History of Bangkok

The history of the city of Bangkok, in Thailand, dates at least to the early–15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late–19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and "coups d'état" having taken place on its streets throughout the years.
Under Ayutthaya.
It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as "Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi" () in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.
At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai Canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name "Bang Ko" (), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (, pronounced in Thai as ). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from "Bang Makok" (), "makok" being the name of "Spondias pinnata", a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named "Wat Makok". Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as "Thonburi Si Mahasamut" (). "Bangkok" was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.
The importance of Bangkok–Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the "Globe", an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city..."
Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totaling about one thousand men.
French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.
Thonburi.
Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.
King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.
Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.
Rattanakosin.
Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng. (The area is now Bangkok's Chinatown.) Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.
The formal date of the city's establishment is the date of the erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city "Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya" (). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: "Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya". While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the
 and the refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:
Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.
The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as "Rattanakosin", a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name "Krung Thep" and "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon", both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name "Bangkok", which has seen continued use until this day.
Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.
At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.
Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early–19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835.
Modernization.
By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–68) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–64. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.
King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.
With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs ("Nakhonban"). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.
20th century.
By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945 British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king Ananda Mahidol, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane ().
As a result of pro–Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways was built and expanded. Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade. Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok. Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early–1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.
Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named "Phra Nakhon" (.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.


Surya Malla

Surya Malla was the second king of Kantipur. He ruled from 1520 to 1530. According to the Bhāsāvamsävali and Padmagiri's Vamsävali, he captured Sankhu and made it his capital.


P.T. Punnoose

P.T Punnoose (20 November 1911 – 1971) was an Indian politician. He was elected to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India from the Ambalapuzha in Kerala.
Early life and education.
P.T Punnoose was born on 20 November 1911 at Thiruvalla in Travancore. His father was I. Thomas. He was educated at Changanacherry and Trivandrum.
Marriage and children.
P.T. Punnoose married Rosamma Punnoos who was a Catholic and later leader of the Communist Party of India (CPI), in 1946. Punnoose was a Marthoma Syrian. No marriage between a Catholic woman and a Marthoma man had ever occurred in the region, at the time. Besides which, Rosamma's family supported the Indian National Congress, and objected to her marrying a communist. Furthermore, he was wanted by police and authorities who were conducting a crackdown against communists at the time. As with all Christian weddings between communist couples, at the time, the two were married at a church in Cochin with a special letter of consent from the Pope. He had to be brought to the church quietly to evade to police. They have two children a daughter and son.
Political view.
P.T. Punnoose was one of the early leaders of communist movement in Kerala. He had started his political career at Congress during the time of freedom struggle. He was attracted to ideologies of Communist Party of India. He remained in the CPI after the historical split in 1964.


Akagi Castle

 was a castle structure in Kumano, Mie, Japan.
History.
Akagi Castle was built in 1589 by Tōdō Takatora. Takatora spent 11 years in the catle.
Current.
Akagi castle is now only ruins, with some stone walls　and moats. The castle was listed as one of　the Continued Top 100 Japanese Castles in 2017.


Thihapate of Yamethin

Thihapate of Yamethin (, ; also known as Chauk-Hse Shin, lit. "Lord of Sixty Elephants") was governor of Yamethin in the 1330s and the 1340s during the Pinya Period. The second son of King Uzana I of Pinya considered a rebellion against his half-uncle Kyawswa I of Pinya who pushed out his father from power but ultimately decided against it.
Brief.
He was born Min Htwe to Crown Prince Uzana and his chief wife Atula Maha Dhamma Dewi. His father became king in 1325 but his half-uncle Kyawswa remained a serious rival to his father. Uzana was never able to consolidate power in the following years. Although Htwe was not the eldest son—Htwe had an older brother, Sithu Min Oo—Htwe came to be relied upon by his father. He was appointed governor of Yamethin with the title of Thihapate in the late 1330s. When his father lost the power struggle with Kyawswa between 1340 and 1344, Thihapate, who then commanded a standing regiment of 60 war elephants, 800 cavalry and 1000 infantry, seriously considered a rebellion against Kyawswa. But he failed to persuade Gov. Saw Mon Hnit of Nyaungyan to join him in rebellion. He finally agreed to submit to Kyawswa, who had sent a conciliatory gift—a rare black stallion from Onbaung.
His name does not appear in the royal chronicles afterwards. Given that he was no longer governor of Yamethin in 1351 as Swa Saw Ke became governor, Thihapate may have died by then, or may have been removed from office.
Ancestry.
Prince Min Htwe was descended from the Pagan royalty from both sides. His parents were half siblings, children of King Kyawswa of Pagan.


Kuprlli

Kuprlli (in Lycian KO𐊓PΛΛE, circa 480-440 BC) was a dynast of Lycia, at a time when this part of Anatolia was subject to the Persian, or Achaemenid, Empire. Kuprlli ruled at the time of the Athenian alliance, the Delian League.
Present-day knowledge of Lycia in the period of classical antiquity comes mostly from archaeology, in which this region is unusually rich. There is evidence of a fire that destroyed the wooden tombs and temples of Xanthos in around 470 BC. This fire was probably caused by Cimon of Athens when he attacked the sacred citadel in retaliation for the destruction of the Athenian Acropolis by the Persians and their allies, including the Lycians, in 480 BC. The Xanthians, under their dynast, Kuprlli, rebuilt the buildings in stone, which are reflected in the numerous Tombs of Xanthos visible today.


Chodaganga of Polonnaruwa

Chodaganga was King of Polonnaruwa in the twelfth century, who ruled from 1196 to 1197. He succeeded his uncle Vikramabahu II, whom he usurped as king of Polonnaruwa and ruled for nine months before he was deposed and deprived of his eyes by the General Senevirat who installed Lilavati, wife of Parakramabahu I. Chodaganga was also a nephew of Nissanka Malla.


Cabinet of the State of East Indonesia

The Cabinet of the State of East Indonesia was the part of the government of the State of East Indonesia (NIT), and comprised ministers appointed by the head of state. During the three-year lifetime of the state, there were seven cabinets.
First Nadjamoedin Daeng Malewa cabinet.
At the Denpasar Conference (18-24 December 1946), organised by Acting Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Hubertus van Mook, the State of East Indonesia was established, Balinese noble Tjokorda Gde Raka Soekawati was elected head of state and Nadjamoeddin Daeng Malewa was appointed as prime minister designate. Following discussions between the two men in Jakarta, the cabinet was announced on 13 January 1947 with the composition as follows:
As the provisional legislature had achieved very little in its first session, a number of its members proposed giving the cabinet unlimited powers to pass laws pending their later approval by the legislature. The cabinet would resign to allow the prime minister a free rein to make new appointments and form a cabinet with majority political support. Nadjamoeddin Daeng Malewa held a series of meetings with political supporters and opponents in late May 1947 to decide on the composition of his revised cabinet.
Second Nadjamoedin Daeng Malewa cabinet.
The second Nadjamoedin Daeng Malewa cabinet was announced on 31 May 1947. its composition was
In December 1947, Prime Minister Nadjamoeddin Daeng Malewa was charged with corruption, ending his term of office and his second cabinet.
Warrouw cabinet.
The Warrouw cabinet was formed on 10 October 1947 and sworn in the following day. Its composition was:
The Warrouw cabinet was accused of being too supportive of the Dutch military offensive launched against the areas controlled by Indonesian republicans in July 1947, and was brought down by the legislative assembly.
First Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung cabinet.
The first Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung cabinet was sworn in on 15 December 1947. Its composition was as follows:
This was the first cabinet to include supporters of the Indonesian Republic, and on 23 December 1947, it toned down the government's support for the July 1947 Dutch military action. At midnight on 19 December 1948, the Dutch launched another military attack against the Republic of Indonesia, and the cabinet of the State of East Indonesia resigned in protest.
Second Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung cabinet.
The second Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung cabinet was formed and sworn in on 12 January 1949. Its composition was as follows:
Following the transfer of sovereignty from the Netherlands to the United States of Indonesia (RUSI) a result of the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference, Anak Agung was appointed foreign minister in the RUSI cabinet, and submitted his resignation as Prime Minister of East Indonesia.
J.E. Tatengkeng cabinet.
The J.E. Tatengkeng cabinet was sworn in on 27 December 1949. Its composition was as follows:
Following elections, the provisional legislature was disbanded on 20 February 1950, and the cabinet also resigned. The following day, the elected representatives took their seats. Justice Minister Chris Soumokil subsequently fled to Ambon and established the Republic of South Maluku
D.P. Diapari cabinet.
The D.P. Diapari cabinet was sworn in on 14 March 1950. Its composition was as follows:
Since the elected parliament convened, it had been divided between federalists, who supported the government of the NIT and the concept of the federal United States of Indonesia, and the opposition unitarians, who wanted a return to a unitary Indonesian republic. The two main federalist factions repeatedly called for the government to dismantle the State of East Indonesia, and subsequently one of the factions supporting the government called for the cabinet to resign and be replaced by one that was more broadly representative of the legislature. The motion was passed on 25 April, and the cabinet resigned.
J. Poetoehena cabinet.
The pro-republican J. Poetoehena cabinet was tasked with making preparations for the integration of the State of Indonesia into a unitary Republic of Indonesia. Its composition was as follows:
On 19 May 1950, following negotiations between the United States of Indonesia (representing the State of East Indonesia and the State of East Sumatra) and the Republic of Indonesia, agreement was reached to create a unitary Indonesian state. This state was formed on 15 August 1950, and given that this meant the State of East Indonesia no longer existed, Poetoehena and his cabinet resigned on 16 August.


Harihara II

Harihara II (1342–1404 CE) was an emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire from the Sangama Dynasty. He patronised Kannada poet Madhura, a Jaina. An important work on Vedas was completed during his time. He earned the titles "Vaidikamarga Sthapanacharya" and "Vedamarga Pravartaka".
Biography.
He became ruler when Bukka Raya I died in 1377 and ruled till his death in 1404. He was succeeded by Virupaksha Raya.
During his reign, he continued to extend the kingdom's territory through fighting against the Reddis of Kondavidu for control of the Andhra between Nellore and Kalinga. From the Reddis of Kondavidu, Harihara II conquered the Addanki and Srisailam areas as well as most of the territory between the peninsula to the south of the river Krishna, which would eventually lead to fights in Telangana with the Velamas of Rachakonda. Harihara II took advantage of the death of Mujahid Bahmani in 1378 and extended his control into the northwest, controlling such ports as Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol.
Harihara II ruled from the capital Vijayanagara now more popularly known as Hampi. What is believed to be the ruins of Harihara's palace is located among the Hampi ruins.
His general Iruguppa was a disciple of Simhanandi, a Jain teacher. He built a tank for Gomatteshvara (Bahubali) and the stone temple of Kumthu-Jinanatha at Vijayanagara.
During his fight against the Reddis of Kondavidu, he delegated the rule of Mysore and the task of fighting the Dalvoys in Mysore to Yaduraya, thereby appointing the first ruler of another mighty future-kingdom.


SMS Jaguar

SMS "Jaguar" was the second member of the of gunboats built for the German "Kaiserliche Marine" (Imperial Navy) in the late 1890s and early 1900s, for overseas service in the German colonial empire. Other ships of the class are SMS Iltis, SMS Luchs, SMS Tiger, SMS Eber and SMS Panther.
Design.
"Jaguar" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple-expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller, with steam supplied by four coal-fired Thornycroft boilers. "Jaguar" could steam at a top speed of at . The ship had a cruising radius of about at a speed of . She had a crew of 9 officers and 121 enlisted men. "Jaguar" was armed with a main battery of four SK L/30 guns, with 1,124 rounds of ammunition. She also carried six machine guns.
Service history.
The keel for "Jaguar" was laid down at the Schichau-Werke shipyard in Danzig in early 1898. Her completed hull was launched on 19 September 1898 and after completing fitting-out work, the new gunboat was commissioned into the German fleet on 4 April 1899. She departed Kiel on 1 June 1899. After passing the Torres Strait and calling on Herbertshöhe in the German Bismarck Islands, she made port calls at Ambon and Makassar in the Netherlands East Indies, and Singapore. She then visited Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands (13 October), Palau (3 November) and Saipan in the Mariana Islands (17 November) with the governor of German New Guinea, Rudolf von Bennigsen on board in order to raise the German flag confirming change in possession of these island groups from Spain to the German Empire per the terms of the German-Spanish Treaty. She reached Shanghai on 30 November, where she made repairs, and arrived at Tsingtao on 4 July 1900 to come under the command of the German East Asia Squadron.
Shortly thereafter, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in China. At the time, the East Asia Squadron also included the protected cruisers , , , and , and the unprotected cruiser . Kaiser Wilhelm II decided that an expeditionary force was necessary to reinforce the Eight Nation Alliance that had formed to defeat the Boxers. The expeditionary force consisted of the four s, six cruisers, ten freighters, three torpedo boats, and six regiments of marines, under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee. "Jaguar" took part in combat operations along the Chinese coast and in the Yangtze River. Afterwards, she underwent a major overhaul at Nagasaki in Japan in 1902.
In concert with the unprotected cruiser , "Jaguar" participated in the suppression of unrest in the Marshall Islands in September and October 1908. During this operation, the ships carried a contingent of Melanesian infantry to the island of Pohnpei to suppress tensions between rival factions on the island. In early 1909, unrest broke out in Apia, Samoa; "Jaguar" and the light cruisers and were sent to suppress the uprising. She later transported the leaders of the Mau movement for independence to exile in Jaluit, and returned to her home port in China in May 1909.
In December 1910, "Jaguar" supported British forces against an uprising in Wuhan, remaining stationed in Wuhan to February 1911. With the start of the Xinhai Revolution, "Jaguar" was sent to protect the German consulate at Fuzhou, which also had a large foreign missionary population. In February 1914, she ran hard aground in the Yangtze River, and was repaired locally. Although World War I had started in Europe, she was repaired at a British-owned dock in July 1914, and sailed at night for Tsingtao to avoid British warships.
When "Jaguar" arrived at Tsingtao of 4 August 1914 she was the only operational German warship, as her sister ships had been stripped of their guns to equip the auxiliary cruiser SS "Prinz Eitel Friedrich" which sailed on the following day to join Admiral Graf von Spee and the German Far East squadron at Pagan in the Caroline Islands.
"Jaguar" participated in combat operations against the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Siege of Tsingtao, together with the Austro-Hungarian Navy cruiser . She was received a direct hit to her bow on 4 October. "Jaguar" was scuttled on 7 November 1914 at the German colony in the Kiautschou Bay concession, on the final day of the Siege of Tsingtao. Three of her sisters were also scuttled during the siege.


Udaya III of Anuradhapura

Udaya III was King of Anuradhapura in the 10th century, whose reign lasted from 964 to 972. He succeeded Sena III as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by Sena IV.


Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)

A People's Council (Volksraad) for the Dutch East Indies was provided for by law in 1916, but its establishment was procrastinated until the actual installation of the Council in 1918. It was a hesitant and slow attempt at democratisation of the Dutch East Indies. The power of the "Volksraad" was limited as it only had advisory powers. Although part of the council was elected only a small proportion of the population had voting rights.
The "Volksraad" had sixty members: 30 members from various indigenous groups, 25 European, and 5 from Chinese, Arab and other "Foreign Orientals". The "Volksraad" was reconstituted every four years. The members of the Council were partly chosen, partly appointed by the colonial administration.
History.
The Volksraad was founded in Weltevreden, Batavia, Java, as an infant form of democratic representation on 18 May 1918 by the colonial chief executive Johan Paul, Count van Limburg Stirum (1873–1948), who was Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1916 to 1921.
In 1925 the "Volksraad" was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the "Volksraad" on major issues.
The Soetardjo Petition was submitted by some progressive members in 1936, led by Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo, requesting independence for Indonesia as part of a Dutch commonwealth within ten years.
The last election was in 1939. In 1942 the "Volksraad" was dissolved during the Japanese occupation.
In 1945 the "Volksraad" building located in Weltevreden was renamed the Pancasila building.
Members.
The term of office for Volksraad members was three years, in 1925 increased to four years. Famous Indo-European members included Karel Zaalberg and Dick de Hoog.
There were also representatives of the colony's "Vreemde Oosterlingen", or 'Foreign Orientals', including Chinese members, such as Khouw Kim An, Majoor der Chinezen, H. H. Kan, Loa Sek Hie and Phoa Liong Gie. Arab members included Sayyid Ismail bin Sayyid Abdoellah bin Alwi Alatas.
Among prominent indigenous parliamentarians in the Volksraad were the Javanese Tjokroaminoto and Mohammad Husni Thamrin, the Bantenese-Sundanese Ahmad Djajadiningrat, the Sumatran Agus Salim and the Menadonese Sam Ratulangi.


Kayin Ba

Kayin Ba (, ; 1253–1342) was governor of Toungoo (Taungoo) from 1325 to 1342. Prior to his governorship, the commoner had served all the rulers of the frontier state since its creation in 1279, eventually rising to mayor of Toungoo by the 1310s. Taking advantage of the rivalry between King Uzana I and Crown Prince Kyawswa I at Toungoo's overlord Pinya, he seized the governorship in 1325 by assassinating Gov. Saw Hnit. While he remained a nominal vassal of Pinya, Ba ruled the region like a sovereign ruler for the next 17 years, transforming the hitherto minor vassal state into a regional power.
Early life and career.
Born in early 1253, Kayin Ba was an "athi" (အသည်) commoner from a village east of the Paunglaung river (in present-day Taungoo District). Ba grew up to be a strong, athletic and skilled hunter, and had become the chief of his village by 1279. That year, he joined the service of Thawun Gyi and Thawun Nge, the brothers who had just founded the settlement of Toungoo, close to his village. The brothers, as the direct male descendants of their great grandfather Governor-General Ananda Thuriya, had claimed the right to rule the region, and sought allegiance from the regional chiefs.
At Toungoo, the strongly built Ba first became head of prisons. He eventually rose to become the mayor of the growing city, certainly by the 1310s. He was by then known as "Kayin Ba" (lit. "father of Kayin [child]") because he had adopted an ethnic Karen (Kayin) orphan girl. In 1317, he sided with Thawun Nge, who assassinated Thawun Gyi and seized the governorship. Thawun Nge was now in revolt of Toungoo's overlord Pinya, which was facing a serious rebellion by Sagaing in the north. Ba's son-in-law Letya Sekkya, husband of the adopted daughter, subsequently became the chief minister in the rebellious administration. At any rate, Toungoo survived the subsequent siege by Pinya, and negotiated a deal that allowed Thawun Nge to remain in office in exchange for nominal tribute.
Governor of Toungoo.
Ba's influence waned after the death of Thawun Nge in 1324. Thawun Nge's young son Saw Hnit succeeded the governorship but Saw Hnit's mother Saw Sala was the one that actually wielded power. Ba remained mayor but his powers were greatly curtailed. Ba decided to take action after King Thihathu of Pinya died in 1325. Seeing that Thihathu's two sons Uzana I and Kyawswa I were at loggerheads for the Pinya throne, Ba calculated that he could repeat what Thawun Nge did in 1317. He and his followers staged a coup, and put the young Saw Hnit to death. Saw Sala escaped, but died soon after on the run near Taungdwingyi. The 72-year-old Ba assumed the governorship.
Ba's calculated gamble paid off. King Uzana accepted Ba's nominal submission, and did not send a punitive expedition like in 1317–18. In the following years, the commoner practically ruled the Toungoo region like a sovereign king. He kept the region peaceful, and improved the irrigation structures of the region. The region grew in size, attracting new migrants from the north. Increased manpower in turn allowed him to maintain a sizable army, consisting of 150 war elephants.
The governor died May 1342. He was 89. His 17-year rule is remembered in the chronicles as a time of prosperity and when Toungoo grew to be an important state in Upper Burma. This transformation paved the way for Toungoo's eventual break from Pinya in 1358. The chronicles accord the commoner the royal status, calling him "min" (lord). He was succeeded by his son-in-law Letya Sekkya.


Kurundwad

Kurundwad is a small town on the banks of the Panchganga river, 55 km from Kolhapur (Kolhapur district) in the Indian state of Maharashtra.
Geography.
It is in the southern part of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is 55 km from the district headquarters of Kolhapur and lies 2 km from the Shri Dattatrey devotee town of Narsobachi Wadi.
Kurundwad is situated near the banks of two rivers, Krishna and Panchaganga. Near Krishna river lies Kurundwad Ghat, built by Raja Raghunathrao I Dadasaheb Patwardhan around 1795. A "samadhi" (memorial) of Santajiraje Ghorapade, who was Commander-in-Chief of Maratha forces that humbled Aurangzeb during the reign of Chhatrapati Rajaram (1689–1700).
Transport.
The nearest railway station is in Jaysingpur, approximately 15 km to the north.
Culture.
Popular regional sports include Kabbadi, weight lifting and Kho Kho.
History.
During the British Raj, the area of Kurundwad was a native state, falling under the Deccan States Agency of the Bombay Presidency. It formed part of the southern Mahratta "jagirs".
Created in 1772 by a grant from the Peshwa, the state was later divided into two parts, including "Shedbal", which lapsed to the British government in 1857. In 1855, the remaining state area of Kurundwad was further divided into a senior branch, Kurundvad Senior, with an area of 185 miles², and a junior branch, Kurundvad Junior, with an area of 114 miles². The territory of both was widely scattered among other native states and British districts. According to the 1901 census, the senior branch had a population of 42,474, while the junior branch had a population of 34,003.
The chiefs of the branches were Brahmans by caste, belonging to the Patwardhan family. The last ruler (junior line) was Raja Shrimant Raghunathrao Ganpatrao (Dadasaheb) Patwardhan. He was ADC to the 1st President of India, recipient of the Independence Medal, recipient of King George V Silver Jubilee Medal and the King George VI Coronation Medal [Hereditary Distinction].
Legacy.
Raja Shrimant Bhalchandrarao II Chintamanrao Patwardhan, Raja of Kurundwad-Snr, ranks as a "sardar" in the southern Maratha country.
Demographics.
The "Kurundwad Municipal Council" has population of 22,372 of which 11,325 are males while 11,047 are females as per report released by "Census India 2011".
Population of Children with age of 0-6 is 2267 which is 10.13% of total population of Kurundwad (M Cl). In Kurundwad Municipal Council, Female Sex Ratio is of 975 against state average of 929. Moreover, Child Sex Ratio in Kurundwad is around 802 compared to Maharashtra state average of 894. Literacy rate of Kurundwad city is 86.90% higher than state average of 82.34%. In Kurundwad, Male literacy is around 92.81% while female literacy rate is 80.97%.
Marathi is the official and most widely spoken language there.


Handaberd

Handaberd (), also known as Lekh Castle () or Lev Castle, is a 9th century fortress located in the Kalbajar District of Azerbaijan, near the village of Knaravan, between the villages of Chapli and Ganlykend, on the right bank of the Levçay River. It was built by Atrnerseh I, ruler of the Armenian Principality of Khachen, who resided there.
History.
One of several castles in the highlands of Kalbajar, Handaberd was constructed over the Ayrım Gorge, on a high mountain ridge surrounded by thick forest, from the right bank of the Levçay River flowing by Ganlykend village. Handaberd is first mentioned as "Handu berd" by the 10th century Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi, who wrote in his work "History of the Country of Albania" that the fortress was built by Prince Atrnerseh of Khachen in the second quarter of the 9th century. Atrnerseh, a member of a branch of the Siunia dynasty, ruled over an area approximately corresponding to the historical Armenian province of Artsakh. Handaberd was located in the Tsar province (also known as Upper Khachen) of the Principality of Khachen․ It served as Atrnerseh's residence as well as a prison for prisoners sentenced to death.
According to the inscription on one of the khachkars kept at Dadivank, a nearby Armenian monastery, from 1142 to 1182 Handaberd belonged to Hasan I Vakhtangyan, prince of Upper Khachen. Around 1250, it is mentioned in the history written by the Armenian historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi. Some time after the initial construction under Atrnerseh, the fortress was significantly expanded.
Handaberd's inscriptions were studied by the French orientalist Marie-Félicité Brosset in the mid-19th century. Less than a kilometer to the east of the fortress is a medieval monastery complex bearing the same name, which has also been excavated.
The fortress has historically been referred to by various names and renderings, such as Lev (also the Armenian name for the Levçay River), Levaghala, Levkala, Levonaberd, Lohaberd, Handberd, and Handuberd.
Features.
The castle is surrounded by steep rocks and streams from three sides, and looks like a natural rock relief. The only entrance to the castle is from the gates on the north-eastern edge. The internal length of the castle is , and its width is . The internal castle is in the higher south-western corner. The average thickness of the walls of Handaberd fortress is . There are 5-6 water wells deep that were used for storage, the cooling of food, and as a source of drinking water. Nowadays, the walls are in ruins. Around Handaberd fortress, there are other smaller satellite castles on surrounding mountain peaks such as Pahak or Garavul (both meaning guard) and Jomard castles. Close to the Handaberd fortress there are two caves where archaeologists found items indicating the early presence of human beings.
The castle is designated as a place bearing state historical importance in Azerbaijan.


List of massacres in Myanmar

The following is an incomplete list of massacres that have occurred in Myanmar (formerly known as "Burma").


Min Bala of Myaungmya

Min Bala (, ; also known as Smim Min Hla and Smim Myaungmya; d. 1310s) was governor of Myaungmya (in present-day Myanmar) from the 1290s to the 1310s. He was the father of kings Saw O (r. 1311–1323) and Saw Zein (r. 1323–1330) of Martaban. Bala was the power behind the throne during the early reign of Saw O.
In 1311, Bala successfully staged a coup against his brother-in-law King Hkun Law. He reluctantly gave up the throne at the urging of his wife Princess Hnin U Yaing, who had lobbied for their eldest son's accession. However, Bala essentially ruled the Mon-speaking kingdom like a sovereign from his own palace just outside the capital Martaban (Mottama) until his death.
Rise to power.
Chronicles do not mention his background. Based on the reporting of the chronicle "Razadarit Ayedawbon", it can be inferred that Bala married Hnin U Yaing, the younger sister of Ma Gadu, 1282/83.
Bala and U Yaing became a powerful couple in the following dozen years by being close to Gadu, who went on to carve out a largely independent polity based out of the three Mon-speaking regions of Lower Burma by 1296. (Supported by the Siamese kingdom of Sukhothai, Gadu, styled as Wareru, formally declared independence from Pagan in 1287, and had gained control of Lower Burma by the mid-1290s.) Bala later become governor of Myaungmya, a key port in the Irrawaddy delta, known by the titles of Smim Min Hla and Smim Myaungmya.
Overthrow of Hkun Law.
In January 1307, King Wareru was assassinated by his two grandsons, and his brother Hkun Law succeeded. Law proved to be an ineffective ruler, and never gained the support of his vassals. Bala ruled the Irrawaddy delta like a sovereign. In March 1311, Bala and Hnin U Yaing seized the Martaban throne while Law was on an elephant hunting trip near Moulmein (Mawlamyaing). Law found out about the coup only upon his return from the hunting trip when he found the capital's gates firmly shut. He tried to flee to the nearby woods, but Bala's troops chased him and killed him there.
Bala initially wanted to proclaim himself king. But his wife objected, saying that Bala was too old already, and that their eldest son Saw O, as nephew of Wareru, would stand a better chance at gaining the support of the vassals. During the deliberations, the throne was vacant for at least two weeks, perhaps even longer. Bala finally yielded to his wife's demand, and Saw O ascended the throne on 10 April 1311.
Power behind the throne.
Despite Saw O's accession, Bala remained the actual power behind the throne. The "Razadarit Ayedawbon" reports that Lord of Myaungmya managed all affairs related to the kingdom, including economic and military affairs. He built himself a "palace" at a nearby hill, replete with a wing to house his concubines, and lived there like a sovereign. (The chronicle says that Bala used to have the concubine wing locked from the outside, and that when a fire broke out one day, several concubines died inside. To commemorate the deaths, he built a Buddhist pagoda nearby.)
He and his chief wife U Yaing both died from old age in the mid-to-late 1310s.
Family.
Bala and U Yaing had at least three sons, two of whom—Saw O and Saw Zein—became kings of Martaban. Bala had another son Smim E Kan-Kaung by another wife. E Kan-Kaung was the grandfather of Gov. Laukpya of Myaungmya and Gov. Byattaba of Martaban.


2003 North Korean parliamentary election

Legislative elections were held in North Korea on 3 August 2003. Representatives were elected for five-year terms to all 687 seats of the Supreme People's Assembly, and also to 26,650 positions in city, county, and provincial People's Assemblies. All candidates were members of the three parties constituting the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland.
Most polling booths featured posters saying: "Let's participate in the voting for deputies to the People's Assembly and give our support to them!".
There was a 99.9% turnout for the election with each candidate receiving 100% of the vote unopposed.
In its first session, on 3 September, the newly elected parliament re-elected Kim Jong-il as the Chairman of the National Defence Commission.
Results.
Elected members.
The following were elected as members of parliament:


History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

The History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa refers to the history of the modern-day Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, including the former Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which has colloquially been referred to as Pashtunistan. The earliest evidence from the region indicates that trade was common via the Khyber Pass; originating from the Indus Valley Civilization. The early people of the region were a Vedic people known as the Pakthas, identified with the modern day Pakhtun peoples. The Vedic culture reached its peak between the 6th and 1st centuries B.C under the Gandharan Civilization, and was identified as a center of Hindu and Buddhist learning and scholarship.
The area saw a brief shock during the invasions of Alexander the Great, which had managed to conquer the small Janapadas, or city states, that had ruled the region. Seizing the resulting instability and inexperience of the local Greek governors, a young prince named Chandragupta Maurya managed to take control of the area, eventually going on to conquer much of Northern India. Over time the Mauryan Empire, from Chandragupta's line, had gone on to conquer much of the Indian Subcontinent with the Empire reaching its peak under King Ashoka. Ashoka had converted to Buddhism from Hinduism, and with his conversion, declared that the official state religion of the Empire was the former. Ashoka's rule had witnessed a rise in Buddhism throughout India, although Hinduism was not displaced. After Ashoka's death, the Mauryan Empire had crumbled under the weak rule of the later Kings.
With the disintegration of the centralized Mauryan Empire, the Northwest frontier was once again ruled by small Kings and Chieftains. Brief invasions from nomadic tribes to the north of the Khyber pass had also resulted in new displacements across the region, but nevertheless, had resulted in the maintenance of Hindu rule. Over time the Shahis, who had often alternated between Hinduism and Buddhism, had managed to gain control of the region and ruled starting from around the first century A.D. The Shahis were initially based in what is now Afghanistan, but Turkic invasions had forced a relocation further south into Peshawar. The Shahis were finally destroyed after the defeat of King Jayapala in A.D 1001 by the Ghaznavids led by Mahmud of Ghazni. After the Ghaznavids, various other Islamic rulers had managed to invade the region, with the most notable being the Delhi Sultanates who had with respect to various dynasties ruled starting from A.D 1206. The rule of the Delhi sultanates was characterized by near constant wars, with a notable example being the repulsion of a Mongol force led by Genghis Khan. Nevertheless, after the battle of Panipat in A.D 1526, the Mughals had taken control of the region, and managed to rule until the early 18th century when they were displaced by the rule of the Durranis and briefly by Barakzai Dynasty until early 19th century. After the end of Durrani rule, modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was very briefly ruled by Sikh from the east, who could not subjugate the tribal region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and were defeated in Battle of Jamrud by Afghan army of Barakzai Dynasty.
Seizing the lack of a centralized authority in India, the British Empire had managed to take control of the region around 1857, and had ruled until the Indo-Pakistani Independence of 1947. British rule was characterized by constant tensions between the local people and the Government, resulting in some violent altercations between both groups. Nevertheless, there was peaceful challenges to the British authority, such as that of Pashtun leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgar. After independence of Pakistan, the area was renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa after widespread petitioning to the Pakistan government by the local Pashtuns. Today, the area is a key province in the war on terror; and aside from terrorism, the province continues to face many developmental challenges.
Indus Valley Civilization.
During the times of Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE - 1700 BCE) the Khyber Pass through Hindu Kush provided a route to other neighbouring empires and was used by merchants on trade excursions.
Vedic era.
The Vedic Gandharan civilization, which was at its peak between the sixth and first centuries BCE, and which features prominently in the Hindu(Sanatan) epic, the Mahabharatha, was primarily based in the area in and between modern day Afghanistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The city of Peshawar was originally called Purushapura in ancient times when the region was Hindu. Vedic texts refer to the area as the Janapada of Pushkalavati. The area was once known to be a great center of learning.
The people of the region were a Vedic people known as the Pakthas, identified with the modern Pakthun people. This name was also confirmed by Ancient Greek sources, such as those from the works of Herodotus. The Pakthas are notably mentioned in Mandala VII of the Rigveda as one of the tribes that had fought with Raja Sudas at the Battle of the Ten Kings.
Mauryan era.
Alexander's conquests.
In the spring of 327 BC Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and advanced to Nicaea, where Omphis, king of Taxila and other chiefs joined him. Alexander then dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul River, while he himself advanced into Bajaur and Swat with his light troops. Craterus was ordered to fortify and repopulate Arigaion, probably in Bajaur, which its inhabitants had burnt and deserted. Having defeated the Aspasians, from whom he took 40,000 prisoners and 230,000 oxen, Alexander crossed the Gouraios (Panjkora) and entered the territory of the Assakenoi and laid siege to Massaga, which he took by storm. Ora and Bazira (possibly Bazar) soon fell. The people of Bazira fled to the rock Aornos, but Alexander made Embolima (possibly Amb) his base, and attacked the rock from there, which was captured after a desperate resistance. Meanwhile, Peukelaotis (in Hashtnagar, north-west of Peshawar) had submitted, and Nicanor, a Macedonian, was appointed satrap of the country west of the Indus.
Mauryan rule.
Mauryan rule began with Chandragupta Maurya displacing the Nanda Empire, establishing the Mauryan Empire. A while after, Alexander's general Seleucus had attempted to once again invade the subcontinent from the Khyber pass hoping to take lands that Alexander had conquered, but never fully absorbed into this empire. Seleucus was defeated and the lands of Aria, Arachosia, Gandhara, and Gedrosia were ceded to the Mauryans in exchange for a matrimonial alliance and 500 elephants. With the defeat of the Greeks, the land was once more under Hindu rule. Chandragupta's son Bindusara further expanded the empire. However, it was Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka, who converted to Buddhism and made it the official state religion in Gandhara and also Pakhli, the modern Hazara, as evidenced by rock-inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra.
After Ashoka's death the Mauryan empire fell to pieces, just as in the west the Seleucid power was waning. The Greek princes of Bactria seized the opportunity for declaring their independence, and Demetrius conquered part of Northern India (c. 190 BC). His absence led to a revolt by Eucratides, who seized on Bactria proper and finally defeated Demetrius in his eastern possessions. Eucratides was, however, murdered (c. 156 BC), and the country became subject to a number of local rulers, of whom little is known but the names laboriously gathered from their coins. The area was attacked from the west by the Parthians and the north by the Sakas, a Central Asian tribe around 139 B.C. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers were finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the Yeuh-Chi.
Kushan rule.
This race of nomads had driven the Sakas from the highlands of Central Asia, and were themselves forced southwards by the nomadic Xiongnu. One group, known as the Kushan, took the lead, and its chief, Kadphises I, seized vast territories extending south to the Kabul valley. His son Kadphises II conquered North-Western India, which he governed through his generals. His immediate successors were the fabled Hindu kings: Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasushka or Vasudeva, of whom the first reigned over a territory which extended as far east as Benares, far south as Malwa, and also including Bactria and the Kabul valley. Their dates are still a matter of dispute, but it is beyond question that they reigned early in the Christian era. To this period may be ascribed the fine statues and bas-reliefs found in Gandhara and Udyana. Under Huvishka's successor, Vasushka, the dominions of the Kushan kings shrank to the Indus valley and the modern Afghanistan.
Shahi rule.
Between the 0 A.D and the 1st millennium, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region was ruled by Hindu-Buddhist Shahi kings. When the Chinese monk Xuanzang visited the region early in the 7th century, the Kabul valley region was still ruled by affiliates of the Shahi kings, who is identified as the Shahi Khingal, and whose name has been found in an inscription found in Gardez. During the rule of the Shahis, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region was a center of trade. Textiles, gems, and perfumes, as well as other goods had been exported West and into Central Asia. Coins minted by the Shahis have been found all over South Asia. The Shahis were known for their many Hindu temples. These temples were mostly looted and destroyed by later invaders. The ruins of these temples can be found at Nandana, Malot, Siv Ganga, and Ketas, as well as across the west bank of the Indus river.
Arrival of Islam.
Ghaznavids.
At the height of Shahi rule under King Jayapala, the kingdom had extended to Kabul and Bajaur to the Northwest, Multan to the South, and the India-Pakistan border to the East. Jayapala, threatened from the consolidation of power by the kingdom of Ghazna, invaded their capital city of Ghazni. This had initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles. In 974 Pirin, the slave-governor of Ghazni, repulsed a force sent from India to seize that stronghold, then in 977 Sabuktagin, his successor, became virtually independent and founded the dynasty of the Ghaznavids. In 986 he raided the Indian frontier, and in 988 defeated Jaipal with his allies at Laghman. Soon afterwards he took control of the country as far as the Indus, placing a governor of his own at Peshawar. Mahmud of Ghazni, Sabuktagin's son, having secured the throne of Ghazni, again defeated Jayapala in his first raid into India (1001), Battle of Peshawar, and in a second expedition defeated Anandpal (1006), both near Peshawar. He also (1024 and 1025) raided the Pashtuns. Over time, Mahmud of Ghazni had pushed further into the subcontinent, as far as east as modern day Agra. During his campaigns, many Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries had been looted and destroyed, as well as many people being forcibly converted into Islam. Local Pashtun and Dardic tribes converted to Islam, while retaining some of the pre-Islamic Hindu-Buddhist and Animist local traditions such as Pashtunwali.
1100-1520.
In 1179, Muhammad of Ghor took Peshawar, capturing Lahore from Khusru Malik two years later. After Muhammad's assassination in 1206, his general Taj-ud-din Yalduz established himself at Ghazni with his true stronghold in the Kurram valley until he was driven deeper into India by the Khwarizmis in 1215. The latter were in turn overwhelmed by the Mongols in 1221, when Jalal-ud-din Khwarizmi, defeated on the Indus by Genghis Khan, retreated into the Sind-Sagar Doab, leaving Peshawar and other provinces to be ravaged by the Mongols. In 1224 Jalal-ud-din appointed Saif-ud-din Hasan, the Karlugh, as ruler of Ghazni. To this territory Saif-ud-din added Karman (Kurram) and Banian (Bannu), which gained its independence in 1236.
In that same year of 1236, Altamsh set out on an expedition against Banian but he was compelled by illness to return to Delhi. After the death of Atlmash, Saif-ud-din attacked Multan only to be repulsed by the feudatory of Uch. Three years later in 1239, the Mongols drove Saif-uf-Din out of Ghazni and Kurram though he held onto Banian. In his third attempt to take Multan in 1249 he was killed. His son Nasir-ud-din Muhammad became a feudatory of the Mongols, retaining Banian. Eleven years later, in 1260 Nasir-ud-din Muhammad arranged an alliance through his daughter and a son of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, reconciling the Mongol sovereign with the court of Delhi. By this time the Karlughs had established themselves in the hills.
In 1398, Timur set out from Samarkand to invade India. After subduing Kator, now Chitral, he made devastating inroads into the Punjab, returning via Bannu in March 1399. His expedition established a Mongol overlordship in the province, and he is said to have confirmed his Karlugh regent in the possession of Hazara. The descendants of Timur held the province as a dependency of Kandahar. With the decay of the Timurid dynasty, their control over the province relaxed.
Meanwhile, the Pashtuns now appeared as a political factor. At the close of the fourteenth century they were firmly established in their present-day demographics south of Kohat, and in 1451 Bahlol Lodi's accession to the throne of Delhi gave them a dominant position in Northern India. Somewhat later, Babur's uncle Ulugh Beg II of Kabul expelled the Khashi from his kingdom, and compelled them to move eastwards into Peshawar, Swat, and Bajaur. After Babur had seized Kabul he made his first raid into India in 1505, marching down the Khyber, through Kohat, Bannu, Isa Khel, and the Derajat, returning by the Sakhi Sarwar pass. About 1518 he invaded Bajaur and Swat, but was recalled by an attack on Badakhshan.
Mughal era.
In 1519, Babur's aid was invoked by the Gigianis against the Umr Khel Dilazaks. Both were Pashtun tribes, and Babur's victory at Panipat in 1526 gave him control of the province. On his death in 1530 Mirza Kamran became a feudatory of Kabul. By his aid the Ghworia Khels overthrew the Dilazaks who were loyal to Humayun, and thus obtained control over Peshawar; but about 1550 Gajju Khan, at the head of a Grand Confederation of the Khakhay Khels, defeated the Ghworia Khels at Shaikh Tapur. Humayun at this point had overthrown Kamran, and entered Peshawar; ultimately leaving a garrison there.
On Humayun's death in 1556, Kabul became the apanage of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, Akbar's brother; and in 1564 he was driven back on Peshawar by the ruler of Badakhshan, and had to be reinstated by imperial troops. Driven out of Kabul again two years later, he invaded Punjab; but eventually, Akbar forgave him, visited Kabul, and restored his authority. When Mirza Hakim died in 1585, Akbar's Rajput general Kunwar Man Singh occupied Peshawar and Kabul where the imperial rule was re-established. Mann Singh became governor of the province of Kabul. In 1586, however, the Mohmands and others revolted under Jalala, the Roshania heretic, and invaded Peshawar.
Man Singh, turning to attack them, found the Khyber closed and was repulsed, but subsequently joined Akbar's forces. Meanwhile, the Yusufzai and Mandaur Pashtuns had also joined the Roshania rebellion; and c.1587 Zain Khan was dispatched into Swat and Bajaur to suppress them. The expedition resulted in defeat for the Mughals. The Roshanias, however, were not fully subdued. Tirah was their stronghold, and in about 1620 a large Mughal force was defeated at the Sampagha pass. Six years later Ihdad, the Roshania leader, was killed; but Jahangir's death in 1627 was the signal for a general Pashtun revolt, and the Roshanias laid siege to Peshawar in 1630, but retreated to Tirah due to distrust for their allies. Mughal authority was thus restored, and Tirah was invaded and pacified by the imperial troops in an arduous campaign. Shah Jahan's rule was unpopular with the Pashtuns, but nevertheless, Raja Jagat Singh held Kohat and Kurram, and thus kept open the communications with Kabul. In 1660 Tirah had to be pacified again, and in 1667 the Yusufzai and Mandaur Pashtuns had crossed the Indus to attack, and were defeated near Attock.
In 1672 Muhammad Amin Khan, Subahdar of Kabul, attempted to cross the Khyber Pass, and was defeated. Khan's whole army of 40,000, as well as supplies and other materials, were destroyed. Other disasters followed. At Gandab in 1673, the Afridis defeated a second Mughal army, and in 1674 they defeated a third force at Khapash and drove it into Bajaur.
Aurangzeb was described to have adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Pashtuns, some of whom now received fiefs from the emperor. This is believed to have prevented any concerted Afghan uprising against the Mughals. Nevertheless, the Pashtuns overran the Pakhli district of Hazara early in the eighteenth century and the Mughal power rapidly declined until in 1738 when Nadir Shah defeated Nazir Shah, the Mughal governor of Kabul, but allowed him as feudatory to retain that province, which included Peshawar and Ghazni.
Afghan Durrani Empire.
The Durrani Empire was founded and built by Ahmad Shah Durrani. After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, the region of Kandahar was claimed by Ahmad Shah Durrani. From there he began conquering Ghazni followed by Kabul. In 1749, the Mughal ruler had ceded sovereignty over what is now Pakistan and northwestern Punjab to the Afghans. He next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush and in short order, all the different tribes began joining his cause. Ahmad Shah and his forces invaded India four times, taking control of the Kashmir and the Punjab region. Early in 1757, he sacked Delhi, but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. At its maximum extent, the empire ruled over what are now the modern-day countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan, as well as some parts of northeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India including the Kashmir region.
Third Battle of Panipat.
The Mughal power in northern India had been declining since the reign of Aurangzeb, who died in 1707. In 1751–52, "Ahamdiya" treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled virtually the whole of India from their capital at Pune and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy.
Ahmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army, including the Baloch people under the command of Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat. Suba Khan Tanoli (Zabardast Khan) was selected as army chief of all military forces. Early skirmishes were followed by victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. Ahmad Shah Durrani was famous for winning wars much larger than his army. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. Despite decisively defeating the Marathas, what might have been Ahmad Shah's peaceful control of his domains was disrupted by many challenges. As far as losses are concerned, Afghans too suffered heavily in the Third Battle of Panipat. This weakened his grasp over Punjab which fell to the rising Sikh misls. There were rebellions in the north in the region of Bukhara.
After the death of Ahmad Shah in about 1772, his son Timur Shah became the next ruler of the Durrani dynasty who decided to make Kabul the new capital of the empire, and used Peshawar as the winter capital. The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani being credited as "Father of the Nation".
Decline of Islamic Rule.
Under the Pashtuns, Hazara-i-Karlugh, Gandhgarh and the Gakhar territory were governed from Attock; while Kashmir collected the revenue from the upper regions of Pakhli, Damtaur and Darband. In 1813, the Sikhs conquered the fort of Attock, at which time lower Hazara became tributary to them. In 1818 Dera Ismail Khan surrendered to a Sikh army. Five years later the Sikhs attacked the Marwat plain of Bannu. The Sikhs forayed into Peshawar for the first time in 1818, but did not occupy the territory. The Sikhs entered the city of Peshawar for a second time, once again affirming to hold Peshawar as a tributary to the Sikh Court of Lahore. After attacking the city they burnt its fortress, the Bala Hissar. In 1836 all authority was taken from the Nawabs of Dera Ismail Khan and a Sikh Kardar appointed in their place. But it was not until after the first Sikh War that the fort of Bannu was built and the Bannuchis brought under the direct control of the Lahore Darbar by Herbert Edwardes. By 1836, with the conquest of Jamrud the frontier of the Sikh Kingdom bordered the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains and the Khyber Pass formed its western boundary. Upper Hazara shared the same fate in 1819, when the Sikhs conquered Kashmir. The territory referred to as Hazara was united when it was bestowed as a "jagir" to Hari Singh Nalwa, Commander-in-Chief of the Sikh army, by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1822.
The death of Hari Singh in battle with the Pashtuns near Jamrud in 1837 brought home to Ranjit Singh, now nearing the close of his career, the difficulty of administering his frontier acquisitions. On his death, the Sikh policy was changed. Turbulent and exposed tracts, like Hashtnagar and Miranzai, were made over in "jagir" to the local chieftains, who enjoyed almost complete independence, and a vigorous administration was attempted only in the more easily controlled areas.
The most significant contributions of Sikh rule to this region were the city of Haripur, the first planned city in this entire region, and the forts of Sumergarh (Bala Hissar, Peshawar) and Fatehgarh (Fort of Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass).
British Raj.
Following the treaties of Lahore and Amritsar, the British annexed the frontier territory after the proclamation of 29 March 1849. For a short time the Districts of Peshawar, Kohat, and Hazara came under the direct control of the Board of Administration at Lahore, but about 1850 they were formed into a regular Division under a Commissioner. Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu, under one Deputy-Commissioner, formed part of the Leiah Division till 1861, when two Deputy-Commissioners were appointed and both Districts were included in the Derajat Division, an arrangement maintained until the formation of the North-West Frontier Province. The province was created during the colonial rule of the British empire and was a province of British India. As a province of British India it had an area of , of which only 13,193 was under direct control of the British, the remainder occupied by the tribes under the political control of the Agent to the Governor-General.
For one reason or another, almost every tribe beyond the border was under a blockade. When the news of the outbreak reached Peshawar, a council of war was at once held and measures adopted to meet the situation. The same night the Guides started on their march to Delhi. On May 21 of 1857, the 55th Native Infantry rose at Mardan. The majority made an escape across the Indus, only to perish after privations at the hands of the hill-men of the Hazara border. On May 22, warned by this example, the authorities of Peshawar disarmed the 24th, 27th, and 51st Native Infantry. The result being that Pashtuns not only of Peshawar, but also from across the border, came flocking in to join the newly raised levies. The next few months were not without incident, though the crisis was past. When the mutiny was finally suppressed, it was clear that the frontier districts had proved to the British government a source of strength rather than of danger.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was also a hotbed center of the Indian independence movement. An example of defiance against the Raj was when in 1930, the Khudai Khidmatgars under Abdul Gaffar Khan in conjunction with the Indian National Congress broke out in Peshawar. Soldiers of the Garhwal Rifles were brought in to suppress the protests, but refused to fire on non-violent protests. By disobeying direct orders, the regiment sent a clear message to London that loyalty of India's armed forces could not be taken for granted to enact harsh measures. However, by 1931, 5,000 members of the Khudai Khidmatgar and 2,000 members of the Congress Party were arrested. This was followed by the shooting of unarmed protestors in Utmanzai and the Takkar massacre followed by the Hathikhel massacre. There were other tensions in the area as well, particularly those that involved agitations by Pashtun tribesmen against the Imperial government. For example, in 1936, a British Indian court ruled against the marriage of a Hindu girl at Bannu who was abducted and forced to convert to Islam. After the girl's family filed a case, the court ruled in the family's favor, angering the local Muslims who had later gone on to lead attacks against the Bannu Brigade.
The 15 August 1947 marked the end of the British Raj. In July 1947, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 declaring that by 15 August 1947 it would divide British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The act also declared that the fate of the North West Frontier Province would be subject to the result of the 1947 North-West Frontier Province referendum. This was in accord with the June 3rd Plan proposal to have a referendum to decide the future of the Northwest Frontier Province—to be voted on by the same electoral college as for the Provincial Legislative Assembly in 1946.
In the referendum held in July 1947, the people of the North-West Frontier Province voted in favor of joining Pakistan. However, the then Chief Minister of the North-West Frontier Province, Dr Khan Sahib, along with his brother Bacha Khan and the Khudai Khidmatgars, boycotted the referendum, citing that it did not have the options of the NWFP becoming independent or joining Afghanistan.
Post-independence.
There had been tensions between Pakistan and Afghanistan ever since Afghanistan voted against Pakistan's inclusion in the United Nations in 1948. Afghanistan's loya jirga of 1949 declared the Durand Line invalid. This led to border tensions with Pakistan. Afghanistan's governments have periodically refused to recognize Pakistan's inheritance of British treaties regarding the region.
During the 1950s, Afghanistan supported the Pushtunistan Movement, a secessionist movement that failed to gain substantial support amongst the tribes of the North-West Frontier Province. Afghanistan's refusal to recognize the Durrand Line, and its subsequent support for the Pashtunistan Movement has been cited as the main cause of tensions between the two countries that have existed since Pakistan's independence.
After the Afghan-Soviet War, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has become one of the areas of top focus for the War against Terror. The province has been reported to struggle with the issues of crumbling schools, non-existent healthcare, and lack of any sound infrastructure while areas such as Islamabad and Rawalpindi receive priority funding.
In 2010 the name of the province changed to "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa". Protests arose among the local ethnic Hazara population due to this name change, as they began to demand their own province. Seven people were killed and 100 injured in protests on 11 April 2011.


Krack (film)

Krack is a 2021 Indian Telugu-language action film directed by Gopichand Malineni, who wrote the script with the dialogues given by Sai Madhav Burra. It stars Ravi Teja, Shruti Haasan, Varalaxmi Sarathkumar, and Samuthirakani. Produced by B. Madhu under Saraswathi Films Division banner and based on multiple true incidents that took place in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the film depicts the conflict between a circle inspector and a gangster.
After launch at a formal ceremony on 14 November 2019 at Hyderabad, principal photography commenced on 21 November 2019, and ended on 7 December 2020, despite production delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film features music scored by S. Thaman, with cinematography performed by G. K. Vishnu, and editing by Naveen Nooli.
"Krack" was released theatrically on 9 January 2021, and opened to positive reviews. The film was commercially successful, grossing over at the box office.
Plot.
Venkatesh narrates that a note, a green mango, and a nail resemble the fate of three persons who come across a police officer.
A BBC journalist arrives at a jail in Delhi to interview Saleem Batkal, a criminal convicted for Mumbai blasts, but Saleem demands money from the interviewer, which to their astonishment is just . Upon taking it, he tells that he rented a house that is cheaper than the previous one due to a scuffle between the owner and broker. The house Saleem rents at Kurnool for passport verification with fake details falls under the jurisdiction of Shankar's police station, where Saleem's men have no influence. After a dramatic turn of events, he is caught by Shankar, who notices the details Salim gave are fake. When Saleem tries to warn about his background, Shankar beats him up and arrests him.
In Kadapa, Konda Reddy, a highly sadistic goon, occupies the land of a doctor. When Konda Reddy is in a meeting, a girl tries to pluck from a mango tree in his yard, for which he angrily unleashes his dogs upon her. The girl is injured and her mother files suit on him. The SP calls Konda Reddy, telling that this case might put Konda Reddy in trouble because it will be dealt by CI Shankar. Konda takes him lightly, but the SP insists him to meet Katari Krishna, who is in the central jail of Rajahmundry. Katari appears as a regular prisoner, but Konda Reddy is intrigued when he learns about Katari's criminal record. Upon asking, Katari narrates his story that he rose to power by creating a bloodshed in Ongole, and is jailed later because of a nail.
Shankar is appointed as CI of Ongole, and meets constable Kiran, the son of a constable who used to work with Shankar. Jayamma, a close aide of Katari's, has a habit of going to cinema on Fridays. There, she sees Katari's daughter with Kiran, and gets him grotesquely murdered by appointing men from Vetapalem. Shankar investigates about the murder, while relishing his memories with Kiran. He finds out that Katari was accused for similar kind of murder a few years ago. At a village fair, Shankar goes to bring Katari to police station for enquiry, Katari warns Shankar of his background, which irritates Shankar and gets him arrested.
Katari is released when Jayamma gets him a bail, but they are stunned to know that his daughter married another police constable. That night at the cinema hall, her boyfriend's leg is accidentally pierced by a nail, due to which Kiran drops her at the house. Unaware of this, Jayamma misinterprets Kiran to be her boyfriend. During their wedding reception, Katari's wife requests the couple to leave the town to be safe. She, however, conspires to kill her daughter's husband. Katari's men attack them at the bus station, but Shankar saves them. A man caught there names Jayamma as the perpetrator. Knowing this, Katari asks his men to kill Jayamma, so that his name does not come out. Jayamma is killed by the time Shankar arrrives to arrest her. While chasing the killers, he shoots one of them, but accidentally kills an innocent bystander. Shankar is suspended, but during his private investigation, he learns that his associate Tilak had killed that innocent, as he was on Katari's payroll. Shankar gets hold of all the evidence against Katari that Tilak has. Katari tries to warn Shankar by attacking his family, but his wife Kalyani, a former police officer, is able to defend them. Shankar rejoins his job and fights with Vetapalem gang members and kills all of them at the beach. And Shankar tracks down Katari to arrest him. Katari tries to escape by boarding a lorry, but its tyre gets punctured by a nail, and he is caught.
Now Konda Reddy makes sure that he does not use the word "background" in front of Shankar, and treats him with respect, but his assistant hurriedly comes and utters the word. Shankar thrashes him and puts him in the same jail where Katari is kept. Saleem, now transferred to that jail, tells them he is trying to seek revenge on Shankar. They both laugh it off.
Production.
Development.
On 26 October 2019, Ravi Teja announced his 66th film as an actor with the tentative title "RT 66", which would be directed by Gopichand Malineni, marking the third collaboration between Teja and Malineni after their previous films "Don Seenu" (2010) and "Balupu" (2013). Prior to commencement of the shoot, Gopichand Malieni claimed the film was neither inspired by nor a remake of any film. He described it as "an original story based on several true incidents happened in the Telugu states." On 14 November 2019, the makers announced the title of the film as "Krack".
Casting.
Shruti Haasan was chosen as the lead actress alongside Ravi Teja, making it their second collaboration after "Balupu". Originally, she took a break from acting in Telugu films, after Pawan Kalyan's "Katamarayudu" (2017), made her comeback in the Telugu film industry with this film. Tamil film actress Varalaxmi Sarathkumar was chosen to play a key role, making it her second Telugu film after "Tenali Ramakrishna BA. BL" (2019). Samuthirakani similarly joined the cast, collaborating with Ravi Teja after "Shambo Shiva Shambo" (2010). S. Thaman was roped in to compose the music for the film, while cinematographer G. K. Vishnu, editor Naveen Nooli and action choreographer duo Ram-Lakshman, were also a part of the technical crew.
Filming.
The film was launched on 14 November 2019 at the Film Nagar Temple. Producer Allu Aravind attended as the chief guest and did the honours. The principal photography commenced on 21 November 2019 in Ramoji Film City. Around late November, the makers filmed a "Jatara" episode featuring Ravi Teja and hundreds of supporting actors. During the shoot in early January 2020, director A. R. Murugadoss visited the film's sets in Hyderabad. The film's shoot was further interrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in India.
On 7 October 2020, Ravi Teja announced that he had resumed the shooting of the film at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad, after lockdown, adhering to the safety guidelines imposed by the government in order to curb the coronavirus pandemic. On 15 October, the makers filmed a song shoot, featuring Anketa Maharana and Teja and the song being choreographed by Jani Master. Varalakshmi Sarathkumar, completed her portions in late October. On 2 December, Ravi Teja tweeted about the final schedule of the film held in Goa, which features a song shoot choreographed by Raju Sundaram. Filming wrapped up on 5 December 2020.
Soundtrack.
The film's music is composed by S. Thaman, and lyrics for the songs were written by Ramajogayya Sastry and Kasarla Shyam. The film marks the second collaboration of Ravi Teja, Thaman and Gopichand Malineni after "Balupu" (2013). On May 2020, a fake Twitter handle of the film's director, announced an update about the first single, whereas the composer refuted such claims and asked the fans to wait for the official announcement.
The first single, "Bhoom Bhaddhal", was released on 13 November 2020, coinciding with the eve of Diwali. On 10 December 2020, the makers tweeted about the second single, which will be sung by noted Tamil film composer Anirudh Ravichander, which was later titled as "Balega Tagilavey Bangaram" and was released on 14 December 2020. The third single track "Korameesam Polisoda" was released on the occasion of Christmas, 25 December 2020. The fourth song of the film titled "Mass Biriyani" was unveiled on 4 January 2021.
Lahari Music released the complete soundtrack album featuring five tracks on 8 January 2021, which included the four songs that were released as singles earlier.
Reception.
"123Telugu", on reviewing the music, stated, "On the whole. the album of Krack is made for the target audience. Thaman, though, does not give something special, but plays it to the galleries and brings out his massy side with some foot-tapping numbers. Mass Biryani and Balega Tagilyave Bangaram are our picks and will be big hits. As it has been quite some time since we have seen a mass film on the screen, this album will surely pick once the film releases on the big screen."
Another reviewer from "IndiaGlitz" rated the album 3 out of 5 stars, and wrote, "The Thaman-Anirudh combination sounds refreshing, with the scales tilting towards the latter. It's as if the singer exerted a heavy influence in determining the flavour of the song rather than allow the musician to do it. The liberal usage of English-language words like 'Family pack' has a Bhaskarabhatla-esque ring to them. Besides the self-referential word 'Balupu' (which was a film of the Gopichand Malineni-Ravi Teja duo), there are too many cliches out there. Sahithi Chaganti's voice trods the beaten path. Rahul Nambiar's voice is energetic. Thaman deploys the drums and percussions in a typical manner."
Allegations of plagiarism.
Despite no copyright issues, the song "Balega Tagilyave Bangaram" composed by Thaman, was criticised for allegedly copying the tunes from a Latin song "Selva". Another allegation was raised stating that "Mass Biryani" song has similar tunes from the song "Kajal Chellivaa" of 2013 Telugu film "Balupu", which was composed by himself starring same trio, Ravi Teja, Shruti Haasan, and Gopichand Malineni.
Release.
"Krack" was scheduled to release theatrically on 8 May 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The director Gopichand Malineni, clarified that the film will be scheduled for a theatrical release, after rumours regarding the film's release on OTT platforms surfaced. On 26 October 2020, the makers announced that the film will release theatrically during the occasion of Sankranthi.
On 19 December 2020, the makers announced that the film would release on 10 January 2021, coinciding with the Sankranthi weekend. However, at the launch event held at AMB Cinemas in Hyderabad on 1 January 2021, where the film's trailer was released, director Gopichand Malineni announced a new release date of 9 January 2021. The pre-release business of the film in the Telugu states considered to be crore from the Telugu states alone.
The film's US premiere shows on 8 January, and the morning and afternoon shows in India were cancelled, due to the financial tussles between the exhibitors and its producer B. Madhu. The financiers reportedly took the legal route to stall the release of the film, demanding that producer Madhu, had to clear the dues owed by them, after the failure of his Vishal-starrer "Ayogya" (2019). After clearing the negotiations, the makers premiered evening shows of the film.
The film was released on OTT platform Aha on 6 February 2021.
Reception.
Critical reception.
"Krack" received positive reviews from the critics, with most praising "the effective performances and the engaging screenplay." "The Times of India" critic Thadhagath Pathi gave 3.5 out of 5 stars, stating, "A wholesome commercial cop drama and mass entertainer from Mass Maharaj himself after a very long time." "123Telugu" gave 3.25 out of 5 stating "Krack is a full-on masala entertainer with Ravi Teja in top form." Hemanth Kumar of "Firstpost" gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 stating "The biggest crack in Krack is evident in its attempt to build a gripping narrative. Each sequence is packed with so many details, some of which just look cool without adding anything to the narrative, that you begin to lose patience." "Indiaglitz" gave the film 3 out of 5 stating "Krack is targeted at the mass audience and youngsters who pine for hero-can-do-it-all stories. While being formulaic, it also offers several exciting stretches."
Karthik Keramalu of "Film Companion" stated "It’s fun to watch the Mass Maharaja in Gopichand Malineni’s crowd-pleaser that’s tailor-made for his energetic presence." He also noted that a magnanimous chunk of the narrative device from the 2018 Kannada movie "Tagaru" to be the main source of inspiration for the template of the tweaked screenplay of this film. Janani K of "India Today" gave 3 out of 5 stars ""Krack" is a decent masala entertainer with a neat blend of commercial elements, brilliant stunt sequences, and interesting storyline. The film could have been so much more if they had done away with too much detailing. Yet, Krack holds the audience’s attention for the most part and entertains us."
Box office.
The morning and noon shows for "Krack" were cancelled, and the film opened with evening shows. The film grossed 10 crore in its first two days, with a distributor share of over 6 crore. At the third day, the film grossed more than 2.81 crore, taking its total opening weekend collections to 23 crore. The film collected a gross of 31 crore after five days, and in the first week. In 15 days, "Krack" grossed , becoming the highest-grossing film of Teja's career. The film earned distributors a share of 36.23 crore. , the film had grossed approximately .


Okhaldhunga District

Okhaldhunga District () is one of 14 districts of Province No. 1 in eastern Nepal. The district, with Okhaldhunga as its district headquarters, covers an area of and had a population of 156,702 in 2001 and 147,984 in 2011.
Okhaldhunga is the place where Siddhicharan Shrestha and was born. Siddhicharan Shrestha is known as the 'Yug Kawi (युगकवी)' of Nepal.
Demographics.
At the time of the 2011 Nepal census, Okhaldhunga District had a population of 147,984. Of these, 57.9% spoke Nepali, 9.2% Tamang, 8.9% Magar, 6.8% Sherpa, 4.8% Wambule, 3.8% Bahing, 2.1% Sunuwar, 1.9% Rai, 1.1% Newari, 1.0% Jero/Jerung and 0.5% Bhojpuri as their first language.
35.8% of the population in the district spoke Nepali and 1.4% Jero/Jerung, 0.6% Bahing as their second language.
Village Development Committees.
The district contains the following VDCs from 2017:
Andheri Narayansthan,
Baksa,
Balakhu,
Barnalu,
Baruneshwor,
Betinee,
Bhadaure,
Bhussinga,
Bigutar,
Bilandu,
Chyanam,
Diyale,
Fediguth,
Fulbari,
Gamnangtar,
Harkapur,
Jantarkhani,
Jyamire,
Kalikadevi,
Khijikati,
Katunje,
Ketuke,
Khiji Chandeshwori,
Khijifalate,
Kuibhir,
Kuntadevi,
Madhavpur,
Mamkha,
Manebhanjyang,
Moli,
Mulkharka,
Narmedeshwor,
Okhaldhunga,
Palapu,
Patle,
Pokali,
Pokhare,
Prapcha,
Ragadip,
Ragani,
Raniban,
Ratmate,
Rawadolu,
Rumjatar,
Salleri,
Serna,
Shreechaur,
Singhadevi,
Sisneri,
Taluwa,
Tarkerabari,
Thakle,
Thoksela,
Thulachhap,
Ubu,
Yasam
Municipality.
Siddhicharan Municipality
Tourist area.
Khijee Tholedamba
Tourists are attracted towards the beauty of Khiji Okhaldhunga.
Tourist area
Betinee Thuldhunga
Tourists are attracted towards the beauty of Betinee Thuldhunga Okhaldhunga.


Bhumaka

Bhumaka (Kharosthi: ' , ; Brahmi: ' , ; ?–119 CE) was a Western Kshatrapa ruler of the early 2nd century CE.
He was the father of the great ruler Nahapana, according to one of the latter's coins. He was preceded by Abhiraka (Aubhirakes), of whom a few coins are known.
His coins bear Buddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel (dharmachakra), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of Ashoka.
Bhumaka's coins have been found in the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawad and Malwa.


List of archaeological sites in Iran

Some of the prehistoric archaeological sites of Iran are listed below:


Radio Amateur Society of Thailand

The Radio Amateur Society of Thailand (RAST) (in Thai, สมาคมวิทยุสมัครเล่นแห่งประเทศไทย) is a national non-profit organization for amateur radio enthusiasts in Thailand. The organization is founded under the royal patronage of the King of Thailand, and qualifies as a charitable entity pursuant to a Thai Ministry of Finance declaration. The organization was founded on August 22, 1963 by a group of amateur radio operators who met at a restaurant in Bangkok. Among the first orders of business was to address official objections to the communications of radio amateurs in Thailand with amateur radio operators in other countries. The RAST represents the interests of Thai amateur radio operators and shortwave listeners before Thai and international telecommunications regulatory authorities. RAST is the national member society representing Thailand in the International Amateur Radio Union.
Amateur "ham" radio operations in Thailand are permitted via an examination in the Thai language for Thai nationals OR via a reciprocal awarding of a Thailand license based on the presentation of a valid license from a few other countries (the list includes USA and is expanding; the latest list is in the licensing section of the RAST website). Each reciprocal agreement must be arranged via treaty between Thailand and other nations. Licenses have a five-year term, renewable. The international assigned prefixes for ham call letters in Thailand are HS and E2; numbers and letters are added behind these letters to identify each individual licensee or radio club (example: HS0AC and E20AAA). There are about 300,000 licensed operators in Thailand, but only a few tens of operators are active on the HF frequencies; the others use the 2 meter band.
RAST holds monthly member meetings on the first Sunday of each month in a Bangkok venue, the Sena Place Hotel. Guests are welcome. Officers and Board Members are elected regularly and hold two year terms.


Bojongmenje

Bojongmenje is a 7th-century Hindu candi (temple) ruins located in Bojongmenje hamlet, Cangkuang village, Rancaekek subdistrict, Bandung Regency, West Java, Indonesia. Bojongmenje is one of few temples ever discovered in West Java.
History.
The temple ruins was discovered by locals on 18 August 2002 in a cemetery behind a textile factory. A month later the archeologist team conducted an excavation and successfully revealed the base of the temple pedestal structure, which was the remains of a temple.
Structure.
The temple is located on Priangan highland, at an altitude of 698 metres above sea level. The temple was made with andesite stone as building material. The temple have a square base plan with a side length of 6 metres. The shape of the temple building is simple and the walls consist only of one layer without bas-relief and decoration. Geological study of the temple stone estimates that the age of the Bojongmenje temple ranges from the 5th century to the 7th century. Based on archaeological findings on the Bojongmenje site, it is estimated that the temple was built between 7th and 8th centuries. This means Bojongmenje temple is one of the oldest temples in Java island, older than the temples of Central and East Java, or at least in the same period with the Dieng temples in Central Java.


Azuma Kofun

The is aKofun period burial mound located on the border of the town of Mibu, Shimotsuga District, and the city of Tochigi in Tochigi Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It received protection as a National Historic Site in 1970.
Overview.
The Azuma Kofun is located on a narrow plateau between the Ogawa and Sugata rivers, which run north and south through the northern Kantō Plain. As a result of an archaeological excavation from 2007 to 2010, it was determined that the tumulus is a built in two tiers. The lower tier (base) is wide, and with a total length of about 128 meters was found to be the largest in the prefecture. The second tier is about 86 meters long with a height of about 10 meters. The two-tiered mound is set on a base of similar shape, and is surrounded by a moat with a width of about 20 meters and a depth of about three meters. Pumice deposits from the 1108 AD eruption of Mount Asama were confirmed from the soil filling the moat. The burial facility is a horizontal hole type stone chamber with dimensions of 2.4 meters long x 1.7 meters wide x 2.0 meters high; however, during the Edo period, the front part of the rectangular portion of the tumulus was destroyed, and the entrance stone and one of the ceiling stones were removed by the "daimyō" of Mibu Domain for use as ornamental stones in the gardens of Mibu Castle, where they can still be seen. The entrance stone was of cut tuff with a rectangular opening for a door, whereas the ceiling stone (and remaining stones in the walls and remaining ceiling of the burial chamber) are of monolithic diorite. Red pigment was applied to the walls of the burial chamber, which was backfilled for preservation after the 2010 excavation.
The surface of the tumulus is covered with "fukiishi" stones. Fragments of cylindrical and house-shaped "haniwa" have been recovered. The tumulus is a representative example of a "kofun" of the late Kofun period, from around the latter half of the 6th century. Recovered artifacts, including small objects of gold and copper found in the burial chamber, are on display at the Shimotsuke Fudoki-ga-oka Museum at site, which is located approximately eight minutes by car from Mibu Station on the Tōbu Railway Tōbu Utsunomiya Line.