Ranigat

Ranigat () is a collection of 2nd century CE Buddhist ruins spread over an area of 4 square kilometers which dates from the Gandhara civilization. Ranigat is located in valley Buner of Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
According to the archeologists, Ranigat remained the center of Buddhist art and culture for centuries. Ranigat, has been a celebrated part of folklore, with songs and stories having been written about it.
Rani Gatt (lit. "the queen of stones" in a Pashto) is a 2500-year-old Buddhist archaeological site belonging to the Gandahara civilization located in district Buner of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Raniagut is a good evidence of the Buddhist past of the area. The site is located on top of a hill, accessible by climbing the stairs constructed by the Japanese. The main attractions include; Stupas, a big rock erected by the ancient people at some distance that they probably used to worship. The city or the town was beautifully designed and stones from the local mountains have been extensively used. Raniagut is easily accessible through M1 and N35. It is about 20 km away from Swabi city and 100 km from Peshawar and Islamabad.
Etymology.
The word Ranigat is the combination of two different languages ‘Rani’ and ‘gat’. ‘Rani’ is an Hindi word that means ‘Queen’ while ‘gat’ is a Pashto word which means a ‘huge rock’,
so archaeological site of Ranigat, meaning "Queen's Rock". The referenced rock is on top of a mountain that is visible from far distances.
According to the archeologists, Ranigat, a developed state, remained the center of Buddhist art and culture for centuries.
Ranigat, belonging to the period of first-sixth century AD and protected under the Antiquities Act 1975, has been a celebrated part of folklore – songs and stories of which still echo from the coffee-hued ruins in Totalai in the Buner District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
The site of Ranigat is situated on the top of a ridge, where the remains of the region's largest Buddhist monastic complex reside. Structures on the site include stupas, monasteries, shrines, drainage networks, and other buildings. Ranigat is a 2500-year-old Buddhist archaeological site belonging to the Gandhara civilization and is a good evidence of the Buddhist past of the area.
Access.
The site is located in the Nogram village of District Buner and can be reached by a small road from Nogram where an ample parking space for about 15 cars is available. From parking there are 500 stairs to the site constructed by the Japanese government. The main attractions include; Stupas, monasteries, drainage systems and a big rock erected by the ancient people at some distance that they probably used to worship. The city was beautifully designed and stones from the local mountains have been extensively used. Ranigat is easily accessible through M1 or (Motorway) or N35. It is about 20 km away from Swabi city and 100 km from Peshawar or Islamabad.
It is a big stone atop of the local hill, which is partitioning the two districts, Swabi and Buner district in the Khyber Pakhtoonkhawa province. The height of the Rani Gatt is roughly 40 meters and its width is almost 25 meters, giving a look of small minaret. The local people of visits this place and enjoys. It gives a wonderful view of the small, beautiful and green villages of District.
Conservation.
Under excavation by a joint UNESCO-Japanese team since the 1980s, the site has had issues related to vandalism. The site is now under surveillance and is surrounded by a barbed-wire fence.
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on January 30, 2004 in the Cultural category.
See also.
UNESCO Report on Ranigat


Okinohara Site

The is an archaeological site containing the remnants of a middle Jōmon period settlement located in the Akazawa neighborhood of the town of Tsunan, Niigata in the Hokuriku region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1978.
Overview.
The Okinohara Site is located on a [river terrace of the Shinano River and contains the ruins of a large moated village from the middle Jōmon period (approximately 5300 to 4000 years ago). The area was developed as a plantation for paulownia trees for many years, and was converted to farmland after World War II. The ruins were first discovered in conjunction with a field improvement project. The first archaeological excavation of the site was conducted from 1970-1973, revealing the foundations for 49 circular pit dwellings and three large rectangular-sided structures with sides measuring 10 meters, and one stone-paved structure. These structures were arranged around a roughly circular plaza 120 meters in diameter. From the distribution of the structures, it has been estimated that the settlement had perhaps 200 houses in total, with chestnut wood used in their construction. Larger structures were not residences, but were used for some communal or ceremonial purpose.
In addition, over 1686 examples of "flame style" Jōmon pottery, a motif common to many areas of central Honshu, were discovered. In addition, a style of pottery unique to this location was also discovered. Called the "Okinohara type pottery", it has a small bottom and is shaped like a bucket, with the entire pottery tilted in one direction. Decorations are concentrated on the rim and the upper half of the body. It is uncertain what this pottery was used for. Other artifacts included stone tools and many chestnuts, walnuts and acorns. In addition, small lumps of a carbonized organic material dubbed "Jōmon cookies" were discovered. This is believed to be the remains of some form of preserved bread. The quantity of chestnuts found lends evidence to a theory that the Jōmon people were not only hunter-gatherers, but also actively cultivated chestnut trees.
The site was backfilled after excavation and is now an empty field. In 1995, some 1686 items of the excavated artifacts were collectively designated as a Tangible Cultural Property of Niigata Prefecture, and are currently stored and exhibited at the Tsunan Town History and Folklore Museum. The site is located approximately 15 minutes by car from Tsunan Station on the JR East Iiyama Line.


Maeda Toshitane


2020 in Armenia

Events from the year 2020 in Armenia.


Izumi Kanga ruins

The is an archaeological site with the ruins of a Heian period government office complex located in former Haramachi town in what is now part of the city of Minamisōma, Fukushima prefecture in the southern Tōhoku region of northern Honshu, Japan. It has been protected by the central government as a National Historic Site since 2010.
Background.
In the Nara period, after the establishment of a centralized government under the "Ritsuryō" system, five districts of southern Mutsu Province: Iwaki (石城), Shineha (標葉), Namekata (行方), Uta (宇太), Watari (曰理) and one district of Hitachi Province, Kikuta (菊多) were joined together to form the new province of Iwaki (石城国) in 718. The province only lasted for a short period and was absorbed back into Mutsu in 720 or 724. This site is believed to have been the location of the civil administration of ancient Namekata District in the Heian period.
Description.
The Izumi Kanga ruins are located in on a river terrace of the Nitta River on the Abukuma Plateau in far northern Fukushima Prefecture, near the coastline of the Pacific Ocean. The site, which extends over an area one kilometer long east-west, was excavated in the year 1994 and the year 2000. It was found to contain the foundations of a large administrative building, flanked by buildings in symmetrical positions in the east and west, forming a “U”-shape. The compound was protected by a wooden palisade. This arrangement was common to Nara period and Heian period county administrative complexes in other parts of the country. It is estimated that this complex was in use from the latter half of the 7th century to the late 10th century. The buildings were found to have been reconstructed at least three times during this period.
During the first period (from the end of the 7th century to the beginning of the 8th century), the buildings were located near the center of the site and consisted of four stilt-pillar buildings with the pillars buried directly into the ground. The orientation was to the northeast and to the northwest were a number of all-column stilt pillar granaries.
In the second period (early to late 8th century), the main axis direction of the buildings shifted to due north-south. Although the layout remained the same, the main hall had roof tiles and a cobblestone forecourt and stone foundations. The granaries were located to around 240 meters northwest of the government buildings, which were surrounded by separate wall and moat.
In the third period (from the end of the 8th century to the first half of the 10th century), the scale of both the government and the granary area expanded and were connected to the Nitta River directly by a canal. A large quantity of pottery shards, mostly Sue ware and Haji ware and a huge number of roof tiles in various shapes were discovered. The presence of a large amount of carbonized in the granary area indicates that the complex was destroyed by fire around the end of the 10th century.
The site is located approximately 15 minutes by car from the Haranomachi Station on the JR East Jōban Line.


Kitabatake Shrine

Kitabatake Shrine (北畠神社, "Kitabatake jinja") is a Shinto shrine located in Tsu, Mie Prefecture, Japan. Its main festival is held annually on October 13. It was founded in 1643, and enshrines the kami of Kitabatake Akiyoshi as well as other members of the Kitabatake clan. It is one of the Fifteen Shrines of the Kenmu Restoration.
Tage Kitabatakeshi Jōkan (Kitabatake clan`s residence and castle).
Kitabatakeshi Yakata was fortified residence of the Tage Kitabatake clan. The site was designated a National Historic Site. It was the original base of power for the Kitabatake clan who were feudal lords of Ise Province. But later Kitabatake Tomonori moved the base to Okawachi Castle. Now Kitabatake Shrine is on site. But the garden made by Kitabatake clan is still remains. Also Kitabatake clan built Kiriyama Castle on the mountain behind Kitabatakeshi Yakata( Kiriyama castle was used in emergencies.).Kiriyama Castle is now only ruins with some earthen walls　and dry moat.
Kitabatakeshi Jōkan (Kitabatake clan's residence and castle) was listed as one of　the Continued Top 100 Japanese Castles in 2017.


Gidara

Gidara (West Semitic for wall) was an ancient city in northern Mesopotamia. It was located at the upper course of the Khabur river north of Guzana.
At the beginning of the 10th century BC the city was under Assyrian control. When Aramaic tribes moved into northern Mesopotamia, one of them, called Temanites by the Assyrians, managed to snatch the city from Assyrian control under the reign of Tiglath-Pileser II (966-935). The Aramaeans called their city Raqamatu. The Assyrian king Adad-nirari II (911-891) led campaign into the Khabur valley and captured the city after a siege in 898. The city was plundered and its Aramaic ruler "Muquru" and his family were deported to Assyria.


Fujiwara no Kiyosuke

 was a Japanese "waka" poet and poetry scholar of the late Heian period.
He was the second son of , compiler of the "Shika Wakashū".
Poetry.
The following poem by him was included as No. 84 in Fujiwara no Teika's "Ogura Hyakunin Isshu":
He was a member of the conservative Rokujō school of poetic composition, and Donald Keene has called him a "mediocre poet". Suzuki et al., however, say that his brilliant poetry scholarship put him at the top of the "waka" world in his day.
He was one of the first to apply rules of choosing themes, participants and judges in the "uta-awase" poetry gatherings. His standards of judging poetry, made him a rival of Fujiwara no Shunzei.
About 1165, Emperor Nijō commissioned him to compile a "waka" anthology, which became the . He compiled twenty books of 998 poems, a much larger anthology than its namesake, and submitted to the emperor expecting for it to be recognized as the seventh imperial anthology. The emperor died before its completion, and it remains consigned to the status of a private collection.
Ultimately ninety-four of his poems were included in imperial collections.
Scholarship.
Kiyosuke is known primarily as the author of the and the He was one of the first scholars to question the traditional 905 date of the "Kokin Wakashū".


List of years in Iran

This is a list of years in Iran.
The Islamic Republic of Iran (1979–present).
This is a list of years in Iran during the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The Imperial State of Iran (1935–1979).
This is a list of years in Iran during the Imperial State of Iran.
The Imperial State of Persia (1925–1935).
This is a list of years in Persia during the Imperial State of Persia.
Persia during the Qajar dynasty (1796–1925).
This is a list of years in Persia during the Qajar dynasty.
See also.
Cities in Iran:


Fujiwara no Yoshimi

 was a Japanese noble of the early Heian period. He was the fifth son of the "sadaijin" Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu of the Fujiwara Hokke and the uncle of Emperor Montoku. He reached the court rank of and the position of "udaijin", and was posthumously granted the rank of . He was also known as .
Life.
Studying at college in his youth, he possessed a quick tongue. In 834, Emperor Ninmyō summoned him and appointed Yoshimi to serve him personally as a and . He was steadily promoted in the court. In 838 he was bestowed the rank of , in 840 promoted to , in 841 to , in 843 to and governor of Awa province, in 844 to director of the "kurōdo-dokoro", and in 846 to and . In 842, he also led 40 troops in surrounding Prince Tsunesada in the succession dispute known as the Jōwa Incident. Finally, in 848, he joined the ranks of the "kugyō" with a promotion to "sangi".
In 850, Yoshimi's nephew Crown Prince Michiyasu took the throne as Emperor Montoku. Yoshimi was promoted to and appointed as . In 851 he surpassed his brother Nagara, who had been first to make "sangi", with a promotion to "chūnagon", receiving the rank of in the same year. In 854, he was promoted again to "dainagon" and . In 857, when his brother Yoshifusa was made "daijō-daijin", Yoshimi filled his old rank of "udaijin". In 859, he was promoted to .
In 864 Yoshimi sent his daughter Tamiko as a bride to Emperor Seiwa. Yoshimi's older and more powerful brother Yoshifusa was cautious of his popularity and success. In the Ōtenmon Incident of 866, Yoshimi ordered Minamoto no Makoto's arrest based on the testimony of Tomo no Yoshio, but Yoshifusa protested Makoto's innocence and prevented it. After this, Yoshimi lost most of his political influence.
In 867, Yoshimi suddenly became ill in his chambers, and died that same month. He was posthumously granted the rank of . In accordance with his will, he was given a simple burial, his coffin covered with just a single sheet.
Personality and anecdotes.
According to the "Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku", Yoshimi was magnanimous and excelled since childhood. A deep believer in Buddhism, his long habit of abstaining from meat and eating simple food meant that all his life he was extremely thin.
The same text records a number of anecdotes about his life, as follow:
Legends.
The "Konjaku Monogatarishū" contains a story in which Yoshimi defends Ono no Takamura who was still a student, when the latter is accused of a crime. Later, Yoshimi dies of sickness and is taken before Enma in Hell. Takamura, now working in Enma's palace as a retainer and assisting in his judgments, intervenes, and Yoshimi is forgiven and returned to life.
Genealogy.
Although Yoshimi had many children, his eldest son Tokitsura died young after advancing to the rank of "dainagon", and none of his other descendants were able to reach the level of "kugyō". However, Yoshimi's obituary entry in the "Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku" does praise the talent and conduct of Tadakata and Naokata, and especially Tadakata's ability with clerical script. Yoshimi's brothers Yoshifusa and Nagara married their daughters to emperors Montoku and Seiwa and were thus able to become the grandfathers of the emperors born of those marriages, but while Yoshimi married off his daughters similarly, neither of them was fortunate enough to bear the emperor any children.


Citadel of Cadusii

Citadel of Cadusii - the citadel of Cadusii, discovered during archaeological research in Kaluraz in the province of Gilan. It was used as a frontier fortress and protected from the invasion of people from Amardi and Marlik in this region.
History.
The first season of archaeological excavations at Kaluraz led to the discovery of the first architectural plan dating back to the Iron Age (1350-800 BC). This historic site has a building with large halls and several rooms. The historical hill Kaluraz, located in Rostam-Abad, is the oldest historical monument of the Gilan province. This historic site was once excavated by Iranian archaeologists in the 1960s, but since it belonged to the official authority of the previous regime, archaeological excavations ceased until recently. Finally, in 2015, drilling and stratigraphic work began in this area. “The discoveries during the first season of excavations at Kaluraz show that this hill could not have been the residence of ordinary people or even aristocrats. The two-meter citadel surrounding the hill and halls, as well as intricate rooms with brick floors, indicate that this complex was to be the seat of prominent social strata. Taking into account this evidence and the fact that this historic site was a frontier area during the era of the Cadusii tribe, it is proved that Kaluraz was a government citadel that also played a protective role, ”says Mohammad Reza Khalatbari, director of the prehistoric division of the center for archaeological research and head of the Kaluraz excavation. According to Khalatbari, the Sefidrud River has always played an important role in shaping culture and civilization in Gilan province.
"In the Middle Ages, the Sefidrud River divided the Gilan province into two parts - the Biapas and Biapish regions, the capitals of which were Lahijan and Fuman. Before that and during the first millennium BC, the river divided the Gilan province into two parts. The eastern part was captured by the Amardi tribes, and the western part - by the Cadusii tribe. The latter were located on the territory of the modern Talish region, "Khalatbari added. Khalatbari believes that Kaluraz, as well as the Pila fortress, located in the historical site of Marlik to the west and east of the Sefidrud River, were two government citadels, which were built in the border zone of this river to protect the borders of the Cadusii and Amardi.Marlik Tepe, which is considered the first cemetery of the inhabitants of the Pyla fortress, is one of the most important historical monuments of Iran, excavated by Izatolla Negahban in 1961. The bowl from Marlik is one of the most valuable Iranian historical relics found in this area.Archaeologists believe that, most likely, the tribes The Kadusis and Amard often fought among themselves, and government citadels were built in the border zone of the Sefidrud River to protect the borders between the two tribes. Most of the architectural structure of Kalurasa is built of earth and stone, which were also used in some parts, including shell rocks.


Itakura Katsuyuki


Timeline of Tokyo

The following is a timeline of the history of Tokyo, Japan.
References.
"This article incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia."


Dhaka Stock Exchange

The Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) ( "Dhaka stôk ekschenj"), located in Motijheel, Dhaka, is one of the two stock exchanges of Bangladesh, the other being the Chittagong Stock Exchange. In 2020, the combined market capitalisation of listed companies on the Dhaka bourse stood at over $46 billion.
History.
First incorporated as East Pakistan Stock Exchange Association Ltd on 28 April 1954 and started formal trading in 1956. It was renamed as East Pakistan Stock Exchange Ltd on 23 June 1962. Again renamed as Dacca Stock Exchange Ltd on 13 May 1964. After the liberation war in 1971 the trading was discontinued for five years. In 1976 trading restarted in Bangladesh, on 16 September 1986 DSE was started. The formula for calculating DSE all share price index was changed according to IFC on 1 November 1993. The automated trading was initiated on 10 August 1998 and started on 1 January 2001. A Central Securities Depository System was initiated on 24 January 2004.
As of 16 November 2009, the benchmark index of the Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) crossed 4000 points for the first time, setting another new high at 4148 points. In 2010, the index crossed 8500 points and finally crashed in the first quarter of 2011. Millions of investors lost their money and came out onto the street blaming the speculators and regulators for the bubble that finally burst in what became known as the 2011 Bangladesh share market scam. Currently, there are total 22 industrial sectors in DSE which accommodate 578 listed companies.
Formation.
Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) is a public limited company. It is formed and managed under Company Act 1994, Security and Exchange Commission Act 1993, Security and Exchange Commission Regulation 1994, and Security Exchange (Inside Trading) regulation 1994. The issued capital of this company is Tk. 500,000 which is divided up to 250 shares each pricing Tk. 2000. No individual or firm can buy more than one share. According to stock market rule only members can participate in the floor and can buy shares for himself or his clients. At present it has 238 members. Market capitalisation of the Dhaka Stock Exchange reached nearly $9 billion in September 2007 and $27.4 billion on 9 December 2009.
Management.
The management and operation of Dhaka Stock Exchange is entrusted on a 25 members board of directors. Among them 12 are elected from DSE members, another 12 are selected from different trade bodies and relevant organisations. The CEO is the 25th "ex officio" member of the board. The government has appointed Professor Shibli Rubayat Ul Islam, who teaches banking and insurance at Dhaka University, as the chairman of Bangladesh Securities and Exchange Commission, reports bdnews24.com.
The following organisations are currently holding positions in DSE Board:
Trading.
The Dhaka Stock Exchange is open for trading Sunday through Thursday between 10:00am – 2:30pm BST, with the exception of holidays declared by the Exchange in advance.
In the month of Ramadan, the exchange is open for trading between 10:00am – 2:00pm BST.
There are a total of 599 Companies Listed on this Stock exchange. The listing provides an exclusive privilege to securities in the stock exchange. Only listed shares are quoted on the stock exchange. A stock exchange facilitates transparency in transactions of listed securities in perfect equality and competitive conditions. Listing is beneficial to the company, to the investor, and to the public at large.
2010–11 crash.
The bullish market turned bearish during November 2010, with the exchange losing 1,800 points between December 2010 and January 2011. Millions of investors have been rendered bankrupt as a result of the market crash. The crash is believed to be caused artificially to benefit a handful of players at the expense of the big players.


Tillya Tepe Buddhist coin

The Tillya Tepe Buddhist coin is a gold coin that was discovered at the archaeological site of Tillya Tepe in modern Afghanistan.
The gold coin from India was found in tomb IV (the male warrior). The archaeological site, as the coin, are dated to the beginning of the first century AD, that is late 1st century BC to early 1st century AD.
Background.
The coin was found in Afghanistan's Jowzjan Province, possibly the site of an early Indo-Iranian settlement. It was used as a necropolis for a wealthy family during the early Kushan period.
Since the time of the Buddha, Buddhist representations had been aniconic. This raises the possibility that this coin is one of the earliest, if not the earliest, representation of the Buddha.
Earlier connections between Greek deities and Buddhist symbolism appears on the coins of Indo-Greek kings such as Menander II (90–85 BC), in which Zeus, through Nike, can be seen handing a wreath of victory to a Wheel of the Law. Like other pieces found at Tilya Tepe, there is a mix of Western Hellenistic style with Gangetic and northwest Indian elements.
The coin is assumed to be destroyed or melted down by the Taliban in March 2001.
Ideography.
The ideography is the same as a plaster emblemata from Begram that depicts Heracles. Scholars have said the "representation seems to refer to the Vajrapani theme, which symbolizes the power of the Buddhist doctrine and tuition in Gandaharan art".
Iconography.
Obverse.
On the obverse can be seen a man who is almost naked rolling a wheel. The legend in Kharoshthi reads "Dharmacakrapravata[ko]" "The one who turned the Wheel of the Law". He is wearing nothing except a Hellenistic-style chlamys and a petasus hat (an iconography similar to that of Hermes/ Mercury). Various identities have been suggested for the being depicted on the coins, from Shiva to Zeus, and most often, the Buddha himself in an early representation.
Hermes was considered in ancient Greece as a psychopomp, an intercessor between mortals and the divine, and conductor of souls into the afterlife. Besides similarities in metaphysical roles, the similarity between the names of their respective mothers, Maya for the Buddha and Maia for Hermes, have often been noted, as well as the stories of their miraculous births.
Reverse.
On the reverse, it depicts a lion with the Buddhist symbol of the triratna, with the Kharoshthi legend "Sih[o] vigatabhay[o]" "The lion who dispelled fear".


Tosa Domain

The was a domain of the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan during the Edo period from 1601 to 1871.
The Tosa Domain was based at Kōchi Castle in Tosa Province, in the modern city of Kōchi, located on the island of Shikoku. The Tosa Domain was ruled for its existence by the "tozama daimyō" of the Yamauchi and its territory covered Tosa Province. Many people from the domain played important roles in events of the late Edo period including Nakahama Manjirō, Sakamoto Ryōma, Yui Mitsue, Gotō Shōjirō, Itagaki Taisuke, Nakae Chōmin, and Takechi Hanpeita. The Tosa Domain was renamed the during the early Meiji period until it was dissolved in the abolition of the han system in 1871 and became Kōchi Prefecture.
History.
Around 1400, Tosa Province was controlled by the Hosokawa clan, associates of the Ashikaga "shōguns".
By the 16th century, Tosa Province was a base of the Chōsokabe clan, which briefly controlled the entire island of Shikoku under Chōsokabe Motochika from 1583 until he was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the Invasion of Shikoku in 1585. Motochika fought for Hideyoshi in the Kyushu Campaign and the invasions of Korea. The next "daimyō" Chōsokabe Morichika joined the pro-Toyotomi Western Army at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and was subsequently removed from Tosa by the victorious Tokugawa Ieyasu, who granted the domain to Yamauchi Kazutoyo. The Chōsokabe's retainers were mutinous, while Tosa peasants feared increased exploitation under the new lord and many fled across to the neighboring domains. Kazutoyo came in with only 158 mounted men, and had to petition the new government of the Tokugawa shogunate for help in pacifying his new domain. This was achieved by "ruse and violence ... Two boatloads containing 273 heads were sent to Tokugawa headquarters to demonstrate Yamauchi efficiency, and another 73 dissidents were crucified on the beach."


2000 in Afghanistan

The following lists events that happened during 2000 in Afghanistan.
Events.
March.
Ismail Khan, a former governor of Herat and leading opponent of the ruling Taliban regime, escapes from prison in Kandahar.


Timeline of Nagasaki

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Nagasaki, Japan.
References.
"This article incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia."


Echizen-Katsuyama Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. It was based at Katsuyama Castle in eastern Echizen Province in what is now the city of Katsuyama in Fukui Prefecture. It was ruled during most if its history by a cadet branch of the Ogasawara clan.
History.
After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu awarded Echizen Province to his second son, Yūki Hideyasu as a 690,000 "koku" domain. Hideyasu assigned the area to Hayashi Sadatada as a 9800 "koku" fief; however, Hayashi was dispossessed in 1612 by Hideyasu's son, Matsudaira Tadanao. Tadanao was in turn dispossessed by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1623, and Fukui Domain was divided, with Yūki Hideyasu's 5th son, Matsudaira Naomoto receiving a 30,000 "koku" domain centered at Katsuyama. This marked the start of Katsuyama Domain, although initially it was somewhat ambiguous as to whether or not Katsuyama was independent, or a subsidiary of Fukui Domain. In 1635, Matsudaira Naomoto was transferred to neighbouring Ōno Domain, and his younger brother, Matsudaira Naoyoshi became "daimyō". In 1644, he was also transferred to Ōno Domain, and Katsuyama Domain became extinct. In 1686, its territories were transferred from Fukui Domain to the shogunate, and it became "tenryō" territory.
In 1691, Katsuyama Domain was restored as a 22,000 "koku" holding for Ogasawara Sadanobu, formerly of Takasu Domain in Mino Province. The Ogasawara clan continued to rule Katsuyama until the end of the Edo period, suffering from more than ten peasant uprisings brought about by famine, natural disasters and crop failure.
During the Boshin War of the Meiji restoration, Katsuyama Domain quickly sided with the new government, and was assigned to the policing of Kyoto in 1868. In 1869, the 8th (and final) Ogasawara "daimyō", Ogasawara Nagamori became imperial governor until the abolition of the han system in July 1871.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
Like most domains in the han system, Katsuyama consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields,
List of "daimyō".
Ogasawara Sadanobu.
 was an Edo period "daimyō". He was the son of Takagi Sadakatsu, a "kōtai yoriai" official within the shogunate administration and was born in Mino Province. As his mother was a daughter of Ogasawara Nobuyuki, he was adopted as heir to Sekiyado Domain, becoming "daimyō" in 1640. However, as he was only 10 years old at the time, the shogunate decided that he was too young for such an important post, and transferred him to Takasu Domain two months later. In 1691, he was transferred to the newly revived Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He served as "Osaka Kaban" from 1692-1693. The posting proved to be expensive, and he attempted to raise taxes in the domain to compensate. This resulted in a peasant's revolt and rioting for several years, with a delegation from the domain even appearing in Edo in 1697 to take their complaint to higher authorities. Sadanobu was forced to relent. he retired in 1702 to the clan residence in Honjō, but continued to meddle in clan government and affair, creating great confusion and disturbance to his death in 1702. HIs wife was the daughter of Ogasawara Masanobu. His graves are at the temple of Kaizen-ji in Taitō, Tokyo and the temple of Kaizen-ji in Katsuyama.
Ogasawara Nobutoki.
 was the 2nd "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was born as the eldest son of Ogasawara Nobuyuki, the youngest son of Ogasawara Sadanobu, and became "daimyō" in 1702 on the retirement of his grandfather. However, his grandfather continued to meddle in domain affairs even after retirement, resulting in conflicting instructions and orders, and dividing the domain's retainers into factions which were at continual conflict. He served as "Osaka Kaban" in 1703, 1706, 1711 and 1715, and also faced the addition expense of rebuilding the domain's Edo residence after a fire. He fell ill in 1719 and was unable to handle domain affairs, and in 1721 retired in favor of his son, taking the tonsure and the name of Kawachi Nyūdō (河内入道), He retired to Shiroyama onsen, and died in 1736. His wife was the daughter of Mizuno Tadanao of Matsumoto Domain. His grave is at the temple of Kaizen-ji in Katsuyama.
Ogasawara Nobunari.
 was the 3rd "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was born in Edo as the "hatamoto" grandson of Sakai Tadatsugu and was adopted by Ogasawara Nobutoki as heir in 1720. He became "daimyō" in 1721. He served as "Osaka Kaban" in 1724 and 1727; in 1726 a volcanic eruption caused crop failure and massive damage in the Katsuyama area, and while struggling with recovery, he was appointed "Osaka Kaban" again in 1730. Unable to cope with these pressures, he fell ill and died in 1730 without heir.
Ogasawara Nobutane.
 was the 4th "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. he was the second son of Honda Tadamune of Ise-Kanbe Domain, and was posthumously adopted as heir to the childless Ogasawara Nobunari, becoming "daimyō" in 1730. He underwent his "genpuku" ceremony in 1731. However, due to his youth, internal political factions within the domain, and the severe financial situation, he proved unable to handle the responsibilities of his office, and died of illness in 1745. His wife was the granddaughter of Nagai Naonobu of Iwatsuki Domain, but he died without heir.
Ogasawara Nobufusa.
 was the 5th "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was eldest son of Ogasawara Nobutoki, but had been bypassed in the succession and was adopted as posthumous heir to Ogasawara Nobutake, becoming "daimyō" in 1745. However, he was only 13-years-old and had poor health, and left domain affairs largely in the hands of senior retainers, who were forced to reduce taxation in 1771 due to peasant revolts. He fell ill in 1775, and resigned in 1780, retiring to Shiroyama Onsen where he died in 1762.
Ogasawara Nobumichi.
 was the 6th "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was eldest son of Ogasawara Nobufusa and became "daimyō" in 1780 on the retirement of his father due to illness. He codified the laws of the domain and attempted economic reforms by implementing a fiscal austerity program. However, these efforts were thwarted when the Katsuyama "jōkamachi" burned down in 1781 and the Great Tenmei famine hit the domain in 1783. Further, the domain's shimoyashiki in Edo burned down in 1786, and severe storms caused crop failure in 1791. A massive uprising occurred in 1797. He died in Edo in 1799 at the age of 40. HIs wife was a daughter of Nakagawa Hisasada of Oka Domain.
Ogasawara Nagataka.
 was the 7th "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was the eldest son of Ogasawara Nobumichi, and became "daimyō" on this father's death in 1799. Disaster continue to stalk the domain, with the Katsuyama "jōkamachi" (which had recently been rebuilt after a major fire in 1781) burning down again in 1799, and the domain's Edo residence burning down in 1803. In 1811, there was widespread famine in the domain due to crop failure, followed by a peasant's revolt in 1814. This was followed by the Tenpō famine of 1833-1837. Despite this background, he served as "sōshaban" in the shogunal administration in 1816, and from 1829 to 1840 as a "wakadoshiyori" under Shōgun Tokugawa Ieharu. His wife was a daughter of Sakai Tadahiro of Himeji Domain.
Ogasawara Nagamori.
 was the 8th (and final) "daimyō" of Echizen-Katsuyama Domain. He was the sixth son of Ogasawara Nagataka and became "daimyō" on his father's death in 1840. he was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyoshi in 1848. As he was underage at the time of his accession, the domain was run by senior retainers, who actively attempted to reform the domain governance and finances, encouraging new industries. A han school was founded in 1843, and the domain attempted to modernize its weaponry from 1848. These efforts were hindered by an order from the shogunate to contribute to flood control projects on rivers in the Kantō region and by damage caused by the Ansei great earthquakes of 1854-1855. In 1864, he was appointed as an "Osaka Kaban" and from 1865 the domain's military was called upon to assist with the policing of Kyoto. In the Boshin War of 1868, the domain quickly sided with the Meiji government, and he served as imperial governor of Katsuyama from 1869-1871. He retired in 1873. and spent his retirement in painting until his death in 1891.


Yoshimi Hundred Caves

The is a cluster of tombs dug in artificial caves in a tuff cliff of located in the town of Yoshimi, Saitama, in the Kantō region of Japan. It was designated as a National Historic Site on March 7, 1923. The Schistostega luminous moss growing at the site was also designated as a Natural Monument of Japan on November 30, 1928. The site is part of Hiki Hills Prefectural Natural Park.
Background.
The cliff is located on the northern slope of the , which overlooks the Nogawa, a tributary of the Arakawa River. The tombs, which actually number 219 and not one hundred, each have an opening approximately one meter square, with a narrow entrance tunnel leading to a larger chamber within, commonly two to three meters square, but occasionally extending several meters into the hill. The graves extend in several rows running west to east along the face of the hill, with the entrances varying slightly in size due to the topography. Most have an elevated structure within the internal chamber, which may have originally held coffins or the bodies of those interred, and some chambers have multiple pedestals, indicating that the burial chamber were used for multiple burials. The entrances to the caves appear to have formerly been blocked by schist slabs.
History.
The Yoshimi Hundred Caves were first excavated in 1887 by Tsuboi Shōgorō, a professor at Tokyo Imperial University and one of the pioneers of Japanese archaeology and anthropology. Tsuboi found Jōmon pottery fragments, along with "magatama", gold and silver rings, swords and bronze mirrors at the site, and postulated that the holes were originally cave dwellings for a race of people smaller than the modern Japanese, possibly the "Koro-pok-guru" people of Ainu legend, and were later converted into tombs by the invading Yamato peoples. However, his theory was challenged after further research in the 1920s, notably by Mitsutarō Shirai and other archaeologists, who argued that the structure of the caves and artifacts recovered were consistent with other late Kofun period tombs of the 7th century AD, and that there was no material evidence to indicate that the "Koro-pok-guru" were anything more than a folktale. In addition, similar artifacts have been found at the nearby Kaziwazaki Plateau, which contains a number of 5th to 7th century "kofun" burial mounds and the ruins of contemporary settlements. As the largest grave cluster in Japan it was designated as a National Historic Monument on March 7, 1923.
Despite the protected status, about one tenth of the site was destroyed during the final days of World War II, when some of the caves were enlarged in order to create an underground aircraft engine factory for Nakajima Aircraft Company by some 3,000-3,500 conscripted and volunteer laborers. The war ended before the factory came into operation.
The site is about a 20 minute walk from Higashi-Matsuyama Station on the Tōbu Tōjō Line. The site is partially open to the public.


Tokutan Castle

 was an early Heian period "jōsaku"-style Japanese castle located in what is now the town of Yahaba in Shiwa District, Iwate Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of far northern Honshū, Japan. The site was proclaimed a National Historic Site of Japan on 5 August 1969.
Background.
In the late Nara period, after the establishment of a centralized government under the "Ritsuryō" system, the Yamato court sent a number of military expeditions to what is now the Tōhoku region of northern Japan to bring the local Emishi tribes under its control. The Emishi were able to successfully resist the Japanese for several decades; however, in 802 AD, the "Chinjufu-shōgun" Sakanoue no Tamuramaro defeated Emishi chieftain Aterui, and many of the Emishi tribes in Shiwa region (the Kitakami River Valley) submitted to Japanese rule. In 803 AD, Shiwa Castle was established in what is now part of the city of Morioka to serve as an administrative center for the imperial government. However, the site was prone to flooding, and in 811 AD, a new site was selected approximately ten kilometers to the south. This was the start of Tokutan Castle.
Description.
Tokutan Castle was a square enclosure located on a river terrace on the western bank the Kitakami River, approximately 356 meters on each side, consisting of an earthen rampart surmounted by a wooden palisade. "Yagura" watchtowers were erected at 70-80 meter intervals, with gates in the center of each wall facing each of the cardinal directions. The southeastern corner of the castle was a swamp, and it is uncertain of the walls and palisade extended to this area. Also to the east of the castle is a 400 meter long remnant of a canal, which evidently once connected the castle directly to the Kitakami River. Tokutan Castle appeared to have been partially built on top of an earlier site, with dimensions of approximately 150 meters to a side, which was at an angle to, and extended further to the east than the later, larger, enclosure.
As with the earlier Shiwa Castle, in the center of the enclosure was a fortified compound containing buildings for local administration; however, as Tokutan Castle was considerably smaller in scale than Shiwa Castle, it had a garrison of approximately 500 men.
Although completed in 811 AD, Tokutan Castle was officially closed only four years later, in 815 AD. After its imperial garrison was withdrawn, the fortifications continued to be manned until sometime in the mid-9th century by the local militia (Emishi who were loyal to the Yamato court), but was eventually abandoned at some unknown time.
Current situation.
There are no physical remains of Tokutan Castle today, although its outline can be discerned by aerial photography. Japan National Route 4 cuts through the site north-to-south, and most of the site is occupied by the local Tokuda Elementary School. Despite its legally protected status, a large portion of the site was severely damaged by construction work during the reconstruction of Tokuda Elementary School.
On 31 July 2006 the Yahaba Town Board of Education announced that a wooden "kabuto" and other artifacts had been discovered at a well on the site.
The site is a park, containing the which displays a number of item recovered during archaeological investigations and construction work. It is approximately five minutes by car from the JR East Tōhoku Main Line Yahaba Station.


Konstantin Yurenev

Konstantin Konstantinovich Yurenev (), also known as Konstantin Konstantinovich Krotovsky () (1888 – 1 August 1938), was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician and diplomat.
Life and career.
Yurenev was born at Dvinsk station on the Riga-Orlov railway in the family of a railway watchman. He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1905 and later its Bolshevik faction in 1906. In 1908, he was arrested and sentenced to three years' exile in Arkhangelsk. When his term of exile was completed, he settled in St Petersburg, but split with the Bolsheviks their leader Vladimir Lenin pronounced that all Mensheviks were to be expelled from the RSDLP. In 1913, he co-founded the 'Inter-Borough Organisation' or Mezhraiontsy, who were neither Bolsheviks nor Mensheviks, but were inspired by the writings of Leon Trotsky. Yurenev was arrested, but acquitted at his trial in 1916 for lack of evidence. Anticipating that the prosecutor would appeal, he hid out for two months, then moved to Simferopol, where he was arrested and drafted into the Imperial Russian Army, but absconded after about ten days and returned to Petrograd (St Petersburg) to live illegally. In 1917, he played an active part in the February Revolution, and was elected to the executive of the Petrograd (St Petersburg) soviet.
Yurenev led the faction within the Mezhraiontsy who opposed merger with the Bolsheviks, whose organisation they considered too centralised and undemocratic, but in July 1917, after Trotsky had insisted that the merger go ahead, he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), and played a leading role in the Bolshevik Revolution as a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, and Chief of Staff of the Red Guards. He was in favour of creating a coalition government with other socialist parties, yet despite his concerns about one party rule, he helped found the Red Army as a member of the People's Commissariat for Military Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from February 1918, and head of the All-Russian Bureau of Military Commissars, a predecessor of the Political Directorate of the Soviet Red Army from April 1918.
During the Ninth Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1920, Yurenev again raised his long-held complaints about Bolshevik organisational methods. Possibly for that reason, he spent the rest of his career in positions well removed from the centre of power.
From May 1920 to May 1921 he was the Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Kursk Governorate Soviet. From 16 May 1921 until 1 February 1922 he was Plenipotentiary Representative of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic. After serving in Bukhara, from 1 February 1922 to 14 February 1923 he was Soviet Russia's Plenipotentiary Representative in Latvia. After his posting to Latvia, he was appointed as diplomatic representative of the Soviet Union to Czechoslovakia, and served in Prague from 14 February 1923 until 3 March 1924.
On 7 March 1924, Yurenev was appointed Plenipotentiary Representative of the Soviet Union to Italy. According to Alexander Barmine, who worked with Yurenev's in Bukhara and in Latvia, and visited him in Italy:
In July 1924, he hosted a banquet in the embassy for Benito Mussolini, only a month after the murder of Giacomo Matteotti, which had revolted liberal and communist opinion in Italy. He followed it by inviting Mussolini to a reception to mark the 7th anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution. This provoked a protest from the Central Committee of the Italian Communist Party, and from the Comintern representative in Italy, Jules Humbert-Droz, who demanded Yurenev's dismissal. Alexander Barmine claimed that Yurenev ignored advice from his own staff and from Moscow by entertaining Mussolini, but his actions were in line with Soviet foreign policy, which was to build alliances with the countries that lost out from the Treaty of Versailles.
From 24 April 1925 to 5 August 1927 Yurenev served as the Plenipotentiary Representative of the USSR in Persia; from 1 October 1927 to 24 January 1933 he was Plenipotentiary Representative of the Soviet Union in Austria; from 29 January 1933 until 16 June 1937 he was Plenipotentiary Representative of the Soviet Union in Japan, and from 16 June until 11 October 1937 he was Plenipotentiary Representative of the Soviet Union in Germany.
Yurenev was arrested on 23 September 1937, during the Great Purge. He was named repeatedly during the third Moscow show trial, in March 1938, as an alleged Trotskyite and Japanese spy. And eventually executed on 1 August 1938. He was rehabilitated in 1956.


7th century in architecture

"See also:"
6th century in architecture,
8th century in architecture, and the
timeline of architecture.


Maspii

The Maspii were an Iranian tribe from Persis ("Parsa" in Old Persian) or Persia, in modern southwestern Iran. This tribe was one of the three main and leading Persian tribes (the Persians were and are one of the Iranian peoples) alongside the Maraphii and the Pasargadae (from this later tribe came the Achaemenid royal family).


Dibar Dighi

Dibar Dighi () is a pond in Patnitala Upazila, Naogaon District, Bangladesh.
History.
Dibar Dighi and Kaivarta Stambha Dibar Dighi (pond) with the Kaibvrta stambha (pillar) is located at a village on the northern side of Nazipur-Sapahar highway in Patnitala Upazila of Naogaon District. The dighi was excavated in the centre of an elevated mound measuring about 100 acres covering an area of 20 acres of land. The octagonal granite pillar known as Kaivarta Stambha stands in the centre of the tank. The apex of the pillar is crown shaped decorated with three inflated circular rings.
Sir Buchanon Hamilton visited the site in 1807-08 and measured the height of the pillar as 10.33 metres. Sir Alexandar Cunninghum visited the site in 1879-80 and reported the pillar's height as 9.14 metres. According to his report, the length of this pillar's underground portion was 2.5 to 3 metres, under-water length 4 metres and the length of visible portion over water was estimated as only 3 metres. He also reported that the length between each angle was 4 metres.
Dibar Dighi and Kaivarta Stambha.
It can be assumed from these historical evidences that the monument was built as a memorial of the victory of Kaivarta king Dibyak or Dibya in his war against king Mahipala II (1075-1080) of Pala dynasty. The pillar appears to be built by king Dibyak or his successor Rudak or Bhim sometime in the second half of the eleventh century. The name of the village as Dibar may be derived after the name of king Dibyak or Dibya.


Khudat

Khudat () is a town in the Caspian lowlands located in the northern section of Azerbaijan. It is a part of the Khachmaz District. It has a population of 14,442.
Khudat's time of historical significance took place in the 18th century, as the provincial capital of the Quba khanate under the rule of the Qajars. During this time, Hussein-khan, a native of the region, had spent time in Persia and adopted Shia Islam, creating favor in the eyes of the Shah, who granted him rule over both the Quba and Salyan khanates. Hussein-khan returned to the region and established his capital in Khudat. This period lasted until 1747, when Persian ruler Nadir Shah was assassinated. Hussein-Ali, great-great-grandson of Hussein-khan, decided to try to turn the Quba khanate into an independent country and moved his capital to Quba due to the better natural defenses it offered to Khudat. The city subsequently fell out of importance in Azerbaijan and has become a location for launching excursions into the popular beaches and resorts of the Nabran area.


Tennin (era)

 was a after "Kajō" and before "Ten'ei." This period spanned the years from August 1108 through July 1110. The reigning emperor was .


Miwnay

Miwnay was a 4th-century Sogdian woman, who has been abandoned and left destitute in Dunhuang, China, by her husband Nanai-dhat. Miwnay is known from Sogdian Ancient Letters (I and III).
In the Ancient Letter No. 1, Miwnay writes to her mother, Chatis, and explains her and her child's (Shayn) situation and says she has tried to find someone to take her to her mother’s house, but nobody is willing to help, so "I depend on charity from the Zoroastrian priest."
The Ancient Letter No. 3 is one of the letters of Miwnay to her husband, Nanai-dhat. She complains that her husband never answers her letters or sends money. "I obeyed your command and came to Dunhuang and did not observe my mother's bidding nor that of my brothers. Surely the gods were angry with me on the day when I did your bidding!". In the end of the letter, Miwnay says "I would rather be a dog's or a pig's wife than yours!"


Honda Tadatoshi


Melikawat

Melikawat (; ; there are other Chinese spellings as well) is an archaeological site located 18 miles (30 kilometres) south of Hotan, Xinjiang in north-western China. It was once a city that functioned as a major Buddhist center in the Kingdom of Khotan and may have been the kingdom's capital. The first inhabitants of the site were probably Tocharians. Today, the site contains the remains of walls, glass and pottery.


Maeda Narinaga

 was an Edo period Japanese samurai, and the 11th "daimyō" of Kaga Domain in the Hokuriku region of Japan. He was the 12th hereditary chieftain of the Kanazawa Maeda clan.
Narinaga was born in Kanazawa as Kamemachi (亀万千) later Katsumaru (勝丸) and become Inuchiyo (犬千代), the second son of Maeda Shigemichi, after Shigemichi had retired from his position as "daimyō". He was adopted by his uncle, Maeda Harunaga as heir in 1795, and was brought to Edo in 1796. In 1797, was received in formal audience by "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ienari in 1754 and was given a "kanji" from Ienari's name, thus becoming Maeda Narinaga. In 1802, Maeda Harunaga formally retired, and Narinaga officially became "daimyō", although Harunaga continued to control the domain until his death in 1810.
Narinaga was initially married to an adopted daughter of Tokugawa Munechika of Owari Domain. He later remarried to a daughter of the "Kampaku" Takatsukasa Masahiro.
Narinaga attempted some half-hearted political reforms during his tenure, and turned the domain over to his son, Maeda Nariyasu in 1822. He died two years later in 1824 at the age of 43.


Maeda Toshinao


Shimazu Estate

The was a "shōen" (estate or manor) in southern Kyushu of Japan, covering large portions of Satsuma, Ōsumi and Hyūga Provinces. It was the largest "shōen" of medieval Japan. The Shimazu clan took its name from this estate as the clan succeeded the position of "jitō" (land steward).
History.
Heian Period.
No contemporary source recorded the foundation of the Shimazu Estate. According to a document dated circa 1291, a "wasteland belonging to no one" was developed during the Manju era (1024–1028) and was donated to Kampaku (de facto ruler of Japan) Fujiwara no Yorimichi to break free from the provincial government's control. Another document states that its founder was Taira no Suemoto, the Dazai Daigen (high-ranking official of the administrative center of Kyūshū). It is likely that Taira no Suemoto was the founder of the "Chinzei Heishi", a branch line of the Taira clan in Kyushu. A notable member of the Chinzei Heishi was Ata Tadakage.
The Shimazu Estate originally covered Shimazu, Morokata District of southern Hyūga Province (modern-day Miyakonojō, Miyazaki Prefecture) but was soon expanded into the neighboring lands of the province. Under the patronage of the powerful Fujiwara clan, Taira no Suemoto exercised effective administrative control over the lands. In 1029, Taira no Suemoto even raided the government office of the neighboring Ōsumi Province but a fragmentary sources suggest that he was not punished severely.
The Shimazu Estate was expanded substantially in the first half of the 12th century. Large portions of Satsuma, Ōsumi (including the island of Tanegashima) and southern Hyūga became part of the estate, either as "ichien no shō" (estate under complete control) or "yose gōri" (where tax revenue was shared with the provincial government).
The Shimazu Estate was inherited by the Fujiwara family, but came under the control of the Taira clan in the second half of the 12th century. Yorimichi's 6th generation descendant, Kampaku Fujiwara no Motozane, was married to Taira no Moriko, a daughter of Taira no Kiyomori. After Motozane died in 1166, his widow Moriko managed the property of the Fujiwara clan. After Moriko's death in 1179, the estate was inherited by the Konoe branch family of the Fujiwara clan.
Kamakura Period.
With the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate, supporters of the Taira clan were replaced by the shōgun's retainers. In 1185, Koremune no Tadahisa was appointed as "jitō" of the Shimazu Estate. Although he was originally a retainer of the Konoe family, he moved in an inner circle of the shogunate for his kinship ties with the first shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo and his powerful retainer Hiki Yoshikazu. He was also appointed as the military governor of Satsuma, Ōsumi and Hyūga Provinces. Thereafter he claimed the clan name of Shimazu, which indicated the ownership of the estate.
By the time Tadahisa took the position of "jitō", the Shimazu Estate occupied 70% of agricultural fields of Satsuma Province although over 70% of the lands were "yose gōri" and were not under the estate's full control. A small portion of the Shimazu Estate in Satsuma was controlled by the Chiba clan. In Satsuma, the provincial government was fused with the Shimazu Estate, as a large overlap in membership between the two polities is observed. The Shimazu Estate's area of influence was smaller in Ōsumi Province, being just over half, and the largest part of the remaining portion was controlled by Ōsumi Shō-Hachimangū. However, it had a stronger control over the land, as over half of the lands were "ichien no shō". The provincial government and the estate remained largely separate entities.
In 1203, Shimazu Tadahisa was ousted from his positions as a "jitō" of the estate and the military governor of the three provinces because his relative Hiki Yoshikazu was annihilated by the Hōjō clan. He managed to regain the posts of the "jitō" of the Shimazu Estate "in Satsuma" (1213) and the military governor of Satsuma Province (1205). However, the "jitō" of the estate "in Ōsumi" and the military governor of Ōsumi Province were succeeded by the Hōjō clan. The Nagoe branch family of the Hōjō clan maintained the post of "jitō" in Ōsumi until the end of the Kamakura period. They sent the Higo clan to Ōsumi as deputy rulers. After the Hōjō clan was annihilated, one line of the Higo clan made itself autonomous in Tanegashima and began to claim the clan name of Tanegashima. The post of the military governor of Ōsumi Province was transferred from the Nagoe family to the Chiba clan in the early 1280s and then to the Kanesawa branch family of the Hōjō clan in the early 1290s. Because the Nagoe family kept the position of the jitō of the estate in Ōsumi, the military governor had to devote much effort to consolidate power. In fact, Kanesawa Tokinao actively incorporated the officials of the military government as his retainers and relabeled their lands as the "private territories of the military governor" (守護私領).
Even in Satsuma Province, the Shimazu clan's rule was not stable. As a result of the Jōkyū War, Satsuma's Kawanabe District came under the control of the Tokusō (mainline) family of the Hōjō clan. Hōjō's retainer, the Chikama clan, served as the district governor and deputy jitō of Kawanabe District.
Afterwards.
During the downfall of the Kamakura shogunate, Shimazu Sadahisa successfully sided with Ashikaga Takauji. In reward for his service, the Shimazu clan won back the "jitō" of the Shimazu Estate "in Ōsumi" and the military governor of Ōsumi and Hyūga Provinces. Because the military government and the estate in Ōsumi remained distinct entities, the Shimazu clan had much trouble regaining control over the province.


Malavas

The Malavas or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Malloi who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander's invasion in the 4th century BCE. Later, the Malavas migrated southwards to present-day Rajasthan, and ultimately to Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Their power gradually declined as a result of defeats against the Western Satraps (2nd century CE), the Gupta emperor Samudragupta (4th century), and the Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II (7th century).
The Malwa region in central India is named after them. The Malava era, which later came to be known as Vikram Samvat, was probably first used by them.
Before Common Era.
The Malavas are mentioned in several ancient Indian texts, including the "Mahabharata" and "Mahabhashya". According to the Mahabharata, the hundred sons of the Madra king Ashvapati, the father of Savitri were known as the "Malava"s, after the name of their mother, Malavi. Although Malavas are not actually mentioned by Panini, but his sutra V.3.117 mentions a number of tribes aa the "ayudhajivi samgha"s (those who live by the profession of arms) and the "Kashika" includes the names of the Malavas and the Kshudrakas in this group of tribes. The Malavas are actually mentioned in the "Mahabhashya" (IV.1.68) of Patanjali.
The location of the original homeland of the Malavas is not certain, but modern scholars generally connect them with the "Malli" or "Malloi" mentioned in the ancient Greek accounts, which describe Alexander's war against them. At the time of Alexander's invasion in the 4th century BCE, the Malloi lived in present-day Punjab region, in the area to the north of the confluence of the Ravi and the Chenab rivers.
Southwards migration.
Later, the Malavas (or at least a large population of them) migrated to present-day Rajasthan, possibly as a result of the Indo-Greek occupation of Punjab. They were probably headquartered at Malavanagara (present-day Nagar Fort), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered. These coins bear the legend "Malavanam jayah" ("victory of the Malavas"), and have been dated between 250 BCE and 250 CE. Several inscriptions dated in the Malava era have been found in various parts of Rajasthan, which suggests that the Malava influence extended to a wider part of Rajasthan.
It is also said that the Mallavas originally residing in the Punjab region migrated to Central India / Rajsthan under the impact of Huna invasion .
The Malavas ultimately migrated to the Malwa region in central India: this region was named after them sometime after the 2nd century CE.
Conflict against the Western Satraps.
Around 120 CE, the Malavas are mentioned as besieging the king of the Uttamabhadras to the south, but the Uttamabhadras were finally rescued by the Western Satraps, and the Malvas were crushed. The account appears in an inscription at the Nashik Caves, made by the Nahapana's viceroy Ushavadata:
Conflict with the Guptas.
In the 4th century CE, during the reign of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta, the Malavas most probably lived in Rajasthan and western Malwa. The Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta names the Malavas among the tribes subjugated by him. The Aulikaras who ruled in the Malwa region may have been a Malava clan, and may have been responsible the name "Malwa" being applied to the region.
Post-Gupta period.
Post-Gupta records attest to the Malava presence in multiple regions, including present-day Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Present-day Gujarat.
Xuanzang (also 7th century) locates Malava (transcribed as "Mo-la-p'o") in present-day Gujarat, describing Kheta (Kheda) and Anandapura (Vadnagar) as parts of the Malava country. Xuanzang suggests that this Malava country was a part of the Maitraka kingdom. Like Banabhatta, he describes Ujjayini ("Wu-she-yen-na") as a distinct territory, but unlike Banabhatta, he locates Malava to the west of Ujjayini. The 7th century Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, who defeated the Malavas, also locates them in present-day Gujarat. The 9th century Rashtrakuta records state that their emperor Govinda III stationed governor Kakka in the Lata country (southern Gujarat) to check the advance of the Gurjara-Pratiharas into Malava.
Present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Although the region that ultimately came to be known as Malwa included the Ujjain, the post-Gupta records distinguish between the territory of the Malavas and the region around Ujjain. Banabhatta's "Kadambari" (7th century) describes Vidisha in present-day eastern Malwa as the capital of the Malavas, and Ujjayini (Ujjain) in present-day western Malwa as the capital of the distinct Avanti kingdom. This Malava king was defeated by the Pushyabhuti king Rajavardhana around 605 CE, as attested by Banabhatta's "Harshacharita" as well as the Pushyabhuti inscripitions. The distinction between these Malava and Ujjain regions is also found in the writings of the 9th century Muslim historian Al-Baladhuri, who states that Junayd, the Arab governor of Sindh, raided Uzain (Ujjain) and al-Malibah (Malava) around 725 CE.
From 10th century onward, historical records use the term "Malavas" to refer to the Paramaras, who ruled the present-day Malwa region. It is likely that the Paramaras were not descended from the ancient Malavas, but came to be called "Malavas" after they started ruling the Malwa region named after the ancient Malavas. In the Yadava-prakasha's "Vijayanti" (c. 11th century), Avanti (the area around Ujjain) and Malava are stated to be identical. Thus, it appears that the present-day definition of Malwa became popular in the later half of the 10th century.
Malava era.
The era, which later became known as the Vikrama Samvat is associated with the Malavas. Initially it was mentioned as the "Krita" era and then as the "Malava" era. Most probably this era was mentioned as the "Vikrama" era for the first time in the Dholpur stone inscription of Chahamana ruler Chandamahasena in 898 CE.


806 in Japan

Events in the year 806 in Japan.


Teranohigashi Site

The is a complex archaeological site in the city of Oyama, Tochigi Prefecture, in the northern Kantō region of Japan. The site was designated a National Historic Site in 1995 by the Japanese government.
Overview.
The site is located approximately 43 meters above sea level at the eastern end of the Takaragi Plateau, which extends north to south on the right bank of the Tagawa River. The eastern side of the plateau is eroded by the Tagawa and Kinugawa rivers, with Mount Tsukuba to the southeast, Mount Shirane and Mount Akagi in the northwest, and Mount Kogen in the north. It is located about 7 kilometers east-northeast from Oyama city.
The site was discovered and partially excavated from 1990 to 1994 in conjunction with the development of an industrial park. Stone tools belonging to the late Japanese Paleolithic era were found at four locations, and the ruins of the middle to late Jōmon period (4600 to 4300 years ago) settlement with 74 pit dwellings, the ruins an early Kofun period burial mound and settlement, and traces of occupation in the Nara period and Heian period were found.
Of especial note was the discovery of a massive semi-circular ring embankment shaped like a donut with a diameter of about 165 meters north–south and embankment width of 15 to 20 meters, and a height of about two meters at its highest point.The embankment contained four layers of the red fired soil alternating with normal soil, indicating that the embankment was formed by repeated burning and compacting over many years. It is presumed that it was a ritual site in the Jōmon period rather than a defensive structure. It was constructed approximately 3800 years ago and maintained for at least 1000 years. Much of the eastern half has disappeared due to erosion, but four large sections remain.
A wide variety of artifacts, including earthenware, clay figurines, stone weights, and stone swords have been found. This site was designated as a National Historic Site as it provides valuable materials for studying the settlements, social structures, lifestyles and transitions over several thousand years of continual settlement. In 2004, the site was opened as an archaeological park named "Oyama Jōmon Festival Square". It is located about 5 minutes by car from Yūki Station on the JR East Mito Line.


Province of Apulia and Calabria

Apulia and Calabria () was a Late Roman province in Apulia and Calabria in southern Italy. Its capital was Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia).


Oyumi Domain

 was a Japanese domain of the Edo period, located in Shimōsa Province (modern-day Chiba Prefecture), Japan. The site of the Oyumi "jin'ya" is now under a residential area of the city of Chiba. The domain was ruled through its entire history by the Morikawa clan.
History.
Oyumi Domain was created in February 1627, when Morikawa Shigetoshi, a "hatamoto" in the service of Shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada acquired holdings in Sagami, Kazusa and Shimōsa Provinces with revenues exceeding the 10,000 "koku" necessary to qualify as a "daimyō". He was allowed to build a "jin'ya" on the site of the Sengoku period Oyumi Castle. He later rose to the post of "rōjū", and committed "junshi" on the death of Tokugawa Hidetada. His successors continued to rule Oyumi Domain until the Meiji Restoration.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Oyumi Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.
The domain was centered on what is now Chuo Ward and Midori Ward of the city of Chiba.


Syria Euphratensis Prima


Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu

 was a Japanese noble, statesman, general, and poet of the early Heian period. A member of the Hokke, he was the second son of the "udaijin" Fujiwara no Uchimaro. He attained the court rank of and the position of "sadaijin", and posthumously of and "daijō-daijin". He was also known as .
Life.
In the court of Emperor Kanmu, Fuyutsugu held posts as chief judge and then as a captain in the imperial guard. Upon Emperor Heizei's ascension in 806, Fuyutsugu was promoted to and . The next year, he was promoted to . Even while so supporting Crown Prince Kamino, he also held a position as chamberlain, and as in the "daijō-kan".
In 809, Emperor Saga assumed the throne, and Fuyutsugu was promoted at a stroke to and in the Imperial Guard. As a close aide of the emperor since his days as crown prince, Fuyutsugu had Saga's deep trust, and when the was created as a new secretarial organ for the emperor in response to the Kusuko Incident, Fuyutsugu was made its first head, along with Kose no Notari. In 811 he was promoted to "sangi", thus joining the "kugyō". He continued to be promoted quickly under Emperor Saga, including to in 814 and "chūnagon" in 816. In 819, he was appointed "dainagon", making him the head of the cabinet. With this Fuyutsugu finally surpassed Fujiwara no Otsugu of the Shikike, one year his senior, who had found great success under Emperor Kanmu and made "sangi" ten years before Fuyutsugu did. In 821, Fuyutsugu was promoted to "udaijin".
In the court of Saga's successor Emperor Junna, Kanmu's son, Otsugu was promoted to "udaijin" in 825, pushing Fuyutsugu to "sadaijin". Fuyutsugu died on August 30, 826, at the age of 52, with the ranks of , "sadaijin", and general of the imperial guard. Immediately after his death, he was granted the posthumous rank of . When his grandson Emperor Montoku ascended to the throne in 850, he granted Fuyutsugu the additional posthumous rank of "daijō-daijin".
Personality.
According to the Nihon Kōki, Fuyutsugu was talented and magnanimous, gentle and calm. Able in both literary and military arts, he had a flexible viewpoint, and his generous attitude with others brought him favor. He also made charitable donations to the poor from his wages.
Aside from his political activities, Fuyutsugu strove to unite the Fujiwara clan with himself as its head. He built as a dormitory for young Fujiwara students, constructed the South Octagonal Hall at Kōfuku-ji, and made a large donation to the free pharmacy built by Empress Kōmyō.
Fuyutsugu contributed to the editing of several works, including the Nihon Kōki. His "kanshi" poems are included in the Ryōunshū, Bunka Shūreishū, and Keikokushū, and the Gosen Wakashū contains four of his waka.


Saimaluu Tash

Saimaluu Tash (meaning 'embroidered' or 'patterned stones' in Kyrgyz) is a petroglyph site in Jalal-Abad Province, Kyrgyzstan, south of Kazarman. Over 10,000 carved pictures—and perhaps as many as 11,000—which are black-and-white rock paintings, have so far been identified, making the site a globally important collection of rock art. They are a sacred display of offerings of the ancient people of the lower valley.
The site was proposed for listing under the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites by the Kyrgyz National Commission for UNESCO on 29 January 2001. It is listed under the UNESCO's Tentative List as "Saimaly-Tash Petroglyphs" for inscription under Cultural Category under Criteria: (iii), (iv) and (vi).
Location.
The petroglyph site is located on the Ferghana Range at about in two high valleys, separated by a low mountain ridge. The site is away to the south of Kazarman. From Kazarman village for a short distance there is a road on which only jeeps can ply but the rest of the way to the site can be reached in about a day on foot or horseback, but only around the month of August. It is a strenuous climb. At other times, snow conditions make it impractical to reach. The trek involves three days by jeep and seven days by horse.
Etymology.
The meaning of 'Saimaluu-Tash' in Kyrgyz language is "place of patterned or embroidered stone".
History.
The petroglyphs created in large galleries are thought to date from the early 2000 BC to 3000 BC of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, and up into the Middle Ages (8th century AD). Bronze Age settlers had a sacred tradition of inscribing petroglyph. This continued during the Iron Age from 800 BC, and variants persevered for several hundred years to the medieval period, when Scythian and Turkic people did it.
It is also said that from 8th century BC to first century AD, Saka-Usun period prior to the Kyrgyz, people settled here. The Saka priests used this site for sacrificial rites to the sun god and their settlements are said to be submerged in the Cholpon-Ata bay. The site was sacred to the people of Tien Shan and Pre Ferghana, and is even now sacred to the modern generation of Kyrgizians for spiritual and healing qualities. It is part of the spiritual ethos of the peoples' "religious beliefs and their worship of mountains, nature, totems and solar cosmic images." The site was first recognized by Russian cartographers in 1902 when they were carrying out surveys in the area for a road project to link a military camp between Jalal-Abad and Naryn; this road is now in use via Kazaeman. One of the cartographers, Nikolai Khludov, who had heard tales from a shepherd of "painted stones" in close vicinity to their camp, decided to examine the site with a team of surveyors. He reported his findings of the petroglyphs to the Archaeological Society of Tashkent. This society then mounted an expedition to further examine the site. However, the site was forgotten until 1950. After an excavation was conducted, the petroglyphs were specifically identified, numbered and their age determined. It is now under sporadic investigation by the Institute of Archaeology in Bishkek. Neolithic age petroglyphs are on display in the Kyrgyz State Historical Museum.
Features.
Archaeologists have bifurcated the site, calling the parts "Saimaluu-Tash 1" and "Saimaluu-Tash 2."
Saimaluu-Tash 1, which extends over a length of , contains petroglyphs etched on shining basaltic stones. It is believed that they were "votive offerings" brought from the lower valleys. There is a small lake here where shamans used to perform sacred rites. Petroglyphs of several designs at this site have been identified on stones. The most common designs are animals like ibex (the long-horned ibex of the Turkish era was more frequent), horses, lions, and wolves. Another common drawing is of hunting scenes of deer, large antlers in particular; in this scene the hunters are shown using bows, arrows, and spears to hunt the animals. Agricultural operations such as tilling the land were a common theme. Other scenes are of ritual dances, the sun, wavy designs representing the flow of rivers, and sexual scenes. The artists perhaps portrayed their feelings of gratitude to the spirits of the mountain after a good crop or a successful hunting expedition.


Hatomander

The was an electoral reform proposed in the 1950s by Japanese prime minister Ichirō Hatoyama and his third cabinet. His plan was to replace the SNTV multi-member constituencies for the House of Representatives (usually called "chū-senkyo-ku", "medium electoral districts", in Japanese) entirely with First-past-the-post single-member districts ("shō-senkyo-ku", "small electoral districts"). The change would have made it easier for Hatoyama's Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) to gain a two-thirds majority on its own, enabling him to pursue his plan to change the Japanese Constitution, particularly Article 9. The plan faced strong opposition led by the Japanese Socialist Party (JSP) that accused Hatoyama of wanting to "hatomander" the electoral districts to his needs. An electoral reform bill was presented to the Diet in March 1956, passed the House of Representatives in May 1956, but was not voted on in the House of Councillors in a still ongoing debate at the end of the Diet session. The LDP failed to win a majority in the House of Councillors election in July, and the plan was shelved.
A second attempt to introduce "small" electoral districts, but this time under a parallel voting system with proportional representation, was made by LDP president and prime minister Kakuei Tanaka in 1973. The left still opposed the plan fiercely – this time its opponents called it the Kakumander (カクマンダー, "kakumandā"). Even the LDP couldn't fully agree on a reform bill, so it never came to a vote in the Diet. A third drive for single-member districts under LDP president and prime minister Toshiki Kaifu in 1991, again under a parallel voting system, sometimes referred to as the "Kaimander", already faced strong opposition within the LDP and didn't succeed. Some, among them LDP secretary general Ichirō Ozawa, also argued for the original "Hatomander" consisting exclusively of single-member districts.
During the ultimately successful debate over electoral reform in the 1990s, parts of the JSP remained opposed to the introduction of single-member districts creating friction in the anti-LDP multi-party coalition under Morihiro Hosokawa. An electoral reform bill was eventually launched in 1994 that – unlike the original "Hatomander" plan – also introduced a parallel voting system in which about a third of seats are filled by proportional representation. The breakaway New Socialist Party, a splinter group of five leftist Socialist members of parliament who left the JSP in 1996 when it renamed itself the Social Democratic Party (SDP), remained strictly opposed to the new single-member districts.
The SDP, unlike the JSP a minor party, the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) and Kōmeitō have lost most of their district seats following the electoral reform to the LDP and the Democratic Party (DPJ) that emerged as the second major party from the party realignments of the 1990s. In 2009, the SDP won three district seats in an electoral cooperation with the DPJ, Kōmeitō and JCP only won proportional seats. While the new electoral system produced two strong parties, the parallel voting system ensured that the smaller parties in parliament were not completely eliminated as the original Hatomander plan had intended.


Takayashikidate Site

The is an archaeological site containing the ruins of a fortified settlement dating to the Heian period in what is now part of the city of Aomori, Aomori Prefecture, in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The ruins were designated a National Historic Site in 2012 by the Japanese government.
Overview.
During the middle Heian period, the very far northern portion of Mutsu province was only tenuously within the control of the central government and was largely in the hands of Emishi tribes. In the latter half of the 11th century, the region experienced several major conflicts, including the Zenkunen War and Gosannen War.
Takayashikidate site has a protected area of approximately 30,000 square meters (500 meters north-south by 90 meters east-west), in the center of which are the ruins of a fortified village inhabited from the 10th century through the 12th century AD, or the middle to end of the Heian period. The settlement was surrounded by a moat, which ranged from six to eight meters in width and up to four meters deep, with an earthen rampart and wooden palisade. The moat and rampart were penetrated by a gate which had many pillars, and the settlement itself contained at least 86 buildings, some of which were pit dwellings and some of which were stilt-pillar buildings connected by passageways. The settlement itself measured approximately 110 meters north-south by 80 meters east-west. The location of the site is on a fluvial terrace on the west bank of the Daishaka River at an altitude of 35-45 meters.
The site was discovered in 1994, during construction of the Namioka Bypass on Japan National Route 7. Partial excavation work was undertaken from 2004 to 2005 by the Aomori Board of Education, and approximately half of the settlement area was excavated. As a result of the excavation, the route of the bypass was shifted to the west to preserve the site.
A large number of artifacts were discovered, including fragments of cloth, housing materials, Sue pottery, lacquerware, agriculture tools, smithing tools and accessories and weapons. Due to the large amount of iron slag discovered, it appears that the settlement was a center for blacksmithing or metal working
The settlement was abandoned for unknown reasons, and the moat became filled in. The area was subsequently used as an orchard. The site is approximately five minutes by car from the JR East Namioka Station.


Akita Nobusue


List of Cultural Properties of Japan - archaeological materials (Okinawa)

This list is of the Cultural Properties of Japan designated in the category of for the Prefecture of Okinawa.
National Cultural Properties.
As of 1 January 2015, two Important Cultural Properties have been designated, being of national significance.
Prefectural Cultural Properties.
As of 1 May 2014, two properties have been designated at a prefectural level.
Municipal Cultural Properties.
As of 1 May 2014, one property has been designated at a municipal level.


Shima ruins

The is an archaeological site containing the ruins of a Kofun period (4th to 7th century AD) settlement located in what is now part of the city of Yamagata in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The site received protection as a National Historic Site of Japan in 1966.
Overview.
The site is located is a rice paddy field approximately four kilometers northwest of Yamagata Station, in is a low-lying swampy area formed by the alluvial fan of the Umamizaki River. It was discovered during an infrastructure maintenance project in 1961.
In the first of six excavations conducted between 1962 and 1964, the foundations of one flat-type and three stilt-type buildings were found. Subsequently, dozens of house and granary foundations over a 3.2 hectare area were discovered. Since the area was a lowland and poorly drained, the pillars used in the construction of the buildings were driven deep into the ground, in some cases up to 1.6 meters. This enabled many of their bases to survive while the tops rotted away. In addition to the building foundations, a large number of Haji ware and a smaller number of Sue ware earthenware shards, and horse fittings, wooden farming tools (such as hoes, shovels, forks and "geta" wooden clogs were found, as well as a large amount of carbonized rice.
The village began to form in the early Kofun period (4th century) from the appearance of the earthenware, and is considered to have reached its peak in the latter period (7th century). The low-oxygen content of the swamps on which the Shima ruins are located helped to preserve these wooden artifacts, which would have normally decayed. The foundation posts were driven deeply into the soil and would have extended three to four meters above ground. An unusual type of "magatama" beads were also found on the site.
These excavated items are exhibited at the Yamagata Manabi Museum and the Yamagata Prefectural Museum. Part of the site was opened to the public as the and is approximately 25 minutes on foot from the Higashi-Kanai Station on the JR East Aterazawa Line.


2003 in Philippine television

The following is a list of events affecting Philippine television in 2003. Events listed include television show debuts, finales, cancellations, and channel launches, closures and rebrandings, as well as information about controversies and carriage disputes.


Origin of the Gurjara-Pratiharas

The origin of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty of India is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, but have been described as "Gurjara" by their neighbouring kingdoms. Only one particular inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva mentions him as a "Gurjara-Pratihara".
According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see Gurjara-desha) originally ruled by the Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe. Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or a foreign tribe who had migrated to India somewhere around 5th century. A related question is whether the modern Gujjars are representatives of the ancient Gurjara tribe or not.
Earliest mentions of the terms.
The earliest mentions of the terms Gurjara, Pratihara and Gurjara-Pratihara in historical records have been analyzed by scholars to determine the origin of the dynasty.
Pratihara.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas as well as the Pratiharas of Mandor used the self-designation "Pratihara". They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is described as the brother of king Rama in the Sanskrit epic "Ramayana". The 837 CE Jodhpur inscription of the Mandor Pratihara ruler Bakuka states that the younger brother of Ramabhadra (Rama) served as a "pratihari" (door keeper) to his elder brother, because of which his descendants came to be known as Pratihara. The Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mihira Bhoja says that Saumitri ("son of Sumitra", that is, Lakshmana) acted as a door-keeper for his elder brother as he defeated the enemies in a battle with Meghanada.
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri theorized that the ancestors of the Pratiharas served the Rashtrakutas, and the term "Pratihara" derives from the title of their office in the Rashtrakuta court.
Gurjara.
The 6th century Tamil text "Manimekalai" mentions a temple of "Kucharakudihai" or "Kuchcarakudihai" workmanship. Some scholars interpret this word as the Tamil transliteration of "Gurjara". However, Krishnaswami Aiyangar doubts the accuracy of this interpretation.
The earliest undebatable references to the word "Gurjara" date back to 7th century:
Other early epigraphic evidence includes:
Gurjara-Pratihara.
The Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva describes him as a Gurjara-Pratihara. According to Puri, he might have been a scion of the Pratihara royal house of Kannauj.
Gurjara: Tribe vs country.
The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" in the Rajor inscription of Mathanadeva has been variously interpreted as "Pratihara clan of the Gurjara tribe" and "Pratihara of the Gurjara country". It contains a phrase: "all the fields cultivated by the Gurjaras". Scholars such as Rama Shankar Tripathi believe that this phrase makes it clear that the term "Gurjaras" here refers to a tribe or a group of people, rather than a region. Tripathi further argues that in Pampa's description of Mahipala as a Gurjara king can only refer to Mahipala's ethnicity, and not territory, since the Pratiharas ruled a much larger area of which Gurjara country was only a small part. Burjor Avari, a historian of South Asia, believes that the Gurjara and Pratihara were two clans among a larger tribal grouping in Rajasthan and that some elements of that larger federation later became known as Rajputs.
Critics of this theory, such as D. C. Ganguly, argue that the term "Gurjara" is used as a demonym in the phrase "cultivated by the Gurjaras". In his support, Ganguly cited a verse from Bana's "Kadambari", which uses the term "Malavi" ("women of Malva") to describe the women of Ujjain, which was located in the Malva region. K. M. Munshi similarly argued that the people residing in the "Gurjaradesa" (Gurjara country), whenever they migrated to other parts of the country, were known as Gurjaras. V. B. Mishra similarly argues that the expression "Gurjara Pratihārānvayah" may very reasonably be taken to mean the Pratihara family of the Gurjara country.
Ganguly further points out that several ancient sources clearly mention "Gurjara" as the name of a country or list it among territories. These sources, according to him, include the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, the Ragholi plates, and the Al Baladhuri's chronicle of Al Junayd's expeditions (723-726 CE). Several other ancient sources mention Gurjara as the name of a country. The Gurjara country is mentioned in Bana's "Harshacharita" (7th century CE). It is described in detail as a beautiful country in Udyotana Suri's "Kuvalayamala" (8th century CE, composed in Jalore), whose residents are also referred to as Gurjaras. Xuanzang also names Gurjara ("Ku-che-lo") as a country with its capital at Bhinmal ("Pi-lo-mo-lo"). The fourth book of Panchatantra contains the story of a "rathakāra" (charioteer) who went to a Gurjara village in the Gurjara country in search of camels.
A 795 CE inscription of Gallaka states that Nagabhata I, the founder of the Imperial Pratihara dynasty, conquered the "invincible Gurjaras". According to historian Shanta Rani Sharma, this makes it unlikely that the Pratiharas were themselves Gurjaras.
Foreign vs indigenous.
Among the scholars who believe that "Gurjara" was the name of an ancient tribe, there is disagreement over the original homeland of this tribe.
Foreign origin theory.
A. M. T. Jackson first proposed a foreign origin of the Gurjaras. This view was later endorsed by other historians, including Indian scholars such as D. R. Bhandarkar. Proponents of this theory point out that:
Another argument in favour of the foreign origin theory is the prevalence of seemingly non-Indo-Aryan names among the Pratiharas of Mandavyapura. This is the earliest known Pratihara dynasty, and according to some scholars such as R. C. Majumdar, the Gurajara-Pratiharas may have branched from this dynasty. Its earliest known member Harichandra was also known as "Rohilladhi"; another ruler Narabhatta had a second name "Pellapelli".
According to the Agnivansha legend given in the later manuscripts of "Prithviraj Raso", the Pratiharas and three other Rajput dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu. Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the Hindu caste system after performing a fire ritual. However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of "Prithviraj Raso". The legend was probably invented by the 10th century Paramara court-poet Padmagupta, whose "Nava-sahasanka-charita" uses it to describe the origin of the Paramaras. The 16th century Rajput bards probably extended this legend to include other dynasties including the Pratiharas, to foster Rajput unity against the Mughal emperor Akbar.
Indigenous origin theory.
Critics of the foreign origin theory, such as Baij Nath Puri, argue that:
The supporters of the native origin theory argue that the Gurjaras were well-assimilated in the Indo-Aryan society, unlike the well-known foreign tribes. For example, historical records mention Gurjara Brahmins; such a high varna status was not accorded to foreigners. There is no record of a Brahmin from Huna, Shaka or Yavana groups. But the 1250 CE Tasgaon inscription of the Yadava king Krishna mentions a Gurjara Brahmin from north India. The Pratiharas worshipped the native gods Shiva and Vishnu, and also patronized Jainism. For example, the Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of Mihira Bhoja begins with a salutation to Vishnu.
Moreover, the Pratihara dynasties of Mandor and Kannauj traced their origin to the legendary native hero Lakshmana of the Ikshvaku dynasty. The Gwalior inscription specifically describes the Pratihara king Vatsaraja as a Kshatriya from the Ikshvaku dynasty. The Pratihara court-poet Mahendrapala also supports this claim by describing him as a descendant of Raghu in "Viddhasala-Bhanjika" and "Bala-bharata". The proponents of the foreign origin theory argue that such claims are a characteristic of foreign settlers wanting to establish themselves as the natives. But there are several instances of indigenous dynasties claiming descent from mythological Indian heroes.
Scholars who identify "Kucharakudihai" mentioned in the "Manimekalai" as "Gurjara" argue that it is unlikely that a Huna architect was tasked with the construction of a Hindu temple in southern India in 6th century. However, as stated earlier, the accuracy of this transliteration is doubtful.
Original homeland in India.
R. C. Majumdar theorized that the place names such as Gujranwala, Gujar Khan, Gujaratra (a historical region in present-day Rajasthan) and Gujarat may indicate a gradual migration of a tribe named Gurjara from the north-west to the south. However, he did not believe that this tribe was necessarily of a foreign origin.
Historian Baij Nath Puri, on the other hand, theorized a migration in the opposite direction. According to him, the tribe would have not left the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain to settle in the semi-arid areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Puri believes that their homeland was the Arbuda region (present-day Mount Abu). He presents following arguments in support of hist theory:
Based on this, Puri proposes that Gurjaras were an obscure pastoral tribe living around Mount Abu area until sixth century, when they gained political power.
The term "Gurjaratra", from which the word "Gujarat" is derived, appears as the name of a geographical region starting from 8th century. It appears in the 918 VS Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuka. The undated Daulatpur grant of Bhoja of Mahodaya, placed in 8th century by L. F. Kielhorn, also mentions a person from Gurjaratra-Mandala. The locations mentioned in these inscriptions have been identified with areas around present-day Jodhpur. Puri theorizes that "Gurjaratra" was originally used as a generic term for any Gurjara-dominated settlement. Later, it came to denote the present-day Gujarat area. Jinadatta-Suri in his "Ganadharasarasataka" describes "Gujaratta" as the Chaulukya kingdom of Durlabharaja, with its capital at Anahilavada.
Puri goes on to connect the modern Gurjars with the ancient Gurjaras.
Capital before Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas established their control over the important city of Kanyakubja (modern Kannauj), and are noted for their involvement in the Tripartite Struggle for its control. Earlier colonial scholars believed that before establishing their control over Kannauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled Bhinmal (as mentioned in the writings of Xuanzang).
However, the discovery of the 871 CE Sanjan copper-plates and other evidence has now led historians to believe that the original Gurjara-Pratihara capital was at Ujjayini (modern Ujjain) in Avanti region. The Sanjan inscription of the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha states that his ancestor Dantidurga (r. 735–756 CE) performed a religious ceremony at Ujjayani. At that time, the king of Gurjara-desha (Gurjara country) acted as his door-keeper ("pratihara"). The usage of the word "pratihara" seems to be a word play, suggesting that the Rashtrakuta king subdued the Gurjara-Pratihara king who was ruling Avanti at that time. In addition, the Jain "Harivaṃśa" names one Vatsaraja as the ruler of Avanti as a contemporary of Indrayudha of Kannauj. Historians have identified this king as the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja.


Ilango Mutharaiyar

Ilango Mutharaiyar or Ko Ilango Mutharaiyar , also known as Videl Vidugu Ilangovathi Mutharaiyan, was the last ruler of the Mutharaiyar dynasty (610 AD-851 AD)..
Temples.
Vijayalaya choleeswaram
Narthamalai is from Trichy on the Pudukkottai - Trichy Highway. There can be seen one of the oldest rock-cut temples built by Ilango Mutharaiyar, which was later rebuilt by Vijayalaya Chola, known as Vijayalaya Choleeswaram. The temple is dedicated to Shiva. There are also two rock-cut caves, one of which has 12 life-size sculptures of Vishnu. The temple is maintained and administered by the Archaeological Survey of India as a protected monument.
Keezhathaniyam temple.
Mutharaiyar was responsible for the construction of a temple at Keezhathaniyam, about from Pudukkottai. Known as Uthamadhaneeswarar, it is dedicated to Shiva.


Takatsukasa Mototada

, son of Kanehira, was a court noble ("kugyo") of the Kamakura period. He held the regent position of Kampaku from 1268 to 1273. Fuyuhira was his adopted son.


Pemmasani Timmanayudu II

Pemmasani Timmanayudu II was a member of the Pemmasani Nayaks. He was the son of Pemmasani Ramalinga I and a contemporary of Vira Narasimharaya and Krishnadevaraya. After the death of his father, Timmanayudu went to inform the Vijayanagara Emperor of the progress made in developing the Rayalaseema region. The emperor was so pleased with what he heard that he made Timmanayudu the commandant of the Gandikota Fort on behalf of Saluva Govindaraja, its governor. Then, Timmanayudu gave control of Yadiki and Tadipatri, which were previously controlled by his ancestors, to a relative and shifted to Gandikota.
Timmanayudu strengthened Gandikota Fort, and he administered Gandikota "sima." The Kaifiyat of Tadipatri states that the Madhwa teacher Vysaraja passed through the estates of Timmanayudu while on his pilgrimage to Rameswaram. Vysaraja appointed a Madhawa archaka in a temple near Tadipatri.
While Timmanayudu was at Gandikota, his deputies continued developing Tadipatri and Yadiki. Timmanayudu also was involved in Tadipatri. Timmanayudu built the Chintalarayaswami Temple (Sri Chintala Venkataramana Temple) in Tadipatri after Vishnu supposedly told Timmanayudu in a dream that a temple should be constructed for him. Timmanayudu appointed two archakas and a chief-priest, and he gifted lands to the temple. The Chintalarayaswami Temple is considered as one of the finest examples of Vijayanagara architecture.
Timmanayudu had three children: Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu II, Erra Timmanayudu (Pedda Timmanayudu), and Chinna Timmanayudu. All three brothers would become "famous" in Vijayanagara history.