Osbat al-Ansar

Osbat al-Ansar or Asbat an-Ansar (, meaning "League of the Partisans") is a Sunni fundamentalist group established in the early 1990s, with a primary base of operations in the Palestinian camp of Ain al-Hilwah refugee camp near Sidon, which claims professing the Salafi form of Islam and the overthrow of the Lebanese-dominated secular government.
It has been designated as a terrorist group by the Bahrain, United Nations, Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, the UAE, the United Kingdom and the United States. It is on the United States' list of terrorist organizations for alleged connections with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda, and the American administration decided to freeze all assets of Osbat al-Ansar following the attacks on September 11th, 2001. The group has reportedly received funding from Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.
Osbat al-Ansar is also connected with fundamentalist groups Osbat al-Nour, Jund Ash Sham, the Dinniyeh Group and Takfir wal Hijra. Ahmed Abd al-Karim al-Saadi is the ostensible leader of the group; however, since he went into hiding in 1999, the group has been led by his brother Abu Tarek al-Saadi. Osbat al-Ansar is estimated to have less than 2000 members, mostly Lebanese, with a primary base of operations in the Ain al-Hilwah refugee camp near Sidon in southern Lebanon.
Ideology.
According to the Australian Government and the Canadian Government the goal of Osbat al-Ansar is "the establishment of a radical Islamic state in Lebanon." as well as "Overthrowing the Lebanese government and preventing what they perceive as anti-Sunni Islamic influences in Lebanon".
The group professes the Salafi form of Islam.
Support.
According to Seymour Hersh, Osbat el-Ansar has received arms and supplies from Lebanese internal-security forces and militias associated with the Siniora government.
Activities.
Asbat al-Ansar first emerged in the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s, the group assassinated Lebanese religious leaders and bombed nightclubs, theaters, and liquor stores. The group has also plotted against foreign diplomatic targets. In October 2004, Mahir al-Sa’di, a member of Asbat al-Ansar, was sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment for his 2000 plot to assassinate then-U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon David Satterfield. Asbat al-Ansar has no formal ties to the AQ network, but the group shares AQ's ideology and has publicly proclaimed its support for al-Qa’ida in Iraq. Members of the group have traveled to Iraq since 2005 to fight Coalition Forces. Asbat al-Ansar has been reluctant to involve itself in operations in Lebanon due in part to concerns over losing its safe haven in the Ain al-Hilwah refugee camp. AAA did not stage any known attacks in 2012.
Other actions by Osbat al-Ansar.
In 2002, a representative of Osbat al-Ansar handed over Badieh Hamadeh, a Shiite living in Ain al-Hilweh suspected of killing three Lebanese soldiers, to Lebanese authorities. A spokesman for Osbat al-Ansar stated that the decision to make the hand over was to "spare the camp any bloodshed".
Prevented attacks.
In 2001, Daniel Ahmad Samarji, and Bilal Ali Othman, were arrested in the northern city of Tripoli for planning terrorist acts, illegal dealing in weapons of war and discharging firearms.


Ghulam Mohammed Abdul Khader

Ghulam Mohammed Abdul Khader was the seventh Prince of Arcot. He was the son of Ghulam Mohiuddin Khan, the sixth Prince of Arcot.
Biography.
He held the title from 1969 until his death 1993. He was succeeded by the Muhammed Abdul Ali who inherited the title.
Because the Nawabs of Arcot had a special treaty with the Indian Government, this title was not abolished along with all other noble titles of India in 1972.


Wildlife of the United Arab Emirates

The wildlife of the United Arab Emirates is the flora and fauna of the country on the eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula and the southern end of the Persian Gulf. The country offers a variety of habitats for wildlife including the coast, offshore islands, mangrove areas, mudflats, salt pans, sand and gravel plains, sand dunes, mountain slopes, wadis and rocky summits. Because the terrain is so varied, it supports a greater number of species of plants and animals than might have been expected in this relatively small country.
Geography.
The United Arab Emirates occupy a corner of Arabia bounded by Saudi Arabia to the west and south, Oman to the east, the Gulf of Oman and Oman to the northeast and the Persian Gulf to the north. The northern coast stretches for about along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf and largely consists of salt pans that extend inland. There are numerous offshore islands, the ownership of some of which is disputed with neighbouring states. To the south is the Rub' al Khali desert, an enormous expanse of billowing sand dunes. Two large oases in the east are the Liwa Oasis, near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia, and Al-Buraimi Oasis, which includes Al Ain on the UAE side of the border with Oman. To the east, the land rises and becomes mountainous, this being the northwestern end of Al Hajar Mountains, of which Jebel Hafeet near Al-Ain may be considered an outlier, and which include the "Ru'us al-Jibal" (literally "Heads of the Mountains") in the Musandam Peninsula. Beyond these, the coast on the Gulf of Oman is rugged.
In the southeast of the country, near the border with Oman, there is a man-made lake, Lake Zakher, formed as a result of the release of waste water from the desalination plants on which the UAE relies for its freshwater supplies. The lake has formed as the groundwater rose, and many birds now visit the lake.
Flora.
A wide range of plants is associated with the many types of habitat in the United Arab Emirates. One of these types is the sabkha, an area in which salty water has flooded the land shallowly and later evaporated, leaving crusty salt pans. These occur on the western part of the Gulf Coast but also among dunes inland. The plants found on their edges are salt-tolerant members of Salicornioideae and "Zygophyllum".
At inland sites "Zygophyllum qatarense" predominates along with grasses such as "Aeluropus lagopoides" and "Panicum turgidum". Sandy plains further east along the coast from the sabkha region have occasional dwarf tamarisk trees and such plants as "Salsola imbricata" and "Zygophyllum mandavillei", and in coastal lagoons, and in creeks further east, the white mangrove is plentiful. Mangroves are also found in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, particularly in a national park to the east of the island of Abu Dhabi.
Plants of the gravel plains further east again include "Cornulaca monacantha", "Crotalaria persica", "Calotropis procera" and "Taverniera spartea", and the parasitic desert hyacinth and the desert thumb. As the land rises up towards the mountains, the mesquite tree, an invasive species from Central America, has become established. The plains around Ras al-Khaimah in the northeast of the country, between the mountains and the sea, are the most heavily cultivated part of the country. The mountains have a cooler, more temperate climate and here there is an abundance of Alpine flowers among the rocks, on slopes and in cracks, fissures and wadis.
Jabal Hafeet and the nearby Wadi Tarabat are home to rare flora unique to the region, such as "Acridocarpus orientalis".
Fauna.
Over four hundred species of bird have been recorded in the United Arab Emirates, with about ninety species breeding regularly in the country while the balance are winter visitors, migrants or vagrants. The country is on the crossroads of two major migratory routes, one between the Palaearctic and Africa, the other between the Near East and the Indian subcontinent, and the migrants make use of the many types of habitat available.
About 250,000 waders visit the Gulf shores and mudflats at peak migration time; these include the grey plover, the greater and lesser sand plovers, the crab plover, the Kentish plover and the broad-billed sandpiper. The coast, and particularly offshore islands are used by many seabirds. About twenty to thirty percent of the world's Socotra cormorants, about 200,000 birds, breed in the United Arab Emirates, but they are under threat from fishermen who fear for their livelihoods. Sooty gulls breed here, as do red-billed tropicbirds as well as several species of tern; white-cheeked, bridled and lesser crested tern.
Waters of the Persian Gulf along Abu Dhabi holds the world's largest population of Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphins.
A large number of passerine birds breed in the deserts, salt flats, plains, dunes and mountains. Twelve species of wheatear have been recorded in the country as well as warblers, babblers, rollers, bulbuls, the desert lark and many others. The sooty falcon overwinters in Madagascar and breeds in the United Arab Emirates. Other than this, there are only a small number of raptor species; Bonelli's eagle, barbary falcon, short-toed snake eagle, long-legged buzzard and lappet-faced vulture.
Many of the large mammals found in the Arabian Peninsula were well-adapted to desert life in the harsh terrain, but were wiped out by human hunting in the last hundred years or so. Hunting is now banned in the United Arab Emirates, but feral goats and donkeys are plentiful and graze indiscriminately, lessening the chance for the native gazelles to recover from their reduced population sizes. Large terrestrial mammals still found in the United Arab Emirates include the Arabian tahr, the Arabian oryx, the sand gazelle and the mountain gazelle. Carnivores include the Arabian wolf, the striped hyena, the red fox, the Blanford's fox, the Rüppell's fox, the Asiatic caracal, the Arabian wildcat, the sand cat and formerly the Arabian leopard. Other mammals include the Cape hare, the Brandt's hedgehog, the desert hedgehog and the long-eared hedgehog.
The Egyptian fruit bat is found here during most of the year, but moves around according to the availability of fruit. Insectivorous bats include the sac-winged bat, the mouse-tailed bat and the leaf-nosed bat. Small rodents include the lesser Egyptian jerboa, the Cheesman's gerbil and the Balochistan gerbil. Rather larger rodents are the Libyan jird and the Sundevall's jird which both favour desert habitats. The Cairo spiny mouse was found in the mountains for the first time in 1995.
Over 54 species of terrestrial reptiles have been recorded in the UAE. These include a large number of lizards, found in all environments from desert, to city, to mountain-top, and a single species of worm lizard. There are thirteen species of terrestrial snake, some of the largest being the sand boa, the saw-scaled viper and the horned viper, and four species of sea snake as well as green sea turtles present in the Persian Gulf. The "Ru'us al-Jibal" have a gecko of the genus "Ptyodactylus" named after them. There are two species of amphibian in the United Arab Emirates, the Arabian toad and the Dhofar toad; the former is more commonly seen as the Dhofar toad is nocturnal.
Sharjah's Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) was established on 1998 and originally built for breeding the threatened wildlife but then has turned to become a center for the research and preservation of the indigenous plants and animals of the region.
In February 2019, the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi recorded the sighting of an Arabian caracal in Jebel Hafeet National Park in the region of Al-Ain, the first such sighting in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi since 1984.<ref name="Emirates 24/7 02-2019"></ref>
The houbara is protected in the United Arab Emirates. In February 2019, 50 birds were released into the desert in Al-Ain Region in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, to help conserve the birds and increase their number in the wild.


Prana Malla

Prana Malla () (often Pran Malla) (died 1547) was a Malla Dynasty King of Bhaktapur, Nepal from 1519 to 1547. Unlike many of the other Malla rulers, there is little evidence today that this king was particularly active in construction developments in the Durbar Square in Bhaktapur.


Aotsuka Kofun

The is a Kofun period burial mound, located in the Aotsuka neighborhood of the city of Inuyama, Aichi in the Tōkai region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1983. It is the second largest "kofun" found in Aichi Prefecture after the Danpusan Kofun in Nagoya.
Overview.
The Aotsuka Kofun is located in the southern part of Inuyama, in western Aichi Prefecture. It is one of tumuli which once formed a "kofun" cluster in the surrounding area (most of which have now been destroyed). Archaeological excavations have been conducted several times since 1979.
The tumulus is a , which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above. It has a total length of 123 meters and is orientated to face southwest. It consists of a three-tiered posterior circular portion with a diameter of 78 meters and height of 12 meters, and a two-tier trapezoidal anterior portion, with a width of 62 meters, length of 45 meters and height of seven meters. The tumulus was formerly covered in "fukiishi" across its entire surface, and had rows of cylindrical and drum-shaped "haniwa". It is believed to have been built in the middle of the 4th century in the early Kofun period.
The "kofun" is associated with the "Ni-no-miya" of Owari Province, Oagata Jinja, which is located 3.5 kilometers to the east. The shrine claims that the "kofun" is the grave of its "kami", . During the Sengoku period, the tumulus was fortified as a castle by the forces of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the 1584 Battle of Komaki and Nagakute.
The site is now open to the public with the exterior of the tumulus restored to its the appearance at the time of construction as part of the Aozuka Kofun Historical Park , which also has an on-site museum. It is located about a 30-minute walk from Gakuden Station on the Meitetsu Komaki Line.


The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush

The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush is a book written by Sir George Scott Robertson and originally published in 1896 by Lawrence & Bullen Ltd.
Significance and narrative.
Sir George Scott Robertson was the first Victorian to travel into Kafiristan and recounted the experience of his adventures in Kafiristan in his book "The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush" published in 1896. The book dispelled many popular fictions about the Kafirs, their customs and their lineage. "The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush" was the first book which brought the inhabitants of Kafiristan and their animism to the attention of the West. The book still provides a classical description of the way of life of the Kafirs before their mass conversion by Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan. The book sheds light upon the Kafirs extensive use of timber, elaborate carvings and spectacular sites literally clinging to the sides of steep mountains.


Anthony Weltden

Anthony Weltden was an administrator of the English East India Company. He served as President of Bengal in the early eighteenth century.


Mabini Bridge

Mabini Bridge, formerly and still referred as Nagtahan Bridge, is a road bridge crossing the Pasig River between Nagtahan Street in Santa Mesa and Quirino Avenue in Paco, Manila. It was constructed between January to February in 1945. It initially served as a pontoon bridge transporting U.S. Army jeeps and evacuate citizens caught in the crossfire during the Liberation of Manila.
History.
There were plans for a new bridge to connect the Mendiola route to Malacañang Palace was made even before the emergence of World War II. However, the construction did not push through. The pontoon bridge stood for several decades after the World War II despite the construction materials used to build it. It was made out of inflated rubber rafts placed side by side - spanning until the opposite bank of the Pasig River. Two parallel perforated steel planks, each measuring about wide and apart were laid upon its surface. It was built by the US Army Corps of Engineers - enough to carry human traffic as well as light vehicles. On August 17, 1960, a barge collided against the wooden piles of the bridge. It caused major damages to the bridge, which caused flooding within the nearby residences.
In 1963, a permanent bridge was constructed, named "Nagtahan". It connected Paco with Pandacan. However, the Mabini Shrine, the former residence of Apolinario Mabini, was situated on the north bank. The government, then, relocated the house at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines in Santa Mesa. In lieu with the 103rd birth anniversary of Apolinario Mabini on July 22, 1967, President Ferdinand Marcos issued the Proclamation No. 234, s. 1967, renaming Nagtahan Bridge as the Mabini Bridge, in memory of Apolinario Mabini, the "Sublime Paralytic".
In 2014, the Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office (PCDSPO) recommended changes, of the existing road signs to read Mabini Bridge, to the Department of Public Works and Highways – as a fitting contribution to the Mabini Sesquicentennial.
Present condition.
Of the 13 bridges that crosses Pasig River as of that time, only the Mabini Bridge didn't undergo major face-lifting procedures during 1998. Its huge brass profiles on the sides that illuminates at varying hues were the distinctive features of the Mabini Bridge.
Marker from the National Historical Commission.
The marker of Mabini Bridge was installed on July 22, 1967 on the occasion of the 103rd Birthday Anniversary of Apolinario Mabini. It was located along Nagtahan Boulevard - connecting Santa Mesa, Manila and Paco, Manila.


Thuan Pham

Thuan Pham is a Vietnamese-American engineer, current Chief Technology Officer (CTO) of Coupang and former CTO of Uber.
Early life.
Pham was born in Vietnam. In 1979, at about age 12, Pham, his mother, and younger brother immigrated as Vietnamese boat people on a crowded, unsanitary boat to Malaysia, where they were rejected as refugees after being twice-robbed by Thai pirates. They took another boat to Indonesia, where they spent 10 months in a refugee camp with similar unsanitary conditions. His life as a refugee included swimming to another town to buy candy for his mother to resell to the refugee colony for a 10 cent profit, which was "a luxury," with food aid from organizations like UNHCR, CARE, and Save the Children. Pham's family was granted political asylum in the United States because of his father and settled in Rockville, Maryland. His mother, who was an accountant in Vietnam, wasn't able to get her accountant certification due to language barriers and worked as a gas station ledger keeper during the day and supermarket grocery packer at night. He lived with six others in a roach-infested, two-bedroom apartment, worked at a car wash station on the weekends, and wore donated clothes and shoes including girl socks for two years. His father was a South Vietnamese Army soldier and teacher, who stayed in Saigon.
Pham graduated from Richard Montgomery High School in 1986, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a BS in computer science in 1990, and MS degree in 1991.
Career.
Pham worked at Hewlett-Packard for three years, then Silicon Graphics. He was the fourth engineer at Internet ad serving startup NetGravity, and then joined DoubleClick after their acquisition of NetGravity in 1999. He then worked at VMware for eight years.
Uber.
In 2013, he was personally hired as the Uber Chief Technology Officer (CTO) by the CEO, Travis Kalanick, who was impressed by his technical skills after interviewing him for 30 hours over two weeks. In 2016, Pham's internal email to employees commenting, "I will not even utter the name of this deplorable person because I do not accept him as my leader" on the election of U.S. President Trump, who is anti immigration, was widely circulated and published by the media.
In 2017, it was reported that Pham had knowledge of Susan Fowler's sexual harassment allegation at Uber and her manager's threatened retaliation, and did nothing. These allegation were later shown to be false by follow-up investigative reports and by a Buzzfeed publication of an email from Pham to this engineering team to clarify the matter. In the same week, Pham stopped working alongside Uber's SVP of Engineering Amit Singhal, who was asked by the CEO, Kalanick, to resign after a month for failing to disclose a sexual harassment claim during Singhal's 15 years as VP of Google Search, after "Recode" reported about it in media.
Resignation.
On April 24, 2020, an SEC filing indicated that Thuan Pham will be resigning as of May 2020.
Personal life.
Pham is a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 2016, he was listed among the "2016 Great Immigrants Honorees: The Pride of America" by the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Pham enjoys playing tennis in his personal life.


Vijaya Kumara of Anuradhapura

Vijaya Kumara was King of Anuradhapura in the 3rd century, whose reign lasted from 247 to 248. He succeeded his father Siri Naga II as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by Sangha Tissa I.


Gajah Mada

Gajah Mada (ꦒꦗꦃꦩꦢ) (c. 1290 – c. 1364) was, according to Old Javanese manuscripts, poems and mythology, a powerful military leader and "Mahapatih" or (equal to) Prime Minister of the Javanese empire of Majapahit, credited with bringing the empire to its peak of glory. He delivered an oath called "Sumpah Palapa", in which he vowed to live ascetic (by not consuming food containing spices) until he had conquered all of the Southeast Asian archipelago of Nusantara for Majapahit. In modern Indonesia, he serves as an important national hero, a symbol of patriotism and national unity. During his reign the Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, became ingrained in the culture and worldview of the Javanese through the performing arts of wayang kulit (“leather puppets”).
This account of his life, political career and administration was taken from several sources. Mainly Pararaton ("The Book of Kings"), the Nagarakretagama (a Javanese language epic poem dating from the 14th century), and inscriptions dating from the late 13th and early 14th century.
The popular depiction of Gajah Mada in the media is actually an imagination of M. Yamin, in his book entitled "Gajah Mada: Pahlawan Persatuan Nusantara", first published in 1945. There is also another illustration about the figure of Gajah Mada, different from the M. Yamin's, which is the result of research at the University of Indonesia by archaeologist Agus Aris Munandar. He interpreted that Gajah Mada was depicted as Bima in wayang shadow puppet show, which has a transverse mustache. He is mostly shown bare-chested, wearing a sarong, and using a weapon in the form of a kris. While this may be true on civilian duties, his official outfit might be different: A Sundanese patih explained (written in the kidung Sundayana), that Gajah Mada wore golden embossed "karambalangan" (breastplate), armed with gold-layered spear, and with a shield full of diamond decoration.
Rise to power.
Not much is known about Gajah Mada's early life, but he was born into an ordinary family. Some of the first accounts mention his career as commander of the "Bhayangkara", an elite royal guard for the Majapahit king and royal family.
When Rakrian Kuti, one of the officials in Majapahit, rebelled against the Majapahit king Jayanegara (ruled 1309–1328) in 1321, Gajah Mada and the mahapatih Arya Tadah helped the king and his family to escape the capital city of Trowulan. Later Gajah Mada helped the king return to the capital and crush the rebellion. Seven years later, Jayanegara was murdered by the court physician Rakrian Tanca, one of Rakrian Kuti's aides.
Another version suggested that Jayanagara was assassinated by Gajah Mada in 1328. Jayanagara was overly protective of his two half sisters, born from Kertarajasa's youngest queen, Dyah Dewi Gayatri. Complaints by the two young princesses led to the intervention of Gajah Mada. His solution was to arrange for a surgeon to murder the king while pretending to perform a surgery.
Jayanegara was immediately succeeded by his half-sister Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi (ruled 1328–1350). It was under her leadership that Gajah Mada was appointed mahapatih (Prime Minister) in 1329, after the retirement of "Arya Tadah".
As mahapatih under Tribhuwana Tunggadewi, Gajah Mada went on to crush another rebellion by "Sadeng" and "Keta" in 133
It was during Gajah Mada's reign as mahapatih, around the year 1345, that the famous Muslim traveller, Ibn Battuta visited Sumatera.
The Palapa Oath and Empire Expansion.
It is said that it was during his appointment as "mahapatih" under queen "Tribhuwanatunggadewi" that Gajah Mada took his famous oath, the "Palapa Oath" or "Sumpah Palapa". The telling of the oath is described in the "Pararaton" (Book of Kings), an account on Javanese history that dates from the 15th or 16th century:
"“Sira Gajah Mada pepatih amungkubumi tan ayun amukita palapa, sira Gajah Mada : Lamun huwus kalah nusantara Ingsun amukti palapa, lamun kalah ring Gurun, ring Seram, Tanjungpura, ring Haru, ring Pahang, Dompo, ring Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Temasek, samana ingsun amukti palapa “"
""Gajah Mada, the prime minister, said he will not taste any spice. Said Gajah Mada : If Nusantara (Nusantara= Nusa antara= external territories) are lost, I will not taste "palapa" ("fruits and/or spices"). I will not if the domain of Gurun, domain of Seram, domain of Tanjungpura, domain of Haru, Pahang, Dompo, domain of Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Tumasik (Singapore), in which case I will never taste any spice.""
While often interpreted literally to mean that Gajah Mada would not allow his food to be spiced (palapa is the prose combination of pala apa= any fruits/spices) the oath is sometimes interpreted to mean that Gajah Mada would abstain from all earthly pleasures until he conquered the entire known archipelago for Majapahit.
Even his closest friends were at first doubtful of his oath, but Gajah Mada kept pursuing his dream to unify Nusantara under the glory of Majapahit. Soon he conquered the surrounding territory of Bedahulu (Bali) and Lombok (1343). He then sent the navy westward to attack the remnants of the thalassocratic kingdom of Sriwijaya in Palembang. There he installed Adityawarman, a Majapahit prince as vassal ruler of the Minangkabau in West Sumatra.
He then conquered the first Islamic sultanate in Southeast Asia, Samudra Pasai, and another state in Svarnadvipa (Sumatra). Gajah Mada also conquered Bintan, Tumasik (Singapore), Melayu (now known as Jambi), and Kalimantan.
At the resignation of the queen, Tribuwanatunggadewi, her son, Hayam Wuruk (ruled 1350–1389) became king. Gajah Mada retained his position as mahapatih (Prime Minister) under the new king and continued his military campaign by expanding eastward into Logajah, Gurun, Seram, Hutankadali, Sasak, Buton, Banggai, Kunir, Galiyan, Salayar, Sumba, Muar (Saparua), Solor, Bima, Wandan (Banda), Ambon, Timor, and Dompo.
He thus effectively brought the modern Indonesian archipelago under Majapahits's control, which spanned not only the territory of today's Indonesia, but also that of Temasek (old name of Singapore), the states comprising modern-day Malaysia, Brunei, the southern Philippines and East Timor.
According to Gajah Mada inscription, dated 1273 Saka (1351 CE), on the month of Wesakha, Sang Mahamantrimukya Rakryan Mapatih Mpu Mada (Gajah Mada) commanded, created and inaugurated a sacred building of Caitya, dedicated for the late Paduka Bhatara Sang Lumah ri Siwa Buddha (King Kertanegara) that was died in 1214 Saka
(1292 CE) on the month Jyesta. The inscription was discovered in Singosari subdistrict, Malang, East Java, and was written in Old Javanese script and language. The caitya or temple mentioned in this inscription is highly possible Singhasari temple. The special reverence to King Kertanegara of Singhasari demonstrated by Gajah Mada suggests that the Prime Minister honoured the late king tremendously, and possibly the two are related. Some historian suggests that possibly Kertanegara was Gajah Mada's grandfather.
The Bubat Incident.
In 1357, the only remaining state refusing to acknowledge Majapahit's hegemony was Sunda, in West Java, bordering the Majapahit Empire. King Hayam Wuruk intended to marry Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi, a princess of Sunda and the daughter of Sunda's king. Gajah Mada was given the task to go to the "Bubat" square in the northern part of Trowulan to welcome the princess as she arrived with her father and escort to Majapahit palace.
Gajah Mada took this opportunity to demand Sunda submission to Majapahit rule. While the Sunda King thought that the royal marriage was a sign of a new alliance between Sunda and Majapahit, Gajah Mada thought otherwise. He stated that the Princess of Sunda was not to be hailed as the new queen consort of Majapahit, but merely as a concubine, as a sign of submission of Sunda to Majapahit. This misunderstanding led to embarrassment and hostility, which quickly rose into a skirmish and then the full scale Battle of Bubat. The Sunda King with all of his guards as well as the royal party were overwhelmed by Majapahit troops and subsequently killed in the field of Bubat. Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken princess, Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi, committed suicide.
Hayam Wuruk was deeply shocked by the tragedy. Majapahit courtiers, ministers and nobles blamed Gajah Mada for his recklessness, and the brutal consequences were not to the taste of the Majapahit royal family. Gajah Mada was promptly demoted and spent the rest of his days at the estate of Madakaripura in Probolinggo in East Java.
Death.
Gajah Mada died in obscurity in 1364. King Hayam Wuruk considered the power Gajah Mada had accumulated during his time as "mahapatih" too much to handle for a single person. Therefore, the king split the responsibilities that had been Gajah Mada's, between four separate new "mahamantri" (equal to ministries), thereby probably increasing his own power. King Hayam Wuruk, who is said to have been a wise leader, was able to maintain the hegemony of Majapahit in the region, gained during Gajah Mada's service. However Majapahit slowly fell into decline after the death of Hayam Wuruk.
Legacy.
His reign helped further Indianisation of Javanese culture through the spread of Hinduism and sanskritization.
The Blahbatuh royal house in Gianyar, Bali, has been performing Gajah Mada's mask dance drama ritually for the past 600 years. The mask of Gajah Mada has been protected and brought to life every couple of years to unite and harmonize the world, this sacred ritual was intended to bring peace to Bali.
Gajah Mada's legacy is important for Indonesian Nationalism, and invoked by the Indonesian Nationalist movement in the early 20th century. The Nationalists prior to the Japanese invasion, notably Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin, often cited Gajah Mada's oath and Nagarakretagama as the inspiration and a historical proof of Indonesian past greatness — that Indonesians could unite, despite vast territory and various cultures. The Gajah Mada campaign that united the far flung islands within the Indonesian archipelago under Majapahit suzerainty, was used by Indonesian nationalists to argue that an ancient form of unity had existed prior to Dutch colonialism. Thus, Gajah Mada was a great inspiration during the Indonesian National Revolution for independence from Dutch colonization.
In 1942, only 230 Indonesian natives held a tertiary education. The Republicans sought to mend the Dutch apathy and established the first state university, which freely admitted native "pribumi" Indonesians. "Universitas Gadjah Mada", in Yogyakarta is named in honour of Gajah Mada and was completed in 1945, and had the honour of being the first Medicine Faculty freely open to natives.
Launched in 9 July 1976, Indonesia's first telecommunication satellite was called "Satelit Palapa" signifying its role in uniting the vast archipelagic nation.
The Army Military Police Corps of the Indonesian Army has honored Gajah Mada as their unit symbol. The symbol of the Army MP corps also has the picture of Gajah Mada.
Many cities in Indonesia have streets named after Gajah Mada, such as Jalan Gajah Mada and Jalan Hayam Wuruk. There is a brand of badminton shuttlecock named after him as well.


Ruyan (district)

Ruyan (), later known as Rustamdar (), was the name of a mountainous district that encompassed the western part of Tabaristan/Mazandaran, a region on the Caspian coast of northern Iran.
In Iranian mythology, Ruyan appears as one of the places that the legendary archer Arash shot his arrow from, reaching the edge of Khorasan to mark the border between Iran and Turan. The region first appears in historical records as one of the lands of king Gushnasp and his descendants, who served as Sasanian vassals, until they were deposed by the King of Kings () Kavad I ().
During the Arab invasion of Iran, the last "shahanshah" Yazdegerd III () reportedly granted control over Tabaristan to the Dabuyid ruler Gil Gavbara, who was a great-grandson of Jamasp (). Gil Gavbara's son Baduspan I was granted control over Ruyan in 665, thus forming the Baduspanid dynasty, which would rule the area until its conquest by the Safavids in the 1590s.
History.
It has been suggested that Ruyan was identical to the mountain called "Raodita" ("reddish") in the Zoroastrian documents "Yasht" and "Bundahishn". According to the medieval Iranian scholar al-Biruni (d. after 1050), it was from Ruyan that the legendary archer Arash shot his arrow to the edge of Khorasan to mark the border between Iran and Turan.
Ruyan is included among the lands of the king Gushnasp in his letter to Tansar, the high priest of the Sasanian King of Kings () Ardashir I (). He submitted to Ardashir I after being guaranteed to keep his kingdom. His line would continue ruling Tabaristan until the second reign of Kavad I (), who removed the dynasty from power and appointed his son Kawus in its stead. During the Arab invasion of Iran, the last "shahanshah" Yazdegerd III () reportedly granted control over Tabaristan to the Dabuyid ruler Gil Gavbara, who was a great-grandson of Jamasp (). Gil Gavbara's son Baduspan I was granted control over Ruyan in 665, thus forming the Baduspanid dynasty, which would rule the region until the 1590s. Another son, Dabuya succeeded their father the former as the head of the Dabuyid family, ruling the rest of Tabaristan.
The last Dabuyid ruler Khurshid managed to safeguard his realm against the Umayyad Caliphate, but after its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate, he was finally defeated in 760. Tabaristan was subsequently made a regular province of the caliphate, ruled from Amul by an Arab governor, although the local dynasties of the Bavandids, Qarinvandids, the Zarmihrids and Baduspanids, formerly subject to the Dabuyids, continued to control the mountainous interior as tributary vassals of the Abbasid government. These rulers were largely if not completely autonomous.
According to the 10th-century Persian geographers Ahmad ibn Rustah and Ibn al-Faqih, Ruyan was initially a district of Daylam, but was added to Tabaristan after its conquest by the caliphate. Ruyan was a large district surrounded by two mountains on each side. Each town was able to raise 400–1000 men-in-arms. The "kharaj" (tax) imposed by the caliph Harun al-Rashid () was 400,050 dirhams. A was stationed there, in the town of Kajija. The reports of the two authors seemingly indicate that there was a frontier zone between Ruyan and independent Daylam, which included the towns of Chalus, al-Muhdatha, and Muzn. Due to the regional prominence of the Baduspanids, Ruyan became known as Rustamdar in the Mongol era, a deformed form of their regnal title, "ustandar", which they had used since the rule of Shahriyar III ibn Jamshid ().
The Baduspanids were briefly deposed from power by the Mar'ashis, who ruled Rustamdar from 1381 till 1390, when they decided to install Baduspanid prince Sa'd al-Dawla Tus on the throne in Rustamdar to challenge the Afrasiyabid prince Iskandar-i Shaykhi who accompanied the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur (), who intended to conquer Mazandaran. However, Tus secretly corresponded with Iskandar-i Shaykhi, and eventually joined the forces of Timur in 1392. The following year (1393), Timur dislodged the Mar'ashis and conquered Mazandaran. In 1399/1400, he deprived the Baduspanids of most of their holdings by sending his troops to administer most of Rustamdar. The holdings of the new Baduspanid ruler Kayumarth I were now restricted to that of the castle of Nur. However, in 1405, he restored his rule in Rustamdar. He died in 1453. After his death, a dynastic struggle followed, which resulted in his kingdom being split up by his sons Iskandar IV and Ka'us II, in Kojur and Nur respectively. The Baduspanid dynasty was never to be united again, with the two branches ruling separately until they were eventually deposed in 1590s by the Safavid monarch of Iran, Abbas the Great ().


Maharlika Kingdom hoax


Pakubuwono IV

Pakubuwono IV (also transliterated Pakubuwana IV) (31 August 1768 – 1 October 1820) was the fourth Susuhunan (ruler of Surakarta) . He reigned from 1788 to 1820.
References.
Miksic, John (general ed.), et al. (2006) "Karaton Surakarta. A look into the court of Surakarta Hadiningrat, central Java" (First published: 'By the will of His Serene Highness Paku Buwono XII'. Surakarta: Yayasan Pawiyatan Kabudayan Karaton Surakarta, 2004) Marshall Cavendish Editions Singapore


Mirza Hossein Khan

Mirza Hossein Khan Ajudan Bashi was a 19th-century Iranian diplomat. He was a Member of the Maragheh Khanate. He was sent to France in 1839 by the Persian ruler Mohammad Shah Qajar following the conflict between Persia and Great Britain over the possession of Herat in Afghanistan. In the wake of the Herat affair, Great Britain would remove its military and diplomatic missions from Persia, and occupy Kharg island and attack Bushehr.
By dispatching Mirza Hossein Khan, Mohammad Shah Qajar resumed diplomatic relations with France. The diplomatic mission reached Louis-Philippe and asked for military help. In response, a group of French officers was sent to Persia with the returning ambassador. Louis-Philippe said:
Mirza Hossein Khan also visited Vienna and London as Ambassador Extraordinary, where Palmerston refused to receive him and rejected his mission. He died 1866-67. He left a son Ali Khan, who died in 1884


Aoki Kazuoki

 was the 12th "daimyō" of Asada Domain in Settsu Province, Japan. Aoki clan
Kazuoki was the sixth son of Aoki Kazusada, the 10th daimyō. In 1847 he succeeded his elder brother Shigetatsu, who abdicated. Kazuoki died on 26 September 1849 at age 28, having been daimyō for only two years.
His posthumous Buddhist name is .


Dusit Palace

Dusit Palace (, "Phra Ratcha Wang Dusit") is a compound of royal residences in Bangkok, Thailand. Constructed over a large area north of Rattanakosin Island between 1897 and 1901 by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). The palace, originally called "Wang Suan Dusit" or 'Dusit Garden Palace' (วังสวนดุสิต), eventually became the primary (but not official) place of residence of the King of Thailand, including King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), King Vajiravudh (Rama VI), King Prajadhipok (Rama VII), King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) and King Vajiralongkorn (Rama X). The palace covers an area of over and is dotted between gardens and lawns with 13 different royal residences. Dusit Palace is bordered by Ratchwithi Road in the north, Sri Ayutthaya Road in the south, Ratchasima Road in the west and U-Thong Nai Road on the east.
History.
Background.
Since 1782 and the foundation of Bangkok as the capital city of the Kingdom of Siam, the monarchs of the Chakri Dynasty have resided at the Grand Palace by the Chao Phraya River. The palace became the focal point of the city as well as a seat of the royal government and the home of the king and his court (his children and his polygamous household). During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, the Grand Palace was transformed, with reconstruction and additions made to the main Middle Court (state buildings) and the Inner Court (residential buildings) of the palace. The changes sought to modernize the palace as well as accommodate its growing population. As a result, the palace, particularly the Inner Court, became extremely overcrowded. The Grand Palace also became stiflingly hot during the summer months, with the passage of air blocked by the closely clustered new buildings. Epidemics, once started, were liable to spread easily within the crowded compound. The king, who enjoyed taking long walks for exercise and pleasure, often felt unwell after prolonged stays inside the Grand Palace. He consequently took frequent trips to the countryside to seek relief.
Celestial palace.
Chulalongkorn got the idea of having a royal residence with spacious gardens on the outskirts of the capital from European monarchs during his trip to Europe in 1897. When he returned to Bangkok he began to build a new royal compound within walking distance of the Grand Palace. He began by acquiring farmlands and orchards between Padung Krung Kasem and Samsen canals from Privy Purse funds. The king named this area "Suan Dusit" meaning 'celestial garden'. The first building in the area was a single story wooden structure, used by the king, his consorts, and his children for occasional stays. In 1890s, plans for a permanent set of residences were drawn up and construction began under the supervision of Prince Narisara Nuvadtivongs (the king's brother) and C. Sandreczki (a German architect, responsible for the Boromphiman Palace). Apart from the prince all other members of the team were Europeans. When it became clear that Chulalongkorn preferred to stay in the garden, with only occasional visits to the Grand Palace for state and royal ceremonies, the name was changed to "Wang Dusit" meaning 'celestial dwelling'. The king also ordered the construction of Wat Benchamabophit nearby to serve as the palace's official temple.
Apart from his long walks, Chulalongkorn also indulged in the new and fashionable pastime of cycling. Even before he took permanent residence at Dusit Palace, he would take his entourage cycling from the Grand Palace to the garden and back. With bicycling trips often taking all day. The pathway connecting the Grand Palace to Dusit Palace eventually became Ratchadamnoen Avenue. The construction of both Dusit Palace and Ratchadamnoen Avenue allowed and encouraged the expansion of Bangkok outside its city walls and the traditional confines of the Rattanakosin area. The palace expanded Bangkok northwards, while the avenue accommodated further growth. The avenue extended from the palace, starting in front of the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall and the Royal Plaza southwards along the Makawan Rangsant and Phanfah Lielas Bridges then westward across the Phanbipob Liela Bridge, then south again long the Sanam Luang to the Grand Palace.
On Chulalongkorn's return from his second European tour in 1908, he expanded the palace northward, creating an additional private garden called "Suan Sunandha" (สวนสุนันทา), in honour of his first consort Queen Sunandha Kumariratana, who died in 1880. The garden became the setting for residential houses belonging to the king's consorts and children. Chulalongkorn lived at the palace until his death at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall on 23 October 1910 of kidney disease.
Sixth, seventh and eighth reigns.
Chulalongkorn's successor, King Vajiravudh, contributed to the expansion of the palace by the construction in 1913 of another garden called "Suan Chitralada" (สวนจิตรลดา), between Dusit Palace and Phaya Thai Palace. In this garden he had a residential villa built and named it "Phra Thamnak Chitralada Rahothan" or the Chitralada Royal Villa (พระตำหนักจิตรลดารโหฐาน). Later in 1925, during the reign of King Prajadhipok, this garden was incorporated by royal command as part of Dusit Palace. At its greatest extent the palace occupied over of land. In 1932 the absolute monarchy was abolished and part of the Dusit Palace was reduced and transferred to the constitutional government. This included the "Khao Din Wana" (เขาดินวนา) to the east of the palace, which was given in 1938 to the Bangkok City Municipality by King Ananda Mahidol to create a public park, which later became Dusit Zoo. The Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall was also appropriated as the permanent meeting place of the National Assembly of Thailand.
Ninth reign.
When King Bhumibol Adulyadej returned from his studies to Thailand in 1952 he made the Chitralada Royal Villa his main residence and had it renovated. In the meantime the king and his growing family stayed at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, part of Dusit Palace. After renovations were completed, the king made the royal villa his permanent residence. The area of the royal villa and garden is commonly referred to as "Chitralada Palace".
In 1970, the National Assembly of Thailand requested a new plot of land for the building of a new legislature, as the Ananta Samkhom Throne Hall had become too small and was unable to accommodate the growing assembly and its secretariat. The king granted a plot of land on Dusit Palace grounds immediately north of the Throne Hall for the building of a new Parliament House of Thailand. With the completion of this new building the Ananta Samkhom Throne Hall was returned to the king as part of the palace once more.
Tenth reign.
King Vajiralongkorn chose to keep his residence at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, where he was already living before the death of his father Bhumibol. In 2019 the National Assembly of Thailand moved into new premises, named the Sappaya-Sapasathan. As a result the old parliament building was returned to the King and was promptly demolished and the area was merged into part of the Dusit Palace.
Currently several museums and exhibitions are displayed inside the various buildings within the Dusit Palace precinct, only a few of these are open to the public.
Layout.
Like all Thai royal palaces of the past, Dusit Palace is divided into three areas: the outer, middle, and inner courts. However unlike the Grand Palace, the Dusit Palace courts were organized differently and were separated by canals and gardens as opposed to walls. The king allocated different residential halls and gardens to his consorts and children. The gardens are connected by gates with names drawn from motifs on blue and white Chinese porcelain ware, which the king picked out himself. The gates were specifically named after human or animal motifs, while the name of the paths were taken from floral motifs.


Neolithic ashmounds

Neolithic ashmounds (sometimes termed as cinder mounds) are man-made landscape features found in some parts of southern India (chiefly around Bellary) that have been dated to the Neolithic period (3000 to 1200 BC). They have been a puzzle for long and have been the subject of many conjectures and scientific studies. They are believed to be of ritual significance and produced by early pastoral and agricultural communities by the burning of wood, dung and animal matter. Hundreds of ashmound sites have been identified and many have a low perimeter embankment and some have holes that may have held posts.
These ashmounds were traditionally given mythological explanations as the burnt remains of rakshasas described in epics like the "Mahabharata". A scientific explanation was first attempted by T. J. Newbold who sent notes on Būdigunta, one of the largest such mounds, to James Prinsep who published it in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1836. Newbold suggested that these were volcanic scoriae as the masses had a glassy surface and gave a hollow sound when struck. He was initially of the opinion that it appeared as if of volcanic origin although lacking any other evidence for it. He also pointed out that furnaces around the country did not produce such scoriae or slag. Newbold also pointed to Buchanan Hamilton's notes on the Rajmahal hills where he had described calcareous remains that the locals referred to as "asurhar" or giant's bones. Cavelly Venkata Lachmia (one of Colin Mackenzie's fellow researchers and president of the Madras Hindu Literary Society) wrote to Newbold that he had gathered theories these were remains of religious sacrifices made in the past or from funerals of past battles. Lachmia also pointed out that he had seen many other places around Mysore and many of these other places like Budihal and Buditippa had the prefix "būdi" referring to "ash". Budigunta near Bellary was said to be the largest and recorded as being 46 feet in height and 420 feet in circumference. Robert Sewell conjectured that the region was once densely forested and considered several possible explanations including furnaces. He also had the material examined and it was declared that it could not have come from furnaces or brick kilns. The burning of animal matter was considered as one possible source. He also pointed out that these could have been the result of large pyres where the wives of kings committed "sati".
Robert Bruce Foote examined Budikanama in 1872 and suggested that these mounds were produced by burning dung and suggested a similarity to zaribas in Africa. Around the same time two amateur archaeologists dug a mound in Kupgal and found bones, pottery, stone axes and other artefacts. Allchin in 1963 made an analysis of all the theories and pointed out that rainfall was higher in the region during the Neolithic and that these may been forested regions which were burnt down for livestock.
Archaeological studies have continued into recent times. Some of the plant remains have been identified and millet cultivation may have been important. Two staple millets "Brachiaria ramosa" and "Setaria verticillata" which are not common in modern cultivation were found in several sites while the commonest legumes were "Vigna radiata" and "Macrotyloma uniflorum". The animal remains are mainly of cattle, buffalo and pig (whether wild or domesticated, is not easy to determine).


Ardashir (king of Marv)

Ardashir (Middle Persian: ) was a Sasanian prince, who ruled Marv from ca. 240 to 262. He was either a brother or son of the Sasanian king Ardashir I (r. 224-242), who had installed him as the ruler of Marv, which was the outpost of his empire in the north-east.


Le Than Bwa

Le Than Bwa (, ; died 1459/60) was "sawbwa" (ruler) of Onbaung from the 1420s to 1459/60. Initially a vassal of Ava, the "sawbwa" kept his small Shan-speaking state independent from 1426 to 1444. He is known in Burmese history for his 1425 assassination of King Thihathu of Ava.
The assassination paved the way for his ally Prince Min Nyo of Kale to seize the Ava throne three months later. However, he deserted Nyo at a critical juncture in the subsequent war between Nyo and Gov. Thado of Mohnyin in 1426, clearing the way for Thado's accession. Yet he never submitted to Thado, and exerted pressure on Ava by actively supporting the rebellion of Prince Minye Kyawhtin to the 1440s. But the Chinese invasions forced him to submit to Ava in 1444. He died in 1459/60, and was succeeded by his son Kham Yut Bwa with Ava's military help.
Background.
The royal chronicles mention nothing about his background. The first mention of Le Than Bwa in the chronicles is when he was already the "sawbwa" (ruler) of Onbaung (Hsipaw/Thibaw), a Shan-speaking vassal state of Ava, in 1425. Presumably, he was related to Tho Kyaung Bwa, the "sawbwa" of Onbaung in the 1400s and 1410s, and succeeded him. While Tho Kyaung Bwa was married to a niece of King Minkhaung I of Ava, and Le Than Bwa was offered the throne of Ava by Queen Shin Bo-Me, the chronicles do not explicitly say that Le Than Bwa was of Ava royal descent.
Ava's succession crisis (1425–1426).
At any rate, Le Than Bwa was in charge of Onbaung in 1425. His principality marked the limit of Ava's sphere of influence as it was located next to Hsenwi, on the Chinese side. Though he ruled a peripheral state, Le Than Bwa would prove to be a central player in a scheme that plunged Ava into a deep political turmoil for the next two decades.
Assassination of Thihathu (1425).
Le Than Bwa became involved the palace intrigues in 1425 when he was recruited by Queen Shin Bo-Me to assassinate King Thihathu. Chronicles say that although Bo-Me planned to place her lover Prince Min Nyo of Kale on the throne, she initially tried to win over Le Than Bwa by dangling the possibility of his taking over the throne. Although Le Than Bwa realized that the court would probably not agree to his kingship given senior princes like Prince Nyo waiting in the wing, he nonetheless agreed to execute Bo-Me's scheme. In August 1425, Le Than Bwa and his men ambushed and killed Thihathu at Aung Pinle (modern Amarapura, Mandalay), the location Bo-Me provided. The assassination paved the way for Nyo's accession three months later in November. At his accession, a grateful Nyo rewarded Le Than Bwa with lavish gifts.
War between Nyo and Thado (1426).
Le Than Bwa was a senior commander of Ava forces in the subsequent war between Nyo and Gov. Thado of Mohnyin. At the start of the war in February 1426, Le Than Bwa and Gov. Thray Sithu of Myinsaing commanded Ava's defenses, on the eastern and western banks of the Irrawaddy, respectively. When Thado's forces broke through Thray Sithu's defenses, Le Than Bwa took over the overall command of the army at Sagaing, across the river from Ava. But he did not fight. He evacuated Sagaing when Thado gave him a substantial amount of gold and silver to leave the scene. Ava defenses collapsed afterwards. Other vassal rulers who manned the positions around Ava—the rulers of Toungoo, Taungdwin and Pakhan—too renounced their ties to Nyo, and withdrew to their respective regions. King Nyo and Queen Bo-Me fled the capital. Thado entered the capital on 16 May 1426, and proclaimed himself king.
Independent rule (1426–1444).
Although he took Thado's bribe, Le Than Bwa, like many other vassal rulers, refused to submit to the new king. The "sawbwa" would keep the pressure on Ava by supporting an active rebellion in the core region of Ava to 1444.
Gaining Ava's recognition (1429).
Initially, Le Than Bwa tried to be the kingmaker of Ava. He tried to overthrow Thado by actively backing the rebellion of Prince Minye Kyawhtin, who had a strong claim to the throne. It was mainly his troops that powered Kyawhtin's expeditions to conquer Ava in 1426–1427 and in 1427–1428. The 1427–1428 expedition gained control of Pinle, a well defended town with high brick walls at the edge of the Ava capital region.
The control of Pinle led to Ava's recognition of Onbaung's independence a year later. After Ava forces failed to take Pinle in 1428–1429, Thado sent a mission to Onbaung. The king urged Le Than Bwa to withdraw his support of Minye Kyawhtin in exchange for forming an "alliance", essentially recognizing Onbaung's independence. (Thado also sent a similar mission to Yat Sauk Naung Mun, immediately south of Onbaung, to persuade its "sawbwa" to withdraw his support of Taungdwin and Yemethin rebellions.) But Le Than Bwa like his counterpart in Yat Sauk refused the offer.
His refusal did not result in any repercussions. Ava was so preoccupied with several rebellions around the core region that it could do nothing about the peripheral states like Onbaung. Indeed, after multiple failed expeditions around the core region in 1430–1434, Thado ceased all military operations for the rest of his reign (to 1439).
Return to Ava's fold (1444).
Le Than Bwa chose to submit to Ava in 1444. What pushed him over the line was the Chinese military expeditions (into present-day Myanmar) that threatened Onbaung. To be sure, even before the Chinese incursions, his client Kyawhtin was barely holding on to Pinle. By 1443, Thado's successors kings Minye Kyawswa I and Narapati I had defeated long running rebellions in the north and in the south, leaving Pinle as the only holdout. Indeed, Pinle survived Ava's siege in 1443 only because of the Chinese invasions. In 1444, he sent an embassy to the Ava garrison at Kaungton to offer his allegiance to Ava. In 1445, he personally went to Sagaing to attend the opening ceremony of the Htupayon Pagoda that King Narapati had just built. (Minye Kyawhtin did not follow suit. The prince was driven out Pinle and Yamethin later in 1445.)
Death and aftermath.
The "sawbwa" died in 1459/60. His son Kham Yut Bwa succeeded but the son shortly after was driven out by one of the vassal lords supported by the Shan state of Yat Sauk. Ava had to send a sizable army (8000 troops, 600 cavalry, 40 elephants) to Yat Sauk. The army was initially driven back by the combined forces of Yat Sauk, Naung-Mun, Mong Nai, and Nyaungshwe (southern Shan states) but eventually prevailed, and restored Kham Yut Bwa to the Onbaung throne.


Shamsunnahar Khwaja Ahsanullah

Begum Shamsunnahar Khwaja Ahsanullah () () is a Bangladeshi politician from the prominent Bangladesh Nationalist Party, a former Member of Parliament, and a member of the Dhaka Nawab family.
Biography.
Shamsunnahar Khwaja Ahsanullah was elected to the Parliament in 1991 as a candidate of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. She was re-elected in 1996, the 6th parliamentary election of Bangladesh. The general elections were scrapped and another election was called over concerns of fairness in 1996. She was elected to the reserved seats for women in parliament by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party on 5 September 2005. She was an advisor to the Bangladesh Union Sadasya Sangstha. In 2008, she along with 86 other former Bangladesh Nationalist Party leaders expressed their support for party General Secretary Khandaker Delwar Hossain and Chairperson Khaleda Zia during the Caretaker Government rule in Bangladesh. Begum Ahsanullah was sent into exile when the military government came into power. Along with being a politician, she served as the President of the Salimullah Orphanage since her husband's death in 1978. She resigned from her post as president in 2010.
Personal life.
Shamsunnahar Khwaja Ahsanullah was married to Nawabzada Khwaja Ahsanullah (1915–1978). She is the daughter-in-law of the Nawab of Dhaka, Sir Khwaja Salimullah. She has one son; Khwaja Zaki Ahsanullah and two daughters; Fawzia Ahsanullah and Ayesha Ahsanullah.


Artavasdes I Mamikonian

Artavasdes I Mamikonian (Armenian: Արտավազդ Ա Մամիկոնյան), was an Armenian sparapet of the Kingdom of Armenia, and the oldest ancestor of the Mamikonian family. He lived at the end of the 3rd and early 4th-century. According to Christian Settipani, he married a daughter of the Iberian ruler Amazasp III, and had two sons, Vache Mamikonian, and Hamazasp, whose offspring would play an important role in the politics of Armenia.


Aramaic Inscription of Laghman

The Aramaic inscription of Laghman, also called the Laghman I inscription to differentiate from the Laghman II inscription discovered later, is an inscription on a slab of natural rock in the area of Laghmân, Afghanistan, written in Aramaic by the Indian emperor Ashoka about 260 BCE, and often categorized as one of Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka. This inscription was published in 1970 by André Dupont-Sommer. Since Aramaic was an official language of the Achaemenid Empire, and reverted to being just its vernacular tongue in 320 BCE with the conquests of Alexander the Great, it seems that this inscription was addressed directly to the populations of this ancient empire still present in this area, or to border populations for whom Aramaic remained the language used in everyday life.
Epigraphical context.
The chance discovery by two Belgian anthropologists of this inscription in 1969 is one of a set of similar inscriptions in Aramaic or Greek (or both together), written by Asoka. In 1915, Sir John Marshall had discovered the Aramaic Inscription of Taxila, followed in 1932 by the Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription. In 1958 the famous Bilingual Kandahar Inscription, written in Greek and Aramaic was discovered, and in 1963 the Greek Edicts of Ashoka, again in Kandahar. In the same year 1963 and again in Kandahar, an inscription in "Indo-Aramaic" known as the Kandahar Aramaic inscription or Kandahar II was found, in which the Indian Prakrit language and the Aramaic language alternate, but using only the Aramaic script. The Aramaic parts translate the Indian parts transcribed in the Aramaic alphabet. A few years after this description was discovered, in 1973, the Lahmann II inscription followed.
The inscription.
The text of the Aramaic Inscription of Laghman has been transliterated into the Latin alphabet and translated as follows:
Interpretations.
The translation is slightly incomplete but brings some valuable indications. It first mentions the propagation of moral rules, which Ashoka will call "Dharma" in his Edicts of Ashoka, consisting of the abandonment of vanity and respect for the life of the people and animals (here, urging people to give up fishing).
Then, according to semitologist André Dupont-Sommer, who made a detailed analysis of the script observed in multiple rock inscriptions in the Laghman valley as well as in other Aramaic inscriptions of Ashoka, the inscription mentions the city of Tadmor ("Tdmr" in the Aramaic script in the inscription, ie Palmyra), destination of the great commercial road leading from India to the Mediterranean basin, located at a distance of 3800 km. According to the reading of Dupont-Sommer, Palmyra is separated by two hundreds "bows" from Laghman. In the inscription, the word used to indicate bow is "QŠTN", and Dupont-Sommer asserted that it is an Aramaic word denoting a unit to measure a distance of 15 to 20 kilometres, which could represent a day on the road for an archer. Other distances are then given, which makes it possible to interpret Laghman's inscription as a kind of information terminal on the main trade route with the West.
Franz Altheim and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl read three hundred instead of two hundred bows; they equated it with the Vedic unit of measurement yojona, c. 12 kilometres, which would result in a number close to the actual 3800 kilometres distance between Laghman and Palmyra. The linguist Helmut Humbach criticized the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered his claims regarding the distance to have no validation.
Another issue is that the Aramaic alphabet, the letters "r" and "d" share an identical character. Jean de Menasce read the city's name "Trmd" and identified it with Termez on the Oxus river. Linguist Franz Rosenthal also contested the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered that the inscription refers to an estate called "Trmr". Historian Bratindra Nath Mukherjee rejected the readings of both Dupont-Sommer and de Menasce; he contested the large value attributed to "bow", considering it a small unit. The historian also rejected the reading of Tdmr and Trmd as referring to a city; in the view of Mukherjee, the name, whether Tdmr or Trmd refers to the rock on which the inscription was carved itself.
The Aramaic Inscription of Laghman is the oldest of the known Ashoka inscriptions, with the Kandahar Bilingual Inscription, both dated to the year 10 of Ashoka's reign.
Another Aramaic inscription, the Laghman II inscription, almost identical, was discovered nearby in the Laghman Valley, and published in 1974.


Chaiyasiri

Chaiyasiri () was a ruler of the Singhanavati City-State Kingdom in Thailand, prior to the Sukhothai Period.
Accomplishments.
According to M. de la Loubere, Chaiyasiri is said to have built the city of Pipeli in Phetchaburi Province.
Move to Nakhon Thai.
Chayasiri, along with many of his subjects, moved to Nakhon Thai in Phitsanulok Province in 1188, making Nakhon Thai the capital of the Singhanavati Kingdom for a period of time.


Royal Order of Cambodia

The Royal Order of Cambodia (; ) was a colonial order of chivalry of French Cambodia, and is still in use as an order of chivalry in the present-day Kingdom of Cambodia.
History.
Colonial.
In 1845, Thailand and Vietnam established a joint protectorate over the ancient Khmer Empire. With French support, Cambodia gained independence under King Norodom in 1864, but he had to accept the French protectorate of Cambodia and a strong French interference in the administration of his country.
On 8 February 1864, the king founded the "Royal Order of Cambodia" as an order of merit with five degrees. After 1896, the French government and the kings of Cambodia each granted themselves the Order of Cambodia. The French president was rightly Grand Cross in the Royal Order of Cambodia. The order served to distinguish civilians and soldiers, subjects of the king or strangers, who had made themselves worthy. In 1896, the order was officially taken up in the French system of colonial orders of chivalry.
For French appointments, the recipient had to be at least 29 years old and enter the Order first as a knight, to be promoted to a higher grade after a certain period. Only officers of the Légion d'honneur could become a commander in the Order and only commanders of the Légion d'honneur could be Commanders or Officers of the Order. Apart from decorations for bravery or merit during foreign campaigns, the French colonial orders also required that a certain number of years had to have been spent in the tropics or overseas to be eligible - in this case, three years in Indochina, preferably in Cambodia. From 1933 the Order was also granted for the organization of exhibitions dedicated to Cambodia and sacred events important to the French colonies. None of these rules applied for grants by the King of Cambodia himself.
The colonial and overseas orders were immediately contingent on the French orders and awarded on ministerial orders. Those awarded it not only had to pay for their own registration and qualifications, but also had to buy their own insignia.
Post-colonial.
In 1948 France ceased granting the order. Formally it remained a French colonial policy, but it was now only granted by the King of Cambodia. The order has since then been one of the historical orders of France.
On September 1, 1950 the (colonial) French order-system was reformed. The Order of the Star of Anjouan and the Order of the Black Star were formalised as French Overseas Orders. The other three were the "Order of States Associated to the French Union" (French: "Ordre des États de l'Union Française Associés"). In 1955, Cambodia became independent. The order was approved by King Norodom Sihanouk during his government and also granted during his exile in Beijing. Even after the restoration of the Khmer dynasty it remained the highest Cambodian distinction.
Degrees.
"Dignités".
Medal worn on a large ribbon at the left hip and star worn to the gem's left.
Large medal on a ribbon round the neck, and the star of the order.
Other.
Large medal worn on a ribbon round the neck.
Medal on a rosette on the left breast.
Medal on a ribbon on the left breast, with no gold on the gem.
Insignia.
The medal of the order comes in many different forms, as a slightly elongated silver or gold star surmounted by a Cambodian crown and with an image of the king's crown and coat of arms in gold on a violet blue background and surrounded by a red circle. The reverse of the medal is left rough. To promote the order if it was awarded by the French, the Cambodian crown was replaced with a European one surmounted by a small cross, and in the early years the order was even awarded without any crown.
The central image on the star of the order is the same as the medal, though the crown is missing and the rays are usually smooth. The star is elongated, with the vertical rays longer than the horizontal rays. The regalia of Knights is in silver, whilst those of the higher grades are gold. The medal and star are equally for civilians and soldiers. The ribbon of the order was originally green with a red border, changing in 1899 to white with an orange border (in the same year the French government changed the colours of the ribbons of all five colonial orders), before reverting to the original black ribbon when it became a purely Cambodian order again.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 367

United Nations Security Council Resolution 367, adopted on 12 March 1975, after receiving a complaint from the Government of the Republic of Cyprus, the Council again called upon all States to respect the sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity and non-alignment of the Republic of Cyprus.
The Council noted its regret over the unilateral declaration of the Turkish Federated State, though it did not wish to prejudge the final political settlement of the problem. The resolution then goes on to call for the urgent and effective implementation of General Assembly resolution 3212, to request the Secretary-General undertake a new mission to convene the parties and called upon them to co-operate. The Council finally called upon all parties concerned to refrain from any action which might jeopardize the negotiations and requested the Secretary-General to keep them informed on the implementation of the resolutions.
The resolution was adopted without vote.


Gothabhaya, Prince of Ruhuna

Gothabhaya, was an early monarch of Sri Lanka of the Kingdom of Ruhuna in the Southern region of the island. The Kingdom of Ruhuna was a Sub kingdom loyal to the King of Anuradhapura


Oun Kham

Oun Kham (, June 5, 1811 – December 15, 1895) was King of Luang Prabang during 1868-1887 and a second time between 1889 and 1895. On 7 June 1887 the Lao royal capital was seized and sacked; the elderly ruler barely escaped with his life. Between his two ruling period he was exiled in Bangkok where he gave assistance to Auguste Pavie. The last two years of his reign ended with the establishment of a French protectorate over Laos.


An Xuan

An Xuan () was a Parthian layman credited with working alongside An Shigao () and Yan Fotiao () in the translation of early Buddhist texts in Luoyang in Later Han China.


Belu (province)

Belu (also Belos or Behale) was the Portuguese name for eastern part of Timor island, which included the kingdoms of Wehali, Lichisana and Suai-Cabanaza. In 1756 the western part of Belu and West Timor fell to the Dutch.


Galdan Tseren

Galdan Tseren (; ?–1745) was a Choros-Oirat prince and the "Khong Tayiji" of the Dzungar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.
Galdan Tseren was the eldest son of Tsewang Rabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival factions, a civil war followed between his sons of which Galdan Tseren emerged victorious and crowned himself the new Dzungar Khan. Galdan Tseren continued his fathers policies of confrontation with the Qing dynasty. He refused to surrender Lubsan Danjin, the leader of the revolt of the Kokonor (Qinghai) Khoshuts of 1723, and he initiated a policy of harassment of the Khalkha Mongols, the Manchu's allies.
In the spring of 1729, war broke out against the Chinese and Galdan Tseren's forces obtained numerous victories against the Qing dynasty. The war dragged on until 1737. Peace negotiations had already started in 1734. In 1737 both sides finally made peace and the Galdan Tseren accepted the condition of tributary.
Galdan Tseren not only viewed war as the only medium to strengthen his kingdom, he also worked to improve its economic and technological base. On his campaigns he captured many learned men and put them to work for the benefit of his state. Turkic oasis dwellers worked on developing irrigation projects for agriculture, he built factories to produce velvet, paper and cloth.
Galdan Tseren possessed a powerful army of 80–100,000 cavalrymen, all armed with firearms and with sufficient mounts. He also developed his own small military industry with the help of captured officers like the Swedish Johan Gustaf Renat.
But the base of Galdan Tseren's finances lay in the profits gained from his control of the trade route between Russia and China, the well known Tea Road, along which valuable Chinese products flowed to Moscow.
Galdan Tseren died in 1745, the Dzungar Khanate that he had strengthened would fall prey to a succession dispute among his three sons, and would later be defeated and subject to genocide by the Qing Qianlong Emperor.
Issue.
Galdan Tseren had the following children:


Shaniwar Wada

Shaniwarwada (ISO: ) is a historical fortification in the city of Pune in Maharashtra, India. Built in 1732, it was the great seat of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire until 1818, when the Peshwas lost control to the British East India Company after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Following the rise of the Maratha Empire, the palace became the center of Indian politics in the 18th century.
The fort itself was largely destroyed in 1828 by an unexplained fire, but the surviving structures are now maintained as a tourist site.
History.
The Shaniwarwada was normally
the seven-storey capital building of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire. It was supposed to be made entirely of stone but after the completion of the base floor or the first storey, the people of Satara (the national capital) complained to the Shahu(King) saying that a stone monument can be sanctioned and built only by the Shahu(King) himself and not the Peshwas. Following this, an official letter was written to the Peshwas stating that the remaining building had to be made of brick and not stone. Even today if you visit and see the walls carefully, they are partly made of stone and partly by bricks. The Wada was then completed and upon being attacked by the British Artillery 90 years later, all the top six stories collapsed leaving only the stone base, which was immune to the British artillery. Hence only the stone base of the Shaniwar Wada remains and can be seen even today in the older parts of Pune.
By 1758, at least a thousand people lived in the fort.
In 1773, Narayanrao, who was the fifth and ruling Peshwa then, was murdered by guards on orders of his uncle Raghunathrao and aunt Anandibai. A popular legend has it that Narayanrao's ghost still calls for help on full moon nights. Various people, working around the area, have allegedly reported the cries of "Kaka mala vachava"(Uncle, save me) by Narayanrao Peshwa after his death.
In June 1818, the Peshwa, Bajirao II, abdicated his "Gaadi" (throne) to Sir John Malcolm of the British East India Company and went into political exile at Bithoor, near Kanpur in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India.
On 27 February 1828, a great fire started inside the palace complex. The conflagration raged for seven days. Only the heavy granite ramparts, strong teak gateways and deep foundations and ruins of the buildings within the fort survived.
According to Haricharitramrutsagar, a biographical text of Bhagwan Swaminarayan, he had visited Shaniwarwada on the insistence of Bajirao II in 1799.
Construction.
Peshwa Baji Rao I, prime minister to Chattrapati Shahu, laid the ceremonial foundation of his own residence on Saturday, 10 January 1730. It was named "Shaniwarwada" from the Marathi words "Shaniwar" (Saturday) and "Wada" (a general term for any residence complex). Teak was imported from the jungles of Junnar, stone was brought from the nearby quarries of Chinchwad, and Lime (mineral) was brought from the lime-belts of Jejuri. Shaniwarwada was completed in 1732, at a total cost of Rs. 16,110, a very large sum at that time.
The opening ceremony was performed according to religious customs, on 22 January 1732, another Saturday chosen for being a particularly auspicious day.
Later the Peshwas made several additions, including the fortification walls, with bastions and gates; court halls and other buildings; fountains and reservoirs. Currently, the perimeter fortification wall has five gateways and nine bastion towers, enclosing a garden complex with the foundations of the original buildings.
It is situated near the Mula-Mutha River, in Kasba Peth.
Fort complex.
Gates.
Shaniwarwada has five gates:
Palaces.
The important buildings in the palace includes the "Thorlya Rayancha Diwankhana" (Marathi:The court reception hall of the eldest royal, meaning Baji Rao I), "Naachacha Diwankhana" (Dance Hall), and "Juna Arsa Mahal" (Old Mirror Hall).
Since the buildings were destroyed in the fire of 1828, only descriptions of the living areas of the fort are available. All the state halls in the buildings are said to have doorways with exquisitely carved teak arches, with ornamental teardrop teak pillars shaped like "Suru" (cypress tree) trunks supporting the ceilings, which were covered with beautiful teak tracery, carved creepers and flowers. Exquisite glass chandeliers hung from the ceilings. The floors were made of highly polished marble, arranged in a mosaic pattern and adorned with rich Persian rugs. The walls contained paintings with scenes from the Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The buildings are said to have been designed and constructed by well-known artisans, including Shivaram Krishna, Devaji Sutar, Kondaji Sutar, Morarji Patharwat Bhojraja (an inlay-work expert from Jaipur) and Ragho (a painter).
It is said that the Shaniwarwada complex was seven storeys high. On the top floor was the residence of the Peshwa which was called Meghadambari. It is said that the spire of Jñāneśvar temple at Alandi, 17 km away, could be seen from there.
The Fountain.
The complex had an impressive lotus-shaped fountain: the "Hazari Karanje" (Fountain of a thousand jets). It was constructed for the pleasure of the infant Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao. It was designed as a sixteen petal lotus; each petal had sixteen jets with an eighty-foot arch. It was the most complicated and intricate fountain of its time.
Shrimant Anandrao Rudrajirao Dhulap-More (an admiral of Maratha navy in 18th century) who visited the Shaniwarwada in 1791 described it as "very magnificent. A hundred dancers can dance here at a time. In one corner is a marble Ganapati statue and the palace is flanked by a fountain and a flower garden.".