Funan

Funan ( or , Chu Han: 夫南, , ; ) or Nokor Phnom (, , ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianised state—or, rather a loose network of states "(Mandala)"—located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, representing the Wu Kingdom who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century CE.
Funan is known in the modern languages of the region as "Vnum" (Old Khmer) or "Nôkô Phnum" (Khmer), "Funan" (Thai), and (Vietnamese), however, the name "Funan" is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word "Funan" from a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain"), others however thought that "Funan" may not be a transcription at all- rather it meant what it says in Chinese.
Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon–Khmer, or that they were mostly Austronesian, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. Michael Vickery has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer. The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control.
Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity. From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state. Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Etymology.
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word "Funan". It is often said that the name "Funan" (Middle Chinese pronunciation of 扶南: /bju nậm/, Later Han pronunciation: /buɑ nəm/ or possibly /puɑ nəm/) represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word "Funan" ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word "bnaṃ" or "vnaṃ" (modern: "phnoṃ", meaning "mountain"). However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mis-translation of the Sanskrit word "parvatabùpála" in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word "bnaṃ" and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the character 南 (, ) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as Annam. Thus, "Funan" may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as "Bhavapura", "Aninditapura", "Shresthapura" and "Vyadhapura", which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the names "Funan" or "Zhenla" are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
Sources.
The first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions.
Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the "Sānguó zhì" 三國志 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 CE by Chén Shòu 陳壽 (233–297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of Lǚ Dài 呂待, governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú 吳: the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243. Later sources such as the Liáng shū 梁書 (Book of Liang) of Yáo Chá 姚察 (533–606) and Yáo Sīlián 姚思廉 (d. 637), completed in 636, discuss the mission of the 3rd-century Chinese envoys Kang Tai 康泰 and Zhū Yīng 朱應 from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan.
Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the Óc Eo culture, have supported and supplemented his conclusion.
History.
Origins of Funan.
According to modern scholars drawing primarily on Chinese literary sources, a foreigner named "Huntian" [pinyin: Hùntián] established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.
The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." (The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonised by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.) It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.
Kaundinya/Huntian.
Huntian.
The Book of Liang records the story of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (混塡 Middle Chinese pronunciation /ɦwənx tɦian/): "He came from the southern country Jiào (徼, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè (柳葉, "Willow Leaf")(Queen Soma) wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship. Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son, who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū 晉書 (Book of Jin), compiled by Fáng Xuánlíng in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì" 混湏 and "Yèliǔ" 葉柳.
Kaundinya.
Some scholars have identified the conqueror Hùntián of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from another language.
Kaundinya in the Chinese sources.
Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" [Kauṇḍinya, Koṇḍañña, Koṇḍinya, etc.] is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan as written by the Chinese historians: however, they transcribed it not as "Hùntián", but as "Qiáochénrú" 僑陳如. A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Hùntián. According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán 天竺旃檀 ("Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin (r. 344–361; personal name: Sīmǎ Dān 司馬聃): "He [Qiáochénrú] was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: ʻyou must go reign over Fúnán,ʼ and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at Pánpán 盤盤. The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India."
Kaundinya in the inscription of Mỹ Sơn.
The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C. 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII): "It was there [at the city of Bhavapura] that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task ...".
Kaundinya in the inscription of Tháp Mười.
The Sanskrit inscription (K.5) of Tháp Mười (known as "Prasat Pram Loven" in Khmer), which is now on display in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City, refers to a Prince Guṇavarman, younger son ("nṛpasunu—bālo pi") of a king Ja[yavarman] who was "the moon of the Kauṇḍinya line ("... kauṇḍi[n]ya[vaṅ]śaśaśinā ...") and chief "of a realm wrested from the mud".
Kaundinya in Khmer folklore.
The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home of the nāgas and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit ("Kambujādhipati") and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak.
The reference to an island is interesting and may further implicate Angkor Borei as a noted capital or primary center. Angkor Borei is surrounded by a six kilometer earthen wall approximately 20 meters wide and several meters high. The wall is amorphous with only one discernible geometric corner. The wall circumference mostly contours the settlement area and natural topography. It serves more as a water control mechanism than a defensive wall. There is evidence of brick interiors in some locations which may have been a feature of wall construction, or, the bricks may represent features within the wall such as a temple or shrine that intentionally articulated with the wall or was buried during wall construction and enhancement, much like Ak Yum in the West Baray at Ankgor. There is archaeological evidence of settlement and activity along and on top of the wall as well - particularly closer to the Angkor Borei River which transects the urban site through at least two wall openings. Areas closer to the river banks and dykes have much higher densities of artifacts and evidence of activity and settlement. There is a 20-meter outer moat in many locations and several moat-like segments on the interior of the wall. The removed soil was likely used to create the wall and further enhance hydrological engineering (i.e., water control: channel it, move it, store it, control ground water levels in the dry season, etc.). Because of the high clay content, the wall is rather impermeable. During the wet season, the very flat surrounding floodplain essentially becomes a giant lake with the noted exceptions of Phnom Borei mountain (Iron Age, Funan, and other sites including burials), Phnom Da hills (also contains Asram Maha Russei and Phnom Da temples), and the urban Angkor Borei site appearing as islands. The dominant production economy also switches to fishing. Access to Angkor Borei is by boat rather than road. During the dry season, the situation is reversed where rice paddies and flood recession rice cropping dominate the economy and the land eventually becomes dry, also useful for some gardens, the ever-present sugar palms (Borassus flabellifer), and grazing. The archaeological material culture at Angkor Borei itself is very dense and highly variable with a wide spectrum of exotic items indicative of a prominent trade, production and redistribution center.
Kaundinya's Indian Origins.
Since most sources are vague on the exact origins of Kaundinya I from India, delving into history especially through the lens of maritime history and ancient trade links as well as inscriptions analysis and customs from India is important in providing insights into the origins of Kaundinya. Sanjeev Sanyal's book "The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History" further looks into the origin of the name "Kaundinya", which points out that it is not usually a common first name in India but a gotra (i.e. the patrilineal lineage) of a group of Brahmins who lived on the eastern coastline of India especially along the Odisha-Northern Andhra coastline. Thus this region corresponds to the ancient Kalinga region (now modern Odisha), which is important considering the early Indian mariners were trading from this region as evident from their ancient maritime history around the 3rd century BCE. The port of Palur(near Ganjam) which was referred to by Ptolemy as a prominent international port during the 2nd century CE, thus referring to its important role played in the maritime trading history.
The strong links with Kalinga are also noted from the copper plate land grants given by the rulers of Kalinga to Kaundinya Brahmins who lived in the Mahendragiri region of Ganjam, especially the Ragolu inscription copper plate grant of the Pitrbhakta dynasty, the prominence of Shaivite customs mentioned in the Chinese work History of the Southern Dynasties during the reign of Jayavarman Kaundinya with regards to Mount Mo-tan in Funan, bearing close affinity with the early Saivite customs and its relation to Mahendragiri mountain which was the prevalent religion during the reign of different Kalinga dynasties. The diplomatic relations maintained between Funan and the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE also plays an important role in the relations between the two regions.
Apex and decline of Funan.
Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms...he extended his territory five or six thousand li." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243. Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture...they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indian Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indian Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan.
Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd-century king Fan Shiman (). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia. Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region. Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.
Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom (Zhenla). "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Na-fu-na."
The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population. Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".
Legacy.
The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan. There was a mountain regarded as holy. Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.
The Mnong people (Bunong) in eastern Cambodia and southern Vietnam are considered to be direct descendants of the people of Funan.
The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.
The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.
Society.
Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government. Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system.
Capital.
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".
Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan. However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified. Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region. Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated. The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla [Chenla], Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme.
Culture.
Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes. Sanskrit was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines. Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai (康泰) and Zhu Ying (朱應) reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water.
Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses, cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold, silver, ivory and exotic animals.
Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking. The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements.
Two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and Sanghapala, took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a prakrit) into Chinese. Among these texts is the Mahayana "Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra", also called the "Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra". This text was separately translated by both monks. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is a prominent figure in this text.
Economy.
Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird.
Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam.
The Funanese settlement of Óc Eo, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire. Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".
At Óc Eo, Roman coins were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s. These include mid-2nd-century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius. It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from "Daqin" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" (Chinese: 安敦, corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire's southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.
In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta; the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation.
Foreign relations.
Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China. Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty, and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228. A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour, Linyi, joined forces to attack the area of Tongking (Vietnamese: Đông Kinh, "eastern capital"), located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam (which was a Chinese colony at the time).
Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225-250 CE).
According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla (pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman (留陁跋摩, pinyin: Liútuóbámó) who ruled from 514 up to c. 545 CE.
The French historian Georges Coedès once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain." Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles.
People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture.


Samant (Doti)

Samant or Sawad (or Saund, Saud) were the feudal kings of the Doti region, which was formed after the disintegration of Katyuri kingdom of Uttarakhand and far western region of Nepal during the 13th century.
The Saud title was given by the Raika king. During the reign of Raika king, Saud were ranked after king. it is known as the warrior kshatriya caste and found widely in Garhwal, Kumaon and Far-western region of Nepal. Some Sawad/Saund were migrated to Kalikot,Kailali and Kanchanpur district from Doti, Achham, Bajura, Bajhang, Dadeldhura, Darchula and Baitadi District of Nepal.
They use twenty surnames according to place.
1. Malasi Malla Samant (Claims as a Suryavanshi rajput)
2. Sunkoti Samant
3. Gora Samant
4. Katyuri Samant
5. Karudel Samant
6. Tebhare Samant
7. Timal Samant
8. Paltel Samant
9. Siyabani (Sobarna) Samant
10.Kuskota Samant
11.navrath Samant
12.Amel Samant
13. Ghighidel Samant
14.Suma Samant
15.Deupadi Samant
16. Hari Samant
17.Puri Samant
18.Aalvi Samant
19.Vaalvi Samant
20.Sukili Samant


Women of Russia

Women of Russia (, "Zhenshchiny Rossii", ZhR) was a political bloc in Russia.
History.
The party was established in the autumn of 1993 by merger of three women's groups, the Union of Women of Russia (the dominant force), the Association of Russia's Women Entrepreneurs and the Union of Women of the Navy. The Union of Women of Russia had looked at the manifestos of 30 parties due to contest the December 1993 parliamentary elections and was unhappy about the lack of attention to women's issues. After writing to the parties and only receiving three, superficial responses, and amid concerns that the party lists contained few women, the decision was taken to form the party.
In the elections the party surprisingly received 8.1% of the proportional representation vote, the fourth-highest share, and won 23 of the 450 seats in the State Duma.
In the 1995 elections the party was expected to pass the 5% electoral threshold, but received 4.6% of the vote, failing to win any of the proportional seats, and only winning three seats. In 1996 the party split when Yekaterina Lakhova left the party to form the All-Russian Socio-Political Movement of Women of Russia, whose name was intentionally often shortened to 'Women of Russia' to attempt to lure away support.
In April 1999 it was announced that the ZhR would not run in the December 1999 elections, instead becoming part of the Fatherland – All Russia bloc, which Lakhova had also joined. However, the party withdrew from the bloc in September in protest at the lack of women on the party's list, and did contest the elections independently. However, its vote share fell again to 2%, and it lost all three seats. It did not contest any subsequent elections.
Former party is today Women's Union of Russia.


Dappula II of Anuradhapura

Dappula II was King of Anuradhapura in the 9th century, whose reign lasted from 807 to 812. He succeeded his father Mahinda II as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his son Mahinda III.
There was a revolt at the commencement of his reign by the chieftains of the north east of the island. His eldest son was sent with an army to subdue the rebels. The King was waiting near Minneriya when he received the news that both the prince and his general (Senapathi) had joined the rebels. The king proceeded to Duratissa with the main army and defeated the rebels. The rebels including the renegade prince and the general were slain with the rebel leaders. For the remainder of his reign, the King resided at Polonnaruwa.
There was a chieftain named Dhatasiva (Datopatissa) raising the flag of rebellion in Rohana. His son Mahinda ran away from the father and arrived at the King Dappula II court seeking his help against the father. The King was impressed with the young man and gave his Daughter Daeva in marriage.


Tahmasp II

Tahmasp II (1704? – 11 February 1740) was one of the last Safavid rulers of Persia (Iran).
Biography.
Tahmasp was the son of Sultan Husayn, the Shah of Iran at the time. When Husayn was forced to abdicate by the Afghans in 1722, Prince Tahmasp wished to claim the throne. From the besieged Safavid capital, Isfahan, he fled to Tabriz where he established a government. He gained the support of the Sunni Muslims of the Caucasus (even that of the previously rebellious Lezgins), as well as several Qizilbash tribes (including the Afshars, under the control of Iran's future ruler, Nader Shah).
Russo-Persian War.
In June 1722, Peter the Great, the then tsar of the neighbouring Russian Empire, declared war on Safavid Iran in an attempt to expand Russian influence in the Caspian and Caucasus regions and to prevent its rival, Ottoman Empire, from territorial gains in the region at the expense of declining Safavid Iran.
The Russian victory ratified for Safavid Irans' cession of their territories in the Northern, Southern Caucasus and contemporary mainland Northern Iran, comprising the cities of Derbent (southern Dagestan) and Baku and their nearby surrounding lands, as well as the provinces of Gilan, Shirvan, Mazandaran, and Astrabad to Russia per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723).
Tahmasp also eventually gained the recognition of both the Ottoman Empire and Russia, each worried about the other gaining too much influence in Iran.
By 1729, Tahmasp had control of most of the country. Quickly after his foolhardy Ottoman campaign of 1731, he was deposed by the future Nader Shah in 1732 in favor of his son, Abbas III; both were murdered at Sabzevar in 1740 by Nader Shah's eldest son Reza-qoli Mirza.


Ishbara Tolis

Ishbara Tolis was the ruler of Western Turkic Khaganate (empire) between 634–639. His full title was "Shābōluō xìlìshī (~diélìshī) kèhán" 沙钵罗咥利失可汗, personal name "Ashina Tong-e" 阿史那同俄).
Reign.
He was Bagha Shad's son. After his elder brother Duolu Qaghan abdicated, he was enthroned in 634 in very unfavorable circumstances. He had to rely on vassal tribes which were more powerful than himself. In 635, he sent arrows to ten tribes which meant legitimatizing them as shads (semi independent governor princes), but he was careful to keep the delicate balance between the two rival factions by appointing five from Duolu and five from Nushibi. Thus his empire came to be known as "Onoq", meaning "ten arrows" (十箭).) Even this policy however, wasn't successful. A noble named Tun Tudun revolted and caused khagan to flee to Qarasahr with his brother Böri Shad. However, he was reinstalled to throne by Nushibi noble Esegel Kul-Erkin who killed Tun Tudun. Meanwhile Duolu tribes appointed Yukuk Shad a prince from the recently collapsed Eastern Turkic Khaganate as their ruler.
Later reign.
After the Duolu–Nushibi split of 683, he spent rest of his life among his former Nushibi subjects, east to Ili River. He was killed by one of his own men in 659, on orders of Yukuk Shad.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 292

United Nations Security Council Resolution 292, adopted unanimously on February 10, 1971, after examining the application of Bhutan for membership in the United Nations, the Council recommended to the General Assembly that Bhutan be admitted.


Hongshan culture

The Hongshan culture () was a Neolithic culture in the Liao river basin in northeast China. Hongshan sites have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning, and dated from about 4700 to 2900 BC.
The culture is named after Hongshanhou (), a site in Hongshan District, Chifeng. The Hongshanhou site was discovered by the Japanese archaeologist Torii Ryūzō in 1908 and extensively excavated in 1935 by Kōsaku Hamada and Mizuno Seiichi.
Historical context.
In northeast China, Hongshan culture was preceded by Xinglongwa culture (6200–5400 BC), Xinle culture (5300–4800 BC), and Zhaobaogou culture, which may be contemporary with Xinle and a little later.
Yangshao culture was in the larger area and contemporary with Hongshan culture (see map). These two cultures interacted with each other.
Genetics and ethnic identity.
A study by Yinqiu Cui "et al." from 2013 found that 63% of the combined samples from various Hongshan archeological sites belonged to the subclade N1 (xN1a, N1c) of the paternal haplogroup N-M231 and calculated N to have been the predominant haplogroup in the region in the Neolithic period at 89%, its share gradually declining over time. Today this haplogroup is most common in Finland, the Baltic states and among northern Siberian ethnicities, such as the Yakuts.
Other paternal haplogroups identified in the study were C and O3a (O3a3), both of which predominate among the present-day inhabitants.
Nelson "et al." 2020 attempts to link the Hongshan culture to a "Transeurasian" linguistic context (see Altaic).
Artifacts.
Hongshan burial artifacts include some of the earliest known examples of jade working. The Hongshan culture is known for its jade pig dragons and embryo dragons. Clay figurines, including figurines of pregnant women, are also found throughout Hongshan sites. Small copper rings were also excavated.
Religion.
The archaeological site at Niuheliang is a unique ritual complex associated with the Hongshan culture.
Excavators have discovered an underground temple complex—which included an altar—and also cairns in Niuheliang. The temple was constructed of stone platforms, with painted walls. Archaeologists have given it the name "Goddess Temple" due to the discovery of a clay female head with jade inlaid eyes. It was an underground structure, 1m deep. Included on its walls are mural paintings.
Housed inside the "Goddess Temple" are clay figurines as large as three times the size of real-life humans. The exceedingly large figurines are possibly deities, but for a religion not reflective in any other Chinese culture.
The existence of complex trading networks and monumental architecture (such as pyramids and the "Goddess Temple") point to the existence of a "chiefdom" in these prehistoric communities.
Painted pottery was also discovered within the temple. Over 60 nearby tombs have been unearthed, all constructed of stone and covered by stone mounds, frequently including jade artifacts.
Cairns were discovered atop two nearby two hills, with either round or square stepped tombs, made of piled limestone. Entombed inside were sculptures of dragons and tortoises.
It has been suggested that religious sacrifice might have been performed within the Hongshan culture.
Feng shui.
Just as suggested by evidence found at early Yangshao culture sites, Hongshan culture sites also provide the earliest evidence for feng shui. The presence of both round and square shapes at Hongshan culture ceremonial centers suggests an early presence of the cosmography ("round heaven, square earth").
Early feng shui relied on astronomy to find correlations between humans and the universe.
Development of Chinese civilization.
Some Chinese archaeologists such as Guo Da-shun see the Hongshan culture as an important stage of early Chinese civilization. Whatever the linguistic affinity of the ancient denizens, Hongshan culture is believed to have exerted an influence on the development of early Chinese civilization. The culture also have contributed to the development of settlements in ancient Korea.


Rosli Dhobi

Rosli Dhobi (18 March 1932 – 2 March 1950) was a Malay Sarawakian nationalist from Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia during the British crown colony era in that state.
He was a member leader of the Rukun 13, an active organisation in the Anti-cession movement of Sarawak, along with Morshidi Sidek, Awang Rambli Bin Deli and Bujang Suntong. It was a secret cell organisation, composed of nationalists, which carried out assassinations of officers of the British Colonial government in Sarawak. He was well known for his assassination of Duncan George Stewart, the second governor of colonial Sarawak, in 1949.
Early life.
Rosli Dhobi was born on 18 March 1932 at No. 94, Kampung Pulo, Sibu, Sarawak as the second child in the waserman family. His father, Dhobi bin Buang originated from Indonesia and was a descendant of Raden. His mother, Habibah binti Haji Lamit came from a Sambas family and settled for a long time in Mukah. Little is known about his earlier life although friends regard Rosli as an approachable person despite his quietness. He had an elder sister and a younger brother: Fatimah (born 1928) and Ainie (born 1933).
Rosli started his career as a teacher and quit his job in 1947 to teach in Sibu People's School. Before that, he worked at the Sarawak Public Works Department (PWD) and for Utusan Sarawak. Rosli was known to be a nationalist and a poet. Using the nickname Lidros, Rosli penned down a nationalistic poem titled 'Panggilan Mu yang Suchi' (Malay: "Your Divine Call") which was published in Utusan Sarawak on 28 February 1948. The usage of nicknames was prevalent at the time since the British Colonial Authority vigorously monitored any attempts to spread words against them. He joined the Sibu Malay Youth Movement (Malay: "Pergerakan Pemuda Melayu Sibu") under the leadership of Sirat Haji Yaman.
Rosli joined Rukun 13 in August 1948. He was introduced to the organisation by an old friend, Awang Rambli.
Although one of the Rukun 13's aim was to establish a union of Sarawak with newly independent Indonesia, Tahar Johnny, a cousin of Rosli, denied that Rosli was pro-Indonesia, despite the latter great likings of anything Indonesian and other members of Rukun 13 may have been pro-Indonesia.
Assassination of Duncan George Stewart.
Background.
The end of the Second World War had brought an end to the Brooke Dynasty rule in Sarawak; believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak, Rajah Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown. Sarawak became a Crown Colony, ruled from the Colonial Office in London, which in turn dispatched a Governor for Sarawak.
This move was opposed by Rajah Muda Anthony Brooke, who was supposed to become the next Rajah Brooke, as well as many native Sarawakians who were initially told that they would be allowed self-government. Anthony Brooke became the leader of the anti-cession movement.
Events.
On 3 December 1949, Duncan George Stewart, the aforementioned appointed governor of Sarawak, was murdered by the Rukun 13 members, Rosli Dhoby, Awang Ramli Amit Mohd Deli, Morshidi Sidek and Bujang Suntong in Sibu.
Rosli Dhoby and Morshidi Sidek were among the crowd that welcomed the governor on his arrival to Sibu. After inspecting an honour guard the governor was meeting a group of local school children in near proximity of Rosli. Morshidi began to pretend to take pictures of the governor with a broken camera. The governor stopped to allow Morshidi to photograph him. At that moment, Rosli stabbed the governor.
Rosli was arrested on the spot and sent to Kuching for trial and later into imprisonment. Despite suffering a deep stab wound Stewart is reported to have tried to carry on until blood began to seep through his white uniform. The governor was flown back to Kuching for treatment and later to Singapore, where he died a week after the incident.
Death.
After a few months languishing in prison, Rosli Dhoby, Awang Ramli Amit Mohd Deli, Morshidi Sidek and Bujang Suntong were found guilty of murder and sentenced to death on 4 December 1949. This move was criticised by many, as Rosli Dhobi was a juvenile at the time of assassination.
Rosli Dhoby was sent to the gallows on the morning of 2 March 1950. Fearing the resentment of the local population, the British government did not allow Rosli Dhoby's body to leave the Kuching Central Prison. Instead, his body was interred in an unmarked tomb within the prison compound.
After Sarawak gained independence on 22 July 1963 from Britain and later through the formation of the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, a tombstone was put in place at his tomb. The tombstone is now on display at the outer compound of Sarawak Islamic Museum in Kuching after the reinterment of his remains in 1996.
Aftermath.
Sarawak was sent into tumultuous years, and the anti-Cessionists rebellion were crushed as the support by the locals dwindled due to the "aggressive" tactic used by Rosli Dhoby, alongside the oppositions from some of the Malay leaders who were pro-British. Most of the anti-Cessionists were arrested and later sent into prison, and some of them were even imprisoned in Changi Prison in Singapore.
However, things later returned to normal and peace was restored during the era of 3rd Governor of Sarawak, Sir Anthony Foster Abell. Even those who were imprisoned at Changi were allowed to return to Sarawak, to continue their sentence at Kuching Central Prison.
Reburial.
After 46 years resting in prison compound, the remains of Rosli Dhoby were moved out of the Kuching Central Prison to be buried in the Sarawak's Heroes Mausoleum near An Nur Mosque at his home town of Sibu on 2 March 1996. He was given a state funeral by the Sarawak government.
Legacy.
In 1975, Dr Mahathir Mohamad, minister of education at that time, changed the name of SMK Bandar Sibu into SMK Rosli Dhoby to commemorate the sacrifices of Rosli Dhoby.
In 2009, a miniseries spanning the period from him joining the Rukun 13 up to his death sentence was produced by Malaysian production studio KL Motion Picture Co. titled "Warkah Terakhir" ("The Final Letter"), with actor Beto Kusyairy portraying Rosli. However, Rosli Dhoby heir Lucas Johnny claimed that the series contained several factual errors. For example, the miniseries portrayed Rosli Dhoby as trying to run away after stabbing the governor. In reality, Rosli was trying to stab the governor the second time but was stopped by the governor's bodyguards.
In 2013, Jeniri Amir, a professor from Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) specialised in political communication, wrote a book about Rosli Dhoby which included much new information. However, according to a book review written by Nordi Achie, another professor from Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) Jeniri's book contained errors with only superficial analysis of newly found information regarding Rosli Dhoby.


Khora Bhurt Pass

Khora Bhurt pass (el. 15,190 ft., also marked as 15,290 ft.) is a high mountain pass that connects Karambar river valley (upper Gilgit valley) in Ishkoman tehsil of Ghizer district in the Northern Areas of Pakistan with Wakhan Corridor in Afghanistan.
Khora Bhurt pass is also known as Khodarg Werth, Khora Burt Pass, Khord Bhort Pass, Kowtal-e Khvorah Bort.


Lalgarh, Jhargram

Lalgarh is a village and a gram panchayat in the Binpur I CD block under the Jhargram subdivision of the Jhargram district in the Indian state of West Bengal.
Lalgrah came under media attention at the beginning of November 2008. The Communist Party of India (Maoist) launched a massive fight against police personnel and cadres of the Communist Party of India (Marxist). In June 2009 Indian security forces launched Operation Lalgarh against the Maoists in the village.
Geography.
Location.
Lalgarh is located at
Area overview.
Jhargram subdivision, the only one in Jhargram district, shown in the map alongside, is composed of hills, mounds and rolling lands. It is rather succinctly described in the "District Human Development Report", 2011 (at that time it was part of Paschim Medinipur district), “The western boundary is more broken and picturesque, for the lower ranges of the Chhotanagpur Hills line the horizon, the jungle assumes the character of forest, and large trees begin to predominate. The soil, however, is lateritic, a considerable area is unproductive, almost uninhabited, especially in the extreme north-west where there are several hills over 1000 feet in height. The remainder of the country is an almost level plain broken only by the sand hills.” 3.48% of the population lives in urban areas and 96.52% lives in the rural areas. 20.11% of the total population belonged to scheduled castes and 29.37% belonged to scheduled tribes.
Demography.
According to the 2011 Census of India, Lalgarh had a total population of 4,433 of which 2,259 (51%) were males and 2,174 (49%) were females. Population in the age range 0–6 years was 455. The total number of literate persons in Lalgarh was 3,209 (72.39% of the population over 6 years).
Civic administration.
CD block HQ.
The headquarters of Binpur I CD block are located at Lalgarh.
Police station.
Lalgarh police station has jurisdiction over Binpur I CD block.
Economy.
The main occupation of the people here is cultivation, sharecropping and selling disposable plates made of leaves. Most people do not own land but work on others fields. The region is dry and there are but a single harvest each year. At other times people work as daily labor, collect and sell leaves and wood from forest etc. Over 75% of the households own land given to them under the Land reforms programme of the Left Front Government between the years 1977 and 2002. But income poverty exists.
Operation Lalgarh.
In November 2008, following reports of police brutality, enraged advasi villagers blockaded roads and protested against the police and paramilitary forces in the area. The government maintained the movement was being controlled by Maoist guerrilla agents. The Maoists controlled the village and the surrounding area for eight months until Operation Lalgarh was launched to dislodge them on 18 June 2009.
Education.
Lalgarh Government College was established in 2014. It is affiliated to Vidyasagar University. It offers honours courses in Bengali, Santali, English, Sanskrit, history, philosophy, political science and sociology, and general courses in BA and BSc (Bio Science).
Healthcare.
Binpur Rural Hospital, with 30 beds at Binpur, is the major government medical facility in the Binpur I CD block.


Krishnam

Krishnam is a 2018 Indian Malayalam-language family drama thriller film written, directed and filmed by Dinesh Baboo from a story by P. N. Balaram, who also produced the film. The film features Akshay Krishnan, Ashwarya Ullas, Sai Kumar, and Shanthi Krishna in lead roles. The film was released in India on 18 May 2018 and was released straight online overseas. Tamil version was released in 15 March 2019.
Synopsis.
Krishnam is based on a real-life incident. Belief and strong conviction will make you a Victor. Based on a true incident happened in Trichur, Kerala. Portrays the intense and pristine relationship of a father and son, interspersed with moments of happiness, pain, horror, and peace.
Soundtrack.
The film's music is by Hari Prasad in 3 languages, 11 songs, and 9 singers


Sri Thammasokaraj

Sri Thammasokaraj (Thai language: พระเจ้าศรีธรรมโศกราช or sometimes called พระเจ้าศรีธรรมโศการาช) is the founder and first king of Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom or Ligor City which succeeded the Tambralinga kingdom.


Edward Boustead

Edward Boustead (1800–1888) was an English businessman and philanthropist, who founded Boustead & Co and played an active role in the development of Singapore as a business and trading centre. Boustead was born in Yorkshire, England. He was the great-grandfather of actor David Niven.
Beginnings of Boustead & Co.
In 1828, Boustead arrived in Singapore on board the British ship "Hindustan". In the same year, he established a trading company, Boustead & Co. Boustead & Co specialised in import and export, offering goods such as banca tin, spices, saps, rattan, medicinal herbs, silk and tea widely available in South East Asia in exchange for Western products like cloth, oil and machinery.
Boustead commissioned Irish civil architect, George Drumgoole Coleman to design his company's headquarters alongside the Singapore River. The warehouse was known as "the house of seven and twenty pillars", located around the corner from High Street.
In 1834, Boustead partnered with German-born merchant, Gustav Christian Schwabe in the Singapore company. Schwabe and his cousin established Sykes Schwabe & Co in Liverpool. The Liverpool partner would export products like textiles, biscuits, brandies and steel to the East, while the Singapore partner would trade with Eastern produce such as coffee and spices. The freedom of port made Singapore an ideal market for trading among imported manufacturers.
Import of Western commodities such as textiles and machinery had to be balanced with exports of Eastern produce such as copra, coconut, pepper and tapioca. Boustead & Co had a "Balance of Trade", where demand for goods from the East had to be balanced with demand for goods from the West.
Singapore merchant, Tan Kim Seng, was a middleman in Boustead's trading activities. He was also a good friend of Boustead. Tan amassed small shipments of produce from local traders for Boustead, who would then ship the produce to the West.
With a wide trading network, trade credit and finance became increasingly important to banks, merchants, manufacturers and traders. Edward Boustead actively contributed to the Singapore's trading activities and economy. Boustead & Co was the first agent for Hongkong and Shanghai Bank in Singapore, offering banking facilities to businesses. Brokers and sellers could draw a specific percentage of advances against the value of their goods stored in the Boustead warehouse. Such financing was called "trust receipts", where the merchant would hold the goods in trust for the banks.
In 1850, Boustead also set up a London office, Edward Boustead & Co, to oversee the other offices in Hong Kong, Manila, Shanghai and Singapore.
Between 1863 and 1877 Edward Boustead owned shares in vessels managed by Killick Martin & Company. Apart from the three main partners, James Killick, James Henry Martin and David William Ritchie, the next principle shareholder was Edward Boustead, who held shares in 11 vessels. Two of Boustead’s partners in Boustead & Company, William Wardrop Shaw and Jasper Young also held shares in some of the vessels. Jasper Young owned 40 shares in ‘Mabel Young’ presumably named after his wife or daughter.
During the late 1880s, Boustead & Co took advantage of the introduction of the rubber tree to Malaysia and eventually became a leading rubber plantation manager and owner of 49 rubber plantations with a total planted area of 141,629 acres. In 1892 Boustead & Co handled the first shipment of bulk oil to Penang and shortly after this the Shell Transport and Trading Company was formed with Isaac Henderson acting as one of its original directors. Boustead represented and operated on Shell’s behalf in Penang until 1920 when Shell opened its own branch. By 1899, Singapore had become the world’s main exporter of tin. Boustead & Co played a leading role as promoter and investor in the tin smelting facility on Pulau Brani, constructed by the Straits Trading Company. From that point forward, Straits Tin became one of the leading businesses of Boustead & Co. Over the decades, the excellent reputation of Boustead & Co allowed it to attract some of the world’s most famous brands to give it agency rights in Singapore and around the region. Some of the famous brand names that became synonymous with Boustead were Cadbury’s, Nestle, Del Monte, Gillette, Procter & Gamble, Johnnie Walker, Hennessy, Moet & Chandon, Nissan, Suzuki and Thomas Cook.
After his death in 1888, Boustead's associates took over the business. Boustead Plc (formerly known as Taiping Rubber Plantations Limited) was founded in 1910 and eventually listed as Boustead Plc on the London Stock Exchange. Having survived World War I, Boustead & Co played a significant role in the rise of Singapore as the world’s largest port, with a booming business in cargo, freight handling, insurance and ship services. Boustead & Co represented over 20 major shipping lines and numerous insurance agencies including the renowned Lloyd’s, which Boustead represented for more than one century. After World War II, Malaysia declared independence from the British in August 1957 and Singapore declared independence from Malaysia in 1965. This saw Boustead & Co split into three entities, Boustead plc in London, Boustead Holdings Berhad in Malaysia and Boustead Singapore Limited which listed on the Singapore Stock Exchange on 17 October 1975.
Boustead Limited formed out of Boustead plc and was renamed later Boustead & Co Limited, which is the holding company for financial services, including corporate finance, principal investing and asset management.
Role in development of Singapore.
Boustead was a shareholder in the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company (now known as the Port of Singapore Authority). He was also a key investor in the Straits Trading Company, the first tin foundry in Singapore.
A pioneer in Singapore's newspaper industry, Boustead was a co-founder of the "Singapore Free Press" with architect George Drumgoole Coleman and William Napier. The newspaper was the forerunner of The Straits Times.
An enterprising businessman in the trading sector, Boustead was one of the founding members of the Singapore Chamber of Commerce in 1837. The institution promoted trade in Singapore through establishing shipping, protecting trade on behalf of merchants and encouraging trade activities among merchants.
Boustead was active in community activities as well. He started the Horticultural Society, which supported the cultivation of pepper, cotton, sugar and other tropical produce. The Horticultural Society was responsible for pioneering the Singapore Botanic Gardens. In 1829, Boustead started the first Singapore Club, which was called the Billiards Club.
Edward Boustead's house, designed and built by George Drumgoole Coleman, was one of the exclusive villas on Singapore's Esplanade. It was later converted into a hotel, renamed the Grand Hotel de l'Europe. The site where Boustead's villa stood is now occupied by the old Supreme Court.
Philanthropy and Social Impact Investments.
Many sailors were left homeless when they were sick or too old to work. Boustead was an altruistic man and he felt compassion for these sailors. He built the Boustead Institute, situated at Tanjong Pagar. The building came to be known as the Sailor's Home, providing accommodation for sailors of ships visiting the port as well.
Boustead also donated charitably to hospitals, schools and churches. Some of these buildings included Raffles Institution, Saint Joseph's Institution and the Cathedral of the Good Shepherd.
In 2014 Boustead & Co co-founded Noble Tree Property Investment, a socially minded property company that develops, owns, lets and sells affordable housing and specialty supported housing developments across the United Kingdom.
In 2015 Boustead & Co founded Boustead Asset Management Limited in Mauritius to serve as the investment advisor to Boustead Investment Fund, a social impact investment fund with a focus on investing in socially conscious investments. The asset manager and fund are regulated by the Financial Services Commission in Mauritius and were granted a Collective Investment Scheme Manager Licence and Category 1 Global Business Licence by the Financial Services Commission.
Family.
Boustead had a daughter, Helen Boustead, who was born in 1857. Helen Boustead married William Niven and the couple gave birth to a son, William Edward Graham Niven.
William Edward Graham Niven then married socialite Henrietta Julia Degacher. Their first child was James David Graham Niven, better known as David Niven. Niven's film career spanned over 90 films, and he was best known for his roles in Around the World in 80 Days (1956), The Pink Panther (1963) and Casino Royale (1967). There has been some dispute over Niven's paternity, with one biographer claiming that Niven himself believed his biological father to be Sir Thomas Comyn-Platt, whom his mother later remarried after her first husband was killed on active service in 1915.


Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur

The Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur (also known as the Khokhra chieftaincy), was an Indian rajput dynasty which ruled the Chota Nagpur plateau region (modern-day Jharkhand). Phani Mukut Rai is considered the first king of dynasty claim to be Son of Pundrika Naga a mythical Naga. Chotanagpur Zamindari was one of many Zamindari estate in the era of the British Raj, in former Bihar Province from 1817 to 1947. Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo (1931–2014) was last ruling king of the dynasty, until the estate was merged to the Republic of India.
Origin.
The origins of the Nagvanshis are shrouded in mystery.
Nagvanshi claim descent from Nagas.
According to Nagvanshavali, Nagvanshi dynasty originated with "Pundrika Naga". According to the story, to avoid killing by Raja Janamejaya the king of Hastinapur, "Pundarika Naga" assumed the persona of a Brahmin and studied shastras in the house of a Brahmin in Varanasi. Brahmin impressed by intelligence and grace of his pupil got married his daughter Parvati to him. Due to his forked tongue, he always slept with his back to his wife. Wife becomes curious to know about the secret. To avert the question, Naga proposes to do a pilgrimage to Puri. On the way in Jharkhand, wife gave birth to a child. According to custom, secret desire of wife or husband should be fulfilled. Naga compelled to disclosed his identity, assumed the form of Cobra and plunged into the water. Out of grief wife committed Sati. At that time a Brahmin named Janardan while holding sun idol came to see that the Pundarika Naga guarding his child. Pundarika Naga told his story. The Brahmin named the child Fani Mukut Rai. He took the child to the house of Madura Munda the chief of Sutiambe village. Madura adopted and brought the child up with his son of the same age. Madura convened the paraha chief and other Raja, where Fani Mukut Rai became Raja due to his qualities. Phani Mukut Rai was succeeded by his son Mukut Rai. His empire was named ‘Nagpur Des’. According to Nagvanshi tradition, the dynasty was established by Raja Phani Mukut Rai. However, the story of Phani Mukut Rai is mostly considered to be a myth.
According to different source, the dynasty was founded in the 5th century AD as a successor state to the Gupta Empire. Phani Mukut Rai was first king. According to many historians Nagvanshi dynasty was possibly established in 10th century AD.
History.
According to Nagpuri poem "Nagvanshavali" written by Beniram Mehta, Phani Mukut Rai was founder of Nagvanshi dynasty in 1st century AD who was son of Pundrika Naga a Naga and a Bramin girl from Varanasi. He was adopted son of Madra Munda. He was elevated to throne by Madra Munda and neighbouring rulers in Sutiambe which is located around 20 km north of Ranchi. His rule extended to Ramgarh, Gola, Tori and Gharwe. However the story mostly considered to be a myth by scholar. According to many historians the dynasty was possibly established in 10th century AD. According to "Nagvanshavali", third Nagvanshi king Pratap Rai shifted his capital from "Sutiambe" to present day "chutia". The remains of the idol of the Sun Temple have been found near Pithoria and they have been dated to the 12th Century AD.
In 12th century, Raja Bhim Karn defeated Rakshel of Surguja when they invaded the region. Then he conquered territory upto Surguja and Palamu. He shifted his capital from present day "Chutia" to Khukhragarh. There are ancient fort, temple, coins and pottery remains found in the region. Mirza Nathan refers to the region as "Khokhradesh". In 1585, There was mughal invasion during reign of Raja Madhu Singh. He became a vassal ruler under the Mughals. He participated in expedition against Afghan ruler in Odisha. After Madhu Singh his son Bairisal became king and he also participated in several expeditions with Akbar. When Akbar died, Bairisal withdraw tribute to Mughal. Mughal launched expedition against Nagvanshi king but failed to subjugate them. Raja Durjan Sal the son of Bairisal was taken to Prison in Agra for withdrawal of tribute to Mughals, later he was released for identifying real diamonds. He built palaces, temples and ponds in Navratangarh.
Ram Shah became king after Durjan Sal. According to Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a French traveler Mughal invaded Khukhra during reign of Ram Shah. But Ram Shah gave tribute to Mughal.
Raja Raghunath Shah(1665-1706) succeed after Ram Shah. During his reign, Raghunath Shah built several temples, including Madan Mohan temple in Boera and Jagannath temple. According to Lal Pradumn Singh, the writer of book Nagvansh, Mughal invaded Khukhra during reign of Raghunath Shah. Mughal officials were sent by Aurangzeb to attack Khukhra. The invasion was strongly resisted which resulted in defeat and death of Mughal official. He succeeded by his son Yadunath Shah (1706 - 1724).
In 1719, during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah, Sarbuland Khan was appointed as the Subedar of Bihar Province. He marched to Chotanagpur plateau. Raja Yadunath Shah, to whom the ghatwal of Palamu, Ramgarh and Badam were subjects, sent Bedman Das Thakur as his agent and agreed to pay Rs. One Lakh as Nazrana. After this Mughal invasion, Yadunath Shah shifted the capital from Navratangarh to Palkot upon realising the weakness of the capital from a defensibility point of view. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Shivnath Shah(1724-1733). Due to non-payment of tribute, Fakhr-ud-daula invaded Khokhra in 1731. He faced considerable resistance from the Raja of Khokhra but both parties reached a compromise. The Subedar received Rs 12,000 from Ghatwal of Ramgarh on the account of Nagvanshi raja and Rs 5000 from Ghatwal of Palamu. When Fakhr-ud-daula was removed from the post of Subedar of Bihar Suba in 1733, the Khokhra chief discontinued payment of tribute to Mughals.
After the Battle of Buxar, the East India Company got the right to collect revenue from Bihar, Bengal and Odisha. In 1772, Nagvanshi became a vassal of British rule.
Between 1795 to 1800, Maratha invaded Chotanagpur and looted and collected revenue forcefully. The British stationed military forces at Chotanagpur to check the incursions of Marathas. Due to rebellion, refusal of payment of revenue by subordinate Jagirdar and Zamindar under Nagvanshi king, Chotanagpur was brought under direct control by British East India company in 1817 and they reduced Nagvanshi rulers to Zamindars. The Nagvanshi rulers shifted their capital from Palkot to Ratu in 1870.
The last ruler of Nagvanshi dynasty was Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo(1931 – 2014). Zamindari was abolished after independence of India in 1952.
Rulers.
Following is the list of Nagvanshi rulers according to "Nagvanshavali" written by Beniram Mehta, and "Baishakh badi" by Drupnath Shahdeo which was given to Governor general of India in 1844.


Tomara dynasty

The Tomara (also called Tomar in modern vernaculars because of schwa deletion) dynasty ruled parts of present-day Delhi and Haryana in India during 8th-12th century. Their rule over this region is attested to by multiple inscriptions and coins. In addition, much of the information about them comes from medieval bardic legends, which are not historically reliable. They were displaced by the Chahamanas of Shakambhari in the 12th century.
Territory.
The Tomara territory included parts of the present-day Delhi and Haryana. A 13th century inscription states that the Tomaras ruled the Hariyanaka (Haryana) country before the Chahamanas and the Shakas (Muslims in this context). A 14th century inscription states that they built Dhillika (modern day Delhi) a city in the Haryana region. Around that city is a fortified wall called Lal Kot built by Anangpal Tomar. It is also known that the Tomara kingdom stretched to Asigarh Fort and areas at Thanesar. The Tomara's rule was followed by that of the Chahamanas and the mlechchha Sahavadina (Shihab ad-Din).
History.
The Tomaras are known from some inscriptions and coins. However, much of the information about the dynasty comes from medieval bardic legends, which are not historically reliable. Because of this, the reconstruction of the Tomara history is difficult.
As feudatories.
The earliest extant historical reference to the Tomaras occurs in the Pehowa inscription issued during the reign of the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahendrapala I (r. c. 885-910 CE). This undated inscription states that Jaula of the Tomara family became prosperous by serving an unnamed king. His descendants included Vajrata, Jajjuka, and Gogga. The inscription suggests that Gogga was a vassal of Mahendrapala I. It records the construction of three Vishnu temples by Gogga and his step-brothers Purna-raja and Deva-raja. The temples were located at Prithudaka (IAST: Pṛthūdaka; Pehowa), on the banks of the river Sarasvati.
No information is available about the immediate successors of Gogga. The Pehowa inscription suggests that this particular Tomara family was settled around the Karnal area. However, F. Kielhorn suggested that this Tomara family actually resided in Delhi: they may have visited Pehowa on pilgrimage, and built a temple there.
As sovereigns.
As the Pratihara power declined, the Tomaras established a sovereign principality around Delhi by the 10th century. Later medieval bardic literature named the dynasty as "Tuar", and anachronistically classified them as one of the 36 Rajput clans, despite the fact that Rajput identity did not exist during their time. The Rajputs actually originated in the 16th century.
According to the bardic tradition, the dynasty's founder Anangapal Tuar (that is Anangapala I Tomara) founded Delhi in 736 CE. However, the authenticity of this claim is doubtful. A 1526 CE source names the successors of Anangapala as Tejapala, Madanapala, Kritapala, Lakhanapala and Prithvipala. The "Dravya-Pariksha" (1318 CE) of Thakkura Pheru mentions the coins of Madanapala, Prithvipala and another ruler, Chahadapala.
Soon after gaining independence, the Tomaras became involved in conflicts with their neighbours, the Chahamanas of Shakambhari and later on the Gahadavala dynasty. According to a 973 CE inscription of the Chahamana king Vigraharaja II, his ancestor Chandana (c. 900 CE) killed the Tomara chief Rudrena (or Rudra) in a battle. The Harsha stone inscription states that Chandana's descendant Simharaja (c. 944-971 CE) defeated a Tomara leader called Lavana or Salavana. Historian R. B. Singh identifies the defeated ruler as Tejapala. Another fragmentary Chahamana "prashasti" (eulogistic inscription), now at the Ajmer museum, mentions that the Chahamana king Arnoraja (c. 1135-1150 CE) invaded the Haritanaka country. This country is identified with the Tomara territory. According to the inscription, Arnoraja's army rendered the waters of the Kalindi river (Yamuna) muddy and the women of Hartinaka tearful, but Arnoraja's victory over the Tomaras was not decisive and as his son Vigraharaja IV had to fight the Tomaras. This may have been because Anoraja was unsuccessful of getting through the fort Lal Kot which had been built by the Tomara rulers.
The writings of the medieval Muslim historians suggest that a king named Mahipala was ruling Delhi in the 11th century. Although these medieval historians do not mention the dynasty of this king, he is identified as a Tomara ruler by some modern historians. Some coins featuring crude depictions of a horseman and a bull, and bearing the name "Mahipala", have been attributed to this king. These coins are similar to those of Mawdud of Ghazni (r. 1041-50 CE), confirming that Mahipala must have ruled in the 11th century. The horseman-and-bull were a characteristic of the Kabul Shahi coinage; Mawdud probably adopted this style after capturing the Shahi territories. Mahipala probably imitated the same style after capturing Asigarh Fort in Hansi and Thaneshvara regions from Mawdud. Some fragmentary Tomara inscriptions have been discovered from Mahipalpur near Delhi. Historian Y. D. Sharma theorizes that Mahipala established a new capital at Mahipalapura (now Mahipialpur).
The Suraj Kund reservoir is said to have been commissioned by a Tomara king named Surajpala.
Multiple (three) Tomara kings seem to have shared the name "Anangapala" (IAST: Anaṅgapāla). One of these is said to have established the Lal Kot citadel in the Mehrauli area. The construction of the Anang Tal tank and the Anangpur Dam is also attributed to him. His coins also feature the horseman-and-bull figure, and bear the title "Shri Samanta-deva". These coins are very similar to those of the Shakambhari Chahamana kings Someshvara and Prithviraja III, indicating that Anangapala was a contemporary of these 12th century kings. One of the several inscriptions on the Iron Pillar of Delhi mentions Anangapala. A medieval legend mentioned in a copy of "Prithviraj Raso" mentions a legend about the pillar: a Brahmin once told Anangapala (alias Bilan Deo) that the base of the pillar rested on the head of the Vasuki serpent, and that his rule would last as long as the pillar stood upright. Out of curiosity, Anangapala dug out the pillar, only to find it smeared with the blood of Vasuki. Realizing his mistake, the king ordered it to be re-instated, but it remained loose ("dhili"). Because of this, the area came to be known as "Dhilli" (modern Delhi). This legend is obviously a myth.
Decline.
The bardic legends state that the last Tomara king, Anangpal Tomar (also known as Anangapala), handed over the throne of Delhi to his son-in-law Prithviraj Chauhan (Prithviraja III of the Chahamana dynasty of Shakambhari; r. c. 1179-1192 CE). However, this claim is not correct: the historical evidence shows that Prithviraj inherited Delhi from his father Someshvara. According to the Bijolia inscription of Someshvara, his brother Vigraharaja IV had captured Dhillika (Delhi) and Ashika (Hansi). He probably defeated the Tomara ruler Anangapala III.
List of rulers.
Various historical texts provide different lists of the Tomara kings:
As stated earlier, the historians doubt the claim that the Tomaras established Delhi in 736 CE.


Abdullah II Al-Sabah

Sheikh Abdullah II Sabah II Al-Jabir I Al-Sabah (1814 – 1892) () was a lead cavalry commander in the Military of Kuwait, the fifth ruler of Kuwait and oldest son of the fourth ruler of Kuwait. He spent much of his rule dealing with natural disasters, maintaining stability as well as building stronger ties with the Ottoman Empire which supplied the most vital resource in Kuwait, drinking water. Furthermore, the first coins minted by Kuwait began during his reign
Physical description.
Sheik Abdullah II, in his later years, was described as tall with a heavy athletic body and a long white beard. He wore a purple bisht made of silk and copiously adorned with gold embroidery over a thawb, with a white silk scarf used as a belt. On both hands rested many diamond rings. At his waist was an ornate janbiya with a hilt made of solid gold, encrusted with pearls and gemstones.
Early life.
Under the orders of his father, on 24 April 1841 Abdullah II signed a one-year naval truce with Samuel Hennell who spoke on behalf of the British which expired and was never renewed. The truce prohibited Kuwait from undertaking any form of maritime offense as well as giving all mediation efforts in maritime disputes over to the British Empire.
Reign.
Sheikh Abdullah II excelled in the art of diplomacy and negotiated with both the Al-Saud family as well as the Ottomans to maintain power. Throughout his reign he constantly rebuffed requests from British Commissioner Sir Bealy, speaking on behalf of the British Empire, to rise up against the Ottomans. He ruled from November 1866 to 1892, inheriting a state that had undergone a century long increase in merchant marine and navy traffic with stable governance partly due to British support. Upon becoming ruler, he quickly pivoted towards the Ottoman Empire and away from the British. He was considered a modest man with simple tastes and had a high degree of public approval. A great deal of this approval hinged on his relief work during natural disasters. In 1868 a great famine struck and he worked tirelessly to bring an end to the rampant starvation. In September 1871 disaster struck again, this time in the maritime industry of Kuwait. Hundreds of Kuwaiti pearling vessels were sunk along with their crews due to extremely high waves. Historians are split on whether this was due to great storms in the Indian Ocean or caused by the eruption of Bushehr.
In 1886–87, under Sheikh Abdullah II, Kuwait began minting coins in copper due to the lack of Indian rupees circulating in the local economy.
Sheikh Abdullah sided with the Jabir bin Mardaw, Emir of Khorramshar during the Basra and Muhamarrah conflict with the Al-Nasser tribe under his reign, and helped him consolidate power in the region.
Due to his allegiance to the Ottoman Empire, in 1871, Midhat Pasha gave him the title Kaymakam which means provincial sub-governor.
He also held the title of Pasha.


Khin Ma Hnaung

Khin Ma Hnaung (, ) was a queen consort of King Raza II of Arakan from 1599 to 1612. The queen was a daughter of King Nanda of Toungoo Dynasty and his chief consort Hanthawaddy Mibaya. She was taken to Mrauk-U, after her father surrendered to the joint forces of Raza II and Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo in 1599. At Mrauk-U, she was known as the Tanzaung Mibaya (တန်ဆောင်း မိဖုရား, "Queen of the Royal Hall").
Ancestry.
Khin Ma Hnaung was the fourth child of Nanda and his chief consort Hanthawaddy Mibaya. She was likely born in the early 1560s.


Fanchengdui

Fanchengdui () is an archaeological site located in Zhangshu city in the province of Jiangxi, China. It is located upstream on the secondary tributary of the Gan River. The Fanchengdui site is located about 23 km east of another archaeological site, Shinianshan. The river Meng flows through the south part of the Shinianshan site roughly from northwest to southeast, before entering a primary tributary of Gan, Yuanshui. Near Fanchengdui the two rivers and Xiaojiang meet, and together they enter Gan river.
Underneath the site there is a salt mine.
The site was discovered in 1975. Three consecutive excavations were done in 1977, 1978 and 1980. The site is a mound, 1~3 meters in height relative to the surrounding plain, 124 meters in length from north to south, 100 meters from east to west - an area of over 10 000 square meters.[3]
In 2006 it was designated as the sixth protected national cultural heritage site.
Excavation.
Fanchengdui is a typical Bronze Age site of the area, which can be divided into seven cultural layers. The first layer is cultivated land, about 30 cm thick. The second layer belongs to Wucheng culture. The remaining layers from third were recently designated as belonging to Fanchengdui culture. The site is not dated yet, but by comparison with the Shinianshan site, relics in the Fanchengdui site are of the same period as the third cultural level of the Shinianshan site, which would put their age at 4300~3700 years before present. The second layer of Fanchengdui site should then be around 3700~3000 years old.
Among the unearthed relics are pottery kilns, housing construction, pits and tombs. Tomb styles are typical of the Shinianshan and Fanchengdui cultures, but there was also discovered an urn tomb typical of the Shijiahe culture.
Among the unearthed tools there are axes, shovels and other tools of production; also cups, bowls, pots, and other daily appliances. In the fourth and fifth levels, a small amount of hard pottery demonstrates that the site belongs to the Bronze Age. Inside the tombs, clay pottery with black surface predominates. A large amount of sand-tempered ding shaped like shallow plates was unearthed from the site. Several scholars believe those tools were used in production of salt.


Fort Rotterdam

Fort Rotterdam is a 17th-century fort in Makassar on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is a Dutch fort built on top of an existing fort of the Gowa Kingdom. The first fort on the site was constructed by the a local sultan in around 1634, to counter Dutch encroachments. The site was ceded to the Dutch under the Treaty of Bongaya, and they completely rebuilt it between 1673 and 1679. It had six bastions and was surrounded by a seven meter high rampart and a two meter deep moat.
The fort was the Dutch regional military and governmental headquarters until the 1930s. It was extensively restored
in the 1970s and is now a cultural and educational centre, a venue for music and dance events, and a tourist destination.
History.
Fort Rotterdam was built on the location of an earlier Makassarese fort, called Ujung Pandang. It seems more likely that the fort was built in 1634, as part of a fortification programme that the Makassar rulers undertook in response to a war with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) which broke out in that year. The original fort, "Jum Pandan" (allegedly named after the pandanus trees growing in the vicinity), gave its name to the city Ujung Pandang, another name for the city of Makassar.
In 1667 Fort Ujung Pandang was ceded to the Dutch as part of the Treaty of Bongaya, after the defeat of the Sultanate of Gowa in the Makassar War. In subsequent years it was entirely rebuilt on the initiative of Dutch admiral Cornelis Speelman, to become the center of Dutch colonial power in Sulawesi. It was renamed Fort Rotterdam after Speelman's place of birth. In the years 1673–1679 it got its five bastions and the 'turtle' shape it still has to this day. This shape gave the fort the nickname "Benteng Penyu" ("sea-turtle fort").
 The stone for the construction of the fort was taken from the karst mountains in Maros, the limestone from Selayar and the timber from Tanete and Bantaeng. Following the Java War of 1825–1830, Javanese prince, and now national hero, Diponegoro was imprisoned in the fort following his exile to Makassar in 1830 until his death in 1855. It was also used as a Japanese prisoner of war camp in World War II.
Fort Rotterdam remained the regional Dutch military and governmental headquarters until the 1930s. After 1937, the fort was no longer used as a defense. During the brief Japanese occupation it was used for conducting scientific research in the field of linguistics and agriculture, after which it fell into disrepair. In the 1970s, the fort was extensively restored.
Description.
Fort Rotterdam lies in the centre of Makassar. It is rectangular in shape, surrounded by a seven meter wall. It was originally equipped with six bulwarks, five of which are still visible: "Bastion Bonie" (after Bone state) to the west; "Bastion Boeton" (after Buton Island) to the northwest; "Bastion Batjang" (after the Bacan Islands) to the southwest; "Bastion Mandassar" to the northeast; and "Bastion Amboina" (after Ambon) to the southeast. The sixth bulwark, "Bastion Ravelin", is no longer visible. Some of the bastions still contain cannons. It is possible to walk over most of the ramparts. A two meter deep moat system used to surround the perimeter of the fort, however only the southwest portion of the moat can still be seen.
Current status.
Inside the fort are thirteen buildings, eleven of them are 17th-century original buildings of the fort; most are still good in condition. At the centre of the fort is a church building. Several buildings along the north and south curtain walls still exist. The buildings along the northern curtain wall were some of the oldest buildings, dating from 1686, such as the residence of the governor, residence of the senior merchant, of the captain, the predikant, and the secretary, with several storage buildings for weapons. The governor's residence at the north-westernmost corner is nicknamed as "the Speelman's House", however Speelman himself never actually lived in this house. The house was used by the governor of Celebes until the mid 19th-century when he moved to a more comfortable villa in Jalan Ahmad Yani. The Speelman's House now houses part of La Galigo museum. La Galigo museum has some prehistoric megaliths from Watampone, as well as ancient weapons, coins, shells, utensils, sketches and stamps.
The buildings on the south curtain, originally used for storage, house a museum displaying local skills in silk weaving, agriculture and boatbuilding; and scale models of indigenous boats. The barracks on the eastern wall now house a small library, featuring old Dutch books that mostly belonged to Reverend Mates, a 19th-century missionary. There are also ships' logs of VOC captains and ancient lontar manuscripts. The department of archaeology is housed in the former building of the head of administration for the VOC; the ground floor of the building, located in the southeast corner of the fort, was formerly a prison. The other two buildings inside Fort Rotterdam were built by the Japanese during the Japanese occupation period. The southwestern Bastion (Bastion Bacan) contains a prison where Prince Diponegoro was imprisoned at the end of his life.
The fort is now used to hold various events. There is a conservatory for music and dance, an archive of the city, and a historic and archaeological institute.


Maaficha Sakshidar

Maaficha Sakshidar (Marathi: माफीचा साक्षीदार) (English : "Witness to the prosecution") is a 1986 Marathi film directed by Raj Dutt, starring Nana Patekar, Mohan Gokhale, Avinash Kharshikar and Usha Naik. The film is based on the infamous Joshi-Abhyankar serial murders which took place in Pune during 1976-77.
Plot.
Based on a true story (the infamous Joshi-Abhyankar serial murders which took place in Pune in 1976-77), this movie deals with the execution of four commercial art students after they were convicted of ten murders.
Later on, on this incident, Anurag kashyap made his film "Paanch".
Music.
Music composed by Vishwanath More.


Gonio Fortress

Gonio fortress (, previously called Apsarus or Apsaros () and Apsyrtus or Apsyrtos (Ἄψυρτος)), is a Roman fortification in Adjara, Georgia, on the Black Sea, 15 km south of Batumi, at the mouth of the Chorokhi river. The village sits 4 km north of the Turkish border. Its name was connected with the myth of Medea and her brother Absyrtus.
The oldest reference to the fortress is by Pliny the Elder in the "Natural History" (1st century AD). There is also a reference to the ancient name of the site in Appian’s "Mithridatic Wars" (2nd century AD). In the 2nd century AD it was a well-fortified Roman city within Colchis. The town was also known for its theatre and hippodrome. Procopius, writing in the 6th century, speaks of the remains of its public buildings as proving that it was once a place of some importance.
It later came under Byzantine influence. The name "Gonio" is first attested in Michael Panaretos in the 14th century. In addition, there was a short-lived Genoese trade factory at the site. In 1547 Gonio was taken by the Ottomans, who held it until 1878, when, via the San-Stefano Treaty, Adjara became part of the Russian empire. In the fall of 1647, according to Evliya Çelebi, Gonio was captured by a Cossack navy of 70 chaikas, but quickly recovered by Ghazi Sidi Ahmed, ruler of the Tortum sanjak, with a force of 1,000 Turks and 3,000 "Mingrelians".
The grave of Saint Matthias, one of the twelve apostles, is believed to be inside the Gonio fortress. However, this is unverifiable as the Georgian government currently prohibits digging near the supposed gravesite. Other archaeological excavations are however taking place on the grounds of the fortress, focusing on Roman layers.
Gonio is currently experiencing a tourism boom. Most tourists come from Tbilisi in the summer months to enjoy beaches that are generally regarded as cleaner than Batumi's beaches (located 15 km to the north).


Qingzhou Longxing Temple

Qingzhou Longxing Temple (; lóng xīng sì) was a Northern and Southern dynasties-era Buddhist temple in Qingzhou, Shandong, China. It has been deemed one of China's 100 major archaeological discoveries in the 20th century, containing a hoard of Buddhist statues.
The temple was built during the period of the Northern and Southern dynasties, and was destroyed some 800 years later. The location was rediscovered in 1996, when a stone oil lamp was discovered during the refurbishment of a school sports field. Subsequent excavation uncovered more than 400 statues on the site, which were primarily placed in the collection of the Shenzhen Museum. In July 2015, it was announced that Italian professor Salvatore Lorusso, of the Department of Cultural Heritage at the University of Bologna, would direct "[a] new Italian research project dedicated to the restoration and enhancement of the statues kept in the Buddhist temple of Qingzhou Longxing".
Gallery.
Location of the temple, and artifacts found at the site:


Population statistics for Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip

Population statistics for former Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip, which were evacuated in 2005 as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan.
Footnotes.
"Population Statistic Sources"
"Settlement Date Sources"