Cultura de Banamex (Banamex Cultural Center), which houses a collection of historic paintings and offers diverse expositions during the year.
On the north side of the Jardin Principal is the municipal palace. It was first constructed in 1736 and called the Casa Consistorial. However, this building was heavily damaged several times since then and little of the original structure remains. The current building has two floors. It is home to what is considered to be the first "independent" or modern municipal government formed after the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. This reestablishment of the city government under Liberal principles was done by Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende and Ignacio Aldama on 17 September 1810.
Very close to the Nuestra Señora de la Salud and Oratorios de San Felipe Neri churches is the Plaza Civica or Civic Plaza. This plaza was originally constructed in 1555 and was supposed to be the original center of the town. It is next to the Plaza de la Soledad and served as the main marketplace. Today, it has an equestrian statue of Ignacio Allende that dominates it.
The San Francisco Church was begun in 1778 and was finished more than twenty years later, when architectural styles were changing. The façade is pure Churrigueresque with stone figures and fine columns. The later bell tower was constructed in 1799 in Neoclassical style by architect Francisco Eduardo Tresguerras.
The Biblioteca Pública () serves as the community center for San Miguel's large foreigner population. This library was established by Helen Wale, a Canadian, who wanted to reach out to local children. It is the largest privately funded, publicly accessible library in Mexico with the second-largest English-language book collection. The library has a café, sponsors tours and prints a bilingual newspaper. While self-supporting, it also sponsors educational programs for local youth including scholarships, donations of school supplies and free English and computer classes for children. Its "Club de Amigos" promotes friendship between Mexicans and foreigners.
To the far south of the historic center is Parque Juárez (Juarez Park). This park was established at the beginning of the 20th century on the banks of a river in French style with fountains, decorative pools, wrought iron benches, old bridges and footpaths. There is an area for children with playground and basketball. The garden area is filled with plants and trees of the region, chirimoyos, various berries and walnuts. The water areas host a large number of herons. After dark on many days, it is possible to catch an impromptu concert by local amateur musicians. Nearby there is a small commercial center on Zacateros Street where typical of the area such as objects made of brass and glass can be found. Near here there is a fountain dedicated to Ignacio Allende.
Another important market is the Mercado de Artesanias, which sells a wide variety of items such as those made from wool, brass, paper mache and blown glass, tin and silver. One figure that features prominently on merchandise is that of a frog, as the state's name of Guanajuato means "place of frogs". The market is located in a narrow alley filling three blocks behind the city's main fruit and vegetable market. The merchandise here is more authentic and cheaper than that found around the main square.
The Institute Allende is located in an enormous complex, which the De la Canal family built as a retreat and hacienda. The old house is filled with various courtyards, a private chapel with colonial-era frescos, modern art gallery and restaurant. In 1951, it was converted into an art institute, offering courses in silverwork, ceramic and Spanish, and attracting hundreds of students each year.
Other important churches in the town include the Santo Domingo church, the Santa Cruz del Chorro Chapel, Tercera Orden Church and the San Juan de Dios Church. The Santo Domingo church was part of a monastery complex. The church has a sober façade and dates from 1737. The Santa Cruz del Chorro Chapel is one of the oldest religious buildings. The Tercera Orden Church dates from the beginning of the 17th century. The San Juan de Dios Church and San Rafael Hospital are attributed to Juan Manuel de Villegas in 1770. The complex has a main portal in sandstone with two auxiliary portals. The first has an access arch and a door made of mesquite wood, with reliefs of geometric shapes and fish, along with a hand with pomegranate in sandstone. These symbolize the Archangel Raphael and John of God. Recent research establishes the founding of San Juan de Dios complex in 1546 per maps from the Royal Library in Seville, Spain. The royal cartographers did not understand the native Mexican mapmaking methods and they had been forgotten in storage for centuries until they were brought to Mexico and San Miguel de Allende's exhibition at the Centro Cultural Los Arcos. The Camino Real ( is the theme of the maps, San Juan de Dios being its port-of-entry into San Miguel de Allende.
The Casa de Inquisidor () is located between Hernandez Macias and Hospicio streets. It was built in 1780 with an elaborate French façade and was the seat of the inquisition in the late 18th century.
The Angela Peralta Theater was originally designed to host opera. It was inaugurated in 1873 with a performance by the most-prominent soprano of Mexico at that time, Angela Peralta. It continues to host a variety of musical events such as the Jazz Festival and the Chamber Music Festival.
Other cultural venues include the Otra Cara de Mexico, the bullring, the old train station now restored with a native market on Sundays, the casa de Marqués de Jaral de Berrio, the Casa de los Condes de Loja and the Museo de la Esquina—for traditional toys with a collection that comes from all parts of the Mexican Republic, which was gathered over 50 years' time—and Museo Interactiveo Fragua de la Independencia. La Otra Cara de Mexico (The Other Face of Mexico) is a small private museum sponsored by Bill Levasseuro, which has a large number of masks from Mexico's traditional cultures. On Calle de Recreo is the bullring that was constructed at the end of the 19th century. The old train station was part of the Mexico City–Laredo (Tamaulipas) line of the Ferrocarril Nacional Mexicano. This line was constructed in the 1880s with service beginning in 1888. The Casa del Marqués de Jaral de Berrio was constructed at the end of the 17th century as well as the Casa de los Condes de Loja. The Museo Interactivo Fragua de la Independencia (Fire of Independence Interactive Museum) is dedicated to the Mexican War of Independence and San Miguel's role in it.
Outside the core zone.
The Oratorio de San Felipe Neri Church was built by Juan Antonio Perez Espinosa in 1712. This church was partially built by incorporating a former chapel used by the mulatto population of the town. That church became the chapel on the east side. The façade is of pink sandstone in Baroque style with profuse vegetative ornamentation. The decorative work of the portal also contains indigenous influences. The interior of the church has a number of paintings by Miguel Cabrera, including one of the Virgin of Guadalupe signed by him. The sacristy contains this last painting along with others depicting the life of Philip Neri. This room is cordoned off by a grate covered with leather from Córdoba, Spain. At the back there is a Baroque chamber/chapel dedicated to the Virgin of Loreto. This chapel was sponsored by Manuel Tomás de la Canal in 1735. It is richly decorated with three altars covered in gold leaf and is a replica of the Basilica della Santa Casa () of Loreto, Italy.
The Nuestra Señora de la Salud Church was built by Luis Felipe Neri in the 18th century. The main portal is in Churrigueresque (Spanish Baroque) style with two levels and a crest in the shape of a large seashell. The first level has an arch flanked by pilasters and niches with sculptures of the Sacred Heart and John the Evangelist. The interior has a layout of a Latin cross covered with vaults with side walls covered in oil paintings done by Agapito Ping between 1721 and 1785. One altar contains an image of Christ, the Good Shepherd, defending his sheep from various dangers including a group of unicorns. The church served as the chapel of the Colegio de San Francisco de Sales next door. The Colegio de San Francisco de Sales was as important as the college of San Ildefonso in Mexico City in the 18th century. Both Ignacio Aldama and Ignacio Allende attended school here.
Geography.
The city San Miguel de Allende is in the state of Guanajuato, and lies east of Guanajuato, Guanajuato. It is centrally located within the municipality of San Miguel de Allende, northwest of Queretaro and northwest of Mexico City.
The city is located at a nexus of four arroyos: El Atascadero, Las Cachinches, La Cañadita, and El Obraje. The last of these, El Obraje, collects in a dam of the same name. Several dams are located in the municipality to control the flow of rivers and manage the water supply. The most of important of these is the Ignacio Allende Dam.
Culture.
Foreign influence.
According to biographer John Virtue, "Stirling Dickinson is without doubt the person most responsible for San Miguel de Allende becoming an international art center". Although only an amateur painter himself, Dickinson became co-founder and director of the Escuela Universitaria de Bellas Artes, an art institute that he opened in a former convent only a few months after his arrival.
Due to its growth as a tourist destination, some of the most obvious culture seen on the streets of the town relates to visitors, both foreign and Mexican. To cater to these visitors, the town contains cafes, boutiques, art galleries, upscale restaurants and hotels, and a wide variety of bars and nightclubs. Bars and nightclubs range from DJs or loud bands catering to young people, to jazz clubs, sports bars and even those that specialize in traditional Mexican music such as mariachi. Some were founded by foreigners and reflect that ownership, for example the Berlin Bar & Bistro. Just outside Centro, the avant-garde 'black box', Shelter Theater offers Open Mic, live concerts, films and intimate theater shows, mostly in English.
Shops around the Jardin Principal sell art, handcrafts, furniture and decorative items. The Fabrica La Aurora is an old textile mill that has been converted into galleries and shops selling art, furnishings and antiques; it has a lot of open space along with a café and restaurant. San Miguel has several schools for learning Spanish, most catering to foreign visitors. These include the Instituto Allende (with credits transferable to U.S. or Canadian colleges), Language Point and Warren Hardy Spanish. Some universities such as the University of Texas-Pan American offer study abroad programs in the city, not only in Spanish but also in arts and literature, and creative writing.
Festivals.
Many of the festivals here are purely Mexican, combining social activity with religious expression. Throughout the year there are pilgrimages, all-night vigils, ringing church bells, processions and fireworks. The largest celebration of the year is that of the town's patron saint, the Archangel Michael. The angel's feast day is 29 September, but festivities take place for an entire week. Activities include private parties, sporting events, cultural events, indigenous dance and more. The week is popularly called the Fiestas de San Miguel de Allende. The finale is a procession of the actual image of St. Michael usually high on the main altar of La Paroquia, and he is taken on a flower-covered dais to "visit" the main churches in the historic district. Fireworks are a part of all festivities. Elaborate structures that spin and light in sequence, called "castillos"—castles—are installed in the esplanade at the Jardín, and sometimes at other churches in town.
Holy Week begins with an exhibition of altars dedicated to the Virgin of Sorrows and end with the Procession of Silence. Prior to the Procession of Silence, there is a reenactment of the judgment of Jesus by Pontius Pilate, on one side of the San Miguel Parish. Then the procession begins, which represents the fourteen scenes of the Passion before his crucifixion. Many of the townspeople participate in the event, with children dressed as angels and adults in period clothing carrying statues of Jesus. The procession winds its way along the main streets of the historic center completely in silence. Another large religious celebration is the feast of Nuestro Señor de la Columna
There are also secular and cultural festivals during the year. The annual Festival de Música de Cámara or Chamber Music Festival occurs each year in August in the city's historic center. One of the purposes of the event is to bring this type of music to streets and other public venues as well as traditional concert halls such as the event's home, the Angela Peralta Theater. Other events include the Jornada de Cultura Cubana in March, the Festival de Tìteres in April, the Festival de Convivencia y Hermandad Universal in May, the Desfile de Locos in June, the Festival Expressiones Cortos in July, the Feria Nacional de Lana y Latón and the festival de Jazz y Blues in November and the Festival de San Miguel de Allende in December. The most-important political celebration is the reenactment of the "Grito de Dolores", as the original occurred in the nearby town of Dolores Hidalgo, marking the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. As the birthplace of Ignacio Allende, the town was a focal point of 2010s Bicentennial celebrations, with reenactments of events such as the arrival of the message from Querétaro from Josefa Ortiz. Bicentennial celebrations also included events such as the Ballet Mazatl. Festivities were concentrated in and around the Jardin Principal, the Ignacio Allende House and the Centro Cultural.
SMART is a multi-media cultural festival, held annually in May, that combines exhibits by Mexican artists with a variety of culinary and social events at local hotels, including the festival founder Hotel Matilda, Dos Casas Hotel and L'Otel.
Arts, music and literature.
San Miguel de Allende has long had a reputation as a haven for visual artists. In the Spanish colonial period, San Miguel was the largest recipient of funding for the arts. The city was full of rich arts patrons from the start in the 1500s. Rich Spanish families like the Condes de la Canal paid for the sumptuous Chapel of Loreto and employed artists in all aspects including baroque music compositions. A fragment of that musical past is used in the Holy Week music accompanying the celebration of mass around Easter. Religious and secular music continues to be a town focal point, with the English composer and pianist Michael Hoppe performing frequently in San Miguel de Allende.
Since the 1950s, when Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siqueiros worked there, it has attracted professional and amateur painters, sculptors and printmakers to the classes and workshops frequently held. In addition to two major art institutions (Instituto Allende and Bellas Artes), artists and art venues can be seen in various parts of the town. It is not unusual to see sketch artists working on the street and selling their work. Some notable expat painters associated with San Miguel are Canadians Mai Onno, principal painting professor in the Bellas Artes founding school of the arts, Toller Cranston, Marion Perlet, Gary Slipper, Mack Reynolds, and Andrew Osta. More recently, the town has been attracting writers, film makers, and musicians. The town annually hosts an important free film festival, the GIFF. One annual event that caters to the writing community is The Writers' Conference, which brings together authors, editors and literary agents. The 2009 event attracted names such as Erica Jong, Todd Gitlen and Josephine Humphreys. Writers have lived here since the mid 20th century. Beat poet Neal Cassady died on the railroad tracks just outside town. Other writers who have lived or spent time here include W.D. Snodgrass, Beverly Donofrio, Sandra Gulland, Tony Cohan, Joe Persico, Gary Jennings, Vance Packard, Lynette Seator, Richard Gabrio and Dianna Hutts. Some have written books about the town, such as Elisa Bernick who wrote "The Family Sabbatical Handbook: The Budget Guide To Living Abroad With Your Family" and Rue who wrote "My Favorite Second Chance" (Book 2 of The Lake Effect Series). Another writing event is Poetry Week, which began in 1997. Barbara Faith, a well-known author of romance books lived in San Miguel with her husband Alfonso Covarrubias.
The biggest writers' conference in Latin America takes place in San Miguel annually, SMWC is celebrating its 14th anniversary in 2018.
The San Miguel Poetry Week was founded in 1997 by Jennifer Clement and Barbara Sibley and takes place in early January. Leading poets from Mexico, the US and UK meet for poetry workshops and readings.
Film.
San Miguel began hosting film and television production in the 1940s. Columbia Pictures produced the first Hollywood film to feature the town, filming "The Brave Bulls" in 1950. Disney set "The Littlest Outlaw" in San Miguel, and MGM filmed scenes for two westerns, "Guns for San Sebastian" and "Hour of the Gun". Mexican productions included the telenovela "Los caudillos" and Jose Mojica's "Yo pescador". In addition to Mojica, Cantinflas and Anthony Quinn established residences in San Miguel.
Economy.
Tourism and commerce.
Much of the municipality's economy is tied to the influx of tourists and foreigners who come to live, mostly retirees. In 2002, 250,000 visitors spent about  million at the town's attractions, but those who live here contribute far more to the economy. Most of this is concentrated in the town of San Miguel proper. It accounts for over 36% of the municipality's jobs and most of the municipality's income. Tourism accounts for almost all of the municipality's income from outside. This began in the mid-20th century as a cheap place to live; however, despite recent economic downturns, it no longer is. This has not lessened San Miguel's attraction for foreign visitors and retirees as homes and hotels here are still significantly cheaper than in the US or Europe. Despite not having a casino or an airport and being from the nearest beach, this small city has been ranked by magazines such as "Travel and Leisure" and "Condé Nast Traveler" as a preferred place to live and visit.
Hotel occupancy typically reaches 80% on weekends with about 50% occupancy on weekdays, when rates can be about half. Most visitors are vacationers and about 60% are domestic visitors, interested in the town's history and role in the Mexican War of Independence. Another attraction for visitors are the two main art/cultural institutions of Instituto Allende and Bellas Artes as well as a number of Spanish-language schools. Most domestic visitors come from Mexico's large urban centers like Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey and Querétaro. This growth has spurred the development of newer hotels, resort and vacation home developments, especially on the corridor between San Miguel and Atotonilco. There are 149 hotels, 9 of which are 5-star. The town has just over 9% of all hotel rooms in the state, and this percentage is growing. Another important sector is restaurants. In 2006, the town invested 800,000 pesos to implement an online marketing plan to increase services to potential tourists.
Agriculture.
Outside of the town of San Miguel, the economy is more traditional. A bit over half of the land is used for grazing with 37% used for crops. Over 80% of the crops are grown during the rainy season with less than 20% grown on irrigated lands. Forestry is minimal. Agriculture produces 25% of the employment in the municipality. Principal crops include corn, beans, wheat, and alfalfa, which account for 84% of harvests. Another important agricultural activity is fruit orchards. The most important livestock is domestic fowl, especially poultry. The municipality raises over 12% of the state's chickens. Another important product is honey, of which the municipality provides 7.5% of the state's total. Since the 1990s, there have been active reforestation efforts to replace much of what was lost previously to logging.
Industry.
Industry is not as well developed here as in other parts of the state although it provides about 33% of the jobs. One important industry is the production of electrical energy. Other industries include metal products, food processing, wood products and mineral processing. The area is known for the crafting of objects from brass and glass. Two notable artisans here are the brothers Marcelino and Abeck Leon Rosa, who produce handmade glass items. They began producing pieces in the courtyard of their home, but today they have a studio with two large workshops and operate a school for glassmakers, which trains about 50 people per year. One of their specialties is Tiffany-style lamps.
Since at least the 1950s, San Miguel de Allende is a backdrop for the production of films and television programs. Both Mexican and foreign productions and advertisements have been filmed there. Projects that have been filmed here include "Once Upon a Time in Mexico", a television biopic of the Francisco "Pancho" Villa, and "The Mask of Zorro II". A group of entrepreneurs is working to increase the town's reputation as a film location, opening a privately financed studio complex called The Film Colony. Recently, U.S. television series Royal Pains, Top Chef and Million Dollar Listing have filmed episodes in the town.
Twin towns – sister cities.
San Miguel de Allende is twinned with:


Susanna Philipse

Susanna Philipse (also "Susannah"; 8 September 1727 – 22 November 1822) was the eldest surviving daughter of Frederick Philipse II, 2nd Lord of Philipsburg Manor of Westchester County, New York.
She was, along with her elder brother Philip and younger sisters Mary (1730–1825), and Margaret (1733-1752), a one-quarter heir to the roughly "Highland Patent" of her father (later to become known as the Philipse Patent, and in time today's Putnam County of southeastern New York).
Susanna was married to Beverley Robinson, a soldier from a prominent family in the Colony of Virginia who had relocated to the Province of New York. He was a childhood friend of future American general and statesman George Washington, who was for a time during the French and Indian War an irregular guest at their home on Susanna's land on the east bank of the Hudson. It is there Washington is said to have developed an attraction to Susanna's younger sister Mary.
During the Revolution Susanna's lands and the Robinson family fortune were confiscated by the rebel government of the New York Colony. Their home became the headquarters of soon to turn treasonous Continental Army general Benedict Arnold. During an extended stay there by Washington Arnold's plans were revealed through the capture of British spymaster Major John Andre. Following his trial and sentencing Beverley Robinson was sent to Washington to plead for Andre's wife. Washington refused to see him.
Following the war the Robinsons relocated to Southwest England, where in time they received a partial payment for their seized properties. Both died and were interred there.
Marriage.
On 7 July 1748, she married then-Captain Beverley Robinson, a soldier from a prominent family in the Colony of Virginia, in Trinity Church, New York City. Robinson had personally raised a company of troops there in 1745 and relocated it to the Province of New York to defend that state's frontier against Indian attack. The couple went on have at least five children, four boys and a girl, including Beverley Honorable Robinson (1754–1816), Morris (1759-1815), Susanna Maria Robinson (1760–1833), John Robinson (1761–1828), and Frederick Philipse Robinson (1763-1852).
Inheritance.
Margaret Philipse died intestate in 1752, and her share of the Highland Patent was equally divided among her named living siblings. A redistribution of the land among them was done in 1754.
Susanna's eldest brother, Frederick Philipse III (1720–1785), inherited the family's vast hereditary estate in lower Westchester County, New York, Philipsburg Manor, and was its third and last Lord.
Upon Susanna's inheritance of her interest in the Patent, the Robinsons settled on her land, gradually renting parcels to tenant farmers. It was a pleasant life, though Susanna's plots were only lightly settled and lacked the commerce and industry of her eldest brother's Manor.
American Revolution.
With the onset of the American Revolutionary War Beverley sought to remain uninvolved, but in time relented. In 1777, he formed the Loyal American Regiment, which proved a very active Loyalist force in that conflict.
In addition to serving as its Colonel and commander through the British defeat 1783, he was known for his work with the British secret service during the war, particularly in regards to the betrayal of Continental general Benedict Arnold in the André Affair. Sons Beverly Robinson, Jr., a lieutenant-colonel, and Frederick, an ensign who went on to a long and distinguished career as a general in the British Army and colonial governor within the Empire, served beneath him.
Confiscation.
All the Philipses were Loyalists throughout the war, and the inherited Philipse Patent lands were confiscated in 1779 by the Revolutionary government of the New York Colony, then sold off. In spite of a provision in the 1783 Treaty of Paris assuring restitution, no compensation was ever paid the Robinson family by the Colonial government.
Much later, the British Compensation Commission granted the Rogers £24,000 toward the original £80,000 value of the couple's personal estate (reflecting about £16,000 Sterling, plus the 60,000 Philipse Patent acres and some city property valued together at about £64,000), though only about £17,000 was ever paid.
Later days.
Following the war the Robinsons retired to Britain with some of their family, where both lived out their days. Susanna died aged 95 in 1822 and was buried in the St Mary the Virgin Parish Churchyard, Thornbury, South Gloucestershire Unitary Authority, Gloucestershire, England.


Reed v. Reed

Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971), was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court ruling that the administrators of estates cannot be named in a way that discriminates between sexes. In "Reed v. Reed" the Supreme Court ruled for the first time that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited differential treatment based on sex.
The case.
Sally and Cecil Reed were a separated married couple who were in conflict over which of them would be designated as administrator of the estate of their deceased son. Each filed a petition with the Probate Court of Ada County, Idaho, asking to be named. Idaho Code specified that "males must be preferred to females" in appointing administrators of estates and the court appointed Cecil as administrator of the estate, valued at less than $1,000. Sally Reed was represented at the Supreme Court by Idaho lawyer Allen Derr, who argued that the Fourteenth Amendment forbids discrimination based on sex.
After a series of appeals by both Sally and Cecil Reed, the Supreme Court considered the case and delivered a unanimous decision that held the Idaho Code's preference in favor of males was arbitrary and unconstitutional.
The Supreme Court ruled for the first time in "Reed v. Reed" that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited differential treatment based on sex.
Because the Idaho Code made a distinction based on sex, the court reasoned that "it thus establishes a classification subject to scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause" and using the generic standard of scrutiny—ordinary or rational basis review—asked "whether a difference in the sex of competing applicants for letters of administration bears a rational relationship to a state objective."
Chief Justice Burger's opinion said:
Before the Supreme Court decided the case, Idaho amended its statutes to eliminate the mandatory preference for males, effective July 1, 1972.
"Reed v. Reed" was the first major Supreme Court case that addressed that discrimination based on gender was unconstitutional because it denies equal protection. The director for the ACLU, Mel Wulf, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote Sally Reed's brief. They recognized Pauli Murray and Dorothy Kenyon as co-authors of the brief, giving them credit even though they did not help on it because Ginsburg wanted to acknowledge the debt she owed them for their feminist arguments that had created a basis for her arguments.
Those who brought the case had hoped for a broader decision that would have deemed all classifications based on sex "suspect", a category the Supreme Court reserved for race. A suspect classification would be held to a more exacting standard of scrutiny known as strict scrutiny. The ACLU established its Women's Rights Project under Ginsburg to develop cases to persuade the court to treat sex-based distinctions that way.
Hundreds of laws were changed after the "Reed v. Reed" ruling. "Congress went through all of the provisions of the U.S. Code and changed almost all that classified overtly on the basis of gender. So Congress and the Court were in sync." This court case created the opportunity to analyze laws that dealt with sex-based classifications.
"Phillips v. Martin Marietta" reached the Supreme Court as the first case about Title VII gender discrimination in 1971, the same year "Reed v. Reed" was decided.
As noted by Nina Pillard, "Reed" created a basis to analyze sex-based discrimination, "so when we see people concluding in policy or in law that there needs to be a line between the treatment of men and the treatment of women because men are a certain way or women like certain things, or don't like certain things, that's the thing that raises the constitutional red flag under equal protection."
A plaque serves as a memorial to the case at the site of Sally Reed's former home (now the location of an Idaho Angler store) at the intersection of S. Vista Ave. and W. Dorian St. in Boise, Idaho.