Outline of the British Armed Forces at the end of the Cold War

The following is a hierarchical outline for the British Armed Forces at the end of the Cold War. It is intended to convey the connections and relationships between units and formations.
In 1989 the British Armed Forces had a peacetime strength of 311,600 men, and defence expenditures were 4.09% of GDP. The strength of the Royal Navy in 1989 was 65,500; that of the British Army: 152,800; and that of the Royal Air Force 93,300.
Ministry of Defence.
Within the MOD Main Building in London, the Ministry of Defence, through the Defence Council of the United Kingdom, supervised the Army Board, Admiralty Board, and the Air Force Board.
The Minister for Defence Procurement had political responsibility for the Ministry of Defence Procurement Executive, which supervised the Atomic Weapons Establishment at Aldermaston (including the Royal Ordnance Factories at ROF Burghfield and ROF Cardiff), as well as seven other research establishments. They included the Admiralty Research Establishment, Portsdown; the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment, RAF Boscombe Down; the Chemical Defence Establishment, Porton Down; the Microbiological Research Establishment, Porton Down; the Royal Armament Research and Development Establishment, Fort Halstead; the Royal Aircraft Establishment at RAE Farnborough and RAE Bedford; and the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, at Malvern.
Other MoD organisations included:
Joint establishments.
Joint establishments were tri-service units providing services to all three branches of the British Armed Forces.
Defence Operations Executive.
The Defence Operations Executive, led by the Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Commitments) and including the Assistant Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, supervised the Joint Operations Centre which in turn passed orders to the forces in Cyprus, Belize, the Falklands, and Hong Kong. These commands consisted of units of all three services and were commanded by one or 2-star rank flag officers. CBF Cyprus was a rotational post between the Army and RAF, at two-star level; CBF Belize was an Army brigadier; CBF Falklands was a rotational post between all three services at two-star level; and CBF Hong Kong was an Army major general.
British Forces Belize.
The Commander British Forces Belize was a British Army Brigadier.
British Forces Cyprus.
The post of Commander British Forces Cyprus rotated between British Army and Royal Navy 2-star rank flag officers (Major General and Rear admiral).
British Forces Falkland Islands.
The post of Commander British Forces Falkland Islands rotated between British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force 2-star rank flag officers (either a Major General, Rear admiral or Air vice-marshal).
British Forces Hong Kong.
The Commander British Forces Hong Kong was a British Army Major General.
The two local auxiliary defence forces were administered by the Hong Kong Government, but when mobilized for active service would have come under the command of the Commander British Forces:


Siege of Astorga

The siege of Astorga was an attempt by French forces to capture Astorga, Spain in a campaign of the Peninsular War. Astorga was located on the flank of the French invasion of Spain and Portugal, and was meant to be used as a headquarters during the campaign. For several weeks no attack took place, as neither side had artillery enough to fight well. Shortly after the French guns arrived, however, a hole was made in the wall and the city fell shortly thereafter. The French overpowered the Spanish garrison inside and took the city on April 20, 1810; with a loss of 160 men.
Location.
Astorga is located in the province of León, in northwest Spain. Because of its location, it sat on the flank of the French army as they advanced into Spain, and then invaded Portugal. The city was built into a hill, part of the Manzanal mountains; and therefore was provided with natural defenses. The French had already been defeated once trying to take the city, in September 1809, after which General La Romana repaired the walls of the city and built up its defenses.
Forces.
The French forces, part of André Masséna's army, were led by Jean-Andoche Junot. Junot arrived at Astorga on March 21 with Napoleon's 8th corps, consisting of 12,000 men, including 1,200 cavalry forces. Junot's forces included the Irish Legion; they had joined earlier that month. Astorga would be the first action for the Second Battalion of the Legion. Junot placed Bertrand Clausel's division in the position Loison had held, with Solignac in support, and St. Croix to watch the rear.
Campaign.
General Loison attempted to take the city in February 1810, as it was meant to be his headquarters during the invasion of Portugal; but was unprepared to attack the defenses he found there, and was forced to retreat. Junot's troops came to assist Loison, but brought no siege guns with them; It took Junot weeks to gather enough artillery to assault the town. In the meantime, the French forces dug trenches to besiege the town. Incidentally, the English and Spanish troops under Wellington had the same troubles when they recaptured the city in 1812. The garrison in Astorga had no siege guns, either: for several weeks there was a standoff. During these weeks, Santocildes emptied the town of 3,000 of its residents and stocked up on supplies for the siege, which began on March 21 of 1810. The Spanish could expect no hope from Wellington's forces, which remained in Portugal. Until the siege guns arrived, there was no action except nuisance fire from what little artillery Junot had, and skirmish parties sent out from Astorga.
Junot's 18 siege guns arrived on April 15 from Valladolid, and by the 20th, the wall of the city was breached. The French stormed the city the next evening; however, their first attack was repulsed at the cost of 300 men. Those of the storming company who were not killed holed up just inside the wall and held the position for the night. The next morning, Santocildes surrendered as the French were preparing for another attack.
Aftermath.
Santocildes was almost out of ammunition when he surrendered: he had fewer than 30 rounds of ammunition left per man, and only 8 rounds of artillery. He gave the French 2,500 prisoners and the city, but cost the French 160 men, with 400 wounded. His garrison lost only 51 dead and 109 wounded. Most of the French casualties came in the assault on the breach. The Irish Legion led the charge over the wall, and suffered heavy losses: Captain John Allen's company's drummer boy continued to beat the charge after having lost both legs, for which he was given the French Legion of Honor.


Siege of Aspis

The siege of Aspis or Clupea was fought in 255BC between Carthage and the Roman Republic. It was the first fighting on African land during the First Punic War.
Background.
After defeating the Carthaginian navy sent to stop them from reaching Africa at the battle of Cape Ecnomus, the Romans landed close to Aspis, to the south of Carthage.
Battle.
The Romans moved to besiege Aspis by building a trench and palisade to defend their ships. Carthage was not yet prepared to fight on land and the city fell after the garrison made a short resistance. By taking Clupea, the Romans controlled the area of land opposite to Carthage and secured their rear in order to scour the enemy before them. The Romans forced Aspis to surrender, and having left in their place a proper garrison, they sent some messengers to Rome to inform them of their success and to receive instructions on the next measures to be pursued. They then decamped with all their forces, and marched through the country to plunder it.
Aftermath.
After defeating the Carthaginians, the Romans dispatched most of their fleet back to Rome except for a number of 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry. The rest of the army, under the command of Marcus Atilius Regulus, remained in North Africa. Advancing inland and plundering the territory along the way, they stopped at the city of Adys. The resulting siege of Adys gave the Carthaginians time to gather an army, only to have that army defeated at the Battle of Adys.


Sea Fencibles (American)

The Sea Fencibles were naval fencible (a shortening of "defencible") units established to provide a close-in line of defence and obstruct the operation of enemy shipping, principally during the War of 1812 and the American Civil War. They were modelled on similar British corps (see Sea Fencibles).
War of 1812.

On 26 July 1813, during the War of 1812 with the United Kingdom, the United States Congress passed "An act to authorise the raising [of] a Corps of Sea Fencibles ... not to exceed one year [service], and not to exceed ten companies who may employed for the defense of the ports and harbors of the United States..."
Baltimore.
At Baltimore, two companies were raised under the command of Captains Matthew S. Bunbury and William H. Addison. Though generally mariners by trade, the Sea Fencibles were equipped and organized under the authority of the War Department. Officers received the uniform, pay, and rations of the Army, while the balance of each company (boatswains, gunners, and privates) received the uniform, pay, and rations of the Navy.
A company consisted of 107 officers and enlisted men.
Both companies at Fort McHenry were considered part of the regular garrison. Records indicate that Captain Bunbury's company was quartered at Fort McHenry, while Addison's men were quartered at Fort Covington. Their duties consisted of manning the barges, maintaining the chain-mast boom, providing guard duty, and manning the great guns of Fort McHenry's water batteries.
Boston.
A similar company was raised in Boston in early 1814, comprising unemployed merchant seamen alongside wealthier men seeking more interesting service than that offered by land-based militia. For the Boston company, Fencibles service was elevated to something greater than a purely military role. In addition to coastal defence activities, members of the Boston Sea Fencibles were exhorted to engage in charitable and community works as part of a public obligation to society. According to the constitution, no decent inhabitant of New England could "justly withdraw himself or decline to render, with promptitude and zeal, his utmost services" through involvement with the Fencibles.
The Boston Sea Fencibles proved popular with local residents, though they never saw active service in defending the port. A steady flow of donations was sufficient to provide for a standard uniform for each member, comprising a hat made of tarpaulin, a blue short jacket and trousers, and weapons including a cutlass and boarding pike. The company was headquartered at a gun-house near the Providence naval depot under the command of a Captain Nehemiah Skillings. A quantity of iron 18-pounder and 24-pounder cannons were made available for their use, and were deployed for target practice on open ground near Boston's City Point. The company was formally disbanded when war with Britain ended on 24 December 1814.
On 3 March 1815, Congress repealed the act establishing the Corps of Sea Fencibles, though several companies continued to operate over the following decade.
Civil War.
There were sea fencibles in the Confederate States Army in Charleston. John Symon organized a unit known as "Symon's Sea Fencibles", which was a land-based unit that performed coastal surveillance, probably in civilian clothes instead of uniforms. At least one of the officers was Hispanic. There is no record of this unit ever fighting. Many of the members were disgruntled because they received the $11 pay of the Confederacy but wanted the $15 pay that the Union Navy offered. Thus, by the end of 1861, the unit was disbanded; its members probably later joined other local units.


Port Royal State Park

Port Royal State Historic Park is a 26 acre (105,000 m²) historic area on the border of Montgomery and Robertson counties in Tennessee. The historic community of Port Royal is its namesake. The Red River runs through the center of the park, and the covered bridge at Port Royal once crossed it. The park was established to preserve the elements of early Tennessee history, namely settlement and early transportation, as well as the heritage of the Trail of Tears.
The day-use only park offers hiking, picnicking, canoeing, fishing, photography and interpretive talks upon request.
History.
Port Royal was the site one of the earliest colonial communities and trading posts in middle Tennessee, being first settled in the early 1780s as well as being a Longhunter camp as early as 1771. In the years 1838 and 1839, the town of Port Royal served as a stopover and resupply station for the Chickamauga Cherokee along the march to Oklahoma on the Trail of Tears and was the last of such in Tennessee on the northern route of the Trail. Port Royal State Park preserves several sections of the original roadbed used by the Chickamauga and one section is an officially designated roadbed by the National Park Service. Being situated at an important junction of roads and rivers, Port Royal became the only stop on the "Great Western Road" stagecoach line between Nashville, Tennessee, and Hopkinsville, Kentucky, and served as such until the 20th century. In 1977, the State of Tennessee received the deed to 26 acres (105,000 m²) of land at Port Royal, and designated it a State Historic Park in 1978.
Features of Port Royal State Park.
With Port Royal being such an important place of travel, transportation themes play heavily into the parks and communities history. Existing within the park are the remains of several old roadbeds, with one dating back to prehistoric times and one a certified Trail of Tears site.
Preserved within the park is an excellent example of an early Pratt truss design steel bridge being built in 1887. This bridge spans the Sulphur Fork Creek and is well preserved. The bridge is available to foot traffic only.
There are also the remains of a covered bridge that was damaged during a flood during the early 2000s. Due to a lack of funding, the bridge was never repaired. This bridge dates from 1978 and was a 75% scale recreation of a bridge from 1904. This bridge is not accessible to the public but one can see the remains of the stone piers, which are original to the 1904 bridge. The stone in the piers originally came from the Port Royal Mills and dam which dates back to circa 1800.
In addition to roads and bridges, you will see as you stroll through the park, the remains of the foundations of stores, homes and warehouses with some dating back to the 18th century.
Park Events.
Every October Port Royal State Park holds a Trail of Tears Commemorative event which features a re-enactment of the march on the old roadbed as well as living history demonstrations of 1830s life. Also featured are exhibits on the Trail of Tears and Port Royal's role in the sad event. Contact the park for information on the specific days and times.


Arsenal de la Carraca

Arsenal de la Carraca, also Naval Station of La Carraca, is a naval shipyard and a naval base in San Fernando, Spain. It is a naval base for the construction and repair of ships, and the storage and distribution of arms and ammunition. The first military establishment of its kind to be created in Spain under the naval policy of Felipe V, it was developed by Patiño and the Marquis de la Ensenada. Though work on building the shipyard began in 1720, the formal decree issued by Fernando VI on October 3, 1752, accelerated its construction until it was completed in the late 18th century.
Geography.
The arsenal is situated in the Bay of Cádiz, south of Puerto Real ("royal port") and southeast of Cadiz. It is within the San Fernando municipality in the Province of Cádiz. The location, chosen for its strategic qualities, was at one time a small island northeast of Isla de León, separated by the narrow continuation of the Puntal Channel (or Puntales). Surrounded by navigation channels, the royal dockyard and arsenal measures . The channel in front of the dockyard is 2 fathoms deep at low water.
History.
The island was used for Spanish naval operations from 1655. The arsenal was established early on around the wreck of an old carrack which gave name to the arsenal. Under royal decree of Fernando VI in 1752, formal authorization was given for the construction of a naval shipyard. Antonio Valdés completed the yard during the reigns of Carlos III and Carlos IV. With its docks and workshops, it was the first naval construction centre to be built in Spain. As a result, San Fernando developed as an urban centre, some of its old buildings still standing today.
Even before the formal decree was issued, construction work started around 1720, and by 1733 the main entrance to the San Fernando quay was built. Shipbuilding activities commenced in 1736. By the end of first half of the 18th century, docks, warehouses, offices, workshops and homes had been built. Even though Jorge Juan together with José Barnola drew up detailed plans for developing the port after the royal decree, it was only in 1788 that the three dry docks were completed by Julián Sánchez Bort and Tomás Muñoz. By the late 18th century, the Penal de las Cuatro Torres prison, the barracks and the munitions factories were built. A church (Nueva Iglesia) and the Puerta de Tierra beside the Caño Sancti Petri were added in the Neoclassical style.
The naval complex had facilities for ship building, equipping, and repair. In addition to the docks built between 1784 and 1788, one more was added in the 19th century, all remaining in operation until recent years. In the development of submarines, use was made of the facilities at the Arsenal de la Carraca when the Peral, driven by electric motors, was built in 1887.
Architecture and fittings.
The arsenal's urban plan included the four docks, a patent slip, building slips, the Carrack Church, the Prison of the Four Towers (where Francisco de Miranda was imprisoned and died in 1816), workshops, dams and docks. The three defensive batteries of San Fernando, San Ramon Battery, and Santa Rosa, were each equipped with 11 guns.


Phayap Army

Phayap Army ( RTGS: Thap Phayap or Payap, "northwest") was the Thai force that invaded the Shan States of Burma on 10 May 1942 during the Burma Campaign of World War II.
Order of battle of Phayap Army 1942.
Phayap Army (Northern Army) - Lieutenant General Charun Rattanakun Seriroengrit
Reorganization.
During the fighting, Phayap Army has added the following units by regrouping
Bad weather forced the early dissolution of the cavalry division and moving the 35th Cavalry Regiment to Roi Et and the 1st Cavalry Battalion (Royal Guard using Australian stallions) back to BKK.
Nevertheless, the RTA created the following units to replace the cavalry units in the Phayap Army:
2nd Army.
After peace in Kentung has been restored in 1943, the Royal Thai Army has withdrew some units of the Phayap Army and created the 2nd Army as a reserve force.
In 1943, RTA created The 2nd Army (Lopburi) which consisted of
37th Division.
In 1944, the Royal Thai Army created the following units to help train the Seri Thai (Free Thai Movement).
Demobilization.
After the peace declaration on 16 August 1945, the following units of Phayap Army along with war time units were dissolved and demobilized:
30 October 1945: The following units were dissolved and demobilized
13 November 1945: The following units were dissolved and demobilized
Postwar Reorganization.
The postwar reorganization of Royal Thai Army in 1946:
Air Force.
Chief-of-the-Air-Staff - Group Captain Fuen Ronnaphagrad Ritthakhanee
90th Combined Wing - unknown number


Siege of Dorostolon

The Battle of Dorostopol was fought in 971 between the Byzantine Empire and forces of Kievan Rus'. The Byzantines, led by John I Tzimisces, were victorious.
Background.
During the course of the Rus'-Bulgarian war, Svyatoslav I of Kiev overran the eastern part of the First Bulgarian Empire and established his capital at Pereyaslavets on the Danube. Once John I usurped the throne, the Byzantines launched a counteroffensive. After they defeated the united Rus'-Bulgarian forces in the Battle of Arcadiopolis and recaptured Pereyaslavets, Svyatoslav was forced to flee to the northern fortress of Dorostolon (Drustur/Dorostorum).
Siege.
Emperor John proceeded to lay siege to Dorostolon, which lasted for 65 days. His army was reinforced by a fleet of 300 ships equipped with Greek fire. There were several engagements before the walls of the city, which demonstrated to the Byzantines that the Rus' lacked skill in cavalry warfare. Among the casualties were the Emperor's relative, Ioannes Kourkouas (whose severed head was displayed by the Rus' from one of the towers) and the second-in-command in Svyatoslav's army, a certain Ikmor (who was killed by Anemas, a son of the Cretan emir, in revenge for Ikmor's assassination of his father during the Byzantine siege of Crete).
The Rus' and their Bulgarian allies were reduced to extremities by famine. In order to appease their gods, they drowned children in the Danube, but the sacrifices failed to improve their position. During the siege of the city of Dorostolon the Rus forces were reduced to near starvation, and a force of some 2,000 warriors, including women, made a surprise sally out during the night to search for supplies and managed to defeat a Byzantine force on the way, returning later to the city.
The Rus' felt they could not break the siege and agreed to sign a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire, whereby they renounced their interests towards the Bulgarian lands and the city of Chersonesos in Crimea. Svyatoslav bitterly remarked that all his allies (Magyars, Pechenegs) betrayed him during this decisive moment. He was allowed to evacuate his army to Berezan Island, while the Byzantines entered Dorostolon and renamed it Theodoropolis, after the reigning empress Theodora.
After the eventual defeat of the Rus, the Byzantines were astonished at finding the bodies of armed women among the fallen warriors.
Sources.
The siege is described in detail by John Skylitzes and Leo the Deacon, although some of their assertions (e.g., Sveneld's death during the siege) appear to be apocryphal. Characteristically, Leo the Deacon attributes the victory to Saint Theodore Stratelates, who purportedly led the Byzantine army under the walls of Dorostolon.


Enrique Jurado Barrio

Enrique Jurado Barrio (September 15, 1882 - March 30, 1965 ) was a Spanish military colonel who fought in the Spanish Civil War for the Second Spanish Republic. Originally from a military relative, he had participated in the war in Morocco, and on war merits he was promoted despite his opposition to this type of promotion.
During the war he commanded several military units, reaching an important performance in the Front of the center during the Battles of Guadalajara and Brunete. In the last days of the conflict, he was in command of the General Directorate of Special Defense against Aircraft (DECA) and the Eastern Army Group, which he will lead in its last moments during the Withdrawal from Catalonia. Once he passed to France, he refused to return to the central zone and continued in the Gallic country until he left for South America. He ended up in Uruguay during his final days.
Biography.
Military career.
Juarado was a descendant of a family with a long military tradition, however Enrique Jurado is a figure on whom data have always been lacking due to the lack of his military file today. He entered the Army in 1909, studying at the Segovia Artillery Academy between 1911 and 1913 . 1 He was assigned to Africa and went to fight in the Rif War, and he was promoted from Captain to Commander due to war merits, despite his opposition to this type of promotion. With the arrival of the Second Republic, these promotions were canceled, and Jurado was demoted to the job of captain at his own request.
Spanish Civil War.
In July of 1936, he was an artillery commander bound for Ceuta, although the uprising surprised him in Madrid. He sets off to the Getafe artillery regiment, where he was held hostage by the rebels from the base for a few hours. Discouragement spread among the rebels, and Barrio managed to escape the place and took command of the regiment. He then organized an artillery group with which he participated in the surrender of the camp barracks. He was captured by Alcalá de Henares (July 20) and in the defense of the Somosierra sector. On August 13, 1936, he was appointed head of a militia column that from Oropesait must act against the Army of Africa. On August 25 it advances and occupies some towns south of Oropesa. On the 28th his column confronts the Army of Africa and is defeated, having to withdraw from the area. On September 3, 1936, he was appointed head of the Somosierra sector, replacing General Carlos Bernal. On October 25, 1936, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. On December 31, when the Army of the center was reorganized, the troops under his command became the 1st Division, being Jurado as chief and placing his command post in Lozoyuela.
On March 13, 1937, before the attack of the Fascist Italians of the CTV towards Guadalajara, Jurado was appointed head of the newly created IV Army Corps. It included the Republican forces that defended the front in the province of Guadalajara. which would then participate in the republican counterattack that defeated the Italians. On April 10, 1937, he ceased in this position due to illness, being replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Arce. At the end of April, he was appointed head of Operation Extramadura , a plan consisting of cutting off the rebellious territory at the height of Mérida until reaching the Portuguese border, of which Largo Caballero approved. However the plan was delayed, both by Miaja's opposition to giving up forces and by Soviet advisers, who refuse to give up aviation to carry out the plan. The fall of the Largo Caballero government and the arrival of Negrín at the head of the Government will cause the operation to be totally scrapped. On June 28, he took command of the XVIII Army Corps, with which he participated in the Battle of Brunete. On July 11, the Republican advance had already reached the limit of his possibilities and due to his illnesses, he was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Casado.
His next post would be between 1937 and 1939 with the head of the General Directorate of Special Defense against Aircraft (DECA), command where he will be promoted to colonel (April 22, 1938) and general (August 16, 1938). Under his command, DECA was more organized throughout the war, as it is the moment where the greatest number of anti-aircraft pieces manages to gather and whose organization reached a higher level. 4 On January 27, 1939, in the midst of the Republican defeat in Catalonia, and with Barcelona already occupied by the rebels, he replaced General Juan Hernández Saravia at the head of the Eastern Region Army Group (GERO). But under these conditions, it will not be able to organize any type of defense with the retreating Republican army, so it limits itself to evacuating the Republican troops in the most orderly manner. With the fall of all of Catalonia, he fled France in February 1939, where he would remain for the remainder of the war and refusing to return to the central zone, considering the war irretrievably lost.
Exile.
Once the war is over, he would be exiled from various countries, moving to France in 1939, to Argentina in 1940 and finally Uruguay, where he arrived in December 1943. There he soon found work as Head of the Cadastral and Cartography Service of Montevideo, directing government cadastral teams. In the last years of his life, he was organizing his memoirs. On March 30, 1965, he died in Montevideo. Later on, his remains were transferred to Madrid.


Franco-Turkish War

The Franco–Turkish War, known as the Cilicia Campaign () in France and as the Southern Front () of the Turkish War of Independence in Turkey, was a series of conflicts fought between France (the French Colonial Forces and the French Armenian Legion) and the Turkish National Forces (led by the Turkish provisional government after 4 September 1920) from December 1918 to October 1921 in the aftermath of World War I. French interest in the region resulted from the Sykes-Picot Agreement and returning Armenian refugees of the Armenian Genocide back to their homes.
Background.
Agreements.
After the Armistice of Mudros, the French Army had moved into Çukurova in accordance with the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, which gave France control of Ottoman Syria and southern Anatolia, including the key strategic locations of the fertile plain of Çukurova, the ports of Mersin and İskenderun (Alexandretta), and the copper mines in Ergani. On the other hand, the fertile lands of Mesopotamia and the vilayet of Mosul (where oil fields were suspected) were priorities for the British. According to the agreement, the British would look after the cities of Antep, Marash and Urfa until the French arrived in the southern Anatolian regions allocated to them in the agreement.
The French Armenian Legion under the command of General Edmund Allenby consisted of Armenian volunteers.
French occupation of Anatolia.
Black Sea landings.
After the armistice of Mudros, the first thing the French military did was to control the strategically important Ottoman coal mines in which French capital held significant stakes. The goal was both to take control of this energy source and to meet French military needs. It also prevented the distribution of coal in Anatolia, which could be used in activities to support insurgency.
On 18 March 1919, two French gunboats brought troops to the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak and Karadeniz Ereğli to command the Ottoman coal mining region. Because of the resistance they faced during their one-year stay in the region, French troops began to withdraw from Karadeniz Ereğli on 8 June 1920. They continued to pursue their occupation in Zonguldak, where they occupied the whole city on 18 June 1920.
Constantinople and Thrace operations.
The main operations in Thrace aimed to support the strategic goals of the allies.
A French brigade entered Constantinople on 12 November 1918. On 8 February 1919, French general Franchet d'Espèrey—commander-in-chief of allied occupation forces in the Ottoman Empire—arrived in Constantinople to coordinate the occupation government.
The city of Bursa—a former Ottoman capital of central importance in northwest Anatolia—was also held by French forces for a brief period before the great summer offensive of the Greek army in 1920, at which time that city fell to the Greeks.
Cilicia Campaign.
The first landing took place on 17 November 1918 at Mersin with roughly 15,000 men, mainly volunteers from the French Armenian Legion, accompanied by 150 French officers. The first goals of that expeditionary force were to occupy ports and dismantle the Ottoman administration. On 19 November, Tarsus was occupied in order to secure the surroundings and prepare for the establishment of headquarters in Adana.
After the occupation of Cilicia proper at the end of 1918, French troops occupied the Ottoman provinces of Antep, Marash and Urfa in southern Anatolia at the end of 1919, taking them over from British troops as agreed.
At the eastern tip of the occupation zone in the south, the city of Mardin was also occupied for one day (on 21 November 1919) until the evening, when the French thought it better to abandon the occupation attempt.
France designated governor of the French occupation zone in the south from January 1, 1919 – September 4, 1920, and Julien Dufieux from September 1920–23 December 1921.
In the regions they occupied, the French encountered immediate resistance from the Turkish, especially because they had associated themselves with Armenian objectives. The French soldiers were foreign to the region and were using Armenian militia to acquire their intelligence. Turkish nationals had been in cooperation with Arab tribes in this area. Compared to the Greek threat, the French seemed less dangerous to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who suggested that, if the Greek threat could be overcome, the French would not hold its territories in Turkey, especially as they mainly wanted to settle in Syria.
The strategic goal of opening a southern front by moving Armenians against the Turkish National forces was a failure after the defeat of the Greek forces to the west.
On 11 February 1920, after 22 days of the Battle of Marash, the French occupation troops, followed by members of the local Armenian community, found themselves forced to evacuate Marash by the resistance and assaults of the Turkish revolutionaries. The loss of the city was accompanied by large-scale massacres of the Armenian population, with thousands of victims. French Armenian Legion member Sarkis Torossian suspects in his diary that the French forces gave weapons and ammunition to the Kemalists to allow the French army safe passage out of Cilicia.
Marash militia forces contributed further to the war effort by taking part in the recapture of other centers in the region, forcing the French forces to retreat gradually, town by town.
End of hostilities.
The Cilicia Peace Treaty between France and the Turkish National Movement was signed on 9 March 1921. It was intended to end the Franco-Turkish war, but failed to do so and was replaced in October 1921 with the Treaty of Ankara signed by representatives of the French and the Turks on 20 October 1921, and finalized with Armistice of Mudanya.
Withdrawal and population movements.
The French forces withdrew from the occupation zone in the first days of 1922, about ten months before the Armistice of Mudanya. Beginning on 3 January, French troops evacuated Mersin and Dörtyol. On 5 January they left Adana, Ceyhan and Tarsus. The evacuation was completed on 7 January with the last troops leaving Osmaniye.
In the early stages of the Greco-Turkish War, French and Greek troops jointly crossed the Meriç River and occupied the town of Uzunköprü in eastern Thrace and the railway route from there to the station of Hadımköy near Çatalca on the outskirts of Constantinople. In September 1922, at the end of that war, during the Greek pull-out after the advance of Turkish revolutionaries, French forces withdrew from their positions near the Dardanelles, but the British seemed prepared to hold their ground. The British government issued a request for military support from its colonies. This was refused, and the French leaving the British on the straits signaled that the Allies were unwilling to intervene in aid of Greece. Greek troops and the French withdrew beyond the Meriç River.
Aftermath.
France had better relations with the Turkish nationals during the Turkish War of Independence, chiefly on account of breaking Triple Entente solidarity and signing a separate agreement with the Turkish National Movement. The Treaty of Ankara did not resolve the problems in connection with the sanjak of Alexandretta. However, positive Franco-Turkish relations were maintained. French policy supporting the Turkish independence movement were set back during the Conference of Lausanne on the abolition of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. French objections during the discussions on abolition were perceived as contravening full Turkish independence and sovereignty. Furthermore, the fact that the sanjak of Alexandretta remained under French control also contributed to the tension between the two countries, as the Turks claimed the land in the Misak-ı Millî. The positive attitude developed with the Treaty of Ankara remained friendly, if limited.
The Ottoman debts were cleared by the Republic of Turkey in line with the Treaty of Lausanne.


Attack on Marstrand

The Attack on Marstrand was a successful Dano-Norwegian siege of the Swedish town of Marstrand and Carlsten fortress which took place between July 10 and July 16, 1719 during the end of the Great Northern War.
After a Dano-Norwegian assault on northern Bohuslän, ships under the command of Peter Tordenskjold attacked the Swedes at Marstrand harbor and the immobile ships of the Swedish Gothenburg Fleet. The Danes subsequently attacked Carlsten fortress, whose garrison surrendered swiftly, partly because of psychological warfare.
The commander of the fortress, Colonel , was later sentenced to death by a Swedish court-martial for abandoning the fort while it was still deemed defensible.
The surrender of Carlsten fortress in 1719 is still surrounded by myths and legends.
Background.
After the death of Charles XII of Sweden on November 30, 1718 at Fredriksten fortress in Norway, the Swedish army marched back across the border to Sweden. The Great Northern War which had been fought continuously since 1700, had depleted fighting forces on both sides. As the Russian Pillage of Sweden posed a threat to Sweden's eastern seaboard, a large part of the Swedish Navy was operating in the Baltic Sea. Denmark-Norway, seeing this as an opportunity, put plans into motion to retake lost territories on the Swedish west coast. There were also plans for a naval and land invasion of Bohuslän.
The Swedish vessels which had previously been stationed in Gothenburg, the Gothenburg Squadron, had been attacked by Peter Tordenskjold's fleet in 1717 and had been ordered by Charles XII to remain scattered along the Bohuslän coast. A majority of the squadron was stationed in Marstrand by the Spring of 1719, and a few smaller ships were located near Strömstad. A couple of smaller vessels escorted transports between Gothenburg and Marstrand on the Nordre River, leaving a single galley to defend Gothenburg. The frigates at Marstrand were not operational, due to a lack of sailors and of food and equipment for the crews. Maintenance of the fortresses was handled poorly and in early 1719, local fortification experts complained over not getting paid for a long time. Similar concerns were raised by the naval officers' corps and the carpenters of Gothenburg.
Blockade and rearmament.
At the time, Swedish privateers headquartered in Gothenburg were hijacking foreign vessels. This irritated Dano-Norwegian authorities, so on March 27, a Dano-Norwegian naval force, consisting of four ships of the line and a frigate, anchored in Rivö Bay outside of Gothenburg, blockading the city. The blockading force was under the command of Tordenskjold, who had recently been promoted to the lower admiral rank of schout-bij-nacht. To avoid endangering the peace conference that was to take place in Stockholm in the spring, Tordenskjold was ordered not to assault Gothenburg. In early June, the blockading naval force increased to seven ships of the line, two frigates, four barges, two floating batteries, one "bombarderskip", five galleys and two Galliots. The smaller Danish vessels attempted to halt Swedish naval traffic between Nordre river and Marstrand. In mid-June, an additional 26 Danish merchant ships arrived from Øresund with supplies for the Danish blockading fleet.
The stockpiling of supplies in Strömstad in 1718 for Charles XII's army had resulted in the need for emptying the existing supply caches – which were filled to the brim – as quickly as possible. Many Swedish naval transports with cannons and supplies were moved to Sundsborg and Svinesund south towards Uddevalla. The removal of vital supplies caused the defense of northern Bohuslän to falter. By the end of May, a convoy of transport vessels had docked at Marstrand for transshipment to more capable vessels, where the cargo rerouted for further transport through Nordre river. A part of the convoy later returned to Strömstad. On May 23, Field Marshal Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld took command of Swedish troops in Bohuslän. Following an inspection in May, it was deemed that fortifications needed repair in several locations around the region.
The strong Danish blockade outside Gothenburg, with an estimated force of 1,300 soldiers and several special-purpose vessels for bombarding coastal defense positions, implied that the Danes were to attack either Marstrand or Älvsborg fortress. Captain Erik Sjöblad of the Gothenburg Squadron was ordered to moor all frigates and galleys to defend the harbor inlets. Rehnskiöld later gave the order to sink all anchored Swedish ships.
Assault on Strömstad.
The peace talks in Stockholm failed, and King Frederick IV of Denmark ordered his troops to attack Sweden. Frederick IV had over 30,000 soldiers available in southern Norway, along with an attack force which would attack Strömstad from the north. A naval force with 8,000 soldiers was to invade Hisingen. The Swedish transport ships in Strömstad could not vacate Strömstad before Danish Vice Admiral Andreas Rosenpalm blockaded the only way out with a naval force of at least three frigates and four galleys at the end of June. After Rehnskiöld and the commander of the Gothenburg Squadron, Admiral Jonas Fredrik Örnfelt, had assessed the situation and had received intelligence that Norwegian forces were indeed marching towards Strömstad, the order was given to scuttle the transport fleet.
Several Swedish galleys and a smaller vessel attempted to slip out of the area at night through an inner channel but this route was blockaded as well. The Gothenburg squadron's galleys "Kristiania", "Lovisa" and "Bellona", along with the brig" Pollux", were all sunk at Tånge Bay and Tångeflo south of Strömstad on July 5. The "Strömstad" and "Gå På", equipped with 20 cannons each, were also sunk, along with fourteen fully loaded cargo ships in Strömstad harbor. All remaining caches were opened, so that both civilians and military could take what they could, and the remains were then destroyed. Afterwards, Swedish troops under the command of Rehnskiöld totalling around 5,000 – including the garrisons at the fortifications of Gothenburg, Nya Älvsborg and Carlsten – started south towards Uddevalla. The first Danish troops arrived in Strömstad between July 6 and July 8. Frederick IV later arrived along with additional soldiers.
By the end of June, heavy Danish surveillance of the Gothenburg archipelago had been arranged; a force consisting of eight vessels had been deployed between Klåver island and Tjuvkil. Since the vessels were attempting to halt naval traffic between Marstrand and Tjuvkil, and since they were pillaging the archipelago, the Swedes found it highly probable that Tordenskjold was planning to attack Marstrand. The Swedes performed a counter-attack against the Danish blockaders on the night of July 3, when the Swedish galley "Lucretia" and the brigantines "Luren", "Uppassaren" and "Framfuss "from in the mouth of Nordre river, managed to creep down Hisingen and get past the Danish reconnaissance fleet without being spotted. The Danish galley "Prins Kristian", armed with 9 cannons, was attacked and hijacked at Rivö's mouth.
Battle of Marstrand.
Friday, July 10.
In the first week of July, Tordenskjold scrambled an attack force which he planned to use in his assault on Marstrand. On July 10, the attack began. In the afternoon, the Carlsten fortress garrison reported seeing at least 18 Danish vessels. Tordenskjold had left ships of the line and frigates outside of Gothenburg and the attack force at Marstrand consisted partly of barges armed with cannons and mortars, and galleys with an additional 50 soldiers aboard each ship. Between 600 and 700 soldiers landed at Metsund on the east side of the undefended Koön, east of Marstrand. At the same time, 12 heavy mortars were being transported to the west side of the island. Only the far western part of the island could be bombarded from the fortress. Colonel Henrich Danckwardt, commander of Carlsten had on June 27 requested an additional 400–500 men, to prevent an invasion of Koön and Klåverön (south of Marstrand) but the soldiers had not arrived in time to repel Tordenskjold's attack. The Danish tactic of landing on the east side of Koön was virtually the same as the leading General of Norway, Ulrik Frederik Gyldenløve, had used when he occupied Marstrand and Carlsten at the Battle of Marstrand in July 1677.
Saturday, July 11.
In the morning, heavy barrages were fired from the new Danish artillery stationed at Koön, at Carlsten fortress. Tordenskjold describes in one of his later writings of the new artillery station being heavily fired upon by three Swedish galleys, a barge and three other vessels. He also describes that the Danes were fired upon from Carlsten and its southern outworks. From 6–7 p.m., the cannon fire from Hedvigsholm outwork, which was placed on an island near Koön, consisted of four 36-pounder, two 12-pounder and two 6-pounder cannons. Hedvigsholm was only staffed with twelve men under the command of a non-commissioned officer. When the NCO realized that he would not be able to hold the fortress due to the heavy incoming fire, he sent word to Danckwardt about the situation. Squadron chief Sjöblad decided that the Hedvigsholm battery should be destroyed, to prevent the cannon falling into enemy hands. Danckwardt dispatched Lieutenant Breittenberg to destroy the cannon. Upon his arrival, Breittenberg found that both the Hedvigsholm garrison and the cannon were unharmed, but decided to carry on with his mission. When the Danes noticed that the battery fire from Hedvigsholm had ceased, they started firing upon the Swedish naval vessels in the harbor and managed to sink the vessel which was carrying the crew and ammunition of Hedvigsholm – around seven barrels of gunpowder – to the fortress.
After the events in Marstrand, a military hearing was held at the end of July 1719 with commander Danckwardt. Upon being asked why he had not ordered additional manpower to Hedvigsholm, which was considered the strongest and most effective battery to defend the town, which was also being supported by the galley "Prins Fredrik av Hessen", Danckwardt defended his actions by arguing that if he had not destroyed Hedvigsholm, the outwork would have been captured, regardless of its number of personnel. He also pointed out that the enemy would have been able to wade between Koön and Hedvigsholm, something the hearing officials did not agree with.
Sunday, July 12.
On Saturday night, another Danish cannon battery had been constructed, even closer to Carlsten and the northern river inlet. It was equipped with four 100-pounder mortars and between thirty and forty lighter mortars. Tordenskjold had also planned on using ten 24-pounder cannon but this was prevented by officers responsible for fortifications and the artillery. These officers had been brought on the ships but were not under Tordenskjolds command. They believed that the battery was unsafe, and refused to hand over the cannon. Fascines and other supplies necessary to produce the battery were not available, according to army officers. Tordenskjold then ordered a fahnenjunkers and nine gunners under his command, together with additional manpower from the ships, to build the battery. The heavy mortars were carried from the northern side of Koön to the new battery. When it was considered ready, Tordenskjold ordered a barrage against Carlsten, which had little effect on the fortress. Even though Tordenskjold had Swedish naval vessels in his firing range, he avoided firing against them in order to attempt to capture them unharmed.
Marstrand falls.
From 7–8:00 a.m., the first negotiator was dispatched to Marstrand, Danish Captain-Lieutenant Conrad Ployart who was sailing towards the northern outwork Antonetta – which was guarding the northern inlet – in a sloop with a clearly visible white flag. A Swedish sloop carrying a Lieutenant Brännö was sent to meet with the Danish vessel half-way. Ployart demanded access to the fortress but was told that he should speak with the commander, "His excellency" Field Marshal Rehnskiöld, if he wanted anything. The Danish officer lamented the fact that he could not meet the commander in person and added that if there were any women present in the fortress, they would immediately be given the chance to leave. Ployart had also received orders to offer the Swedes a deal, the Swedes would have to hand over six naval vessels in exchange for the Danes not firing at Marstrand. The Swedes rejected the offer.
After Ployart had returned with the Swedes' rejection, Tordenskjold mounted an assault on the vessels and outworks which were defending the northern harbor inlet. The artillery galiot "Johannes" and the mortar barge "Lange Maren" fired the first rounds. Two barges, the "Hjælperinden" and the "Fredrikshald "were in reserve. The Swedish outworks consisted of Antonetta – equipped with four 6-pounder cannons and a crew of seven – and the Northern Blockhouse, a smaller outwork equipped with two 36-pounder guns. Captain Sjöblad had stationed an additional three cannons close to the Northern Blockhouse, which were served by 15 men. The outworks did not have enough ammunition and were commanded by NCOs. After firing at the outworks, with the help of a galley and eight sloops, 200–300 Danish soldiers were landed on Marstrand island and close to Antonetta. After the Swedes had returned fire against the landing force, its guns were spiked and the crews retreated to Carlsten. The Northern Blockhouse suffered the same fate and so the Danes, commanded by Captains Kaas and Kleve, could rapidly enter the city. In the harbor, the Swedish frigate "Kalmar" and the galley "Greve Mörner" continued to defend the northern inlet until the Danish troops eventually entered the city.
At the war hearing, Danckwardt was asked why he had not contributed more to the defense of the northern inlet outworks. The two outworks could have defended each other by cross fire and he could have sent one of the seven professional officers from Carlsten to act as a commander. Danckwardt defended himself by saying that he could not afford to send away even more personnel from Carlsten and that the men would have been cut off if the outworks were conquered.
Sinking of the Swedish fleet.
At the same time as the Danes were storming into the city, Danish sloops were sailing towards the Swedish vessels in the harbor. Since the Swedish ship crews were understaffed, they realized that they would not be able to survive the imminent battle; their only way of retreat towards Carlsten was being blockaded and the Swedish ships fired their last broadsides. Thereafter, the Swedes fired shots at their own vessels' strakes.
Most of the ships' crews managed to return safely to Carlsten. The vessels which were sunk were the frigates "Halmstad", "Stettin" and "Kalmar", all armed with 40 cannon, as well as "Fredricus" (36) and "Charlotta" (30). The galleys "Stå Bra" and "Greve Mörner" with 9 cannons each, the sloop "Diana" (4) along with two fire ships were sunk. Tordenskjolds soldiers managed to prevent the sinking of the frigates "Varberg" (40 cannons) and "William Galley" (14), the galiot "Prins Fredrik av Hessen" (9) and the barge "Ge På" (18). "William Galley" was probably a captured British vessel or possibly a privateer.
During the hearing, Danckwardt mentioned that a few volunteers from the ship crews and the garrison had left the fortress to "overwhelm the enemy" but could not get any further than the castle hill, since enemy soldiers were deployed around Marstrand cemetery, which was close by. The force of volunteers promptly turned back and re-entered the fortress, according to Danckwardt.
In the afternoon, firing on Carlsten continued from the mortar batteries on Koön. A shed which was being used as temporary gunpowder storage was hit and exploded. A fire also broke out on the tower roof and on parts of "Fyrkantsbatteriet", an outwork on the eastern side of the fortress, which were put out by fortress personnel. No deaths were reported as a result of the artillery fire but Swedish morale was depressed because of the Danish conquering of their outworks and the sinking of the Swedish fleet. On the night to Monday, Tordenskjold landed 200 soldiers on Marstrand island, 500 men in total.
Monday, July 13.
During the day, only a few rounds were fired from the fortress and none at all from the Danes. Inside the fortress, the commander ordered artillery officers Captain Josias Mörck and Lieutenant Graan to burn the city down, the officers stated that they did not have any suitable ammunition. At the hearing, Danckwardt was asked why the retreating outwork crews failed to burn the city down, to which he replied that he was not aware that this could have been done any other way except by firing from the fortress. He also argued that the artillery officers unwillingness was because they had their houses inside the city.
The Danes transported the captured vessels away from the area, moving up additional mortars and repairing a cannon battery on Koön, which had sustained fire from the "Prins Fredrik av Hessen". Repairs could be done uninterrupted because Carlsten only had one cannon which could reach the battery and this cannon was damaged. The crew of Carlsten consisted of Redväg's company from the Älvsborg Regiment with around 100 men and a company from Zengerlein's Saxon Infantry Regiment which had at least 100 men, both units totalling 227 infantrymen. The artillery, under the command of Captain Mörck, consisted of 54 men. 107 men were acquired from the ship crews as well, the entire crew consisted of a total of 388 men.
The fortress had been heavily expanded since the Danish assault in 1677. This rendered Carlsten one of the most heavily defended fortresses in the country. The fortification of the city of Marstrand and the construction of Carlsten fortress was, and still is, one of the largest investments ever in Swedish static defense.
Tuesday, July 14.
Artillery fire against the fortress continued until 11:00 a.m. In the afternoon, Lieutenant Ployart approached the fortress as a negotiator along with an army drummer and asked the Swedes to be let inside. Blindfolded, Ployart was promptly taken to see the Swedish commander. Ployart handed over a sealed letter written by Tordenskjold. The letter, which consisted of flattery and threats, is preserved today in the Danish National Archives. While Danckwardt was preparing a proper reply to the letter, one of his captains brought another letter from Tordenskjold to his attention. In it, Tordenskjold offered a sum of 3,000 ducats and the mercy of the Danish king, if the Swedes surrendered. According to Danckwardt, he had replied to the second letter, that even if he had been offered 300,000 ducats, he would rather have blown the fortress up, than abandoning it for money. Swedish Captain Jacob von Utfall accompanied Ployart to Tordenskjold later in the day and suggested that an armistice would be appropriate, to which Tordenskjold agreed.
When von Utfall had returned to Carlsten, Danckwardt called all officers to a meeting. The protocol of the meeting was later used as an instrument of surrender. The officers explained the situation, the artillery suffered lack of personnel and bad gun carriages. The supply of food was estimated to be able to sustain them for a month but there was a lack of water. The fortress had next to no combat personnel, the naval crews were deemed not of much use in the case of an ambush, due to their lack of combat training, their sole purpose at the fortress was as a fire brigade. Tordenskjold used this time by placing additional light mortars on suitable locations in Marstrand.
Wednesday, July 15.
The Swedish meeting continued during the morning. Tordenskjold was still preparing an assault by relocating the Danish barges, floating batteries and galleys closer to the fortress. Since the Carlsten garrison was deemed too exhausted to sustain an assault, the Swedes agreed to surrender before the end of the armistice. All of the Swedish officers signed the instrument of surrender which was handed over to the Danes by Captain von Utfall.
Quote from the instrument of surrender<br>
<br>
"Hwarföre conjunctim resolverades att En formel Capitulation skall giöras genom Capitainen von Uthfall i dhe Puncter och Propositioner som det Jnstrumentet ad acta uthwijsar och aparto underskrifwes. Datum Carlsteen d. 15 Julii 1719"
After two hours, Utfall returned with the document which had been signed by Tordenskjold. All Swedish forces were instructed to leave the fortress by 3:00 p.m., all officers who wished to return to Marstrand were allowed to do so, without being treated as a prisoner of war. The Swedes were granted an additional two hours, properly to vacate the fortress.
At four in the afternoon, Torenskjold arrived at the fortress gate and was promptly let in. Danckwardt met with him and showed him to the commanders quarters, where the other officers had gathered. After a while of conversation, the commander and a number of officers accompanied Tordenskjold to a house in Marstrand, where they all enjoyed red wine. At 9:00 p.m., all men returned to their quarters. The only breach of the peace, was when soldiers from the Saxon regiment along with personnel from the artillery, had broken into a storage facility and stolen the butter supply. The Saxon soldiers were ordered to vacate the city and to spend the night standing outside the fortress wall surrounded by armed Danish soldiers.
Thursday, July 16.
In the morning, all Swedish marched out of the fortress. At around four in the afternoon, the commander left the fortress for a house in Marstrand. At 9:00 p.m., the remaining Swedish soldiers of the infantry and the artillery vacated the fortress.
Friday, July 17.
The Swedish troops were transported to Tjuvkil on the mainland, except for a few troops from the artillery and the Saxon regiment, which were transferred to Danish service. During the transport, Tordenskjold handed out gifts to the officers such as watches and feather fans, along with other goods that had been taken from captured ships. After arriving at Tjuvkil, Danckwardt sent a letter to Field Marshal Rehnskiöld in Uddevalla explaining the situation. After reading the letter, Rehnskiöld issued an arrest warrant for Danckwardt. Danckwardt was arrested at Bohus fortress when he was attempting to travel to Gothenburg.
Aftermath.
Field Marshal Rehnskiöld and his officers were now left with a tough decision: should they stay with the Swedish troops at Uddevalla and protect the roads to Vänersborg and Dalsland or move south towards Hisingen, to avoid being cut off by the Danish forces which could land north of Gothenburg? Rehnskiöld chose to stay, which turned out to be a good decision since the Danish army at Strömstad later pulled back into Norway at the end of August. Tordenskjold used the naval base to attack Nya Älvsborg fortress on July 21 and later Nya Varvet at Göta river mouth. While under Dano-Norwegian rule, Carlsten fortress was named Kristiansten and Norwegian Major General Hartvig Huitfeldt was assigned to command the fortress garrison. On November 12, 1720, after the signing of the Treaty of Frederiksborg, the fortress was returned to Swedish control and was once again renamed Carlsten.
On July 22, all officers who had signed the Carlsten instrument of surrender were arrested. After a war hearing with Danckwardt on July 21, a court martial was held on August 27, where he was violently disciplined for his actions. Charles XI's war law §73 states that any fortress commander that surrenders the fortress to the enemy without being under sufficient distress, shall receive the highest grade of punishment. On September 5, Danckwardt was sentenced to death by beheading according to these laws. The execution took place on September 16. The executioner, Jonas Wessman, was allegedly late and under the influence of alcohol which resulted in him not performing the beheading correctly and was forced to strike three times in order to completely remove the head from the body. Wessman was brought to court, but was let off with a formal warning.
On November 13, 1719, a court martial was held with the arrested Carlsten officers. The officers stated that all documents that they had signed on Carlsten were simply a report on the fortress' defensive capabilities and that the last parts, that documented the official surrendering of the fortress, must have been added after the signing, without their knowledge. Because of this, the officers were not sentenced to death.
Myths.
Carlsten's surrender has been compared to Siege of Sveaborg and its surrender in 1808. Psychological warfare was used in both cases to break down their opponents will to fight. Certain events at Marstrand in 1719 have become myths, which can sometimes be confirmed or disproved with the help of documents from the time.
Espionage.
Peder Tordenskjold (then known as Peter Wessel) was a crewman on a civilian British vessel in the summer of 1710. Bad weather forced the crew to navigate the vessel towards Marstrand. Peter Wessel seized an opportunity to explore the town's surroundings and fortifications without being suspected as a Danish spy. He left afterwards on a Dutch warship and reported his findings in a letter to Frederick IV, which he sent on February 28, 1711.
Tordenskjold's soldiers.
Captain von Utfalls visit to Tordenskjold at Marstrand on July 14, was described in a more detailed way by Danish author Casper Peter Rothe. Rothe claims that Tordenskjold had only between 200 and 300 soldiers present in the city. While the soldiers were being deployed, Utfall was invited into a local tavern. Tordenskjold ordered his men to roam the streets slowly in larger groups so that it would appear to the intoxicated von Utfall that there were at least 1,000 of them. The story is most likely untrue, as the number of Danish soldiers in the city was listed as 500 men on the Swedish instrument of surrender, which corresponds with Danish intelligence.
Reinforcements.
In his letter to Danckwardt, Tordenskjold mentions that he was awaiting reinforcements of 2,000 men which were deployed on the Koster Islands. Rothe's version of the same document mentions that the reinforcements consisted of 20,000 men. The threat was not unfounded, General Major Hans Jacob von Arnold was in command of a landing force of around 8,000 men, who were embarked on 28 transport ships near Larkollen but had been forced to return just prior to Tordenskjold's assault due to strong winds. These ships, along with escorts, were supposed to land troops on Hisingen.
Defeated and humiliated.
Rothe's version of the events at Marstrand, describes Danish soldiers humiliating the captured Swedish officers by verbally abusing them and forcing them to dress up in women's decorative clothing. Other reports suggest the opposite, that Tordenskjold and Danckwardt, along with their officers socialised for several hours on the night of July 15.
Alleged Saxon betrayal.
One of Danckwardt's explanations for his actions was that soldiers with the Saxon Infantry Regiment had allegedly mutinied. The regiment, commanded by Colonel Georg David Zengerlein, was composed of Saxon prisoners of war who had been captured during the battles in Saxony-Poland. They had then been conscripted into the Swedish army and were therefore considered badly motivated mercenaries. That these soldiers were merely present at Carlsten, was seen as a weak point by both the Danish and Swedish militaries. Prior to the assault, Field Marshal Rehnskiöld had attempted to dispatch another ship of 150 Swedish soldiers to relieve the 100 Saxon soldiers but owing to a large number of Danish vessels occupying the area, the force had to return to Uddevalla. According to Danish reports, the Danish Captain Kleve had sneaked up to the fortress wall at night and overheard how the Saxon sentries were talking about forcing the commander to surrender. The discipline inside the fortress was poor and women were granted entry into the fortress at night, which was forbidden. Tordenskjold used this to his advantage by smuggling in letters written in German, which urged the Saxon soldiers to surrender. There is nothing relating to a Saxon mutiny stated in the Swedish instrument of surrender. During a war hearing, Captain Palmcrona verified that the Germans were behaving. Colonel Zengerlein of the Saxon Infantry Regiment was the chairman of the war hearing and he would never have been elected to the position if the Swedes had doubted him or his unit.


Governor of Charlemont


Fort Vrmac

Fort Vrmac (Serbian: "Tvrđava Vrmac"/Тврђава Врмац, German: "Werk Vermac") is a former fortification of the Austro-Hungarian Empire located on the southern end of the Vrmac ridge near Tivat in Montenegro. Established in 1860, the present structure was built between 1894 and 1897, and saw action during the First World War, when it was heavily bombarded by the Montenegrins. It was repaired and disarmed before the end of the war and was abandoned after a period of occupation by Yugoslav troops. Today it is one of the best preserved Austro-Hungarian fortifications in the Bay of Kotor area.
Background.
The southernmost tip of the Austro-Hungarian Empire included the area of the Bay of Kotor, which was used by the empire as a major naval base centred on the town of Kotor (known then as "Cattaro"). The hinterland behind the bay was controlled by the independent principality (later kingdom) of Montenegro, which controlled the mountains to the east of Kotor.
The Austro-Hungarians faced significant problems in holding on to the territory, as the Montenegrins and their Russian allies aspired to take control of the Bay and Austrian rule was not universally accepted by the area's inhabitants. Two serious rebellions were mounted by the powerful Krivošije clan who lived on the eastern flanks of Mount Orjen above Risan. In 1869 the clan defeated an Austro-Hungarian force sent to quell their rebellion, but Austrian control was reimposed in 1882. The Austrians responded to the uprising by building a series of fortifications around the Bay of Kotor and at strategic points further inland, and strengthening existing fort, including the one at Vrmac.
Location.
Fort Vrmac is situated on Vrmac, a limestone ridge that rises to and divides the inner and outer part of the Bay of Kotor. It overlooks Kotor to the east, the Troica pass leading to Kotor to the south, and the Župa valley to the west. The fort is reached via a military road built by the Austro-Hungarians that runs over the top of the ridge from Troica to Gornja Lastva in Tivat municipality, or alternatively via a winding path that leads up the mountainside from Muo, a suburb of Kotor. Its position was chosen to enable it to support the outlying Fort Gorazda on the other side of the Troica pass and the Škaljari Battery to the south. From 1909, it was also supported by Fort Trašte located on the hills above the plain of Tivaksko polje to the west. The location is highly strategic but was vulnerable to artillery attack from the heights of Mount Lovćen on the other side of the Bay of Kotor.
An Austrian publication of 1870 commented that the fortification's "central position ensures the possession of the whole Bocche [Bay of Kotor]. Here's accommodation and magazine buildings. Cisterns, depots, hospitals, defensive barracks and finally fortifications have been created, which make this position a truly impregnable rock castle..." However, it noted frankly that Austrian control of the Bay of Kotor was tenuous: "One shouldn't deceive oneself about the claim to control of the whole Bocche! Surrounded by an unreliable population that unabashedly gravitates toward Montenegro, our troops in the Bocche will be confined to fortified places and the area that their cannons control the moment Russian ships appear in the Adriatic Sea."
Description.
The fort comprises a heavily reinforced stone and concrete structure situated within a ditch, defended by three caponiers. There is a single entrance on the north side, accessed from the ditch and protected by a caponier. The design is similar to that of the "Vogl period" fortresses in South Tyrol, with an irregular pentagonal shape constructed on two levels. The main guns were housed in armoured casemates, with howitzers and observation turrets in steel cupolas made by Škoda in Pilsen.
The roof of the fort is a thick slab of concrete that was installed in 1906–7 following improvements to Montenegrin artillery capabilities. The barracks rooms are located on the ground and first floors on the north side while the casemates are situated on the other sides of the fort, facing towards what was then potentially hostile territory. A separate structure a short distance to the north of the fort was used as an ammunition magazine.
History.
A fort was built on Vrmac as early as 1860, but it played only a minor part in the military actions of 1869 and 1882. The Krivošije rebellions prompted a decision by the Austro-Hungarian "Reichsbefestigungskommission" (State Fortification Commission) to replace it with a more advanced fortress. Constructed between 1894 and 1897, it was armed with eight minimum charter M80/85 mortars and four PH M05 guns, plus 12 gun carriages. It was initially designed to be able to accommodate four field guns erected on the roof, to be used for close defence. This unusual feature was removed in the 1906-7 strengthening of the fortress, following which it was redesignated as being purely for long-ranged artillery.
By the outbreak of the First World War it was the most modern fortress in the vicinity of the naval base at Kotor and was the centre of the Austro-Hungarian Third Military District's defences. However, it was regarded as outdated by this point and a new bomb-proof fortress was envisaged on Hoher Vrmac (Sveti Ilija), the highest point on the ridge, about to the north. The war made such an undertaking impossible and the five officers and 177 men stationed at Vrmac found themselves the target of heavy bombardments from Montenegrin territory, from weapons of up to calibre. The fortress was heavily damaged but after the Austrians seized Lovćen in the spring of 1916 and drove the Montenegrins out of artillery range, the damage was fully repaired. Its guns were removed and reused elsewhere.
After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the war, the Bay of Kotor became part of the territory of Yugoslavia. Fort Vrmac was occupied for some years by the Royal Yugoslav Army before being abandoned. At some point during the Yugoslav tenure, one of the casemates was painted with icons depicting figures from Eastern Orthodox Christianity. The fortress remains in an abandoned condition; it is well-preserved overall and is the best-preserved of the fortifications on Vrmac. It can be visited by the public, though care needs to be taken, as there are open pits and holes in the floors.


Second Battle of Acentejo

The Second Battle of Acentejo was a battle that took place on 25 December 1494 between the invading Spanish forces and the natives of the island of Tenerife, known as Guanches. The battle had been preceded by the Battle of Aguere, fought on 14-15 November that year, which had been a Castilian victory.
Advancing along the northern shores of the island, the Spaniards pursued the remaining Guanche forces and faced them once again at Valley of Taoro, near Acentejo, the site of the first battle, called by the Spaniards La Matanza ("The Slaughter").
Adelantado ("military governor") Alonso Fernández de Lugo divided his forces into two, with the Castilians bearing firearms taking the advantage. After three hours of fighting, the Guanches were defeated. Those who were not made prisoners of the Spaniards fled to the mountains.
With shouts of "Victory! Victory!" the Spanish forces celebrated their triumph, and Alonso Fernández de Lugo erected a hermitage in honor of Our Lady of Victory on the site of the battle. A town grew up around it, called La Victoria de Acentejo.
An old Canary Island pine, a witness to the battle, still stands in La Victoria de Acentejo. In its shadow the first mass was celebrated on the day of the battle. From its branches a bell was later hung, since the hermitage that Fernández de Lugo built in the same spot lacked a bell tower.
The "mencey" Bentor is said to have thrown himself from the heights of Tigaiga after learning of the outcome of the battle.
The Second Battle of Acentejo was certainly not the last battle on Tenerife between the Spaniards and the Guanches, but was certainly the most decisive, resulting in the ultimate incorporation of the island into the Kingdom of Castile and the final subjugation of the aborigines.


Battle of Pljevlja

The Battle of Pljevlja (1-2 December 1941), was a World War II attack in the state of Montenegro by partisans on Italian military forces occupying the city of Pljevlja under the command of General Arso Jovanović and Colonel Bajo Sekulić, who led 4,000 Montenegrin Partisans.
Background.
In 1941 the area had been occupied by Italian forces trying to attack Greece. On 1 November 1941, the Supreme Command of insurgent forces began planning to attack Pljevlja. On 15 November, the Regional Committee of the Yugoslav Communist Party for Montenegro, Boka and Sandžak ordered all insurgent forces in the region to begin preparing for the assault. According to Arso Jovanović, the Italians had prepared for an entire month before the battle, with forces from Brodarevo and Bijelo Polje being redeployed to Pljevlja.
Involved forces.
General Arso Jovanović commanded the 4,000 partisan troops which were split into several groups: the Kom, Zeta, Lovćen and Bijeli Pavle detachments, the Piva battalion and the Prijepolje company.
The Italian garrison in Pljevlja belonged to the 5th Alpine Division Pusteria; it was led by General Giovanni Esposito and had a strength of 2,000 men.
Battle.
In the evening of 30 November the Partisans cut the phone lines linking Pljevlja to Prijepolje and Čajniče, thus isolating the Italian garrison. At 2:15 on 1 December the first Partisan attacks on Italian outposts around Pljevlja began, and at 2:50 the general assault was launched. After suffering heavy losses, at 5:00 the Partisans managed to capture an old Ottoman fort located on a hill known to the Italians as the "Fortino" ("small fort") and to penetrate the town; the officers' mess and the depots of the 11th Alpini Regiment were then captured, whereas an attack on the headquarters of the 11th Alpini Regiment was repelled. Another group of Partisans stormed the jail, freeing three prisoners, and another one attacked the power station, capturing the ground floor and the first floor after fierce fighting; the Italian detachment guarding the power station, however, barricaded itself on the second floor, and managed to hold on until the arrival of a relief group of fifty engineers forced the Partisans to withdraw.
After securing the "Fortino" and the jail, the Partisans attacked the Italian artillery positions, which were nearly overrun; the artillerymen, however, repelled the attack with small arms fire and hand grenades. In the southern sector, an attack on the Italian outpost guarding the road to Nikšić was likewise repelled; in the eastern sector, the Partisans pressed their attacks against the Italian outposts guarding the roads to Prijepolje and Golubinje, capturing the latter. Between 3:35 and 3:40 the Partisans occupied the high school, the Orthodox church, the movie theater and the houses surrounding the divisional headquarters, which was thus isolated. At 4:30 the Partisans attacked the divisional headquarters, but were repelled; half an hour later they occupied the divisional hospital, capturing 34 soldiers from the medical corps, and surrounding the headquarters of the 5th Alpine Artillery Regiment. An attack on the latter, however, was repulsed.
As the defenders of the divisional headquarters were short on ammunition, a relief group of thirty men carrying ammunition was sent to their help, but they were almost completely killed or wounded by Partisan fire. At 5:15 the Partisans launched another attack on the divisional headquarters, but were repelled again; at 7:00 another Partisan group attacked the headquarters of the 5th Alpine Artillery Regiment, using captured Italians as human shields, but were likewise forced to retreat, abandoning the prisoners they had captured. At 7:20 two Italian squads stormed the Orthodox church, whose bell tower had become a Partisan sniper's nest, and set it on fire.
At dawn the Italians started their counterattack; the 145th Alpini Company and a platoon from the 144th attacked the "Fortino" and recaptured it by 9:00, and at 10:30 Italian artillery began shelling the Partisan-occupied depots and officers' mess. In the meantime, two machine gun squads were sent in another relief attempt of the besieged divisional headquarters; despite heavy casualties caused by heavy gunfire from Partisans occupying the movie theater, the attempt was successful, after which an Italian 75/13 mountain gun was brought into position and destroyed the movie theater. At 15:30 the siege of the divisional headquarters was lifted, and Italian squads set out to eliminate snipers still holding out in the surrounding buildings. Several Partisans were captured and executed on the following day, along with seventeen civilians who had been hiding them. The headquarters of the 5th Alpine Artillery Regiment was still under siege; an Italian relief attempt was repelled by Partisans barricaded in a group of nearby buildings, and nightfall brought the battle to a stop.
Operations resumed at 8:00 on 2 December, and at 9:00 the siege of the 5th Alpine Artillery headquarters was lifted. The last Partisan holdouts were eliminated during the morning. In the early afternoon of 2 December, the battle was over - the Partisans had failed to capture Pljevlja and retreated with heavy casualties, some 203 were killed and 269 were wounded.
Aftermath.
Following the battle, many Partisans deserted their units and joined the pro-axis Chetniks. In order to reinforce the defense of Pljevlja, the Italian units had abandoned Nova Varoš, Čajniče, Foča and Goražde. Nova Varoš was taken by the Partisans a few days later, while the other three towns were captured by the end of January 1942 after the local Chetniks were driven out.
Partisan forces began plundering nearby villages and executing captured Italians, party "sectarians" and "perverts". The communists killed Orthodox priest Serafim Džarić who was Archimandrite of Monastery of the Holy Trinity of Pljevlja and director of the town's gymnasium Dobrosav Minić. As a reprisal for the attack, Italian forces, along with Muslim militia in the area, burned and plundered the houses of insurgents.
The defeat of the partisans at Pljevlja and the terror campaign conducted by left-wing elements of the partisan movement, led to further conflict between the two groups. The various ideologies of the partisan factions in Montenegro eventually led to civil war. The leader of the resistance movement in occupied Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito, disapproved of the attack. When he received word of the planned assault, Tito issued two orders not to attack Pljevlja. On 7 December 1941, Moša Pijade wrote a letter to Tito and requested an investigation into the defeat at Pljevlja.
The Battle of Pljevlja was the last major action of the Uprising in Montenegro and resulted in the expulsion of partisan forces from the region. On 21 December 1941, the Kom, Lovćen, Bijeli Pavle and Zeta detachments were incorporated into the 1st Proletarian Brigade.
After the battle, the command of Montenegrin Partisans called for the recruitment of women, issuing an announcement which invited the sisters of deceased insurgents to join partisan forces.
Legacy.
The Serbian novelist, Mihailo Lalić, wrote about the battle in one of his works, in which he emphasized that local Muslims committed war crimes during this action. On 1 December 2011, the 70th anniversary of the battle, a ceremony was held at the monument to the fallen Partisans on Stražica Hill overlooking Pljevlja, which was attended by Montenegrin President Filip Vujanović. He stated that 236 Montenegrin Partisans were killed during the battle, along with another 159 people from Pljevlja and the surrounding area. The monument commemorates the deaths of 412 Partisans and other victims of World War II.


Battle of the Neva

The Battle of the Neva (, "Nevskaya bitva", , Finnish: "Nevan taistelu") was fought between the Novgorod Republic and Karelians against Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Tavastian armies on the Neva River, near the settlement of Ust-Izhora, on 15 July 1240.
The purpose of the invasion was probably to gain control over the mouth of the Neva and the city of Ladoga and, hence, seize the most important part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, which had been under Novgorod's control for more than a hundred years. The battle was part of the medieval Swedish-Novgorodian Wars and continuum to Finnish-Novgorodian wars.
Russian sources.
The existence of the battle is only known from Russian sources. The first source to mention the battle is the Novgorod First Chronicle from the 14th century. According to the chronicle, on receiving the news of the advancing Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Tavastian fleets, the 20-year-old Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod quickly moved his small army and local men to face the enemy before they had reached Lake Ladoga. The chronicle described the battle as follows:
"Swedes came with a great army, and Norwegians and Finns and Tavastians with ships in great numbers, Swedes with their prince and bishops, and they stayed on the Neva, at the mouth of the Izhora, willing to take Ladoga, and then Novgorod and all of its lands. But still protected the merciful, man-loving God us and sheltered us from the foreign people, and the word came to Novgorod that Swedes were sailing to Ladoga; but prince Alexander did not hesitate at all, but went against them with Novgorodians and people of Ladoga and overcame them with the help of Saint Sophia and through prayers of our lady, the Mother of God and Virgin Mary, 15 July, in the memory of Kirik and Ulita, on Sunday, (the same day that) the 630 holy fathers held a meeting in Chalcedon; and there was a great gathering of the Swedes; and their leader called Spiridon was killed there; but some claimed that even the bishop was slain; and a great number of them fell; and when they had loaded two ships with the bodies of high-born men, they let them sail to the sea; but the others, that were unnumbered, they cast to a pit, that they buried, and many others were wounded; and that same night they fled, without waiting for the Monday light, with shame. Of Novgorodians there fell: Konstantin Lugotinitch, Gyuryata Pinyashchinich, Namest, Drochilo Nezdylov son of the tanner, but including the people of Ladoga 20 men or less, God knows. But prince Alexander came back home with Novgorodians and people of Ladoga, all well, protected by God and Saint Sophia and all the prayers of the holy men."
A 16th-century version of the battle gave plenty of additional details, expanding the conflict to biblical proportions, but otherwise following the earlier described developments.
Prince Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed "Nevsky" (of Neva) for his first significant victory. Two years later, Alexander stalled an invasion of the Livonian Knights during the Battle on the Ice. Despite the victories, there were no Novgorodian advances further west to Finland or Estonia.
Swedish sources.
There is no reference to a battle of the Neva in Swedish sources.
Situation in Sweden.
Since the death of King John in 1222, Sweden was in a "de facto" state of civil war until 1248 when Birger Jarl managed to seize power in the kingdom. Unrest was due to the struggle between those who wanted to keep the old tribal structure, the folkung party, and the king, who was assisted by the church. Folkungs, who were mainly from Uppland, heavily resisted the centralization of power, taxation of the Swedes of Uppland, and church privileges. They had temporarily succeeded in deposing the king in 1229, but were forced to give in five years later, but were far from defeated yet. Uppland remained largely independent of the king, and its northern areas continued to be in folkung hands. An uneasy truce continued until 1247, when the folkung rebellion was put to an end at the Battle of Sparrsätra and its leader beheaded a year later.
Furthermore, the official Sweden was on the brink of war with Norway ever since the Norwegians' infamous Värmland expedition in 1225. Relations improved only after the Treaty of Lödöse in 1249, which was forged by the newly empowered Birger Jarl. Before the treaty, Norway remained an ally of the folkungs, giving them refuge and providing men and arms.
In this situation, it seems unlikely that Sweden could have been able to organize a major expedition against Novgorod. Swedes are not known to have carried out any other military campaigns between 1222 and 1249, making the claims about their forceful appearance at the Neva with Norwegians as their allies seem questionable.
Theories.
Taking these facts into consideration, it has been suggested in a recent book aimed at a wide readership, that the Swedish expedition may have been an indirect result of the papal letter in 1237 that was sent to the Swedish Archbishop of Uppsala. The letter eloquently called for a crusade, not against Novgorod, but against Tavastians in Finland, who had allegedly started hostilities against the church. In his defunct position, the king may not have been willing or able to act, but the letter may have provided the frustrated folkungs an opportunity to regain part of their Viking Age glory. Mostly free to act without interference from the king, folkungs would have been able to raise an army of their own, get volunteers from Norway and even assistance from Thomas, the independent Bishop of Finland, who needed to constantly worry about attacks from the east. Instead of Tavastia, this mixed set of interests and nationalities would have headed for the more lucrative Neva and there met its fate at the hands of Alexander. In the possible aftermath of the said battle, the King of Norway approached his Swedish counterpart for peace talks in 1241, but was turned down at the time.
However, some recent research has fundamentally questioned the importance of the battle, seeing it as an ordinary border skirmish that was exaggerated for political purposes, thus also explaining its absence from Swedish and other western sources.
Additional theories are numerous. Some historians have suggested that the Swedish army was already under the command of the very young Birger Jarl, eight years before his appointment to the position of jarl. It has also been suggested that the suspicious information on Norwegians', Finns' and Tavastians' participation was made up in the 14th century, the time of writing of the First Novgorod Chronicle, when Sweden was in control of Norway, Finland and Tavastia.
Consequences.
All in all, the first known Swedish military expedition against Novgorod after the events at the Neva took place in 1256, following folkungs' demise, peace with Norway and conquest of Finland. If the battle of the Neva had any long-term consequences, it was in Sweden's determination to take over Finland first before attempting to proceed further east.


List of Changes

The List of Changes was a series of instructions and specifications issued by the War Office relating to the stores and equipment issued by the British Government to the armed forces. Originally named "List of Changes in Artillery Matériel, Small Arms, Accoutrements and other Military Stores which have been Approved and Sealed; With Instructions Relating Thereto", in the late 1860s it became "List of Changes in Artillery Matériel, Small Arms and other Military Stores which have been Approved and Sealed; With Instructions Relating Thereto" and then, in 1872, "List of Changes in War Matériel and of Patterns of Military Stores which have been Approved and Sealed; With Instructions Relating Thereto". For convenience, it is usually referred to simply as the "List of Changes" or "L.o.C".
Appearing first in May 1860, it was issued irregularly until March 1868, after which it was published monthly in the "Army Circular" (from January 1888 in its successor, "Army Orders") by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, on the first day of the month until August 1919 and on the last day of the month thereafter. This date of publication was generally the official date of introduction (or designation as obsolete) of any item of military stores.
Each change consisted of a section number (§, plural §§), the item(s) of equipment to which the change referred, the date of acceptance by the War Office, and the instruction or procedure specified to be carried out. Individual changes might have more than one date of acceptance if more than one item was laid down in that section. The date of acceptance might precede the date of publication by some considerable time, on occasion a matter of years. For example, the "Carrier, hand grenades" was originally approved by the War Office on 23 March 1916, but was not listed until §20298 was published on 1 April 1918. After 1891, a letter was added when necessary to indicate whether the instruction applied to land (L) or naval (N) services, or was common to both (C ). In 1918, on the formation of the Royal Air Force, the letter 'A' was added to refer to air services.
The original series ran from §1 published in 1860 to §26231 in December 1923. From January 1924 a second series, prefixed with the letter 'A', ran, beginning with §A 1. A 'B' series followed from 1936, with a subsequent 'C' and a short 'D' series continuing into the early 1960s.
The scope of the list encompassed, amongst other things, the introduction and specifications of new equipment, the modification, care and maintenance of existing equipment, and the withdrawal of obsolete items. It covered virtually every item purchased by, manufactured for or issued by the British armed forces, ranging from artillery pieces, via humane killers to chamber pots. Locally purchased items were not listed. Some equipment which would be expected to have appeared did not (for example, the introduction of the Martini-Metford rifles, although the introductions of the various marks of Martini-Metford carbine are listed). Similarly, some items that are listed were never issued.
The List of Changes did not cover officers' uniforms, accoutrements or side-arms because equipping himself with these was the responsibility of the officer himself and not the Government. For example, he could purchase his sword from the manufacturer or military clothier of his choice, so long as the sword conformed to the current Dress Regulations. Similarly, officers were required to buy their own side-arm (from a military outfitter, gunsmith or the Government) and, until the latter stages of the Great War, could carry any weapon that would fire standard government ammunition. (From 1900, officers were recommended to purchase the Webley revolver. On the outbreak of war in 1914, virtually all the output of the British arms industry was purchased by the Government, making it difficult for officers to obtain pistols from other sources. Finally, from May 1917, officers were required to buy a standard revolver from the Government and purchase from private sources was forbidden.)