History of Seattle before white settlement

In the history of Seattle before white settlement, thirteen prominent villages existed in what is now the city of Seattle. The people living near Elliott Bay, and along the Duwamish, Black and Cedar Rivers were collectively known as the "doo-AHBSH", or People of the "Doo" ("Inside"). Four prominent villages existed near what is now Elliott Bay and the (then-estuarial) lower Duwamish River. Before civil engineers rechanneled the Duwamish, the area had extensive tidelands, and had an abundance of seafoods.
The people living around Lake Washington were collectively known as "hah-choo-AHBSH" or "hah-chu-AHBSH" or "Xacuabš", People of "HAH-choo" or "Xachu", "People of a Large Lake" or "Lake People". When major European contact began, these people considered themselves related but distinct from the "Dkhw'Duw'Absh". The lake drained by the Black River in what is now Renton. The Black River joined the Cedar and White (now Green) rivers to become the Duwamish River and empty into what is now referred to as southeast Elliott Bay. As European contact continued and increased, the "hah-choo-AHBSH" ("Xacuabš") and "doo-AHBSH", ("Dkhw'Duw'Absh") became identified as the people represented by the Duwamish tribe. The people are Coast Salish, and (Skagit-Nisqually) Lushootseed by language.
Prairie or tall grassland areas (anthropogenic grasslands) grew in what is now Belltown, South Lake Union, Brooklyn in the University District (map ), along what is now Sand Point Way NE (map ), Brighton–Seward Park, Georgetown, and likely Alki, among others. The "Liq'tid" ("LEEK-teed") or Licton Springs area was used as a spiritual health spa. Cranberries were harvested from the "Slo'q 'qed" ("SLOQ-qed", bald head) a marsh and bog at what is now the North Seattle Community College garage, Interstate 5 interchange, and Northgate Mall of Northgate, the headwaters of the south fork of Thornton Creek. Open areas for game habitat were maintained by selective burning every few years, another application of anthropogenic grasslands.
Downtown and lower Duwamish River.
"dzee-dzee-LAH-letch" was the most important village on what is now called Elliott Bay, with some 200 people c. 1800. Chief Seattle ["si'áb" Si'ahl] lived here for some time. The village had eight large "khwaac'ál'al" (longhouses)—each 60 feet by 120 feet (18 m x 37 m)—plus a large potlatch house, where people from all over the area gathered. "dzee-dzee-LAH-letch" ("little crossing-over place") was located near the trail: appropriately, where the King Street Station was later built. Before the extensive tidelands were filled in, there was a spit here, separating Elliott Bay from a lagoon known for flounder.
"tohl-AHL-too" ("herring house") and later "hah-AH-poos" ("where there are horse clams") was on the west bank of the Duwamish River near its former estuarial mouth on Elliott Bay, located around what is now south Harbor Island. This was the original village site that had been inhabited since the 6th century (see also Duwamish tribe#History). It was abandoned sometime before 1800, but there elders reported that the village had seven (60 ft by , 18 m x 37 m) longhouses plus a large (60 ft by , 18 m x 110 m) potlatch house. At the successor village nearby there were three longhouses occupied by 75-100 people.
The Duwamish was a bountiful estuary, a powerful meandering river with extensive tidal flats and wildlife, when pioneer John Pike officially bought the land from the U.S. government in 1860, soon after the Treaty of Point Elliott, 1855. Local shipyards built fishing boats for European immigrants until the resource diminished. The site was being cleared of buildings to construct a marine terminal when archaeological discoveries in 1977 halted further development. This site is in what is now known as Herring House Park (Herring's House Park), just north of Terminal 107 (map ). The site overlooks Kellogg Island and a natural channel of the river. The park contains a natural intertidal basin at the shoreline and areas of marsh, meadow and forest in the upland portion. In season, the park has hundreds of juvenile fish, and migrating salmon which attract harbor seals, ospreys, and bald eagles and provide habitat for cormorants, great blue herons, purple martins and other native waterfowl. Overlooking the park is the Duwamish Longhouse, cultural center of the Duwamish Tribe (above). Above the contemporary Duwamish Longhouse is the restored and partially daylighted watershed of "to-AH-wee" (trout), now called Longfellow Creek, just over the ridge that is now called Delridge. Puget Creek was the freshwater resource and a seasonal fishery for the village. Much of Puget Park is now a natural area, along with others nearby. Eventually, with ongoing volunteer effort, the surroundings will have restored areas and views.
"too-PAHLH-tehb" was at the mouth of the easternmost estuary of the Duwamish River, approximately 1st Avenue at Spokane Street.
"yee-LEH-khood" ("basket cap" like those worn by the Yakama people) was a particularly long-established village on the then-west bank of a bend in the Duwamish River, in what is now Terminal 107 Park, the higher ground of the Port of Seattle terminal.
The "kehl-kah-KWEH-yah" ("Proud People") had their village at "too-KWHEHL-teed" ("a large open space") farther upstream at a former bend of the Duwamish, in what is now south Georgetown. The large open space was likely artificially maintained.
North of Downtown.
The people called "shill-shohl-AHBSH" had the village of "shill-SHOHL" ("threading a needle", apparently for the narrow opening out to Puget Sound) on the north shore of what is now named Salmon Bay, where the Ballard Locks were built. (See also "SWAH-tsoo-gweel" village, just below.)
Along Lake Washington.
All the people living around Lake Washington were collectively known as "Xacuabš" ("hah-choo-AHBSH" or "hah-chu-AHBSH"), People of "HAH-choo" or "Xachu", "People of a Large Lake" or "Lake People". Initially, at the time of major European contact, these people considered themselves related but distinct from the "Dkhw'Duw'Absh". The lake drained out the Black River in present-day Renton. The Black River joined the Cedar and White (now Green) rivers to become the Duwamish River and empty into what is now called southeast Elliott Bay.
The "hah-chu-AHBSH" called what is known now as Bailey Peninsula in Seward Park "skEba’kst" ("skuh-BAHKST", "nose"); the isthmus was "cqa'lapsEb" ("TSKAH-lap-suhb", "neck"). As Lake Washington was then higher and the isthmus was only a few hundred feet wide, during seasonal floods the peninsula would become an island. A large wetland and marsh was north of what is now the park entrance circle, at what is now Andrews Bay. The lake, bay, wetlands, and peninsula were richly abundant.
The "Xacuabš" had a village of two longhouses ("khwaac'ál'al", forerunners of sizable cohousing for tens of people in each one) at "xaxao'Ltc" ("ha-HAO-hlch", the "sacred or taboo place", from "xá?xa?"), at or near what is now Brighton Beach. Villages were diffuse. Other
"khwaac'ál'al" were on the southwest lake shore at "SExti'tcb" ("by means of swimming", Bryn Mawr), at "TL’Ltcus" (TLEELH-chus, "little island", Pritchard's Island), and to farther north at Leschi Park.
Besides providing food, the lake was home to powerful spirits. The word "xá?xa?" also means sacred, great and mighty. The previously mentioned "xaxao'lc" ("taboo place") at Brighton Beach, south of the peninsula, was named for a supernatural spirit who was said to live in the lake there. The unusual sound of the babbling waters at this place indicated its presence. Near Colman Park lived an "?ya’hos", a horned spirit that was associated with landslides and earthquakes. Remarkably, this is the approximate location of the Seattle Fault, which moved more than vertically during an earthquake about 1,100 years ago. This quake caused a landslide at South Point on Mercer Island sending a large section of forest into the lake. Little earth beings were said to inhabit the tree stumps there and drove insane a man while he was trying to harvest the bark from the stumps.
Two villages whose names are unknown were located to the east of Downtown on Lake Washington. One of the possible village sites of the "skah-TEHLB-shahbsh" was around what was later named Wetmore Slough, now the filled Genesee Park in Columbia City. A second village of the "skah-TEHLB-shahbsh" was at what is now Leschi Park.
What is now Rainier Beach (Atlantic City Park) is the possible site of one of two "skah-TEHLB-shahbsh" villages, though the village name is not known.
The influential and principal village of the "hloo-weelh-AHBSH" was in the vicinity of present-day Brooklyn Avenue, at a then-much larger Portage Bay, and "SWAH-tsoo-gweel" ("portage") on the north shores of a Union Bay nearly a mile farther than today, near what is now the Burke-Gilman Trail and the southeast corner of Ravenna Park. (What is now the Burke-Gilman Trail was built along the shoreline c. 1886 by the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway.) Five longhouses were located on the north of the bay. Other longhouses were near the present University of Washington (UW) steam plant (west of the UW IMA Building, and between what is now the Center for Urban Horticulture and present-day Children's Hospital). For this village, their backyard was the neighborhoods of the Ravenna Creek watershed today. In summer, the village largely moved to "Sahlouwil", what is now southeast Laurelhurst on Lake Washington.
The village of "hehs-KWEE-kweel" ("skate") was of the "hloo-weelh-AHBSH" (from "s'hloo-WEELH", "a tiny hole drilled to measure the thickness of a canoe"), for the narrow passage through then-large and resource-rich Union Bay marsh. Traces of the marsh survive as the Union Bay Natural Area and the Foster Island area of north Washington Park Arboretum. The trees and the island of "Stitici", (Stee-tee-tchee) were their ceremonial burial ground. "Stitici", Little Island, is now called Foster Island. The village was at the northeast tip of what is now Madison Park. One longhouse may have been used as a potlatch house. The Duwamish Tribe is today leveraging the sacred site in the path of substantial enlargement of SR 520 through south Union Bay between Redmond and Interstate 5, in their quest for recognition.
"TLEHLS" ("minnows" or "shiners") was on the shores of what is now called Wolf Bay in Windermere, on Lake Washington south of "SqWsEb", now called Magnuson Park. "BEbqwa'bEks" (small prairie—anthropogenic grassland) was near what is now Windermere. One or three longhouses have been documented. These people may have been associated with the "hloo-weelh-AHBSH" of Union Bay.
The village of "too-HOO-beed" was of the "too-oh-beh-DAHBSH" extended family and was near what is now called Thornton Creek in what is now Matthews Beach, with Meadowbrook their back yard.


The American Society of Mexico

The American Society of Mexico (AmSoc) is a community organization and non-profit for the greater American Community living in Mexico. The organization was established on August 26, 1942 by then-United States Ambassador George S. Messersmith and American community leaders as the American population in Mexico started to increase with the purpose to represent the American community as a whole. Messersmith became the first Honorary President and all United States Ambassador's have become Honorary Presidents of the Society ever since. Over the years, the society has organized events centered around American and Mexican traditions and formed partnerships to benefit the American Community in Mexico.
History.
The American Society of Mexico was one of the first players in uniting the American Community within Mexico, helping Americans integrate within Mexico and sharing many distinctly American traditions between the American Community in Mexico and Mexicans.
The founding president was Mr. Russell Ford Moody who was born on June 13, 1902 in Michigan and received his Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineer by the University of Michigan in 1925. He was the Vice President of the Canada Dry Bottling Company of Mexico, had been Assistant General Manager of the Compañía Hulera Euzkadi, and was alternate director of the Banco Internacional, Bank of London. He was also a Board Director to the American British Cowdray (ABC) Hospital, YMCA, and a standing member of the University Club, the American Club, Club de Banqueros, Masons and Tau Beta Pi. Married to Louise, he had twho children: Jean Carol and Beverly.
The Honorary President, George Strausser Messersmith was born on October 3, 1883 in Fleetwood, Pennsylvania. He entered the Foreign Service and served in different countries, including Germany during World War II, where he was best known for his controversial decision to issue a visa to Albert Einstein. In Mexico Ambassador Messersmith was not only responsible for the foundation of The American Society of Mexico, but also for establishing in the same year of 1942, the well renowned Benjamin Franklin Library in Mexico City. He was appointed the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico up until 1947 by President Harry S. Truman.
"Amistad: Magazine of American Society of Mexico".
From the mid- through the late- 1900s, The American Society of Mexico published a regular bulletin for its members and those associated with the society. The bulletin served to announce get-togethers, events, initiatives and, perhaps most importantly, updates on U.S. and U.S.-Mexico news before the days of online media. Due to technological advances, the society has shifted to distribute information online.
Political Affiliation.
The American Society of Mexico is currently run by society president Larry Rubin, who although is the primary representative of the US Republican Party in Mexico demonstrates a conduct of empowering bipartisanship in the society by frequently working alongside and welcoming left-wing organizations. Additionally, Rubin went on air to publicly withdraw support from (at the time) presidential candidate Donald Trump during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election.
The 2016 U.S. Presidential Race.
The American Society of Mexico has played perhaps the most significant role in Mexico organizing "Election Night" every four years during the U.S. Presidential Race for thousands of guests from differing political views. Prior to Election Day, the society is frequently featured in and consulted by the Mexican press for opinions from the society and its president, Larry Rubin, an opinion leader in Mexico. In addition to organizing the largest U.S. Election Party in the nation, AMSOC served as a media liaison between the American Community living in Mexico, the United States and the Mexican press bridging the three entities during a particularly contentious U.S. Election from the Mexican perspective. Although because of the pandemic in 2020 there was no Election Night, the Society organized an "Election Night" in November 2016 with over 2,000 people in attendance and hundreds of media reporting directly from the event where several television stations were displaying the election results. It has organized "Election Night" since the 1960s.


SS Prince George

The Grand Trunk Steamship Prince George, and sister ship , provided passenger service along the coasts of British Columbia and Alaska. In service from 1910 until 1945, the vessel saw brief service as a hospital ship for the Royal Canadian Navy during World War I. In 1945 the ship caught fire in the harbour of Ketchikan, Alaska. The burned hulk was beached on Gravina Island where it remained for the next few years until it was towed to Seattle, Washington and broken up for scrap.
Design and construction.
Ordered from Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson Ltd and constructed at their yard at Wallsend-on-Tyne with the yard number 859, the vessel was launched on 10 March 1910. "Prince George" had a gross register tonnage of 3,320 tons and was long between perpendiculars. The vessel had a beam of and a draught of . The passenger ship was propelled by two shafts, each driven by a four-cylinder triple expansion steam engine. Power was provided by two double-ended and two single-ended boilers creating under forced draught. This created and gave "Prince George" a maximum speed of . "Prince George" and "Prince Rupert" both initially burned coal; however, in 1912 they were converted to burn fuel oil.
"Prince George" could carry 350 tons of cargo. The ship could accommodate 200 first class and 36 second class passengers. For excursions, up to 1,500 persons could be carried. Both "Prince George" and "Prince Rupert" were initially registered in Newcastle upon Tyne, but this was later changed to Prince Rupert, British Columbia.
Service history.
Initially, "Prince George" and "Prince Rupert" served regular runs from Seattle to Victoria, Vancouver, Prince Rupert and Stewart, British Columbia. However, Seattle and Victoria were dropped from the route after a few years and Skagway, Alaska was added. On one of "Prince George"s first trips up the coast, the passenger ship carried the Canadian Prime Minister, Sir Wilfrid Laurier to Prince Rupert for a government announcement. On 19 December 1910, "Prince George" went aground in the First Narrows. Later refloated, the vessel suffered only minor damage. On 14 October 1912, the ship was struck by the small fishing vessel "Lief E" in Puget Sound. The commander of "Prince Rupert" ordered boats lowered, which then towed the fishing vessel to Harbor Island, Seattle, where "Lief E" was beached.
After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Pacific coast of Canada was threatened by the possibility of German raiders attacking coastal shipping. The old Royal Canadian Navy cruiser was dispatched south in early August from Vancouver to cover the retreat of weaker Royal Navy vessels to Canadian waters after reports of German vessels along the west coast. Due to the unknown nature of the force "Rainbow" might encounter, "Prince George" was taken over by the Royal Canadian Navy on 8 August and hurriedly outfitted as a 200-bed hospital ship. The ship was then sent south to provide support to the Canadian cruiser. Sailing separately, "Prince George" was sighted by "Rainbow" and, due to hospital ship's three funnels and cruiser stern, initially mistaken for one of the German warships. This led the commander of "Rainbow", Walter Hose to turn away and retreat. However, the identity of the ship was rectified and the two vessels returned to port. On 14 August, "Prince George", sailing off the coast of Washington, encountered the sloop , one of the vessels "Rainbow" had been sent to cover. "Rainbow" joined the two ships and all three returned to port. "Prince George" was paid off as a hospital ship on 1 September and re-converted to a passenger vessel by her owners.
In 1919 Grand Trunk Pacific Railway became insolvent and was placed under the management of Canadian National Railways (CN) in 1920. In 1923, Grand Trunk Pacific Railway had been absorbed by CN and by 1925, the vessel was made part of the Canadian National Steamship Company. On 23 July 1920, the vessel struck the North Bluff in the Seymour Narrows. Able to make it to port under her own power, "Prince George" was out of service until 1 August. The vessel grounded twice more; on 30 December 1933 on Vadso Rock and 20 December 1937 off Princess Royal Island.
Fire and fate.
On 22 September 1945 "Prince George" was lost after she caught fire while at dock at Ketchikan, Alaska. The vessel had docked at Ketchikan on a round-trip voyage from Prince Rupert. The ship docked at 8:10 am and at 8:20 am, the fire alarm began sounding after a fuel tank exploded aboard the ship. Firemen responded and fought the fire, but after an hour the crew and those passengers still on board the ship were ordered to evacuate. The vessel was pulled away from the pier by the tugboat "General Kennedy" and run aground on Gravina Island. Several United States Coast Guard vessels joined the attempt to extinguish the fire. They were unsuccessful, and the vessel continued to burn for the next couple of days, with the fire going out only after the superstructure collapsed. One crew member died in the fire, with the others returning to Prince Rupert on "Prince George" sister, "Prince Rupert". When the burned-out hulk was refloated is disputed, with most sources stating it happened between 1948 and 1953. The hulk was taken to Seattle, where it was broken up for scrap.
After the loss of "Prince George", CN announced plans for a new . This ship was launched on 6 October 1947, and placed in service on the Alaska route in June 1948.


The Narragansett Dawn

The Narragansett Dawn was a monthly newspaper that discussed the history, culture and language of the Narragansett tribe. It was produced in 1935 and 1936 with a total of sixteen issues. The founders and editors of the paper were Princess Red Wing and Ernest Hazard. Both were Narragansett tribal members.
The newspaper came about because of the Narragansett people's need to retain their history and cultural identity in the wake of the Indian Reorganization Act. In many of the paper's editorials, Princess Red Wing invokes the Narragansett people's pride, often in reply to claims against their ancestry and purity during their detribalization by the state of Rhode Island in the 1880s.
Name.
The name "The Narragansett Dawn" was chosen at a tribal meeting on December 4, 1934. It was said to signify "the awakening after so long and black a night of being civilized."
Slogan and seal.
"The Narragansett Dawn" used the slogan "We Face East" on its cover. Its meaning is broken down as follows:
The cover also bears the of the Narragansett Indian Tribe.
Contributors.
Princess Red Wing, Editor
Her mother was Wampanoag and her father was Narragansett. Through her mother, Red Wing is related to prominent Indians in American history such as Simeon Simons (who fought with George Washington) and Metacom ( or "King Philip") who led a war against the colonists in 1670s.
She became Squaw Sachem of the New England Council of Chiefs in 1945, a position which allowed her to preside over sacred ceremonies and festivals. She was also a prominent storyteller in the Narragansett community, keeping alive the oral traditions of her tribe. She also preserved their history by founding the only Native American museum in Rhode Island, the Tomaquag Indian Memorial Museum. Princess Red Wing died in 1987 at the age of 92.
Ernest Hazard, Editor
Marion W. Brown, Keeper of Records
Chief Pine Tree, Business Manager/Writer
Theodore Brown, Business Manager
Francis Glasko, Business Manager
Princess Wood Dove
Lone Wolf
Little Bear
Sections.
Narragansett Tongue
Genealogy
Narragansett Mailbox/Greetings From Friends
Identity Sections
Milestones
Sunrise News
Poetry
History


Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial

The William Barnes vs. Theodore Roosevelt libel trial was a 1915 case between former president Theodore Roosevelt and New York State Republican Party Chairman William Barnes Jr. Barnes sued Roosevelt for libel following accusations of corruption made by Roosevelt against Barnes. The trial became a high profile news event, and was reported about in newspapers across the country. It ended with Roosevelt's acquittal and played a prominent part in ending Barnes' career as a Republican political leader.
Background.
Going back to the 1880s, Theodore Roosevelt and William Barnes Jr. had been active in New York's Republican Party politics. Barnes, the grandson of Whig and Republican party leader Thurlow Weed, was a successful newspaper publisher and the "boss" of both the city of Albany and Albany County as the head of a political machine that elected Republicans to office and ran both governments. Barnes was also an influential figure at state and national level as head of the New York State Republican Party from 1911 to 1914 and New York's member of the Republican National Committee from 1912 to 1916. Barnes was conservative while Roosevelt was progressive; they sometimes worked well together, but were frequently at odds because of their different political ideologies. When Roosevelt ran against incumbent Republican William Howard Taft for the presidency in 1912, Barnes played a key role in obtaining the nomination for Taft. Roosevelt then ran as the candidate of the new Progressive Party, and the split among Republicans enabled the election of Woodrow Wilson.
In the 1914 election for governor of New York, Roosevelt supported progressive Republican Harvey D. Hinman, a former member of the New York State Senate, while Barnes backed Charles Seymour Whitman. In July, Roosevelt made a statement which was widely published, in which he accused Barnes of being a corrupt, obnoxious political boss who was in league with Charles Francis Murphy, the leader of New York's Tammany Hall Democratic Party organization. According to Roosevelt, Barnes And Murphy worked together in secret to thwart the will of the people, preventing the adoption of progressive reforms. Whitman won the Republican nomination and was elected governor, defeating Democrat Martin H. Glynn and several other candidates.
In response to Roosevelt's accusation of a conspiracy between Barnes and Murphy, Barnes filed a libel suit in which he asked for $50,000 in damages. Barnes received advice not to follow through, with supporters suggesting that the publicity would breathe life into Roosevelt's now dormant political career while drawing unwanted attention to Barnes' political activities. Barnes disregarded this counsel, arguing that his honor had been called into question and he needed to reclaim his good name. Barnes may also have been motivated by a desire to end Roosevelt's career permanently; Barnes was known to have designs on the United States Senate seat that was up for election in 1916, and a politically viable Roosevelt might block a potential Barnes candidacy.
Trial.
Pretrial activities included a change of venue from Albany to Syracuse, owing to Barnes' supposed control over Albany's government. Roosevelt's chief counsel during the trial was John M. Bowers, while Barnes was represented by William Mills Ivins Sr. The trial began on April 19, 1915 and took five weeks.
With respect to libel, a defendant must prove his innocence; that is, Roosevelt was required to demonstrate that he had not intentionally imparted a malicious public falsehood about Barnes. Roosevelt testified for eight days. Rather than arguing that he had made a slip of the tongue or misspoken, or had been misquoted or taken out of context, or that what he had said was merely campaign rhetoric not meant to be taken literally, Roosevelt argued that what he had said was true. Roosevelt and his legal team provided details about several incidents which Roosevelt claimed proved that Barnes was an unsavory political boss, and that he did work cooperatively with Murphy. Two weeks into the trial, Roosevelt contacted Franklin D. Roosevelt for assistance; Franklin, then serving as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, was a former member of the State Senate. Franklin Roosevelt had disputes with Murphy during his senate tenure, and testified on Theodore Roosevelt's behalf.
The jury took several ballots over two days, and returned a verdict of acquittal. After the trial, it was revealed that until the last ballot, the jury consistently voted 11 to 1 for acquittal, with a lone juror arguing that trial costs ought to be divided between Barnes and Roosevelt.
Effects.
The trial essentially ended Barnes' influence; he was not even considered for the 1916 Republican U.S. Senate nomination and soon left his state and national party posts. He permanently lost his grip on Albany city and county with the 1921 elections, when William Stormont Hackett won the mayor's office and ushered in an era of control by a new machine, this one controlled by Democrat Daniel P. O'Connell.
Roosevelt reclaimed a measure of his status as a national political figure; in 1916, he declined a Progressive presidential nomination and campaigned for Republican nominee Charles Evans Hughes; Hughes narrowly lost to incumbent Woodrow Wilson, but most of Roosevelt's supporters followed him back to the Republican Party. He also advocated for the Preparedness Movement, and when World War I broke out he supported U.S. intervention and made an unsuccessful attempt to raise a volunteer Army unit to command in combat. At the time of his death in 1919, Roosevelt's status had been restored to the point that he was the leading contender for the Republican nomination in the 1920 presidential election.


Stephen Van Rensselaer IV

Stephen Van Rensselaer (March 29, 1789 – May 28, 1868), known as the "Young Patroon" and sometimes the "last of the patroons" was the last patroon of Rensselaerswyck.
Early life.
Van Rensselaer was born on March 29, 1789 in Albany, New York. He was the son of Stephen Van Rensselaer III (1765–1839), and Margarita "Peggy" Schuyler (1758–1801). His father served as Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1795 to 1801, elected with Governor John Jay.
He was one of three children, and the only to live to adulthood, born to his parents before his mother's premature death in 1801. Shortly thereafter in 1802, his father married Cornelia Paterson, daughter of William Paterson, the 2nd Governor of New Jersey, and later, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Through his father's second marriage, Van Rensselaer became a half-brother to Cortlandt Van Rensselaer (1808–1860), and Henry Bell Van Rensselaer (1810–1864), a United States Representative in the House of Representatives and brigadier general in the Union Army during the American Civil War.
Stephen graduated from Princeton University in 1808.
Family.
His paternal grandfather was Stephen Van Rensselaer II (1742–1769), patroon of Rensselaerswyck, a large land grant in upstate New York awarded by the Dutch to his ancestor Kiliaen van Rensselaer (1586–1643). His paternal grandmother was Catharina Livingston (1745–1810), daughter of Philip Livingston, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His grandfather died in 1769 when his father was only five. His maternal grandfather was Philip Schuyler (1733–1804), a Revolutionary War general. His maternal grandmother was Catherine Van Rensselaer (1734–1803), the daughter of Johannes van Rensselaer (1707/08–1783) and his first wife, Engeltje "Angelica" Livingston (1698–1746/47). Johannes was the grandson of Hendrick van Rensselaer (1667–1740)
Career.
Van Rensselaer served in the New York Militia, and retired with the title of Major General.
Rensselaerswyck manor.
After his father's death in 1839, he inherited the "West Manor" of Rensselaerswyck through his father's will. He made many improvements to the Manor House, which was largely reconstructed and refitted from designs by British architect Richard Upjohn, and moved to the home from his residence in New York City on June 3, 1840. His father's will directed him and his brothers to collect and apply the back rents (approximately ) toward the payment of the patroon's debts. Once the rent notices went out, the farmers organized and held public meetings in protest. Van Rensselaer refused to meet with a committee of anti-renters and turned down their written request for a reduction of rents or any other settlement. His refusal infuriated the farmers and on July 4, 1839, a meeting was called at Berne for a declaration of independence from landlord rule. Van Rensselaer and the other heirs secured writs of ejectment in suits against tenants in arrears. There were crowds of angry tenants that turned into a posse of 500 men. Governor William H. Seward was called for military assistance and issued a proclamation calling on the people not to resist the enforcement of the law. While the tenants continued refusing to pay rent, the sheriff evicted some, but was unable to dispossess an entire township.
By 1845, the anti-renters succeeded in getting the New York State Legislature to abolish the right of the landlord to seize the goods of a defaulting tenant and taxed the income which landlords derived from their rent. Soon thereafter, the Constitutional Convention of 1846 prohibited any future lease of agricultural land which claimed rent or service for a period longer than twelve years, but did not address existing leases.
Between 1846 and 1851, the anti-renters elected sheriffs and local officials who paralyzed the efforts of the landlords to collect rents and threw their weight to the candidates of either major party who would support their cause. Rivalries between and within the Whig and Democratic parties enabled the anti-renters to exert more influence than their numbers warranted. As a result, they had a small but determined bloc of anti-rent champions in the Assembly and the Senate who kept landlords uneasy by threatening to pass laws challenging land titles.
The anti-rent endorsement of John Young, the Whig candidate for governor in 1846, proved decisive. Governor Young promptly pardoned several anti-rent prisoners and called for an investigation of titles by the Attorney General. The courts eventually ruled the statute of limitations prevented any questioning of the original titles. Declaring that the holders of perpetual leases were in reality freeholders, the Court of Appeals outlawed the "quarter sales," i.e., the requirement in many leases that a tenant who disposed of his farm should pay one-fourth of the money to the landlord.
As their position became more tenuous, the landed proprietors gradually sold out their interests. In August 1845, seventeen large landholders announced that they were willing to sell. Later that year, Van Rensselaer agreed to sell his rights in the Helderberg townships. In 1848, his brother, William, who had inherited the "East Manor" in Rensselaer County, also sold out his rights in over 500 farms. Finally, in the 1850s, two speculators purchased the remaining leases from the van Rensselaers. After his widow's death, the Manor house became part of the general estate.
Personal life.
He was married on January 2, 1813 to Harriet Elizabeth Bayard (1799–1875), daughter of William Bayard (1761–1826) of New York City. Together, they had the following children survive to adulthood:
Stephen Van Rensselaer IV died on May 28, 1868 in Albany, New York. In his will, he left the Van Rensselaer Manor House and grounds, as well as a year, to his widow. About 2,500 acres between the Troy and Shaker roads, north of the Manor House and in which he had a life estate, reverted to his half-brother, William Paterson Van Rensselaer. The remainder of the estate was divided among his children or the heirs of his children that predeceased him. The property was valued at about .
Descendants.
His grandson was John Eliot Thayer (1862–1933), an amateur ornithologist. His granddaughter, Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer (1849–1903) married J. Hampden Robb (1846–1911), a New York State Senator, in 1868. Their daughter, Van Rensselaer's great-granddaughter, Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer (b. 1881) married Danish Count Carl Moltke (1869–1935) in 1907.
Through his grandson, Stephen Van Rensselaer Crosby (1868–1959), he was the great-grandfather of Henry Sturgis Crosby (1898–1929), a bon vivant, poet, and publisher who for some epitomized the Lost Generation in American literature, who was married to Mary Phelps Jacob (1891–1970).


French and Indian Wars

The French and Indian Wars were a series of conflicts that occurred in North America between 1688 and 1763, some of which indirectly were related to the European dynastic wars. The title "French and Indian War" in the singular is used in the United States specifically for the warfare of 1754–63, which is mostly coincident with the Seven Years' War. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the Beaver Wars.
In Quebec, the various wars are generally referred to as the Intercolonial Wars. Some conflicts involved Spanish and Dutch forces, but all pitted the Kingdom of Great Britain, its colonies, and their Indian allies on one side against France, its colonies, and its Indian allies on the other. A major cause of the wars was the desire of each country to take control of the interior territories of America, as well as the region around Hudson Bay; both were deemed essential to domination of the fur trade.
Overview.
The North American wars, and their associated European wars, in sequence, are:
Naming conflicts after the British monarch of the day is a convention in United States history related to its early European settlement as majority-English colonies. Canadian convention uses the name of the larger European conflict (e.g., the "War of the Grand Alliance" rather than "King William's War") or refers to the wars as the Intercolonial Wars.
As the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the greater population and productive capacity of the British colonies compared with those of France. In addition, the British had the greater ability to resupply their colonies and project military power by sea. In the first three conflicts, the French were able to offset these factors largely by more effective mobilization of Indian allies, but they were finally overwhelmed in the fourth and last war.
The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in the eventual loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection. In addition, the American people resented British efforts to limit their colonization of the new French territories to the west of the Appalachian Mountains, as stated in the Proclamation of 1763, in an effort to relieve encroachment on Indian territory. These pressures contributed to the American Revolutionary War.
The first three of the French and Indian Wars followed the same basic pattern: they all started in Europe and then moved to North America. Once the conflict broke out in North America, it was mostly fought by colonial militias. The final conflict broke this pattern by beginning in North America. In addition, the British used more regular troops alongside colonial militia. They returned almost none of the French territory seized during the war. France was forced to cede its extensive territory in present-day Canada and "Louisiane". The British victory in the French and Indian Wars reduced France's New World empire to St. Pierre and Miquelon (two islands off Newfoundland), a few West Indian islands, and French Guiana.
Warfare.
Operational goals.
The belligerents strove in general to control the major transportation and trade routes, not just the sea routes that connected the colonies with the mother country, or the land routes that existed between the different colonies, but also the major fur trade routes leading to the interior of North America. These were normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many Native American Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the great powers of Europe. The belligerents built fortified positions at major transportation hubs and requested the help of the local Native population to defend these, and to attack enemy positions.
European tactics.
A common view is that European combat methods and military tactics were not adapted to the American forests and to the Native American art of war. It is therefore conjectured that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the Indian combat methods. These techniques, which included cover and stressed ambushes, is supposed to have been the reason why the colonists finally defeated the French, and then the British army during the American Revolutionary War. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were finally won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. The Fortress of Louisbourg surrendered twice after sieges conducted according to the rules of European warfare, and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham 1759 was a European battle fought in closed formations in the open.
Petty warfare.
Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called "la Petite guerre", or today's guerilla warfare. The numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies (see below). The small French population; New France's dependence on the fur trade, mutually profitable for both Frenchmen and Native Americans; and the common threat from the British colonies, made the indigenous peoples willing allies. The Battle of the Monongahela was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics. But at the end of the French and Indian War British numerical superiority became overwhelming, in spite of almost the whole male population of Canada being mobilized, and standard European tactics won the day and the war.
European military forces.
British.
The British military forces consisted of the British Army's regular regiments and independent companies; the provincial regiments raised by the several colonies in British America, and the colonial militia.
British Army.
The British Army had two types of units in North America: regular regiments serving in the colonies for a longer or shorter period of time, normally sent there only after the war had begun, and independent companies, permanently based in the colonies as garrisons of forts and fortresses. The British Army was largely recruited among the poor and the criminal classes; yet, the independent companies had lower status. Their ranks were often filled with people who had left the regular service – former soldiers mainly, but also deserters. The officers were often promoted non-commissioned officers. The independent companies became rooted in the local society, often transforming the military service into a sideline of a civilian occupation, and remaining in the colonies after expiration of the enlistment period.
Provincial troops.
When war began, the several colonies organized their own military forces, provincial troops, through temporary enlistments. The soldiers came from the lower orders of society, which did not strengthen their reliability or efficiency. Massachusetts Bay, New York and Connecticut usually mobilized large contingents, while the southern colonies always very reluctantly contributed to the imperial cause. The British Army did not have high opinions of the battleworthiness of the provincial troops, with the exception of the ranger units. During conjoint operations the provincial troops were subject to the very strict British Articles of War. The officers of the provincial troops had lower relative rank than the officers of the regular army; a provincial field officer ranked as a senior British captain, although these officers were members of the colonial elite, often members of colonial legislatures. Disputes concerning rank and precedent between regular and provincial officers were common. Junior provincial officers were often popular militia officers, who easily could recruit a company of men.
Colonial militia.
Each colony had its own militia, which in principle contained all able-bodied men 16 to 60 years of age. In reality, however, membership in the militia was restricted to the more substantial members of society, since every militiaman had to provide himself with a musket, knapsack, powder, bullets, flints, and sword. Each local community organized its own militia. The officers were either appointed by the governor or elected by the men. The main task of the local militia was local defense, rarely serving in the field but acting as a more or less efficient home guard.
France.
The Compagnies Franches de la Marine, the colonial marines, contained the core of the military forces of New France. It was only during the French and Indian War that units from the Royal French Army were transferred to Canada. The colonial militia was more important than its counterpart in British America.
Marines.
The French colonies were administrated through the secretary of state for the navy, and naval troops garrisoned New France. The French marines were organized into independent companies called "Compagnies franches." During the French and Indian War, naval gunner-bombardier companies were also stationed in North America. The other ranks of the marines were enlisted in France, but the officer corps became increasingly Canadian through recruitment of officers' sons. All promotions were by merit; purchase of commissions was prohibited. The British rangers were an attempt to replicate the tactics of the French colonial marines. The Swiss regiment de Karrer also operated under the Royal French Navy. Its depot was in Rochefort, but its companies served in North American and the Caribbean.
French Army.
In 1754 six battalions from the regiments Artois, Béarn, Bourgogne, Guyenne, Languedoc, and La Reine were transferred to New France. In 1757 two additional battalions arrived from Royal Roussilon and La Sarre, followed the next year by two battalions from de Berry. An artillery company was also sent over the Atlantic.
Colonial militia.
The Canadian colonial militia enjoyed a substantially higher morale and battleworthiness than the British provincial troops and the militia of the British colonies. This was only true, however, when they were employed as home guard or as wilderness warriors. Besides a combat role, the Canadian militia also fulfilled important tasks behind the lines, such as transportation and road building.
Indian allies.
British allies.
The Iroquois League played an important strategic role in the struggle between Britain and France over northeastern America because of its location east and south of Lake Ontario. The League's aggressive military and commercial policy gave the Iroquois control over large parts of the country, forcing many smaller Indian nations into submission. The Covenant Chain joined the Iroquois with the colony of New York and other British colonies in a compact that generally benefitted the parties and ultimately was disastrous for France.
French allies.
France recognized the independence of the Indian tribes while claiming sovereignty over their territory at the same time, as well as the right to plead the cause of their Indian allies in the face of other European powers. The French allies accepted this protectorate since it permitted self-government and a traditional lifestyle. The Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki accepted Catholicism as it confirmed their brotherhood with the French in the struggle against the British. Alongside the Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki, France's chief allies were the "indiens domiciliés" (resident Indians) who lived at the Catholic missions in New France. Religious reasons and the need for a refuge from the English attack motivated their dislocation to French territory. At the end of the French and Indian wars, all resident Indians were joined in the confederation of the Seven Nations of Canada.
Indian-White warfare.
A pattern of warfare emerged during the clashes between the European colonial powers and the American Indians which characterized the four major French and Indian wars. The complex network of relations was fundamental between some Indian tribes and some colonies, the Indian tribes becoming the allies of the colonial powers. These alliances were a result of the economic ties that had been formed by the fur trade and by the Indian tribes' need for allies against their Indian rivals. The warfare included the widespread and escalating abuse of civilians on all sides, in which settlements were attacked, both Colonial and Indian, the residents killed or abducted, and houses and crops burned.


Pamplin Music

Pamplin Music was an independent Christian record label founded in 1995 by Robert B. Pamplin Jr. The label was a subunit of Pamplin Entertainment and in turn Pamplin Communications, which was already established in the Christian media market through book stores and video products.
Pamplin Music reported turning a profit in 1999 as well as being in the top five Christian music record labels. Despite this, Pamplin closed at the end of 2001, shuttering both its production and distribution operations.
Pamplin focused on the pop, soft rock, and R&B market segments. For other segments, they used sublabels. Red Hill Records, established in 2000 with A&R handled by Dan Michaels (according to "Billboard"), focused on electronic and pop music, and was generally aimed at the youth market. Organic Records was their label for alternative and modern rock artists. Cathedral Records and Crossroads served the gospel market segments. Cathedral did not close with the other sublabels, and established distribution through New Day Distribution.
Distribution.
While previous releases from parent company Pamplin Entertainment such as the Bibleman series had used existing distribution channels, with the establishment of Pamplin Music, the company began distributing its own material. In 1997 they began providing services to other labels as well. Distributed labels include:


This Is My Story (memoir)

This is My Story is a 1937 autobiographical memoir by Eleanor Roosevelt, an American political figure, diplomat, activist and First Lady of the United States while her husband, Franklin D. Roosevelt, was President of the United States. "This is My Story" was the first of four memoirs written by Roosevelt, the other three being: "This I Remember", "On My Own", and "The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt". It was very well received by critics and a financial success.
Background.
Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884 in New York City. A member of the prominent Roosevelt family, she grew up surrounded by material wealth, but had a difficult childhood, suffering the deaths of both of her parents and a brother before she was ten. Roosevelt was sent by relatives to the Allenswood School five years later. While there, Marie Souvestre, the founder of the school, influenced her. She wrote in "This is My Story" that "Whatever I have become had its seeds in those three years of contact with a liberal mind and strong personality." When she was eighteen, Roosevelt returned to New York and joined the National Consumers League. She married Franklin D. Roosevelt, her cousin, in 1905. They would have five children.
Eleanor was involved in her husband's political career as he won a seat in the New York State Senate in 1911 and traveled with him to Washington D.C. when he was made United States Secretary of War in Woodrow Wilson's cabinet. She became involved in volunteer work during World War I. In 1918, she discovered that Franklin was having an affair with Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd and resolved to develop her own life. She continued to help her husband in his political career but also began working in various reform movements, including the women's suffrage movement. As First Lady of the United States following Franklin's election as President of the United States in 1932, Eleanor "set the standard against which president's wives have been measured ever since", working to create opportunities for women, the establishment of the National Youth Administration, and championing civil rights for African-Americans. While Franklin was president she wrote 2,500 newspaper columns, 299 magazine articles, 6 books, and traveled around the country giving speeches.
Eleanor remained politically active after her husband's death, serving as the first United States Representative to the United Nations and chairing the United Nations Commission on Human Rights when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was drafted. She later chaired John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women before her death in 1962. The "American National Biography" concludes that she was "perhaps the most influential American woman of the twentieth century".
Writing and publication.
Eleanor wrote "This Is My Story" in 1936. The book was published in 1937 by Harper & Brothers. The first edition was 365 pages. It was an autobiographical account of Eleanor's life to shortly before Franklin's involvement in Al Smith's campaign for governor of New York in 1924. It was Eleanor's first autobiographical work to be published. The book was serialized in the "Ladies' Home Journal", which she had previously written for. The editors of the journal paid $75,000 for the rights. Publication in the "Journal" and the book were both very successfulthe book's first installment in the "Ladies Home Journal" sold 250,000 copies. The editors of the journal wrote that they made "the exciting discover that Eleanor Roosevelt's autobiography was read, in effect, by everyonein government, parlors, and slums." That year, Eleanor made $75,000 (), in part from the book (and also from speaking and publishing other works), which was more than her husband.
Reception.
Writing in "The New York Times", Katharine Woods reviewed the book very positively, concluding that it represented "the frank, unaffected, courageous story of an American woman's life, told in generosity, effectiveness and perception, and with the kind of objectivity which bespeaks the absence of any vanity, self complacence or pettiness" and that the book is "not only large-hearted and veracious but strikingly unusual and intensely individual and alive." Lloyd Morris in "The North American Review" wrote that the book received "almost unanimous praise" from the press and wrote that the book was "ingenious", and felt "the record" of the development of social consciousness during Eleanor's life was "admirably set forth." He concluded by calling the book "a vista of more complete individual function." A review published in the "El Paso Herald-Post" concluded that "it is good to find" a woman who "did not return to an empty social round, but put on her hat". The "St. Louis Globe-Democrat" wrote that the book "tells a personal story in an interesting manner" and felt "the reader, whose interest, we predict, will never lag, will find this a genuinely human story of a woman who is a great lady ... because of what she is," concluding that it "is the story of American womanhood at its best."


4th Parliament of British Columbia

The 4th Legislative Assembly of British Columbia sat from 1882 to 1886. The members were elected in the British Columbia general election held in July 1882. Robert Beaven formed a minority government in 1882. The Beaven government fell on a Motion of no confidence in January 1883. William Smithe formed a new government later that month.
There were four sessions of the 4th Legislature:
John Andrew Mara served as speaker.
Members of the 4th General Assembly.
The following members were elected to the assembly in 1882:
Notes:
By-elections.
By-elections were held for the following members appointed to the provincial cabinet, as was required at the time:
By-elections were held to replace members for various other reasons:


Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency

The presidency of Calvin Coolidge began on August 2, 1923, when Calvin Coolidge became President of the United States upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding, and ended on March 4, 1929.


Timeline of Michigan history


Lah-Toh County, Idaho Territory

Lah-Toh County was a county in Idaho Territory from 1864 to 1867.
Lah-Toh County was created by the Idaho Territorial Legislature in 1864 with Coeur d'Alene as its county seat. The name is Nez Perce for "the place of pine trees and pestle". The county was abolished in 1867. The portion of the county located south of the present Latah County line was transferred to Nez Perce County while the portion of the county north of Latah County joined Kootenai County.
The county was re-established in 1888 with different boundaries as Latah County.


Skinner Butte Cross controversy


Whatcom Museum

The Whatcom Museum (housed in the Old City Hall, Lightcatcher building and Syre Education Center) was originally built in 1892 as the city hall for the former town of New Whatcom, before it was joined with surrounding towns to form Bellingham, Washington. The building was designed in a Late Victorian style by Alfred Lee, a local architect, who used red brick and Chuckanut Sandstone for its construction. The design itself was an almost exact replica of the second Saginaw County Courthouse in Saginaw, Michigan (1884, Destroyed 1971), Designed by Fred W. Hollister.
At the time of construction, the building was situated on a bluff above Bellingham Bay. However, over the years, significant amounts of the waterfront were filled in to make more land. Currently, the building sits above Maritime Heritage Park.
The building served as city hall until 1936, and became part of the museum in 1941. In 1962, the fire damaged the building, but efforts from the community raised money to restore the building.
In 2009, The Whatcom Museum opened a location in the newly designed Lightcatcher building. The Lightcatcher, designed by Seattle-based Olson Kundig Architects, is named for its 37 feet high and 180 feet long translucent wall, which facilitates a number of energy saving strategies.
Currently, the Whatcom Museum is a three building campus that includes Old City Hall, Syre Education Center and Lightcatcher which encloses the Family Interactive Gallery (FIG).


Alaska (pamphlet)

Alaska, "lýsing á landi og lands-kostum, ásamt skýrslu innar íslenzku sendinefndar : um stofnun íslenzkrar nýlendu" is a pamphlet by Jón Ólafsson detailing Alaska and the possibility of founding an Icelandic colony there. Included in the pamphlet is the report of the Icelandic delegation. It was published in 1875 in Washington and re-published on February 26, 2005 by Project Gutenberg.
The report has high hopes and dreams of a future world where Icelandic will surpass English in the world following the founding of the colony and years of rapidly populating it. The report includes a calculation where 10 thousand Icelanders would form the colony and then double their numbers every 25 years, so that in three to four centuries they would number 100 million, covering the area from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean. From there Icelandic could spread south, replacing the degenerate English tongue, as it is put.
The author's youssef disdain for English is more evident as he describes it as "being a prostitute who has laid with every language of savages and idiots". The nature and weather of Alaska is detailed for the benefit of future settlers.
Although the proposal for colonization of Alaska never materialized, the report was cited in Alaskan government reports as late as 1904.


African immigration to Latin America

African immigrants to Latin America include citizens and residents of countries in Latin America who were born in, or with recent ancestors from Africa. This excludes descendants of people who were forcibly transported to the Americas through the Atlantic slave trade.
Yale University published a report on the increasing immigration of people from the African continent to countries in Latin America. This report explains this trend in immigration as being due to the stricter border controls and immigration policies by countries across Europe.
This report also cites rises in xenophobic sentiment across Europe as a reason for increased migration of African immigrants from Africa to Latin America.
Brazil is cited as having the largest black population of any country outside of Africa. Brazil's and most of Latin America's friendly immigration policies attract migration from people from the African countries who seek to be integrated into society. Access to free healthcare and Spanish education also incentivize immigration to Latin America.
History.
During the Portuguese Colonial War and Angolan and Mozambican Civil Wars, a large number of Angolans and Mozambicans (including white Angolans and Mozambicans of Portuguese descent) fled to Brazil (also a former Portuguese colony, as Portugal was also a major destination for refugees) and became citizens.
After the end of both wars, most migration across the Atlantic to Latin America was from West Africa, often due to political and socioeconomic instability, and a trend toward the tightening of border security in the European Union in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. The process of settlement and citizenship acquisition, however, has been eased for these immigrants due to the presence of pre-existing Black diaspora populations in such countries as Brazil, which has minimized local trends towards xenophobia or colorism.
Brazil.
Immigration to Brazil between the late 19th century to early 20th century.
In the period between the late 19th century and the early 20th century, Brazilian immigration policy became restrictive of migration by populations from Africa in an effort to shift the population's racial demographic from being diverse to a white majority one. These policies worked by encouraging migration of people of European descent and making it difficult for people of African descent to enter the country. This same stance was imposed on Asians. These policies differed sharply from policies in the United States that enforced segregation and racial inequality. Brazil's policies were rooted in its history of interracial blending and relationships between the native people of Brazil, Europeans, and Africans.
Paraguay.
In 1974, South Africa and Paraguay announced an attitude of friendship between the two states. It was the beginning of an era of friendship between countries on opposite sides of the Atlantic, coming at a period in which South Africa was isolated from the rest of the Western world which it had up to this point so depended on for support and recognition. South African efforts to form links with Latin American states was driven by a desire to oppose the world's efforts to isolate South Africa because of its policies of Apartheid. South Africa sought links with Paraguay to find new markets for its manufactured goods.


Timeline of Fauquier County, Virginia in the Civil War

Timeline of Fauquier County, Virginia in the Civil War
Fauquier County was the site of many American Civil War battles. These battles included (in order) the First Battle of Rappahannock Station, the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap, the Battle of Kelly's Ford, the Battle of Aldie, the Battle of Middleburg, the Battle of Upperville, the First and Second Battle of Auburn, the Battle of Buckland Mills, and the Second Battle of Rappahannock Station.
1862.
"How many now passing with careless hearts will 'ere another week be citizens of an unknown world? God have mercy on their noble souls. Our own dear boys may never return to their once peaceful and happy home. With fervent prayer we commend them to God who alone has the power to protect and save them."


Thomas Beekman

Thomas Beekman (July 4, 1790 – February 2, 1870) was an American politician and a U.S. Representative from New York.
Biography.
Thomas Beekman was born in Kinderhook, New York to John J. Beekman and Annatje Pruyn. His elder brother was Dr. John Pruyn Beekman (1788–1861), a member of the New York State Senate from 1845 to 1847.
Beekman studied law and became an attorney and farmer in Smithfield and later Peterboro.
Career.
Beekman served in local offices including Town Clerk, and was active in the militia as aide-de-camp to the commander of its 17th Division. Beekman was also active in the Anti-Masonic movement of the 1820s and 1830s.
Elected as an Anti-Jacksonian to the Twenty-first Congress Beekman was U. S. Representative for the twenty-second district of New York and served one term, from March 4, 1829, to March 3, 1831. In 1831 he was an unsuccessful Anti-Masonic candidate for the New York State Senate.
Beekman later moved back to Kinderhook, where he farmed, practiced law, was active in several businesses, including the Kinderhook National Bank, and served as Columbia County Excise Commissioner from 1857 to 1859. After his retirement in the 1860s he spent summers in Kinderhook and winters living with his daughter in New York City.
Death.
He was married to Lydia Van Schaack.
Beekman died in Kinderhook on February 2, 1870 (age 79 years, 213 days). He is interred at Kinderhook Reformed Church Cemetery, Kinderhook, Columbia County, New York, USA.


Nanepashemet

Nanepashemet (died 1619) was the leader, or Great Sachem, of the Pawtucket Confederation of Abenaki peoples in present-day New England before the landing of the Pilgrims. He ruled over a large part of what is now coastal Northeastern Massachusetts.
After his death in 1619, his wife, recorded by the English only as Squaw Sachem of Mistick, and three sons governed the confederation's territories, during the period of the Great Migration to New England by English Puritans from about 1620 to 1640. By 1633, only the youngest son of the three, "Wenepoykin," known to the colonists as "Sagamore George," had survived a major smallpox epidemic that year that decimated the tribes. He took over his brothers' territories as sachem, except for areas that had been ceded to colonists.
Biography.
By c. 1607, Nanepashemet controlled the lands from the Charles River of present-day Boston, north to the Piscataqua River in Portsmouth and west to the Concord River. His influence stretched north to the Pennacook tribe, which inhabited the White Mountains region of present-day New Hampshire. As a tribal area, the Pawtucket controlled several territories: Winnisemet (around present-day Chelsea, Massachusetts), Saugus or Swampscott (Lynn), Naumkeag (Salem) (see Naumkeag people), Agawam (Ipswich), Pentucket (Haverhill), from the coast going up the Merrimack. Daniel Gookin includes Piscataqua (Portsmouth, New Hampshire and Eliot, Maine) and Accominta (York, Maine) in the Pawtucket alliance. Other sources name Mishawum (Charlestown, Massachusetts), Mistic (Medford, Massachusetts), Musketaquid (Concord, Massachusetts) and Pannukog (Concord, New Hampshire) as Pawtucket territory.
Nanepashemet was respected by his people as a warrior and a leader. His name was translated as "the Moone God" by Puritan Roger Williams in his "A Key Into the Language of America." (1643/reprint 1827). Most historical accounts translate the chief's name as meaning "New Moon" (e.g., see B. B. Thatcher, 1839). Nanepashemet's tribe caught fish in the rivers and sea, dug and harvested shellfish, and raised corn on the Marblehead peninsula.
In 1617, he sent a party of warriors to aid the Penobscot tribe in their conflict with the Tarrantine of northern Maine. The Tarrantine were a warlike band, who did not practice agriculture and who supplemented their food supplies obtained by hunting with raids on the stores of more sedentary bands who cultivated crops and resided along the New England coast and its tidal rivers. They sent war parties to avenge the support of Nanepashemet for their Penobscot enemies. Sensing danger, Nanepashemet built a log fort near the Mystic River in present-day Medford. He directed his wife and children to move inland to reside with friendly Indian bands until the crisis passed.
In 1618, an epidemic of smallpox decimated his band, but Nanepashemet was spared because of his isolation in the fort. By 1619, the Tarrantines discovered his whereabouts, laid siege to the fort and ultimately killed Nanepashemet. Two years later, a party from the Plymouth Colony including Edward Winslow came across his fort and his grave.
Descendants.
Nanepashmet had a wife whose name has been lost, who is known only as the "Squaw Sachem." Their three sons are referred to in the colonial records as "Sagamore John," "Sagamore James," and "Sagamore George." She is often confused with Awashonks, who was the Squaw Sachem of the Sakonnets in Rhode Island, but the two women were contemporaries and not the same person.
Squaw Sachem.
Squaw Sachem of Mistick ruled the Pawtucket Confederation lands aggressively and capably after Nanepashmet's death. In 1639 she deeded the land of what was then Cambridge and Watertown to the colonists, an area in present-day terms that covers much of the Greater Boston area, including Newton, Arlington, Somerville, and Charlestown. She lived her last years on the west side of the Mystic Lakes, where she died in 1650. She is remembered on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
Sagamore John.
His real name was "Wonohaquaham." He controlled what is now Charlestown, Medford, Revere, Winthrop, and Chelsea. In 1631, Gov. Thomas Dudley wrote that he did not command more than 30-40 men. Sagamore John was friendly to the colonists and was known to warn them of impending attacks by unfriendly Indians. Gov. John Winthrop wrote that he died in 1633 of smallpox, "and almost all of his people."
He is mentioned in the poem "Mogg Hegone" (1836) by John Greenleaf Whittier. A monument to Sagamore John was installed in Medford in a place called Sagamore Park.
Sagamore James.
His real name was "Montowampate." He controlled the Saugus, Lynn and Marblehead areas, and died in 1633 during the smallpox epidemic.
Sagamore George.
His real name was "Wenepoykin." The youngest of the three sons, he survived the 1633 smallpox epidemic, becoming known as "no-nose" in some records due to disfigurement from this disease. He inherited the lands of both his brothers from Charlestown up to Salem. He may have been sold into slavery and shipped to the Caribbean island of Barbados at the end of King Philip's War, but was rescued after eight years. His descendants signed the Indian Deed to Salem, Massachusetts.


Boones Ferry

Boones Ferry (also Boone's Ferry) was a cable ferry which crossed the Willamette River near present-day Wilsonville, Oregon, United States, from 1847 to 1954. It was part of a major land-based thoroughfare in pioneer times linking fledgling Portland with the pre-territorial government at Champoeg, and later Salem. It was eventually made obsolete by the Boone Bridge on Interstate 5.
History.
The ferry was built by the family of Alphonso Boone (grandson of Daniel Boone) who, in 1846, claimed
on and around present day Charbonneau which was on the main road between Oregon City and present day Butteville.
The family cleared a path and laid a split log roadway north to Portland and south toward Salem. The ferry was propelled by oarsmen from the nearby Tuality Indian tribe. Alphonso was adamant about operating the ferry 24 hours a day.
When word of the California gold rush reached the area in 1848, Alphonso and his sons headed south. Alphonso died either February 1, 1850, or February 27, 1850,
in the gold fields of a miner's disease, but his sons returned with their fortunes. Initially Alphonso, Jr. operated the ferry, but soon sold it to his brother Jesse, who operated it until his death in 1872 at the hand of a neighbor over a river access dispute. Afterward, the ferry was owned and operated by several people for a few years, before it passed to Clackamas County. By the early 1900s, the State of Oregon controlled it.
Shortly after the establishment of Boones Ferry, the community of Boones Landing was established and quickly grew. It was the precursor of Wilsonville.
The completion of the "Baldock Freeway Bridge" (now Boone Bridge) in 1954 resulted in decommissioning of the ferry, which made up to 300 trips per day, carrying up to 12 autos at a time.
Many sections of the road are still in use and named "Boones Ferry Road", which closely parallels contemporary Interstate 5.
Today, at the end of one of the road fragments on the north shore is "Boones Ferry Park", in Wilsonville, located where one terminal was; the south shore has a marina with a boat ramp in approximately the historical location of the other terminal. The ferry crossing site is about 2000 ft (600 m) west of I-5 and is visible from the southbound lanes of the Boone Bridge.


KCWK

KCWK, VHF analog channel 9, was a television station licensed to Walla Walla, Washington, United States. The station was owned by Pappas Telecasting. It was most recently affiliated with The CW, and had a low-powered repeater (KCWK-LP, UHF channel 27) in Yakima. The station went off the air on May 25, 2008.
History.
The station went on air for the first time on March 23, 2001, as KBKI. In 2003, it changed its call sign to KAZW-TV and became affiliated with the Spanish-language Azteca América network. It was mainly targeted at the Hispanic community in Central Washington.
On April 24, 2006, it was announced that KAZW would launch a CW affiliate on digital subchannel 9.2, with programming being provided by The CW Plus. However, the station, which did not have a digital signal, subsequently changed its plans and chose to completely replace Azteca América with The CW, citing better marketing potential. Mike Angelos, Vice President of Corporate Communications for Pappas Telecasting, stated that while the Yakima Valley has a 40 percent Hispanic population, the numbers weren't high enough to reach the level needed for Azteca América. The call letters were changed to KCWK in August 2006 to reflect the new affiliation.
On May 10, 2008, KCWK, along with several other Pappas stations, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. On May 25, 2008, the KCWK signal went off the air permanently; four days later, the station's offices were found to be empty, strongly indicating that KCWK had ceased operations.
On July 18, 2008, KCWK reported to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that digital television equipment needed in time for the upcoming 2009 digital transition had not yet been obtained, as this could not be done without prior approval of the bankruptcy court. The station had applied to extend the digital construction permit necessary to retain the broadcast license, but due to both equipment failure and financial hardship, it is expected that the station's currently silent analog signal will not return.
KCWK was one of two Pappas stations required to both end analog broadcasting and install new equipment to begin digital transmission (a flash-cut) on the 2009 DTV deadline. As full-service stations established after digital companion channels were assigned to existing full-service broadcasters, KCWK and Pappas-owned WWAZ-TV in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin had no existing digital transmitter facilities. KCWK remained silent, while Pappas negotiated several items with the FCC and ABC Owned Television Stations to allow WWAZ to return to the air eventually as WIWN while ABC's WLS-TV took its former digital channel slot to provide UHF digital television service to Chicago. All other full-service Pappas television stations had been simulcasting in both analog and digital formats long before the company entered chapter 11 bankruptcy and therefore had sufficient equipment on hand to continue to broadcast their signals digitally in 2009.
On January 16, 2009, it was announced that several Pappas stations, including the license for KCWK, would be sold to New World TV Group, after the sale received United States bankruptcy court approval. In the interim, Fisher Communications announced that their CBS affiliates KIMA-TV/KEPR-TV would each launch CW subchannels on March 31, 2009 to fill KCWK's void. Central Washington Charter Communications viewers received KTLA from Los Angeles as a temporary replacement after KCWK went silent; Dish Network viewers also received KTLA.
The KCWK license was canceled by the FCC on June 2, 2009, and the KCWK-LP license was later deleted. As a result, the new CW Plus digital subchannels of KIMA-TV and KEPR-TV became long-term.
Despite having ceased broadcasting on May 25, 2008, KCWK's website remained operational for two years afterwards.
Digital television.
The station did not receive a companion channel for a digital television station, because it was granted an original construction permit after the FCC finalized the DTV allotment plan on April 21, 1997. Instead, KCWK would have been required to turn off its analog signal and turn on its digital signal (called a "flash-cut") on or before the 2009 end of the digital TV conversion period for full-service stations. As KCWK did not acquire its digital transmitter and antenna, it was unable to complete the mandatory digital transition and never resumed broadcasting.
Low-powered satellite KCWK-LP had voluntarily filed for a digital "-LD" license on channel 36. That application has since been deleted from the FCC database.


The Oregon Desert

The Oregon Desert is a non-fiction book about the high desert region of eastern Oregon. It highlights both the people and natural history of Oregon's high desert country using serious science, first-hand narrative history, and humorous anecdotal stories. It was written by E. R. Jackman and R. A. Long. The book was first published in 1964 and has never been out of print since its initial release.
Authors.
Edwin Russell (E.R.) Jackman was an American agricultural expert from Oregon. He worked for Oregon State University as a rural extension agent and a farm crop specialist from 1929 until 1959. In this capacity, he advised local farmers and ranchers on modern agricultural techniques, land use, and conservation practices. His professional papers and photograph collection are in the Oregon State University archives. This includes his original notes, publication draft, and correspondence related to "The Oregon Desert" book.
R. A. (Reub) Long was a rancher and local historian from Fort Rock in south-central Oregon. He was widely known as a cowboy philosopher and witty story teller. He was also a long-time member of Oregon's State Board of Agriculture and donated property to the State of Oregon to create Fort Rock State Natural Area. A generation after his death, Long is still one of Oregon's best-known story tellers. This is due in part to the success of "The Oregon Desert".
Jackman and Long began working together on conservation projects in the 1940s. This was the beginning of a lifelong friendship. In 1964, the two men got together to write "The Oregon Desert", a book about the natural history and people of Oregon's high desert. According to the Caxton Press, "Reub Long is a cowboy who thinks like a scientist and E. R. Jackman is a scientist who thinks like a cowboy. Together they produced a book about a unique region of the American West and its inhabitants, filled with history, lore, and humor."
Synopsis.
"The Oregon Desert" highlights the people, places, plants, and animals of Oregon's high desert. Jackman contributed scholarly chapters on geology, geography, flora, fauna, and the life of Native Americans in the high desert. Long added first-hand narratives about his life on the high desert using humorous anecdotal stories. According to Oregon Public Broadcasting, the book "successfully blended natural science with cowboy humor and scholarly prose with casual meanderings. It is a celebration of rural Western storytelling."
Chapters.
"The Oregon Desert" has 407 pages with 118 photographs and illustrations. The book is divided into 23 chapters with nine short appendices along with the "Index" at the end.
Jackman was the book's primary writer. Long was a story teller so the chapters attributed to him were dictated to Jackman, who then prepared the entire volume for publication.
The book's appendices are very eclectic. They provide additional information on Spanish words used in the text, Oregon's horse population over time, the area where Reub Long caught wild horses, horse buyer's jargon, cattle brands, how the word "coyote" is used, Oregon's basic life zones, bobcat food, and high desert ghost towns.
Reviews.
From its first release in 1964, "The Oregon Desert" has received excellent reviews from numerous sources. On 7 October 1964, the Eugene "Register-Guard" newspaper said:
To commemorate Oregon's sesquicentennial in 2009, the Oregon State Library recommended 150 Oregon-related books including "The Oregon Desert". According to the Oregon State Library, this book is "a classic account of the places, events, animals and people in the High Desert region."
In highlighting "The Oregon Desert" in its section on Oregon authors and books, the Oregon Blue Book quoted from Google Books as follows:
Publication.
"The Oregon Desert" is published by Caxton Press of Caldwell, Idaho. The book was first published in 1964. The book has never been out of print since its first edition in 1964. As of 2003, the book is in its fourteenth printing. Here are the publication dates for each printing from 1964 to the current edition which was published in 2003.
The University of Nebraska Press distributes the 2003 edition for the Caxton Press.


Michel Band

The Michel Band is an Indigenous nation of central Alberta, Canada which the Government of Canada recognized as a nation and treaty partner from 1878 to 1958. The descendents of that historic band, now organized as an association called the Michel First Nation, are engaged in legal and political action to regain recognition.
The Michel Band was also referred to as the Michel Caillehoo, Michel Caillehouis, Michel Caillehow, Michel Calihoo, Michel Calistrois, or Michel Calliho Band, referring to the name of their chief at the time that they signed Treaty 6 with the Canadian Crown by adhesion on September 3, 1878.
In 1880, a Indian reserve was surveyed as "Michel I.R. 132" on the Sturgeon River, about from the Roman Catholic mission at St. Albert, northwest of Edmonton near the present-day town site of Villenevue. The reserve was described and surveyed in September 1880 by G.A. Simpsona as "to a post on the right bank of the Sturgeon River and thence easterly along the said bank of the river to the point of beginning, containing an area of forty square miles more or less." and formalized by Order in Council PC 1151 on May 17, 1889.
Like all First Nations in the Edmonton area, the Michel Band members came under government and settler pressure to surrender their agricultural land. Land sales marked by government corruption steadily eroded their land base through the next half-century. In 1959 the entire band was "enfranchised"—removed from status as Indians in exchange for the right to vote in Canadian elections and removal from the strictures of the "Indian Act" on March 31, 1958, by Order in Council P.C. 375. The Michel Band was the only one in Canada to be enfranchised during the twentieth century.
The people of the modern-day Michel First Nation have ancestry primarily from the Iroquois, Cree and Métis ethnic groups. In 1998, there were over 700 registered descendants.
History.
Michel band, composed of Iroquois and their leader, called "Yellowhead", travelled from the east to avoid assassination because of a bounty offered by the American government for provable deaths of Iroquois people. Iroquois Yellowhead was rumoured to be a descendant of the French Crown from a period when the Iroquois were invited and visited the French King. He, Yellowhead, believed he had to leave the east to avoid being assassinated during the French Revolution, because of his rumored connection to the French aristocracy.
When Yellowhead came to St. Albert, in Alberta, he appealed to Father Lacombe to arrange a home for himself and his people; his family. Michel Reserve north of St. Albert, became their land base. Almost the entire band enfranchised; gave up their Reserve and Treaty rights, when Alberta became a province in 1905, because as Iroquois people, their style of government was based on voting, [American democracy is based on the Iroquois style of government, each individual having the right to vote] and when the colonial government decided that Indians on reserves, and Indigenous people who signed treaties, were not allowed to vote, most of Michel Band gave up their reserve, their treaty rights and moved into St. Albert so that they could vote.
In 1958, the Michel Band became the only First Nation in Canada in the 20th century to enfranchise.
In 1985 many descendants of the historic Michel Band regained Indian status through Bill C-31. They have since that time lobbied the federal government to once again recognize them as an Indian band with Aboriginal and treaty rights.
Many Michel Band members trace their ancestry to Louis Callihoo, a name used by people who could not spell his Iroquois name. He was called "Yellowhead" and known as Kara Komptee, Kwarakwante. He was Mohawk (Mohawks are part of the Iroquois confederacy), born in 1782, Sault St. Louis, in what is now called Kahnawake, Quebec.
He was known as "Le Soleil Voyageur", which may be a reference to the rumored relationship to the French aristocracy; the French king, Louis XIV, known as "the Sun King".
In 1800, Louis Kwarkwante, Yellowhead, signed on as a voyageur with the North West Company (a clerk changed his name to Caliheue) and travelled west from Montreal to Northern Alberta to work as a fur trader. He married three local women (a Sekani Native and two French-Cree Métis sisters). Mohawk, an Iroquois language, may at one time have been the language of the band, but by the late 19th Century Father Albert Lacombe wrote that most band members spoke Cree or French. It seems likely that Michif, a mixed Cree-French language, was used by the Michel Band.
Michel Band’s descendants still live across Canada. Descendants such as bassist, filmmaker, and photographer Tegan Armstrong number among them.
The Michel Band emerged as a distinct cultural and kinship group during the Canadian fur trade.
Daniel Garacontié.
Daniel Garacontié (also spelled Garagonthie, Garakontie, and Garakontié) an Onondaga sachem, chief and orator, first travelled northwest from the communities of Caughnawaga and St.Regis. Generations of Iroquois had been trapping furs for a living and had become proficient in the trading of goods to maintain a comfortable lifestyle in the St.Lawrence River and Great Lakes regions.
The Iroquois were politically governed by the traditional customs and governance of the Great Law of Peace. In 1645 Iroquois headmen began treating the Frenchmen of Trois-Rivières, the Hurons, and Algonquins. In their dealings with the French, Iroquois diplomats adapted the language and rituals of the Great Law of Peace to create the protocol for intercultural diplomacy. In 1654, Daniel Garakontie or "The Moving Sun" was the Great Sachem of the Iroquois Confederacy."Five whole Nations address thee through my mouth. I have in my heart the sentiments of all the Iroquois Nations - and my tongue is faithful to my heart." -GarakontieGarakontie was known as "Sagochiendagehte" ("the name bearer") the Council name of the Onondaga - a status he occupied as its principal speaker. Garakontie was his family name and not his hereditary title, thus his status as speaker and chief diplomat was achieved, not ascribed by his membership into the Bear Clan. The first references to Garakontié reveal him struggling to preserve the general peace of 1653.
While in Quebec Garakontie proclaimed his faith in Christianity. Garakontié was baptized in the Cathedral of Quebec. He announced he would no longer sponsor dream feasts and declared the Iroquois cosmology was a fable. Traditionalist Iroquois headmen maintained that Garakontie had become French and untrustworthy The Jesuits had not only created Catholic converts, but also strong Christian and Traditionalist factions that brought unprecedented disquiet to Iroquois communities.
By the late 1660s Jesuit missionaries encouraged increasing numbers of Catholic Iroquois to desert their homes for the mission villages in Canada; by the mid 1670s over two-hundred had departed. The lack of pelts to trade and warfare created serious economic hardship in Iroquoia. In 1700, over 500 of their 2000 warriors had been killed, captured, or had deserted to Catholic missions.
Louis Kwarakwante.
Louis Kwarakwante ("The Sun Traveller") was born in 1782 near the Catholic Mission of Saul St. Louis of Caughnawaga. It is speculated that Louis was Mohawk. The name Kwarakwante appears to be an incorrect translation of Garakontie. Records list his surname variously as "Karaconti. Karaquienthe, Caraquanti." Louis also went by the surname of Callihoo, which derived from "Karhioo" meaning "Tall Forest" in Iroquois. Many members of his family, especially those who went west with the Fur Trade, had the name Karakontie bestowed on them by the clergy. Louis Kwarakwante was likely a grandson of Daniel Garakontie.
As early as 1800, the North West Company began to employ Iroquois voyagers. Colin Robertson said he preferred the Iroquois voyageurs to French-Canadians in a rapid or dangerous river crossing "for their calmness and presence of mind which never forsakes them in the greatest danger." This was still a common trend even up until 1872, when George Grant remarked:"Our crews were chiefly Iroquois Indians from Caugh-naw-aga, near Montreal, the best voyagers known, according to the testimony of everyone who has tried them. The Iroquois made the engagement for the trip, and hired a few Ojibways bear the Shebandowan and Fort Francis to make up the necessary number. They were as fine-looking, clean-limbed men as one's eye could desire to rest on, punctual, diligent, uncomplaining, and reserving their chief affection for their canoes. As a jockey cherishes his horse and shepherd his dog, so do they care for their canoe." The NWC undoubtedly hired Iroquois from Caughnawaga not only for their experience, but also their familiarity with the Catholic clergy and the habitant seigneuries who had land holdings in the Missions. The Regardless, the bark longhouses still resembled those of in Mohawk Valley, and traditional agriculture was still practiced. In this Mission, Louis Callihoo learned his catechism and his prayers in his native tongue. He spoke French and later many other languages as well, which no doubt made his commercial dealings easier. He was contracted as a canoemen on November 23, 1800 by McTavish, Frobisher & Company, agents of the NWC.
Enfranchisement and legal dispute.
The Michel First Nation's position is summarized though testimony at the Indigenous and Northern Affairs Committee on April 9, 2008, by Chief Rosalind Callihoo:
I am the great-great-granddaughter of Michel Callihoo, who signed treaty in 1878 by an adhesion to Treaty No. 6. I'm here today on behalf of over 700 members of the Michel First Nation who were reinstated under Bill C-31.
I would like to present to the committee today the issue of discrimination throughout the Michel history. The whole band was enfranchised in 1958 under section 112 of the "Indian Act", which was later repealed because it was deemed to be discriminatory.
Bill C-31 was also discriminatory. I stated that 700-plus members have been reinstated. However, there are probably approximately the same number who were not reinstated because they were enfranchised under the band enfranchisement. Bill C-31 did not address that. They only addressed individual enfranchisement.
My third comment regarding discrimination is the specific claims policy and access to it. In 1998 we had concluded an inquiry from the Indian Claims Commission. That inquiry made a recommendation to Canada that Canada should grant the Michel First Nation special standing to file a specific claim. In 2002, after four years, the Minister of Indian Affairs of the day refused to give us that special standing, and the recommendation was not adopted.
Our sole recommendation here today to this committee is to propose an amendment to the definition of first nation in Bill C-30. In order to bring a claim before the Specific Claims Tribunal, a first nation must meet the first nation definition under section 2 of the "Indian Act". This defines first nation to mean a band as defined under the act. This definition needs to be expanded to include the Michel First Nation, which would be a first nation if not for Canada's breach of lawful obligation, because Canada's breach goes directly to the status of the Michel First Nation.
The Indian Claims Commission did note that Canada should not benefit because of a technicality. In our case, Canada is still benefiting from its own wrongful act; it points to its own discrimination as the justification for not granting us status as standing under the policy. Parliament would continue this wrong by enacting Bill C-30 without the requested amendment.
One of the purposes of Bill C-30, and the reason why it was endorsed by the Assembly of First Nations, is that it removes the non-binding status of recommendations under the former Indian Claims Commission. Bill C-30 is a positive step, and we endorse it. However, the benefits of Bill C-30, as it is currently drafted, exclude us because of the catch-22 position we are in. We are not recognized as a band, but we say we should be a band. We can't argue that we should be a band.
The basic principles and values of Canadian society are reflected in the constitutional provisions designed to protect the rights of aboriginal peoples, to abolish discrimination. These basic principles and values need to be applied to our situation. We have the same issues before us as all the other first nations in Canada; however, we have no platform to bring them forward.
We respectfully urge the committee to recommend that Bill C-30 be amended so we may have equal access to the legal processes that Bill C-30 set out.


Joseph Mullin

Joseph Mullin (August 6, 1811May 17, 1882) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.
Early life.
Mullin was born near Dromore, County Down, Ireland on August 6, 1811. He came to the United States in 1820 with his parents, and they settled in Watertown, New York. He attended Union Academy at Belleville, and graduated from Union College in 1833.
Career.
Following his graduation from Union College, he taught school and was Principal of Union Academy, and subsequently taught at Watertown Academy. Then he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1837.
Mullin was District Attorney of Jefferson County from 1843 to 1845. He was elected as a Whig to the 30th United States Congress, holding office from March 4, 1847, to March 3, 1849. He was President of the Village of Watertown in 1853 and 1854.
In 1855, he ran on the Republican ticket for the New York Court of Appeals, but was defeated by the American Party candidate George F. Comstock.
He was a justice of the New York Supreme Court (5th District) from 1858 to 1881, and was ex officio a judge of the Court of Appeals in 1864. He retired from the bench in January 1881.
Personal life.
On January 29, 1837, he married Lydia Maria Ten Eyck (1815–1884), a daughter of fellow U.S. Representative Egbert Ten Eyck. Together, they were the parents of five children: Anthony Ten Eyck Mullin, Catherine Mullin, Lydia Mullin, Rebecca Ten Eyck Mullin, and Joseph Mullin (1848–1897), who served in the New York State Senate.
Mullin died on May 17, 1882 in Saratoga Springs, New York. He was buried at the Brookside Cemetery, in Watertown.


Nathaniel Thayer Jr.

Nathaniel Thayer II (11 September 1808 in Lancaster, Massachusetts – 7 March 1883 in Boston) was a United States financier, philanthropist, and the father of John Eliot Thayer II, an amateur ornithologist.
Early life.
He was the son of Nathaniel Thayer I (1769–1840), a Unitarian congregational minister of Lancaster, Massachusetts, and Sarah Parker Toppan, daughter of Christopher Toppan and Sarah Parker. He was educated in an academy in Lancaster.
Banking.
His brother John Eliot Thayer I had been operating a successful banking firm in Boston. When he needed more people, he asked Nathaniel Thayer II to be his business partner, now calling the firm John E. Thayer and Brother. The firm was active in the development of railroads in the western United States, several of which Thayer was a director. The firm was also involved with other enterprises such as manufacturing which required large amounts of capital. Thayer became senior director of the firm on the death of his brother in 1857. He gradually acquired a large fortune.
He was known as the “honest banker” because he sold money at the legal rate unlike most, for the time. In 1865 Nathaniel Thayer II retired, sold his business to his partners and lived primarily in The Homestead for “he preferred the woods and fields to the streets and crowds”. He then lived in Lancaster with his wife Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer until his death in 1883.
Philanthropy.
He was a fellow of Harvard in 1868-1875, and one of its largest benefactors. He contributed to a commons hall, erected Thayer Hall in 1870 as a memorial of his father and brother, bore the expenses of Louis Agassiz's expedition to South America (which was known as the Thayer Expedition), built a fire-proof herbarium at the botanic garden, and gave much in aid of poor students of the college. He was one of the most generous citizens of Boston.
Personal life.
He married Cornelia Paterson Van Rensselaer (1823–1897), daughter of Stephen Van Rensselaer IV, in 1846. Together, they had seven children:
Although Nathaniel Thayer II lived in Boston for many years, he always regarded himself as belonging to Lancaster. He is quoted as saying "Lancaster is my greatest monument."
Descendants.
His granddaughter, Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer (b. 1881) married Danish Count Carl Moltke (1869–1935) in 1907.
The family lived in that house along with their other two houses, one in Boston and the other in Newport RI called The Edgemere.
Honors and memberships.
Elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1866.