Khmer nationalism

Khmer nationalism or Cambodian nationalism (, ) is a form of nationalism found in Cambodia, which asserts that Cambodians are a nation and that promotes the cultural unity of the Cambodian race.
"Young Monks" Movement.
Another division in the Cambodian sangha can be seen in what has been called the "young monks" movement, a small group of politically active monks (primarily Maha Nikaya) voicing public opposition to the current government. The "young monks" are primarily junior members of the clergy, drawn from temples in and around Phnom Penh. Unlike the Engaged modernists, their interest is not in using the authority of the sangha to aide social development programs, but rather to express direct opposition to government policies and corruption. Since the 1993 UN-monitored elections, monks have been permitted to vote in Cambodia (a move opposed by some senior monks). While this has not resulted in any large-scale mobilization of the sangha as a political force, it has drawn some young monks farther into participation in parliamentary politics. Many of these young monks are associated with opposition figure Sam Rainsy and his political party, the SRP.
Members of the young monks movement have participated in and organized public demonstrations in Phnom Penh, aimed at drawing attention to perceived government misdeeds. The Maha Nikaya hierarchy has condemned this form of political activism, calling for the arrest of some monks and defrocking others.
Emergence of Khmer nationalism.
Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet during much of French rule mostly due to lesser education influence, which helped literacy rates remain low and prevented nationalist movements like those taking place in Vietnam. However, among the French-educated Cambodian elite, the Western ideas of democracy and self-rule as well as French restoration of monuments such as Angkor Wat created a sense of pride and awareness of Cambodia's once powerful status in the past. In education, there was also growing resentment among Cambodian students of the minority Vietnamese holding a more favored status. In 1936, Son Ngoc Than and Pach Choeun began publishing Nagaravatta ("Notre cité") as a French language anti-colonial and at times, anti-Vietnamese newspaper. Minor independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak, began to develop in 1940 among Cambodians in Thailand, who feared that their actions would have led to punishment if they had operated in their homeland.
Khmer Nationalism and Buddhism.
Cambodian Buddhism was instrumental in fomenting Khmer national identity and the independence movement in the 20th century, leading to Cambodian independence as a sovereign state.
In their attempt to separate the Khmer people from their cultural allegiance to the neighboring Theravada kingdom of Siam, the French "protectors" nurtured a sense of Khmer identity by emphasizing Khmer-language studies and Khmer Buddhist studies. They established Pali schools within Cambodia to keep the Cambodian monks from traveling to Siam for higher education. These Khmer-language study centers became the birthplace of Cambodian nationalism.
Khmer Rouge.
In 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took control of Cambodia, they tried to completely destroy Buddhism and very nearly succeeded. By the time of the Vietnamese invasion in 1979, nearly every monk and religious scholar had been either murdered or driven into exile, and nearly every Buddhist temple and library had been destroyed.
The Khmer Rouge policies towards Buddhism – which included the forcible disrobing of monks, the destruction of monasteries, and, ultimately, the execution of uncooperative monks – effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions. Monks who did not flee and avoided execution lived among the laity, sometimes secretly performing Buddhist rituals for the sick or afflicted.
Estimates vary regarding the number of monks in Cambodia prior to the ascension of the Khmer Rouge, ranging between 65,000 and 80,000. By the time of the Buddhist restoration in the early 1980s, the number of Cambodian monks worldwide was estimated to be less than 3,000. The patriarchs of both Cambodian nikayas perished sometime during the period 1975-78, though the cause of their deaths is not known.
Due to their association with the Thai monarchy, monks of the Thommayut order may have been particularly targeted for persecution.


Coronation of Ardashir II

The Coronation of Ardashir II is a rock relief that was carved between 379 and 383 by Ardashir II, the eleventh king of kings (shahanshah) of the Sasanian Empire. The rock relief is located in Taq-e Bostan in Iran.
The relief shows three standing figures wearing regalia; Ardashir being in the middle, flanked by two male figures. The figure to the right, who is giving the diadem to Ardashir originally used to recognized as the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda, but is now agreed to be Shapur II due to the style of his crown, and which also fits well due to Shapur being the one designating Ardashir as shah to begin with. The two shahs are standing on the body of a fallen enemy, unmistakably a Roman, whose crown indicates that he is an emperor. The fallen figure is most likely supposed to represent the Roman emperor Julian, who invaded Iran in 363 and was killed west of the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The figure standing to the far left, perceived by some to be the Zoroastrian prophet Zoroaster, is most likely the angelic divinity Mithra. He is holding a raised barsom, thus sanctifying the investiture.


Saw O

Saw O (, ; also known as Saw Aw (စောအော, ); 1284–1323) was king of Martaban from 1311 to 1323. He transformed Martaban into a truly independent kingdom by successfully breaking with its hitherto nominal overlord Sukhothai.
He was put on the throne by his parents Gov. Min Bala of Myaungmya and Princess Hnin U Yaing, who had staged a coup against King Hkun Law. O emerged only after his father's death in the mid-to-late 1310s. He successfully broke with Sukhothai in 1317/18, and went on to capture Lamphun and the Tenasserim coast by 1321.
Early life.
Born in 1284, Saw O was the eldest son of Hnin U Yaing and Min Bala. His mother was the sister of Ma Gadu—a commoner who had seized the governorship of Martaban (Mottama) in 1285. O became in a royal in 1287 when his uncle Gadu, styled as King Wareru, successfully declared independence from the Pagan Empire. The young boy's name gained the royal honorific "Saw"—reported as Saw O (စောအို) as well as Saw Aw (စောအော).
The young prince likely moved with his family to Myaungmya, a key port in the Irrawaddy delta, where his father became governor, perhaps in the mid-1290s. Then in 1311, the 26-year-old prince was put on the Martaban throne by his parents.
Reign.
Accession.
O's parents had been plotting to overthrow King Hkun Law who succeeded Wareru in 1307. In March 1311, Bala and U Yaing staged a palace coup while Law was out on an elephant hunting trip. Bala's troops killed the king upon his return. Bala initially wanted to proclaim himself king. But U Yaing objected, saying that Bala was too old already, and that their eldest son, as nephew of Wareru, would stand a better chance at gaining the support of the vassals. (O had two full younger brothers.) During the deliberations, the throne was vacant for at least two weeks, perhaps even longer. Bala finally yielded to his wife's demand, and O ascended the throne on 10 April 1311.
Early reign.
One of the first acts of his reign was to seek recognition from Martaban's overlord Sukhothai. The king of Sukhothai gave him recognition with the title of Saw Thin Maung, and sent his daughter May Hnin Htapi in a marriage of state. (The king of Sukhothai was either Loe Thai or his father King Ram Khamhaeng.)
Still, O was king in name only. His father remained the actual power behind the throne. The "Razadarit Ayedawbon" chronicle reports that the Lord of Myaungmya managed all affairs related to the kingdom, from his own "palace" at a nearby hill outside Martaban. Bala and U Yaing both died from old age in the mid-to-late 1310s.
Break with Sukhothai.
By 1317/18, O had emerged from his father's shadows. With his northern frontier with Pinya quiet, he considered challenging Sukhothai. He broke with his overlord six years into his reign. (Chronicles do not state why O, married to a Siamese princess, suddenly decided to challenge his nominal overlord. According to Cœdès, King Ram Khamhaeng died "shortly before 1318", not 1299 as reported by the Chinese records. If Cœdès's conjecture is correct, O may have decided not to pledge allegiance to Khamhaeng's successor Loe Thai.)
At any rate, he attacked Sukhothai's western vassals, and went on to seize Lamphun region south of Chiang Mai by 1320/21. Emboldened by success, he next targeted Sukhothai's southern possessions on the Tenasserim coast, taking Tavoy (Dawei) and Tenasserim (Taninthayi) in the following dry season. He was so pleased with the victory that he built a palace in the Tenasserim town, and spent time in his newly acquired region.
The kingdom of Martaban was now truly independent. The rest of the reign was peaceful. He faced no internal or external threats. The king died shortly after in September 1323; he was 39. He was succeeded by his younger brother Saw Zein.
Family.
Saw O had a son and a daughter with May Hnin Htapi: Saw E and May Hnin Aw-Kanya.


Ashina Zhen

Ashina Zhen (also referred to as Shi Zhen 史震) — was a puppet khagan set up by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty in China; He ruled briefly.
Life.
He was a son of Ashina Xian. In October, 735, Turkic tribe leader and warlord Suluk attacked the Beiting Protectorate. As a reaction, he was appointed as Xingxiwang Khagan to defend the Four Garrisons of Anxi and attached him to Gai Jiayun (蓋嘉運). However he was removed from this post when he was defeated in 736.


Bung Karno Seclusion House

Bung Karno Seclusion House refers to two houses Sukarno lived in during his time in exile. On January 14, 1934 he was exiled in Ende, Flores, where he stayed from 1934 to 1938. His home in Ende is now a museum. After that, he was exiled to Bengkulu city, Bengkulu until 1942.


Baadshaho

Baadshaho () is a 2017 Indian Hindi-language action-adventure film written by Rajat Arora, and directed and co-produced by Milan Luthria. It features Ajay Devgn, Emraan Hashmi, Ileana D'Cruz, Vidyut Jammwal, Esha Gupta and Sanjay Mishra in the lead roles. The film is set in the emergency era of 1975–77.
The film was released worldwide on 1 September 2017.
Plot.
In 1973 , Maharani Gitanjali was a princess to a royal family in Rajasthan. As every royal family has loads of gold to themselves, so does this royal family. Still, her ancestors did not hand it over to the government of the country even after the ancestral reign was over. In 1975, the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, declared the state of emergency in the country. Around the same time, Sanjeev, an influential person in the Congress government, had been snubbed badly by Gitanjali in 1973 . To seek revenge, Sanjeev asks army officer Colonel Rudra Pratap Singh to confiscate all the gold in Gitanjali's possession and to put her behind bars. Rudra follows Sanjeev's instructions and imprisons Gitanjali after forcibly taking possession of the gold rightfully belonging to the government but still held by her.
Rudra asks his trusted lieutenants, Major Seher Singh and Captain Somesh, to transfer all the gold to Delhi safely to the government and for that, he gives Seher Singh a custom-made truck with a powerful safe in it in which he keeps all the confiscated gold. As Rudra and Seher Singh are discussing, Sanjana, Gitanjali's trusted aide, is sent by her to eavesdrop on their conversation and get a whiff of their plan. Gitanjali then plans an entire scheme and wants Sanjana to accompany Bhawani Singh in getting all the gold back and eventually release her from the jail.
Gitanjali briefs Bhawani Singh, her trusted lieutenant, about the gold and how she needs it all back to look after the people in her village. The loyal Bhawani Singh promises to retrieve the gold and return the same to Gitanjali, with whom he shares a romantic relationship.
Bhawani Singh, with the support of Daliya and Guruji, besides Sanjana, of course, chalk out an entire plan and seek out on a mission. The four follow the truck in which Seher Singh and his deputy, Somesh, are carrying the gold to the Delhi. The group of four, at one point in the journey, takes control of the truck after throwing out Seher Singh and Somesh. The job now is to open the strong safe, something at which Guruji is adept. Meanwhile, Seher Singh, boss Rudra Pratap Singh and other army and police officers are hot on the trail of Bhawani Singh and the truck. At one point, the army officers seek the help of police officer Durjan, but Bhawani Singh and his team members outwit him too.
But before Bhawani Singh can return the gold to Gitanjali Devi, a very shocking revelation is unveiled in front of him, that Gitanjali used him for her personal pleasure and motives, and that Seher was her aide. Bhawani reveals that he already knew the dark truth about Gitanjali, and his team decided to distribute gold among poor people. After the war between Seher and Bhawani's team ends, Gitanjali realised that she is alone in the desert with a low chance of survival while Bhawani and his team have escaped.
Production.
Development.
In January 2015, Ajay Devgn signed Milan Luthria's "Baadshaho", marking his fourth collaboration with the director after "Kachche Dhaage" (1999), "Chori Chori" (2003) and "Once Upon a Time in Mumbai" (2010). This was the third collaboration of Emraan Hashmi with the director after "Once Upon A Time in Mumbai" and "The Dirty Picture" (2012). Luthria stated that besides directing he was also co-producing the film along with Bhushan Kumar's T-Series. Ankit Tiwari was music director.
Casting.
Actresses Aishwarya Rai, Kareena Kapoor, Katrina Kaif, Shruti Hassan and Priyanka Chopra were speculated as the lead actress opposite Ajay Devgn. Though Kareena Kapoor and Katrina Kaif liked the script, they declined the offer due to non-availability. The film was to star Diljit Dosanjh initially, though he opted out of the project subsequently and was replaced by Emraan Hashmi.
Later in June 2016, actors Vidyut Jammwal, Ileana D'Cruz and Esha Gupta were officially confirmed to be in the cast. Priyanshu Chatterjee was cast in a special appearance for the role of the politician Sanjeev, modelled after Sanjay Gandhi. In August 2016, Sunny Leone was signed in for a special appearance in a song.
Filming.
Principal photography commenced on 15 August 2016 in Mumbai. The second schedule started on 1 December 2016 in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The third schedule commenced on 19 January 2017.
Ileana D'Cruz wrapped her part of filming on 5 March 2017. The Rajasthan schedule was wrapped up on 9 March 2017.
Release and Marketing.
The makers of the film earlier announced that the films worldwide release would be on 26 January 2017. However, upon request from producers Ritesh Sidhwani and Rakesh Roshan of the films "Raees" and "Kaabil" respectively, Bhushan Kumar moved the worldwide release date to 12 May 2017. In early December 2016, Devgn announced 1 September 2017 as the worldwide release date.
Soundtrack.
The soundtrack was released on 19 August 2017 by T-Series, which consists of eight songs, composed by Tanishk Bagchi, Ankit Tiwari, Abhijit Vaghani, DJ Chetas and Traditional Folk. The songs "Mere Rashke Qamar" and "Socha Hai" ("Kehdoon Tumhe" from the 1975 film "Deewaar") are recreations for the film by lyricist Manoj Muntashir and composer Tanishk Bagchi. Their originals were written by Fana Buland Shehri and Sahir Ludhianvi, and were composed by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and R. D. Burman respectively.


Dara Petak

Dara Petak or Dara Pethak, also known in her formal name as Indreswari, was the consort of King Kertarajasa Jayawardhana, the founder of Majapahit kingdom. She was a Malay Dharmasraya princess from Sumatra and the only non-Javanese wife of Kertarajasa, and also the mother of Jayanegara, the second monarch of Majapahit. Tradition mentioned her as a woman of exceptional beauty.
The name "Dara Pethak" in old Malay means "white dove", while her other name "Indreswari" in Sanskrit means "the consort of Indra" and it was acquired after her marriage to Majapahit first king.
Early life.
She was the daughter of King Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauliawarmadewa of Dharmasraya Kingdom in Sumatra, and was sent to Java to be presented to Singhasari King. This Sumatran kingdom was held as vassal of Singhasari in 1286. According to "Pararaton", ten days after the expulsion of Mongol forces from Java, the Pamalayu expedition led by Mahisa Anabrang returned to Java. The expedition was sent by Singhasari King Kertanegara in 1275 to conquer Sumatra. The returning Javanese troops brought two Malay princesses, Dara Jingga and Dara Petak to be presented for Kertanagara.
The two princesses was originally intended for Kertanagara, however because the Singhasari King has died, his heir Raden Wijaya took Dara Petak in hand of marriage instead, while her sister Dara Jingga was betrothed to Adwayabrahma (Mahisa Anabrang), a Singhasari general that led the Sumatran expedition in 1286.
As the king's consort.
Within Majapahit palace, Dara Petak cleverly pleases the king, won his favour and subsequently become the king's favourite consort. She acquired the title "Stri tinuheng pura", or the most honored wife in the palace. According to "Nagarakretagama", Raden Wijaya already has four wives, Tribhuwaneswari, Prajnaparamita, Narendra Duhita, and Gayatri Rajapatni; all of them are Singhasari princesses, the daughter of Kertanagara. According to Pararaton, Dara Petak was promoted to honorable title because she was the only wife that produced male heir for the king, prince Jayanegara. According to "Nagarakretagama", the name of Jayanagara's mother is "Indreswari", so it is assumed that this was the new official name of Dara Petak after her marriage to the king.
In Kertarajasa inscription (1305), Jayanegara was mentioned as the son of Tribhuwaneswari, the prime queen and first wife of Raden Wijaya. To reconcile these records, historian suggested that Jayanegara is the son of Indreswari or Dara Petak that later being adopted by the childless queen consort Tribhuwaneswari, in order to be promoted as the heir of the throne. Jayanegara become the successor of King Kertarajasa.


Fort Kastela

Fort Kastela () is a ruined fortress located at the southwest coast of Ternate. It is famous for being the first colonial fortification constructed in the Spice Islands (Maluku) of Indonesia. Built by the Portuguese in 1522, it is also referred to in different languages as São João Baptista de Ternate or Fortaleza de Ternate (Portuguese), Ciudad del Rosario (Spanish) or Gammalamma (Ternatean and Dutch). Today it is locally known as Kastella/Kastela.
In April 1521, a fleet was dispatched by King Manuel I of Portugal from Lisbon under the command of Jorge de Brito. The fleet was given orders to intercept the Spanish fleet of Ferdinand Magellan while sailing towards the Spice Islands from the Americas. Upon making landfall, they were ordered to construct a fortress on Ternate and to establish the Portuguese pre-eminence in the region.
The initial fort was named by the Portuguese after Saint John the Baptist, on whose feast day the first stone was laid in 1522. It was completed in 1523. The location selected was on the south-west coast of Ternate, near the Sultan's Court, but 7 km from the island's main reef-free harbor at Talangame. Kastella commanded three narrow passages through the encircling reefs, which allowed small crafts to arrive for loading cloves, but prevented larger vessels from closing sufficiently to bombard.
Several subsequent visitors described the fort as incomplete, and it was not until the governorship of António Galvão, commencing in 1536, that the defenses were improved significantly.
After killing Ternate's Sultan Hairun in 1570, the Portuguese were besieged in their fort by forces of the new Sultan Baab for five years. In 1575, they handed over the fort and retreated to Ambon. Sultan Baab occupied the fort, renamed it as Gammalamma and converted it into his royal palace. Anticipating a Portuguese return, Sultan Baab extensively modified the defenses into a substantial fortress, and constructed an additional fort 5 km to the east, known today as Fort Kota Janji.
In 1605, the newly arrived Dutch VOC captured Portuguese forts on Ambon and Tidore and established a trading base on Ternate. The Spanish (in a personal union with Portugal since 1580) dispatched a strong expedition from the Philippines and recaptured Kastella, taking hostage Sultan Saidi Berkat and exiling him to Manila in March 1606. They further modified the Gammalamma defenses into a powerful fortress and renamed it as Ciudad del Rosario. Dutch Admiral Paulus van Caerden, captured by the Spanish in 1610 and held in Kastella, regarded it as "invulnerable."
When the Spanish departed from the Spice Islands in 1663, they partially destroyed the defenses which were then occupied by the Dutch.
Today the site consists of ruins spread over a large area, scattered with local houses and bisected by the main island road. There is a monument for the 1575 Ternatean victory over the Portuguese, and sections of the old Portuguese walls and bastions from the Spanish period can also be seen.


Our Lady of the Abandoned Parish Church (Marikina)

The Diocesan Shrine and Parish of Our Lady of the Abandoned (Spanish: "Santuario y Parroquia de Nuestra Señora de los Desamparados"; Tagalog: "Dambanang Pandiyosesis at Parokya ng Ina ng mga Walang Mag-Ampon"), better known as Our Lady of the Abandoned Parish Church, is a Roman Catholic church in Marikina, the Philippines. The church enshrines one of several images of the Madonna and Child venerated as miraculous, which has received papal recognition.
The church itself is a testament of a religious controversy rooting back from Marikina's early history wherein both the Jesuits and Augustinians fought over the ecclesiastical control of the area. The church is also known for featuring Metro Manila's Longest Holy Week Processions with around 80 floats as of 2018, and the third overall after the St Augustine Parish in the Town of Baliuag and the San Isidro Labrador Parish in the Town of Pulilan, both located in the province of Bulacan and featuring at least 110 floats.
History.
Early years.
Catholicism in what is now Marikina began when the settlement was again ceded to the Augustinians by the Jesuits. On March 10, 1687, Governor Gabriel Cruz Elasque ordered the transfer of Marikina to the oversight of the Augustinians and merged with the ministry of San Mateo. He instructed Don Juan Pimentel, the Mayor of Tondo, to vacate and demolish the "visita" of Jesús de la Peña as the Marikina River would flood the site during the rainy season. The "visita" could not accommodate the growing congregation, forcing the Austin friars to transfer operations across the Marikina to higher ground, where the much larger, present structure was built. The church was subsequently made an independent parish in 1690.
The Venerated Image.
On October 23, 1791 the church was consecrated by the Archdiocese of Manila for the Virgin's said title so that it could not be used for any secular purpose. In 1898, during the Philippine–American War, the first image was burnt along with pertinent records of the devotion in Marikina. In 1902, a new image was created, and is the one presently venerated in the parish.
Restoration.
The church suffered major damages during the tumultuous years of the Philippine–American War in the early 1900s and the "carillion" was totally destroyed during the second world war. By 1957, OLA church was restored and refurbished by Father Silvestre dela Cruz of Archdiocese of Manila with the help from various religious and civic organisations.
The Episcopal Coronation.
The community initially approached the Apostolic Nuncio to petition for the Canonical Coronation of the image; however, the petition was declined due to few supporting documents. Meanwhile, then Bishop of Antipolo Crisostomo Yalung honored the Patrona with an Episcopal Coronation to remember the 100th Anniversary of the venerated image. The celebration was held on May 12, 2002 wherein the coronation was facilitated by Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.
The Canonical Coronation.
By virtue of a decree granted by the Holy See through Pope Benedict XVI, the venerated image of Our Lady of the Abandoned was canonically crowned on 23 October 2005. Manila Archbishop Gaudencio Cardinal Rosales headed the Holy Mass and Canonical Rites together with the Antipolo Bishop Gabriel V. Reyes and Parish Priest Rev. Msgr. Arnel F. Lagarejos.
The Architecture.
The church was first constructed from bamboo and leaves by the Augustinian friars in a place called Chorillo (present-day Barangka) on 1572. On 1687, the real construction began in its present location to stabilize an ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the area. Constructed in Baroque style, it is characterized by a heavily fortified facade, large-scale ceiling paintings, a dramatic central projection of the facade, a round-style pediment for the bell-tower and the opulent blending of painting and architecture.
Parish Priests.
The following were the priests assigned to the parish based on extant records:
Shrine Rectors.
On August 5, 2007, which is the Feast of the Dedication of the Basilica of St. Mary Major in Rome, the Bishop of Antipolo, Gabriel V. Reyes, D.D., consecrated the Parish Church of Our Lady of the Abandoned as a diocesan shrine in honor of Our Lady under the title "Maria, Inang Mapag-Ampon ng Marikina, Nuestra Señora de los Desamparados". On September 8, 2007, a little more than a month after the dedication of the church as a shrine, Bishop Francisco de Leon, who had been appointed by Pope Benedict XVI as Auxiliary Bishop of Antipolo, was assigned by the Bishop of Antipolo as Parish Priest of Our Lady of the Abandoned. Msgr. Mariano Balbago Jr. relinquished the title of parish priest, but was appointed Rector and Parish Administrator, assisting Bishop De Leon in his duties. Upon the departure of Msgr. Balbago from the shrine and parish, Bishop De Leon was also appointed rector by the Bishop of Antipolo, but this time assisted by vice rector and parish administrator Fr. Reynante U. Tolentino.
Assisting in the Pastoral Team of the parish are as follows:


Charkhari State

Charkhari State was one of the Princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. On India's independence, this Princely state acceded to India. Currently Charkhari town, the former state's capital, is a part of Uttar Pradesh state.
History.
Charkhari State was founded in 1765 by Khuman Singh.
In 1857 Raja Ratan Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a khilat and a perpetual jagir of £1300 a year in recognition of his services during the Indian Mutiny.
The last ruler of this Princely state signed the accession to the Indian Union on 15 August 1947.
Rulers.
In 1804, under Raja Bikramajit Singh (1782–1829) rule, the state became a British protectorate.


Athmallik State

Athmallik State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was a former jagir recognized as a state in 1874 and had its capital in Kaintaragarh (Kaintragarh, Kaintira or Kaintura) near the town of Athmallik. Its last ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union in 1948.
History.
The origin of Athmallik State is obscure as most of the state was covered by densely forested hills and administratively part of Baudh State. According to traditions, the foundation of the state was laid by Pratap Dev who belonged to the Kadamba dynasty of the Bonai State. Pratap Deva was said to have found a "Honda" metal vessel which was considered an auspicious sign, after which the territory was then named as "Hondpa". In later times one of the chiefs divided the state into eight divisions and placed one subchief called "Mallik" in each division in order to suppress the tribes after which the kingdom changed its name from Hondpa to "Athmallik". Hence the emblem of the state was the Kadamba flower.
In 1785, Laxmidhar Deo declared Athamallik independent of the Baudh State and became the Samant of the kingdom. In 1874 the Zamindari, locally styled as "Samant" was recognized as Raja and in 1894 a sanad was granted by the British recognizing Athmallik as a state in its own right. The state's accession to the Indian Union was signed in Dhenkanal during the rule of Kishore Chandra Deo in 1948. It remained under Dhenkanal District till 31 March 1993 and owing to the bifurcation of the district, Athmallik Sub-Division is now part of Angul District in Odisha.
Rulers.
The rulers of Athmallik State of the Kadamba dynasty branch:


Early history of Singapore

The early history of Singapore refers to its pre-colonial era before 1819, when the British East India Company was led by Sir Stamford Raffles established a trading settlement on the island and set in motion the history of Singapore.
Prior to 1819, the island was known by several names; an early reference may be in the 2nd century work by Ptolemy which identified a coastal port at the southernmost tip of the Malayan peninsula, called "Sabana". However, historians generally attribute a 3rd-century Chinese traveller's record describing an island at the same location called "Pu Luo Chung", a transcription of Singapura's early Malay name Pulau Ujong, as the first recording of its existence.
Singapore was known in the 13th to 14th century as Temasek, a name also recorded in Chinese sources as "Dan Ma Xi", a country recorded as having two distinct settlements – Long Ya Men and Ban Zu. It changed its name to Singapura perhaps towards the end of 14th century. The island was alternately claimed by the Siamese and the Javanese in the 14th century. The last ruler of Singapura, Parameswara fled to Malacca after an attack by either the Javanese or Siamese, and established the state of Malacca. It was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century and the Sultanate of Johor from the 16th century.
Early period.
The first possible mention of early Singapore dates to 2nd century CE cartographic references in the Greco-Roman astronomer Ptolemy's "Geographia". A place called "Sabana" or "Sabara" was marked on the 11th Map of Asia at the southern tip of the Golden Khersonese (meaning the Malay Peninsula) where Singapore may lie. It was identified as a "nominon emporion" or designated foreign trading port, as part of a chain of similar trading centres that linked Southeast Asia with India and the Mediterranean. Identification of "Sabana" or "Sabara" however varies, with various authors proposing it to be in Selangor or near Klang, or just south of Malacca, or south Johor, as well as Singapore island itself. No archaeological evidence from this period has yet been found in Singapore.
A 3rd century Chinese written record described the island of "Pu Luo Chung" (蒲羅中), probably a transcription of the Malay "Pulau Ujong", "island at the end" (of the Malay peninsula). It mentions briefly a hearsay account of cannibals with 5 or 6 inch tails living there.
Singapore Stone.
A large boulder measuring 3 metres in height and width, inscribed with writings, used to exist at the mouth of the Singapore River, but was later blown up when Fort Fullerton was expanded and the river mouth widened. Only a few fragments survive, and it became known as the Singapore Stone. Various dates between 10th to 13th century have been proposed for the inscriptions that is as yet undeciphered, and the script is suggested to be related to that used in Sumatran in that period.
Temasek.
Early Singapore was called "Temasek", possibly a word deriving from "tasik" (Malay for lake or sea) and taken to mean Sea-town in Malay. The Nagarakretagama, a Javanese epic poem written in 1365, listed a settlement on the island called "Tumasik" as a vassal of the Majapahit. The name is also mentioned in the "Malay Annals" thought to have been written in 1535. Temasek may have diplomatic relationship with Vietnam, which recorded it as "Sach Ma Tich", as early as the 13th century. It is also recorded by the Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan who visited the island around 1330 and described a place called "Dan Ma Xi" (單馬錫, a transcription of the Malay "Temasek"). The name "Dan Ma Xi" or "Temasek" is written in Chinese as 淡馬錫 in the Mao Kun map.
Long Ya Men and Ban Zu.
It was recorded in 1320 that the Mongol sent a mission to obtain elephants from "Long Ya Men" (龍牙門, "Dragon's Teeth Gate"). The people of "Longyamen" then responded in 1325 with a tribute and trade mission to China. "Long Ya Men" is believed to be the entrance to Keppel Harbour. In his work "Daoyi Zhilüe", Wang Dayuan described "Long Ya Men" as the two hills of Temasek that looked like "Dragon's teeth" between which a strait runs, and wrote about the place:
Wang further mentioned that lakawood and tin was produced there and the natives traded with Chinese from Quanzhou, but Chinese junks on their way back from the Western Oceans (西洋) may be met by pirates there who attacked with two to three hundred perahus (boats). Wang described another settlement on a hill behind "Long Ya Men" called "Ban Zu" (班卒, a transcription of the Malay name "pancur" meaning a "spring"). It is thought to be located on Fort Canning Hill, and a spring used to exist on the west side of the hill. In contrast to those of "Long Ya Men" who were prone to piracy, the inhabitants of "Ban Zu" were described as honest, and they wore "their hair short, with turban of gold-brocaded satin," and were dressed in red cloth. Wang also reported that the Siamese attacked Temasek a few years before he visited, but the fortified city survived the attack which lasted a month. Ruins of the settlement on the hill were still visible in the early 19th century and were described by the Resident John Crawfurd. In 1928, pieces of gold ornaments dating to the mid-14th century was discovered at Fort Canning Hill.
Recent excavations in Fort Canning provide evidence that Singapore was a port of some importance in the 14th century and used for transactions between Malays and Chinese.
Various documents suggest that following the decline of Srivijaya power, Temasek was alternately claimed by the Majapahit and the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom.
Singapura.
Sometime in its history, the name of Temasek was changed to Singapura. The "Sejarah Melayu" ("Malay Annals") contains a tale of a prince of Srivijaya, Sri Tri Buana (also known as Sang Nila Utama), who landed on Temasek after surviving a storm in the 13th century. According to the tale, the prince saw a strange creature, which he was told was a lion; believing this to be an auspicious sign, he decided to found a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. It is unlikely there ever were lions in Singapore, though tigers continued to roam the island until the early 20th century. However, the lion motif is common in Hindu mythology, which was dominant in the region during that period (one of the words for "throne" in the Malay language is "singgasana", meaning "lion's seat" in Sanskrit), and it has been speculated that the "Singapura" name, and the tale of the lion, were invented by court historians of the Malacca Sultanate to glorify Sang Nila Utama and his line of descent.
Different versions of its history are told in Portuguese sources, suggesting that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by Parameswara from Palembang. Historians believe that during the late 14th century, Parameswara, the last Srivijayan prince, fled to Temasek from Palembang after being deposed by the Majapahit Empire. According to Portuguese accounts, Parameswara killed the local chief with the title Sang Aji eight days after being welcomed into Temasek.
Not withstanding the Sejarah Melayu legend, the "Singapura" name possibly dates to this period. Some argued that Singapura was named after the "lion throne" Parameswara established in Palembang as a challenge to the Majapahit empire, and for which he was expelled from Palembang. Parameswara held the island of Singapore for a number of years, until further attacks from either the Majapahit or the Ayutthaya kingdom in Siam forced him to move on to Melaka where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca. While there are parallels between the mythical Sang Nila Utama and the historical Parameswara, these should be seen as distinct.
Singapore as part of sultanate of Malacca.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the main settlement on Fort Canning was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. Singapore became part of the Malacca empire, and it was said to be the fiefdom of the legendary laksamana (or admiral) Hang Tuah. However, by the time the Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, the Singapura that existed before Malacca was founded had already become "great ruins" according to the conqueror of Malacca Afonso de Albuquerque.
Beginning of colonial rule.
During the 16th and early 17th century, it briefly regained some significance as a trading centre of the Sultanate of Johor. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burnt down the settlement at the mouth of the Singapore River and the island sank into obscurity. It was not until 1819, when Englishman Sir Stamford Raffles established a British trading post on the island, that modern Singapore was founded.


Central Committee elected by the 6th Conference of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)

The Central Committee (CC) composition was elected by the 6th All-Russian Conference, and sat from 17 January 1912 until 3 August 1917.
References.
Plenary sessions, apparatus heads, ethnicity (by clicking on the individual names on "The Central Committee elected by the VIth Conference of the RSDLP (b) 17 (30) .1.1912 members" reference), the Central Committee full- and candidate membership, Bureau membership, Secretariat membership and Orgburo membership were taken from these sources:


Five Temple Caves

The Five Temple Caves () is a series of rock cut Buddhist caves in Subei Mongol Autonomous County, Gansu, northwest China. The complex once numbered twenty-two caves, but over the centuries the number was reduced to five, of which four remain today, in a gorge on the left bank of the Danghe River (). On the basis of their structure and iconography, one of the caves is dated to the Northern Wei, the other three to the Five Dynasties and Song. The complex lies some to the south of the Mogao Caves, and together with these, the Western Thousand Buddha Caves, Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, and Yulin Caves, is one of the five grotto sites in the vicinity of Dunhuang managed by the Dunhuang Academy. In 2013, in recognition of their significance, the Five Temple Caves were designated by SACH a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level.
Caves.
There are four caves with murals:
One Temple Cave.
A further five kilometres to the south, on the east bank of the Danghe, is a site known as the One Temple Cave () (). One cave with murals survives, showing donor figures and dated to the tenth century.