Qianling Mausoleum

The Qianling Mausoleum () is a Tang dynasty (618–907) tomb site located in Qian County, Shaanxi province, China, and is northwest from Xi'an. Built in 684 (with additional construction until 706), the tombs of the mausoleum complex house the remains of various members of the House of Li, the imperial family of the Tang dynasty. This includes Emperor Gaozong ( 649–83), as well as his wife, Wu Zetian, who assumed the Tang throne and became China's only reigning female emperor from 690–705. The mausoleum is renowned for its many Tang dynasty stone statues located above ground and the mural paintings adorning the subterranean walls of the tombs. Besides the main tumulus mound and underground tomb of Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian, there are 17 smaller attendant tombs, or "peizang mu". Presently, only five of these attendant tombs have been excavated by archaeologists, three belonging to members of the imperial family, one to a chancellor, and the other to a general of the left guard. The Shaanxi Administration of Cultural Heritage declared in 2012 that no further excavations would take place for at least 50 years.
History.
Emperor Gaozong's mausoleum complex was completed in 684 following his death a year earlier. After her death, Wu Zetian was interred in a joint burial with Emperor Gaozong at Qianling on July 2, 706. There are Tang dynasty funerary epitaphs in the tombs of her son Li Xián (Crown Prince Zhanghuai, 653–84), grandson Li Chongrun (Prince of Shao, posthumously honored Crown Prince Yide, 682–701), and granddaughter Li Xianhui (Lady Yongtai, posthumously honored as Princess Yongtai, 684–701) in the mausoleum that are inscribed with the date of burial as 706 AD, allowing historians to accurately date the structures and artwork of the tombs. In fact, the Sui and Tang dynasty practice of interring an epitaph that records the person's name, rank, and dates of death and burial was consistent amongst tombs for the imperial family and high court officials. Both the "Old Book of Tang" and "New Book of Tang" record that, in 706, Wu Zetian's son Emperor Zhongzong ( 684, 705–10, Li Chongrun's and Li Xianhui's father and Li Xián's brother) exonerated the victims of Wu Zetian's political purges and provided them with honorable burials, including the princess and two princes. Besides the attendant tombs of the royal family members, two others that have been excavated belong to Chancellor Xue Yuanchao (622–83) and General of the Left Guard Li Jinxing.
The five attendant tombs were opened and excavated in the 1960s and early 1970s. In March 1995, there was an organized petition to the Chinese government about efforts to excavate Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian's tomb.
Location.
The mausoleum is located on Mount Liang, north of the Wei River, and 1,049 m (3,442 ft) above sea level. The grounds of the mausoleum are flanked by valley to the east and canyon to the west. Although there are tumulus mounds to mark where each tomb is located, most of the tomb structures are subterranean. The tumulus mounds on the southern peaks are called "Naitoushan" or "Nipple Hills", due to their resemblance to the shape of nipples. The Nipple Hills, with towers erected on the top of each to accentuate the hills' name, form a gateway into Qianling Mausoleum. The main tumulus mound is on the northern peak; it is the tallest of the mounds and is the burial place of Gaozong and Wu Zetian. Halfway up this northern peak, the builders of the site dug a 61 m (200 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) wide tunnel into the rock of the mountain that leads to the inner tomb chambers located deep within the mountain. The complex was originally enclosed by two walls, the remains of which have been discovered today, including what was four gatehouses of the inner wall. The inner wall was 2.4 m (7.8 ft) thick, with a total perimeter of 5920 m (19,422 ft) enclosing a trapezoidal area of 240,000 m2 (787,400 ft2). Only some corner parts of the outer wall have been discovered. During the Tang dynasty, there were hundreds of residential houses that surrounded Qianling, inhabited by families that maintained the grounds and buildings of the mausoleum. The remains of some of these houses have since been discovered. The building foundation of the timber offering hall situated at the south gate of the mausoleum's inner wall has also been discovered.
Spirit way.
Leading into the mausoleum is a spirit way, which is flanked on both sides with stone statues like the later tombs of the Song dynasty and Ming Dynasty Tombs. The Qianling statues include horses, winged horses, horses with grooms, lions, ostriches, officials, and foreign envoys. The khan of the Western Turks presented an ostrich to the Tang court in 620 and the Tushara Kingdom sent another in 650; in carved reliefs of Qianling dated 683, traditional Chinese phoenixes are modelled on the body of ostriches. Historian Tonia Eckfeld states that the artistic emphasis on the exotic foreign tribute of the ostrich at the mausoleum was "a sign of the greatness of China and the Chinese emperor, not of the foreigners who sent them, or of the places from which they came". Eckfeld also asserts that the 61 statues of foreign diplomats sculpted in the 680s represents the "far-reaching power and international standing" of the Tang Dynasty. These statues, now headless, represent the foreign diplomats who were present at Emperor Gaozong's funeral. Historian Angela Howard notes that along the spirit ways of the auxiliary tombs—such as Li Xianhui's—the statues are smaller, of lesser quality, and fewer in number than the main spirit way of Qianling leading to Emperor Gaozong and Wu's burial. Besides the statues, there are also flanking sets of octagonal stone pillars meant to ward off evil spirits. A 6.3 m (20.7 ft) tall tiered stele dedicated to Emperor Gaozong is also located along the path, with a written inscription commemorating his achievements; this is flanked by Wu Zetian's stele which has no written inscriptions. An additional stele by the main tumulus was erected by the Qianlong Emperor ( 1735–96) during the mid-Qing dynasty.
Tombs.
The tomb chambers of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu are located deep within Mount Liang, a trend that was set by Emperor Taizong ( 626–49) with his burial at Mount Jiuzong. Of the 18 emperors of the Tang dynasty, 14 of these had natural mountains serving as the earthen mounds for their tombs. Only members of the imperial family were allowed to have their tombs located within natural mountains; tombs for officials and nobles featured man-made tumulus mounds and tomb chambers that were totally underground. Xinian Fu wrote that children of emperors were allowed tombs in the shape of truncated pyramids, but high-ranking officials and lesser tomb constructors could only have conical mounds. The conical tombs of officials were allowed to have one wall surrounding it, but only one gate—positioned to the south—was permitted. The attendant tombs feature truncated pyramid mounds above underground chambers that are approached by declining diagonal ramps with ground-level entrances. There are six vertical shafts for the ramps of each of these tombs which allowed goods to be lowered into the side niches of the ramps.
The main hall in each of these underground tombs leads to two four-sided brick-laden burial chambers connected by a short corridor; these chambers feature domed ceilings. The tomb of Li Xian features real fully stone doors, a tomb trend apparent in the Han and Western Jin dynasties that became more common by the time of the Northern Qi dynasty. The stylistic stone door of Lou Rui's tomb of 570 closely resembles that of Tang stone doors, such as the one in Li Xian's tomb.
Unlike many other Tang dynasty tombs, the treasures within the imperial tombs of the Qianling Mausoleum were never stolen by grave robbers. In fact, in Li Chongrun's tomb alone, there were found over a thousand items of gold, copper, iron, ceramic figurines, three-glaze colored figurines, and three-glaze pottery wares. Altogether, the tombs of Li Xian, Li Chongrun, and Li Xianhui had over 4,300 tomb articles when they were unearthed by archaeologists. However, the attendant tombs of the mausoleum were raided by grave robbers. Among the ceramic figurines found in Li Chongrun's tomb were horses with gilt decoration supporting armed and armored soldiers, horsemen playing flutes, blowing trumpets, and waving whips to spur their horses. Ceramic sculptures found in the tomb of Li Xian included figurines of civil officials, warriors, and tomb guardian beasts, all of which were over a meter (3 ft) in height.
Li Xianhui.
Li Xianhui was a daughter of the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang and Empress Wei. She was likely killed at the age of 16 by her grandmother Wu Zetian, along with her husband. After Wu Zetian's death, when her father came to the throne, she was reburied in a grand tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum in 705. Her tomb was discovered in 1960, and excavated from 1964. It had been robbed in the past, likely soon after the burial, and items in precious materials taken, but the thieves had not bothered with the over 800 pottery tomb figures, and the extensive frescos were untouched. The robbers had left in a hurry, leaving silver items scattered around, and the corpse of one of their number. The tomb had a flattened pyramid rising 12 metres above ground, and a long sloping entrance tunnel lined with frescos, leading to an antechamber and the tomb chamber itself, 12 metres below ground level with a high domed roof.
Murals.
The tombs excavated for Li Xian, Li Chongrun, and Li Xianhui are all decorated with mural paintings and feature multiple shaft entrances and arched chambers. Historian Mary H. Fong states that the tomb murals in the subterranean halls of Li Xián's, Li Chongrun's, and Li Xianhui's tombs are representative of anonymous but professional tomb decorators rather than renowned court painters of handscrolls. Although primarily funerary art, Fong asserts that these Tang tomb murals are "sorely needed references" to the sparse amount of description offered in Tang era documents about painting, such as the "Tang Chao minghua lu" ('Celebrated Painters of the Tang Dynasty') by Zhu Jingxuan in the 840s and the "Lidai Minghua ji" ('A Record of the Famous Painters of the Successive Dynasties') by Zhang Yanyuan in 847. Fong also asserts that the painting skill of portraying "animation through spirit consonance" or "qiyun shendong"—an art critique associated with renowned Tang dynasty painters like Yan Liben, Zhou Fang, and Chen Hong—was achieved by the anonymous Tang dynasty tomb painters. Fong writes:
Another important feature in the murals of the tomb was the representation of architecture. Although there are numerous examples of existing Tang stone and brick pagoda towers for architectural historians to examine, there are only six remaining wooden halls that have survived from the 8th and 9th centuries. Only the rammed earth foundations of the great palaces of the Tang capital at Chang'an have survived. However, some of the mural scenes of timber architecture in Li Chongrun's tomb at Qianling have been suggested by historians as representative of the Eastern Palace, residence of the crown prince during the Tang dynasty. According to historian Fu Xinian, not only do the murals of Li Chongrun's tomb represent buildings of the Tang capital, but also "the number of underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells have been seen as indications of the number of courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors in residences of tomb occupants when they were alive." The underground hall of the descending ramp approaching Li Chongrun's tomb chambers, as well as the gated entrance to the front chamber, feature murals of multiple-bodied "que" gate towers similar to those whose foundations were surveyed at Chang'an.
Ann Paludan, an Honorary Fellow of Durham University, provides captions in her "Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors" (1998) for the following pictures of Qianling tomb murals:


Ai Pelo Prison

Ai Pelo Prison or Aipelo Prison (, ) is an historic late nineteenth-century Portuguese colonial prison in the "suco", East Timor, adjacent to the Savu Sea. It was deactivated in 1939 and is now a ruin.
Etymology.
The expression "Ai Pelo" is apparently derived from the local Tocodede language word "epelo", which means "bitter water" and was used by the inhabitants of a nearby village to refer to the prison. According to a museum label panel now located at the prison, the description "bitter water" was a clear allusion to the mistreatments inflicted there.
History.
Construction of Ai Pelo Prison began in 1889. In that year, the main building with administration and prison cells was built, along with the adjoining barracks for the soldiers stationed there. The building work was probably initiated by Governor (in office 1887–1888). Two further buildings were constructed from 1914, to receive prisoners from Macau, where the prisons were overcrowded at that time.
The prison accommodated both common criminals and political prisoners. It also served as the administration headquarters and customs for the Portuguese colonial administration.
Ai Pelo detainees included civilians who refused to carry out forced labour or pay taxes. Governor José Celestino da Silva (in office 1894–1908) ordered that several Timorese "Liurais" be sent to Ai Pelo. Amongst the other prisoners held there was the Portuguese deportee Manuel Viegas Carrascalão, who was later released for good behaviour.
Prisoners were housed underground, submerged up to the knees in salt water from the nearby sea. Mistreatment is said to have been common practice, and included the mixing of broken glass with inmates' food.
The prison was deactivated in 1939. In that year, floods after heavy rains in Dili and Liquiçá claimed human lives and damaged infrastructure, including the prison.
During World War II, both Australian and Japanese bombs fell on the prison. Following the Japanese invasion of Portuguese Timor in 1942, the prison buildings that had weathered the heavy rains were converted by the Japanese into a command post. After World War II ended, the damaged buildings were not restored.
In May 2012, to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the restoration of East Timorese independence, and the centenary of the Manufahi Wars, the Secretary of State for Culture launched a restoration project aimed at converting the ruins of Ai Pelo Prison into a museum. During that year, a temporary exhibition on the history of the building was developed and installed. The plans for the project included the construction of a small museum, a venue for selling local products and a restaurant and coffee shop.
Architecture.
The prison's original set of buildings is a typical example of Portuguese colonial architecture of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The main building was constructed in a neoclassical and heavy style. The prison complex as a whole is now appreciated for both its historical and patrimonial value, and is regarded as an element of East Timor's national identity and union.


Dutch East India Company in the Malay Archipelago

The Dutch East India Company (, "United East India Company"; VOC) had a presence in the Malay archipelago from 1610 , when the first trading post was established, to 1800, when the bankrupt company was dissolved, and its possessions nationalised as the Dutch East Indies.
Background.
A 1596 Dutch expedition lost half its crew, killed a Javanese prince and lost a ship but returned to the Dutch Republic with a load of spices, the profit from which encouraged other expeditions.
Recognising the potential of the East Indies spice trade, and to prevent competition eating into Dutch profits, the Dutch Government amalgamated the competing merchant companies into the United East India Company (VOC). In 1602, the States General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly in the spice trade in Asia. It was awarded quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.
Early settlements.
In 1603, the first permanent Dutch trading post in Indonesia was established in Banten, northwest Java and in 1611, another was established at Jayakarta (later renamed 'Batavia' and then 'Jakarta').
VOC headquarters were in Ambon Island from 1610 to 1619, and although this was located centrally in the spice production areas, it was far from the Asian trade routes and other VOC activity ranging from Africa to Japan. A location in the west of the archipelago was thus sought; while the Straits of Malacca were strategic, the Portuguese conquest had made them dangerous, and the first permanent VOC settlement in Banten was difficult due to control by a powerful local ruler and competition from Chinese and English traders.
In 1604, a second British East India Company voyage to Maluku, and subsequent establishments of trading posts between 1611 and 1617 across the archipelago began Anglo-Dutch competition for access to spices as the Dutch monopolistic ambitions were threatened. Diplomatic agreements and co-operation between the Dutch and the English over the spice trade ended with the Amboyna massacre where ten Englishmen were tortured and killed for conspiracy against the Dutch government, following which the English withdrew from their Indonesian activities (except in Banten).
In 1619, Jan Pieterszoon Coen was appointed Governor-General of the VOC. On 30 May 1619, Coen, backed by a force of nineteen ships, stormed Jayakarta, driving out the Banten forces, and from the ashes, established Batavia as the VOC headquarters.
Expansion.
Coen's plans had included making Batavia the centre of intra-Asian trade spanning from Japan to China, Burma, Indonesian archipelago, and Ceylon as far as Persia, by employing Ambonese mercenary and Chinese labour to develop the spice trade. Although this plan was never realised, Coen managed to establish a Dutch monopoly of the spice trade through an alliance with Ternate Sultanate in 1607 to control the production of cloves, and the occupation of the Banda Islands gave control of the nutmeg trade. The Dutch captured Melaka from the Portuguese in 1641 giving them control of the region's seas. Beginning in 1600, the Dutch came into conflict with the Spanish in the region. Several Dutch fleets invaded the Spanish Philippines, although these did not manage to capture territory there and peace was established in 1648 through the Peace of Westphalia.
By the mid-17th century, Batavia had become an important trade centre. It had repelled attacks from the Javanese Mataram kingdom. The Dutch defeated the Sulawesi city of Makassar in 1667 thus bringing its trade under VOC control. Sumatran ports were also brought under VOC control and the last of the Portuguese were expelled in 1660. In return for monopoly control over the pepper trade and the expulsion of the British, the Dutch helped the son of the ruler of Banten overthrow his father in 1680.
VOC policy at this time was to concentrate on its trading posts and to not become involved in costly territorial conquest. However, the company became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten (Bantam). The VOC reached an accord with the "susuhunan" (king) of Mataram, Java's dominant kingdom, that only allowed Dutch ships to trade within the archipelago.
Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the world's richest colonial possessions.
Impacts.
The most profound VOC impact on Indonesian native polities was their technology, especially in weaponry and shipping. With this technology they were able to assert relative superiority upon native kingdoms, especially in the Mollucas and Java. Although firearms and cannons were already brought by previous European colonisers, the Portuguese, it was the Dutch VOC that used them quite extensively in their conquest on the Indonesian archipelago, as well as wrestled some of Portuguese ports and colonies in Asia, such as Malacca, Ceylon and Ambon. VOC involved deeper into the Mataram court's intrigue and exploited the Javanese royalties tendencies to disintegrate, allowing them to gain a firm foothold in Java.
Another VOC tremendous impact was the change of trade systems in the Indonesian archipelago. By enforcing the monopoly policy on spice trade, VOC had to eradicate the previous trading system where large numbers of ports, kingdoms and traders participated. This led to the opposition of Asian trading polities, which made VOC involved in a series of battles and conquests.
VOC personnel lived separate to indigenous Indonesians, and Dutch people ranked low in indigenous status systems. As such, while the VOC introduced objects, techniques, and corporate organisation into Indonesian society, its impact on Indonesian thinkers was minimal. Rather, at a time when Europe was denouncing autocratic rule, hierarchy and hereditary rights, the VOC borrowed these values from Indonesian societies. Governors-general acted like royalty and did not leave the enclaves they had established, and like Indonesian royalty, they employed the local nobility and Chinese agents to organise labour.


Soroda dynasty

The Soroda dynasty were the rulers of Soroda, a region in India located in Ganjam District near Berhampur in the present state of Odisha, India. The Soroda dynasty originates from the Khidisingi clan who were the descendants of the Nala dynasty of the Kalinga region. They are contemporary to Raja Mukunda Dev-I of Puri and the same is reflected in all the 24 volumes of Raja Mukunda Dev of Puri.
According to the Census Report of T.J. Maltobi of 1880, the Khidisingi Estate was established in 1168 by Raja Sobha Chandra Singh of Sabeijaipur. He was crowned by the Tribal Chief Pattamalik (Last Kandha king of Khidisingi) and his four sons on the order of Goddess Barahi. The Khidisingi estate was bounded by Hinjalak(Hinjili) in the east, Kalahandi, Jaipore and Gadapur in the west, Khimandi in the south and Ghumusar in the north. They were devotees of Goddess Khambeswari or Stambeswari. Goddess Kandhunidevi is one of the Chata Khamba. Their Gotra is Parasara.
Seven generations of Raja Sobha Chandra Singh ruled the Khidisingi estate peacefully by the successors like Krushna Chandra Singh, Raya Singh, Priti Singh, Padmanava Singh, Bikram Singh and Baliar Singh. In 1476, Raja Baliar Singh divided the Khidisingi into four princely states among his four sons:
The Soroda estate was ruled by Raja Sandhadhanu Singh, his son Raja Shyam Sunder Singh and Raja Kunja Singh peacefully and without much trouble. Raja Kunja Singh accepted the British rule along with other princely states of Ganjam and Orissa. In 1830, Raja Janardhan Singh succeeded to the throne of Soroda. He was a tyrannical king and also a revolutionary ruler. He refused to pay cess and duties to the Britishers and as a result of that the Soroda estate was auctioned by the Britishers on 09.12.1833 and the king of Ghumusar auctioned it. Raja Janardan Singh organized the tribals of Khidisingi and revolted against the Britishers staying at the hilltop of Chakunda forest of Badagada. The Britishers compelled Raja Raghunath Singh of Badagada and arrested Raja Janardan Singh. Raja Janardan Singh and his son Yubraj Sunder Singh Deo again organized the tribels and fought with the king of Ghumusar to take revenge and become successful in their mission. At this instances the Britishers were compelled to grant the inam villages of Sundarrajpur(Lanjipally), Pitala and Dhobadi to Raja Janardan Singh and his son Yubraj Sunder Singh Deo. Raja Sunder Singh Deo was a peace-loving king and preferred to stay in Sundarrajpur (Lanjipally). Raja Sobha Chandra Singh Deo, son of Raja Sunder Singh Deo continued to rule Soroda in exile. The system was discontinued for some time and the rituals were continued by the freedom fighter and social activist Jagannath Singh Deo at the instances of Great freedom fighter Sashi Bhusan Rath and others and is being continued by his son Dr. Debadutta Singh Deo.
The Tree Structure of Soroda Dynasty


Vijayabahu II of Polonnaruwa

Vijayabahu II (1186–1187) was king of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa, in what is now Sri Lanka. He was the nephew of his predecessor, Parakramabahu I.


Ashotan I, Prince of Mukhrani

Ashotan I (, "Ashot'an I Mukhranbatoni") (died 1561) was a Georgian "tavadi" ("prince") of the House of Mukhrani, a collateral branch of the royal Bagrationi dynasty, and a co-prince ("batoni") of Mukhrani from 1539 to 1561.
Ashotan was a son of Bagrat I, son of Constantine II of Georgia, by his wife Elene. After the resignation of Bagrat in 1539, Ashotan acceded as co-prince with his elder brother Vakhtang I. At the same time, he was commander of the Banner of Shida Kartli, one of the key provinces of the Kingdom of Kartli, a successor of the Kingdom of Georgia ruled by his royal cousins. Ashotan followed the tradition of the Georgian royals of patronizing the Iviron monastery on Mount Athos. A refectory at the Iviron commissioned by Ashotan housed the tomb of Catholicos Nicholas V of Georgia. During the Safavid invasion of Georgia in 1554, Ashotan joined his brothers, Vakhtang and Archil, in their refuge at the court of their sister, Dedisimedi, in Samtskhe. Back to his demesne, Ashotan successfully defended Mukhrani against the attack by the highlanders of Pkhovi in 1561, but he himself died in the battle.
The identity of Ashotan's wife is not known, but he had a daughter, Ketevan (c. 1560 – 13 September 1624), who was married to King David I of Kakheti. She was tortured to death at the order of Shah Abbas I of Persia for having refused to convert to Islam and was subsequently canonized as a saint by the Georgian Orthodox Church.


Ratna Malla

Ratna Malla was the first independent king of Kantipur. He was one of the six sons of Jayayakshya Malla. On the death of his father in 1482, he and his brothers attempted to rule collegially. However, Ratna Malla decided to become an independent ruler and created the Kingdom of Kantipur, with its capital in Kathmandu, in 1484. He was the first Nepalese king to invite Kashmiri Muslim traders to Kathmandu. His elder brother, Raya Malla, was the King of Bhaktapur.


Benevolent assimilation

The term benevolent assimilation refers to a policy of the United States towards the Philippines as described in a proclamation by U.S. President William McKinley issued on December 21, 1898. It succinctly stated that "future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine islands were ceded to the United States" and that "the military government is to be to the whole of the ceded territory." The proclamation was issued after Spain was defeated in the Spanish–American War but before fighting began in the Philippine–American War. Prior to the proclamation, the United States had defeated Spain during the naval Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Subsequently, on June 12, 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo declared the Philippines independent and established a revolutionary government whose the Filipino revolutionary armed forces surrounded Manila and the occupying American Army. This created a stand-off between opposing armies that would erupt in fighting in early 1899.
The proclamation reads in part:
The proclamation was sent to General Elwell Otis, U.S. military commander and Governor-General in the Philippines. Otis sent Emilio Aguinaldo a version of the proclamation that he had bowdlerized by removing mention of U.S. sovereignty "to stress our benevolent purpose" and not "offend Filipino sensibilities", by substituting "free people" for "supremacy of the United States," and deleting "to exercise future domination." General Otis had also sent an unaltered copy of the proclamation to General Marcus Miller in Iloilo City who, unaware that an altered version had been sent to Aguinaldo, passed a copy to a Filipino official there. The unaltered version eventually made its way to Aguinaldo.
Otis later explained,


Monsoon Palace

The Monsoon Palace, also known as the Sajjan Garh Palace, is a hilltop palatial residence in the city of Udaipur, Rajasthan in India, overlooking the Fateh Sagar Lake. It is named "Sajjangarh" after Maharana Sajjan Singh (1874–1884) of the Mewar Dynasty, who it was built for in 1884. The palace offers a panoramic view of the city's lakes, palaces and surrounding countryside. It was built chiefly to watch the monsoon clouds; hence, appropriately, it is popularly known as Monsoon Palace. It is said that the Maharana built it at the top of the hill to get a view of his ancestral home, Chittorgarh. Previously owned by the Mewar royal family, it is now under the control of the Forest Department of the Government of Rajasthan and has recently been opened to the public. The palace provides a beautiful view of the sunset.
Its builder, Maharana Sajjan Singh, originally planned to make it a five-storey astronomical centre. The plan was cancelled with Maharana Sajjan Singh's premature death. It was then turned into a monsoon palace and hunting lodge.
High in the Aravalli Hills, just outside Udaipur, the Palace is illuminated in the evenings, giving a golden orange glow (see image in the infobox).
The palace was used in the 1983 James Bond film "Octopussy" as the residence of Kamal Khan, an exiled Afghan prince.
History.
The history of the palace reflects the history of the Mewar kingdom. Sajjan Singh, Maharana (b. 18 July 1859 d. 23 December 1884), the initial builder of the Monsoon Palace was the seventy–second ruler of the Mewar Dynasty (1874–1884) and ruled from Udaipur for a short period of 10 years until his untimely death. The Mewar dynasty traces its history to Guhil who founded the Mewar State in 568 AD.
Sajjan Singh came to the throne when he was 15 years old. However, his uncle Sohan Singh challenged his right to the crown and even plotted through astrologers, who said the timing for the coronation was not appropriate. Fortunately for him the then British agent, who was in favour of Sajjan Singh, intervened and persuaded the astrologers to give a favourable date for the crowning. The eventual Coronation of Sajjan Singh took place two years after this. As the trouble-maker uncle was still persisting with his obstructions towards the newly crowned Maharana, his property was confiscated and he was eventually imprisoned.
After he was invested in 1876 the Maharana, considered an enlightened ruler and a "man of vision", launched a massive programme of developmental activities in his kingdom, in particular, enlarging infrastructure facilities such as roads, water supply and other civil works. He also introduced civil administration and courts. He also improved the general environment of Udaipur by afforestation and lake improvements. He had Lake Pichola desilted and the masonry dam re-built to improve storage capacity, as well as preserving the historical heritage in line with his personal interest in the arts and culture. The most ambitious project he undertook was building the Sajjan Garh Palace, or the Monsoon Palace, as a western backdrop to Udaipur city.
It was during Sajjan Singh's rule that Udaipur gained recognition as the second Municipality in India, after Bombay. In recognition of his outstanding achievements in preserving and developing the Mewar kingdom, and to remind him that his was a princely state under the British Raj, he was conferred the title of "Grand Commander of the Star of India" in November 1881 by Lord Ripon, on the occasion of Queen Victoria's crowning as the Empress of India.
Structure.
The palace, built with white marble, is located on Bansdara peak of the Aravalli hill range at an elevation of 944 m (3100 ft) above mean sea level, overlooking Lake Pichola from the west about below the palace. The intention of the original planner, Maharana Sajjan Singh, was to build a nine storey complex, basically as an astronomical centre and to keep track of the movement of monsoon clouds in the area surrounding the palace, and also to provide employment to people. It was also meant to serve as a resort for the royal family. Unfortunately, the Maharana died prematurely at the age of 26 (after only 10 years of rule between 1874 and 1884), which resulted in the shelving of his plans for some time. Before his death, he had built it partially, and it was subsequently completed by his successor king Maharana Fateh Singh who used it to watch the monsoon clouds. The Royal family also used this building as a hunting lodge.
The white marble palace has high turrets and guards regulating each of the towers. The palace has a grand central court with a staircase and many rooms and quarters. The palace is built on marble pillars, which are carved with exquisite motifs of leaves and flowers. The walls are plastered with lime mortar. At night, the illuminated palace with the Rajasthani architecture comprising domes, fountains and jharokas gives it a fairy tale beauty.
A unique water harvesting structure to collect rainwater in an underground cistern, with a storage capacity of 195,500 litres, exists in the precincts of the palace. In spite of this, the water supply was found to be inadequate and the palace was therefore abandoned.
Other attractions.
Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, which encircles the palace, was established in 1987. It covers an area of . It is now a well-protected sanctuary, with the Kishan Pol concrete wall surrounding it. The hillside is thickly wooded and the former rulers maintained this area as a royal shooting preserve. When Udaipur was attacked by the Scindias in 1764, the hill was used as an ordnance dump; some cannons still remain.
The palace overlooks the sanctuary, which is a reserve for reptiles, tigers, nilgai, sambhar deer, wild boars, hyenas, panthers, and jackals. It is also popular for bird watching.
The reserve can also be approached by a trek (as an adventure) starting from the Gorilla Point to the Jiyan Sagar or the Bari Lake, to enjoy the scenic beauty of the Aravalli hills and the wildlife of the reserve forest.
In popular culture.
The Monsoon Palace was used as a location for the filming of the 1983 James Bond film, "Octopussy". It appears as the residence of the principal villain, an exiled Afghan prince named Kamal Khan (Louis Jourdan). Sequences shot at the palace include a 'tiger' hunt on elephants where James Bond (Roger Moore) escapes from the Palace and is pursued into the jungle and the finale, complete with a battle in the courtyard and an escape by Union Jack hot-air balloon. Other footage in the film was shot at Shiv Niwas Palace and the Lake Palace Hotel. However, scenes showing Bond eating dinner inside the palace, running between rooms, sliding down the grand staircase and finally a basement rendezvous for the villains in the film, were not shot inside the Monsoon Palace, nor were the sets for those sequences based on the layout or features of the Monsoon Palace. In 2008 The Cheetah Girls filmed the song "Dance Me If You Can", for their Indian movie, at the palace.
Visitor information.
The Monsoon Palace is west of Udaipur and overlooks Lake Pichola. The palace can be accessed by a winding road through the surrounding Sajjan Singh Sanctuary by taxi or 'auto rickshaw'. The palace and the Sajjan Singh Sanctuary are major attractions and are open to visitors until sunset. A boat ride across Lake Pichola in Udaipur provides excellent views of the palace and allows visitors to enjoy the scenic beauty of the palace. Udaipur is well connected by road and air links to all parts of the country.


Pondicherry Museum

The Pondicherry Museum is an art and history museum located in Pondicherry, India. It is especially noted for its collection of fine lost wax bronzes form the period of the Chola Empire.
The Museum's collection includes 81 Chola bronze sculptures, ranking as one of the largest collections of Chola bronzes.
Artifacts from the archaeological dig at Arikamedu, a Yavana (Greek) trading port that existed just north of modern Pondicherry in the late first century BCE to the first and second centuries CE.


Kiurike I

Kiurike I (alternatively spelled Gorige, Korike or Gurgen; ) was the first king of the Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget. He was succeeded by his son David I Anhoghin.


Arslanghali

Arslanghali (Arslan, Arıslan) khan (died 1627) was a khan of the Qasim Khanate from 1614 to 1627, and a son of Ghali khan and a grandson of Kuchum. In 1598 he was captured by the Russians during Kuchum's final defeat. In the time of Troubles he with his father fought against the False Dmitriys. Supporting Mikhail Romanov, he became a khan in the vassal Qasim Khanate, but his rule was limited and rather formal: only the Muslims and Kasimov population obeyed him.


Flag of Bryansk Oblast

The Flag of the Bryansk Oblast (Russian: Флаг Брянской области, "Flag Bryanskoy oblasti"), is the symbol of the Bryansk Oblast, a federal subject of Russia. It consists of a burgundy field defaced with the oblasts' coat of arms in the center. It was officially approved on November 5, 1998.
The flag's field is burgundy, the same color of the banners the Red Army and guerrilla fighters flew during the liberation of Bryansk in World War II.
The flag's ratio is 1:1.5.


Shangxinhe

Shangxinhe () is a former town in the Jianye District of Nanjing, China located on the Jia River (), a tributary of the Yangtze River. The former Wang Hanzhou residence, Jianghan Hall (), Ancient Sun Palace (), and other ancient cultural sites are located in the area.
History.
Ming dynasty.
During the early Ming dynasty, Shangxinhe embarked on the creation of infrastructure to effectively move timber up the Yangtze River. In time, this led to a period of commercial prosperity for the town and region. The Huizhou Hall was built, and it became the site of the town's annual Grand Lantern event. Huizhou wood was shipped from Nanjing to places like Jiangxi, Hunan, and Hubei. The lively and prosperous port became the subject of scholarly and literary works. Shangxinhe novelist Ming Feng Meng was a successful Ming Dynasty novelist, with a widespread reputation for his foreboding stories.
Qing dynasty.
The Shangxinhe timber trade reached its economic peak during the Qing dynasty. Markets for Qing Imperial wood had opened up in distant towns and cities along the Yangtze River, which were using it for myriad uses, e.g. construction and making furniture. Merchants operated and shipped lumber from Hunan, Dongting, and Poyang Lake. Shangxinhe wood suppliers had lucrative sales of Huizhou timber to Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, and other places. Fir and bamboo from Nanjing were also shipped. In "White Next Suo Yan," In reference to Shangxinhe, Gan Hee (born 1798) described the town's annual grand lantern event, where the lanterns' lights glowed off of the Huizhou wood. It was described as a scene of "peace and prosperity". In the late Qing dynasty, up to 32 timber suppliers were shipping to Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, and Sichuan. As business expanded, Shangxinhe markets expanded into northern Jiangsu and Zhejiang. When the railroad was introduced, it became a more convenient means of transportation, leading to a gradual decline in the Shangxinhe economy.


Hunugalagala Limestone Cave

Hunugalagala is a Limestone cave, which is located in Haldummulla, Badulla District of Sri Lanka. It is assumed that this rock formation has been formed millions of years ago. The cave and the surrounding area has been used between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago. Archaeological excavations have been started in July 2013 and revealed grind-stones, painted potsherds, a stone statue of a man's upper body and bones of humans and animals.
Stone utensils or grind-stones revealed that the prehistoric community was used to process food and allow to conclude basic pottery knowledge among the cave inhabitants.


Dhakaiya Urdu

Dhakaiya Urdu, also known as Sobbasi and Khosbas Dhakaiya, is a dialect of Urdu that is native to Old Dhaka and its surrounding areas in Bangladesh. It is spoken by the city's Khusbas community and the erstwhile Nawab family of Dhaka. The usage of the language is gradually declining due to negative perceptions following the Bengali Language Movement as well as it not being given an official status. Dhakaiya Urdu is one of the two dialects of Urdu spoken in Bangladesh; the other one being the Urdu spoken by the Biharis and Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh.
Features.
The dialect differs from Standard Urdu as it takes a number of loanwords from the Eastern Bengali, which the dialect's source of origin is geographically surrounded by. The intonations, aspirations and tone of the language is also shifted closer to Eastern Bengali than Standard Urdu. It is described to be a fairly simpler language than Standard Urdu.
Writing system.
Dhakaiya Urdu currently does not have a standardised writing system as it traditionally formed the diglossic vernacular, with standard Urdu forming the codified lect used for writing. Recently, Dhakaiya Urdu is being written in the Bengali script by organisations aiming to preserve it.
History.
During the Mughal era, the Bengal Subah was famed for being the wealthiest and industrially the most developed place in the world and having waved the proto-industrialization, its economy showed signs of Industrial revolution. The city of Jahangirnagar (now Dhaka) was the province's capital in the mid-eighteenth century and Urdu-speaking merchants from North India started pouring in. Eventually residing in Dhaka, interactions and relationships with their Bengali counterparts led to the birth of a new Bengali-influenced dialect of Urdu. The descendants of these settlers came to be known as "Khusbas" (other names included "Sukhbas" and "Subbasi") which meant the happily settled. The Bais and Bara panchayets, as well as the Nawabs of Dhaka, used to converse in this language. Their Urdu language also influenced the language of the Bengali Muslims in Old Dhaka which came to be known as the Dhakaiya Kutti language.
The late 18th-century in Dhaka hosted the migration of Mirza Jan Tapish and other Urdu poets from Delhi migrating to the urban hub after an invitation from Shams ad-Daulah, the Naib Nazim of Dhaka. Poetry and literature in Standard Urdu grew popularity in Dhaka with the presence of organisations such as the Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu and the patronising of it by Dhaka's Nawabs, Sardars and Zamindars such as Khwaja Abdul Ghani and Mir Ashraf Ali. The 19th-century poet Mirza Ghalib of Agra was a close friend of Dhaka's poet Khwaja Haider Jan Shayek. The collaboration between Ghalib and Shayek was collected and compiled by Hakim Habibur Rahman, a later Urdu poet of Dhaka, in his book "Inshaye Shayek". Habibur Rahman was a prominent Dhakaiya physician and litterateur whose most famous books include "Asudegan-e-Dhaka" and "Dhaka Panchas Baras Pahle". He was the editor of Bengal's first Urdu magazine, "Al-Mashriq" in 1906. He later collaborated with Khwaja Adil in 1924 to found another monthly journal called "Jadu". His works are celebrated for preserving Urdu, Persian and Arabic literature, compiling them into his "Thulatha Ghusala".
Shortly after the Bengali Language Movement of 1952, Urdu culture decreased significantly with many Urdu-speaking families switching to speaking Bengali to avoid controversy. During the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, a number of Urdu-speaking families subsequently migrated to Pakistan. As a result, the use of Urdu has become very limited to a few families and a community south of the Dhaka railway line. Furthermore, the new nation of Bangladesh deemed their newly founded nation on Bengali culture, which would later alienate the other ethnolinguistic communities of the country.
Often described as a wealthy and closed-off community, speakers of the dialect honour the Dhakaiya Urdu poets of the past in privacy within their mushairas. Other modern examples of usage include the University of Dhaka's dwindling Urdu department as well as the Urdu sermons and Islamic lectures given in Dhaka.
Muhammad Shahabuddin Sabu, the Associate Professor of Zoology at Savar Government College, and Nazir Uddin released a 59,380-word Bengali-Dhakaiya Sobbasi bilingual dictionary published by Taqiya Muhammad Publications in 2021. It was said that 15,304 Sobbasi words were of Bengali origin. On 15 January, the book launch took place at Aziz Market in Shahbag. Sobbasi in other word "Dhakaiya Sobbasi Language" that is "Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban" in fact is a dialect of Urdu Language called "Dhakaiya Urdu" Two facebook Groups "Dhakaiya Movement" and "Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban" are continuously writting this language using Bangla/Nagri Script. There are two youtube channels as named "Dhakaiya Movement" and "Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban"
Poets.
These Dhakaiya poets wrote in Standard Urdu:
Media.
The language flourished in the media during the 20th century cinema. Khurshid Alam and Sabina Yasmin sang a song, "Matiya Hamar Naam", in this dialect for the Bangladeshi film "Jibon Niye Jua" which released in 1975 after the Independence of Bangladesh.


Flag of Astrakhan Oblast

The flag of Astrakhan Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, was adopted 19 December 2001. The flag is a crown and scimitar charge on a teal blue field. The ratio of the flag is 2:3.


Dipadih

Dipahdih is an archaeological place of Balrampur district, Chhattisgarh, India. It is about 75 km from Ambikapur, headquarters of Surguja. It contains the remnants of the Shaiv and Shakya sects.


Hamengkubuwono IV

Hamengkubuwono IV, also spelled Hamengkubuwana IV (Yogyakarta, April 3, 1804 – Yogyakarta, December 6, 1823) was the fourth sultan of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, reigning from April 3, 1814, to December 6, 1823.
Reign.
Born as Gusti Raden Mas Ibnu Jarot, he was the 18th son of Hamengkubuwono III, born from his queen consort, Gusti Kanjeng Ratu Kencono. He was the younger half brother of Prince Diponegoro. He succeeded his father when he was 10 years old. Due to his young age, Paku Alam I was appointed as his regent.
His reign was a period of political deterioration that ultimately led up to the Java War. In his era, Patih Danureja IV acted violently and arbitrarily. He put his relatives in many court's important position. This pro-Dutch Danurejan family also supported the implementation of land rent system for private entrepreneurs, which inflicted a loss upon the poor subjects.
In January 20, 1820, Paku Alam I gave up his position as sultan's regent. Hamengkubuwono IV's independent rule was only 2 years due to his sudden death on December 6, 1823, when he was on vacation, hence his posthumous title, Sinuhun Jarot, Seda Besiyar.
Upon his premature death, rumours circulated that he had been poisoned. His three-year-old son, Hamengkubuwana V, ascended the throne amid controversy over who would act as regent. Hamengkubuwono V was later succeeded by his brother, styled Hamengkubuwono VI.
Family.
In total, Hamengkubuwono IV had 1 queen consort, 8 concubines, and 13 children.
His only queen consort was Raden Ajeng Sepuh, also known as GKR. Kencana/Ageng (born 1802), daughter of Patih Danureja II and Kanjeng Ratu Angga, daughter of Hamengkubuwono II, and had:
His concubines included:


League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence

The League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence (, literally translated as Supporters of Indonesian Independence Bond; abbreviated as IPKI) was a political party in Indonesia established by former Army head General Abdul Haris Nasution as a vehicle for the Indonesian Army to enter the realm of politics. It was influential in persuading President Sukarno to introduce Guided Democracy in Indonesia and return to the 1945 Constitution.
Establishment.
Two years after his dismissal as Army Chief of Staff following the show of force known as the 17 October 1952 incident, General Abdul Haris Nasution established IPKI as an "army front organization" along with other military figures such as Gatot Soebroto and Azis Saleh, and with the support of the Yogyakarta sultanate. The party proposed a return to the spirit of the Proclamation of Independence and the 1945 Constitution as the way out of the political and economic problems that Indonesia had faced since independence. It also called for an end to corruption and for the "liberation of West Irian", still administered by the Dutch at the time.
The party targeted military personnel and their families, and veterans, particularly in West Java and the outer (non-Javanese) islands. Although Nasution blamed the political parties for the state of the nation, he said that he did not want a military takeover. He also claimed that the Indonesian Constitution in force at the time was "too western". However, the cabinet saw IPKI as a threat, and tried to shackle it by demanding that Army officers resign if they intended to stand in the 1955 elections for the members of the People's Representative Council or Constitutional Assembly.
in the legislative election elections, the party put forward 167 candidates in 11 of the 16 electoral districts, but won only 1.4% of the vote, giving it four of the 167 seats in the People's Representative Council. The vast majority of its vote, 81.7%, came from West Java because of support from the Siliwangi Division.
Guided Democracy to the New Order.
IPKI representative Dahlan Ibrahim served as minister for veteran affairs in the Second Ali Sastroamidjojo Cabinet, but in December 1956 the party withdrew him in protest at the inability of the government to deal with a series of regional rebellions led by disaffected army personnel, which would eventually lead to the PRRI Rebellion. The party also called for the cabinet to resign and be replaced by one led by former vice-president Mohammad Hatta. These rebellions caused the cabinet to collapse, and be replaced by the Working Cabinet, in which Azis Saleh served as minister of health.
Meanwhile, the Constitutional Assembly, formed to draft a permanent constitution, became bogged down over the issue of the role of Islam. By 1959, IPKI was publicly calling for a return to the original 1945 Constitution, and at a conference that year, asked President Sukarno to reimpose it by decree if the Assembly was unable to do so. In June, IPKI formed the "Front for the Defence of Pancasila" from 17 small parties and began a boycott of the Assembly. It subsequently managed to persuade the Indonesian National Party (PNI) and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) to join the boycott, which meant the Assembly could no longer function. On 5 July 1959, President Sukarno reimposed the 1945 Constitution by decree, and also dissolved the Constitutional Assembly.
On 5 March 1960, Sukarno suspended the legislature and announced he would appoint a body to replace it, which would be known as the People's Representative Council of Mutual Assistance (, DPR–GR). This body would not include the smaller parties, and in any case, IPKI would no longer be necessary since the Army would be given seats of their own. However, Nasution managed to persuade Sukarno not to ban IPKI, and it was subsequently given seats.
As the Guided Democracy period continued, IPKI began to oppose Sukarno, and by the end of 1966 it joined the chorus of parties calling for a new political order. Five years after the 30 September Movement coup attempt that led to Sukarno's downfall and the start of the New Order regime, IPKI was one of nine parties that together with the Suharto regime vehicle Golkar contested the 1971 legislative elections. It won less than one percent of the vote, and no legislative seats. In 1973 IPKI was fused into the Indonesian Democratic Party. In its 1994 congress, it decided to become a non-political mass organisation.
Revival and dissolution.
On 12 September 1998, following the fall of the New Order, IPKI declared itself as a political party known as the League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence Party. Its aims included implementing and applying the state philosophy of Pancasila in daily life in order to realise national aims. The party program called for putting sovereignty back in the hands of the people, limiting the presidency to two terms and striving for regional autonomy. It supported the continuation of a social-political role for the Indonesian armed forces and for the president to be elected by the People's Consultative Assembly. The party won 0.22 percent of the vote, giving it one seat in the People's Representative Council. As it did not win enough votes in this election to take part in the 2004 vote, along with seven other parties, it merged into the Indonesian Unity Party.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 389

United Nations Security Council Resolution 389, adopted on April 22, 1976, reaffirmed the right of the people of East Timor to self-determination. The Council called upon all states to respect the territorial integrity of East Timor and upon the Government of Indonesia to withdraw all of its forces from the Territory. The Resolution then asks the Secretary-General to have his Special Representative pursue consultations with the parties concerned and that the Secretary-General follow the implementation of the resolution and submit a report to the Council as soon as possible. The Council goes on to call upon all states and parties to cooperate fully with the United Nations to achieve a peaceful solution and facilitate the decolonization of the territory.
The resolution was adopted with 12 votes to none, with Japan and the United States abstaining. Benin did not participate in the voting.


Xiehouyu

Xiehouyu () is a kind of Chinese proverb consisting of two elements: the former segment presents a novel scenario while the latter provides the rationale thereof. One would often only state the first part, expecting the listener to know the second. Compare English "an apple a day (keeps the doctor away)" or "speak of the devil (and he doth/shall appear)".
"Xiēhòuyǔ" is translated as "enigmatic folk simile; truncated witticism; pun" ("Wenlin" 2016). Puns are often involved in "". In this case the second part is derived from the first through one meaning, but then another possible meaning of the second part is taken as the true meaning. To create examples in English, one can say "get hospitalized" to mean "be patient", or "small transactions only" to mean "no big deal". Thus a "xiēhòuyǔ" in one dialect can be unintelligible to a listener speaking another. Valuable linguistic data can sometimes be gleaned from ancient "xiēhòuyǔ".
The origin of Xiehouyu.
Xiēhòuyǔ is a special form of language created by the Chinese working people since ancient times. It is a short, funny and figurative sentence. It consists of two parts: the former part ACTS as a "lead", like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of "back lining", which is like a riddle, which is quite natural. In a certain language environment, usually the first half, "rest" to the second half, can understand and guess its original meaning, so it is called "xiēhòuyǔ" ("saying with the latter part suspended"). The Chinese civilization has a long history. Five thousand years of historical vicissitudes, quenching, condensing into brilliant language art. The rest of the language is characterized by its unique expressiveness. To give people a deep thought and enlightenment. It reflects the unique customs and national culture of Huaxia nationality, tastes life, understands philosophy and promotes wisdom. Xiēhòuyǔ generally has a profound meaning, and a short sentence condensed a lot of wisdom.


Minye Kyawhtin of Pakhan

Minye Kyawhtin (, ; also known as Tarabya II of Pakhan, ပုခန်း တရဖျား, ) was governor of Pakhan from 1413 to 1426. The youngest son of King Minkhaung I of Ava was a top pretender to the Ava throne during the succession crisis in 1425–1426, following the assassinations of his brother King Thihathu and nephew King Min Hla.
Prince Tarabya of Pakhan initially ceded the throne to his half-cousin Prince Min Nyo of Kale in 1425 after Nyo gave him lavish gifts and Thihathu's favorite queen Shin Saw Pu. But he withdrew his support six months later when Nyo was about to be overthrown by Gov. Thado of Mohnyin. The prince refused to submit to Thado, who did not hail from the founding house of the dynasty. He could not attract any support from other vassals, and was easily defeated by the new king in 1426.
The prince was sent to live out his life outside the Shwezigon Pagoda in Pagan (Bagan), and is not heard from again in the chronicles. His nephew, also styled Minye Kyawhtin, would carry on the founding house's resistance against Thado and his successors until 1459.
Early life and career.
Minye Kyawhtin, also known by his personal name Min Tha Nyo (မင်းသားညို), was the youngest child of Queen Shin Mi-Nauk and King Minkhaung I of Ava (r. 1400–1421). He was probably born in the late 1390s, and had three full siblings: Minye Kyawswa, Saw Pyei Chantha and Minye Thihathu.
He was appointed governor of Pakhan (modern Pakokku District) by his father in 1413. Unlike his older brothers, he did not play a prominent role in the long running war between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu (1385–1423).
Ava succession crisis (1425–1426).
Initial submission.
In 1425, the prince, now styled as Tarabya of Pakhan, became ensnarled in the succession crisis at Ava (Inwa). In August 1425, Thihathu, who had been king since 1421, was assassinated. Just three months later, Thihathu's son and successor Min Hla too was assassinated. The assassinations were arranged by Queen Shin Bo-Me and Prince Min Nyo of Kale, who went on to seize the throne.
Although Tarabya was first in the line of succession after Min Hla's death, he did not challenge Nyo. Not only did Nyo have a strong claim to the throne as the only son of King Tarabya of Ava (r. 1400) but he was also one of the two leading commanders of the military. For his part, the new king gave his half-cousin the lord of Pakhan lavish gifts and Queen Shin Saw Pu, Thihathu's favorite queen, perhaps as a face-saving gesture. (To be sure, Nyo most probably needed to get rid of Saw Pu from the palace as the queen was intensely disliked by Queen Bo-Me, who had put him on the throne.) At any rate, Tarabya, along with the majority of the vassals from central and southern regions, pledged support to Nyo.
Rebellion.
It turned out that the vassals needed to back up their pledge soon after. In February 1426, Gov. Thado of Mohnyin, having secured support from the northern Shan states, declared war on Nyo. Initially, Tarabya like other loyal vassals contributed the troops as vassals were required to. He personally led his regiment, which guarded the westerly approach towards the capital, but by early May when the tide of war had turned against Ava, Tarabya and other key vassal rulers, renounced their ties to Nyo, and retreated to their respective regions. Tarabya also brought his nephew, who then wore the title of Minye Kyawhtin, the eldest son of Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa, to Pakhan. Soon after, Nyo and Bo-Me fled, and Thado entered the capital on 16 May 1426.
Most vassal rulers were unsure of Thado's claim to the throne as he did not hail from the founding house of the dynasty. Although a few of the vassals would later raise long running rebellions throughout Thado's reign, they initially did not challenge Thado. Tarabya was the only exception. Considering himself the rightful heir to the Ava throne, Tarabya flatly rejected Thado's call for submission, but he could not get other vassals, even those surrounding Pakhan, to support him. Indeed, when the time came to choose, all the vassal rulers near Pakhan—Pagan, Sale, Sagu, Pakhan Nge, Salin and Prome—sided with Thado, and contributed troops to Thado's army.
Despite the odds, Tarabya held out at Pakhan. In August, Thado sent two armies (with a combined strength of 5000 troops, 300 cavalry and 20 elephants), and sailed down the Irrawaddy with a naval force carrying another 4000 troops. Tarabya still refused to surrender. Thado waited for seven days before ordering an attack. His troops easily took the town, and captured both Tarabya (Minye Kyawhtin the elder) and his nephew (Minye Kyawhtin the younger).
Aftermath.
Thado, who began his career as a page for Prince Min Swe (King Minkhaung), had a soft side for the only living son and grandson of his deceased lord. Instead of executing the royals with the strongest claim to the throne, the king sent Tarabya to live in an estate near the Shwezigon Pagoda in Pagan (Bagan), and Minye Kyawhtin the younger to Thissein (modern Shwebo District). Thado did take Shin Saw Pu for himself. (Queen Shin Saw Pu, daughter of King Razadarit of Hanthawaddy Pegu, would later become the queen regnant of Hanthawaddy, and the only queen regnant in Burmese history.)
Thado would soon come to rue his decision to spare the princes' lives. Although Tarabya is not heard from again in the chronicles, the younger Minye Kyawhtin never gave up his claim to the throne. The young prince fled Thissein just a few months later, and soon raised a major rebellion that would last until 1459.
Ancestry.
Tarabya Minye Kyawhtin was ultimately descended from the Pagan royal line from his father side, and Mohnyin royalty from his mother's side.


Ystoria Mongalorum

Ystoria Mongalorum is a report, compiled by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, of his trip to the Mongol Empire. Written in the 1240s, it is the oldest European account of the Mongols. Giovanni was the first European to try to chronicle Mongol history.
Background.
Giovanni recorded the information he collected in a work, variously entitled in the manuscripts, "Ystoria Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus" ("History of the Mongols, which we call Tartars"), and "Liber Tartarorum", or "Liber Tatarorum" ("Book of the Tartars [or Tatars]"). This treatise has nine chapters. The first eight describe the Tartar's country, climate, manners, religion, character, history, policy, and tactics, and on the best way to oppose them. The ninth chapter describes regions he passed through.
The title is significant, as it emphasizes that the Mongols were not identical to the Tatars. In fact, the author points out that Mongols were quite offended by such a label: they vanquished Tatars in several campaigns around 1206, after which the Tartars ceased to exist as an independent ethnic group.
The report gives a narrative of his journey, what he had learned about Mongol history, as well as Mongol customs of the time.
Giovanni, as the first European at the time to have visited Mongolia and returned to talk about it, became somewhat of a celebrity upon returning to Europe. He gave what would be called today a lecture tour across the continent.
Two redactions of the "Ystoria Mongalorum" are known to exist: Giovanni's own and another. An abridgement of the First Redaction can be found in the Turin National Library. The "Tartar Relation" is an expanded version of the second redaction.
The standard scholarly edition of "Ystoria" is by Anastasius Wyngaert, in "Sinica Franciscana", vol. 1 (Quaracchi, 1929), pp. 3–130..
Content.
Like some other famous medieval itineraries, it shows an absence of a traveler's or author's egotism, and contains, even in the last chapter, scarcely any personal narrative. Giovanni was not only an old man when he went on this mission, but was, according to accidental evidence in the annals of his order, a fat and heavy man ("vir gravis et corpulentus"), insomuch that, contrary to Franciscan precedent, he rode a donkey between his preachings in Germany. In his narrative, however, he never complains.
His book, as to personal and geographical detail, is inferior to one a few years later by a younger brother of the same order, William of Rubruck or Rubruquis—who was Louis IX's most noteworthy envoy to the Mongols. In spite of these defects—and the credulity he shows in the Oriental tales, which is sometimes childishly absurd—Friar Giovanni's "Ystoria" is, in many ways, the chief literary memorial of European overland expansion before Marco Polo. Among his innovative recommendations was development of light cavalry to combat Mongol tactics.
It first revealed the Mongol world to Catholic Christendom. The account of Tatar manners, customs and history is perhaps the best treatment of the subject by any Christian writer of the Middle Ages. He provided four lists: of nations conquered by the Mongols, nations that had (as of 1245–1247) successfully resisted, the Mongol princes, and witnesses to his narrative, including various Kiev merchants. All these catalogues, unrivaled in Western medieval literature, are of great historical value.
Chapters.
The Prologue identifies the main audience of John of Plano Carpini's account as "all the faithful of Christ." The Prologue explains that John of Plano Carpini has been sent to the land of the Tartars by the Pope so "if by chance they [the Tartars] made a sudden attack they would not find the Christian people unprepared." John traveled "during a year and four months and more" with Friar Benedict the Pole "who was our [John's crew] companion in our tribulations and our interpreter."


Sommot Amon Mak Bridge

Sommot Amon Mak Bridge (, , ) is a historic bridge over the "khlong" (canal) in Bangkok. It's located on Bamrung Mueang road between Phra Nakhon district's Samran Rat sub-district and Pom Prap Sattru Phai district's Ban Bat sub-district.
The bridge that can be considered as another "Saphan Lek" (สะพานเหล็ก; lit: iron bridge) of Bangkok alike Damrong Sathit and Phitthaya Sathian bridges. Since it was originally a steel structure and could be removed for boat pass through. So it was named "Saphan Lek Pratu Phi", because the area it's located is called "Pratu Phi" (ประตูผี; ghost gate). This area in the early Rattanakosin period there's gate for transport dead bodies from the inner city or within Grand Palace. Because this area is located in the west, it's believed that the direction of the dead.
Later, in the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). The bridge has deteriorated, he ordered the Department of Public Works to restore the bridge as a concrete bridge in today, includes was officially named "Sommot Amon Mak" (literally translates as "way of who assume as immortal", that refers to "way of deity", meaning "way of divine king") in honour of Prince Sawasdiprawat.
The striking feature is that the banisters are Ionic architecture. It has been registered as one of the ancient monuments of Bangkok.
At the end of the bridge in Pom Prap Sattru Phai side is an intersection called "Men Pun Intersection", that refers to "cement crematorium intersection". It's an area close to Wat Saket. During the reigns of King Phutthaloetla Naphalai (Rama II) and King Nangklao (Rama III), there was severe epidemics of cholera in Bangkok. There're a lot of dead people and can't be cremated immediately. Many bodies have been left along the road or the temple grounds, so that the vultures are eaten, it's an abomination to those who have seen. The temple that was cremated during that time was Wat Sa Ket, including crematorium made of cement nearby. Presently, the cement crematorium has been demolished but its name still stands today and becomes the official intersection.


Sinar Hindia

Sinar Hindia (known as "Sinar Djawa" until 1917) was a left-wing Malay language newspaper from Semarang, Dutch East Indies, which published from 1900 to 1924. In its later years it was the mouthpiece of the left wing of the Sarekat Islam and its editors Mas Marco Kartodikromo and Semaun were instrumental in the rise of the Communist Party of Indonesia.
The paper, then known as "Sinar Djawa", was founded in 1899 or 1900 by Sie Hian Ling, a Peranakan Chinese businessman who had been editor of various other local papers in Semarang over the previous decade. He, and the owners Hoang Thaif & Co. agreed to sell it to the early Indonesian nationalist organization Sarekat Islam in 1913 or 1914. It had a more moderate political line until 1917 when the owners gave editorial control from Mohammad Joesoef to Semaun, the radical protégé of Sarekat Islam leader Tjokroaminoto. The name was changed to "Sinar Hindia" (light of the Indies). Although the paper was still tied to the Muslim identity based Sarekat Islam, it took an explicitly Marxist turn. It saw society as a struggle between the "kaoem boeroeh" (Malay: working class) or "rajat" (Malay: populace) and the capitalist class.
Some of Mas Marco's novels were originally serialized in the pages of Sinar Hindia such as "Semarang Hitam" and "Student Hidjo".
In 1924 the paper was relaunched as "Api" (Malay: fire) and more explicitly tied to the Communist Party of Indonesia.


Timeline of the Northern and Southern dynasties

This is a timeline of the Northern and Southern dynasties in China.


Indravarman III

Indravarman III (), also titled Srindravarman () was a ruler of the Khmer Empire from 1295 to 1308. He rose to power after the abdication of his father in law Jayavarman VIII, whose eldest daughter, Srindrabhupesvarachuda, he had married. Indravarman III was a follower of Theravada Buddhism and upon his ascension to power he made it the state religion.
According to legends he was known for his special weapon, a bat made of ironwood.


Daku Balay

Daku Balay ("Big House") is the ancestral home of Don Generoso Villanueva, situated on Burgos Street, Bacolod, Philippines.

The home of Generoso M. Villanueva, a prominent sugar planter, and his wife Paz took three years to build from 1933-1936. It was the first art deco structure to be built in Bacolod. Designed solely by the owner and built by Cebu engineer Salvador Cinco, the three-story, poured-concrete steel reinforced building with graceful curved balconies, parapets, and porthole steel-cased windows looks like the Titanic on land. It was known among the locals as the Boat House. Among family, though, it was simply called Daku Balay (the big house).
One family story about Daku Balay was the family patriarch built it to fulfill a vow he had made to someday build the tallest house in the city so he could look down on the house of a business and political rival. The majestic rise of the 5,000-square-meter Daku Balay, with a five-level roof deck of over 600sm was the tallest building in the city until 1959 when the Philippine National Bank was built. It was the first building on Negros Island to have an elevator, manufactured by Inclinator, Philadelphia, USA.
The sheer size and volume of concrete that make up Daku Balay may be impressive for a residential abode. But more impressive are the details in the exterior and interior of the house that the Villanueva patriarch personally chose and designed. He hired the best local artisans from Negros and neighboring islands to execute and install his vision. The intricate stonework of the hallway floors and venetian finish of the concrete walls were laid by pattern and colors, separated by copper sidings. Visitors are greeted at the front entrance by three perfectly interlinked spheres depicting the olympic universality of man, and the melding of the past, present and future. At the back entrance, guests who are dropped off from motorcars during rain are greeted by two grinning snake heads whose body gracefully curve up to form the sides of the foyer. The wood floors of the living room, chosen by color and natural grain from at least seven different Philippine hardwoods, are laid out in classical art deco patterns and symbols, as are the solid molave hardwood doors to all the rooms, each one carved with delicate art deco design and quilted carvings. The sweeping staircase to the third floor is dramatic and carefully measured for the last step to end in "oro" at each landing (oro, plata, mata count for steps is a Hispanic/Filipino feng-shui practice).
The handpainted glass with native Philippine scenes and modernist European figures adorn the rooms and bathrooms. On the second floor foyer, a steel oval viewing deck like on a cruise ship allows a peek at visitors arriving on the ground floor on their way to the formal living room or sala. On the wall next to the viewing "ship deck/hole" is an elaborate vista in bas relief depicting the patriarch's idealized world of a successful and bountiful land as a reward for the hardworking robust-looking farmer depicted on his favorite beast of burden, the carabao, surrounded by healthy looking women carrying the harvest leading to a cornucopia from the land. Relaxation from hard work is also included in this intricate vista depicted by a native man playing a harana (serenade) on the guitar.
The jewel of the home is on the top floor, where Don Generoso laid out in intricate details his love for animals by casting them permanently on the floor and walls throughout the 6-meter ceilinged recreation room. Originally the Billiard Room, the patriarch entertained friends and family in this sun-filled chamber which opens to its own deck with tall steel-cased windows that allowed the breeze to flow freely and cool the room. The articulated metal sculpture of the Spider and the Fly (giving this room its nickname "the spider and fly room") on the highest peak of the ceiling is in its original state today and provides the highlight of Don Generoso's whimsical dedication to depict folk tales in his modern abode.
More fascinating about Daku Balay than its architecture and interiors is the fact that its creator had never travelled outside of the Philippines. There is no record of foreign travel by the patriarch. He frequently visited Manila, however, and was in step with the art deco architecture that was the rave in the 1930s and burgeoning throughout the city at that time. Bringing his vision to Bacolod was a bold step, and more so by the fact that Daku Balay was built entirely from local materials.
During World War II, Bacolod was occupied by the Japanese forces on May 21, 1942. Lieutenant General Takeshi Kawano Kono, the Japanese commanding officer of the 77th Infantry Brigade, 102nd Division, seized the home of Don Generoso Villanueva—which served as the "seat of power" (occupational headquarters for the Japanese Forces in Negros and all of the Central Visayan region of the Philippines) and being the tallest building in the city served as the watchtower of the city. The home of Don Generoso was lived in by Lt General Kono throughout the duration of the war and also served as his office. The city was liberated by joint Filipino and American forces on May 29, 1945. It took time to rebuild the city after liberation. However, upon the orders of Lt General Kono, the home of Don Generoso was saved from destruction by the retreating Japanese forces. Upon the invasion of the American forces, the withdrawal of the Japanese army into the mountains and the temporary occupation of Bacolod by the US armed forces, the house of Don Generoso was then occupied by Major General Rapp Brush, commander of the 40th Infantry Division, known as the "Sun Burst" Division, for approximately five months. Following the departure of the American forces the house was finally reoccupied by Don Generoso and his family.


Khen dynasty

The Khen dynasty replaced the weak rulers of Kamata kingdom following Arimatta in the middle of the 15th century. Niladhvaj Khen, the first king, united several Baro-Bhuyan chieftains of the area and removed the last of Arimatta's successors—Mriganka. There were only three Khen rulers. The last king, Nilambar expanded the kingdom to include the present Koch Bihar districts of West Bengal and the undivided Kamrup and Darrang districts of Assam and northern Mymensing in Bangladesh as well as eastern parts of Dinajpur district, though he was removed by Alauddin Husain Shah in 1498.
According to the "Gosani Mangala" (1823), the Khen rulers had a humble origin, implying that they were local indigenous chieftains. They worshiped "Kamatashwari" (also called "Chandi" or "Bhavani"), thus providing a break from the earlier dynasties that drew their lineage from Narakasura, the son of Vishnu i.e Bhauma dynasty which can be explained by Kachari(Bara) folklore. The Khen rulers were of Kheng-Bhutanese stock from the mountains. Possibly non-Aryan in origin, it was only the decline of the Kamarupa kings which allowed them to blossom into a powerful entity in their own right from their former position as local chieftains.
The Khen dynasty finally fell to Alauddin Husain Shah in 1498. But Hussein Shah could not rule the kingdom—Bhuyan chiefs of the region, with the help of the Ahom king, Suhungmung, defeated the invaders in 1505. Soon the control of the Kamata kingdom passed into the hands of the Koch dynasty.


Gusti Ayu Karang

Gusti Ayu Karang was a regent in Indonesia from 1809 to 1814. Her home kingdom was the Kingdom of Karangasem. She was the mother of Dewa Agung Istri Kanya, whose father and co-regent was Dewa Agung Putra I. She invented new conditions for Dewa Agung Istri Kanya to become the "Virgin Queen of Klungkung."


Mtsignobartukhutsesi

Mtsignobartukhutsesi () the head of notaries, composer of documents in feudal Georgia. From the beginning of the 12fth century - the head of government, or Chancellor, the first person after the king.
Following the ecclesiastic Council of Ruisi-Urbnisi of 1103, David IV separated the main authoritative institutions - internal, military and finances and put them under direct supervision of Royal councilor - Mtsignobartukhutses-Chkondideli this position was usually kept by the archbishop of Chqondidi who united in his hands both ecclesiastical and secular powers. From the end of the 15th century, the post lost its initial significance.


History of Bikaner

The region of Bikaner, stretching across northern Rajasthan State in India, was earlier known as Jangladesh. It included the present-day districts of Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, and Hanumangarh.
It is bounded on the south by Marwar and Jaisalmer regions, on the east by Ajmer-Merwara region.
Bikaner state was a princely state that was founded in the 15th century in this region. After becoming a British protectorate in 1818, it persisted until shortly after India's Independence in 1947.
Prior to the mid 15th century, the region that is now Bikaner was a barren wilderness called Jangladesh. Rao Bika established the city of Bikaner in 1488. He was the son of Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur and conquered the largely arid area in the north of Rajasthan.
Provoked by a stray comment by his father, Bika left Marwar (Jodhpur) with his uncle Kandhmal to create his own kingdom. During his journey, Bika stopped at Deshnok where he consulted the mystic Karni Mata for her blessings and get prophesied that he would be successful. Encouraged by her support, Bika took advantage of the internal rivalries of the Jat clans to carve out his own territory in the "Jangladesh" region of Rajasthan.
Though it was in the Thar Desert, Bikaner was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast as it had adequate spring water. Bika's name was attached to the city he built and to the state of Bikaner ("the settlement of Bika") that he established. Bika built a fort in 1478, which is now in ruins, and a hundred years later a new fort was built about 1.5 km from the city centre, known as the Junagarh Fort.
Around a century after Rao Bika founded Bikaner, the state's fortunes flourished under the sixth Raja, Rai Singhji, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire's rule in the country, Raja Rai Singh accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high rank as an army general at the court of the Emperor Akbar and his son the Emperor Jahangir. Rai Singh's successful military exploits, which involved winning half of Mewar kingdom for the Empire, won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was given the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Chintamani Durg (Junagarh fort) on a plain which has an average elevation of . He was an expert in arts and architecture, and the knowledge he acquired during his visits abroad is amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built at the Junagarh fort.
Maharaja Karan Singh, who ruled from 1631 to 1669, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh ji, who ruled from 1669 to 1698, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter, a royal dwelling for women and children. He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Maharaja Gaj Singh, who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace).
During the 18th century, there was an internecine war between the rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other thakurs, which was put down by British troops in the 19th century.
Following Maharaja Gaj Singh, Maharaja Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and lavishly decorated the audience hall (see illustration) with glass and lively paintwork. Under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, during Maharaja Surat Singh's reign, Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British, after which the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily in refurbishing Junagarh fort.
Dungar Singh, who reigned from 1872 to 1887, built the Badal Mahal, the 'weather palace', so named in view of a painting of clouds and falling rain, a rare event in arid Bikaner.
General Maharaja Ganga Singh, who ruled from 1887 to 1943, was the best-known of the Rajasthan princes and was a favourite of the British Viceroys of India. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India, served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented India at the Imperial Conferences during the First World War and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audiences in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. He also built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner. He named the building Lalgarh Palace in honour of his father and moved his main residence there from Junagarh Fort in 1902. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee (in 1938) as Bikaner's ruler is now a museum.
Ganga Singh's son, Lieutenant-General Sir Sadul Singh, the Yuvaraja of Bikaner, succeeded his father as Maharaja in 1943, but acceded his state to the Union of India in 1949. Maharaja Sadul Singh died in 1950, being succeeded in the title by his son, Karni Singh (1924-1988). The Royal Family still lives in a suite in Lalgarh Palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.
During Aurangzeb's reign.
Rao Karan Singh Jangalpat was deposed by Emperor Aurangzeb for dereliction of duty at Attock, 11 January 1667. Exiled to his betel gardens at Karanpura, in the Deccan.
Maharaja Rao Anup Singh was the first to be granted the title 'Maharaja' by Emperor Aurangzeb. Served in the Deccan campaign at Salher in 1672, Bijapur in 1675, and the siege of Golconda in 1687. He was administrator of Aurangabad 1677–1678. And many more posts.
Maharaja Rao Sarup Singh - He died from smallpox, at Adoni, in the Deccan, 15 December 1700.
Maharaja Rao Sujan Singh was ordered to attend Emperor Aurangzeb in the Deccan, where he remained for ten years.
With the decline of Mughal power in India after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 AD, the bonds of Mughals-Rajput relationship slowly dissolved. Sujan Singh (1700–35) formally broke the connection with the Mughal throne and from 1719 based himself within his kingdom.
The rise of Rao Bika.
About 1465 Rao Bika, a Rathore Rajput, and an elder son of Rao Jodha, king of Marwar, provoked by a stray comment by his father, left Marwar (Jodhpur) with a small contingent of Rathore warriors (500 soldier and 100 cavalrymen) to create his own kingdom. He was accompanied by his uncle, Rawat Kandhal and his brother Rao Bida, who provided politico-strategic advice.
Encouraged by the mystic Karni Mata, whom he had met early in his travels, he took advantage of the internal rivalries of the Jat clans so that by 1485 he was able to establish his own territory and build a small fort called Rati Ghati at the city which still bears his name. In 1488 he began the building of the city itself. In the beginning, the neighboring Bhati chiefs were suspicious of the new growing power in their vicinity. Karni Mata, who had become the "kuladevi" of Rao Bika brought the rivalry between the Rathore & Bhatis to an end by inspiring Rao Shekha - the powerful Bhati chief of Pugal, to give the hand of his daughter in marriage to Rao Bika. This consolidated Rao Bika's power in the region and proved to be a milestone in the history of the state.
Upon Rao Jodha's death in 1488 Rao Bika stormed Mehrangarh Fort, an event that was to lead to 200 years of intermittent wars between Marwar and Bikaner.
Remains of the original small fortress Rao Bika built can still be seen around the walled city, near Lakshminath ji temple. The royal family of Bikaner lived there, till Raja Rai Singh Ji built a new fort called "Chintamani" (now Junagarh) between 1589 and 1593 AD.
According to legend Bika Lunkaran consulted a holy man called Jas Nathji, who foretold that Bika's line would reign for 450 years. While Bika was pleased with this prediction, his brother Gharsiji when he heard of the prediction thought a longer period of power should have been prophesied. He confronted the holy man while he was in a deep trance and roused him by thrusting burning incense under his nose. Jas Nathji told him 'All right take 50 years more or less but of trial and tribulation'.
Rao Bika died in 1504. His successors benefited from the weak rule of Suraj Mal of Marwar and the disruption caused by Babur's invasion of India to consolidate and extend their possessions until by the 17th century all the Jat clans (including the powerful Godara clan) had accepted the suzerainty of the rulers of Bikaner.
One of the most successful earlier rulers was Jait Singh (1526–39) until he was killed by the forces of Rao Maldev of Marwar. He was succeeded by his son Kalyan Mal (1539–71) who under pressure from the Marwar forces retreated to the Punjab where he joined with Sher Shah Suri who expelled the Mughal ruler Humayun in 1540. With Sher Shah Suri's support, Kalyan Mal was able by 1545 to recover his lost territories from Rao Maldev.
Mughal era.
The return of Humayun to power meant that Bikaner due to its involvement with Sher Shah Suri came into conflict with the Mughals again. However Kalyan Mal by using all the advantages of the harsh desert environment around Bikaner was able to defeat any invading Mughal army. The coming of Akbar to power saw the Mughal empire turn to diplomacy instead of force to bring the individual Rajput states into the empire.
As a result, Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner was among the first Rajput Chiefs to make an alliance with the Mughal Empire. As a result, during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar the rulers of Bikaner were esteemed among the most loyal adherents of the empire and held high ranks as Mansabdars of special order in the imperial court. They served as military commanders in various Mughal campaigns all over the Indiasub-continent.
Early and middle 19th century.
By the middle of the 19th century the years of internal strife together with the financial and military demands put on Bikaner by the British had put the kingdom in debt. A sharp turnaround in the fortunes of the kingdom occurred in 1842 when Maharaja Ratan Singh took advantage of a shortage of pack animals to supply Bikaner's renowned camels at considerable profit to the British for their Afghan expedition. Ths turnaround was such that by 1844 he was able to reduce the dues on goods passing through Bikaner. He also gave assistance in both Sikh campaigns to the British.
Ganga Singh.
The reign of Maharaja Ganga Singh was notable for great socio-political and economic development in every sphere of life, namely, education, health, sanitation, water supply, power generation and electricity, irrigation, post and telegraph, roads and railways, trade and commerce, etc.
Drought is a common occurrence, and the region faced the most severe famine in 1899–1900 which was so severely felt that by 1901 it reduced the population to 584,627, a decrease of 30%.
When Maharaja Ganga Singh died in 1943, he was succeeded by Maharaja Sadul Singh.
he was the colonel of the Regiment of 2nd lancers.
Accession to India.
With the departure of the British in 1947, the subsidiary alliance of 1818 came to an end and Bikaner was left as an independent state, with the choice falling to Maharaja Sadul Singh of acceding to one of the new dominions, India or Pakistan. In the event, Sadul Singh was one of the first rulers of a princely state to sign an Instrument of Accession, on 7 August 1947, choosing India. Bikaner became part of the state of Rajputana, which was later renamed Rajasthan.


Aslan-Bey Shervashidze

Aslan-Bey Shervashidze was a prince of the Principality of Abkhazia in 1808–10. He was the second son of Kelesh Ahmed-Bey Shervashidze. Aslan-Bey was associated with pro-Turkish elements of the region, and was responsible for rebelling against and later killing his father in order to ascend the thrown of the Principality. According to George Hewitt this a Russian fabrication and the assassination was organised by Aslan-bey's brother Sefer-Bey, Nino Dadiani and the Russian military administration.
Aslan-bey turned the town of Sukhumi into his royal residence, which at the time, was guarded by a Turkish military regiment. Aslan-Bey actively fought together with King Solomon II of Imereti against Tsarist Russian forces.
In 1810, after several decisive Russian military victories, Shervashidze was driven out of Sukhumi together with the Turkish regiment that was protecting him and fled to Turkey. After Aslan-Bey’s expulsion from Abkhazia, the Tsarist Russian leadership established Aslan-Bey’s brother, Sefer Ali-Bey Shervashidze, as the new ruler of Abkhazia.


Kingdom of Sumedang Larang

Sumedang Larang was an Islamic Kingdom in western Java. Its territories consisted the Parahyangan region, before it became a vassal state under the Mataram Sultanate.


Saw Mya Aye Kyi

Saw Mya Aye Kyi (, 1892 – 1962) was a Burmese musician who specialized in performing the collection of Burmese classical songs known as the "Mahāgīta". She was a royal mistress of Sir Sao Chel, Saopha of Hsipaw State. A bronze bust of Saw Mya Aye Kyi stands outside the National Theatre of Mandalay.
Early life.
Saw Mya Aye Kyi was born in Mandalay to Maung Maung Tin, a royal privy council officer, and Khin Phwar, the property custodian of the Princess of Saw Hla. Her given name was Khin Sein Kyi. She was a descendant of the Prince of Swetawoak, a member of the Konbaung dynasty.
Royal mistress.
At the age of 12, Saw Mya Aye Kyi started learning traditional singing and dancing at Manusadda Shwedaung Kyaw Thu U Lugyi. A year later she went to the royal palace of Hsipaw to continue studying the "Mahāgīta". She married Sir Sao Chel, Saopha of Hsipaw, when she was 17.
Sir Sao Chel recognized her proficiency in various parts of the "Mahāgīta" by awarding her the title of Sao Oakka at the age of 20. This was followed at age 22 by the title of , awarded for the "patpyoe" "Moe Deva". She also composed the "patpyoe" "Lamin Thawda" (). These were the last two songs to be included in the "Mahāgīta".
Saw Mya Aye Kyi left Hsipaw Palace in 1928 and accompanied Yagan U Tin to Yangon. There she learned more traditional songs, eventually becoming regarded as the mother of the "Mahāgīta".
Later career.
Saw Mya Aye Kyi worked as a music teacher ("pantya") until World War II, and tutored at the Yangon Music and Art School from 1953 to 1958. She was awarded the title of Alinkar Kyawswa by the government of Myanmar in 1952, honoring her contributions to the field of music. In 1954 she became the only person in Myanmar to receive an honorary Bachelor of Arts in the field of fine arts from the University of Yangon.
She worked for the History Commission as a music research fellow in 1962, and as a member of the MRTV "Mahāgīta" music scrutiny board. She also served as chairwoman of the Myanmar Musical Instrument Federation. She continued to teach the "Mahāgīta" until her death. Tin Tin Mya was one of her students.
Death.
Saw Mya Aye Kyi died on February 10, 1968 in Yangon. Her hands and lips were gilded in accordance with tradition.


VolgaTelecom

VolgaTelecom is one of the Russian telecommunications companies that were formed after the Svyaz'invest Company in Moscow decided to reorganise 72 different regional service providers into seven large interregional companies.
The company serves approximately 32 million people in the Volga Federal District, or 22% of the country's population.