Immigration to Mexico

Immigration to Mexico has been important in shaping the country's demographics. Since the early sixteenth century with the arrival of the Spanish, Mexico has received immigrants from Europe, Africa, the Americas (particularly the United States and Central America), the Middle East and from Asia. Today, millions of their descendants still live in Mexico and can be found working in different professions and industries.
During the colonial era, hundreds of thousands of individuals were taken to what would become Mexico; primarily from West Africa, and to a lesser extent, Southeast Asia, these enslaved individuals were not voluntary immigrants. In the 20th century, Mexico also became a country of refuge, in particular accepting individuals fleeing World War II in Europe, the Spanish Civil War and Guatemalan Civil War.
The Constitution also states that: “Every man has the right to enter the Republic, leave it, travel through its territory and change residence, without the need for a security letter, passport, safe-conduct or other similar requirements. The exercise of this right will be subordinate to the powers of the judicial authority, in cases of criminal or civil liability, and those of the administrative authority, as regards the limitations imposed by the laws on emigration, immigration, and general health of the Republic, or on pernicious foreigners residing in the country. " Both articles 33 and 9 of the Constitution limit foreigners to meddle in the country's political affairs.
Article 33 empowers the executive to make leave the national territory, immediately and without the need for a prior trial, any foreigner whose permanence it deems inconvenient. But it grants foreigners the same guarantees as nationals, which is why they are protected by the provisions of Article 4; the equality of men and women, and Article 1 prohibits any discrimination based on ethnic or national origin, gender, age, disabilities, social status, health conditions, religion, opinions, preferences, civil status or any other that violates human dignity and aims to nullify or impair the rights and freedoms of people.
It is important to include that Constitutional Art. 133 indicates that international treaties signed by the president and ratified by the Senate will be the supreme law of the entire union. For this reason, it should be remembered that Mexico is part of various international treaties that protect different protective rights of migrants, such as the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights, which in its article 22 establishes the rights of movement and residence, stipulating among others the right to freely leave any country, including one's own, may only be restricted by-laws to protect national security, public order or security, public morals or health, or the rights and freedoms of others. Mexico is part of the United Nations Convention on Migrant Workers, which broadly stipulates their rights and the corpus juris for the protection of the rights of women and girls.
Immigration in Mexico has not had an overwhelming impact on the total population compared to other countries, but there has been a considerable increase in the foreign population since Mexico was consolidated as an independent nation. Due to the geographical position of Mexico and due to social, economic, climatological, cultural, and transit reasons, foreigners have stayed throughout the territory. Historically, the country has not sought mass immigration but has been the focus of attraction for more selective immigration to which is added an old tradition of political asylum due to religious or ideological persecution, for which reason intellectuals, scientists, and artists reside in Mexico come from other nations and who have contributed in various scientific and artistic fields.
According to the 2020 National Census, there are 1,212,252 foreign-born people registered with the government as living in Mexico. Around 70% of foreigners living in Mexico come from neighboring countries (the United States and Guatemala), other important communities come mainly from Spanish-speaking nations, of which the Venezuelan, Colombian, Honduran, Cuban, Spanish, Salvadorian, and Argentinian communities stand out, the rest of immigration comes from other non-Hispanic nations.
History.
Colonial era, 1521-1821.
Mesoamerica, that is Central and southern Mexico, already had a large indigenous population at European contact in the early sixteenth century, which shaped migration patterns to the colony of New Spain. The Spanish crown restricted immigration to its overseas possessions to Catholics with "pure" ancestry, ("limpieza de sangre"), that is, without the taint of Jewish or Muslim ancestors. Prospective immigrants had to obtain a license from the House of Trade in Seville, Spain, attesting to their religious status and ancestry. So-called New Christians, that is Jewish converts to Catholicism, were forbidden from immigrating for fear they had falsely claimed conversion and were in fact crypto-Jews passing as Christians. During the period when Spain and Portugal had the same monarch (1580-1640), many Portuguese merchants immigrated to Mexico. Religious authorities suspected they were crypto-Jews. The Mexican Inquisition was established in 1571 and arrested, tried, and then turned those convicted over to civil authorities for corporal, sometimes capital, punishment in autos de fe.
Early Spanish immigrants to Mexico included men who became crown or ecclesiastical officials, those with connections to the privileged group of conquerors who had access to indigenous labor and tribute via the encomienda, but also Spaniards who saw economic opportunity in Mexico. Not all Spaniards were of noble heritage (hidalgos); many were merchants and miners, as well as artisans of various types. Spanish women immigrated from the conquest era onward, most usually because they joined family members who had already immigrated. Their presence helped consolidate the Spanish colony. Spaniards founded cities, sometimes on the sites of indigenous cities, the most prominent being Mexico City founded on the ruins of Aztec Tenochtitlan. Spaniards preferred living in cities and with so many immigrant artisans present from an early period, Spanish material culture was replicated in Mexico by tailors, leatherworkers, bakers, makers of weapons, construction workers, booksellers, and medical specialists (barber-surgeons). In 1550, of the 8,000 Spanish immigrants in Mexico City, around ten percent were artisans. Some large-scale overseas traders based in Spain also had family members in charge of a business in Mexico itself. A few particular towns in Spain sent immigrants to particular towns in Mexico, a notable example being Brihuega, Spain and Puebla, Mexico's second-largest town, both of which were textile-producing towns.
African slaves were brought as auxiliaries to Spanish conquerors and settlers from the Spanish conquest onward, but as enslaved persons, they different from European voluntary immigration. Because Mexico had such a dense indigenous population, Spaniards imported fewer African slaves than they did the Caribbean, where sugar cultivation necessitated a large labor force and indigenous laborers were absent.
Although most European immigrants were from various regions of Spain, there were Europeans with other origins including Italians, Flemish (most prominently Pedro de Gante), Greeks, French, and a few Irish (including William Lamport). Except for the Portuguese, many of these other Europeans assimilated into larger Hispanic society. Seventeenth-century English Dominican friar Thomas Gage spent a few years in central Mexico and Guatemala and wrote a colorful memoir of his time there, but he returned to England and renounced Catholicism. Asians arrived in Mexico via the Manila Galleon and the Pacific coast port of Acapulco. Filipinos, Chinese, and Japanese were part of this first wave, many of them enslaved. The most famous of them was Catarina de San Juan, "la china poblana," (Asian woman of Puebla), a slave woman who might have been of Mughal origin.
Post-independence, 1821-1920.
Even after Mexico achieved independence from Spain in 1821, it continued to exclude non-Catholics from immigrating until the liberal Reform. After the fall of the monarchy of Agustín de Iturbide in 1823, the newly established federal republic promulgated a new law regarding immigration, the General Colonization Law. The Spanish crown's controls over foreigners doing business in Mexico were no longer in place, and some British businessmen took an interest in silver mining in northern Mexico. The Mexican government sought to populate areas of the north as a buffer against indigenous attacks. The Mexican government gave a license to Stephen F. Austin to colonize areas in Texas, with the proviso that they be or become Catholics and learn Spanish, largely honored in the breach as more and more settlers arrived. Most settlers were from the slave-holding areas of the southern U.S. and brought their slaves with them to cultivate the rich soil of east Texas. The experiment in colonization in Texas went disastrously wrong for Mexico, with Anglo-Texans and some Mexican Texians rebelling against Mexico's central government and gaining defacto independence in 1836. However, Mexicans of various ideological stripes called for attracting immigrants to Mexico in the nineteenth century.
In the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War (1861-1865), a number of Southerners from the failed Confederate States of America moved to Mexico. Another group migrating to Mexico were Mormons, who sought religious freedom to practice polygamy, and founded colonies in northern Mexico. Many Mormons left Mexico at the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution.
During the late nineteenth century when Mexican President Porfirio Díaz (r.1876-1800, 1884-1911) pursued a policy of modernization and development, many from the U.S. settled in Mexico, pursuing roles as financiers, industrialists, investors, and agri-business investors, and farmers. Some did assimilate culturally, learning Spanish and sometimes marrying into elite Mexican families, but many others kept a separate identity and U.S. citizenship. British, French, and German immigrants also became distinct immigrant groups during the Porfiriato.
Mass Chinese immigration to Mexico began in the 1876, following mass single-male migrations to Cuba and to Peru where they worked as field laborers coolies. Chinese men immigrated mainly to northern Mexico, and the flow of migration increased following the passage of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act in the U.S. Some then entered the U.S. illegally, but many more stayed in the borderlands area on the Mexican side, where they entered commerce as entrepreneurs of small-scale businesses, creating dry-goods stores and laundries in mining and agricultural towns, as well as small-scale manufacturing and truck farming. They came to monopolize the small-business sector. Chinese merchant houses were established in Pacific coast ports, such as Guaymas, hiring their country-men. There was significant anti-Chinese feeling in northern Mexico, which intensified during the Mexican Revolution. They were expelled from Sonora in the 1930s and their businesses nationalized.
Immigration policy.
With the Mexican government's intent to control migration flows and attract foreigners who can contribute to economic development, the new migration law simplifies foreigners’ entrance and residency requirements. It replaces the two large immigration categories of immigrant and nonimmigrant with the categories of “visitor” and “temporary resident”, while keeping the status of “permanent resident”. In the General Law of Population, the two categories incorporate over 30 different types of foreigners, i.e., distinguished visitor, religious minister, etc., each with its own stipulations and requirements to qualify for entry and remain in the country. Under the new law the requirements are simplified, basically differentiating those foreigners who are allowed to work and those who are not. The law also expedites the permanent resident application process for retirees and other foreigners. For granting permanent residency, the law proposes using a point system based on factors such as level of education, employment experience, and scientific and technological knowledge.
According to Article 81 of the Law and Article 70 of the regulations to the law, published on 28 September 2012, immigration officials are the only ones that can conduct immigration procedures, although the Federal Police may assist, but only under the request and guidance of the Institute of Migration. Verification procedures cannot be conducted in migrant shelters run by civil society organizations or by individuals that engage in providing humanitarian assistance to immigrants.
Undocumented immigration has been a problem for Mexico, especially since the 1970s. Although the number of deportations is declining with 61,034 registered cases in 2011, the Mexican government documented over 200,000 unauthorized border crossings in 2004 and 2005. In 2011, 93% of undocumented immigrants in Mexico came from three countries -Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador- however, there is an increasing number of immigrants from Asia and Africa.
History of immigration policy.
Overview of Mexican immigration policy in regards to ethnicity or nationality:
Temporary Migrant Regularization Program.
The "Programa Temporal de Regularización Migratoria" (PTRM) published on 12 January 2015 in the Diario Oficial de la Federación, is directed at those foreigners who have made their permanent residence in Mexico but due to 'diverse circumstances' did not regularize their stay in the country and find themselves turning to 'third parties' to perform various procedures, including finding employment.
The program is aimed at foreign nationals who entered the country before 9 November 2012. Approved foreigners received through the PTRM the status of 'temporary resident', document valid for four years, and are eligible afterwards for permanent residency. The temporary program ran from 13 January to 18 December 2015.
In accordance with the provisions of Articles: 1, 2, 10, 18, 77, 126 and 133 of the "Ley de Migración"; 1 and 143 of the "Reglamento de la Ley de Migración", any foreign national wishing to regularize their immigration status within Mexican territory, under the PTRM will complete the payment of fees for the following:
I. Proof of payment for receiving and examining the application of the procedure... ... MXN 1124.00 (USD 77.14 as of 12 January 2015)
II. For the issuance of the certificate giving them the status of temporary stay for four years ... MXN 7914.00 (US$514.17)
Through Article 16 of the "Ley Federal de Derechos", foreign national are exempt them from payment if it can be proven that they earn a wage at or below minimum wage. During the period that the PTRM is in effect, no fine is applied (as is the practice otherwise).
The PTRM was reenacted on 11 October 2016; eligibility was extended to undocumented migrants that entered the country before 9 January 2015. Migrants are assured that they will not be detained nor deported when inquiring for information or submitting their application at an INM office. Identification and proof of residency/entry date (such as bus or airplane tickets, utility bills, school records or expired visas) should be presented. If these proofs can not be provided, the legal testimony of two Mexicans/resident foreigners may also be accepted. The program runs until 19 December 2017.
Public opinion.
The 2019 survey found that 58% of Mexican respondents oppose immigration from Central America.
Demography.
Most foreigners in Mexico counted in the Census come from the United States or other Hispanophone countries, with smaller numbers from Europe, East Asia, and the non-Hispanophone Americas. Their numbers have been rising as the country's economy develops, and now makeup about 1% of the population.
By Region.
Source: INEGI Census INE
Immigrant groups in Mexico.
Immigrants arrive in Mexico for many reasons, most of the documented immigrants have arrived for economic and/or work-related reasons. Many, such as executives, professionals, scientists, artists, or athletes working for either Mexican or foreign companies, arrive with secure jobs. Retirement is the main motivation for immigrants who tend to be more permanent. Aside from dual national descendants of Mexicans, naturalized Mexicans, or the undocumented, 262,672 foreign residents live on its soil. The majority of its foreign residents are from the U.S. followed by Spain and Guatemala.
North American.
American.
The largest number of Americans outside the United States live in Mexico. According to Mexico 2010 Census, there are 738,103 Americans living in the Mexican Republic, while the US Embassy in Mexico City has at times given an estimate closer to 1 million (the disparity is due to non-permanent residents, notably the "snowbirds"). Mostly, people who come from the USA are students, retirees, religious workers (missionaries, pastors, etc.), Mexican-Americans, and spouses of Mexican citizens. A few are professors who come employed by Mexican companies to teach English, other English teachers, and corporate employees and executives.
While significant numbers live in Mexico year round, it is probable that a majority of these residents do not stay the whole year. Retirees may live half a year in the U.S. to keep retiree benefits. Those called "snowbirds" come in autumn and leave in spring. The American community in Mexico is found throughout the country, but there are significant concentrations of U.S. citizens in all the north of Mexico, especially in Tijuana, Mexicali, Los Cabos, San Carlos, Mazatlán, Saltillo, Monterrey and Nuevo Laredo, and also in the central parts of the country such as San Miguel de Allende, Ajijic, Chapala, Mexico City and Cuernavaca, and along the Pacific coast, most especially in the greater Puerto Vallarta area. In the past few years, a growing American community has developed in Mérida, Yucatán.
Central American.
The largest recent immigrant flows to Mexico are from Central America, with a total of 66,868 immigrants from Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua living in Mexico in 2010. As a result of the Guatemalan Civil War and Salvadoran Civil War, Mexico received a significant population of refugees from those countries.
Recently, Mexico has also become a transit route for Central Americans and others (from the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe) into the United States. 2014 was the first year since records began when more non-Mexicans than Mexicans were apprehended trying to enter the United States illegally through the U.S.-Mexico border. Non-Mexicans (vast majority of whom are Central American) were up from about 68,000 in 2007 to 257,000 in 2014; Mexicans dropped from 809,000 to 229,000 during the same period.
In 2014, Mexico began to more heavily crackdown on these transient migrants. According to Mexican officials, the "Plan Frontera Sur" (Southern Border Plan) is designed to retake control of the historically porous southern border and protect migrants from transnational crime groups. However, the measures have been widely attributed to pressure from the United States, who does not want a repeat of 2014, when a surge of tens of thousands of women and children clogged up American immigration courts and resulted in a severe lack of space in detention centers at the US-Mexico border. More than 45,000 migrants from Central America were deported from Mexico between January and April 2019. In January 2020, Mexico detained 800 migrants who entered it illegally from Guatemala to reach the United States as part of the strict measures taken by the Mexican authorities to reduce migration to the United States through Mexico.
Cuban.
Cuban immigration to Mexico has been on the rise in recent years. A large number of them use Mexico as a route to the U.S., and Mexico has been deporting a large number of Cubans who attempt to. About 63,000 Cubans live in Mexico The number of registered Cuban residents increased 560% between 2010 and 2016, from 4,033 to 22,604 individuals. During the same period, there was a 710% increase in the Cuban presence in Quintana Roo; a fourth of the population (5,569 individuals) live in that state.
South American.
Colombian.
It is estimated that a total of 73,000 Colombians reside in Mexico. It was not until the 1970s when the presence of Colombians increased under the protection of political asylum as refugees by the Mexican government because of the Colombian guerrilla problems fleeing from their country during the 80s and many of them were protected and kept anonymous to avoid persecution.
Argentines.
Argentine immigration to Mexico started in small waves during the 1970s, when they started escaping dictatorship and war in Argentina.
Currently, the Argentine community is one of the largest in Mexico, with about 13,000 documented residents living in Mexico. However, extra-official estimates range the number from 40,000 to 150,000
In Quintana Roo, the number of Argentines doubled between 2011 and 2015, and now make a total of 10,000, making up the largest number of foreigners in the state
With two main emigrant waves; during the 1970s Dirty War and after the 2001 economic crisis. The largest Argentine community is in Mexico City (with a sizeable congregation in the Condesa neighborhood) and there are smaller communities in Leon, Guadalajara, Puebla, Cancun, Playa del Carmen, Tulum, Mérida, Monterrey and Tampico. Most Argentines established in Mexico come from the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba and Tucuman. The Argentine community has participated in the opening of establishments such as restaurants, bars, boutiques, modeling consultants, foreign exchange interbank markets, among other lines of business.
Venezuela.
The most recent influx of immigrants has resulted from the Bolivarian diaspora, a diaspora occurring due to the adverse effects of the Hugo Chávez and his Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela. Compared to the 2000 Census, there has been an increase from the 2,823 Venezuelan Mexicans in 2000 to 10,063 in 2010, a 357% increase of Venezuelan-born individuals living in Mexico.
Mexico granted 975 Venezuelans permanent identification cards in the first 5 months of 2014 alone, a number that doubled that of Venezuelans granted ID cards altogether in 2013 and a number that would have represented 35% of all Venezuelan Mexicans in Mexico in the year 2000.
During June 2016, Venezuelans surpassed Americans (historically, first) for number of new work visas granted. The 1,183 visas granted in June were a 20% increase from the 981 granted in May. The main destinations are Mexico City, Nuevo León and Tabasco (due to the state's petroleum industry).
European.
Although Mexico never received massive European immigration after its independence, over 1 million Europeans immigrated to Spanish America during the colonial period, which relative to the population of the time, could be said to have been massive European immigration. Although they were in their majority from Spain, other Europeans immigrated illegally. They migrated to Mexico and Peru. They were called "inmigrantes clandestinos", of which 100,000 were Spanish.
Towards the end of the Porfiriato, there were an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 foreigners in the country. The three largest groups were the Spanish, Americans and Chinese.
From 1911 to 1931, 226,000 immigrants arrived in Mexico, the majority of which were from Europe.
British.
There are many Mexicans of English, Welsh and Scottish descent. According to Mexico's Migration Institute in 2009 there were 3,761 British expatriates living in Mexico.
Cornish culture still survives in local architecture and food in the state of Hidalgo. The Scottish and Welsh have also made their mark in Mexico, especially in the states of Hidalgo, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Veracruz. British immigrants formed the first football teams in Mexico in the late 19th century. Northern Spaniards of "Celtic" ancestry like the Asturians, Galicians, and Cantabrians, have also left an imprint in Mexican culture and their languages formed many distinct accents in various regions in Mexico, especially in the central and northern states.
French.
Mexico received immigration from France in waves in the 19th and 20th centuries. According to the 2010 census, there were 7,163 French nationals living in Mexico. According to the French consulate general, there are 30,000 French citizens in Mexico as of 2015.
The French language is often taught and studied in secondary public education and in universities throughout the country. French may also be heard occasionally in the state of Veracruz in the cities of Jicaltepec, San Rafael, Mentideros, and Los Altos, where the architecture and food is also very French. These immigrants came from Haute-Saône département in France, especially from Champlitte and Bourgogne.
Another French group were the "Barcelonettes" from the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence département, who migrated specifically to Mexico to find jobs and work in merchandising and are well known in Mexico City, Puebla, Veracruz and Yucatán.
An important French village in Mexico is Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur, where the French culture/architecture are still found. Other French cultural traits are in a number of regional cultures such as the states of Jalisco and Sinaloa.
The national folk music "mariachi" is thought to have been named after the French word for "marriage" when the music developed in wedding parties held by French landowning families. It is the legacy of settlers brought in during the Napoleonic-era French occupation is found in Guadalajara, Jalisco. The Second Mexican Empire, created another trend of refuge for French settlers.
For the Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico from the Habsburg dynasty brought with him French, Austrian, Italian and Belgian troops, and after the fall of the Second Empire, most scattered through the area of the Empire. The descendants of these soldiers can be found in the state of Jalisco in the region called Los Altos de Jalisco and in many towns around this region and in Michoacán in cities like Coalcomán, Aguililla, Zamora, and Cotija.
These refugees intermixed with the Austrians, Galicians, Basques, Cantabrians, Italians, and Mexicans in those areas of Michoacán and Jalisco, as well as neighboring states.
During World War II, tens of thousands of French expatriates from Mexico participated in the Free French Forces and the French Resistance, including Mexican-born Lieutenant Rene Luis Campeon of French parentage, was thought to be the first in command to enter Paris during the Liberation of Paris from the retreating Nazis in August 1944.
Other Francophone peoples include those from Belgium such as the Walloons and Franco-Swiss from Switzerland. The Belgians, started by the veteran Ch. Loomans, tried to establish a Belgian colony in the state of Chihuahua called Nueva Bélgica, and hundreds of Belgian settlers established it, but many moved to the capital of the state and other towns around the area, where the Walloon and French could be heard.
The Occitan language can be heard in the state of Guanajuato, it is also known as "Langue d'oc" is a language originally spoken in Southern France. Also to note is the city Guanajuato has a sizable French expatriate community.
German.
The Plautdietsch language, is spoken by descendants of German and Dutch Mennonite immigrants in the states of Chihuahua and Durango. Other German communities are in Nuevo León, Puebla, Mexico City, Sinaloa and Chiapas, and the Yucatán Peninsula. The largest German school outside of Germany is in Mexico City (Alexander von Humboldt school). These represent the large German populations where they still try to preserve the German culture (evident in its popular regional polka-like music types, "conjunto" and "norteño") and language. Other strong German communities lie in Coahuila and Zacatecas (notably the Mennonites), Chiapas (Tapachula) and other parts of Nuevo León (esp. the Monterrey area has a large German minority), Tamaulipas (the Rio Grande Valley in connections to German American culture and Mexican American or "Tejano" influences), Puebla (Nuevo Necaxa) where the German culture and language have been preserved to different extents. According to the 2010 census, there were 6,214 Germans living in Mexico. As of 2012, about 20,000 Germans reside in Mexico.
Of special interest is the settlement Villa Carlota: that was the name under which two German farming settlements, in the villages of Santa Elena and Pustunich in Yucatán, were founded during the Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867). Villa Carlota attracted a total of 443 German-speaking immigrants, most of them were farmers and artisans who emigrated with their families: the majority came from Prussia and many among them were Protestants. Although in general these immigrants were well received by the hosting society, and the Imperial government honored to the extent of its capabilities the contract it offered to these farmers, the colonies collapsed in 1867. After the disintegration of Villa Carlota as such, some families migrated to other parts of the peninsular, into the United States and back to Germany. Many stayed in Yucatán, where there are descendants of these pioneers with last names such as Worbis, Dietrich and Sols, among others.
Included in the ethnic German immigration to Mexico are from Austria, Switzerland and the French region of Alsace which was part of France since the end of WWI, as well those from Bavaria and High German regions of Germany. . There are about 2,000,000 Mexicans with some partial German ancestry, without counting the ones with total German ancestry, making Mexico 3rd country with the largest German community in Latin America, behind Brazil and Argentina.
Irish.
There is also an Irish-Mexican population in Hidalgo and the northern states. According to INM, in 2009 there were 289 Irish expatriates living in Mexico.
Many Mexican Irish communities existed in Mexican Texas until the revolution. Many Irish then sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-US elements. The Batallón de San Patricio, a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the Mexican Army against the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48). In some cases, Irish immigrants or Americans left from California (the Irish Confederate army of Fort Yuma, Arizona during the U.S. Civil War (1861–65). Álvaro Obregón (O'Brien) was president of Mexico during 1920-24 and Ciudad Obregón and its airport are named in his honor. Actor Anthony Quinn is another famous Mexican of Irish descent. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 19th century.
Italian.
There has not been a huge influx of Italians to Mexico, as there has been to other countries in America such as Argentina, Brazil, and the United States. However, there was an important number of arrivals from northern Italy and Veneto in the late 19th century who are today well assimilated in Mexican society. The exact number of Italian descendants is not known, but it is estimated that there around 85,000 Italian Mexicans in the eight original communities. As of 2012, 20,000 Italians reside in Mexico
Russian.
According to INM in 2009 1,396 Russians are living documented in Mexico. According to the Russian embassy, 25,000 reside in Mexico.
Most left Russia during its communist regime (Soviet Union), taking advantage of the Mexican law allowing migrants from communist countries refuge if they touch Mexican soil, and the ability to become legal residents of Mexico. The Spiritual Christian "Pryguny" were a small early 20th century immigrant group to Valle de Guadalupe, Baja California.
Spanish.
Spaniards make up the largest group of Europeans in Mexico. Most of them arrived during the colonial period but others have since then immigrated, especially during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) and the Francisco Franco regime (1939–75).
The first Spaniards who arrived in Mexico, were soldiers and sailors of Extremadura, Andalusia and La Mancha who sailed around the Yucatán Peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and then made landfall leading to the development of New Spain. Among the soldiers sent by the Spanish crown to the colonial territory were Muslims converts from Córdoba and Granada. At the end of the 16th century, both common and aristocrat people migrated to Mexico and disseminated by its territory.
Most recent immigrants came during the Spanish Civil War. Some of the migrants returned to Spain after the civil war, but some of them remained in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 18,873 Spaniards living in Mexico.
Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities. For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.
The article on Basque Mexicans covers the large segment of Spaniards and some French immigrants of the Basque ethnic group.
Other European.
Small waves of immigrants from Poland, Ukraine and other Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania etc.), arrived during the Cold War.
Fewer immigrants came from Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Cyprus, Greece (See Greek Mexican), Albania, Croatia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Montenegro, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, Slovenia, North Macedonia, Malta, Portugal and Cape Verde.
Asian.
Mexico has seen immigration from different parts of Asia throughout its history. The first known Asians arrived during the Colonial era as slaves, labourers and adventurers from the Philippines, southern China and India. Smaller numbers of immigrants came from Korea, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Cambodia, Japan and the Malay peninsula. This group of immigrants were collectively described as "Chino" meaning Chinese despite coming from many diverse origins. During the early 20th century, a significant number of Asians, primarily Chinese and Korean, were imported as labourers. These immigrants were known as "Henequen" and "Chinetescos" and were heavily concentrated in agricultural plantations in the Pacific states (e.g. Sinaloa) and the Yucatán Peninsula.
Korean.
A more recent wave (late 20th and early 21st century) of Korean immigrants have arrived as merchants and skilled labourers. Modern immigrants can be found in large cities (especially Mexico City and Monterrey), while Korean descendants are most numerous in the coastal regions like Baja California, Sonora, Guerrero, Veracruz, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. According to INM, in 2009 there were 5,518 South Koreans and 481 North Koreans living in México There are an estimated 40,000 descendants of Korean henequen workers.
Chinese.
The story of Chinese immigration to Mexico extends from the late 19th century to the 1930s. By the 1920s, there was a significant population of Chinese nationals, with Mexican wives and Chinese-Mexican children. Most of these were deported in the 1930s to the United States and China with a number being repatriated in the late 1930s and in 1960. Smaller groups returned from the 1930s to the 1980s. The two main Chinese-Mexican communities are in Mexicali and Mexico City but few are of pure Chinese blood.
The city of Mexicali in Baja California has the largest Chinese population in Mexico and the largest Chinatown called "La Chinesca". The culture and language from the mainly Cantonese and Mandarin-speaking peoples are evident in the food, architecture, and everyday life in Mexico City. The Chinese entered the nation in the 19th century to build railroads, and many xenophobic acts were taken against them because Mexico preferred European immigrants.
According to the 2010 Census there are 6,655 Chinese immigrants living in Mexico.
Japanese.
The Japanese community is also important in Mexico, and they reside mainly in Mexico City, Morelia, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, Guadalajara, and Aguascalientes, and the immigrant colony in the state of Chiapas known as Colonia Enomoto. The Japanese language is important in their cultural life in Mexico and many institutions for nikkei exist and those wishing to learn the language and their ways of life can attend these lyceums. According to INM, in 2009 there were 4,485 Japanese immigrants residing in Mexico.
Southeast & South Asian.
Other Asian communities in Mexico are Indians and Pakistanis followed by Filipinos from the Philippines when the country was under Spanish colonial (1540s-1898) and U.S. American territorial rule (1899–1946). These ethnic groups arrived in the northern states of Mexico as contract farm laborers in the 20th century. And a small Vietnamese community that has close connections with the Vietnamese American community in the United States. The majority of Asian Mexicans live in urban areas or along the US-Mexican border.
There are approximately 200,000 (0.2%) Mexican people who can partly claim Filipino ancestry stemming from colonial times. The Philippines had a connection to Mexico through Spain, as it was administrated from New Spain for over 300 years. According to INM, in 2009 there were 823 immigrants from the Philippines residing in Mexico.
Middle Eastern.
Arab.
Ethnologue reports that 400,000 Mexicans speak Arabic.
The Arab Mexican population consists of Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians, whose families arrived in Mexico after the fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The majority of them are Christian but some are Muslims.
Business tycoon and billionaire Carlos Slim Helú is the best-known Mexican of this immigrant group, as he is currently ranked by Forbes as one of the richest people in the world. His parents, Maronite Christians, immigrated to Mexico from Lebanon.
Other Middle Eastern.
Other members of the Middle Eastern community in Mexico include Armenians.


Chesterfield, Idaho

Chesterfield is a ghost town in Caribou County, Idaho, United States. It is located in Gem Valley at an elevation of . The community includes a cemetery and former buildings of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) such as a former meeting house, amusement hall and tithing house.
Located along a route of the Oregon Trail, Chesterfield was founded by Mormon settlers in 1881. After a railroad line was built through Bancroft to the south, the community lost some of its momentum, and agricultural difficulties led to its desertion by the end of the 1930s. Today, the community is operated as a tourist attraction, with guided tours and a museum.
In 1980, the community was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district and is also on the Mormon Historic Sites Foundation's Mormon Historic Sites Registry. The historic district includes 41 buildings and eight sites, spread out over an area of . Some buildings in the district are examples of the Greek Revival and Queen Anne architectural styles.
History.
In 1879, Chester Call and his niece's husband, Christian Nelson, established a horse ranch in the area. Thinking this might be a good area in which to live, Chester Call told his family and friends about the area and they decided to come and settle in 1881 and 1882. Chesterfield's first settlers built their homes in the river bottom of the Portneuf River, west of present-day Chesterfield. Unlike typical Mormon settlements, which were founded by settlers sent by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (hereafter referred to as LDS) authorities, the community was founded spontaneously by its first settlers and not set up in the typical compact, grid patterned townsite. Also in 1881, the Union Pacific Railroad started to construct the Oregon Short Line Railroad to the south of Chesterfield, running through present-day Bancroft. The new settlers sold logs and railroad ties to the railroad, raising much needed cash.
In 1883, LDS Church authorities visited the area to establish a branch. While there, the visiting leaders asked their members to organize into a central village, away from the Portneuf River flood plain. The current Chesterfield townsite was chosen up along the foothills. As in traditional Mormon towns, Chesterfield was laid out in a grid pattern, consisting of thirty-five ten-acre blocks. By 1890, the LDS meetinghouse and a store were the only buildings on the townsite as a mistake in the government survey kept the land off the market for a time.
The LDS Chesterfield Ward was established in 1884 consisting of 136 people in 24 families. By 1900, the population had steadily grown to 73 families containing 418 people in the Chesterfield Ward and 150 people in the recently split off Hatch Ward. Between the years of 1898 and 1900, the area suffered through very cold winters and a drought. This caused a considerable exodus to occur in 1901. The 1907 Panic, and another bad winter, caused another exodus. By 1908, fewer than 400 people were left in the area and only 208 people in the Chesterfield Ward. The population then steadily grew with a peak of just under 700 people in the Chesterfield area by 1920. The series of recessions in the 1920s and nationwide agricultural problems started the death knell for Chesterfield. Just over 425 people were left in the area by 1928, and the buildings of the Chesterfield town site were mostly deserted before 1941 when the school closed. The general store closed in 1958. By 1970, less than 200 people lived in the area and only 20 people lived in historic Chesterfield.
Historical buildings.
The LDS Meetinghouse is the most prominent and best preserved building in Chesterfield. It was built between 1887 and 1892.
The original Amusement Hall was erected in 1895, next door to the LDS Meetinghouse. The building was the center for social activities for Chesterfield. It consisted of a large room with a hardwood dance floor and a stage. Over time, the building was reduced to ruins. The Amusement Hall was restored between 1999 and 2003.
LDS members pay tithing to the Church. Few members could pay cash around 1900, so grains, vegetables, eggs and farm animals were instead paid "in kind". The Tithing Office and the Tithing Granary were constructed in 1900. Grain donations were stored in the Tithing Granary. The Tithing Office was where members came to pay their tithing and the goods were dispensed to those in need; the facility acted as a sort of a warehouse and general store.
The Nathan Barlow House, built about 1900, was the home of the postmaster and owner of the general store. After the Panic of 1907 and the harsh winter of 1907-1908, Nathan Barlow lost all of his money and moved out of the community. The home was restored in 2009, with descendants of Nathan Barlow contributing the furnishings.
The Ira Call cabin is a saltbox style home. It contained two polygamous families for a short time.
Aunt Ruth Call David's cabin built of red pine logs with a dirt floor in 1881 and 1882. Aunt Ruth was a Native American who was adopted by Chester Call's parents in the 1860s. As the town's midwife, she delivered most of the babies.


List of people from British Columbia

This is a list of notable people who are from British Columbia, Canada, or have spent a large part or formative part of their career in that province.
Premiers.
"See List of premiers of British Columbia."


Ghost Site Mounds

Ghost Site Mounds (16 TE 18) is an archaeological site in Tensas Parish, Louisiana with an Early to Middle Coles Creek culture component (700–1200 CE) and a Late Coles Creek to Plaquemine culture component (1200 to 1541 CE).
Description.
The site has three surviving mounds and could have had as many as five. Mound A, the largest mound, is a in height and by platform mound. The mound has been used historically as a cemetery. Since 1990 considerable erosion has damaged the mound, after portions of it were removed to build a dam across a nearby bayou. The other two remaining mounds are small dome-shaped mounds less than tall and about by at their bases. Mound B was also partially removed for the dam project, but Mound C is still intact. Two other small rises still exist (Mound D and Mound E), but it is unclear if they were mounds or natural features.
Excavations.
Limited archaeological testing has been done at the site. Bone, shell, ceramics, and charcoal were found underneath Mounds A and B, and based on decorative elements on the pottery they are dated 700–1200 during the Early to Middle Coles Creek period. Other examples were found in Mounds B and C that have been dated to 1200 to 1541 during the Plaquemine period.
Location.
The site is located on La 4 east from its junction with La 128. It is on a bayou that flows into the Tensas River.


Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency

The presidency of Richard Nixon began on January 20, 1969 when Richard Nixon was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on August 9, 1974, when, in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office, he resigned the presidency (the first U.S. president ever to do so).


Legislative Council of Newfoundland

The Legislative Council of Newfoundland was the upper house of the General Assembly of Newfoundland from 1833 to 1934.
The Legislative Council was appointed by the Governor of Newfoundland, not elected. Bills were submitted by the House of Assembly to the Council, which could approve, reject or amend them; if amended, bills were returned to the House of Assembly for approval.
From 1842 to 1848, the elected House of Assembly and appointed Legislative Council sat together as a single Amalgamated Assembly. After 1848, the two legislative bodies again sat separately.
In 1854, the British Government granted a new constitution to Newfoundland establishing an Executive Council of not more than seven members of the majority party and a Legislative Council of not more than 15 members upon nomination of the ministry.
The Legislative Council of Newfoundland and the House of Assembly met for the last time in February 1934 to pass the legislation which provided for their suspensions. The Royal Commission which was established in 1933 concluded that Newfoundland's problems were self-made, as noted in the Amulree Report, and it was recommended that the legislature be suspended and be replaced by a Commission of Government appointed by the British Government.
When the Newfoundland House of Assembly was reinstituted following the admission of the colony into Canadian Confederation the Legislative Council was not brought back into existence. However, Term 14(2) of the Newfoundland Terms of Union allows for the province to re-establish the Legislative Council.


Oneida First Nation

The Oneida First Nation is an Oneida First Nation in southern Ontario, and a member of the Six Nations of the Grand River. Its reserves include the shared reserves of Glebe Farm 40B and the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation.


List of statues of Franklin D. Roosevelt


Henry L. Roosevelt

Henry Latrobe Roosevelt (October 5, 1879 – February 22, 1936) was an Assistant Secretary of the United States Navy and a member of the Roosevelt family.
Early life.
Roosevelt was born on October 5, 1879 in Morristown, New Jersey, to Lieutenant Nicholas Latrobe Roosevelt (1847–1892), USN, who had a naval career of distinction, and Eleanor (née Dean) Roosevelt (1852–1933).
He was a grandson of Nicholas Roosevelt (1767–1854), an inventor and land-owner.
He was a hereditary companion of the California Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in succession to his father. In 1896, he entered the United States Naval Academy graduated 1900.
Career.
On December 8, 1899, Roosevelt was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps and he rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel before retiring. During his career with the Marine Corps he was stationed in, among other places, Philadelphia, Panama, Cuba and Haiti.
In 1920, he retired from the Marine Corps, and then served as the European manager for the Radio Corporation of America from 1923 to 1928, overseeing the building of large radio stations in Ankara, Turkey, and Warsaw, Poland.
In 1933, he returned to the United States to head the Radio Real Estate Corporation, but was soon selected by Naval Secretary Claude A. Swanson for the post of Assistant Secretary of the Navy in the administration of his distant cousin, President Franklin Roosevelt. He served in the position from March 17, 1933 until his death on February 22, 1936. He became the fourth Roosevelt and fifth member of the Roosevelt family to occupy that office, after Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt (the current president at the time), Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and Theodore Douglas Robinson. Due to Swanson's poor health, Roosevelt was at times Acting Secretary. He made many tours of inspection and speeches, calling for the strengthening of the navy as a deterrent to war.
Personal life.
In 1902, he married Eleanor Morrow (1879–1958), daughter of William W. Morrow (1843–1929), a California Circuit Judge and member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 4th congressional district.
Roosevelt died on February 22, 1936 at Bethesda Naval Hospital of a heart attack following intestinal influenza. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.


Fort Martin Scott Treaty

The Fort Martin Scott Treaty of 1850 was an unratified treaty between the United States government and the Comanche, Caddo, Quapaw, Tawakoni, Lipan Apache, and Waco tribes in Texas. The treaty was signed in San Saba County, Texas, but named after the nearest military outpost, Fort Martin Scott in Gillespie County, on the outskirts of Fredericksburg.
Background.
The Fort Martin Scott Treaty was negotiated and signed on December 10, 1850 by Indian agent John Rollins, U. S. Army Captain Hamilton W. Merrill, Captain J.B. McGown of the Texas Mounted Volunteers (Texas Rangers), interpreters John Connor and Jesse Chisholm, as well as twelve Comanche chiefs, six Caddo chiefs, five Quapaw chiefs, four Tawakoni chiefs, four Lipan chiefs and four Waco chiefs.
Work on the contract was done primarily by Jesse Chisholm and John Connor, a Delaware chief, under the direction of Robert Neighbors and John Ford. John H. Rollins who had fallen ill with tuberculosis had to be carried in to the signing ceremony, and eventually succumbed to the disease in September 1851.
On December 25, 1850, General George M. Brooke sent a copy of the treaty to Texas Governor Peter Hansborough Bell, mentioning the treaty had not been approved by the government and was essentially binding only on the part of the Indian tribes.


Washington Naval Militia

The Washington Naval Militia is the currently inactive naval militia of the state of Washington. The Washington Naval Militia was organized as a naval reserve, serving as the naval parallel to the Washington National Guard.
History.
The Washington Naval Militia was commissioned on 9 January 1910. By that year, it reached a strength of 286 officers and enlisted men. was assigned as barracks ship for the Washington Naval Militia at Seattle until 15 June 1914 when it was reassigned to the Public Health Service.
In 1911, was assigned to the Washington Naval Militia, until its reassignment in 1913. In 1912, was assigned to the Washington Naval Militia, where it remained until 1917.
 served as a training ship for the Washington Naval Militia over the summer of 1914. On the first through the twenty-second of July 1914, the Washington Naval Militia sailed to Honolulu aboard during a training exercise.
Personnel.
Naval militias are partially regulated and equipped by the federal government, and therefore membership requirements are partially set according to federal standards. Under 10 U.S. Code § 7854, in order to be eligible for access to "vessels, material, armament, equipment, and other facilities of the Navy and the Marine Corps available to the Navy Reserve and the Marine Corps Reserve", at least 95% of members of the naval militia must also be members of the United States Navy Reserve or the United States Marine Corps Reserve.
Legal status.
Naval militias of individual U.S. states are recognized by the federal government of the United States under 10 U.S. Code §7851.


Cariboo Road

The Cariboo Road (also called the Cariboo Wagon Road, the Great North Road or the Queen's Highway) was a project initiated in 1860 by the Governor of the Colony of British Columbia, James Douglas. It involved a feat of engineering stretching from Fort Yale to Barkerville, B.C. through extremely hazardous canyon territory in the interior of British Columbia.
Between the 1860s and the 1880s the Cariboo Road existed in three versions as a surveyed and constructed wagon-road route. The first Cariboo Wagon Road surveyed in 1861 and built in 1862 followed the original Hudson's Bay Company's Harrison Trail (Port Douglas) route from Lillooet to Clinton, 70 Mile House, 100 Mile House, Lac La Hache, 150 Mile House to the contract end around Soda Creek and Alexandria at the doorstep of the Cariboo Gold Fields. The second Cariboo Wagon Road (or Yale Cariboo Road) operated during the period of the fast stage-coaches and freight-wagon companies headquartered in Yale: 1865 to 1885. From the water landing at Yale, the road ran north via the spectacular Fraser Canyon route over Hell's Gate and Jackass Mountain, connecting to the earlier Cariboo Road at Clinton. The third Cariboo Road was the revised route following the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885. The railway station at Ashcroft became the southern end of the wagon road. Much of the Fraser Canyon wagon road was destroyed by the railway construction as well as by washouts and by the Great Flood of 1894 (interest in rebuilding this portion of the road would not occur until the construction plans for the Fraser Canyon Highway for automobiles in the 1920s).
The road was a reaction to the high concentration of gold in the Cariboo region and the dangerous "mule trail", which was a rough-hewn cliff-side trail - wide enough only for one mule - that ran along the approximate route of the Cariboo Road. In order to lower supply-costs to the settlers in the Cariboo region, Douglas ordered the construction of a more viable and safe form of transportation to the gold-mining settlements. The colonial government employed locals as well as a detachment of the Royal Engineers ("sappers") who undertook amazing engineering feats, including the construction of toll bridges including the (original) Alexandra Suspension Bridge of 1863.
Building the road cost nearly one and a quarter million dollars, and left a standing debt of £112,780 after its completion, one of many infrastructure costs in servicing the Gold Colony that forced its amalgamation first with Vancouver Island (1866), and then with Canada (1871 confederation). The Cariboo Road saw the transportation of over six and a half million dollars' worth of gold. Originally Douglas wanted to stretch the road across the continental divide into Rupert's Land (modern day Alberta) but this plan was abandoned when Douglas retired in 1864.
The "Old" Cariboo Road.
The name Cariboo Road or Cariboo Trail is also informally applied to a toll road built by contractor Gustavus Blin-Wright in 1861–1862 from Lillooet to Williams Lake, Van Winkle and on to Williams Creek (Richfield, Barkerville). This route was known also as the Old Cariboo Road, when the Lakes Route from Port Douglas to Lillooet had not yet been superseded by the Fraser Canyon route of the Cariboo Wagon Road proper. The mile-house names (e.g. 100 Mile House), in the Cariboo are derived from measurements taken from the Mile '0' of this road, which is in the bend in the Main Street of Lillooet and commemorated there by a cairn erected in the 1958 Centennial Year. It was along this route that an attempt was made to use Bactrian camels purchased from the U.S. Camel Corps for freight (1862), and also a tractor-style Thomson Road Steamer known as a "road train", one of the earliest motorized vehicles.
Most foot traffic from Lillooet to the Cariboo however, went by the "River Trail", far below the wagon road, which departed the Fraser Canyon at Pavilion for the steep climb over Pavilion Mountain to Clinton, where it merged with the newer Cariboo Road via Yale and Ashcroft (once the latter route was completed, that is). The River Trail continued along the Fraser Canyon as far as Big Bar and various routes spread towards Quesnel and Barkerville from there.
Television.
The Cariboo Road was featured on the television historical series Gold Trails and Ghost Towns, season 2, episode 4.


Sumpter Valley Railway Passenger Station

Sumpter Valley Railway Passenger Station was the westernmost station on the Sumpter Valley Railway, which ran from Baker City to Prairie City in the U.S. state of Oregon. The line reached Prairie City in 1910 but was abandoned in 1933, and the station became a private dwelling. Since 1984, the renovated station has housed the collections of the DeWitt Museum, including railway artifacts from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
History.
Incorporated in 1890, the narrow gauge railway's initial purpose was to haul logs from forests near Baker City in Baker County to a sawmill in South Baker City. By 1891, the line had reached McEwen, to the west, and the railroad began offering passenger and freight service. To reach uncut forests further west, the company extended the line in stages. It reached Sumpter in 1896 and continued southwestward to Whitney, Tipton, Austin and Bates. By 1910, it arrived in Prairie City, a ranching and mining community on the John Day River in Grant County.
Ten years later, the railway began losing business to automobiles and trucks, and in 1933 the of track between Prairie City and Bates were abandoned. From then until 1973, the Prairie City Depot was used as a dwelling. Thereafter, the Sumpter Valley Depot Restoration Committee renovated the structure, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.
DeWitt Museum.
The City of Prairie City, assuming management of the building in 1984, used it to house the DeWitt Museum. Its collections include lanterns, lights, and other railway artifacts, and photographs of train wrecks and of life along the rail line. Other parts of the museum house a collection of rocks and minerals, family photo albums, and mining artifacts from Grant County at the turn of the 20th century.


Francis J. Weber

Monsignor Francis J. Weber (born January 22, 1933) is an American Roman Catholic priest, author and archivist. He is a noted Catholic scholar, an Honorary Chaplain to His Holiness, and archivist for the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
Monsignor Weber's many literary works include "Life and Times of Fray Junipero Serra" (1987) and "A Select Bibliography to California Catholic Literature, 1856-1974" (1974), which enumerates some 500 writings.


Jefferson (proposed Pacific state)

The State of Jefferson is a proposed U.S. state that would span the contiguous, mostly rural area of southern Oregon and northern California, where several attempts to separate from Oregon and California, respectively, have taken place.
This region on the Pacific Coast is the most famous of several that have sought to adopt the name of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States. Jefferson, who sent the Lewis and Clark expedition into the Pacific Northwest in 1803, envisioned the establishment of an independent nation in the western portion of North America that he dubbed the "Republic of the Pacific"; hence, the association of his name with regional autonomy. The independence movement, rather than statehood, is known as Cascadia.
This region encompasses most of Northern California's land but does not include San Francisco or other Bay Area counties that account for the majority of Northern California's population.
The name "Jefferson" has also been used for other proposed states: the name was proposed in the 19th century for Jefferson Territory (roughly modern Colorado), as well as in 1915 in a bill in the Texas Legislature for a proposed state that would be created from the Texas Panhandle region.
If the proposal were ever approved, the new state's capital city would have to be determined by a constitutional convention. Yreka, California, was named the provisional capital in the original 1941 proposal, although Port Orford, Oregon, had also been up for consideration. Some supporters of the more recent revival have also identified Redding, California, as a potential capital, even though Redding is not included in all versions of the proposal and its City Council voted in 2013 to reject participation in the movement.
20th century.
In October 1941, the Mayor of Port Orford, Oregon, Gilbert Gable, said that the Oregon counties of Curry, Josephine, Jackson, and Klamath should join with the California counties of Del Norte, Siskiyou, and Modoc to form a new state, later named Jefferson.
He was motivated by the belief that these heavily rural areas were underrepresented in state government, which tended to cater to more populous areas.
On November 27, 1941, a group of young men gained national media attention when, brandishing hunting rifles for dramatic effect, they stopped traffic on U.S. Route 99 south of Yreka, the county seat of Siskiyou County, and handed out copies of a Proclamation of Independence, stating that the State of Jefferson was in "patriotic rebellion against the States of California and Oregon" and would continue to "secede every Thursday until further notice."
The state split movement ended quickly, though not before Del Norte County District Attorney John Leon Childs (1863–1953) of Crescent City was inaugurated as the Governor of the State of Jefferson on December 4, 1941.
The first blow was the death of Mayor Gable on December 2, followed by the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7. Those in favor of splitting the state focused their efforts on the war effort, which crippled the movement.
"San Francisco Chronicle" journalist Stanton Delaplane won the 1942 Pulitzer Prize for Reporting for his articles on the State of Jefferson.
In 1989, KSOR, the National Public Radio member station based at Southern Oregon University in Ashland, near Medford, rebranded itself as Jefferson Public Radio. It had built a massive network of low-powered translators earlier in the 1980s. By the time KSOR began building full-power stations later in the decade, it realized that the combined footprint of its translator network was roughly coextensive with the original State of Jefferson. It thus felt "Jefferson Public Radio" was an appropriate name when it decided to rebrand itself as a network.
In 1992, California State Assemblyman Stan Statham placed an advisory vote in 31 counties asking if the state should be split into two. All of the proposed Jefferson counties voted in favor of the split (except Humboldt County which did not have the issue on the ballot). Based on these results, Statham introduced legislation in California in an attempt to split the state, but the bill died in committee.
In the late 1990s, the movement for statehood was promoted by a group called the State of Jefferson Citizens Committee, which was originally formed in 1941. Two of the members, Brian Helsaple and Brian Petersen, gathered an extensive collection, including both verbal and written accounts mostly surrounding the 1941 movement. They published a book, "Jefferson Saga," in 2000. This, along with revealing the lack of representation and over-regulations, fanned the flame.
21st century.
Jefferson is commemorated by the State of Jefferson Scenic Byway between Yreka and O'Brien, Oregon, which runs along State Route 96 and U.S. Forest Service Primary Route 48. Near the California – Oregon border, a turnout provides scenic views of the Klamath River valley and three informative display signs about the republic. The region retains this identity reinforced by institutions such as Jefferson Public Radio.
As of the 2010 Census, if the Jefferson counties were a state (original 1941 counties), the state's population would be 457,859: smaller than any state at the time. Approximately 82% of those residents live in Oregon. Its land area would be – a little smaller than West Virginia. The area was almost evenly divided between Oregon and California. Its population density would be – a little more than Idaho. With the addition of the more modern Jefferson movement (Coos and Douglas and Lake Counties in Oregon, and Humboldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Mendocino, Lake, Tehama, Plumas, Glenn, Butte, Colusa, Sierra, Sutter, Yuba, Nevada, Placer and El Dorado Counties in California), the population as of the 2010 Census would be 2,313,958, making it the 36th most populous state in the United States.
Counties intending to leave California.
On September 3, 2013, the Siskiyou County, California Board of Supervisors voted 4 to 1 in favor of withdrawal from California to form a proposed state named Jefferson. The proposal was joined by the Modoc County Board of Supervisors (September 24) and Glenn County Board of Supervisors (January 21, 2014). On April 15, 2014 Yuba County Supervisors joined the State of Jefferson movement to separate from California and create a new U.S. state. On July 15, 2014 the Tehama County Board of Supervisors voted unanimously to adopt a resolution supporting the declaration of withdrawal from California based on an advisory vote taken on June 6, 2014 where the public voted 56% to 44% in favor of splitting the state. On July 22, 2014 the Board of Supervisors of Sutter County unanimously adopted a resolution supporting a declaration and petition to the Legislature to withdraw from California to redress a lack of representation. On March 3, 2015, Lake County supervisors voted 3 to 2 to submit the question of secession to voters and on March 17, Lassen County supervisors made a similar declaration that also has the voters deciding in 2016. The Jefferson Declaration Committee is reportedly aiming to get at least 12 counties in support.
On October 24, 2014, Modoc and Siskiyou Counties delivered their declarations for independence from the state of California to the California Secretary of State's office. On January 15, 2015, three more counties, Glenn, Tehama, and Yuba, submitted their official declarations as well.
The 2013 revival was based almost entirely in California. It includes all major parts of California north of 39°. Although some individual residents in Oregon have lobbied for the movement, no county government in that state has endorsed the proposal to date. As of January 6, 2016, 21 northern California counties have sent a declaration or have approved to send a declaration to the State of California with their intent of leaving the state and forming the State of Jefferson. The population of the 21 California counties was 1,747,626 as of the 2010 U.S. Census, which would be 39th most populous state in the Union.
2016 presidential election.
After the 2016 presidential election, it was noted that most of the rural California counties which would belong to the State of Jefferson were won in a landslide by Republican nominee Donald Trump, whereas Democrat Hillary Clinton enjoyed an unprecedented level of support in the rest of California, indicating a growing demographic and political divide between the proposed State of Jefferson and the rest of California. While Clinton beat Trump by almost 80 points in San Francisco, he led her by more than 50 points in Lassen County. The election of Trump led to calls for a secession of California and a similar proposal in Oregon, where Clinton won the popular vote while Trump captured the majority of counties.
With the election of President Donald Trump, some who are considering joining the modern State of Jefferson or are observing the movement have stated that if California secedes, the movement's supporting counties could appeal directly to the United States Congress for statehood, similar to how West Virginia was formed, claiming California would be in insurrection and petitioning to rejoin the Union as an independent state.
On May 8, 2017, the State of Jefferson as "Citizens for Fair Representation" filed a lawsuit against the California Secretary of State Alex Padilla. The suit alleges that California's 1862 law limiting Senators to no more than 40, and Assembly Members to no more than 80, creates an unconstitutional imbalance of representation that precludes effective "self-governance" as protected by the 14th Amendment. The desired result of suing California, for lack of representation and dilution of vote, is better representation across all of California, and ultimately an independent State of Jefferson. The case was dismissed by the lower court and appealed to the Ninth Circuit.
Flag and seal.
The field of the flag is green, and the charge is the Seal of the State of Jefferson: a gold mining pan with the words "The Great Seal Of State Of Jefferson" engraved into the lip, and two Xs askew of each other.
The two Xs are known as the "Double Cross" and signify the two regions' "sense of abandonment" by the central state governments, in both Southern Oregon and Northern California.
The gold pan is on display at the Yreka California Siskiyou Museum.


Timeline of Vermilion County, Illinois history

This article is a timeline of Vermilion County, Illinois history.
References.
Unless otherwise cited, much of the information from the 19th century and first half of the 20th century is drawn from these works:


Henry J. B. Woods

Henry John Bacon Woods (October 20, 1842 – September 1, 1914) was a merchant and political figure in Newfoundland. He represented Bay de Verde from 1889 to 1894, from 1895 to 1897 and from 1900 to 1902.
He was born in St. John's, the son of John Woods and Anne Woods (Lang). His father, John Woods, was the owner of John Woods & Son where Henry started his career along with his brother Sidney. Henry married Hannah Louisa (Bemister) in 1870. Woods was unseated by petition in 1894 and was replaced by his brother Sidney in the assembly, then reelected in 1895. He was defeated when he ran for reelection in 1897. He served in the Executive Council as surveyor general from 1889 to 1894 and from 1895 to 1897 and as a minister without portfolio from 1900 to 1902. Woods resigned from the assembly in 1902 after he was named Postmaster General of Newfoundland and served until his death in St. John's at the age of 71.
His daughter Mabel was the mother of Harry Mews, a long-time mayor of St. John's.


In the Land of the Head Hunters

In the Land of the Head Hunters (also called In the Land of the War Canoes) is a 1914 silent film fictionalizing the world of the Kwakwaka'wakw peoples of the Queen Charlotte Strait region of the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada, written and directed by Edward S. Curtis and acted entirely by Kwakwaka'wakw native people.
The film was selected in 1999 for preservation in the US National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant." It was the first feature-length film whose cast was composed entirely of Native North Americans; the second, eight years later, was Robert Flaherty's "Nanook of the North". Most of the film was shot on the Deer Island near Fort Rupert, British Columbia. It was the first feature film made in British Columbia, and is the oldest surviving feature film made in Canada.
Original release.
Curtis had earlier experimented with multimedia. In 1911 he created a stage show with slides, a lecture, and live musical accompaniment, called "The Indian Picture Opera". He used stereopticon projectors, where two projectors dissolved back and forth between images. This was his prelude to entering the motion picture era.
The film opened in New York City and Seattle, Washington in December 1914, with live performances of a score by John J. Braham, had access to wax cylinder recordings of Kwakwaka'wakw music, and the promotional campaign at the time suggested that his score was based on these; in fact, there were few snatches of Kwakwaka'wakw music in the score. Curtis hoped the film would be successful enough to fund the completion of "The North American Indian", a multi-volume history of every indigenous tribe on the continent he had been working on since 1906. Although critically praised, the film was a commercial failure. Curtis spent approximately $75,000 to make the film, but it only earned $3,269.18 after a year in theaters. He was so disappointed with the film's financial performance that he sold all the rights to the film to the New York Museum of Natural History in 1919 or 1920. When the museum lost Curtis's donated material, the film was considered lost until 1947.
Salvaging the film and score.
A single damaged, incomplete print of the film was salvaged from a dumpster by film collector Hugo Zeiter of Danville Illinois and donated to Chicago's Field Museum of Natural History in 1947. Bill Holm and George Quimby obtained a 16mm copy in 1965 and completed a re-edited version of the film in 1974, having added a soundtrack by Kwakwaka'wakw musicians, and released the result as "In the Land of the War Canoes". Independently, some other damaged clips from the film made their way to the UCLA Film and Television Archive. The score had been filed at the library of the Getty Research Institute, but without a title that tied it to the film. The 2008 restoration brought together these materials. Milestone Films has announced plans to release a restored "One-Hundredth Anniversary" DVD of the film with the original score in 2014.
Documentary or melodrama?
"In the Land of the Head Hunters" has often been discussed as a flawed documentary film. The film combines many accurate representations of aspects of Kwakwaka'wakw culture, art, and technology from the era in which it was made with a melodramatic plot based on practices that either dated from long before the first contact of the Kwakwaka'wakw with people of European descent or were entirely fictional. Curtis appears never to have specifically presented the film as a documentary, but he also never specifically called it a work of fiction.
Some aspects of the film do have documentary accuracy: the artwork, the ceremonial dances, the clothing, the architecture of the buildings, and the construction of the dugout, or a war canoe reflected Kwakwaka'wakw culture. Other aspects of the film were based on the Kwakwaka'wakw's orally transmitted traditions or on aspects of other neighboring cultures. The film also accurately portrays Kwakwaka'wakw rituals that were, at the time, prohibited by Canada's potlatch prohibition, enacted in 1884 and not rescinded until 1951.
However, as is noted by the producers who supervised the centennial restoration of the film,
Plot.
The following plot synopsis was published in conjunction with a 1915 showing of the film at Carnegie Hall:


Kermit Roosevelt Jr.

Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (February 16, 1916 – June 8, 2000) was an American intelligence officer who served in the Office of Strategic Services during and following World War II. Roosevelt went on to establish American Friends of the Middle East and then played a lead role in the Central Intelligence Agency's efforts to overthrow Mohammad Mosaddegh, the Majlis-appointed leader of Iran, in August 1953.
Early life.
Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (called "Kim" as was standard for the alternating generations of Kermits in the Roosevelt family) was born to Kermit Roosevelt Sr. and Belle Wyatt Roosevelt (née Willard) in Buenos Aires in 1916, where Roosevelt Sr. was an official for a shipping line and then a manager of the Buenos Aires branch of the National City Bank. The Roosevelt family returned to the US, and Kim, his two brothers, Joseph Willard and Dirck, and his sister, Belle Wyatt, grew up in Oyster Bay, New York, a homestead near Sagamore Hill, the Long Island home of the Theodore Roosevelt clan.
Kim attended Groton School as a young man. He graduated from Harvard University in 1937, a year ahead of his class. After graduating from Harvard, Roosevelt taught history at Caltech.
Intelligence career.
OSS.
With the outbreak of World War II, Roosevelt joined the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the forerunner to the CIA. On June 4, 1943, when Kim was 27, his father, Kermit Sr., committed suicide at Fort Richardson in Alaska where he was posted. Roosevelt Jr. remained with the OSS after the war and wrote and edited its history.
Postwar period.
Roosevelt went on to serve on the advisory board of a largely-Arab organization, the Institute of Arab American Affairs, a New York City-based organization, and Roosevelt wrote an essay in 1948 about his views on American Zionism and the partition of Palestine. In February 1948 Roosevelt joined more than 100 like-minded individuals to form a "Christian group" to aid the fight of the largely rabbinical American Council for Judaism to reverse the ongoing partition of Palestine into exclusively-separate Jewish and Arab states. The Committee for Justice and Peace in the Holy Land (CJP) was founded on March 2, 1948, with Dean emeritus Gildersleeve serving as CJP chair, former Union Theological Seminary as president, Henry Sloane Coffin as vice-chair, and Roosevelt as executive director.
In 1951, Roosevelt, Virginia Gildersleeve; Dorothy Thompson; and a further group of 24 American educators, theologians, and writers (including Harry Emerson Fosdick) founded the American Friends of the Middle East (AFME), a pro-Arabist organization often critical of US support for Israel. The CJP, which Roosevelt had helped form in 1948, was subsumed into the AFME in 1951, and Roosevelt served for a time as the AFME executive secretary for the group of intellectuals and spokespersons. The historians Robert Moats Miller, Hugh Wilford, and others have stated that from its early years, AFME was a part of an Arabist propaganda effort within the US that was "secretly funded and to some extent managed" by the CIA, with further funding from the oil consortium ARAMCO.
Cold War and CIA.
Roosevelt was recruited to the CIA's Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) in 1950 by its chief, Frank Wisner. Assigned to Egypt, Roosevelt impressed his colleagues with Project FF, which encouraged the Free Officers Movement to carry out a coup d'état in 1952, and Roosevelt developed close CIA links to the new leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser.
The historian Hugh Wilford attempts to describe Roosevelt's motivations and views underpinning his intelligence efforts and states:
The views of the CIA Arabists were not in isolation since Wilford notes that the "Eisenhower administration [including Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, was] initially quite sympathetic towards... Roosevelt's Arabist agenda" and willing to oppose Middle Eastern regimes seen "as backing the Soviet Union rather than the U.S." Ultimately, the emergence of American public support for Israel and the administration's evolving framework to respond to its principal Cold War adversary, the Soviet Union, would lead to failure of the Arabist agenda of Roosevelt and his colleagues. In discussing Roosevelt's role, Wilford describes him as being among "the most important intelligence officers of their generation in the Middle East."
Roosevelt played a highly-critical role in Operation Ajax as the ground operational planner, especially in getting the Shah to issue the "firmans", or decrees, dismissing Mossadegh. He established networks of Anglophiles and sympathizers in Iran, who were willing to take part in various aspects of the coup. The tactics aided in dividing and dissolving Mossadegh's political power base within the National Front, the Tudeh, and the clerics. However, the first attempt at the coup failed, likely because Mossadegh had learned of his impending overthrow. Despite the CIA sending Roosevelt a telegram to flee Iran immediately, he began work on the second coup and circulated a false account that Mossadegh attempted to seize the throne and bribed Iranian agents. The coup was a success and hence was adapted for use in other Third World countries during the Cold War. Eisenhower secretly awarded Roosevelt the National Security Medal in 1954 for his work. In 2014, the National Security Archive released telegrams and accounts of the CIA operation, many of which are revealing as to the part he played in the operation.
Roosevelt, 26 years after the Mossadeq coup, wrote a book about how he and the CIA carried out the operation, "Countercoup". According to him, he slipped across the border under his CIA cover as "James Lochridge" on July 19, 1953.
Roosevelt submitted his "Countercoup" manuscript to the CIA for pre-publication approval. The agency proposed various alterations, and in the perspective of a CIA reviewer, "Roosevelt has reflected quite faithfully the changes that we suggested to him. This has become, therefore, essentially a work of fiction." The conclusion allowed the release of the book; a catalog of the actual changes made during the review is available.
A former senior adviser to the Obama administration and Council on Foreign Relations Iran expert, Ray Takeyh, wrote in 2014 that "Contrary to Roosevelt's account [in "Countercoup"], the documentary record reveals that the Eisenhower administration was hardly in control and was in fact surprised by the way events played out." William Blum wrote that Roosevelt had provided no evidence for his claim that a communist takeover in Iran was imminent but rather "mere assertions of the thesis which are stated over and over." Abbas Milani wrote, "Roosevelt's memoir inflated his own and, in turn, America's centrality to the coup. He tells the story with the relish of a John le Carré knock-off... Eisenhower, for one, considered reports like this to be the stuff of 'dime novels.'"
After Iran, Roosevelt became assistant deputy director of the Directorate of Plans.
Foster Dulles asked Roosevelt to lead the CIA-sponsored 1954 coup in Guatemala, which deposed the government of Jacobo Árbenz. Roosevelt refused: "AJAX had succeeded, he believed, chiefly because the CIA's aims were shared by large numbers of Iranians, and it was obvious that the same condition did not obtain among Guatemalans." Noting that Árbenz's resignation had been forced largely by rumors "that a full-scale U.S. invasion was imminent," Roosevelt later remarked, "We had our will in Guatemala, [but] it wasn't really accomplished by clandestine means."
Roosevelt left the CIA in 1958. to work for American oil and defense firms. He often visited former operatives and the Shah in Iran.
Personal life.
Roosevelt married Mary Lowe "Polly" Gaddis in 1937, and they had four children: Kermit, Jonathan, Mark, and Anne.
Death.
Roosevelt died in 2000 at a retirement community in Cockeysville, Maryland. He was survived by his wife, children, a brother, and seven grandchildren.


Big Bottom massacre

The Big Bottom massacre occurred on January 2, 1791, near present-day Stockport now in Morgan County, Ohio, United States. It is considered part of the Northwest Indian Wars, in which aboriginal Americans in the Ohio Country confronted American settlers, regular soldiers and militia, seeking to expel them from their territory.
Following the American Revolutionary War, the United States government was selling land in the Ohio Country, mostly to companies that promised to develop it. A group of squatters had moved up to this area and settled along flood plain, or "bottom" land, of the Muskingum River, some 30 miles north of an Ohio Company of Associates settlement at Marietta, Ohio. The settlement was raided by Lenape and Wyandot warriors seeking to expel the interlopers. They stormed the incomplete blockhouse and killed eleven men, one woman, and two children. (Accounts vary as to the number of casualties.) The aborigines captured three settlers, with at least one dying later, while four others escaped into the woods.
The Ohio Company of Associates sought to provide greater protection for settlers in the Northwest Territory, as the conflicts became more widespread. A coalition of aboriginal American tribes fought to expel the newcomers and preserve their lands. The war did not end until 1794.
The Ohio History Connection manages the three-acre Big Bottom Park site, which has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In addition to the markers noted below, the site features a twelve-foot marble obelisk, picnic tables, and information signs about the site's history.
Background.
In the Gnadenhutten Massacre of 1782, Revolutionary militia forces had killed ninety-six unarmed Christian Lenape men, women and children, although this group were considered friendly and were neutral in the war. The attack took place at their Gnadenhutten settlement on the northern part of the Muskingum River. The terminus of this river was south at the Ohio. Later in 1789, the Treaty of Fort Harmar was signed between the United States and what an American recorded as an "...unrepresentative gathering of undistinguished chiefs..."
 The land of the Wyandot was reduced by the treaty, but in Ohio control of their and other tribal lands was still under dispute.
At the same time, the United States government sold off vast tracts of land in the Ohio Country to raise money after the war and satisfy the desires of numerous settlers for lands across the Appalachian Mountains. Tensions increased as American settlers began entering the area. The Ohio Company of Associates, formed by a group of several New England veterans of the American Revolution, organized for land speculation and development. They purchased approximately in the Northwest Territory from the United States in 1787, but their purchases were not patented by Congress until 1792. Early settlers on these lands followed national guidelines for settling the West and respected the government a great deal, likely because of their role in the Revolution.
The founders of the Ohio Company promoted orderly and nationalistic western expansion. The founders of the company began to worry about problems that arose as more individuals bought into the land company, and began to assert their own goals by striking out into territory where the Company did not have title. Armed confrontations with aboriginal tribes threatened the Company's settlement at Marietta.
A financial crisis in New York was hurting the investors as well as the company treasury. The company struggled to integrate interests between settlers and investors in the East and those in the West. The Company's power structure favored the Eastern part of the territory, and settlers in the West were not well represented. Westerners wanted protection from Indians, but funds were low and the Ohio company refused. Armed conflict soon broke out between settlers and the aboriginal American tribes who wanted to expel them.
Attack by Lenape and Wyandot warriors.
A group of about thirty-six Company settlers had gone upriver from Marietta, squatting east of the Muskingum on land where the Company did not hold title. Tensions were rising with indigenous Americans in the area. In late December 1790, Colonel William Stacy, a war veteran, ice skated 30 miles up the frozen Muskingum River to warn two of his sons at the Big Bottom settlement about the risk of an attack.
Several days later on January 2, 1791, the settlement was raided from the north by Lenape and Wyandot warriors, who killed several settlers. Whites have called this the Big Bottom Massacre. According to the Ohio Historical Society, nine men, a woman and two children were killed in the attack. Colonel Stacy's sons, John Stacy and Philip (Philemon) Stacy, were among the casualties. John was killed directly in the attack, and Philemon was taken captive, dying later.
Aftermath.
The attack led to United States retaliation. Conflicts continued in the Northwest Indian Wars, in which a coalition of aboriginal American tribes tried to expel American settlers from this territory. They were finally defeated in 1794 in the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
On April 21, 1792, Congress authorized the Donation Tract, an area of 100,000 acres located along the northern border of the Ohio Company lands, hoping to rapidly create a buffer zone sheltering Ohio Company lands from aboriginal incursions. Congress offered a 100-acre lot free to any male, eighteen or older, who "would actually settle on the land at the time the deed was conveyed."
Historical markers.
A marker at the site posted by the Ohio Historical Society, reads:
Big Bottom Massacre
Following the American Revolution, the new Federal government, in need of operating funds, sold millions of acres of western lands to land companies. One such company, the Ohio Company of Associates, brought settlement to Marietta in 1788. Two years later, despite warnings of aboriginal American hostility, an association of thirty-six Company members moved north from Marietta to settle "Big Bottom," a large area of level land on the east side of the Muskingum River. The settlers were acquainted with aboriginal American warfare, but even so, built an unprotected outpost. They did not complete the blockhouse, put pickets around it, or post a sentry. On Jan 2, 1791, a war party of twenty-five Delaware and Wyandot men from the north attacked the unsuspecting settlers, killing nine men, one woman and two children. War raged throughout the Ohio Country until August 1794 when the tribes were defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
Another marker was posted in 2002 by the Ohio Bicentennial Commission, the Longaberger Company, the Morgan County Bicentennial Committee, and the Ohio Historical Society. This monument reads:
The city of Stockport has posted a third sign at the site, reading:
Big Bottom, named for the broad Muskingum River Flood Plain, this park is the site of an attack on an Ohio Company settlement by Delaware and Wyandot Indians on Jan 2, 1791. The Big Bottom Massacre marked the outbreak of four years of frontier warfare in Ohio, which only stopped when General Anthony Wayne and the Indian Tribes signed the Treaty of Greenville.


Boreas Railroad Station Site

The Boreas Railroad Station Site is a site in Pike National Forest near Como, Colorado which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993. The listed area spans the border of Park and Summit counties.
The site, at elevation, is at Boreas Pass, which the Denver, South Park & Pacific Railroad narrow-gauge line crossed in 1893 by a "twisty route".
A post office operated there from 1896 to 1905.
The listing includes two contributing buildings and a contributing site. The site is deemed significant for its potential to yield information.