Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt

Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt III (October 23, 1915 – August 3, 1991) was an American World War II veteran and a grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt who worked for the CIA from the close of World War II until his retirement in 1973.
Early life.
He was the third child of Theodore "Ted" Roosevelt III and Eleanor Butler Alexander and therefore the grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt. His siblings were Grace, Theodore Roosevelt IV, and Quentin Roosevelt II. He attended Harvard University and graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was a member of St. Anthony Hall, and graduated in 1938.
As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, and through his ancestor and namesake Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt (1794–1871), he was a descendant of the Schuyler family.
Career.
From 1938 to 1941, Roosevelt was a mining engineer for the American Smelting and Mining Company in Mexico.
World War II.
He served in the Navy during World War II. He was commissioned as an ensign in the Naval Reserve on May 28, 1942 and promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on July 1, 1943. He remained in the Naval Reserve after the war and was promoted to lieutenant commander in 1951.
Post-War career.
From 1946 to 1949, he moved to Shanghai where he was the manager of the mining division of William Hunt & Co. In 1949, after the Communist takeover in China, he relocated to Hong Kong where he served as president of the company in 1950. During the same period, he also served as president of International Industries Inc. in Hong Kong.
In 1952, after a brief stint as vice president of Security Banknote Co. in Philadelphia, a research administrator for the Office of Naval Research and president of Linderman Engineering Co., he joined the Central Intelligence Agency in Washington. While in the CIA, he was the chief of the Technical Services Division/TSD from 1959 to 1962.
He served as the chairman of the Technical Surveillance Countermeasures Committee, which involved securing American facilities against electronic eavesdropping. Evan Thomas wrote that Roosevelt was the person who originally suggested the CIA project that attempted to poison Fidel Castro. Roosevelt, as a head of the CIA technical division, supervised Sidney Gottlieb, who brought a biological poison to Congo during the autumn of 1960. To friends and family, he said that his work for the CIA mainly involved creating devices to detect listening devices. He also mentioned that he took part as a subject in the CIA experiments on LSD (part of MKULTRA). Roosevelt retired from the CIA in 1973 and had served in retirement as a defense consultant and on the board of Aerospace Corp.
Personal life.
Roosevelt had many lifelong hobbies and interests and published about them: the archaeology of Peru, the history of early sugar processing machines in the Caribbean, Japanese Netsuke carvings, and scuba-diving. He gave a collection of more than 50 M. C. Escher prints to the National Gallery of Art.
Roosevelt was a member of the Metropolitan Club and the Army and Navy Club in Washington.


Kuryer Polski

The Kuryer Polski was the first Polish-language daily newspaper in the United States. It was founded by Michał Kruszka in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in June 1888.
History.
Kruszka had come to the United States in 1880 and relocated in 1883 to Milwaukee, where he became an insurance salesman.
His real calling in life, however, was journalism, and he attempted to begin a Polish-language weekly "Tygodnik Anonsowy" (Advertising Weekly), soon followed by another weekly, "Krytyka". With backing from a group of Polish labor leaders, Kruszka began a daily paper, "Dziennik Polski", in 1887. All three papers failed financially in relatively short order. After borrowing $125 from friends, Kruszka made one final attempt with another daily called "Kuryer Polski" the following year. The paper proved to be a success.
Kruszka died on December 2, 1918.
Editorial views.
Kruszka was passionate in his political views and used the "Kuryer" as a springboard for his ideas. He advocated labor reforms, independence for partitioned Poland, and representation for Poles within the local Roman Catholic Church hierarchy. His half-brother Wacław Kruszka, a priest, was a frequent contributor to the paper.
The aggressive "Kuryer" editorials eventually put it at odds with Milwaukee Archbishop Sebastian Gebhard Messmer. In 1906, Archbishop Messmer and his allies funded an alternative paper, "Nowiny Polskie", which was more sympathetic to the official positions of the church. The new paper received endorsement from the Milwaukee Archdiocese, as well as from Pope Pius X himself, as the proper source of news and opinion for Milwaukee's Polish community. Michał Kruszka was, of course, outraged.
The battles between the two Polish-language papers became bitter and personal. The "Kuryer" attacked "Nowiny"'s editor Father Bolesaus Goral as a drunk and alluded to improper sexual conduct by the priest. The Kuryer began to refer to the paper as the "Nowiny Niemiecki" (German News), a reference to those who dominated the Catholic Church in Milwaukee. Polish priests sympathetic to the "Nowiny" blasted the "Kuryer" from the pulpit, and criticized Kruszka's decision to send his daughter to public, instead of Catholic, school. The Milwaukee Polish Church War was in full swing.
On February 12, 1912, in a pastoral letter, Archbishop Messmer declared that anyone reading the "Kuryer" or the "Dziennik Narodowy", Kruszka's paper in Chicago, would be denied sacramental absolution for their sins: "Should any such Catholic dare to go to confession and communion without confessing or telling to the priest that they still read or subscribe to the papers mentioned, let them understand that … they commit horrible sacrilege."
Kruszka filed a lawsuit in Wisconsin courts stating that the Archdiocese had severely damaged his business financially by this order. He lost the suit as the courts ruled that: "Recommending to the members what they should read under pain of expulsion of church communion is within the jurisdiction of every pastor and prelate of every church."
With the appointment of Father Edward Kozłowski as Auxiliary Bishop in Milwaukee, the conflict between the "Kuryer" and Archdiocese eventually subsided. Despite the sanctions from the church, the "Kuryer" continued to outsell the "Nowiny" by a large margin.
The "Kuryer" continued to publish until its closure on September 23, 1962.


Runaway Scrape

The Runaway Scrape events took place mainly between September 1835 and April 1836 and were the evacuations by Texas residents fleeing the Mexican Army of Operations during the Texas Revolution, from the Battle of the Alamo through the decisive Battle of San Jacinto. The "ad interim" government of the new Republic of Texas and much of the civilian population fled eastward ahead of the Mexican forces. The conflict arose after Antonio López de Santa Anna abrogated the 1824 Constitution of Mexico and established martial law in Coahuila y Tejas. The Texians resisted and declared their independence. It was Sam Houston's responsibility, as the appointed commander-in-chief of the Provisional Army of Texas (before such an army actually existed), to recruit and train a military force to defend the population against troops led by Santa Anna.
Residents on the Gulf Coast and at San Antonio de Béxar began evacuating in January upon learning of the Mexican army's troop movements into their area, an event that was ultimately replayed across Texas. During early skirmishes, some Texian soldiers surrendered, believing that they would become prisoners of war — but Santa Anna demanded their executions. The news of the Battle of the Alamo and the Goliad massacre instilled fear in the population and resulted in the mass exodus of the civilian population of Gonzales, where the opening battle of the Texian revolution had begun and where, only days before the fall of the Alamo, they had sent a militia to reinforce the defenders at the mission. The civilian refugees were accompanied by the newly forming provisional army, as Houston bought time to train soldiers and create a military structure that could oppose Santa Anna's greater forces. Houston's actions were viewed as cowardice by the "ad interim" government, as well as by some of his own troops. As he and the refugees from Gonzales escaped first to the Colorado River and then to the Brazos, evacuees from other areas trickled in and new militia groups arrived to join with Houston's force.
The towns of Gonzales and San Felipe de Austin were burned to keep them out of the hands of the Mexican army. Santa Anna was intent on executing members of the Republic's interim government, who fled from Washington-on-the-Brazos to Groce's Landing to Harrisburgh and New Washington. The government officials eventually escaped to Galveston Island, and Santa Anna burned the towns of Harrisburgh and New Washington when he failed to find them. Approximately 5,000 terrified residents of New Washington fled from the Mexican army. After a little over a month of training the troops, Houston reached a crossroads where he ordered some of them to escort the fleeing refugees farther east while he took the main army southeast to engage the Mexican army. The subsequent Battle of San Jacinto resulted in the surrender of Santa Anna and the signing of the Treaties of Velasco.
Prelude.
Changes in Mexico: 1834 – 1835.
In 1834, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna shifted from a federalist political ideology to creating a centralist government and revoked the country's constitution of 1824. That constitution had established Coahuila y Tejas as a new Mexican state and had provided for each state in Mexico to create its own local-level constitution. After eliminating state-level governments, Santa Anna had in effect created a dictatorship, and he put Coahuila y Tejas under the military rule of General Martín Perfecto de Cos. When Santa Anna made Miguel Barragán temporary president, he also had Barragán install him as head of the Mexican Army of Operations. Intending to put down all rebellion in Coahuila y Tejas, he began amassing his army on November 28, 1835, soon followed by General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma leading the Vanguard of the Advance across the Rio Grande in December.
Temporary governments in Texas: November 1835 – March 1836.
Stephen F. Austin was commander of the existing unpaid volunteer Texian army, and at his urging the Consultation of 1835 convened in San Felipe de Austin on November 3 of that year. Their creation of a provisional government based on the 1824 constitution established the General Council as a legislative body with each municipality allotted one representative. Henry Smith was elected governor without any clearly defined powers of the position. Sam Houston was in attendance as the elected representative from Nacogdoches, who also served as commander of the Nacogdoches militia. Edward Burleson replaced Austin as commander of the volunteer army on December 1.
On December 10, the General Council called new elections to choose delegates to determine the fate of the region. The Consultation approved the creation of the Provisional Army of Texas, a paid force of 2,500 troops. Houston was named commander-in-chief of the new army and issued a recruitment proclamation on December 12.
The volunteer army under Burleson disbanded on December 20.
Harrisburgh was designated the seat of a deeply divided provisional government on December 30. Most of the General Council wanted to remain part of Mexico, but with the restoration of the 1824 constitution. Governor Smith supported the opposing faction who advocated for complete independence. Smith dissolved the General Council on January 10, 1836, but it was unclear if he had the power to do that. He was impeached on January 11. The power struggle effectively shut down the government.
The Convention of 1836 met at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 1. The following day, the 59 delegates created the Republic of Texas by affixing their signatures to the Texas Declaration of Independence. Houston's military authority was expanded on March 4 to include "the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia." The delegates elected the Republic's "ad interim" government on March 16, with David G. Burnet as president, Lorenzo de Zavala as vice president, Samuel P. Carson as secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson Rusk as secretary of war, Bailey Hardeman as secretary of the treasury, Robert Potter as secretary of the navy, and David Thomas as attorney general.
Battle of Gonzales: October 2, 1835.
The Battle of Gonzales was the onset of a chain of events that led to what is known as the Runaway Scrape. The confrontation began in September 1835, when the Mexican government attempted to reclaim a bronze cannon that it had provided to Gonzales in 1831 to protect the town against Indian attacks. The first attempt by Corporal Casimiro De León resulted in De León's detachment being taken prisoners, and the cannon being buried in a peach orchard. James C. Neill, a veteran who had served at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend under Andrew Jackson, was put in charge of the artillery after it was later dug up and wheel mounted. When Lieutenant Francisco de Castañeda arrived accompanied by 100 soldiers and made a second attempt at repossessing the cannon, Texians dared the Mexicans to "come and take it". John Henry Moore led 150 Texian militia on October 2 in successfully repelling the Mexican troops. A "Come and Take It" flag was later fashioned by the women of Gonzales. The cannon was moved to San Antonio de Béxar and became one of the artillery pieces used by the defenders of the Alamo.
The immediate result of the Texian victory at Gonzales was that two days later the number of volunteers had swelled to over 300, and they were determined to drive the Mexican army out of Texas. Simultaneously, a company of volunteers under George M. Collinsworth captured the Presidio La Bahía from the Mexicans on October 9 at the Battle of Goliad. The Mexican government's response to the unrest in Texas was an October 30 authorization of war. On the banks of the Nueces River from San Patricio on November 4 during the Battle of Lipantitlán, volunteers under Ira Westover captured the fort from Mexican troops.
Béxar: 1835–1836.
Siege of Béxar and its aftermath: October 1835 – February 1836.
By October 9, Cos had taken over San Antonio de Béxar. Stephen F. Austin sent an advance scout troop of 90 men under James Bowie and James Fannin to observe the Mexican forces. While taking refuge at Mission Concepción on October 28, they repelled an attack by 275 Mexicans under Domingo Ugartechea. Austin continued to send troops to Béxar. Bowie was ordered on November 26 to attack a Mexican supply train allegedly carrying a payroll. The resulting skirmish became known as the Grass Fight, after it was discovered that the only cargo was grass to feed the horses. When Austin was selected to join Branch T. Archer and William H. Wharton on a diplomatic mission to seek international recognition and support, Edward Burleson was named as commander. On December 5, James C. Neill began distracting Cos by firing artillery directly at the Alamo, while Benjamin Milam and Frank W. Johnson led several hundred volunteers in a surprise attack. The fighting at the siege of Béxar continued until December 9 when Cos sent word he wanted to surrender. Cos and his men were sent back to Mexico but later united with Santa Anna's forces.
Approximately 300 of the Texian garrison at Béxar departed on December 30 to join Johnson and James Grant on the Matamoros Expedition, in a planned attack to seize the port for its financial resources. Proponents of this campaign were hoping Mexican Federalists would oust Santa Anna and restore the 1824 constitution. When Sesma crossed the Rio Grande, residents of the Gulf Coast began fleeing the area in January 1836. On February 16, Santa Anna ordered General José de Urrea to secure the Gulf Coast. About north of Matamoros at San Patricio, Urrea's troops ambushed Johnson and members of the expedition on February 27 at the Battle of San Patricio. In the skirmish, 16 Texians were killed, 6 escaped, and 21 were taken prisoner. Urrea's troops then turned southwest by some to Agua Dulce Creek and on March 2 attacked a group of the expedition led by Grant, killing all but 11, six of whom were taken prisoner. Five of the men escaped the Battle of Agua Dulce and joined Fannin who wanted to increase the defense force at Goliad.
The Alamo: February 1836.
Neill was promoted to lieutenant colonel during his participation in the siege of Béxar, and 10 days later Houston placed him in charge of the Texian garrison in the city. In January residents had begun evacuating ahead of Santa Anna's approaching forces. Neill pleaded with Houston for replenishment of troops, supplies and weaponry. The departure of Texians who joined the Matamoros Expedition had left Neill with only about 100 men. At that point Houston viewed Béxar as a military liability and did not want Santa Anna's advancing army gaining control of any remaining soldiers or artillery. He dispatched Bowie with instructions to remove the artillery, have the defenders abandon the Alamo mission and destroy it. Upon his January 19 arrival and subsequent discussions with Neill, Bowie decided the mission was the right place to stop the Mexican army in its tracks. He stayed and began to help Neill prepare for the coming attack. Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis arrived with reinforcements on February 3. When Neill was given leave to attend to family matters on February 11, Travis assumed command of the mission, and three days later he and Bowie agreed to a joint command. Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande on February 16, and the Mexican army's assault on the Alamo began February 23. Captain Juan Seguín left the mission on February 25, carrying a letter from Travis to Fannin at Goliad requesting more reinforcements. Santa Anna extended an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress; a non-combatant survivor, Enrique Esparza, said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer. In response to Travis' February 24 letter To the People of Texas, 32 militia volunteers formed the Gonzales Ranging Company of Mounted Volunteers and arrived at the Alamo on February 29.
Fall of the Alamo, and the runaway flight: March – April 1836.
Houston begins forming his army.
As the closest settlement to San Antonio de Béxar, Gonzales was the rallying point for volunteers who responded to both the Travis letter from the Alamo and Houston's recruitment pleas. Recently formed groups came from Austin and Washington counties and from the Colorado River area. Volunteers from Brazoria, Fort Bend and Matagorda counties organized after arriving in Gonzales. The Kentucky Rifle company under Newport, Kentucky, business man Sidney Sherman had been aided by funding from Cincinnati, Ohio, residents.
Alamo commandant Neill was in Gonzales purchasing supplies and recruiting reinforcements on March 6, unaware that the Alamo had fallen to Mexican forces that morning. When Seguin learned en route that Fannin would be unable to reach the Alamo in time, he immediately began mustering an all-Tejano company of scouts. His men combined with Lieutenant William Smith's and volunteered to accompany Neill's recruits. They encountered the Mexican army from the Alamo on March 7, and Neill's men turned back while the Seguin-Smith scouts moved forward. As the scouts neared the Alamo, they heard only silence. Andrew Barcena and Anselmo Bergara from Seguin's other detachment inside the Alamo showed up in Gonzales on March 11, telling of their escape and delivering news of the March 6 slaughter. Their stories were discounted; Houston, who had arrived that same day, denounced them as Mexican spies.
Smith and Seguin confirmed the fate of the Alamo upon their return. Houston dispatched orders to Fannin to abandon Goliad, blow up the Presidio La Bahía fortress, and retreat to Victoria, but Fannin delayed acting on those orders. Believing the approach of Urrea's troops brought a greater urgency to local civilians, he sent 29 men under Captain Amon B. King to help evacuate nearby Refugio.
Houston promptly began organizing the troops at Gonzales into the First Regiment under Burleson who had arrived as part of the Mina volunteers. A second regiment would later be formed when the army grew large enough. As others began to arrive, individual volunteers not already in another company were put under Captain William Hestor Patton. Houston had 374 volunteers and their commanders in Gonzales on March 12.
Santa Anna sent Susanna Dickinson with her infant daughter Angelina, Travis' slave Joe, and Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte's cook Ben to Gonzales, with dispatches written in English by Almonte to spread the news of the fall of the Alamo. Scouts Deaf Smith, Henry Karnes and Robert Eden Handy encountered the survivors outside of Gonzales on March 13. When Karnes returned with the news, 25 volunteers deserted. Wailing filled the air when Dickinson and the others reached the town with their first-hand accounts.
Although civilian evacuations had begun in January for the Gulf Coast and San Antonio de Béxar, the Texian military was either on the offensive or standing firm until the smaller Gulf Coast skirmishes happened in February. Houston was now facing a choice of whether to retreat to a safe place to train his new army, or to meet the enemy head-on immediately. He was wary of trying to defend a fixed position – the debacle at the Alamo had shown that the new Texian government was unable to provide sufficient provisions or reinforcements.
Burning of Gonzales.
Houston called for a council of war. The officers voted that the families should be ordered to leave, and the troops would cover the retreat. By midnight, less than an hour after Dickinson had arrived, the combined army and civilian population began a frantic move eastward, leaving behind everything they could not immediately grab and transport. Much of the provisions and artillery were left behind, including two 24-pounder cannon. Houston ordered Salvador Flores along with a company of Juan Seguin's men to form the rear guard to protect the fleeing families. Couriers were sent to other towns in Texas to warn that the Mexican army was advancing.
The retreat took place so quickly that many of the Texian scouts did not fully comprehend it until after the town was evacuated. Houston ordered Karnes to burn the town and everything in it so nothing would remain to benefit the Mexican troops. By dawn, the entire town was in ashes or flames.
Volunteers from San Felipe de Austin who had been organized under Captain John Bird on March 5 to reinforce the men at the Alamo had been en route to San Antonio de Béxar on March 13 when approximately east of Gonzales they encountered fleeing citizens and a courier from Sam Houston. Told of the Alamo's fall, Bird's men offered assistance to the fleeing citizens and joined Houston's army at Bartholomew D. McClure's plantation on the evening of March 14.
At Washington-on-the-Brazos, the delegates to the convention learned of the Alamo's fall on March 13. The Republic's new "ad interim" government was sworn in on March 17, with a department overseeing military spy operations, and adjourned the same day. The government then fled to Groce's Landing where they stayed for several days before moving on to Harrisburgh on March 21, where they established temporary headquarters in the home of widow Jane Birdsall Harris.
King's men at Refugio had taken refuge in Mission Nuestra Señora de la Rosario when they were subsequently attacked by Urrea's forces. Fannin sent 120 reinforcements under William Ward, but the March 14 Battle of Refugio cost 15 Texian lives. Ward's men escaped, but King's men were captured and executed on March 16.
Colorado River crossings.
Upon learning of the flight, Santa Anna sent General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma with 700 men to pursue Houston, and 600 men under General Eugenio Tolsa as reinforcements. Finding only burned remains at Gonzales, Sesma marched his army toward the Colorado River.
The Texian army camped March 15–18 on the Lavaca River property of Williamson Daniels where they were joined by combined forces under Joe Bennett and Captain Peyton R. Splane. Fleeing civilians accompanied Houston's army turning north at the Navidad River as they crossed to the east side of the Colorado River at Burnam's Crossing. The ferry and trading post, as well as the family home of Jesse Burnam, were all burned at Houston's orders on March 17 to prevent Santa Anna's army from making the same crossing.
Beason's Crossing was located where Columbus is today. DeWees Crossing was north of Beason's. From March 19 through March 26, Houston split his forces between the two crossings. Additional Texian volunteer companies began arriving at both crossings, including three companies of Texas Rangers, the Liberty County Volunteers and the Nacogdoches Volunteers.
Sesma's battalion of approximately 725 men and artillery camped on the opposite side of the Colorado, at a distance halfway between the two Texian camps. To prevent Sesma's troops from using William DeWees' log cabin, Sherman ordered it burned. Three Mexican scouts from Sesma's army were captured by Sherman's men, and although Sherman argued for an attack on Sesma's troops, Houston was not ready.
Fannin had begun evacuating Presidio La Bahía on March 19. The estimated 320 troops were low on food and water, and the breakdown of a wagon allowed Urrea's men to overtake them at Coleto Creek, ending in Fannin's surrender on March 20. Peter Kerr, who had served with Fannin and claimed to have been held prisoner, arrived at DeWees Crossing on March 25. Houston announced Fannin's surrender but would later claim to have uncovered evidence that Kerr was a spy for the Mexicans.
The Texian army was a force of 810 volunteers and staff at this point, but few had any military training and experience. Faced with past desertions, discipline flaws, and individual indecisiveness of volunteers in training, Houston knew they were not yet ready to engage the Mexican army. Compounding the situation were the civilian refugees dependent upon the army for their protection. The news of Fannin's capture, combined with his doubts about the readiness of the Texian army, led Houston to order a retreat on March 26. Some of the troops viewed the decision as cowardice with Sesma sitting just on the other side of the Colorado, and several hundred men deserted.
Brazos River training camp.
Groce's Landing.
Texian survivors of the Battle of Coleto Creek believed their surrender agreement with Urrea would, at worst, mean their deportation. Santa Anna, however, adhered to the 1835 Tornel Decree that stated the insurrection was an act of piracy fomented by the United States and ordered their executions. Although he personally disagreed with the need to do so, Urrea carried out his commander's orders on March 27. Of the estimated 370 Texians being held, a few managed to escape the massacre at Goliad. The remainder were shot, stabbed with bayonets and lances and clubbed with gun butts. Fannin was shot through the face and his gold watch stolen. The dead were cremated on a pyre.
The retreating Texian army stopped at San Felipe de Austin on March 28–29 to stock up on food and supplies. Houston's plan to move the army north to Groce's Landing on the Brazos River was met with resistance from captains Wyly Martin and Moseley Baker, whose units balked at further retreat. Houston reassigned Martin south to protect the Morton Ferry crossing at Fort Bend, and Baker was ordered to guard the river crossing at San Felipe de Austin.
News of approaching Mexican troops and Houston's retreat caused panic among the population in the counties of Washington, Sabine, Shelby and San Augustine. Amid the confusion of fleeing residents of those counties, two volunteer groups under captains William Kimbro and Benjamin Bryant arrived to join Houston on March 29. Kimbro was ordered to San Felipe de Austin to reinforce Baker's troops, while Bryant's men remained with the main army.
After an erroneous scouting report of approaching Mexican troops, Baker burned San Felipe de Austin to the ground on March 30. When Baker claimed Houston had given him an order to do so, Houston denied it. Houston's account was that the residents burned their own property to keep it out of the hands of the Mexican army. San Felipe de Austin's residents fled to the east.
During a two-week period beginning March 31, the Texian army camped on the west side of the Brazos River in Austin County, near Groce's Landing (also known as Groce's Ferry). As Houston led his army north towards the landing, the unrelenting rainy weather swelled the Brazos and threatened flooding. Groce's Landing was transformed into a training camp for the troops. Major Edwin Morehouse arrived with a New York battalion of recruits who were immediately assigned to assist Wyly Martin at Fort Bend. Civilian men who were fleeing the Mexicans enlisted, and displaced civilian women in the camp helped the army's efforts by sewing shirts for the soldiers.
Samuel G. Hardaway, a survivor of Major William Ward's group who had escaped the Battle of Refugio and re-joined Fannin at the Battle of Coleto, also managed to escape the Goliad massacre. As he fled Goliad, he was eventually joined by three other survivors, Joseph Andrews, James P. Trezevant and M. K. Moses. Spies for the Texian army discovered the four men and took them to Baker's camp near San Felipe de Austin on April 2. Several other survivors of the Goliad massacre were found on April 10 by Texian spies. Survivors Daniel Murphy, Thomas Kemp, Charles Shain, David Jones, William Brenan and Nat Hazen were taken to Houston at Groce's Landing where they enlisted to fight with Houston's army.
Houston learned of the Goliad massacre on April 3. Unaware that Secretary of War Rusk was already en route to Groce's Landing with orders from President Burnet to halt the army's retreat and engage the enemy, he relayed the Goliad news by letter to Rusk.
Empowered to remove Houston from command and take over the army himself, Rusk instead assessed Houston's plan of action as correct, after witnessing the training taking place at Groce's Landing. Rusk and Houston formed the Second Regiment on April 8 to serve under Sherman, with Burleson retaining command of the First Regiment.
"Yellowstone" steamboat.
The steamboat "Yellowstone" under the command of Captain John Eautaw Ross was impressed into service for the Provisional Army of Texas on April 2 and initially ferried patients across the Brazos River when Dr. James Aeneas Phelps established a field hospital at Bernardo Plantation. Three days later, Santa Anna joined with Sesma's troops and had them build flatboats to cross the Brazos as the Mexicans sought to overtake and defeat the Texians. Wyly Martin reported on April 8 that Mexican forces had divided and were headed both east to Nacogdoches and southeast to Matagorda. Houston reinforced Baker's post at San Felipe de Austin on April 9, as Santa Anna continued moving southeast on April 10.
The Texian army was transported by the "Yellowstone" over to the east side of the Brazos on April 12, where they set up camp at the Bernardo Plantation. After walking from Harrisburgh, Mirabeau B. Lamar arrived at Bernardo to enlist as a private in Houston's army and suggested using the steamer for guerilla warfare.
With Baker guarding the crossing at San Felipe de Austin, and Martin guarding the Morton Ferry crossing at Ford Bend, Santa Anna opted on April 12 to cross the Brazos halfway between at Thompson's Ferry, with Sesma's men and artillery crossing over the next day. The Mexican army attacked the steamer numerous times in an attempt to capture it, but Ross successfully used cotton bales to protect the steamer and its cargo and was able to keep the "Yellowstone" away from Mexican control. Houston released the steamboat from service on April 14, and it sailed on to Galveston.
Burning of Harrisburgh and the crucial crossroads.
The "ad interim" government departed Harrisburgh on the steamboat "Cayuga" for New Washington ahead of Santa Anna's April 15 arrival, thwarting his plans to eliminate the entire government of the Republic of Texas. Three printers still at work on the "Telegraph and Texas Register" told the Mexican army that everyone in the government had already left, and Santa Anna responded by having the printers arrested and the printing presses tossed into Buffalo Bayou. After days of looting and seeking out information about the government, Santa Anna ordered the town burned on April 18. He later tried to place the blame for the destruction on Houston.
Before the Texian army left Bernardo Plantation, they welcomed the arrival of two cannon cast in Cincinnati, Ohio, funded entirely by the people of that city as a donation to the Texas Revolution. The idea had arisen as a suggestion from Robert F. Lytle, one of the businessmen who helped fund Sherman's Kentucky Riflemen. Arriving in New Orleans after a lengthy trip from Ohio on the Mississippi River, the cannon were transported to the Gulf Coast aboard the "Pennsylvania" schooner. The cannons were nicknamed the "Twin Sisters", perhaps in honor of the twins Elizabeth and Eleanor Rice traveling aboard the "Pennsylvania", who were to present the cannon upon their arrival at Galveston in April 1836. At Galveston, Leander Smith had the responsibility of transporting the cannon from Harrisburgh to Bernardo Plantation. Along the way, Smith recruited 35 men into the army. Lieutenant Colonel James Neill was put in charge of the cannon once they arrived in camp.
Martin and Baker abandoned the river crossings on April 14 and re-joined Houston's army which had marched from Bernardo to the Charles Donoho Plantation near present-day Hempstead in Waller County. As news spread of the Mexican army's movements, residents of Nacogdoches and San Augustine began to flee east towards the Sabine River. After refusals to continue with the army, Martin was ordered by Houston to accompany displaced families on their flight eastward. Hundreds of soldiers left the army to help their families. The main army parted from the refugees at this point, and acting Secretary of War David Thomas advised Houston to move southward to secure Galveston Bay. Houston, however, was getting conflicting advice from the cabinet members. President Burnet had sent Secretary of State Carson to Louisiana in hopes of getting the United States army and individual state militias involved in the Texas fight for independence. While he attempted to secure such involvement, Carson sent a dispatch to Houston on April 14 advising him to retreat all the way to the Louisiana-Texas border on the Sabine River and bide his time before engaging the Mexican army.
The Texian army camped west of present-day Tomball on April 15, at Sam McCarley's homestead. They departed the next morning and east reached a crucial crossroads. One road led east to Nacogdoches and eventually the Sabine River and Louisiana, while the other road led southeast to Harrisburgh. The army was concerned that Houston would continue the eastward retreat. Although Houston discussed his decision with no one, he led the army down the southeast road. Rusk ordered that a small group of volunteers be split from the army to secure Robbins's Ferry on the Trinity River. Houston's troops stopped overnight on April 16 at the home of Matthew Burnet and the next morning continued marching towards Harrisburgh, southeast.
With the refugee families being accorded a military escort eastward and Houston marching southeast, the retreat of the Provisional Army of Texas was over. On the march which would lead to San Jacinto, moving the heavy artillery across rain-soaked terrain slowed the army's progress. The army had previously been assisted in moving the Twin Sisters with oxen borrowed from refugee Pamela Mann when she believed the army was fleeing towards Nacogdoches. When she learned the army was headed towards Harrisburgh and a confrontation with the Mexican army, she reclaimed her oxen. The Texian army had expanded to 26 companies by the time they reached Harrisburgh on April 18 and saw the destruction Santa Anna had left behind.
New Washington.
On orders of Santa Anna after the burning of Harrisburgh, Almonte went in pursuit of the "ad interim" government at New Washington. During their flight the Republic officials switched from steamer to ferry to skiff. On the final leg of the trip, Almonte finally had them in his sights but refused to fire after he saw Mrs. Burnet and her children on the skiff. In addition to letting the government get away one more time, Almonte's spies had misread Houston's troop movements, and Santa Anna was told that the Texian army was still retreating eastward, this time through Lynchburg.
New Washington was looted and burned on April 20 by Mexican troops, and as many as 5,000 civilians fled, either by boat or across land. Those attempting to cross the San Jacinto River were bottlenecked for three days, and the vicinity around the crossing transformed into a refugee camp. Burnet ordered government assistance all across Texas for fleeing families.
Battle of San Jacinto.
In a troop movement that took all night on a makeshift raft, the Texian army crossed Buffalo Bayou at Lynchburg April 19 with 930 soldiers, leaving behind 255 others as guards or for reasons of illness. It was suggested that Twin Sisters be left behind as protection, but Neill was adamant that the cannons be taken into the battle. In an April 20 skirmish, Neill was severely wounded, and George Hockley took command of the heavy artillery. Estimates of the Mexican army troop strength on the day of the main battle range from 1,250 to 1,500.
The Texians attacked in the afternoon of April 21 while Santa Anna was still under the misconception that Houston was actually retreating. He had allowed his army time to relax and feed their horses, while he took a nap. When he was awakened by the attack, he immediately fled on horseback but was later captured when Sergeant James Austin Sylvester found him hiding in the grass. Houston's own account was that the battle lasted "about eighteen minutes", before apprehending prisoners and confiscating armaments. When the Twin Sisters went up against the Mexican army's Golden Standard cannon, they performed so well that Hockley's unit was able to capture the Mexican cannon.
Aftermath.
The "Yellowstone" saw war service for the Republic one more time on May 7, when it transported Houston and his prisoner Santa Anna, along with the government Santa Anna tried to extinguish, to Galveston Island. From there, the government and Santa Anna traveled to Velasco for the signing of treaties. Houston had suffered a serious wound to his foot during the battle and on May 28 boarded the schooner "Flora" for medical treatment in New Orleans.
Not until news of the victory at San Jacinto spread did the refugees return to their homesteads and businesses, or whatever was left after the destruction caused by both armies. Throughout Texas, possessions had been abandoned and later looted. Businesses, homes and farms were wiped out by the devastation of war. Often there was nothing left to go back to, but those who went home began to pick up their lives and move forward. San Felipe de Austin never really recovered from its total destruction. The few people who returned there moved elsewhere, sooner or later. Secretary of War Rusk later commended the women of Texas who held their families together during the flight, while their men volunteered to fight: "The men of Texas deserve much credit, but more was due the women. Armed men facing a foe could not but be brave; but the women, with their little children around them, without means of defense or power to resist, faced danger and death with unflinching courage."


Chilean Mexicans

There is a small Chilean diaspora in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 5267 registered Chilean citizens living in Mexico, an increase from the 3,848 registered in the 2000 census. Chilean immigrants constitute the fifth largest community of South Americans in Mexico (after Colombian Mexicans, Argentine Mexicans, Venezuelan Mexicans and Peruvian Mexicans) and the fifteenth largest immigrant community overall.
History.
The first South Americans who came to an independent Mexico came from Chile and Peru, who passed through the ports of Acapulco and Puerto Ángel for supplies during the height of the gold rush in California in the mid-nineteenth century. Some Chilean and Peruvian migrants stayed and threw culturares roots among the coastal populations of the Mexican south Pacific.
In the summer of 1849, hundreds of Chileans were deceived by American filibusters to have alliances to invade the port of Guaymas, in an attempt to found the Republic of Sonora. The Chileans were taken to the camps, but the Mexican army attacked Chilean vessels and killed many immigrants accused of supporting separatists.
Political asylum.
After the coup that overthrew Salvador Allende in 1973, many Chileans fled the political persecution of the dictatorship of Pinochet, seeking political asylum in Mexico, accompanied by Peruvians fleeing persecution carried out by their respective governments. The higher educational level of Mexico provided a platform to protect their stay in the country.
Many Chileans who sought political asylum, have settled permanently in the country. They have found the same life expectancy at best to proceed with businesses and jobs that have allowed them to maintain a standard of living much better than other Latin American immigrants. Both countries share the Spanish language; their historical origins are common (part of the Spanish Empire). The warmth of the people of the country has allowed them to live peacefully and in total harmony, some marrying and having families of success. There are others who are simply charmed with everything about Mexico and decided to settle in definitively. Without a doubt this is a unique example of coexistence between migrants and local.
Chilean culture in Mexico.
Undoubtedly, one of the cultural contributions of Chile on Mexican soil is the Chilean folk, artistic and innovative tradition of the South American sailor expressed and taught in many Guerrero and Oaxaca spaces strongly influenced by this community who arrived during and after independence from Spain.
Both countries celebrate their respective anniversaries of independence during the same month, being an important link between the two nations.
Although both countries have different mining industries, they have developed to a level that allows it to be profitable and competitive in foreign markets.
The new wave of immigration.
Today, the Chilean community in Mexico is one of the largest communities of foreigners in Mexico. The presence of Chileans stands mainly in large urban centers as sportsmen, academics, researchers, students, entrepreneurs and artists.
It may be mentioned also that in the technology and transport field, both countries share in their capital a metro system in common which was installed by a French consortium as the Santiago Metro and Mexico City Metro have a system trains with rubber tires, both of Alstom technology. In the 80s, when an attack took place in Santiago, the FPMR Concarril I built for Chile a NS88 train of five cars to replace the wrecked train. Both state-owned transport companies share knowledge and strategies to optimize their respective systems. Even CAF, who was winner of a bid in Santiago, designed the NS2007 Train with similarities to the NM02 Mexicano.
Source: Estadísticas históricas de México 2009 and Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010


Temple Bowdoin

Temple Bowdoin (July 14, 1863 – December 2, 1914) was an American businessman. While an associate of J.P. Morgan & Company, he was elected a member of the New York Stock Exchange in 1909.
Early life and education.
He was born at Wolfert's Dell, Irvington, New York. He was the son of Julia Irving (née Grinnell) Bowdoin (1838–1915) and George Sullivan Bowdoin (1833–1913). His father was a banker who was a partner in Drexel, Morgan & Co. His siblings were Fanny Hamilton Bowdoin (1866–1894), who married Daniel Parish Kingsford (1858–1949), and Edith Grinnell Bowdoin (1869–1943).
His paternal grandparents were George Russell James Bowdoin (1809–1870) and Frances "Fanny" (née Hamilton) Bowdoin (1813–1887). Through his paternal grandfather, he was a descendant of the Dudley-Winthrop family and through his paternal grandmother, he was the great-grandson of James Alexander Hamilton (1788–1878) and the great-great-grandson of Alexander Hamilton, the Founding Father and first Treasury Secretary of the United States, and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, of the prominent Schuyler family. Through his mother, he was a descendant of Moses H. Grinnell, formerly the Collector of the Port of New York.
Temple Bowdoin graduated from Columbia University in 1885.
Career.
After college, Bowdoin spent several years traveling and then entered the banking business, clerking as a lawyer for four years at Winslow, Lanier & Co. He joined J. P. Morgan & Co. in January 1891 and, two years later, was made a partner and put in charge of monitoring the firm's books, which he did until his death in 1914.
He was in charge of the accounting business of J.P. Morgan & Company. Bowdoin was connected to Morgan for 25 years and a partner for 15 years. He was a director of the Niagara Development Company, Niagara Falls Power Company, and the Niagara Junction Railway Company.
In his will, he left all the employees of Morgan & Co. in New York and of Drexel & Co. in Philadelphia one month's salary, and those who had been in his personal service for a year or more, one year's salary.
Social activities.
He belonged to The Metropolitan Club, University Club of New York, New York Yacht Club, Union Club of the City of New York, St. Anthony Club, Tennis Ardsley Club, Baltusrol Golf Club, and the Automobile Club of America.
In 1892, Bowdoin was included in Ward McAllister's "Four Hundred", purported to be an index of New York's best families, published in "The New York Times".
Personal life.
On April 4, 1894, he was married to Helen Parish Kingsford (1863–1912). She was the daughter of Mary P. and John J. Kingsford of London, England, and the sister of Bowdoin's brother-in-law. Together, they were the parents of:
His wife died on August 9, 1912. Bowdoin died at his home at 104 East 37th St. on December 2, 1914, following an operation for an intestinal disorder. J.P. Morgan & Company closed for a time on the day of his death, out of respect. He was survived by a son, George Temple Bowdoin, then a student at Groton School. His estate was valued at $6,187,708, the bulk of which was left to his son. His son was also heir to his grandmother's estate upon her death in 1915.


Franklin D. Roosevelt in Central New York

Franklin D. Roosevelt made several visits to Central New York as acting governor, campaigning for his presidency and visiting.
History.
In 1928, he was late entering the governor's race. Observers predicted that his disability would create challenges in office. Therefore, he campaigned through upstate New York to demonstrate his capacity. In Utica, Rufus Elefante, a political boss and allies, organized Roosevelt's visits and campaigns. A parade proceeded down east Utica's main artery, Bleecker Street, followed by a rally in a local theater that was broadcast on the radio.
In 1931, as governor he spoke at the first commencement of the Owen D. Young School in Vanhornesville, New York. He was friends with Young. They had known each other since Young was an assistant secretary of the Navy. FDR gave the address to the first graduating class. Roosevelt pointed out how well the educational program was ranked and how it offered access to the nation and the world beyond a potentially isolated community. The governor mentioned his own background growing up in a rural area. Young said to Roosevelt, "Our friendship and good wishes go with you in all the undertakings in which you now are or may hereafter be engaged."
On August 6, 1931, Roosevelt made another trip to Central New York. It was an "annual trip" up to the valley. He visited the towns of Canajoharie, Fort Plain and Amsterdam. Roosevelt made a brief stop at the barrage canal lock in Canajoharie. His party exchanged greetings among the locals as part of "the goodwill tour up the historic Mohawk Valley". The governor was greeted by a throng of people wanting to get a close up view of him. Mayor Harry V. Bush and trustee W. J. Roser welcomed him and Joseph Traudt, a florist of Canajoharie, bestowed FDR's wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, with a bouquet of flowers.
On October 27, 1936 Roosevelt came to Utica and spoke for his presidency campaign. He talked about how the state had improved since the Great Depression had passed. He said, "Everywhere we went there was one thing that was different from the year 1932 — there are now smiles on the faces of the men and women of America." He also discussed in his speech how he went to Albany as governor in 1929 and the country was crashing from the Depression. FDR said that Albany had little help from Washington and he was starting new programs. "With the help of the farmers and the farm leaders themselves we began, for the first time, a farm program in this State." Roosevelt discussed his presidency and that under the leadership of Governor Herbert H. Lehman, the state has "the same kind of forward-looking liberal government, trying to take care of the great majority of the people, that we have been trying to maintain in Washington." Roosevelt then wrapped the speech up with, "My friends, I am mighty glad to come back into my own home state. It is a pretty fine state to live in."


Raspberry Island (Alaska)

Raspberry Island () is an island of the Kodiak Archipelago located in the Gulf of Alaska in the U.S. state of Alaska. It is located two miles northwest of Whale Island, and just across the mile-wide Raspberry Strait from the southwestern end of Afognak. The island is separated from Kodiak Island by the Kupreanof Strait, with the Shelikof Strait to the northwest. Raspberry Island is 18 miles (29 km) long with a width that varies from 3 miles (4.8 km) to 8 miles (12.9 km). The highest point on the island is 3,300 ft (1000 m).
The island is considered part of the Aleneva census-designated place in the Kodiak Island Borough. The only permanent residents on Raspberry Island are located at Port Wakefield and Raspberry Island Remote Lodge which operate full service wilderness lodges. Power is provided via hydro power harnessed in nearby creeks. The nearest town is Kodiak, Alaska, an hour-and-a-half boat ride or a thirty-minute float plane ride away.
Environment and wildlife.
Sitka spruce is one of the dominant trees on Raspberry Island. Spruce forests are interrupted by fields of salmonberry bushes, alders and wildflowers. Higher elevations have wild blueberry and cranberry bushes with more grasses. Wildlife of note on the island includes Sitka deer, red foxes and Kodiak bears, as well as tufted puffins and bald eagles. Afognak and Raspberry islands are the only locations in Alaska with elk populations. The island's Roosevelt Elk developed from eight calves translocated from Washington state's Olympic Peninsula in 1928. The elk have adapted well to the island, with some mature bulls weighing nearly . The muskrat is another species that was successfully introduced to the island. Whales commonly meander down Raspberry Strait but must turn around because it becomes too shallow for them to pass all the way through. Kayakers take advantage of this phenomenon to wait for them to pass by again on their way back out to deeper water. Bald eagles are abundant.
History.
Originally inhabited by Aleut natives for over 7000 years, Russian fur traders took control of the islands in the 18th century and nearly wiped out the now abundant sea otters that can often be seen floating together in the strait. Several fishing canneries existed on the island including Port Wakefield and Northwest Cannery in the early 20th century. These went out of business several decades later and a fox fur farm existed on the Northwest Cannery site for a while. Deposits of placer gold were noted at Raspberry Beach as early as 1915.
However, the last recorded mining activity on the beach was in 1935. The half-mile long beach is located on the northwest coast of the island at Drivers Bay. Much of the island is owned by the First Native Corporation and is uninhabited except for the two wilderness lodges that exist on land previously owned by the canneries.
Economy.
After the decline of the canneries, their land was eventually purchased and used by the two wilderness lodges as tourist destinations. They are unique because the land surrounding them and on the opposing Afognak Island is owned by the First Native corporation and almost completely uninhabited. Fishing vessels based in the city of Kodiak and Port Lions regularly fish the waters around Raspberry Island for the abundant salmon and halibut. Tourists frequent the two wilderness lodges that provide bear viewing, kayaking, extreme wilderness adventures and backpacking, ocean and fly fishing as well as hunting excursions. National Geographic filmed a true television story about two hunters that had separate bear encounters on Kodiak, one hunter was killed by a bear on nearby Uganik Island, the other stabbed the bear with a knife and then killed it with a gun on Raspberry Island and was able to drag himself out to be rescued by his son and Coast Guard airlift. Silver Salmon is one of the salmon spawning streams on the island available to fishermen and observers.
Transportation.
There are no roads on Raspberry island except between the lodgings at one of the two wilderness lodges. Hiking trails do exist and are used by wildlife as well as the occasional human. Although it has been known to happen that people have arrived at Raspberry via kayak while on an extreme wilderness adventure, most transportation to and from the island is by floatplane or boat. All inhabitants, tourists, and supplies arrive at the island by first going through the city of Kodiak, Alaska, the nearest town, which is an hour-and-a-half boat ride or a thirty-minute float plane ride away.


Riohacha Province

Riohacha Province was a province of Gran Colombia. With the 1824 changes in the subdivisions of Gran Colombia, it became part of Magdalena Department.


Isaac Roosevelt (politician)

Isaac Roosevelt (December 19, 1726 – October 1794) was an American merchant and Federalist politician. He served in the New York State Assembly and the state Constitutional Convention and achieved the most political success of any Roosevelt before Theodore Roosevelt. Isaac was the patrilineal great-great-grandfather of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He was the second generation of what would later come to be known as the Hyde Park, New York branch of the extended Roosevelt family. Isaac's fortune from the refining of sugar (a crop produced at the time almost entirely by enslaved persons), and his political accomplishments, became an essential root of the substantial wealth, prominence and influence that the Hyde Park Roosevelts came to amass.
Early life.
Roosevelt was born in New York City and baptized in the Reformed Dutch Church of New York. He was the sixth son of Jacobus Roosevelt (1692–1776) and Catharina Hardenbroek, who wed in 1713. His siblings were Johannes (b. 1714), Johannes (b. 1715), Nicholas (b. 1717), Helena (1719–1772), Jacobus (b. 1721), Christoffel (b. 1724), Abraham (b. 1729), Sara (b. 1730), and Adolphus Roosevelt (b. 1735).
His paternal grandfather was Nicholas Roosevelt (1658–1742) and his great-grandfather was the Dutch immigrant Claes Maartenszen Van Rosenvelt (d. 1659), who established the Roosevelt family in America. His maternal grandparents were Johannes Hardenbroek and Sarah (née Van Laer) Hardenbroek.
Career.
Isaac Roosevelt was one of the first large-scale sugar refiners in New York City. During the 1700s, sugar was Europe's most valuable traded agricultural commodity, and it was cultivated almost entirely by slave labor in the Caribbean. Sugar cultivation also entailed an especially high death rate among slaves, due to difficult conditions and disease. During that time, slavery remained legal in New York, and New York City became a center of sugar refining and of the global sugar trade: Roosevelt built one of the first sugar refineries in the city, and originally had his store on Wall Street, later removing to St. George's Square.
Active in the community, he was one of the first members of the New York City Chamber of Commerce, organized in 1768, and he was one of the original incorporators of the first public hospital in New York in 1770. In 1784, he was a cofounder of the Bank of New York, one of the oldest banks in America. In 1786, he succeeded fellow founder Alexander Hamilton to become the bank's second president, a post he held until 1791. Roosevelt was succeeded by Gulian Verplanck, Speaker of the New York State Assembly.
Political office.
A noted patriot, he was elected to the New York Provincial Congress on April 22, 1775. He was one of the Committee of One Hundred that took control of the state government in May 1775. Though he felt no allegiance to England, he was initially a moderate, hoping to prevent conflict. However, he withdrew from New York when the British occupied the city, and spent the period of occupation at his wife's home in Dutchess County, serving with the Sixth Regiment of the Dutchess County Militia.
After the war, as one of ten representatives from New York City (among John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and Robert R. Livingston), he took part in the New York State Convention at Poughkeepsie on June 18, 1788 that deliberated on the adoption of the United States Constitution. He was a member of the New York State Senate (Southern District) from 1777 to 1786, and from 1788 to 1792.
Personal life.
On September 22, 1752, he married Cornelia Hoffman (1734–1780), daughter of Tryntje (née Benson) (1712–1765) and Martinus Hoffman (1706–1772), a prominent Dutchess County landowner and member of the Hoffman family. She was the sister of Anthony Hoffman (1739–1790) and the aunt of Josiah Ogden Hoffman (1766–1837). After her mother's death, Cornelia's father Martinus, married Alida Livingston Hansen, a member of the Livingston family who was the widow of Henry Hansen and younger sister of Philip Livingston, a signor of the Declaration of Independence. Together, Isaac and Cornelia had ten children:
Roosevelt died in October 1794.
Descendants.
Through his son, James, he was a grandfather to Isaac Roosevelt (1790–1863) who married Mary Rebecca Aspinwall (1809–1886), Grace Roosevelt (1792–1828), who married Guy Carlton Bayley (1786–1859), James Roosevelt (1794-1823), Walton Roosevelt (1796–1836), Edward Roosevelt (1799–1832), Richard Varick Roosevelt (1801–1835) who married Anna Maria Lyle, Hamilton Roosevelt (1805-1827), Henry Walton Roosevelt (1809–1827), Susan Barclay Roosevelt (1813–1867), and James Barclay Roosevelt (b. 1815).
Through his daughter Cornelia, he was a grandfather to: Cornelia Catharine Kissam who married Dr. Caspar Wistar Eddy, Benjamin Roosevelt Kissam (b. 1793) who married Mary A. Berdan, Maria Ann Kissan (1788–1871), Helen Kissam (1790–1870) who married John L. Lefferts, Richard Varick Kissam (1795–1869) who married Maria Latourette, Emma Charlotte Kissam who married Francis Armstrong Livingston (1795–1851) a nephew of Peter R. and Maturin Livingston, and Ameila Charlotte Kissam (b. 1799).


Seth Newhouse

Seth Newhouse (Dayodekane; 27 January 184211 June 1921) was a leader of the Iroquois confederacy. He advocated for their self-government in the Grand River region of Ontario and worked to record and preserve traditions of the people. In 1885 he arranged a manuscript version of the Great Law of Peace, which has been analyzed since, particularly for its faithfulness to the original.
Early life.
Newhouse was born on 27 January 1842 to an Onondaga mother and Mohawk father on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve in Ontario, Canada. He was educated at the Mohawk Institute Residential School and learned to speak English, Onondaga, and Mohawk. Newhouse grew up as a member of the Plymouth Brethren.
Career.
Newhouse followed the Longhouse Religion as an adult and managed a farm near the Grand River that his father had owned. By the 1870s he had become a prominent member of the Iroquois confederacy and was a member of the tribe's council in 1875 and 1883-1883. Newhouse primarily focused on learning and preserving the traditional knowledge of the Iroquois. In the mid-1870s he was involved in petitioning David Laird for the confederacy to be recognized as a legal entity. In the two decades that followed, Newhouse was involved in disputes over land along the Grand River, known as the Haldimand Tract. He also participated in the Six Nations Union Association in the early 1880s, and continued to advocate that the Six Nations should be allowed to govern themselves, being involved with numerous petitions, though he was not a chief of the people after 1884. In 1885 he arranged a manuscript version of the Great Law of Peace, which has been analyzed since, particularly for its faithfulness to the original. Despite Newhouse's efforts, it was never formally endorsed by the Grand River Council.
Some information preserved by Newhouse and others was published in 1916 in the New York State Museum Bulletin. He died on 11 June 1921.


The Dominica Story

The Dominica Story: A History of the Island is a history book from 1975, written by famed Dominican historian Lennox Honychurch. Originally presented as a miniseries for Radio Dominica (now DBS Radio) in 1974, the inaugural edition covered every aspect of local history from prehistory up to the then-present (the island's 1967 Associated Statehood).
The book's first edition of 18 chapters was an immediate bestseller upon its release. A revised version with 21 chapters was printed in 1984. A commercial edition, this time with 24 chapters and focusing on local events in the 1980s and 1990s, was published in 1995 by the Caribbean imprint of Macmillan.


Academia Semillas del Pueblo

Academia Semillas del Pueblo Xinaxcalmecac () is an Indigenous Mexican public charter school of the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD). It offers instruction in grades Kindergarten through eighth, and is located in the community of El Sereno, on the east side of Los Angeles. The school, which opened in 2002, was founded by Marcos Aguilar, a former teacher at Garfield Senior High School.


Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point

The Anishinaabemowin language belongs to the Central Algonquian language family, and is located in Kettle and Stony Point First Nation. This name variation stems from the relation between the name of the language and the name of the people speaking it, as Anishinaabemowin is spoken by the Anishinaabe. It is also a combination of Pottawatomi and Ojibway. There is a population of 936 people living in Kettle and Stony Point, and of those 936 less than 10 people are fluent speakers of the language. Kettle and Stony Point is located in Canada, in the province of Ontario and in the municipality of Lambton County.
Name Variations for the Language.
This language has a multitude of different names and spelling variations. Once such variation is Potawadami that belongs to the Central Algonquian language family located in Kettle and Stony Point. This spelling and name variation for the language is used by families on the reserve when passing on the teachings of the language to others. Another variation is Potawatomi of the Central Algonquian language family. This spelling variation was discovered on the Ethnologue website and exists as the American spelling for the language. Other name and spelling variation for the language spoken in Kettle and Stony point are Ojibway, Ojibwe or Ojibwa. All these variations refer to the same language, as Anishinaabemowin is believed to be a dialect of Ojibway in the Algonquian language family. The different spelling variations listed above, Ojibwe and Ojibwa are gendered language terms and are spelling variations left behind by French missionaries who tried to document the language. As such Ojibwe is the male gendered term, and Ojibwa is the female gendered term. Another name variation for the language is Chippewa of the Algonquian language family. This variation is often used more in the United States and stems from the name of the people that speak the language Chippewas. The last variation of the language discovered is Ojibwemowin of the Central Algonquian language family. This variation is the languages name in Ojibway.
Causes of Endangerment.
There are a multitude of factors that have contributed to the endangered status of the Anishinaabemowin language in Kettle and Stony Point.
Conquest.
This occurs when the conqueror's language replaces the indigenous languages of the conquered. This is the case for the Indigenous languages of Canada, especially the Anishinaabemowin language. When both the French and the English colonies conquered the continent of North America, government policies were erected to deal with the “Indian problem”. These policies were created in the attempt to force assimilation of the Indigenous people into the newly established dominant culture and language. This forced assimilation required that both Indigenous children and adults be only taught and speak the dominant language of English. Drastically impacting the number of fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point.
Economic Pressure.
This occurs because the dominant culture controls the economy and can require the use of the dominate language for employment by subordinate linguistic groups. Indigenous people seeking employment and economic gain in Canada experience this problem everyday and it is a contributing factor to the state of the language use in Kettle and Stony Point. The dominate language in Kettle and Stony Point and surrounding areas is the language of English. Those seeking employment in Kettle and Stony Point are required to have a good understanding of the English language and a fundamental increase in the need to understand and speak English has occurred. The increase of acceptance and use of the English language directly impacted the number of Indigenous people continuing to learn and actively use their own first language.
Attitude.
This factor directly pertains to what people think about their language and with regard to whether or not it is viewed as important to their culture. It is only years later that the true impacts of negative attitudes can be recognized on a language. This is doubly true for the Indigenous languages of Canada. This is in part because of Indigenous people who were forced to attend residential school and most likely have mixed feelings about their languages. Children were often strongly and sometimes violently discouraged from speaking their language of their heritage. The violent and negative attitudes demonstrated by their teachers towards their languages, is something that could have been absorbed and ingrained into the children of these schools. These children would have grown up with a negative and sometimes fearful attitude towards the use of their own heritage languages. These residential school survivors may not have then passed on their own languages to their children, for fear of how their children would be perceived and the treatment they may get for speaking their language. Creating a drastic decline in the number of fluent speakers in the community, as future children would have been raised to not value their heritage language. Nor would they have any understanding of the cultural significance of the language if their parents chose not to pass on their teachings. This is what happened to the Indigenous people of Kettle and Stony Point, resulting in their heritage language to become endangered.
Language Vitality.
This language was assessed using three UNESCO factors to determine the vitality of the language.
UNESCO Factor 1 - Intergenerational Language Transmission.
According the UNESCO grading scale for the language to be considered safe and to receive a grading of 5, the language must be used by all ages and transmitted from one generation to the next. The grading table for this UNESCO factor can be viewed in Table 1. The Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony point is rated a 2, Severely Endangered. This language was assessed at this rating because transgenerational transmission of the language stopped occurring in the grandparent generation, the youngest fluent speaker is in their fifties. The language is mostly used when conversing with other fluent speakers or when conducting/ participating in ceremonies. The grade of 1 was also considered for this language but after assessment was determined to be inaccurate. The grade of 1 was considered because the language is used mostly by very few speakers, as there is less than ten fluent speakers left in Kettle and Stony Point. These fluent speakers are not just of the great grandparent generation and up, so the language was determined be inadmissible for the rating of 1. Instead the language was assigned a rating of 2 because the youngest fluent speaker was determined to be in their fifties fitting into the grandparent generation.
UNESCO Factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population.
The proportion of speakers within a total population is a more significant indictor of language vitality. The UNESCO grading scale for factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population can be found in Table 2. The rating for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point in accordance with UNSECO factor 3 is 1, critically endangered. This rating was assessed based on the information provided on both the Kettle Point language website page and the 2016 Kettle Point 44, Indian Reserve Census Profile. There is less than ten fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point. This information was confirmed in the 2016 census, where only five out of the 1,011 responses indicated that their first language was an aboriginal language. This indicates that 0.49% of the population in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language. Allocating the rating of 1, critically endangered because very few people in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language.
UNESCO Factor 7: Governmental and Institutional Language Attitudes and Policies, including Official Status & Use.
This factor reports the attitudes of those outside of the language community towards the relevant language. In accordance in the UNESCO scale for a language to achieve a rating of 5, equal support, the region or nation of the language would need to allow for the use of all languages in public domains. The grading scale for the seventh UNSECO factor can be located in Table 3. In accordance with this grading scale, the language of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point as been assessed with the rating of 4, differentiated support. This rating was determined based on the government policies in place to protect Indigenous languages in Canada. On June 21, 2019 The Indigenous Languages Act was passed and received Royal Assent. This bill protects indigenous people's rights to use, reclaim, revitalize, maintain and strength indigenous languages. Before this bill was passed, indigenous languages were not protected in Canada and were strongly discouraged from use. This means that while the Anishinaabemowin language is now protected by government policies, the use of the language is not considered prestigious by many. Therefore, the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point was scored a 4, as the language is protected by government policies, even though the use of the language is not prestigious, and the dominant language prevails in the public domain.
Overall Assessment.
The overall assessment for the vitality of the Anishinaabemowin language at Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. This status was determined by weighing the outcomes of the factor assessments that were conducted. When analyzing the results of these assessments more weight was placed on the results of the Factor 7 valuation. This is because government policies and forced language assimilation were the main causes and consequences of endangerment for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point. With the Royal Assent of the Indigenous Language Act, indigenous languages are now being protected. Thus, allowing for language revitalizations to occur, as is the case at Kettle and Stony Point. While Factor 7 was directly related to a critical consequence of endangerment, it was not the only critical factor assessed. Factor 3 is also a critical factor, as the proportion of speakers in a population has a great importance for the continuation of a language. With less than ten fluent speakers and only .49% of the population speaking the language, the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is likely to go dormant in the next generation or two. The revitalization projects should ensure the language continuation with the establishment of more speakers. Therefore, the vitality status of the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. With the possibility of an argument being made for critically endangered status, with the chance of dormancy in the next generation if revitalization does not work.
Language Revitalization.
Kettle and Stony Point First Nation Reserve has both short-term and long-term plans for language revitalization of Anishinaabemowin.
Short-term Revitalization Programs.
The short-term plan or “Quick Wins” are to be carried out over a short time and are cost effective. These programs are the Unity Gathering and Storytelling. The Unity Gathering is an annual event that is intended to bring the people of the community together to share, teach and celebrate their culture. The Storytelling program is composed of events that are held in the hopes of passing on the traditions of Oral History and sharing. It also provides the opportunity for those in attendance to share their stories and hear the language. These two different programs are categorized as community-based programs by Lenore Grenoble and Lindsay Whaley because the language will be shared, taught and incorporated within the culture in a community setting.
Long-term Revitalization Programs.
There are several long-term language revitalization plans for Anishinaabemowin in place at Kettle and Stony Point First Nations.
Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care.
The first long-term plan established was the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care. The program statement for the daycare states that it was “committed to moving forward in reclaiming of the Ojibway language and providing optimal growth in all areas of the developmental stages”. This ideology is achieved through the embracement of the “Wheel of Learning” method, where Culture/Language is a main component. The program is not a total immersion program. Instead the children are encouraged to communicate in however they feel most comfortable, whether that be non-verbal or verbal in both English or Anishinaabemowin Both English and Anishinaabemowin are sproken by the children and the workers of the daycare. The children are also instructed in the Anishinaabemowin language by the workers. Therefore, the Head Start Day Care Program is classified as Grenoble and Whaley's partial-immersion or bilingual program.
Language Classes.
The second long-term Anishinaabemowin language revitalization program at Kettle and Stony Point is language classes. There are language classes that are taught at the Kettle and Stony Point elementary school Hillside. These classes are taught to children attending the school as a second language. These classes are categorized as Grenoble and Whaley's “Foreign” Language program because they can be compared to studying a major European language in a North American classroom.
There are also language classes that are held at the Four Winds and the Cultural Resource Centre. These classes are not advertised online or on paper but instead through word of mouth. The structure of these classes are normally one teacher/fluent speaker and a maximum of eight students/learners. This style of teaching and learning can be classified as the master-apprentice program by Grenoble and Whaley. This is because the community has few fluent speakers and those speakers are paired with eager community members who are wanting to learn. These lessons are unstructured and taught without expert supervision. The fluent speakers have been holding these lessons for some years now, the lessons are getting more structured as the speakers gain more experience teaching.
Online Language Revitalization Programs.
There are several online revitalization programs available for Anishinaabemowin. These programs can be found on a variety of websites and vary in both format and content. There is an interactive dictionary that can be located on kspcommunityculture.ca/language.html. This interactive dictionary provides the word in Anishinaabemowin and then the English translation and description follow. There is also an interactive play button that allows for the learner to hear how the word is pronounced in the language.
There is an online pilot program that is designed for daily language learning and practice called Anishinaabemowin Everyday. This pilot program is composed of online lessons that take roughly 15 minutes each to complete. The teaching methods utilized by this program are podcasts, flashcards, multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop, and quizzes. The podcasts that are hosted by fluent speakers that discuss the language and pronounce phrases and words. The flashcards that are available contain phrases and words in the language to aid in studying. The options of multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop and quizzes help the learner to test their knowledge and skills in the language. These two examples of some of the online resources available highlight Andras Knori's argument of the importance of the web to language revitalization. These programs are geared towards aiding “digital natives” in the learning of their language, as young people have never known a world without digital media learning.


Alternative Records

Alternative Records was an independent record label based in Eugene, Oregon. The label started in 1989 and has not released an album since 1998.
Formed from its previous incarnation as a mail order record company starting in 1979, Randy Layton started the label as an outlet for former Exit Records artists Steve Scott and The 77s to release back catalogue and unreleased works. The label took on other artists over time, and after distribution deals with BMG and Word Canada ended, the company shut down except for occasional fan club releases.
The company was known for its many collector's versions of its albums. "More Miserable Than You'll Ever Be" by The 77s was issued as a box set with a 7" single, a 3-track CD single, and a 4-track cassette as a numbered, signed edition of 1,000 before being reconfigured for CD with a different track listing.


Minto (sternwheeler)

Minto was a sternwheel steamboat that ran on the Arrow Lakes in British Columbia from 1898 to 1954. In those years of service, "Minto" had steamed over 3.2 million kilometers serving the small communities on Arrow Lakes. "Minto" and her sister "Moyie" (which ran on Kootenay Lake) were the last sternwheelers to run in regularly scheduled passenger service in the Pacific Northwest. The "Minto" class of sailing dinghies is named after this vessel.
Design and Construction.
Manufactured for the Stikine River service.
"Minto" was one of three steamboats built of steel and wood that were intended for service on the Stikine River during the Klondike gold rush. The other vessels were "Moyie" and "Tyrrell". The Canadian Pacific Railway which commissioned the vessels had hoped to develop an "All-Canada" route to the Yukon gold fields that bypassed the other routes, generally through Skagway, Dyea, or from St. Michael on the Bering Sea all the way up the long Yukon River. All the parts for these steamers were manufactured in Toronto, Ontario and shipped to the west coast of Canada for assembly.
Reassigned to Arrow Lakes.
When the Stikine Route to the Klondike proved to be a failure in the first three months of its opening in 1898, the C.P.R. was left with a number of steamers, including "Minto" (then in a disassembled state) that it needed to find routes for. C.P.R. decided to assemble "Tyrrell" in Vancouver, "Moyie" on Kootenay Lake, and "Minto" at the Bulger shipyard on upper Arrow Lake at Nakusp. "Minto" was needed on the Arrow Lakes because the C.P.R.'s big new steamer "Nakusp" had been destroyed by fire in 1897. It is possible that some preliminary assembly work was done on "Moyie" and "Minto" in Vancouver before they were shipped inland still in pieces. The construction program for the Stikine River service, and the eventually assembly of "Minto" and her sisters, was supervised by the veteran steamboat captain James W. Troup, the superintendent of C.P.R.'s Lake and River service. C.P.R. decided to assemble "Moyie" first, and her composite steel and wood hull was riveted together first at Nelson, BC. The assembly crew then moved over to Nakusp on upper Arrow Lake and on and then on July 26, 1898, began work on the "Minto". Reportedly there were literally 1,000 pieces for each sternwheeler.
Durable hull design.
The hulls of "Minto", "Moyie" and "Tyrrell" hull were built on steel frames, with a wood bottom and steel sheets on the side. This gave "Minto" some ability to handle ice conditions on the lake, better than the wooden-hulled "Nakusp", thus allowing operations to continue later into the year, but even so it was the custom to push an ice-breaking barge ahead of her in wintry conditions where ice could be encountered. In addition, the composite hulls gave these vessels a much greater working life than all the other boats on both the Arrow Lakes and Kootenay Lakes. Wooden hulls quickly became waterlogged and lost their strength; "Minto" and "Moyie" did not have this weakness.
Service on Arrow Lakes.
When "Minto" was complete, C.P.R. had a total of five sternwheelers on Arrow Lakes, which besides "Minto" were the new express passenger lake boat "Rossland", the new boat "Kootenay" and the older "Trail" and "Lytton", and two steam tugs. "Minto" with her steel-sided hull, generally ran in the winter months, while the wooden-hulled "Rossland" and "Kootenay" ran more in the summer, when tourist traffic was greater and their vulnerable hulls were not threatened by ice.
Additional cabins constructed.
While "Minto" and "Moyie" were almost identical as built ("Moyie" was just slightly larger at 835 tons against the 829 of "Minto"), over the years there came to be more substantial differences, such as additional cabin space being added to "Minto" added in the winter off-season of 1909-1910. These involved extended the "texas" which the name for the cabin placed on the topmost or "hurricane" or "texas" deck. Similar work was done the year before on the "Rossland" and the "Kootenay" and images of all vessels can be roughly dated by comparison of the length of the Texas on each boat. In "Minto"'s case, the additional cabins cost $2,953 to construct.
Winter operations.
Winter months imposed sharp restrictions on steamboat operations on the Arrow Lakes. "Minto" was the best of the fleet for dealing with these conditions, which could result in ice 10 inches thick across the entire upper lake. In some winters, "Minto" was unable to travel to lower Arrow Lake, and C.P.R. used the steam propeller passenger and tug boat "Columbia" to take her place.
In the very cold winter of 1916, "Kootenay" became icebound at the southern end of the Narrows between upper and lower Arrow Lakes. "Minto" with her steel-sided hull, was sent down from Nakusp to take her passengers (fortunately there were not many). "Minto" could not reach "Koontenay" but was able to get close enough so the passengers could walk over the ice or on shore to get to "Minto". "Kootenay" was eventually able to work free, but her hull was permanently damaged.
Effect of the Great War.
Business on the Arrow Lakes fell off as a result of the Great War and the economic dislocations and labor shortages it caused. Improved rail access to the area diminished the importance of steamboats. Boats were taken out of service or lost by fire or sinking and not replaced.
Decline of the steamers.
By 1923, there were only two sternwheelers running on the Arrow Lakes, the very large "Bonnington" and the "Minto". No more were built after 1914, although C.P.R. did effect renovations to "Minto", adding 20 new staterooms in 1920 and replacing her boiler in 1929.
The Great Depression and changing travel patterns hit the Arrow Lakes hard. After the summer season of 1931, "Bonnington" was taken out of service and moored at Nakusp, and would never run again. This left only "Minto" and the tug "Columbia" running operations on the Arrow Lakes. During the summer, "Minto" made the complete run through the lakes from Arrowhead to Robson and back. During the winter, "Minto" worked on the upper lake, and "Columbia" served on the lower one.
Survival to the 1950s.
Both "Minto" and "Moyie" survived for a long time. She had a good crew who kept her in good condition, and some were long-term veterans on board. Walter Wright was her captain in the 1940s, and he had started out as a watchman on "Minto"'s first voyage in 1898. While "Minto" and "Moyie" continued to function as genuine transportation links, they also became famous as a form of living history. People who loved steamboats came from all over North America to ride on them. The "Saturday Evening Post" published an article about "Minto" and the National Film Board made a motion picture about her. In 1947, summing up their later careers, Professor Mills wrote of "Minto" and "Moyie":
By 1954, of all the steamboats that had run in British Columbia, and all of Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, only two remained in regular passenger service, "Moyie" and "Minto". The C.P.R. was losing $100,000 every year on its Arrow Lakes service, and the docks at Nakusp and Robson needed upgrading, which would have cost an additional $16,000. "Minto" herself would have needed an expenditure of $10,000 to pass her next inspection.
Last run.
On April 24, 1954, "Minto" made her last run on the Arrow Lakes. By then, Minto had steamed an estimated 40.2 million kilometers during her service life. That morning "Minto" left the dock at West Robson, BC on lower Arrow Lake, with flags and bunting flying, Captain Bob Manning in command and 150 passengers on board. All the staterooms were sold out. People came from all over British Columbia and beyond to ride with the "Minto". One honored passenger was Mrs. Olivia Maitland, who had been on board the "Minto" fifty-six years before on the steamer's first voyage. Other officers were Reg Barlow, second engineer, his son Fred Barlow, first officer, Lawrence Exton, and Jack Edmonds, purser.
Departing from Robson, "Minto" stopped for the last time at all the small landings on the lake that she had always served. At Syringa Creek the retired postmaster, who had served for 50 years, handed over the mail one last time, then stood on the dock with his hat in his hand as the steamer pulled away. At Edgewood a crowd sang "Auld Lang Syne" while across the lake at Fullmore Point Jock Ford played a mournful song on the bagpipes. Captain Manning stopped the engines briefly so passengers could hear the pipes. At Burton the citizens placed a large cedar wreath on her bow. At Arrowhead, farmer John Nelson had posted an enormous sign that read "Let us honor the brave pioneers of navigation on the scenic Arrow Lakes by making it possible to continue the very efficient services of the S.S. "Minto". Similar scenes occurred on other places along the route until "Minto" came back to Nakusp for the last time.
Attempts at preservation fail.
C.P.R. had no use for "Minto", and sold her to the city of Nakusp for $1, with the original objective of converting her into a museum. This plan never materialized, and in April 1956, she was sold to a Nelson junk dealer for $750. The junker stripped everything out of "Minto", furniture, boilers, engines and even the paddlewheel. There was nothing left except the hull and the empty cabins and pilot house. John Nelson, who had not much money, still wanted to do what he could to save "Minto" so he bought what was left of her for $800 and had her towed to his farm up on the lake by Galena Bay. He had her beached, and did what he could to restore her, but because of his age and limited funds, he could not make much headway towards restoration of the vessel.
Final destruction.
On November 26, 1967, John Nelson died at the age of 88 years. "Minto" did not long survive him. Far down the lakes, the enormous Keenleyside Dam was being built that would rise 170 feet, and when complete, would raise all the lake levels, drowning the Narrows between the upper and lower Arrow Lakes, and submerging all the landings and many of the towns along the shore under water as much as 40 feet deep. BC Hydro which was building the dam, offered to move and restore "Minto", but only if someone else paid the cost which was estimated at $100,000. John Nelson's son Walter didn't have the money and "Minto"'s deteriorated condition after over ten years out of service did not seem to warrant any further effort to preserve here. On August 1, 1968, she was towed out into the lake to be deliberately burned. Walter Nelson, son of her last owner, lit the match to set fire the boat, and in a few minutes the vessel's upper works were consumed in the flames. The hull was later sunk.
Sailing dinghy class "Minto".
Although the sternwheeler is gone, the name "Minto" was continued by the "Minto" class of sailing dinghies, which were built in the 1950s and 1960s. The shape of these small boats was supposedly inspired by a lifeboat carried on board the steamer "Minto", and to memorialize this, the class symbol shown on the sail is a sternwheel steamboat.
Further reading.
Includes a chapter detailing his service as CPR Express Messenger aboard the Minto during the Summers of 1953 and 1954.


Western Wireless Corporation

Western Wireless Corporation was a cellular network operator that provided mobile telecommunications service to subscribers in 19 western states and seven countries. Western Wireless marketed analog cellular service under the CELLULAR ONE brand in 88 FCC-defined rural service areas and digital PCS service under the VoiceStream brand in 19 FCC-defined metropolitan service areas. At its peak in 2004, Western Wireless provided service to 1.4 million domestic subscribers. Western Wireless obtained additional revenue from the international operations of its Western Wireless International Corporation subsidiary, which was licensed to provide wireless communications services in seven countries to a total of 1.8 million subscribers.
Western Wireless traces its roots to Stanton Communications, founded in 1988 by John W. Stanton and Theresa Gillespie. Western Wireless was formed in 1994 by the merger of two other Stanton controlled entities, Pacific Northwest Cellular and General Cellular Corporation. Western Wireless became a publicly traded company in 1996. Western Wireless spun off its VoiceStream Wireless subsidiary in 1999, which was later purchased by Deutsche Telekom AG in 2001. Deutsche Telekom renamed VoiceStream Wireless to T-Mobile USA in 2002.
Western Wireless merged with Alltel Corporation in August 2005. After the merger, Alltel sold Western Wireless' international assets.
History.
From its headquarters in Bellevue, Washington, United States, Western Wireless Corporation provided wireless communications service in 19 western states. The company initially specialized in providing cellular service to rural areas under the Cellular One brand, but expanded into urban areas by acquiring PCS spectrum licenses, building out digital networks and providing services under the VoiceStream brand.
Western Wireless traces its roots to Stanton Communications, founded by John W. Stanton and Theresa Gillespie in 1988. Stanton Communications invested in communications related businesses, including cellular, paging, telephone answering, alarm system monitoring, voice mail, radio broadcasting and private cable television. Stanton Communications invested in private cable television in the Soviet Union and cellular communications service in Hong Kong.
Stanton was the founder, chairman and chief executive officer of Pacific Northwest Cellular, established in 1992. The company grew to become the United States' eighth-largest independent cellular company.
Stanton was elected chairman of the board of directors for General Cellular Corporation in 1992, when Stanton Communications and investment firm Hellman and Friedman acquired a controlling interest in the company.
Stanton and Hellman and Friedman created Western Wireless Corporation in August, 1994 by merging Pacific Northwest Cellular and General Cellular Corporation. The merged entity took the name Western Wireless Corporation and through the merger created what the company called the "largest rural cellular-service provider in the United States." At the time of the merger, the company offered service in 16 western and mid-western states with service areas covering 5.2 million potential customers.
Western Wireless became a publicly traded company in May 1996, offering 12.65 million shares traded on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker symbol WWCA. Combined with a separate public bond offering, the company raised US$430 million in net proceeds.
On May 3, 1999, Western Wireless spun off its VoiceStream Wireless division to Western Wireless shareholders, creating an independent, publicly traded Delaware corporation called VoiceStream Wireless Corporation. Shares of VoiceStream Wireless traded on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker symbol VSTR. The spin off was intended to remove any conglomerate discount, get better value recognition for each of Western Wireless' core analog cellular and digital PCS networks and help each business pursue independent strategies. VoiceStream was purchased by Deutsche Telekom in 2001 for US$30 billion and renamed T-Mobile USA in 2002.
On January 9, 2005 Western Wireless entered into a merger agreement with Little Rock, Arkansas-based telecommunications provider Alltel in which Alltel agreed to pay $6 billion in stock-and-cash to Western Wireless shareholders. Western Wireless shareholders voted on July 29, 2005, eleven years to the day after Western Wirless was incorporated, to accept a US$4.4 billion stock-and-cash offer from Alltel. The merger closed on August 1, 2005. At the time, the merger created the fifth largest wireless communications provider in the United States with 10 million customers in 33 states.
Western Wireless International.
Western Wireless subsidiary Western Wireless International Corporation held mobile licenses in several countries outside the United States including: Austria (Tele.Ring), Ireland (Meteor Mobile Communications), Slovenia (Vega), Haiti (ComCel), Bolivia (), Iceland (TAL), Croatia (vipnet), Georgia, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire covering about 1.8 million subscribers in 2005.
After Alltel acquired Western Wireless, non-core international assets were sold. Alltel sold Meteor to Irish telecoms incumbent, eircom and sold Tele.Ring to T-Mobile Austria. In Slovenia, the assets of Vega were split between the two main network operators.