History of Phitsanulok Province

The lands situated in the present-day Phitsanulok Province of Thailand have been inhabited since the Stone Age, although the neolithic inhabitants of the region are not likely to have been the ancestors of the modern Thai people who reside there today. The earliest historical records relating to what is now Phitsanulok Province indicates that at a time prior to or during the 11th century, the present-day city of Phitsanulok was but a small strategic Khmer outpost known as "Song Khwae". During the next century, in 1188, Nakhon Thai, located near the center of the present Phitsanulok Province, was established as the capital city of the Singhanavati Kingdom, an early city-state of Thailand. Later, during Thailand's Sukhothai Period, the city of Phitsanulok emerged as a major city in the east of the Sukhothai Kingdom, and the great temples of Wat Chula Manee, Wat Aranyik and Wat Chedi Yod Thong were constructed. In 1357, the renowned Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat was erected, and the Ayutthaya Period witnessed the construction of several of the province's other chief temples. Phitsanulok served for 25 years as the capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. In 1555, King Naresuan the Great was born in the city of Phitsanulok. Naresuan played a significant role in the history of Thailand, as he expanded the kingdom (then called "Siam") to its greatest territorial extent, by conquering sizable portions of modern-day Burma and Cambodia. In recent times, Phitsanulok Province has become an important agricultural center, part of the "Bread Basket of Thailand", providing rice and other crops to consumers in Thailand and throughout the world. Extensive agricultural development over the last hundred years or so has spawned a modern infrastructure in the urban areas of the province, bringing with it an array of modern roads, universities, hospitals and other conveniences. Over the years, the Nan River and its tributaries have played a substantial role in the history and development of the region by providing a route for transportation, fertile soil for agriculture, and water for irrigation. The river waters have also served as a route for enemy invaders, and have been the source of periodic widespread flooding throughout the province.
Prehistoric era.
Phitsanulok Province was inhabited during the Stone Age, as many stone axes have been found in the area indicative of the time period. However, these early hunter-gatherers are not likely to be ancestors of the Thai who now inhabit the Phitsanulok Province. The human population around Phitsanulok Province remained sparse until late in the region's history. The settlement of the indigenous populations of the region began around the advent of rice agriculture during the Bronze Age, and continued through the Iron Age. Archaeologists suspect that Mon-Khmer speaking tribes spread through the region, bringing rice agriculture, metalworking, domestic animals. The main course of migration during the metal ages probably ran along the coast of Thailand, but migrants also traveled inland along the Chao Phraya to the Nan Basin and other areas, where it was relatively easier to establish settlements. The next major wave of migration into the province came not from the coast along the Chao Phraya, but rather from the mountainous areas of northern Thailand. These migrants were the Tai. Their course of immigration probably began south of the Yangzi River. As the Han Chinese spread south of the Yangzi around the sixth century BC, the ancestors of the Thai retreated into the high valleys and, over many centuries, migrated west along an arc from the Guangxi to the Brahmaputra Valley. The Thai brought rice-farming expertise to the mountainous areas of Northern Thailand, and eventually to the Nan Basin and the other lowland regions of Thailand. Some of the Nan River Mon-Khmer retreated into the hills as the Thai expansion continued, while others generally adopted dialects of the Tai languages and blended into the culture of the new settlers. The Tai language spoken in Phitsanulok (and most of modern Thailand) was heavily influenced by the Khmer culture as well, and evolved into the language we now call Thai, which is considerably different from other Tai dialects. Even after this Thai migration, the population in present-day Phitsanulok Province, other than along the banks of the Nan River was sparse. Predator animal species, as well as malaria, tropical temperatures and other hardships, kept the population from expanding far from the river, despite the region's extremely fertile soil.
Khmer Empire.
During the 11th century, the city of Phitsanulok was but a small Khmer outpost called "Song Khwae", meaning "two rivers". At that time, the Nan and Khwae Noi Rivers both flowed through the city, making it a strategic gateway to northern Thailand. The urban development of Phitsanulok, which began during the trail end of the era of the Khmer Empire, was to a great extent modeled on the earlier development of the Khmer capital city of Angkor in Cambodia. In fact, Angkor Wat, the chief temple of Angkor, was a temple to the god Vishnu, whereas Song Khwae's forthcoming new name "Phitsanu-lok" literally means "Vishnu's Heaven."
Singhanavati city-state.
In 1188, King Boromma Chayasiri of Singhanavati (a city-state kingdom originally centered on modern day Chiang Rai) is said to have expanded the city-state to include much of what is now Phitsanulok Province, and relocated the capital of his kingdom to Nakhon Thai, from where he ruled for a period of time. The early city of Nakhon Thai thereby became the second urban center of the province, and one of the few urban areas in the Nan Basin, at that time, not situated directly on the banks of the Nan River. Rather, Nakhon Thai was situated at the foothills of the Phetchabun Mountains along one of the main tributaries of the Khwae Noi River. Nakhon Thai's period as a major urban center was short lived, however, as the throne of Singhanavati moved on. The predominant city of the region throughout the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya period, as well as in modern times, would be Phitsanulok, due to the city's prime location at a major tributarial junction of the Nan River. As a historical sidenote, the fourth successor after Boromma Chayasiri to the throne of Singhanavati (which survived through the Sukhothai era) was the famous King Ramathibodi I who became the first King of Ayutthaya in 1351, marking the dawn of the Ayuttahaya period of Thai history.
Sukhothai period.
During the Sukhothai period, Phitsanulok emerged as the major city in the east of the Sukhothai Kingdom. It is during the Sukhothai period that Theravada Buddhism was first adopted as a unifying religion throughout the kingdom (although Buddhism in general was popular throughout Southeast Asia, including Thailand, throughout the era of the Khmer Empire). As such, the Sukhothai period witnessed the construction of Wat Chula Manee and the subsequent construction of Wat Aranyik and Wat Chedi Yod Thong. The renowned Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat was constructed in 1357, during the reign of King Maha Thammaradscha I of Sukhothai. Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat, more commonly known as "Wat Yai," is famous throughout Thailand for its golden sculpture of the Buddha called the "Phra Buddha Chinnarat" (). Many Thai people consider the Chinnarat, which depicts the Buddha in the posture of submission, to be the most beautiful Buddha image in Thailand. The Chinnarat is the subject of the official seal of the present-day Phitsanulok Province. While the Ayutthaya period of Thailand had already begun in 1351, Phitsanulok remained part of the Sukhothai Kingdom for some time afterward. Sukhothai became a tributary state of Ayutthaya between 1365 and 1378, and in 1412, King Thammaracha IV was installed on the throne of Sukhothai by Ayutthaya. Around 1430, Thammaracha IV moved his capital to Phitsanulok, although after his death in 1438, the Sukhothai Kingdom was reduced in status to a mere province of Ayutthaya. By then, Phitsanulok can be said to have completed its gradual transition into the Ayutthaya period. Throughout the Sukhothai era, most of the land within Phitsanulok Province, aside from the city of Phitsanulok, remained sparsely populated virgin rainforest.
Ayutthaya period.
The Ayutthaya period was the era of chief historical importance for Phitsanulok. By this era, the city of Phitsanulok had become a major urban center, specializing in porcelain production, and in addition, Phitsanulok's grand temples built along a major strategic waterway had transformed the city into a great cultural center. In 1461, Ayutthayan King Boromma Trailokanat (1448-1488), accompanied by more than 2,000 followers attended Wat Chula Manee, where he became the first king to have been ordained as a monk, a tradition that has continued on to present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya period was also marked with war, as the competing kingdoms of the region, now growing more and more modern and capable, were competing for both survival, and for control over larger territories. In both 1459 and 1460, the kingdom of Lanna, a buffer state between the kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Burma, attempted twice to besiege the city of Phitsanulok, although both times Phitsanulok prevailed in maintaining its sovereignty.
Phitsanulok as the Capital of Ayutthaya Kingdom.
Phitsanulok reached the peak of its historical import in 1463, when King Trailokanat moved the capital of the Ayutthaya kingdom to the city to strengthen the northern boundary of the kingdom. During Trailokanat's reign, Phitsanulok witnessed the construction of Wat Ratchaburana and Wat Nang Phaya. Around 1488, King Trailokanat's successor Boromma Racha III moved the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom from Phitsanulok back to Ayutthaya.
War with Burma.
By the year 1562, Ayutthaya (including Phitsanulok) fell under Burmese occupation, and was forced to pay tributes to the Burmese King Bayinnaung. Just seven years prior, in 1555, a prince by the name of Naresuan was born in the city of Phitsanulok. After being held in Burma for nine years to ensure the fidelity of his father (Ayutthayan Prince Maha Thammarcha) in 1571, Prince Naresuan was released to return to Thailand (in exchange for his sister) and took the position of Governor of Phitsanulok, a position easily obtained since his father had ascended the throne of Ayutthaya as King Sanpet I in 1569. In 1584, three years after Burmese King Bayinnaung's death in 1581, Ayutthaya's tributary relation with Burma was unilaterally cancelled, which was inevitably followed by a vigorous Burmese attack on the kingdom. Naresuan fought back against the Burmese army, and in 1586 he occupied Lanna, a buffer state between the two kingdoms. In 1590, Naresuan's father King Sanpet I died, and Naresuan officially became the leader of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. In 1591 the Burmese started another attack, which was cancelled when the Burmese crown prince Mingyi Swa was killed by Naresuan in personal combat on elephant back in Nong Sarai (Suphanburi). During all of the battles in the war between Ayutthaya and Burma, Phitsanulok was a major place of recruitment.
King Naresuan the Great.
After gaining independence from Burma, King Naresuan began a series of offensive attacks, beginning with an attack on Tenasserim in 1592. By the time of his death in 1605, Naresuan had expanded the Ayutthayan Kingdom to its greatest territorial extent in history, encompassing much of modern-day Burma, Laos and Cambodia, and setting the stage for the development of a unified Kingdom of Siam. Naresuan's triumphs as king earned him the nickname King Naresuan the Great, and his nativity in Phitsanulok is a great source of pride for the province. Naresuan is mentioned in the provincial motto, and a number of sites within the province, including Naresuan University, the Fort Naresuan Royal Thai Army base, and the Naresuan Dam are named in his honor. A King Naresuan the Great Shrine was also erected at the site of his birth at Chandra Palace in Phitsanulok. The palace is being restored, in preparation for opening it to the public as a museum.
Late Ayutthayan Period.
The Ayutthaya period lasted well into the 18th century, during which the Province of Phitsanulok continued to develop. In contrast to the early Ayutthayan construction of elaborate city temples, the late Ayutthayan period witnessed the construction of a number of smaller temples in the various settlements throughout the province's rural areas. Temples such as Wat Grung See Jayrin were constructed with ornate chedi, with architecture modeled on the great temples of Ayutthaya. Even at the end of the Ayutthayan Period, however, most of the province still remained sparsely populated jungle. As long periods of war had ensued during the Ayutthaya period, many of the province's early temples were in a state of great disrepair, if not largely annihilated. Efforts to improve the early temples began in the late Ayutthayan Period, including a decree of King Boromma Kot in 1756, ordering mother-of-pearl inlaid doors to be built for the entrance to Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat. The doors still mark the entrance of the temple today.
Modern Siam/Thailand.
19th century.
The 19th century was the period during which many of the smaller settlements in western Phitsanulok Province (then Phitsanulok Precinct) such as Bang Krathum, Nakhon Pa Mak and Wang Thong began to turn into urban societies. Phitsanulok's municipal market was established in the village of Ban Sam Ruen in Nakhon Pa Mak, and during this period, the sport of long-boat racing emerged as a means of friendly competition between the scattered riparian villages, which were still separated by dense forest. Temple restorations in the city of Phitsanulok continued through the 19th century, including the restoration of Wat Ratchaburana ordered by King Mongkut. In 1898, The Phitsanulok municipal market moved up the Wang Thong River from Ban Sam Ruen to Ban Wang Thong as the upriver portions of the province became more and more developed. New technology, agricultural and otherwise, was introduced into the region, in part by influences of western colonial powers in Southeast Asia, which paved the way for widespread rapid development of the province in the 20th century. The 19th century also brought a wave of Laotian and Chinese immigrants to the Phitsanulok Province, who each added their contributions to the local culture, especially in the areas of cuisine, art and language. In 1895, King Chulalongkorn implemented far-reaching reforms in the administration of Thailand which divided Phitsanulok Province into "amphoe" and "tambon." While the boundaries and names of many of the original subdivisions have changed, the system is still in place throughout Phitsanulok and the rest of Thailand.
20th century.
During the 20th century, Phitsanulok Province became an important agricultural center, part of the Bread Basket of Thailand, providing rice and other crops to consumers in Thailand and throughout the world. Extensive agricultural development over the last hundred years or so has spawned a modern infrastructure in the urban areas of the province, bringing with it an array of modern roads, universities, hospitals and other conveniences. During the 20th century, nearly all of the lowlands in Phitsanulok Province were cleared of their rainforest vegetation to make way for rice farms. Systems of intricate canals were also implemented throughout the region to provide irrigation and drainage for the farms. The population of the province exploded during this time period, due in large to the clearing of the forest, and also as a result of increased access to modern modes of transportation, including highways, railroad and even an airport in the city of Phitsanulok. This rapid development also created problems including large-scale habitat destruction and increased severely of seasonal flooding and drought. A timeline illustrating the key events of the 20th century within the province is as follows:
Recent events.
Present day Phitsanulok Province can perhaps best be described as a region in a state of rapid transition into a fully modern society. In suburban areas, modern homes are being erected where traditional Thai-style houses once stood, and conveniences such as running water and public health centers are emerging in even the most remote reaches of the province. As the rest of the world has entered the communication era, so too has Phitsanulok. Even the remote Bang Krathum post office now has an internet kiosk where villagers can access the web at their leisure. Since the introduction of the mobile phone to the region, residents of the province can now communicate with people and businesses throughout Thailand and abroad with ease, which will no doubt have considerable impact on the future economic development of the region. A list of noteworthy events which occurred since 2000 in the province is as follows:
2007 flooding.
Deforestation and urban development along the river banks in the region, combined with seasonal downpours in the Phetchabun Mountains have led to severe flooding in recent years within the province. Flooding in the province in 2007 was described by the Bangkok post as the "worst floods in 40 years". On October 4, 2007, 100 rescue workers and 100 soldiers were dispatched to assist stranded residents in tambon Chompu and tambon Ban Mung, where water levels rose more than a meter. On that same day, Phitsanulok Governor Somboon Sripattanawat declared the Noen Maprang District a disaster zone. On October 6, 2007, Pongsagorn Kaenmanee, age 9 was among the first to drown in the flood waters. By October 8, 2007, the floods had killed at least three people in the Wang Thong District, and that district, in addition to Noen Maprang, was declared a disaster zone. On October 8, 2007, Deputy Prime Minister and Social Development and Human Security minister Paiboon Wattanasiritham visited the Phitsanulok Province to assess and address the flooding issues in the province. On October 10, 2007, the Office of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation sent boats out to deliver food and water supplies to residents of Bang Krathum District, which was cut off by floods. On October 12, 2007, the flooding took the life of a fifth villager in the province, who drowned after being swept away while he was rowing his boat to cast a fishing net. On October 14, 2007, flood water pressure sent inflows through the Nakhon Phitsanulok Municipality's sewage system, flooding three communities. On October 15, 2007, the Royal Irrigation Department announced plans to construct six dams on the Wang Thong River as an attempt to solve the problem of seasonal flooding. On October 16, 2007 Thung Salaeng Luang National Park was temporarily closed for fear that tourists may become trapped in its caves by flood waters (This was prompted by an incident in Surat Thani's Khao Sok National Park where a group of cave exploring tourists drowned). A meeting of senior officials is scheduled for October 31, 2007 to discuss the progress of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the dam proposal. At least one of the dams will be in Thung Salaeng Luang National Park, but officials ensure that it will not be built in a wildlife sanctuary area. Flooding in the region is a recurring problem in Phitsanulok Province this time of year. In 2006, for example, between August 20 and December 13, over 22,000 people in 70 villages within Phitsanulok were affected by flooding, and over of farmland and 194 roads within the province were submerged by flood waters.


Sumbe (ancient settlement)

Sumbe is an ancient settlement in the Almaty region, Kazakhstan.
History.
The city of Laban is mentioned in Muslim written sources of the 10th century. There is an assumption that it should be identified with the Sumba settlement on the Northern slopes of Ketmentau. Excavations at the site were conducted in the 1960s under the direction of K. A. Akishev. The area of the settlement was determined, the structure of city fortifications was studied, a complex of material culture of the IX–X centuries was identified – ceramic dishes, items of local handicraft production, and imported products were also found. The walls had typical cities of Semirechye design, initially at a distance of 3 m from each other were constructed of two parallel stone walls with a height of 2 m, the clutch was used large rounded stones, bonded with clay mortar, the space between them were filled with clay, and above the wall was built up with layers of clay with thickness up to 20 cm Clay taken on both sides of the wall, but mostly outside, resulting in front of the wall formed a moat. The city was medium-sized, with no more than 2,200 inhabitants. The city was located on the caravan route that ran along the left Bank of the ili valley from Talkhiz (Talgar) through the settlements of Issyk, Chilik to the settlement of Sumba and then to Almalyk.
Description.
In our time, a large ring-shaped settlement has been preserved from the monument with low slumped fortress walls 3 m high and 6 m wide. the diameter of the settlement is about 500 m.
Among the local veterans, this monument is known as Kalmak Seipel (‘Kalmyk fortress’). According to local legends, "Kalmaks" (i.e. Oirats) lived here before the return of the Kazakhs to their native lands, who, according to the residents of the village of Sumba, built the former fortification in the past. Currently, there are residential buildings and vegetable gardens on the territory of the settlement. In the village school, the history room contains archaeological items found by local residents during various economic activities on the territory of the settlement. There is also an old cemetery on the territory of Sumba village. It is located in the upper part of the village, on the left Bank of the river. There are memorials on the graves of Muslims and Orthodox residents of the village of the late XIX – early XX century. on the Western edge of the cemetery, a half-buried millstone with an epitaph and the dates 1915, 1933 is set as a tombstone in the hillside.
Preservation of the monument.
The monument is under state protection, included in the State list of historical and cultural monuments of local significance of Almaty region in 2010 (No. 1491). There is no physical protection of the monument on the site, a significant part of the territory of the settlement is occupied by vegetable gardens and houses of local residents. The Northern section of the fortress wall is well preserved.
Location of the object.
Almaty Region, Uygur District, a. Sumba, on the left Bank of the Sumba river, at the foot of the Ketmen mountains (Northern Tien Shan).


Radio Edge

Radio Edge was a Bangladeshi FM radio station, the headquarters of which radio is situated in Dhaka. It started broadcasting on 30 September 2017. Sometime in 2018 or 2019 the station shutdown, but the website is still online.


Sambalpur State

Sambalpur State, also known as Hirakhand Kingdom was a sovereign state founded in the 1570 CE. It ruled over a vast kingdom spread across Western Odisha and Eastern Chhattisgarh in central-eastern India prior to the Maratha occupation in 1800 AD. From 1849 AD it was integrated with British Raj as a British District. Its capital was present-day Sambalpur city in Western Odisha.
History.
Sambalpur State was founded in mid 15th century by Balarama Deva, a Rajput from Chauhan dynasty and younger brother of kingdom of Patna ruler Raja Narsingh Deva. In 1570 CE, the kingdom of Patna, ruled by the Chauhan dynasty was bifurcated. The southern portion of the Ang River was ruled by Narasingh Deva and his brother Balaram Deva received the northern side of the river of Sambalpur region. Balaram Deb established his new capital at Sambalpur. Sambalpur was ruled by the Chauhan dynasty till 1800. The kingdom of Sambalpur was also known as Hirakhand and Sambalpur was its capital.
The Garhjat states were eighteen vassal states under Sambalpur State. The Sambalpur kings favoured Sarangarh State owing to the readiness of its rulers to help their kingdom during military campaigns. Sambalpur was ruled by the Chauhan dynasty till 1800 when Sambalpur came under the Bhonsle dynasty of Nagpur State.
Sambalpur was invaded and occupied by the Marathas between 1808 and 1817. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1817 the British Government returned Sambalpur to the Chauhan king, Jayant Singh, but his authority over its eighteen vassal states was withdrawn. The state was placed under British administration from 1818 to 1820, when local rule was restored and the principality became a British protectorate.
When the ruler or the state died without a direct male heir in 1849, the British seized the state under the doctrine of lapse.
In 1857 during the Sepoy Mutiny there was a rebellion led by Surendra Sai of the Sambalpur ruling family, later renowned as 'Veer' (hero) Surendra Sai. The mutineers broke open the prison at Hazaribagh, where Surendra Sai was imprisoned and released all the prisoners. Surendra Sai fought against the British after reaching Sambalpur, eventually surrendering when the British suppressed the rebellion. In 1858 when Sambalpur was put under British administration it initially became part of the Cuttack division of the Bengal Presidency, but was transferred to the Central Provinces in 1862.
Rulers.
The rulers of Sambalpur state of the Chauhan Dynasty:


Raid on Manila

The Raid on Manila of January 1798 was a Royal Navy false flag military operation during the French Revolutionary Wars intended to scout the strength of the defences of Manila, capital of the Spanish Philippines, capture a Manila galleon and assess the condition of the Spanish Navy squadron maintained in the port. Spain had transformed from an ally of Great Britain in the War of the First Coalition into an enemy in 1796. Thus the presence of a powerful Spanish squadron at Manila posed a threat to the China Fleet, an annual convoy of East Indiaman merchant ships from Macau in Qing Dynasty China to Britain, which was of vital economic importance to Britain. So severe was this threat that a major invasion of the Spanish Philippines had been planned from British India during 1797, but had been called off following the Treaty of Campo Formio in Europe and the possibility of a major war in India between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore.
To ensure the safety of the merchant ships gathering at Macau in the winter of 1797–98, the British commander in the East Indies, Rear-Admiral Peter Rainier, sent a convoy to China escorted by the frigates HMS "Sybille" and HMS "Fox" and commanded by Captain Edward Cooke. After completing his mission Cooke decided to investigate the state of readiness of Spanish forces in Manila himself. He was also intrigued by reports that a ship carrying treasure was due to sail from Manila, which would make a valuable prize. Sailing in "Sybille" and accompanied by Captain Pulteney Malcolm in "Fox", Cooke reached the Spanish capital on 13 January 1798.
Anchored in Manila Bay, Cooke pretended that his ships were French vessels and successfully lured successive boatloads of Spanish officials aboard, taking them prisoner in turn. Once he had determined from his captives the state of defences in Manila, that the treasure ship had been unloaded at Cavite and that the Spanish squadron was undergoing extensive repairs and thus unavailable for operations, he sent a raiding party against a squadron of gunboats in the mouth of the Pasig River. Capturing the gunboats in a bloodless attack, Cooke then released his prisoners and sailed southwards, unsuccessfully assaulting Zamboanga before returning to Macau.
Background.
In 1796, after three years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain and the French Republic signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso. The secret terms of this treaty required Spain to renounce its alliance with Great Britain and subsequently to declare war on its former ally. In the East Indies this shift of political allegiance meant that the dominant British forces in the region were faced with the threat of attack from the Spanish Philippines to the east. Britain dominated the East Indies in 1796, controlling the trade routes through the Indian Ocean from the ports of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Dutch Ceylon, the Dutch Cape Colony and parts of the Dutch East Indies had been captured in 1795, and the French presence in the region had been confined to Île de France and a few subsidiary islands in the Western Indian Ocean.
Some of the most important trade routes began at Canton and Macau in Qing Dynasty China. Early in each year a large convoy known as the "China Fleet", composed of large East Indiaman merchant ships in the employ of the British East India Company, sailed westwards to Europe from Macau laden with tea and other commercial cargo. This convoy was economically significant to Britain: one convoy in 1804 was valued at over £8 million (the equivalent of £ as of ). In January 1797 the convoy had been attacked by the French squadron in the East Indies, comprising six frigates commanded by Contre-amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey. In the ensuing Bali Strait Incident the commander deceived Sercey into believing that the unescorted convoy contained disguised ships of the line and the French admiral retreated, only learning of his error on his return to Île de France. There was considerable concern in India that Sercey might try again in 1798, or that the Spanish, who maintained a powerful squadron at Cavite, might make an attempt of their own.
Rainier's initial impulse on learning in November 1796 of the impending declaration of war between Britain and Spain was to draw up plans for a major invasion of the Philippines, centred on Manila in repetition of the successful British capture of Manila in 1762. Co-operating with the Governor-General of India Sir John Shore and Colonel Arthur Welleley among others, a substantial naval and military forces were earmarked for the operation which was in the advance planning stages, when unexpected news arrived in India in August 1797 announcing the Treaty of Campo Formio which brought the War of the First Coalition to an end. Britain now faced France and Spain alone, while emissaries from the Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore, an old opponent of Britain in Southern India, were seeking French assistance with a renewed outbreak of hostilities. The resources planned for the operation against Manila were therefore retained in India and the operation cancelled, but the protection of the China Fleet was still essential and Rainier diverted some of his squadron eastwards to China.
A number of merchant ships had gathered at Bombay in the spring of 1797 in preparation for the trip to Macau to load trade goods and join the China Fleet. To escort this force, Rainier provided the 40-gun frigate HMS "Sybille", captured from the French at the Battle of Mykonos in 1794, and the 50-gun HMS "Centurion", which sailed with the convoy in July, taking passage through the Straits of Malacca, joined there by the ships of the line HMS "Victorious" and HMS "Trident" and the 32-gun frigate HMS "Fox" under Captain Pulteney Malcolm for the final voyage to Macau. The convoy arrived without incident on 13 December 1797, although the crews had been substantially weakened by tropical illnesses.
Cooke's raids.
Reconnaissance of Manilla.
With his convoy safely at anchor in Macau and the China Fleet several weeks from sailing, Cooke decided to reconnoitre Manila and make observations on the port and the Spanish squadron based there. As an added motivation, rumours in Macau suggested that the annual Manila galleon was due to arrive. This ship brought up to two million Spanish silver dollars from Acapulco across the Pacific Ocean stopping at Guam on its way to Manila. Depositing its dollars in the Philippines, the ship then loaded trade goods from the East Indies for the return journey to New Spain. This round trip was essential to the maintenance of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, which operated at an enormous financial loss only mitigated by the substantial subsidy from New Spain. Spanish dollars were the accepted currency across most of the East Indies, and disruption of this financial system could have profound effects on regional trade; but British sailors had nevertheless been attacking the Manila galleons since Thomas Cavendish in 1587.
Leaving the heavier warships at Macau, Cooke sailed on 5 January 1798 only with "Sybille" and "Fox", the latter carrying a Mr. Bernard, an experienced linguist. Passing Luzon, Cooke's ships encountered a small Spanish merchant vessel, which was lured towards the frigates, which were flying French tricolors. Seizing the Spanish vessel, Cooke closely questioned the captain and learned that most of the Spanish squadron in Manila were undergoing extensive repairs at Cavite and were unfit to sail. Cooke rewarded the captain by releasing his vessel with its cargo intact, although he did remove 3,900 silver dollars. The Spanish squadron had suffered badly in a typhoon in April 1797 and much of the damage had still not been repaired by the time Cooke's small squadron arrived off Manila. Cooke had taken precautions to disguise his ships as French vessels, modelling "Sybille" on the powerful 40-gun "Forte" and "Fox" on the smaller "Prudente".
Dinner on "Sybille".
Late in the afternoon of 13 January 1798, "Sybille" and "Fox" arrived in Manila Bay, slipping unchallenged past the fortress of Corregidor and then sailing across the bay on the morning of 14 January, anchoring between Manila and Cavite. From his vantage point Cooke could see the Spanish squadron dismasted and under repair in Cavite, the ships of the line "San Pedro", "Europa" and "Montañés" and the frigates "Maria de la Cabeya" and "Luisa" in dock and unfit for action. To Cooke's disappointment he could also see the Manila galleon, "Marquesetta" being unloaded at the Cavite docks and another valuable merchant ship "Rey Carlos" aground in the harbour. The Spanish had learned only shortly before Cooke's arrival that the British frigate HMS "Resistance" under Captain Edward Pakenham was in Philippine waters and had decided to remove the valuable cargo from the treasure ship rather than risk an attack.
"Fox" was the first British ship into the anchorage, and was consequently approached by the guardboat, whose crew came aboard. Malcolm, like Cooke, spoke French fluently and with Bernard translating was able to persuade the officer in charge that the new arrivals were "Forte" and "Prudente" seeking supplies and Spanish reinforcements for commerce raiding operations. The officer offered supplies but cautioned that none of the Spanish ships would be in a position to sail until March at the earliest. Cooke then joined the party on the deck of "Fox", claiming to be Commodore Latour, a French officer who, unknown to the Spanish, had been killed in the action of 9 September 1796 off Sumatra. The Spanish officer was now completely convinced by the ruse, which had been augmented by fake French uniforms. Inviting the visitor below decks, Cooke then passed wine around and together they drank a series of toasts, including "the downfall of England".
For an hour the officers drank, Malcolm and Cooke learning detailed information about the state of the defences and squadron in the Philippines, until a second boat pulled alongside "Fox" containing more officers keen to greet the French arrivals. This vessel was the personal barge of the Spanish commander at Cavite, Rear-Admiral Don Ignacio María de Álava, who was not aboard, but who sent a message via an aide in a third boat. Each time, the officers were escorted below to join the festivities whereupon their crews were seized at gunpoint and taken below decks as prisoners of war. In Malcolm's cabin, the captured officers were informed of their situation, promised release before the British frigates sailed, and offered more wine. The crew of "Fox" meanwhile forced the captured Spanish sailors to strip and donned their clothing. Climbing into the Spanish boats this party rowed for the mouth of the nearby Pasig River, where they had learned that three heavy gunboats were moored. Taking the crews by surprise, the British boarding parties drove off the Spanish without a fight and brought all three boats alongside "Fox". These vessels normally carried crews of thirty and were well-armed, one with a 32-pounder long gun and two with 24-pounder long guns, each supplemented by four swivel guns.
The harbour captain reached "Fox" shortly afterwards, furious at the seizure of the gunboats and demanding they be returned. Malcolm received him with a tirade of near incomprehensible French and brought him to join the other captured officers in his cabin, while the boat's crew were imprisoned below decks. Shortly afterwards, at 16:00, Cooke and Malcolm hosted a large dinner for their officer captives and sent food and grog to the crew, the total number of Spanish sailors on "Fox" now numbering approximately 200. Once the meal was finished, Cooke allowed all of the captives to return to their boats and row for shore without the conditions of parole, although he retained the captured gunboats.
Zamboanga.
Cooke led his small squadron past Corregidor on 15 January and turned south. Four days later in a storm one of the gunboats broke its tow line and was never seen again, lost with its twelve crew. The frigates subsequently scouted Mindanao before reaching Zamboanga on 22 January. There Cooke raised Spanish colours in an attempt to deceive the authorities into supplying food and water to his squadron but "Sybille" grounded on a sandbank at the entrance to the port which raised the suspicions of a guardboat sent by the governor of Zamboanga, Raymundo Español. The captain of the Spanish boat asked the British ships the names of their captains, and on receiving no answer but a volley of rifle fire, he put the town on alert. With the defenders forewarned, Cooke abandoned his ruse and after refloating "Sybille" the following morning, ordered a bombardment of the fort protecting the harbour. This had little effect, though later the Spanish recovered at least 450 cannonballs from different calibres, and Malcolm then attempted an amphibious landing in order to storm the landward side of the fort. The boats came under heavy fire, one smashed by a cannonball, killing two and wounding four. Another boat grounded on a sandbar and became stuck; so with his force in disarray, as 250 villagers armed with lances ambushed and drove the British from the beach, Malcolm called off the operation. After exchanging shot for an hour both frigates cut their anchor cables and retreated out of range, with two dead and one wounded on "Sybille" and eight wounded on "Fox", in addition to those lost in the boats. The defenders lost a single man killed and 4 wounded.
With his frigates now requiring repairs, Cooke withdraw half a league from Zamboanga and spent three days refitting the masts and rigging of the ships. Then he sailed north, scuttling the two remaining gunboats as he did not believe they would survive the return journey to Canton. Four days later, on 27 January the squadron halted at a village named "Pullock" in the north of the Sultanate of Maguindanao to collect fresh water. On the beach a boat party from "Sybille" was set upon by Lumad tribesmen. Two were killed and nine others taken captive and dragged into the forest before rescuers could arrive. Cooke complained to Sultan Kibab Sahriyal at Kuta Wato and the captured sailors were eventually recovered, although not before "Sybille" and "Fox" had sailed for China to escort the merchant convoy back to India.
Aftermath.
Cooke's opportunistic diversion had determined that the Spanish forces in the Philippines posed no immediate threat, although the mission had cost 18 lives: Admiral Rainier later expressed his satisfaction with the outcome in a letter to the Admiralty. More might have been achieved with reinforcements: Historian C. Northcote Parkinson suggests that had Cooke's squadron united with "Resistance" together they may have been able to destroy the disarmed Spanish warships at Cavite. He also notes however that in this scenario Pakenham would have been commanding officer, a man with considerably less imagination and guile than Cooke. Historian Richard Woodman was critical of the mission, considering the operation to have "no glorious outcome" and citing the failure to capture the treasure ships as its greatest short-coming.
The 1798 China Fleet sailed without further incident. During the ensuing year "Resistance" was destroyed by an accidental explosion in July in the Bangka Strait, and the majority of Rainier's forces were focused on disrupting the French occupation of Suez in the Red Sea. This diversion of British resources created gaps in the coverage in merchant shipping and Sercey was able to send the frigate "Preneuse" and corvette "Brûle-Gueule" to Manila late in the year to join the repaired Spanish squadron. At the beginning of February 1799, this combined force sailed to Macau, taking the British defences by surprise. The British commander Captain William Hargood counterattacked, advancing on the Franco-Spanish force which retreated during the day and disappeared under cover of darkness that evening in the Wanshan Archipelago. The combined squadron then dispersed and the China Fleet was not attacked again until the Battle of Pulo Aura in 1804, at which a French squadron was again driven off in confusion. The frigates Cooke had mimicked, "Forte" and "Prudente" were sent to operate independently against British trade in the Indian Ocean in early 1799. "Prudente" was captured by HMS "Daedalus" at the Action of 9 February 1799 near Southern Africa, and "Forte" was intercepted by HMS "Sybille" under Cooke on 28 February near Balasore in Bengal. In the ensuing battle "Forte" was captured but Cooke mortally wounded, dying on 25 May.


Farrukhmard

Farrukhmard was a 7th-century Iranian, who was the author of the "Madigan-i Hazar Dadistan" ("Book of a Thousand Judicial Decisions"), a crucial part of the collection of legal documents used during the Sasanian period. The son of a certain Bahram, Farrukhmard completed the book in ca. 620, during the reign of the Sasanian king Khosrow II (r. 590-628). The book used some of its information from the archives of his native city, Gur, and also some privately owned archives. Nothing more is known about Farrukhmard; he probably died in the 7th-century.


Trikuteshwara Temple, Gadag

Trikuteshwara temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva. The carved temple is in the town of Gadag, 50 km southeast of Hubli-Dharwad, in Karnataka, India. It is dedicated to Shiva and has three lingas mounted on the same stone. There is a shrine dedicated to Saraswathi in this temple and it has carved columns.
Architecture.
This temple architecture was planned by the architect Amara Shilpi Jakanachari. The Badami Chalukyas were exponents of early architectural achievements in Deccan. Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal were their centers of art. They were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas and the Kalyani Chalukyas.
The temple has ornate pillars with intricate sculpture. The sanctum enshrines three Shivalingas. The temple has chiseled stone screens and carved figurines. There is a shrine to Saraswati within the Trikuteshwara temple complex, with exquisite stone columns.
Inclined slabs that serve as balcony seats are decorated with figurative panels and are overhung by steeply angled eaves. Inside the hall, the columns have figures arranged in shallow niches. The east sanctorum has three lingas representing Brahma, Maheshwara and Vishnu; the one to the south is dedicated to the goddess Saraswati.
Just by the side is another temple dedicated to three devis — Saraswathi, Gayathri and Sharada. Only the statues are in a new style; the temple is in old architecture.
History.
The temple dates back to the Kalyani Chalukyas who ruled this region from around 1050 to 1200 CE, during which time about 50 temples were built.
Saraswathi temple has been vandalised in the early age and hence pooja is not offered here. But the architecture is exists.
A number of late Chalukya monuments (11th-12th centuries) in the city indicate its historic past. Other temples in Gadag are those dedicated to Someshwara and Veera Narayana. In the middle of the city stands the Someshvara Temple. Though abandoned and now in a dilapidated state, its intricate carvings are preserved. The doorways to the hall have densely carved figures and foliation.


Kazakh Uyezd

Kazakh Uyezd (), also transliterated as Kazakhsky Uyezd, was one of the "uyezds" (administrative units) of Elisabethpol Governorate of the Russian Empire and then of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic with its center in Qazax from 1868 until its formal abolition in 1929 by Soviet authorities.
Geography.
Elisabethpol Governorate consisted of Yelizavetpolsky, Nukhisky, Shusha, Zangezur, Kazakhsky, Areshsky, Dzhebrailsky and Dzhavanshirsky Uyezds. Kazakh Uyezd was located in the northwestern part of Elisabethpol Governorate bordering Georgian and Erivan governorates on the north and northwest and Eslisabethpol uyezd of Elisapethpol Governorate on the east. The area of the uyezd was 6024.2 square verst. The southwestern part of the uyezd is mountainous, the northeastern part was mainly made up of lowlands. Two-thirds of uyezd was covered by Sevan or Shah-dagh mountain range of Lesser Caucasus which split Erivan with Elisabethpol governorate extending from south west towards northeast, and then meeting the Kura River in the lowlands. Among its peaks are Soyuq-bulag (, 8,806 ft), Shah-dagh (, 9556 ft), Murguz (, 9852 ft).
History.
The Kazakh sultanate existed from the 15th century and was incorporated into Russian Empire along with Georgian territories. Qazakh was then a part of Georgian Governorate until the establishment of Elisabethpol Governorate in 1868. The uyezd was one of the first places where revolts against Russian rule erupted in the beginning of 1918. The uyezd was abolished in 1929 by Soviet authorities and on August 8, 1930 Qazakh Rayon was created. Kazakh, also called "New Akstafa" was an important railway station linking Elisabethpol Governorate (Soyug Bulag station) with Erivan and Kars (Dzegam station) via Transcaucasus Railway.
Population.
According to a census held in 1897, the population of the uyezd was 112,074, of which 64,101 were Azerbaijani Turks, 43,555 were Armenians, 3,444 - Russians, 425 - Georgians and other minorities. According to Soviet census from 1926, the population rose to 121,255 people of which 110,550 were Azerbaijani Turks, 3,632 - Armenians, 3,816 - Russians, 1,543 - Germans. The uyezd ranked first in Elisabethpol Governorate for the number of its male population. The population was engaged primarily in agricultural farming, gardening, and tobacco growing. Wool production played an important role in the economy of uyezd. Kazakh Uyezd had the lowest number of plants and factories in the governorate. According to statistical data from 1891, there were 10,590 horses, 2,700 donkeys and mules, 77,826 great cattle, 8,107 buffalos, 251,000 sheep, 14,100 goats, 10,468 pigs.


Santa Barbara Church, Santa Barbara, Iloilo

The Santa Barbara Parish Church and Convent (Spanish: "Iglesia y Convento de Santa Bárbara") is a Roman Catholic church located in the municipality of Santa Barbara, Iloilo, Philippines, under the Archdiocese of Jaro. The church is considered to be the “Cradle of Independence” in Panay and in the Visayas.
History.
In 1760, the settlement near Tigum and Aganan rivers became a pueblo and the church became an independent parish. Saint Barbara was assigned to be the symbol of the parish which was headed by then-parish priest Father Juan Ferrer. The construction of Augustinian church which will last up to the present day began when Father Francisco Aguerria arrived in 1845. Construction of road networks that will connect the parish to Cabatuan, Maasin, Janiuay, Leon, and Alimodian also started at the same time.
The funds for the church construction would be sourced out from the taxes of the parishioners that costs between 8 and 12 reales (between ₱1.00 and ₱1.50). Rich people can have their way out of slavery by paying a bigger amount to the Spanish occupiers.
Under the laws of "Repartamiento", males over 16 years of age shall have forced labors for 40 days doing works on Spanish-owned farms and public works. This slavery was seen through most religious construction projects and the Santa Barbara Church was no exception. This workforce came from distant towns to contribute to the project. Sketches of the plans and design of the church were drawn on the walls and columns of the church which was believed to not possess any formal plans for its buildability.
Workers labored over both the quarried stones and mulawon and mangle wood-types that both came from the municipalities of Leon, Alimodian and Tubungan.
In 1991, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines declared Santa Barbara Church and Convent as a National Landmark. The church was the site where General Martin Delgado of the Visayan Revolutionary Government started the junta that resulted to the first Cry of Revolution against the Spaniards outside Luzon. It was also used as the general headquarters and military hospital of the revolutionary forces.
The National Museum declared Santa Barbara Church as a national cultural treasure in 2013. A historical marker was unveiled in December 2015.
Architecture.
The overall style of the church can be viewed as neoclassical with the unembellished front facade. Dividing the front facade plane are four sets of Tuscan pilasters. The central division contains the main entrance while the end divisions contain two niches accommodating the Blessed Virgin and Sacred Heart of Jesus icons.
Three stained glass windows puncture the facade of the upper level. This fenestration indicates a choir loft located inside. The side windows are capped with crests of the Pope (on the left) and the Augustinians (on the right). On the uppermost part of the front facade is a niche which contains a statue of St. Barbara.
The convent resembles Moorish architecture.
Restoration.
Santa Barbara Church and Convent was restored for the celebration of the Philippine Independence Day in 2015. President Benigno Aquino III celebrated the national event in Santa Barbara, Iloilo. The National Historic Commission of the Philippines supervised the restoration of the historic church and convent.


Minkhaung Nawrahta

Minkhaung Nawrahta ( ; c. 1714 – 5 December 1760) was a general of the Royal Burmese Army of the Konbaung Dynasty during the reign of King Alaungpaya. He is best known for his rearguard defense in the Burmese-Siamese War (1759–1760) in Siam as the Burmese forces rushed back a dying Alaungpaya back home. The general, who was well respected by the troops, then rebelled against Alaungpaya's successor Naungdawgyi. He believed he would be executed by the new king with whom he had a long history of enmity. The rebel general seized Ava in June 1760, and withstood the siege for over five months. He was killed by a musket shot as he fled the city in December. A remorseful Naungdawgyi was said to have mourned at the news of the death of his adversary and his father's brother in arms.
Early life.
The future general was born Maung Ton ( ) in a small Upper Burma village of Moksobo (present-day Shwebo). He was a childhood friend of Aung Zeya who was a son of chief of Moksobo.
Military service.
In 1752, Ton responded to his friend and village chief Aung Zeya's call to resist the occupation armies of the southern kingdom of Hanthawaddy, which had toppled the Toungoo Dynasty at Ava (Inwa). Aung Zeya claimed himself king, and assumed the title of Alaungpaya. Ton went on to fight in all of Alaungpaya's campaigns, winning many titles for valor in the process.
He led one of the Burmese armies in the 1758 Manipuri campaign that made Manipur a tributary state of Burma.
Siam.
Minkhaung Nawrahta was one of the lead commanders in Alaungpaya's invasion of Siam in 1759. He led one of the three armies that converged on the Siamese capital of Ayutthaya in April 1760. The Burmese were on the brink of victory when Alaungpaya suddenly fell ill from scrofula.
Alaungpaya personally selected his childhood friend to command the rearguard, which were "the pick of the army--500 Manipuri Horse and 6,000 foot, everyman of whom had a musket". Minkhaung Nawrahta spread them out and it was two days before the Siamese realized that the main Burmese army had left. The Siamese then broke out of the walls of Ayutthaya. His men watched the ring closing round them, and fearing to be cut off, begged him to let them fight further back. But he said "Friends, the safety of our Lord the King lies in our keeping. Let us not fight further back lest the sounds of guns break his further sleep." With his leadership, the Burmese forces withdrew in good order, collecting army stragglers along the way.
Rebellion.
Alaungpaya died on 11 May 1760, and his son Naungdawgyi succeeded him. Alaungpaya's second son Hsinbyushin had tried to take over the throne but failed. Naungdawgyi pardoned his younger brother at the queen mother's intercession. But the king was suspicious of other revolts. He sent for two of the generals he disliked. When they came unsuspectingly, he executed them without allowing them to see him. The army was furious.
Minkhaung Nawrahta too was concerned because of the old enmity between him and Naungdawgyi. He deliberately slowed down his rearguard back to Shwebo. Naungdawgyi then ordered his arrest. Although he had not been involved in Hsinbyushin's conspiracy, Minkhaung Nawrahta felt sure that he would be stripped of his command, and probably executed on some excuse. He decided to rebel even though he had no definite plan of rebellion. It was more a gesture of defiance.
He had been a simple villager in 1752, and he had fought in all the campaigns, shoulder to shoulder with Alaungpaya. He looked back on those eventful years, the victories that had come his way, and the titles and the honors that had been showered upon him by his grateful master. He said to his followers:
His army occupied Ava on 25 June 1760. His garrison repelled all attacks by the king's army but by December, the city was starving. Seeing that the surrender was inevitable, the rebel general and a band of devoted followers fled the city. More than once, the pursuers surrounded him. But he still commanded such respect among the troops that the pursuers fell back in awe when he strode through them. In the Shan hills above Kyaukse, he was brought down by a musket shot. Even then, he overpowered the assailant who grappled with him, and had to be finished with a second shot. Such was the end of Alaungpaya's brother in arms.
Minkhaung Nawrahta was respected even by his adversary, Naungdawgyi. When Minkhaung Nawrahta's dead body was brought before him, the king was remorseful, saying "Should ye have slain so great a man?"


James Raymond Wellsted

James Raymond Wellsted (1805–1842) was a lieutenant in the Indian navy who travelled extensively on the Arabian Peninsula in the 1830s.
Travels.
As second lieutenant on the East India Company's survey brig "Palinurus" under Captain Robert Moresby, Wellsted took part in the detailed survey of the Gulf of 'Aqabah and the northern part of the Red Sea in 1830. He then returned to Bombay in 1833 and was reassigned under the command of Captain Stafford B. Haines to survey the southern coast of Arabia. In January 1834 "Palinurus" crossed over to Socotra and Wellsted spent two months on the island. He published the results of his journey as "Memoir on the island of Socotra".
During his travels to the Red Sea and the Siyal Islands, Wellsted documented the existence of peoples known as the Huteimi. They are described by Wellsted to be "found on the Arabian and Nubian coasts," and that they are "cowardly in disposition, squalid and misshapen in form, and filthy in their habits." According to various accounts, they are further described as a race of fishermen, found in various parts of the Hejaz, with "large encampments near Leyt to the southward of Jiddah."
In November 1835 Wellsted gained permission from the Imam to travel in Oman with Lieutenant F Whitelock. The two reached areas previously unseen by Europeans and Wellsted published his early account of the journey in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. The following winter he returned but succumbed to fever and 'in a fit of delirium he discharged both barrels of his gun into his mouth, but the balls passing upwards only inflicted two ghastly wounds in the upper jaw'. He was taken to Bombay and from there returned to London on leave. He retired from the service in 1839, living part of the time on his navy pension in Blacklands House, a mental health facility of gentlemen. He died in 1842 at his family's home, 12/13 Molyneux Street, Marylebone.
Wellsted's papers were read at the Royal Geographical Society and he was immediately recognised by the scientific world. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 6 April 1837 and was also a fellow of the Astronomical Society. In particular his unbiased accounts of geography and culture in Oman, continue as a unique description of the area at that early date. English Heritage are currently considering the erection of a blue memorial plaque at his family home in Molyneux Street.
Family.
Wellsted's niece was Kate Marsden who was a nurse who became an explorer travelling thousand's of miles across Russia to Siberia.


Dayangzhou site

The Dayangzhou Chengjia site () is an archaeological site located on the Gan River in Dayangzhou Town, Xingan County, Jiangxi, China. The site was excavated in 1989, and it dates to around 1200 BCE. The rich offerings of bronze and jade objects made it the second richest burial site known after the Fu Hao's tomb.
Dayangzhou was home to a rectangular tomb covered by a tumulus. Largely damaged by the sand shifts, it did not preserve the skeletal remains of coffin, making some archaeologists doubt that the find was a tomb at all.
Over 1,000 jade artefacts were discovered at Dayangzhou.
Dayangzhou is known for its unique style of bronze vessels, with 54 being discovered; over 480 bronze objects were uncovered at the site. The bronze casters at Dayangzhou copied and mastered the techniques of the Erligang culture, then localized the bronze vessels in a distinct style. Dayangzhou is associated with the Wucheng culture.
The artefacts from Dayangzhou are housed primarily in the Jiangxi Provincial Museum.


Tahir ibn Abdallah

Tahir ibn 'Abdallah (died 862) was the Tahirid governor of Khurasan from 845 until 862.
During his father 'Abdallah's lifetime, Tahir was sent into the steppes to the north in order to keep the Oghuz Turks in line; he probably received Samanid assistance in this venture. When 'Abdallah died in 844, the Caliph al-Wathiq originally appointed another Tahirid, Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ibn Mus'ab, as his successor in Khurasan, but then reversed this decision and confirmed Tahir as governor.
Little is known about Tahir's reign, although there was unrest in some of the outlying provinces. Sistan, for example, was lost to the Tahirids when the 'ayyar leader Salih ibn al-Nadr drove out Tahir's governor and took power there himself. Tahir died in 862; his will stated that his young son Muhammad should succeed him as governor, and this was honored by the caliph.


Nitovikla

Nitovikla is an archaeological site of a fortress located in the Karpas Peninsula. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition investigated the area in 1929, they discovered tombs dating to the Middle Cypriot III (1725-1600 BC) and excavated the fortress. The fortress was built on a hill that overlooked the plateau and it was made with Cyclopean masonry, it had a square shape with towers in three of the corners and flanking the entrance. The fort was used between the Middle Cypriot III and the Late Cypriot I (1725-1450 BC) periods. The excavation was published in 1935.
See also.
Prehistoric Cyprus


Krishnapuram Palace

The Krishnapuram Palace is a palace and museum located in Kayamkulam near Alappuzha in Alappuzha district, Kerala in southwestern India. It was built in the 18th century by Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma (1729–1758 AD), the Travancore kingdom. It is built in the architectural style of Kerala with gabled roof, narrow corridor and dormer windows, near the Krishnaswamy Temple at Krishnapuram.
The palace is maintained by the Kerala State Department of Archaeology and contains exhibits that belonged to the Palace and its former occupant, the Travancore Maharaja Marthanda Varma. It is also famous for a large pond within the palace complex. It is also said that an underground escape route runs from the bottom of the pond as a possible escape route from enemies.
Among the many Kerala-style paintings seen in the palace, a distinctly placed mural painting is titled "Gajendra Moksham" of size, which is said to be the largest such find in Kerala. It is placed on the western end of the ground floor of the palace.
The double edged "Kayamkulam Vaal" (sword) is also on display here. The palace houses, in its courtyard, one of the four statues of Buddha found in Alappuzha District.
Geography.
The Krishnapuram Palace named after the Krishnaswamy Temple at Krishnapuram, a serene village, is situated about south of Kayamkulam town... It is situated on the top of a small hillock encircled by terraced garden with fountains, ponds and lawns. Its location is to the left of the National Highway 66 (India) (NH 66) between Ochira and Kayamkulam in the Alapuzha District. It is away from Alleppey (Alappuzha district) on the way to Kollam.
History.
The palace was built by King Marthanda Varma of Travancore after defeating and annexing Odanad in the Odanad–Travancore War of 1746. Before the construction of the palace, the King demolished an earlier palace at the site, which had been built by the King Veera Ravi Varma of Odanad (reign 1700–1775 AD). Initially, a small palace of a single story, known locally as "Ettukettu", was built in the traditional style with an adjacent pond, temple and "urappura" under the management of Prime Minister Ramayyan Dalawa, which was later enlarged by Prime Minister Ayyappan Marthanada Pillai. The palace complex has many other buildings, which are a combination of traditional and Western architecture. The present building, a three-storied structure within the complex, was renovated in the 1950s by the Archaeological Department of Kerala in modern style conforming to the scientific techniques prescribed for the protection of heritage buildings. As a protected monument, it houses the Archaeological Museum and its offices.
Architecture.
The Krishnapuram Palace, as one of the finest and rarest examples of a typical Keralite-style architecture, known in the local language as "Pathinarukettu", is complete with gabled roofs, narrow corridors and dormer windows. It is a miniature replica of Padmanabhapuram Palace, which was the headquarters of Travancore Rajas.
The palace complex originally encompassed a total land area of . However, over the years, as the monarchic rule ended, the palace was completely neglected and fell to disuse, and was dilapidated. Many of the buildings surrounding the main palace of the Maharaja got demolished or destroyed and the palace complex got reduced to a mere enclosed within a high compound wall. The main palace, which was run down, was rebuilt to its original state as a three storied monument by the Archaeological Department of Kerala in the 1950s. The rare documents and artefacts which were kept at other locations were brought back, restored and eventually exhibited in the palace that has been converted into a Museum.
The palace restored to its originally built plans, conforming to Vastu Shastra norms, has 16 blocks or "Kettus" with four "Nadumuttam" or open area in the centre or courtyards. The windows, doors and ventilators were placed in such a way as to ensure fresh air circulation and natural lighting in all the rooms. There are 22 rooms (which open into the shady internal courtyards) with ornamental wooden partitions with carvings. Additional openings were provided to prevent any negative effects of "Murmavedham." (Secret effects). The building is set with verandas (passages) all round to protect the outer walls getting damaged due to rains. The materials used in its construction consisted of laterite stones, rubble, teak, rosewood and Angili wood. Roofing (red-tiled gabled) is steep and tiled with Mangalore tiles, which accentuates the beauty of the structure. A special feature of the carpentry adopted in building the palace consisted of wooden hinges and locks for doors and windows, instead of metallic fittings and fixtures. The flooring consists of polished wood and also of black and red oxide-coated concrete. The steps are made of polished granite blocks. Aesthetic beauty of the palace has been further enhanced by the special designs of straight, curved and spiral staircases and sunshades.
A small stream was created to flow close to the southern vicinity of the palace which also functioned as a secret escape route in times of emergency.
An underground tank or pond that stretches to the centre of the building was part of the palace; it provided air-conditioning effect of moderate temperature in all interior rooms.
The palace compound has many "Padippuras", particularly at the main entrance, which are significators of status.
Collection.
The palace complex, which now functions as an archaeological museum, is a treasure house of ancient paintings and inscriptions, coins, megalithic remains, artefacts made of wood, brass and stone sculptures. Some of the prominent displays in the complex are: The mural of Gajendra Moksham, Kayamkulam Val (sword), Buddha's statue of the 10th century and ceremonial utensils and many other artefacts.
Within the palace is the archaeological museum which has an exhibit of the Gajendra Moksham a high mural, which is the largest single piece of mural painting so far discovered in Kerala. The literal meaning of 'Gajendra Moksham' is the "salvation or "Moksha" of the elephant king "Gajendra."" The theme of the mural is mythological and depicts an elephant saluting Lord Vishnu in devotion while the other minor Gods, Goddesses and saints look on. Lord Vishnu was the family deity of the Kayamkulam Kings. This mural, in a fusion of colours and expressions, was placed prominently at the entrance to the palace from the pond to enable the kings to worship the deity after their daily ablutions.
The mythological legend narrated on the Gajendra Moksham (Gajendra means the King of elephants) is contained in the 10th century Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana. According to this legend, the Pandyan King Indradyumna, a devotee of Lord Vishnu, was given a curse by the sage Agastya, to be reborn as an elephant. Gajendra or the Elephant King, while on a pleasure trip to a lake with his wives, was seized by a crocodile that caught hold of his leg with a firm grip and thus Gajendra was held captive for many years. Finally the hapless Gajendra appealed to Lord Vishnu, his chosen deity, to rescue him from his predicament. Vishnu made his presence soon after, riding on his Vahana (vehicle), the Garuda (the celestial half man half bird form). Garuda killed the crocodile. The entire sequence is vividly painted, with vegetable colours, on the mural with a dynamic portrayal of Garuda at the centre, about to land with "huge spread wings and a facial expression raudra (form of fury), in stark contrast to the compassionate features of the multi-armed Vishnu". The mural also shows a smaller figure of Gajendra in mid-trumpet, and of the crocodile on the right side. The mural truly represents the Kerala style of painting on every available space on it. Apart from the main characters of the legend, saints, animals, mythical beasts and forest plants are also depicted. The outer edges of the mural are decorated with Floriate borders. At the bottom, there is an exclusive "triptych-like panel which depicts Balakrishna, the child Krishna surrounded by doting females.
The Kayamkulam Vaal ('Vaal' means "sword") is an important exhibit in the museum. The significance of the sword is that its both sides are sharpened and thus it is more dangerous than any other martial weapon. It is said to have been used by the Kayamkulam Rajas in the 18th century and hence was of special attraction to the king.
Buddha mandapam (hall) is where an attractive statue of one of the four antique Buddhas of the 10th century, which were recovered in recent times in ponds and fields in Alappuzha district is displayed. The Buddha mandapam (Buddha statue installed here predates the building of the palace) is located in the finely landscaped and tended garden with profusion of flower plants (endemic to Kerala) that surrounds the palace complex.
The four Buddha statues found in recent years in the Alappuzha district testify the prevalence of Hinayana Buddhism in Odanadu in the Maveli kingdom of Kerala several. The four Buddha images are in meditating posture with "Ushnisha" (cap) and "Upavita" (upper garment). These had been thrown into fields and ponds during the anti-Buddhism campaign in Kerala. The idol was found in a pool or tank called "Puthenkula" (Pond of Buddha) in Maruturkulangara in Karunagappalli. This idol, cut out of a single piece of rock, was first installed in Karunagappalli town and after many years reinstalled in the compound of Krishnapuram Palace which is now a monument in the Buddha Mantapam. This idol has a skull cap adorned with lines of pearls or diamonds that represents the highest wisdom attained by Buddha. Scholars have inferred that this statue probably belongs to the 7th century or even 5th century.
The museum in the Krishnapuram Palace also has a copy of the Bible in Sanskrit printed in Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1886. Ceremonial utensils are also on display in a display case, which consists of oil lamps, fine miniature figures, and small stone columns carved with serpent deities (collected from various local houses). Some of these are arranged in an arc form known as "prabhu" and placed behind a temple deity to provide a "hallow of light". Fine miniature "Panchaloha" (five metals of bronze alloy with gold also as an ingredient) figures on display are of the Varuna (water god), many Vishnus and a minuscule devotee in worship mode.
Transport.
Nearest KSRTC bus stations -
1. Kayamkulam (4km)
2. Oachira (4 km)
3. Karunagappalli (11 km)
Nearest railway stations -
1. Oachira (ocr) (4 km)
2. Kayamkulam (kyj) (5 km)
3. Karunagappally (kpy) (12 km),


Ganeshwar

Ganeshwar is a village in Neem-Ka-Thana Tehsil (Mandal) in the Sikar District of the Indian state of Rajasthan. Ganeshwar is distance from Neem-Ka- Thana town, from Sikar city and from Jaipur. Excavations in the area revealed the remains of a 4,000-year-old civilization.
History.
Ganeshwar is located near the copper mines of the Sikar-Jhunjhunu area of the Khetri copper belt in Rajasthan. The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture has over 80 other sites currently identified. The period was estimated to be 2500–2000 BC. Historian Ratna Chandra Agrawala wrote that Ganeshwar was excavated in 1977. Excavations revealed copper objects including arrowheads, spearheads, fish hooks, bangles and chisels. With its microliths and other stone tools, Ganeshwar culture can be ascribed to the pre-Harappan period. Ganeshwar saw three cultural phases: Period 1 (3800 BCE) which was characterized by hunting and gathering communities using chert tools; Period II (2800 BCE) shows the beginnings of metal work in copper and fired clay pottery; Period III (2000 BCE) featured a variety of pottery and copper goods being produced. Nearly one thousand pieces of copper were found here. Red pottery was found here with black portraiture. Ganeshwar mainly supplied copper objects to Harappa.The Ganeshwar people partly lived on agriculture and largely on hunting. Although their principle craft was manufacture of copper objects but they were unable to urbanize. With its microliths and other stone tools, much of Ganeshwar culture can be considered a pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture that contributed to the making of the mature Harappan culture.
The copper was obtained in the nearby Aravalli Range.


Sourp Magar Monastery, Cyprus

Sourp Magar ( or Magaravank, Մակարավանք) is an Armenian monastery located in a forested valley in the Pentadaktylos range in Cyprus. It is "de facto" located in Northern Cyprus. The Magaravank stands at 530 metres and is about 3 km from the Halevga Forest Station. In addition to its historical interest as a centre of Armenian culture, Sourp Magar is noted for its picturesque location and distant views of the Mediterranean and the mountains in Anatolia. The monastery had close ties with the Armenian Catholicosate of Cicilia, located in Antelias, Lebanon.
History.
Magaravank was founded in the early eleventh century and at that time seems to have belonged to the Coptic Orthodox Church. It was dedicated to Saint Macarius of Alexandria who died in 395 AD. Of the Coptic history of Sourp Magar nothing is known, but sometime before 1425 the monastery was transferred to the Armenians in Cyprus. Armenians had long been resident in Cyprus, but their numbers increased substantially after fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in 1375 when its last king Leo V escaped the Mamlukes. The crown of the Kingdom of Armenia subsequently passed to the Lusignan rulers of Cyprus. Armenians continued to migrate to Cyprus as Turkic peoples entered Anatolia and established powerful kingdoms there in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The transfer of Sourp Magar to the Armenians was probably occasioned by these events and the increasing importance of the Armenian community in the Lusignan kingdom.
The Armenians retained control of Sourp Magar and its lands under Venetian and Ottoman rule. In the Ottoman Era, it was often called the Blue Monastery on account of the colour of the doors and windows. In 1642, at the time of Ibrahim I, the establishment was exempted from taxes. This exemption was renewed in 1660 and 1701. Restoration work is recorded to have been undertaken in 1735 and again in 1814, when the larger of the two chapels was reconstructed. Sourp Magar has, over its long history, served a wide range of social functions, from a school and rest-house for pilgrims to an orphanage and summer retreat for the Armenians of Nicosia. Some people lived on-site full-time, a report made in 1935 noting that 17 people resided there. Sourp Magar once housed a collection of manuscripts and other sacred items, but these were re-located to the Holy See of Cilicia in 1947. After the 1974 Turkish invasion, the Armenian community could no longer maintain custodians at Sourp Magar and the complex fell into ruins. Armenians nonetheless retain great attachment to their ancient establishment. Thanks to the efforts of Armenian Cypriot MP Vartkes Mahdessian, three pilgrimages have been made there, the last of which took place on 9 May 2010.
Complex.
The Sourp Magar consists of an irregular rectangle of two-storied residential buildings constructed around a generous precinct. The site overall slopes gently from west to east. Two small churches or chapels, standing in the north-east part of the central courtyard, stand side-by-side. The largest chapel, with its vault still in place, was built in 1814. The chapels appear to be the vestiges of the side aisles of a fairly large church, the nave of which has more or less disappeared. This nave is represented by a large arch (rebuilt) and the common vestibule between the two chapels. The antiquity of the apses is indicated by the masonry which is close to the eleventh-century parts of the churches at Lythrangomi and Aphendrika on the Karpass Peninsula. The Aphendrika churches have been dated on good authority to the eleventh century and appear to have suffered a similar fate, being ruined by earthquakes in the thirteenth or fourteenth century
The line of residential buildings facing towards the north and east probably belong to the fifteenth century judging from the shape and style of the Gothic windows and doors. One window has a chevron design, a characteristic feature of later Gothic building in Cyprus (as well old Coptic Cairo). These building were probably put up when the Armenians first took possession of the site. Internally, the buildings are two-storied, with a simple arcade below and a walkway above. The walkway was originally edged by stone posts with wooden lintels. The roofs throughout rested on wooden beams and were covered with curved tiles.
The residential buildings at Sourp Magar are extremely important for the history of architecture in Cyprus, being the best-preserved and most extensive examples of late medieval domestic building on the island, even in their ruined state. Camille Enlart (1862–1927), the doyen of Gothic architecture who visited Cyprus in the nineteenth century, did not mention Sourp Magar in his landmark volume, and the buildings, as a consequence, have not been received the recognition they deserve. The only architectural account was given by George H. Everett Jeffery who, writing in 1918, commented that the east side "retains its architectural character in richly moulded pointed arch windows ... and in a venerable doorway. A large room used as a guest chamber, with the roof supported on a central column at the north-east corner, is of the same date as the eastern façade."
From the 1920s modern tiles and other additions were added in many places, while the post-war period brought misguided rebuilding with reinforced concrete. One of the medieval windows had a concrete awning with steel I-beams inserted into it, evidently to provide a place for a toilet and bathroom. Part of the walkway floor in the interior was also rebuilt using reinforced concrete.
The 1974 Turkish invasion precipitated a degree of vandalism and the looting of the site for building materials. Many of the old roof tiles, now rendered valueless by recent prosperity, lie neatly stacked beside the outer walls. Most of the wooden rafters have disappeared. From 2005 the Turkish authorities rebuilt and re-roofed some rooms on the south side of the precinct with the idea of providing refreshments for forest trekkers and there was discussion of further developments. The project, however, has not been continued.


Operation Bravo

Operation Bravo was a phony coup planned by Ngô Đình Nhu, the younger brother and chief advisor of President Ngô Đình Diệm of South Vietnam. Nhu was aware that there was a plot against the Ngô family, and he intended to have his loyalist forces stage a fake rebellion, to induce dissidents to come into the open, before having his loyalists crush the "rebellion". He hoped that this would reaffirm his family's prestige and power. However, the plan failed as Nhu was unaware that General Tôn Thất Đính, who was to lead the operation, was part of the real uprising. What was intended as Operation Bravo was then incorporated into the real coup and Diem and Nhu were assassinated.


Deergha Sumangali Bhava

Deergha Sumangali Bhava is a 1998 Telugu drama film directed by S. V. Krishna Reddy starring Rajasekhar and Ramyakrishna in the lead roles. This is the story of a married woman who dumps her husband for her career in the glamour world, and later realized that she has lost her good old life. S. V. Krishna Reddy prepared this story based on a letter received by him.
Plot.
Vani (Ramya Krishna) is the only daughter of a school Headmaster Satyanarayana a.k.a. Satyam (Dasari Narayana Rao). He brings her up with discipline. His family and friends jokingly call him "James Bond" because of his steadfast behavior. Ramarao (Rajasekhar) works in an office owned by S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, who is also a close friend of Satyam.
Vani always dreams of living a rich life though her father advocates a simple life. One day, she happens to see Ramarao in his boss's car when he goes to a bank to withdraw money. Another time she finds him in a jewellery shop on behalf his boss again. She thinks that he might be a rich person and falls in love with him. Meanwhile, S. P. B thinks that Ramarao would be a good match for Vani and inquires about his habits on behalf of Satyam. Later he reveals it to Satyam, to which he gladly accepts. Vani is also happy that she is marrying the one she loved. After the marriage, she realizes that Ramarao is just a normal employee, but she somehow satisfied with married life and gives birth to a baby boy.
Later she will accidentally meet her old college friend who works as an organizer for films. He advises her to leave her family life and come with him so that she can gain the name and fame which she used to dream before marriage. Vani leaves the house with out the notice of her family thinking that they might obstruct her. This incident brings her family suffer a lot in the society.
How ever Ramarao tries to bring her back but it is in vain. Later Ramarao remarries Sita due to the compulsion of Vani's parents and start a normal life again. During the course of time Vani loses her fame due to new comers in the industry. Due to lack of work and feeling lonely Vani tries to go back but finds that her presence is not needed for her family.
Finally realizing her lost days she attempts for suicide. Feeling that none should get as of her she writes a letter to a film director regarding her life and meets her husband to say sorry and dies in his hands. The film ends on reaching the letter to the director.


List of head of state of the Maldives

This article is about the list of head of state of the Maldives.
Solar dynasty (Aditya Vansa).
King.
The founding of Kingdom of Dheeva Maari. King Sri Srudasarunaditya established the Aditya Dynasty. These were Kings of the Solar dynasty.
The first Kingdom established was known as Dheeva Maari. Later in the 3rd century BC during the visit of emissaries sent by Emperor Ashoka, Maldives was known as Diva Mahal.
Lunar dynasty (Soma Vansa).
King.
Although the first kings of Maldives were of Solar dynasty, the last queen of the solar dynasty, Queen Srimati Damahara married a prince from Lunar dynasty (Soma Vansa) who came from Kalinga thus establishing the line of Soma Vansa.
Second Republic of Maldives.
President.
Political parties


Mohamed I of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Mohammed I Sri Sundhura Abaarana Mahaa Radhun (Dhivehi: އައްސުލްޠާން މުޙައްމަދު އެއްވަނަ ސިރީ ސުންދުރަ އަބާރަނަ މަހާރަދުން) was the Sultan of the Maldives from 1380 to 1385. He was the son of "Kaeumani Kaulhanna Kilege" (Dhivehi: ކައެއުމަނި ކައުޅައްނާކިލޭގެ) and husband of his predecessor Raadhafathi. He ruled the country for 5 years until his death in 1385. He was succeeded by his daughter Dhaain.


Sudawadi

Princess Sudawadi, the Princess Yothathep (; 1656–1735) was the only child of Narai and Princess Suriyong Ratsami, one of his concubines. She lived through five reigns and died in the reign of King Borommakot.
Biography.
Chaofa Princess Krom Luang Yothathep was the only daughter and only child of Narai and Princess Suriyong Ratsami, one of his concubines. During her father's reign, she took over many duties about the palace when her mother died, such as caring for the ladies in-waiting and eunuchs. The highest honor she was a Royal master's degree.
During the reign of King Phetracha, she married the King and received the title of Left Consort, but she disapproved of King Phetracha because he had ordered his guards to kill her father's brothers. King Phetracha later married Princess Sisuphan, the Princess Yothathip, who was her father's sister, and promoted Princess Sisuphan to Right Consort.
Death.
After the death of Phetracha, Suriyenthrathibodi, the secret son of King Narai and Princess Kusavadi of Chiangmai adopted by King Phetracha, stole the throne of Ayutthaya from Prince Khwan, son of King Phetracha and Princess Sisuphan. Princess Sudawadi and her son, Prince Tratnoi, moved out to live with her relatives. She lived peacefully and died in 1735 during the reign of King Borommakot.


Battle of Lonoy

The Battle of Lonoy, also known as the Lonoy Massacre, was a surprise attack in 1901 during the Philippine–American War when over 400 Filipino revolutionaries were killed by United States Armed Forces. It was fought in Lonoy, Jagna, Bohol on Bohol island.
Filipino forces laid an ambush along a narrow path. They were poorly armed, with daggers, machetes, and spears and few firearms. The American force learned of the ambush from a pro-American local, Captain Francisco Acala, the last Spanish Mayor of Jagna. He led the Americans to the rear of the Filipinos. In a surprise attack, the Filipinos found themselves trapped in their own trenches. All but seven were killed, a total 406, including the commander, Captain Gregorio "Guyo" Casenas. Americans casualties were three killed and ten wounded, which came toward the end when the Filipinos launched a counter-attack.


Soekmono

Soekmono (14 July 1922 – 9 July 1997) was an Indonesian archaeologist and historian.
Throughout his career, he wrote about and researched Borobudur and the Javanese Candi. His main publication about Javanese Candi was a doctoral thesis presented in 1974.
He was the director of the National Archaeological Institute of the Republic Indonesia (Lembaga Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional Republic Indonesia). He was also the Project Manager of the Borobudur Restoration Project in the 1970s - the Proyek Pemugaran Candi Borobudur - when Borobudur was pulled down and rebuilt as part of a UNESCO project to rebuild the monument.


Azam Jah of the Carnatic

Azam Jah (1797 – 12 November 1825) was the Nawab of the Carnatic region of India from 1819 to 1825.
Azam Jah ascended the throne on the death of his father Azim-ud-Daula in 1819. He ruled for a short period of time and died in 1825. Azam Jah was succeeded by his minor son Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan.


Dzhebrail Uyezd

Dzhebrail Uyezd (), also transliterated as Dzhebrailsky Uyezd, was one of the "uyezds" (administrative units) of Elisabethpol Governorate of the Russian Empire with its center in Jabrayil from 1868 until its formal abolition in 1921 by the Soviet authorities.
Geography.
Elisabethpol Governorate consisted of Yelizavetpolsky, Nukhisky, Shusha, Zangezur, Kazakhsky, Areshsky, Dzhebrailsky, and Dzhevanshirsky Uyezds Jabrayil uyezd was located in the southeastern part of Elisabethpol Governorate bordering its Shusha Uyezd on the north, Zangezur Uyezd on the west, Baku Governorate on the east and Persian Empire on the south. The area of the uyezd was 2922.6 square verst. The northwestern part of the uyezd is mountainous. Mount Ziyarat () or Dizapayt () reaches 8,186 feet. The higher ground was usually used for pastures. The whole uyezd was located within the Araz river basin. The tributaries of Araz, Kendalan, Kuru-chay, Chereken, Gozlu-chay and Hakari-chay were utilized for irrigation.
History.
The territory of the uyezd had been a part of Karabakh Khanate until 1813, when according to Gulistan Treaty, it was annexed to Russian Empire as Karabakh province. In 1840, the province was transformed into Shusha Uyezd and in 1868, when Elisabethpol Governorate was established, the southeastern part of Shusha Uyezd was founded as a separate Jabrayil uyezd. The uyezd center Jabrayil was used as a customs office on the border with Persian Empire. After establishment of Soviet rule it served as the capital of Jabrayil Rayon which was occupied in August 1993 by Armenian armed forces. In 1905, Jabrayil uyezd was renamed to Karyagin Uyezd () with its center in Karabulak (). Jabrayil uyezd remained in the same status during the existence of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic until 1920. After establishment of Soviet rule over Azerbaijan, Karabulag was renamed to Sardar, then to Karyagino and finally to Fizuli in 1959, as the capital of Fizuli Rayon.
Population.
According to census held in 1897, the population of uyezd was 66,360, of which 49,189 were Turko-Tatars (i.e. Azerbaijanis), 15,746 were Armenians, 398 - Kurds, 893 - Russians and other minorities. According to Soviet census from 1926, the population rose to 75,371 with of which 71,725 were Turks (i.e. Azerbaijanis), 625 - Armenians, 1,089 - Russians, 520 - Persians. There were 178 settlements. The population was engaged primarily in agricultural farming, gardening, sericulture. According to statistical data from 1891, there were 37,000 of great and 108,000 of small cattle.


Mongyang State

Mongyang or Möngyang (; also known as Mong Yang) was a Shan state in what is today Burma. It was an outlying territory, located away from the main Shan State area in present-day Kachin State. The state existed before 1400 and after 1604. The main town was Mohnyin (Mong Yang).
History.
Möngyang (Mong Yang) was a Shan state established at an uncertain date before the 15th century with the town of Mohnyin as its capital. In 1527 Mongyang armies succeeded in capturing Ava, upsetting the delicate power balance that had existed in the area for nearly two centuries.
A record of the conquest of Mongyang in 1557 is mentioned in a bell inscription relating the conquests of King Bayinnaung.
Occupied by the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma between 1579 and 1584, the state was extinguished in 1604.
Rulers.
Myowuns.
Under the Konbaung Dynasty the area of the former state was administered by a Viceroy called a "Myowun", who was appointed by the king and possessed civil, judicial, fiscal and military powers.
Popular culture.
Mong Yang is a playable nation in "Europa Universalis IV".


Bijayendrawarman

Bijayendrawarman was the name of one a "yuwaraja" (vice king, or crown prince) of the Malayapura kingdom, who ruled in the 14th century in the Pasaman Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia. Bijayendrawarman's name is written in Lubuk Layang inscription, found in Pancahan village, in Rao Selatan district of Pasaman. It was stated that he built a "stupa", in a place called Parwatapuri.
When viewed paleographically, the writing on the inscription is similar to other writings issued during the reign of King Adityawarman. This means that there could be two "yuwaraja" at the same time; namely Ananggawarman as mentioned in the Saruaso II inscription, and Bijayendrawarman himself which could be another son of King Adityawarman. Bijayendrawarman's seat of government was located in the kingdom's border region (Pasaman), that might be indicating that he was a younger child, who was appointed to rule the area.
Another possibility would be that Bijayendrawarman was associated to Akarendrawarman, the royal ruler before Adityawarman.


Dewa Pacekan

Dewa Pacekan was a prince on the Island of Bali, who possibly ruled the island kingdom for a short time, in 1642–1650. He belonged to a dynasty stemming from the Majapahit Empire of Java, which had its palace (puri) in Gelgel, near Bali's south coast.
According to Balinese historiography he was the second son of king Dalem Di Made, who may have died in 1642. In Dutch sources from the 1630s, he appears to be mentioned as 'Patiekan' or 'Paadjakan', son of the current ruler. In the religious text "Rajapurana Besakih", he is listed as the last deified ancestor of the Gelgel dynasty. He may therefore have succeeded Dalem Di Made, although later Balinese historical texts do not actually mention him as ruler in his own right. One text mentions that he directed his troops against the army of the Javanese Muslim Mataram kingdom in 1646. This confrontation is also described in Dutch and Javanese sources. His death is placed by Balinese texts in 1650. Dutch sources relate that the Dutch East Indies Company sent an embassy to Bali in 1651, but found on arrival that the unnamed king had recently died, and that chaotic internecine wars raged on the island.