J. H. A. Lokin

Johannes Henricus Antonius "Jan" Lokin (born 21 February 1945, Ommen) is a former professor in Legal History, specializing in Roman Law at the University of Groningen, The Netherlands.
Lokin studied at Leiden University and the University of Groningen and obtained his Master of Laws degree in 1967. In 1973 he graduated with Prof. H.J. Scheltema, whom he succeeded as a professor in Roman Law at the University of Groningen in 1977.
He is a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2002.
He is highly published in history of law.


North Britain

North Britain is a term which has been occasionally used, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, for either the northern part of Great Britain or Scotland, which occupies the northernmost third of the island. "North Britains" could also refer to Britons from Scotland; with North Briton later the standard spelling. Its counterparts were South Britain, generally used to refer to England and Wales and West Britain, usually referring to Ireland.
Origin.
Early uses of the designation have been noted after the 1603 Union of the Crowns of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland. In early use the term could refer to inhabitants of Scotland as well as the country itself; since at least the late 15th century, "Britain" could be equivalent to "Briton", even being used interchangeably in early texts. Accordingly, "North Britain" was sometimes used as equivalent to "North Briton". Francis Bacon wrote in 1604 that the union made "The people to be the South-Brittains and North-Brittains". The "Oxford English Dictionary" cites the poet Richard Brathwait, the play "Wit at Several Weapons", and Sir William Mure of Rowallan as early 17th-century appearances of the name for Scotland as a whole.
King James VI and I, the first joint monarch of both kingdoms, used the terms "South Britain" and "North Britain" for England and Scotland respectively, most famously in his Proclamation of 1606 ("here") establishing the first Union Flag, where Scotland and England are not otherwise named:
This usage was repeated in Charles I's Proclamation of 1634 on the use of the flag, though adding "England" and "Scotland" too for explanation:
After the Acts of Union 1707, Scotland was sometimes referred to as "North Britain" officially. In 1707, the Royal Scots Greys were renamed the "Royal North British Dragoons". Similarly, the "Scots" in the name of the Royal Scots Fusiliers was changed to "North British", a name which lasted until 1877, when it became the "21st (Royal Scots Fusiliers) Regiment of Foot". In 1712, "The Boston News-Letter" in British North America was using the term "North British". The "Oxford English Dictionary" cites Matthew Prior using the spelling "North Briton" in 1718.
In "Rob Roy" (1817), Sir Walter Scott refers to a Scottish person in England as a North Briton, sometimes in the mouth of an English character but also in the authorial voice.
Historic use.
"North Britain" is often used historically, referencing the time period before the formation of Scotland and England. As such, it forms a geographic, yet politically and culturally neutral description of the area. North Briton is a term that may be used for a person from North Britain.
The term, particularly in adjective form, found use in the creation of the railway system. The North British Railway operated from 1846 to 1923, leaving a later legacy in the name of the North British Hotel in Edinburgh, which was renamed The Balmoral Hotel in the 1980s. The North British Locomotive Company existed from 1903 until its bankruptcy in 1962, again leaving a naming legacy in other organisations.
The name is found in other private enterprises, examples being the Edinburgh North British Insurance Company, founded in 1809, and North British Distillery Company founded there in 1885. The North British Rubber Company was founded in 1856 in Edinburgh's Fountainbridge, notable for its Wellington boots and eventually becoming Hunter Boot Ltd.
An example of its use in respect to northern Great Britain rather than Scotland can be found in the title of the North British Academy of Arts which existed from 1908 to 1924 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a city in northern England.
The "North Briton" and "New North Briton" were newspapers in the 18th and 19th centuries, and in 1844 there was also a "North British Advertiser". The "North British Review" was founded in 1844 by members of the Free Church of Scotland as a Scottish "national review" for those unsatisfied with the secular "Edinburgh Review" or the conservative "Quarterly Review". It continued until 1871. In 1847 a "North British Daily Mail" was founded, which was renamed the "Glasgow Daily Mail" in 1901 and merged with the "Glasgow Record" the same year, ultimately becoming the "Daily Record". "Cousin Henry", one of Anthony Trollope's 1879 novels, was serialized in that year in the "North British Weekly Mail".
Particularly in the 19th century, "North Britain" or "N.B." was widely used for postal addresses in Scotland. However, by the early 20th century, any vestiges of popular usage of this style had declined. "South Britain", the complementary style apportioned to England, had never seriously established itself, either north or south of the Anglo-Scottish border.
At least two ships were named the "SS North Britain": a 1940 vessel torpedoed in 1943, and the 1945 SS "North Britain", which was built by Lithgows, Port Glasgow as the "Empire Cyprus" for the Ministry of War Transport. She was sold into merchant service in 1948 and renamed "North Britain". In 1962, she was sold to Hong Kong and renamed "Jesselton Bay", scrapped in 1968.
21st-century use.
In current usage, the northern parts of Great Britain are sometimes referred to simply as 'the North', though this term is more frequently used to describe northern England. This usage is often prevalent in social commentary on the suggested "North–South divide".
The universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh, in addition to Heriot-Watt University, organise a North Britain Student Forum on geoscience and engineering topics.


Castello del Valentino

The Castle of Valentino is a historic building in the northwestern Italian city of Turin. It is located in Parco del Valentino, and is the seat of the Architecture Faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin. It is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1997.
History.
The ancient castle was bought by Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy on the advice of Andrea Palladio. The name "Valentino", first mentioned in 1275, seems to derive from a saint called Valentine whose relics were venerated in a church which stood nearby.
The current structure is due to Princess Christine of France (1606–1663), wife of Victor Amadeus I, who dwelt here from 1630. Architect Carlo di Castellamonte renovated the construction substantially, with the help of his son Amedeo. Works started around 1633 and lasted until 1660.
It has a horseshoe shape, with four rectangular towers, one at each angle, and a wide inner court with a marble pavement. The ceilings of the false upper floors are clearly in "transalpino" (i.e. French) style. The façade sports a huge coat of arms of the House of Savoy.
Minor modifications were made in the early nineteenth century; at this time, too, much of the seventeenth-century furniture was carried off by French troops. For the next half century the palace was more or less abandoned and fell into a state of disrepair. Renovations were carried out in 1860 when it was selected as the seat of the engineering faculty of Turin; it has been further restored in recent years.
Today it is the central building of the Architecture faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin.
The Orto Botanico dell'Università di Torino, a historic botanical garden in the castle grounds.


West Bay Wreck

The remains of a seventeenth century cargo vessel were found to the west of the Outer Pollock Reef, off West Bay, Dorset, England in 2004. The site was designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act on 17 July 2005. The wreck is a Protected Wreck managed by Historic England.
The wreck.
The wreck appears to date to between 1627-1750 based on the dating of a bronze muzzle-loading gun found on the site. Also found on the site were a number of iron bars, an iron gun, and potential ballast of hard slate and quartzite. The ballast appears to originate from southwest England or Northern France.
Discovery and investigation.
The site was discovered in 2004 by members of the local sub-aqua club while diving on the reef. Designation assessment took place in 2005.
The site is frequently surveyed by Bournemouth University .


Edinburgh Stock Exchange

The Edinburgh Stock Exchange was established in 1844. Not to be confused with the Edinburgh Royal Exchange.
Formation.
Shares were first dealt in the city around 1825. The Edinburgh Stock Exchange was established in 1844, when seven brokers met on 16 December 1844 to establish an exchange, recognising the increasing size of the industry.
The rival Edinburgh and Leith Commercial and Stock Exchange was founded the following year by traders who did not wish to or could not comply with the rules of the Edinburgh Stock Exchange, such as a requirement to be a resident of Edinburgh, and to be nominated by two members to be admitted to the exchange. The two bodies merged in 1856.
The founding of the stock exchange coincided with the development of the financial industry within the city, such as the establishment of the Society of Accountants in 1853 and the Actuarial Society of Edinburgh in 1859.
Premises.
The Edinburgh Stock Exchange was originally located in a "front room flat" at No. 71 Princes Street, but quickly moved to South St. David Street. After a turn in the fortunes of the business, smaller premises were sought, but after a recovery new premises were being sought by 1870, and the exchange moved to Craigie Hall in 1874, before returning to South St. David Street in 1880. In 1888 a new building was constructed on the site, which stood until it was replaced by a modern one in 1966.
Merging.
In 1964, the Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee stock exchanges came together to form the Scottish Stock Exchange, while still continuing to trade locally in each city, but with Glasgow as the main branch. The Scottish Stock Exchange was closed in 1973, resulting in the closure of the Edinburgh Stock Exchange offices.
More than three-quarters of Scottish bank shares were traded at the Edinburgh exchange, although the Bank of Scotland, the Caledonian Bank and the City of Glasgow Bank were also listed at other Scottish exchanges.
Share prices from the Edinburgh Stock Exchange were published in the "Edinburgh Evening Courant" until 1886, then the "Edinburgh Evening News".
New Edinburgh Stock Exchange.
A new Edinburgh Stock Exchange, called SCOTEX, has been proposed for 2017/18 by a team of former traders from the US stock exchange Nasdaq, pending the outcome of an application to the Financial Conduct Authority. The proposed Stock Exchange would be a “Scots-50” index to rank Scotland's leading listed companies. This has been proposed in light of the UK's Brexit vote, and the expectation of Scottish Independence by 2019.


Cement Mills Halt railway station

Cement Mills Halt was a railway station between Cowes and Newport on the Isle of Wight. It was a public railway station throughout its life, although principally used by workers at the cement works in Stag Lane. It was not included on public time tables but was available to ramblers visible enough on the primitive gas-lit platform to stop the train "on request". The trackway is now part of a national cycle route.
West Medina Cement Works.
Cement Mills Halt primarily served the West Medina Cement Works, which was owned and operated by Francis and Company Cement Manufacturers. Near the village of Northwood, was the extensive cement works of Messrs. Francis, Son, & Co., of Nine Elms, London, who employed about 100 people at the West Medina Cement Works in the manufacture of Portland and Medina cements. The Francis Co. had the contract to supply all the Portland cement for the construction of the fourth Eddystone Lighthouse.


Hermann II, Count Palatine of Lotharingia

Hermann II (born 1049; died Dalhem, 20 September 1085), Count Palatine of Lotharingia 1064–1085. He was count in the Ruhrgau and the Zulpichgau, as well as count of Brabant.
According to Egon Kimpen he was the son of Henry I of Lotharingia († 1061) and Mathild of Verdun († 1060), daughter of Gozelo I of Lotharingia, but the basis for this has been questioned.
In 1080 he married Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde († 1100), widow of Adalbert II, Count of Ballenstedt. She was a daughter of Otto of Orlamünde, count of Weimar and margrave of Meissen in Thuringia, and Adela of Brabant. Together they had two children who had died by 1085.
He is assumed to have been the last Count Palatine of Lotharingia of the Ezzonian dynasty. He was killed in a duel with Albert III, Count of Namur, near his castle in Dalhem (County of Limburg).
His widow married again, her third husband being Henry of Laach, count in the Mayfeldgau, who became the first count palatine of the Rhine between 1085 and 1087.


Registered Buildings and Conservation Areas of the Isle of Man

This is a list of Registered Buildings and Conservation Areas of the Isle of Man. It includes buildings and structures in the Isle of Man designated by Isle of Man's Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture (DEFA) "as having special architectural or historical interest". Over 250 buildings and structures are listed, and 275 more have been identified as having potential for listing. It also lists the 21 Conservation Areas, historic districts" which protect "period"-type architecture, quality of building materials, relationships of enclosures and open spaces, and other aspects of the look and feel of historic buildings and areas.
Ongoing enforcement and registration of buildings is administered by a Planning and Building Control Directorate, within DEFA, and is guided by a planning policy document on conservation of the historic environment.
DEFA notes that eight of the registered buildings have thatched roofs. Thatching in the Isle of Man include a group of thatched houses at Cregneash Folk Museum, which are Manx National Heritage property, whose buildings and land are excluded from the register.
DEFA notes that ten are designed by noted architect Baillie Scott. A number are designed by, or associated with, architect Thomas Brine.
The Alliance for Building Conservation, a consortium of heritage groups on the Isle of Man, was organised in 2014–15 and has advocated for more preservation of buildings. It had concerns in 2015 about a backlog for registration of heritage buildings.
The 21 Conservation Areas include nine swaths of properties in the capital town of Douglas, and swaths in towns of Peel, Castletown, and Ramsey, and sections in nine village centers or other areas. Most of these include numerous individual Registered Buildings plus all surrounding properties.
Registered Buildings.
The Registered Buildings are:
KEY


Shire levy

A shire levy was a means of military recruitment in medieval England and Scotland. As opposed to a levy of noble families, a shire levy was effected within a geographical administrative area (a shire), entailing the mobilisation of able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60 for military duty under command of their Sheriff.
The English shire levy was descended from the Anglo-Saxon "Fyrd", and continued under the Norman kings, notably at the Battle of the Standard (1138). The force was reorganised under the Assizes of Arms of 1181 and 1252, and again by King Edward I's Statute of Winchester of 1285.
Shire levies were especially important for England during the Hundred Years' War, when the escalation in warfare with France increased the need for soldiers: "the king was able to rely on the military support of the nobility and of the shire levies."
Traditionally, the Scottish shire levies were called out by riders galloping through towns and villages bearing the 'Fiery Cross'.


Bad Gandersheim

Bad Gandersheim (Eastphalian: "Ganderssen") is a town in southern Lower Saxony, Germany, located in the district of Northeim. , it had a population of 10,572.
Bad Gandersheim has many half-timbered houses and is located on the German Timber-Frame Road (). The town contains an airport as well.
Geography.
The town of Bad Gandersheim lies between the Leine Uplands, Weser Uplands, and Harz Foreland in the valley of the Gande River, into which its tributary, the Eterna, empties within the town's territory. To the north lies the Heber Ridge. The borough is predominantly hilly. The Harz Mountains begin about east of the town, and to the west is the Leine Graben ().
Borough divisions.
The borough of Bad Gandersheim consists of the following subdivisions based on the surrounding villages:
History.
The town dates back to 852, when Gandersheim Abbey, a house of secular canonesses, was created in nearby Brunshausen by Liudolf, Duke of Saxony and his wife Oda. The first abbey church () in the town proper was begun in 856. In 990 the abbey received the market and tax rights. During the 10th century, Gandersheim was one of the most important towns of Saxony; the first German poet Hrosvit lived and worked here until 973. In 1159 Gandersheim was first mentioned as a town.
When a mineral spring was discovered in 1240, Pope Gregory IX initiated the erection of the Holy Spirit hospital. Around 1330, the Dukes of Brunswick built a castle as a secular counterbalance to the abbey church. This building serves today as the magistrates' court and youth correctional facility.
In the late 19th century, the town began to become known for the curative powers of its mineral springs, and in 1932 Gandersheim received the official right to call itself a spa town, thus "Bad" Gandersheim, on account of these springs.
In the summer of 1926 there was a three-day "Roswitha Memorial Celebration in 1000-year old Gandersheim". This was the first time the medieval author was used as a symbolic figure for the town. Similar celebrations took place in 1930 and 1933; these had clear national-socialist themes: "German Culture" versus "Jewish-Communist Decadence."
During World War 2, from October 1944 to April 1945, the town was the site of a subcamp of the Buchenwald Concentration Camp that produced aircraft parts.
In 1952, the town celebrated the 1100-year jubilee of the founding of the monastery by Liudolf. A history play, "The Song of Gandersheim," was presented in the market square. This was the unofficial prelude to the summer festival "Gandersheimer Domfestspiele", which has been presented yearly on the plaza in front of the abbey church since 1959. Since this time, it has established itself as Lower Saxony's largest professional summer theatre festival. In 2006, its four major productions were attended by approximately 55,000 theatre visitors.
Twin towns — sister cities.
Bad Gandersheim is twinned with:


Operation Pyravlos

Operation Pyravlos (, "Rocket") was a military campaign of the Greek Civil War launched by the National Army of the Athens-based internationally recognized government, under General Alexander Papagos. All communist forces in central Greece were defeated and the only areas under communist control were Grammos and Vitsi.


Poorter

Poorter () is an historical term for a type of Dutch, or Flemish, burgher who had acquired the right to live within the walls of a city with city rights.
In the Dutch Republic, this "poorterrecht" or "poorterschap" (citizenship) could be gained by paying a sum of money to, and registering, with the magistrate of the city. The payment of money was to prove that one was not poor, and that one could maintain a household. There were also religious restrictions, and numerous cities forbade Jews from attaining citizenship until the French Revolution. An oath was also taken. Some cities also had "grootburgers" (grand burghers), who received more rights than normal citizens, but had to pay a higher price to acquire it.
The city would be surrounded by a city wall, and a moat, which offered safety, and protection, of a certain level, to its citizens. At nightfall, the city gates would be closed by the gate watch. The Keys to the city were handed to the Burgemeester, and returned again the next day.
The entire citizenry of a city was sometimes called the Poorterij.


History of Transylvania

Transylvania is a historical region in central and northwestern Romania. It was part of the Dacian Kingdom (2nd century BC–2nd century CE), Roman Dacia (2nd–3rd centuries), the Hunnic Empire (4th–5th centuries), the Kingdom of the Gepids (5th–6th centuries), the Avar Khaganate (6th–9th centuries) and the 9th century First Bulgarian Empire. During the late 9th century, western Transylvania was reached by the Hungarian conquerors and later it became part of the Kingdom of Hungary, formed in 1000.
After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 it belonged to the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, from which the Principality of Transylvania emerged. During most of the 16th and 17th centuries, the principality was a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire; however, the principality had dual suzerainty (Ottoman and Habsburg).
In 1690, the Habsburg Monarchy gained possession of Transylvania through the Hungarian crown. After 1711 Habsburg control of Transylvania was consolidated, and Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the separate status of Transylvania ceased; it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania) as part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. After World War I, Transylvania became part of Romania. In 1940 Northern Transylvania reverted to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award, but it was reclaimed by Romania after the end of World War II.
Due to its varied history the population of Transylvania is ethnically, linguistically, culturally and religiously diverse. From 1437 to 1848 political power in Transylvania was shared among the mostly Hungarian nobility, German burghers and the seats of the Székelys (a Hungarian ethnic group). The population consisted of Romanians, Hungarians (particularly Székelys) and Germans. The majority of the present population is Romanian, but large minorities (mainly Hungarian and Roma) preserve their traditions. However, as recently as the communist era ethnic-minority relations remained an issue of international contention. This has abated (but not disappeared) since the Revolution of 1989 restored democracy in Romania. Transylvania retains a significant Hungarian-speaking minority, slightly less than half of which identify themselves as Székely. Ethnic Germans in Transylvania (known as Saxons) comprise about one percent of the population; however, Austrian and German influences remain in the architecture and urban landscape of much of Transylvania.
The region's history may be traced through the religions of its inhabitants. Most Romanians in Transylvania belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church faith, but from the 18th to the 20th centuries the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church also had substantial influence. Hungarians primarily belong to the Roman Catholic or Reformed Churches; a smaller number are Unitarians. Of the ethnic Germans in Transylvania, the Saxons have primarily been Lutheran since the Reformation; however, the Danube Swabians are Catholic. The Baptist Union of Romania is the second-largest such body in Europe; Seventh-day Adventists are established, and other evangelical churches have been a growing presence since 1989. No Muslim communities remain from the era of the Ottoman invasions. As elsewhere, anti-Semitic 20th century politics saw Transylvania's once sizable Jewish population greatly reduced by the Holocaust and emigration.
Ancient history.
Dacian states.
Herodotus gives an account of the Agathyrsi, who lived in Transylvania during the fifth century BCE. He described them as a luxurious people who enjoyed wearing gold ornaments. Herodotus also claimed that the Agathyrsi held their wives in common, so all men would be brothers.
A kingdom of Dacia existed at least as early as the early second century BCE under King Oroles. Under Burebista, the foremost king of Dacia and a contemporary of Julius Caesar, the kingdom reached its maximum extent. The area now constituting Transylvania was the political center of Dacia.
The Dacians are often mentioned by Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However, they were not subdued and in later times crossed the frozen Danube during winter and ravaging Roman cities in the recently acquired Roman province of Moesia.
The Dacians built several important fortified cities, among them Sarmizegetusa (near the present Hunedoara). They were divided into two classes: the aristocracy ("tarabostes") and the common people ("comati").
Roman-Dacian Wars.
The Roman Empire expansion in the Balkans brought the Dacians into open conflict with Rome. During the reign of Decebalus, the Dacians were engaged in several wars with the Romans from 85 to 89 CE. After two reverses the Romans gained an advantage but were obliged to make peace due to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni. Domitian agreed to pay large sums (eight million sesterces) in annual tribute to the Dacians for maintaining peace.
In 101 the emperor Trajan began a military campaign against the Dacians, which included a siege of Sarmizegetusa Regia and the occupation of part of the country. The Romans prevailed but Decebalus was left as a client king under a Roman protectorate. Three years later, the Dacians rebelled and destroyed the Roman troops in Dacia. As a result, Trajan quickly began a new campaign against them (105–106). The battle for Sarmizegetusa Regia took place in the early summer of 106 with the participation of the II Adiutrix and IV Flavia Felix legions and a detachment ("vexillatio") from the Legio VI Ferrata. The Dacians repelled the first attack, but the water pipes from the Dacian capital were destroyed. The city was set on fire, the pillars of the sacred sanctuaries were cut down and the fortification system was destroyed; however, the war continued. Through the treason of Bacilis (a confidant of the Dacian king), the Romans found Decebalus' treasure in the Strei River (estimated by Jerome Carcopino as 165,500 kg of gold and 331,000 kg of silver). The last battle with the army of the Dacian king took place at Porolissum (Moigrad).
Dacian culture encouraged its soldiers to not fear death, and it was said that they left for war merrier than for any other journey. In his retreat to the mountains, Decebalus was followed by Roman cavalry led by Tiberius Claudius Maximus. The Dacian religion of Zalmoxis permitted suicide as a last resort by those in pain and misery, and the Dacians who heard Decebalus' last speech dispersed and committed suicide. Only the king tried to retreat from the Romans, hoping that he could find in the mountains and forests the means to resume battle, but the Roman cavalry followed him closely. After they almost caught him, Decebalus committed suicide by slashing his throat with his sword (falx).
The history of the Dacian Wars was written by Cassius Dio, and they are also depicted on Trajan's Column in Rome.
Following the war, several parts of Dacia including Transylvania were organized into the Roman province of Dacia Traiana.
Roman Dacia.
The Romans brought most vestiges of the Roman culture into Dacia Traiana.
They sought to utilize the gold mines in the province and built access roads and forts (such as Abrud) to protect them. The region developed a strong infrastructure and an economy based on agriculture, cattle farming and mining. Colonists from Thracia, Moesia, Macedonia, Gaul, Syria and other Roman provinces were brought in to settle the land, developing cities like Apulum (now Alba Iulia) and Napoca (now Cluj Napoca) into and colonias.
During the third century, increasing pressure from the Free Dacians and Visigoths forced the Romans to abandon Dacia Traiana.
According to historian Eutropius in Liber IX of his "Breviarum," in 271, Roman citizens from Dacia Traiana were resettled by the Roman emperor Aurelian across the Danube in the newly established Dacia Aureliana, inside former Moesia Superior:
Middle Ages.
Early Middle Ages: the great migrations.
Proto-Romanian traces.
Historian Konrad Gündisch says that findings from the 4th to the 7th centuriesespecially Roman coins, the Biertan Donarium and other objects with Latin inscription and early Christian artifactsevidence that part of the Vulgar Latin-speaking, Christian Daco-Roman (Proto-Romanian) population remained in Dacia Traiana and flourished in remote communities.
Goths.
Before their withdrawal the Romans negotiated an agreement with the Goths in which Dacia remained Roman territory, and a few Roman outposts remained north of the Danube. The Thervingi, a Visigothic tribe, settled in the southern part of Transylvania, and the Ostrogoths lived on the Pontic-Caspian steppe.
About 340, Ulfilas brought Acacian Arianism to the Goths in Guthiuda, and the Visigoths (and other Germanic tribes) became Arians.
The Goths were able to defend their territory for about a century against the Gepids, Vandals and Sarmatians; however, the Visigoths were unable to preserve the region's Roman infrastructure. Transylvania's gold mines were unused during the Early Middle Ages.
Huns.
By 376 a new wave of migratory people, the Huns, reached Transylvania, triggering conflict with the Visigothic kingdom. Hoping to find refuge from the Huns, Fritigern (a Visigothic leader) appealed to the Roman emperor Valens in 376 to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube. However, a famine broke out and Rome was unable to supply them with food or land. As a result, the Goths rebelled against the Romans for several years. The Huns fought the Alans, Vandals, and Quadi, forcing them toward the Roman Empire. Pannonia became the centre during the peak of Attila's reign (435–453).
Gepids.
After Attila's death, the Hunnic empire disintegrated. In 455 the Gepids (under king Ardarich) conquered Pannonia, allowing them to settle for two centuries in Transylvania. Their rule ended with attacks by the Lombards and Avars in 567. Very few Gepid sites (such as cemeteries in the Banat region) after 600 remain; they were apparently assimilated by the Avar empire.
Avars, Slavs, Bulgars.
By 568 the Avars, under their khagan Bayan, established an empire in the Carpathian Basin that lasted for 250 years. During this period the Slavs were allowed to settle inside Transylvania. The Avars declined with the rise of Charlemagne's Frankish empire. After a war between the khagan and Yugurrus from 796 to 803, the Avars were defeated. The Transylvanian Avars were subjugated by the Bulgars under Khan Krum at the beginning of the ninth century; Transylvania and eastern Pannonia were incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire.
Hungarian conquest.
In 862 Prince Rastislav of Moravia rebelled against the Franks and, after hiring Magyar troops, won his independence; this was the first time that Magyar expeditionary troops entered the Carpathian Basin.
After a Bulgar and Pecheneg attack, the Magyar tribes crossed the Carpathians around 896 and occupied the basin without significant resistance. According to eleventh-century tradition, the road taken by the Hungarians under Prince Álmos took them first to Transylvania in 895. This is supported by an eleventh-century Russian tradition that the Hungarians moved to the Carpathian Basin by way of Kiev. However, according to Florin Curta no evidence exists of Magyars crossing Eastern Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania.
According to supporters of the Daco-Roman continuity theory, Transylvania was populated by Romanians at the time of the Hungarian conquest. Opponents of this theory assert that Transylvania was sparsely inhabited by peoples of Slavic origin and Turkic people. The year of the conquest of Transylvania is unknown; the earliest Magyar artifacts found in the region date to the first half of the 10th century. A coin minted under Berthold, Duke of Bavaria (r. 938–947) found near Turda indicates that Transylvanian Magyars participated in western military campaigns. Although their defeat in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld ended Magyar raids against western Europe, raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued until 970. Linguistic evidence suggests that after their conquest, the Magyars inherited the local social structures of the conquered Pannonian Slavs; in Transylvania, there was intermarriage between the Magyar ruling class and the Slavic élite.
12th-century chronicle.
Gelou is a legendary figure in the "Gesta Hungarorum" (Latin for "The Deeds of the Hungarians"), а medieval work written by an author known as "Anonymus" probably at the end of the 12th century (about 300 years after the Hungarian conquest, which began in 894–895). Gelou is described as "a certain Vlach" ("quidam Blacus") and a leader of the Vlachs and Slavs in Transylvania. He was said to be defeated by one of the seven Hungarian dukes, Töhötöm ("Tuhutum" in the original Latin, also known as Tétény). Hungarian historians assert that Gelou was created by the author from the name of the village of Gelou () as the legendary enemy of the Hungarian noble families about whose deeds he wrote.
Another legendary leader in the broad region of Transylvania was Glad. He was, according to the "Gesta Hungarorum", a "voivod" from Bundyn (Vidin) who ruled the territory of Banat in the Vidin region of southern Transylvania. Glad was said to have authority over the Slavs and Vlachs. The Hungarians sent an army against him, subduing the population between the "Morisio" (Mureș) and "Temes" (Timiș) rivers. When they tried to cross the Timiș, Glad attacked them with an army which included Cuman, Bulgarian and Vlach support. The next day, Glad was defeated by the Hungarians. Hungarian historiography regards him as fictitious, along with many other imaginary characters in the Gesta. Romanian historiography, on the other hand, identifies him as a real person and places the Hungarian attack against Glad into 934. His name might come from the same Hungarian word, meaning "perfidious, mean, atrocious".
Ahtum or Ajtony was a local duke in Banat, and the last ruler who resisted the establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary, in the early 11th century. He taxed salt on the Maros (Mureş) carried to King Stephen I of Hungary on the river. Ajtony's commander-in-chief was Csanád, and the king placed the latter at the head of a royal attack. Ajtony was defeated by the army of Stephen I of Hungary, with his stronghold being renamed Csanád afterwards. Ahtum's ethnicity (and that of his people) is controversial; his name is thought to translate to "gold" in Old Turkic.
Menumorut is described by Anonymus as duke of the Khazars between the River Tisza and the Ygfon Forest near Ultrasilvania (Transylvania), from the Mureș to the Someș Rivers. According to the deeds in "Gesta Hungarorum", he declined the 907 request of the Magyar ruler Árpád to surrender his territory between the Someș and the Meses Mountains. In negotiations with ambassadors Usubuu and Veluc from Árpád he invoked the sovereignty of the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise:
The Magyars besieged the citadel of Zotmar (in Romanian Sătmar, in Hungarian Szatmár) and Menumorut's castle in Bihar, defeating him.
The "Gesta Hungarorum" then retells the story of Menumorut. In this version, he married his daughter into the Árpád dynasty. Her son Taksony became ruler of the Magyars and father of Mihály and Géza (whose son Vajk became the first king of Hungary in 1001 under his baptismal name, Stephen).
Daco-Roman continuity theory.
I.A. Pop confirmed battles between Romanians and Hungarian tribes in the "Primary Chronicle". Conflicting theories exist concerning whether or not the Romanized Dacian population (the ancestors of the Romanians) remained in Transylvania after the withdrawal of the Romans (and whether or not Romanians were in Transylvania during the Migration Period, particularly during the Magyar migration). These theories are often used to back competing claims by Hungarian and Romanian nationalists.
Phases of the conquest.
Historian Kurt Horedt dates the entering of the Hungarians in Transylvania in the period between the 10th century and the 13th century. In his theory, the Hungarians conquered Transylvania in five stages:
As part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary.
High Middle Ages.
In 1000 Stephen I of Hungary, grand prince of the Hungarian tribes, was recognised by the Pope and by his brother-in-law Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor as king of Hungary. Although Stephen was raised as a Roman Catholic and Christianization of the Hungarians was achieved mostly by Rome, he also recognized and supported orthodoxy. Attempts by Stephen to control all Hungarian tribal territories led to wars, including one with his maternal uncle Gyula (a chieftain in Transylvania; "Gyula" was the second-highest title in the Hungarian tribal confederation). In 1003, Stephen led an army into Transylvania and Gyula surrendered without a fight. This made possible the organization of the Transylvanian Catholic episcopacy (with Gyulafehérvár as its seat), which was finished in 1009 when the bishop of Ostia (as papal legate) visited Stephen and they approved diocesan divisions and boundaries. Chronicles also mention King Stephen then won a battle against Ahtum, a local chief in the lower Mureş River area who pilfered the royal tax. According to the "Chronicon Pictum", Stephen I also defeated the legendary Kean (a ruler in southern Transylvania of Bulgarians and Slavs).
Medieval Transylvania was an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary, however, it was an administratively distinct unit.
Szekelys, Saxons, Teutonic Knights.
During the 12th century, the Székelys were brought to eastern and southeastern Transylvania as border guards. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the areas in the south and northeast were settled by German colonists known as Saxons. Tradition holds that "Siebenbürgen", the German name for Transylvania, derives from the seven principal fortified towns founded by these Transylvanian Saxons. The German influence became more marked when, in 1211, King Andrew II of Hungary called on the Teutonic Knights to protect Transylvania in the Burzenland from the Cumans. After the order strengthened its grip on the territory and expanded it beyond Transylvania without authorisation, Andrew expelled the Knights in 1225.
"Voivod" (end 12th-13th century).
Administration in Transylvania was at the hands of a "voivod" appointed by the king (the word "voivod", or "voievod", first appeared in 1193). Before then, the word "ispán" was used for the chief official of Alba County. Transylvania came under "voivod" rule after 1263, when the duties of the Counts of Szolnok (Doboka) and Alba were eliminated. The voivod controlled seven "comitatus". According to the "Chronica Pictum", Transylvania's first voivod was Zoltán Erdoelue, a relative of King Stephen.
Mongol invasions.
In 1241, Transylvania suffered during the Mongol invasion of Europe. Güyük Khan invaded Transylvania from the Oituz (Ojtoz) Pass, while Subutai attacked in the south from the Mehedia Pass towards Orșova. While Subutai advanced northward to meet Batu Khan, Güyük attacked Hermannstadt/Nagyszeben (Sibiu) to prevent the Transylvanian nobility from aiding King Béla IV of Hungary. Beszterce, Kolozsvár and the Transylvanian Plain region were ravaged by the Mongols, in addition to the Hungarian king's silver mine at Óradna. A separate Mongol force destroyed the western Cumans near the Siret River in the Carpathians and annihilated the Cuman bishopric of Milcov. Estimates of population decline in Transylvania due to the Mongol invasion range from 15 to 50 percent.
The Cumans converted to Roman Catholicism and, after their defeat by the Mongols, sought refuge in central Hungary; Elizabeth the Cuman (1244-1290), known as Erzsébet in Hungarian, a Cuman princess, married Stephen V of Hungary in 1254.
In 1285, Nogai Khan led an invasion of Hungary, with Talabuga, and his army ravaged Transylvania; cities such as Reghin, Brașov and Bistrița were plundered. Talabuga led an army in northern Hungary but was stopped by heavy Carpathian snow; he was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV and ambushed by the Székely in retreat.
Documented Romanian presence.
The first appearance of a Romanian name ("Ola") in Hungary appears in a 1258 charter.
The first written sources of Romanian settlements date to the 13th century; the first cited Romanian township was Olahteluk (1283) in Bihar County. The "land of Vlachs" ("Terram Blacorum") appeared in Fogaras, and its area was mentioned under the name "Olachi" in 1285.
Power system: the "estates" (12th-14th century).
The three most important 14th-century dignitaries were the voivod, the Bishop of Transylvania and the Abbot of Kolozsmonostor (on the outskirts of present-day Cluj-Napoca).
Transylvania was organized according to the estate system. Its estates were privileged groups, or "universitates" (the central power acknowledged some collective freedoms), with socio-economic and political power; they were also organized using ethnic criteria.
As in the rest of the Hungarian kingdom, the first estate was the aristocracy (lay and ecclesiastic): ethnically heterogeneous, but undergoing homogenization around its Hungarian nucleus. The document granting privileges to the aristocracy was the Golden Bull of 1222, issued by King Andrew II. The other estates were the Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians, all with an ethno-linguistic basis. The Saxons, who had settled in southern Transylvania in the 12th and 13th centuries, were granted privileges in 1224 by the Diploma Andreanum. The Szeklers and Romanians were granted partial privileges. While the Szeklers consolidated their privileges, extending them to the entire ethnic group, the Romanians had difficulty retaining their privileges in certain areas ("terrae Vlachorum or districtus Valachicales") and lost their estate rank. Nevertheless, when the king (or the voivod) summoned the general assembly of Transylvania ("congregatio") during the 13th and 14th centuries it was attended by the four estates: noblemen, Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians ("Universis nobilibus, Saxonibus, Syculis et Olachis in partibus Transiluanis").
Later Middle Ages.
Romanian loss of status (1366-19th century).
After 1366, Romanians gradually lost their estate status ("Universitas Valachorum") and were excluded from Transylvanian assemblies. The primary reason was religious; during Louis I's proselytization campaign, privileged status was deemed incompatible with schism in a state endowed with an "apostolic mission" by the Holy See. In his 1366 Decree of Turda the king redefined nobility as membership in the Roman Catholic Church, thus excluding the Eastern Orthodox, "schismatic" Romanians. After 1366, nobility was determined not only by ownership of land and people but also by the possession of a royal donation certificate. Since the Romanian social elite—chiefly made up of aldermen ("iudices") or "knezes" ("kenezii"), who ruled their villages according to the law of the land ("ius valachicum")—managed only somewhat to obtain writs of donation and were expropriated. Lacking property or an official status as owner and excluded from privileges as schismatics, the Romanian elite could no longer form an estate and participate in the country's assemblies.
In 1437 Hungarian and Romanian peasants, the petty nobility and burghers from Kolozsvár (Klausenburg, now Cluj), under Antal Nagy de Buda, rose against their feudal masters and proclaimed their own estate ("universitas hungarorum et valachorum", "the estate of Hungarians and Romanians"). To suppress the revolt the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, the Saxon burghers and the Székelys formed the Unio Trium Nationum (Union of the Three Nations): a mutual-aid alliance against the peasants, pledging to defend their privileges against any power except that of Hungary's king. By 1438, the rebellion was crushed. From 1438 onwards the political system was based on the Unio Trium Nationum, and society was regulated by these three estates: the nobility (mostly Hungarians), the Székely and Saxon burghers. These estates, however, were more social and religious than ethnic divisions. Directed against the peasants, the Union limited the number of estates (excluding the Orthodox from political and social life in Transylvania): "The privileges define the status of the three recognized nations - the Hungarians, the Siculi and the Saxons - and the four churches - Lutheran, Calvinist, Unitarian and Catholic. The exclusion concerns the Romanian community and its Orthodox Church, a community that accounts for at least 50% of the population in the mid-eighteenth century."
Although Eastern Orthodox Romanians were not permitted local self-government like the Székelys and Saxons in Transylvania and the Cumans and Iazyges in Hungary, the Romanian ruling class ("nobilis kenezius") had the same rights as the Hungarian . Unlike Maramureș, after the Decree of Turda in Transylvania the only way to remain (or become) nobility was conversion to Roman Catholicism. To preserve their positions, some Romanian families converted to Catholicism and were Magyarized (such as the Hunyadi/Corvinus, Bedőházi, Bilkei, Ilosvai, Drágffy, Dánfi, Rékási, Dobozi, Mutnoki, Dési and Majláth families). Some reached the highest ranks of society; Nicolaus Olahus became Archbishop of Esztergom, John Hunyadi, a great military commander, governor and regent of Hungary, while the John Hunyadi's son Matthias Corvinus became king of Hungary.
Nevertheless, since the majority of Romanians did not convert to Roman Catholicism there was nowhere for them to be politically represented until the 19th century. They were deprived of their rights and subject to segregation (such as not being allowed to live in or purchase houses in the cities, build stone churches or receive justice. Several examples of legal decisions by the three nations a century after Unio Trium Nationum (1542–1555) are indicative. The Romanian could not appeal for justice against Hungarians and Saxons, but the latter could turn in the Romanian (1552); the Hungarian ("Hungarus") accused of robbery could be defended by the oath of the village judge and three honest men, while the Romanian ("Valachus") needed the oath of the village "knez", four Romanians and three Hungarians (1542); the Hungarian peasant could be punished after being accused by seven trustworthy people, while the Romanian was punished after accusations by only three (1554).
Ottoman threat and John Hunyadi.
After a diversionary manoeuvre led by Sultan Murad II it was clear that the goal of the Ottomans was not to consolidate their grip on the Balkans and intimidate the Hungarians, but to conquer Hungary.
A key figure in Transylvania at this time was John Hunyadi (c. 1387 or 1400–1456). Hunyadi was awarded a number of estates (becoming one of the foremost landowners in Hungarian history) and a seat on the royal council for his service to Sigismund of Luxemburg. After supporting the candidature of Ladislaus III of Poland for the Hungarian throne, he was rewarded in 1440 with the captaincy of the fortress of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) and the voivodship of Transylvania (with his fellow voivod Miklos Újlaki). His subsequent military exploits (he is considered one of the foremost generals of the Middle Ages) against the Ottoman Empire brought him further status as the regent of Hungary in 1446 and papal recognition as the Prince of Transylvania in 1448.
Early modern period.
Early autonomous principality.
When the main Hungarian army and King Louis II Jagiello were slain by the Ottomans in the 1526 Battle of Mohács, John Zápolya—voivod of Transylvania, who opposed the succession of Ferdinand of Austria (later Emperor Ferdinand I) to the Hungarian throne—took advantage of his military strength. When John I was elected king of Hungary, another party recognized Ferdinand. In the ensuing struggle Zápolya was supported by Sultan Suleiman I, who (after Zápolya's death in 1540) overran central Hungary to protect Zápolya's son John II. John Zápolya founded the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1538–1570), from which the Principality of Transylvania arose. The principality was created after the signing of the 1570 Treaty of Speyer by John Sigismund Zápolya and emperor Maximiliam II. According to the treaty, the Principality of Transylvania nominally remained part of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Habsburgs controlled Royal Hungary, which comprised counties along the Austrian border, Upper Hungary and some of northwestern Croatia. The Ottomans annexed central and southern Hungary.
Transylvania became a semi-independent state under the Ottoman Empire (the Principality of Transylvania), where Hungarian princes who paid the Turks tribute enjoyed relative autonomy, and Austrian and Turkish influences vied for supremacy for nearly two centuries. It was now beyond the reach of Catholic religious authority, allowing Lutheran and Calvinist preaching to flourish. In 1563 Giorgio Blandrata was appointed court physician; his radical religious ideas influenced young King John II and Calvinist bishop Francis David, eventually converting both to Unitarianism. Francis David prevailed over Calvinist Peter Melius in 1568 in a public debate, resulting in individual freedom of religious expression under the Edict of Turda (the first such legal guarantee of religious freedom in Christian Europe). Lutherans, Calvinists, Unitarians and Roman Catholics received protection, while the majority Eastern Orthodox Church was tolerated.
Transylvania was governed by princes and its Diet (parliament). The Transylvanian Diet consisted of three estates: the Hungarian elite (largely ethnic Hungarian nobility and clergy), Saxon leaders (German burghers) and the free Székely Hungarians.
The Báthory family, which assumed power at the death of John II in 1571, ruled Transylvania as princes under the Ottomans (and briefly under Habsburg suzerainty) until 1602. The younger Stephen Báthory, a Hungarian Catholic who later became King Stephen Báthory of Poland, tried to maintain the religious liberty granted by the Edict of Turda but interpreted this obligation in an increasingly restricted sense. Under Sigismund Báthory, Transylvania entered the Long War, which began as a Christian alliance against the Turks and became a four-sided conflict in Transylvania involving the Transylvanians, Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Romanian voivod of Wallachia led by Michael the Brave.
Michael gained control of Transylvania (supported by the Szeklers) in October 1599 after the Battle of Șelimbăr, in which he defeated Andrew Báthory's army. Báthory was killed by Szeklers who hoped to regain their old privileges with Michael's help. In May 1600 Michael gained control of Moldavia, thus he became the leader of the three principalities of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania (the three major regions of modern Romania). Michael installed Wallachian boyars in certain offices but did not interfere with the estates and sought support from the Hungarian nobility. In 1600 he was defeated by Giorgio Basta (Captain of Upper Hungary) and lost his Moldavian holdings to the Poles. After presenting his case to Rudolf II in Prague (capital of Germany), Michael was rewarded for his service. He returned, assisting Giorgio Basta in the Battle of Guruslău in 1601.
Michael's rule did not last long, however; he was assassinated by Walloon mercenaries under the command of Habsburg general Basta in August 1601. Michael's rule was marred by the pillaging of Wallachian and Serbian mercenaries and Székelys avenging the Szárhegy Bloody Carnival of 1596. When he entered Transylvania he did not grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants. Instead, Michael supported the Hungarian, Szekler, and Saxon nobles by reaffirming their rights and privileges.
After his defeat at Miriszló, the Transylvanian estates swore allegiance to the Habsburg emperor Rudolph. Basta subdued Transylvania in 1604, initiating a reign of terror in which he was authorised to appropriate land belonging to noblemen, Germanize the population and reclaim the principality for Catholicism in the Counter-Reformation. The period between 1601 (the assassination of Michael the Brave) and 1604 (the fall of Basta) was the most difficult for Transylvania since the Mongol invasion. "Misericordia dei quod non-consumti sumus" ("only God's mercy saves us from annihilation") characterised this period, according to an anonymous Saxon writer.
From 1604 to 1606, the Calvinist Bihar magnate István Bocskay led a successful rebellion against Habsburg rule. Bocskay was elected Prince of Transylvania April 5, 1603, and Prince of Hungary two months later. The two major achievements of Bocskay's brief reign (he died December 29, 1606) were the Peace of Vienna (June 23, 1606) and the Peace of Zsitvatorok (November 1606). With the Peace of Vienna Bocskay obtained religious liberty, the restoration of all confiscated estates, repeal of all "unrighteous" judgments, full retroactive amnesty for all Hungarians in Royal Hungary and recognition as independent sovereign prince of an enlarged Transylvania. Almost-equally important was the twenty-year Peace of Zsitvatorok, negotiated by Bocskay between Sultan Ahmed I and Rudolf II.
Gabriel Bethlen (who reigned from 1613 to 1629) thwarted all efforts of the emperor to oppress (or circumvent) his subjects, and won a reputation abroad by championing the Protestant cause. He waged war on the emperor three times, was proclaimed King of Hungary twice and obtained a confirmation of the Treaty of Vienna for the Protestants (and seven additional counties in northern Hungary for himself) in the Peace of Nikolsburg signed December 31, 1621. Bethlen's successor, George I Rákóczi, was equally successful. His principal achievement was the Peace of Linz (September 16, 1645), the last political triumph of Hungarian Protestantism, in which the emperor was forced to reconfirm the articles of the Peace of Vienna. Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi aided education and culture, and their reign has been called the golden era of Transylvania. They lavished money on their capital Alba Iulia ("Gyulafehérvár" or "Weißenburg"), which became the main bulwark of Protestantism in Central Europe. During their reign, Transylvania was one of the few European countries where Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans and Unitarians lived in mutual tolerance—all officially accepted religions ("religiones recaepte"). The Orthodox, however, still had inferior status.
This golden age (and relative independence) of Transylvania ended with the reign of George II Rákóczi. The prince, coveting the Polish crown, allied with Sweden and invaded Poland in 1657 despite the Ottoman Porte's prohibition of military action. Rákóczi was defeated in Poland and his army taken hostage by the Tatars. Chaotic years followed, with a quick succession of princes fighting one another and Rákóczi unwilling to resign, despite the Turkish threat of military attack. To resolve the political situation, the Turks resorted to military might; invasions of Transylvania with their Crimean Tatar allies, the ensuing loss of territory (particularly their primary Transylvanian stronghold, Várad, in 1660) and diminished manpower led to Prince John Kemény proclaiming the secession of Transylvania from the Ottomans in April 1661 and appealing for help to Vienna. A secret Habsburg-Ottoman agreement, however, prevented the Habsburgs from intervening; Kemény's defeat by the Turks (and the Turkish installation of the weak Mihály Apafi on the throne) marked the subordination of Transylvania, now a client state of the Ottoman Empire.
Habsburg rule.
After the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Habsburgs began to impose their rule on Transylvania. In addition to strengthening the central government and administration, they promoted the Roman Catholic Church as a uniting force and to weaken the influence of Protestant nobility. By creating a conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the Habsburgs hoped to weaken the estates. They also attempted to persuade Orthodox clergymen to join the Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church, which accepted four key points of Catholic doctrine and acknowledged papal authority while retaining Orthodox rituals and traditions. Emperor Leopold I decreed Transylvania's Orthodox Church in union with the Roman Catholic Church by joining the newly created Romanian Greek-Catholic Church. Some priests converted, although the similarity between the two denominations was unclear to many. In response to the Habsburg policy of converting all Romanian Orthodox to Greek-Catholics, several peaceful movements within the Romanian Orthodox population advocated freedom of worship for all Transylvanians; notable leaders were Visarion Sarai, Nicolae Oprea Miclăuș and Sofronie of Cioara.
From 1711 onward, Habsburg control over Transylvania was consolidated and Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. In 1765 the Grand Principality of Transylvania was proclaimed, consolidating the separate status of Transylvania within the Habsburg Monarchy established by the 1691 Diploma Leopoldinum. Hungarian historiography sees this as a formality.
On November 2, 1784, a revolt led by Romanians Vasile Ursu Nicola Horea, Ion Oargă Cloșca and Marcu Giurgiu Crișan began in Hunyad County and spread throughout the Apuseni Mountains. The insurgents' main demands were related to feudal serfdom and the lack of political equality between Romanians and other Transylvanian ethnic groups. They fought at Topánfalva (Topesdorf/Câmpeni), Abrudbánya (Großschlatten/Abrud) and Verespatak (Goldbach/Roșia), defeating the Habsburg Imperial Army at Brád (Tannenhof/Brad) on November 27, 1784. The revolt was crushed on February 28, 1785, at Dealul Furcilor (Forks Hill), Alba-Iulia, when the leaders were apprehended. Horea and Cloșca were executed by breaking on the wheel; Crișan hanged himself the night before his execution.
In 1791 the Romanians petitioned Emperor Leopold II for religious equality and recognition as a fourth "nation" in Transylvania (Supplex Libellus Valachorum). The Transylvanian Diet rejected their demands, restoring the Romanians to their marginalised status.
Late modern period.
Revolutions of 1848.
In early 1848, the Hungarian Diet took the opportunity presented by revolution to enact a comprehensive program of legislative reform (the April laws), which included a provision for the union of Transylvania and Hungary. Transylvanian Romanians initially welcomed the revolution, believing they would benefit from the reforms. However, their position changed due to the opposition of Transylvanian nobles to the Hungarian reforms (such as emancipation of the serfs) and the failure of Hungarian revolutionary leaders to recognise Romanian national interests. In mid-May a Romanian diet at Balázsfalva produced its own revolutionary program, calling for proportional representation of Romanians in the Transylvanian Diet and an end to social and ethnic oppression. The Saxons were concerned about union with Hungary, fearing the loss of their traditional medieval origin privileges. When the Transylvanian Diet met on May 29, the vote for union was pushed through despite objections from many Saxon deputies. On June 10, the Emperor sanctioned the union vote of the Diet. Military executions and the arrest of revolutionary leaders after the union hardened the Saxons' position. In September 1848, another Romanian assembly in Balázsfalva (Blaj) denounced the union with Hungary and called for an armed uprising in Transylvania. War broke out in November, with Romanian and Saxon troops (under Austrian command) battling Hungarians led by Polish general Józef Bem. Within four months, Bem had ousted the Austrians from Transylvania. However, in June 1849 Tsar Nicholas I of Russia responded to an appeal from Emperor Franz Joseph to send Russian troops into Transylvania. After initial successes against the Russians, Bem's army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Temesvár (Timișoara) on August 9; the surrender of Hungary followed.
The Austrians clearly rejected the October demand that ethnic criteria become the basis for internal borders, with the goal of creating a province for Romanians (Transylvania, alongside Banat and Bukovina); they did not want to replace the threat of Hungarian nationalism with a potential one of Romanian separatism. However, they did not declare themselves hostile to the creation of Romanian administrative offices in Transylvania (which prevented Hungary from including the region in all but name). The territory was organized into (prefectures), with Avram Iancu and Buteanu two prefects in the Apuseni Mountains. Iancu's prefecture, the "Auraria Gemina" (a name charged with Latin symbolism), became important; it took over from bordering areas which were never fully organized.
Administrative efforts were then halted as Hungarians, under Józef Bem, carried out an offensive through Transylvania. With the covert assistance of Imperial Russian troops, the Austrian army (except for garrisons at Gyulafehérvár and Déva) and the Austrian-Romanian administration retreated to Wallachia and Wallachian Oltenia (both were under Russian occupation). The last remaining resistance force was that of Avram Iancu: he retreated to harsh terrain, mounting a guerrilla campaign on Bem's forces, causing severe damage and blocking the route to Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia). He was, however, challenged by severe shortages: the Romanians had few guns and very little gunpowder. The conflict dragged on for several months, with all Hungarian attempts to seize the mountain stronghold repulsed.
In April 1849, Iancu was approached by Hungarian envoy Ioan Dragoș (a Romanian deputy in the Hungarian Parliament). Dragoș was apparently acting from a desire for peace, and he worked to have Romanian leaders meet him in Abrudbánya (Abrud) and listen to the Hungarian demands. Iancu's adversary, Hungarian commander Imre Hatvany, seems to have exploited the provisional armistice to attack the Romanians in Abrudbánya (Abrud). However, Iancu and his men retreated and encircled him.
Hatvany angered the Romanians by having Buteanu captured and murdered. As his position became weaker, he was attacked by Iancu's men until his defeat on May 22. Hatvany and most of his armed group were massacred by their adversaries; Iancu captured their cannons, switching the tactical advantage for the next several months. Lajos Kossuth was angered by Hatvany's gesture (an inspection at the time dismissed all of Hatvany's close collaborators), since it made future negotiations unlikely.
However, the conflict became less harsh: Iancu's men concentrated on seizing local resources and supplies, opting to inflict losses only through skirmishes. The Russian intervention in June precipitated an escalation, since the Poles fighting in the Hungarian revolutionary contingents wanted to resist the Tsarist armies. Henryk Dembiński, a Polish general, negotiated for a truce between Kossuth and the Wallachian émigré revolutionaries. The latter, who were close to Iancu (especially Nicolae Bălcescu, Gheorghe Magheru, Alexandru G. Golescu, and Ion Ghica) wanted to defeat the Russian armies that had crushed their movement in September 1848.
Bălcescu and Kossuth met in May 1849 at Debrecen. The contact has long been celebrated by Romanian Marxist historians and politicians. Karl Marx's condemnation of everything opposing Kossuth led to any Romanian initiative being automatically considered "reactionary". The agreement was not a pact: Kossuth flattered the Wallachians, encouraging them to persuade Iancu's armies leaving Transylvania to help Bălcescu in Bucharest. While agreeing to mediate for peace, Bălcescu never presented these terms to the fighters in the Apuseni Mountains. All Iancu agreed to was the neutrality of his forces in the conflict between Russia and Hungary. Thus, he secured his position as the Hungarian armies suffered defeats in July (culminating in the Battle of Segesvár) and capitulated on August 13.
After quashing the revolution, Austria imposed a repressive regime on Hungary and ruled Transylvania directly through a military governor, with German as the official language. Austria abolished the Union of Three Nations and acknowledged the Romanians. Although the former serfs were given land by the Austrian authorities, it was often barely sufficient for subsistence living. These poor conditions caused many Romanian families to cross into Wallachia and Moldavia in search for better lives.
Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major Austrian military defeats (such as the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz) forced Austrian emperor Franz Joseph to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the emperor made a deal with Hungary (the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, negotiated by Ferenc Deák) by which the dual monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Romanian intellectuals issued the Blaj Pronouncement in protest of the Compromise.
The era saw considerable economic development, with the GNP per capita growing roughly 1.45 percent annually from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared favorably with that of other European nations, such as Britain (1.00 percent), France (1.06 percent), and Germany (1.51 percent). Technological growth accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Many state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. However, as a result of the Compromise the special status of Transylvania ended; it became a province under the Hungarian diet. While part of Austria-Hungary, Transylvania's Romanians were oppressed by the Hungarian administration through Magyarization; German Saxons were also subject to this policy.
During this time, Hungarian-administered Transylvania consisted of a 15-county () region, covering 54,400 km2 in the southeast of the former Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian counties at the time were Alsó-Fehér, Beszterce-Naszód, Brassó, Csík, Fogaras, Háromszék, Hunyad, Kis-Küküllő, Kolozs, Maros-Torda, Nagy-Küküllő, Szeben, Szolnok-Doboka, Torda-Aranyos, and Udvarhely.
First World War.
At the outbreak of World War I, the Kingdom of Romania refused to join the Central Powers and remained neutral, although Kings Carol I and Ferdinand I were from the German Hohenzollern dynasty.
On 17 August 1916, Romania signed a secret treaty (the Treaty of Bucharest, 1916) with the Entente Powers (United Kingdom, France, Italy and Russia), according to which the Allies agreed that Transylvania, Banat, and Partium would become part of Romania after the War if it entered the war. Romania joined the Triple Entente after signing the treaty and declared war against the Central Powers on 27 August 1916. It crossed the Carpathian mountains into Transylvania, forcing the Central Powers to fight on another front. A German-Bulgarian counter-offensive began the following month in Dobruja and in the Carpathians, driving the Romanian army back into Romania by mid-October and eventually leading to the capture of Bucharest. The exit of Russia from the war in March 1918 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk left Romania alone in Eastern Europe, and a peace treaty between Romania and Germany was negotiated in May (the Treaty of Bucharest, 1918). By mid-1918 the Central Powers were losing the war on the Western Front, and the Austro-Hungarian empire had begun to disintegrate. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918, and the nations inside Austria-Hungary proclaimed their independence from the empire during September and October of that year.
King Ferdinand's wife, Marie (who had British and Russian parentage) was highly influential during these years.
Interbellum.
In 1918, as a result of the German defeat in World War I the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed. On October 31, the successful Aster Revolution in Budapest brought the left liberal, pro-Entente count Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister of Hungary. Influenced by Woodrow Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the disarmament of Hungarian Army. The Károlyi government outlawed all Hungarian armed associations and proposals intending to defend the country.
The resulting Treaty of Bucharest, 1918 was denounced in October 1918 by the Romanian government, which then re-entered the war on the Allied side and advanced to the Mureș (Maros) river in Transylvania.
The leaders of Transylvania's Romanian National Party met and drafted a resolution invoking the right of self-determination (influenced by Woodrow Wilson's 14 points) for Transylvania's Romanian people, and proclaimed the unification of Transylvania with Romania. In November the Romanian National Central Council, representing all Romanians in Transylvania, notified the Budapest government that it would take control of twenty-three Transylvanian counties (and parts of three others) and requested a Hungarian response by November 2. The Hungarian government (after negotiations with the council) rejected the proposal, claiming that it failed to secure the rights of the ethnic Hungarian and German populations. In Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia) on December 1, the National Assembly of Romanians of Transylvania and Hungary passed a resolution calling for the unification of all Romanians in a single state. The National Council of Transylvanian Germans and the Council of the Danube Swabians from the Banat approved the proclamation on 8 January 1919. In response, the Hungarian General Assembly of Kolozsvár (Cluj) reaffirmed the loyalty of Hungarians from Transylvania to Hungary on December 22, 1918.
The Romanian Army, representing the Entente powers, entered Transylvania from the east on November 12, 1918. In December they entered southern Transylvania, crossed the demarcation line on the Maros (Mureș) river by mid-December and advanced to Kolozsvár (Cluj) and Máramarossziget (Sighet) after making a request to the Powers of Versailles to protect the Romanians in Transylvania. In February 1919, to prevent armed clashes between Romanian and withdrawing Hungarian troops, a neutral zone was created.
The prime minister of the newly proclaimed Republic of Hungary resigned in March 1919, refusing the territorial concessions (including Transylvania) demanded by the Entente. When the Communist Party of Hungary (led by Béla Kun) came to power in March 1919, it proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic; after promising that Hungary would regain the lands under its control during the Austro-Hungarian Empire it attacked Czechoslovakia and Romania, leading to the Hungarian-Romanian War of 1919. The Hungarian army began an April 1919 offensive in Transylvania along the Someș (Szamos) and Maros rivers. A Romanian counter-offensive pushed forward to reach the Tisza River in May. Another Hungarian offensive in July penetrated 60 km into Romanian lines before a further Romanian counter-offensive led to the end of Hungarian Soviet Republic and after the occupation of Budapest. The Romanian army withdrew from Hungary between October 1919 and March 1920.
"România Mare" ("Great Romania") refers to the Romanian state between the First and Second World Wars. Romania reached its greatest territorial extent, uniting almost all historical Romanian lands (except northern Maramureș, Western Banat and small areas of Partium and Crișana). Great Romania was an ideal of Romanian nationalism.
At the end of World War I the Deputies of Transylvanian Romanians declared the union of Transylvania with Romania in Alba Iulia on 1. December 1918.; Bessarabia, having declared independence from Russia in 1917 at the Conference of the Country (Sfatul Țării) which proclaimed the union with Romania and called in Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks. The union of Bukovina and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles. Romania had also acquired Southern Dobrudja from Bulgaria as a result of its victory in the Second Balkan War in 1913. The Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) defined the new borders with Hungary, assigning Transylvania and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș to the Kingdom of Romania. King Ferdinand I of Romania and Queen Maria of Romania were crowned at Alba Iulia in 1922.
Contemporary history.
Second World War and Communist period.
In August 1940, during the Second World War, the northern half of Transylvania (Northern Transylvania) was annexed to Hungary by the second Second Vienna Award, leaving Southern Transylvania to Romania. On March 19, 1944, following the occupation of Hungary by the Nazi German army through Operation Margarethe, Northern Transylvania came under German military occupation. After King Michael's Coup, Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies, and, as such, fought together with the Soviet Union's Red Army against Nazi Germany, regaining Northern Transylvania. The Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania (September 12, 1944) whose Article 19 stipulated the following:
The 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary, as originally defined in Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania.
From 1947 to 1989, Transylvania, as the rest of Romania, was under a communist regime.
Post-Communist period.
Today, "Transylvania proper" is included within the Romanian counties ("județe") of Alba, Bistrița-Năsăud, Brașov, Cluj, Covasna, Harghita, Hunedoara, Mureș, Sălaj and Sibiu. In addition to Transylvania proper, modern Transylvania includes parts of the Banat, Crișana and Maramureș; these regions are in the counties of Arad, Bihor, Caraș-Severin, Maramureș, Sălaj, Satu Mare and Timiș.
Demographics and historical research.
According to Jean W. Sedlar, the Vlachs may have comprised two-thirds of Transylvania's population in 1241 on the eve of the Mongol invasion.
According to an investigation based on place-names made by István Kniezsa, 511 villages of Transylvania and Banat appear in documents at the end of the 13th century, however, only 3 of them bore Romanian names. Around 1400 AD, Transylvania and Banat consisted of 1757 villages, though only 76 (4.3%) of them had names of Romanian origin.
Pope Pius II affirmed in the 15th century that Transylvania was populated by "three races: the Germans, Székelys, and Vlachs".
Based on Antun Vrančić's work (Expeditionis Solymani in Moldaviam et Transsylvaniam libri duo. De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transalpinae liber tertius), more estimations exist as the original text is translated/interpreted in a different way, especially by Romanian and Hungarian scholars.
According to Romanian interpretations, Antun Vrančić wrote that Transylvania "is inhabited by three nations – Székelys, Hungarians and Saxons; I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties, no nobility and no rights of their own, except for a small number living in the District of Hátszeg, where it is believed that the capital of Decebalus lay, and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi, a native of that place, because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks", while in Hungarian interpretations, it is noted that the proper translation of the first part of the sentence would be: "...I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal "any of" the others in number...".
According to George W. White, in 1600 the Romanian inhabitants were primarily peasants, comprising more than 60 percent of the population.
Around 1650, Vasile Lupu in a letter written to the Sultan attests that the number of Romanians are already more than the one-third of the population.
In Benedek Jancsó's estimation there were 150,000 Hungarians, 100,000 Saxons and 250,000 Romanians in Transylvania at the beginning of the 18th century. Official censuses with information on Transylvania's ethnic composition have been conducted since the 18th century. On May 1, 1784, Joseph II called for a census of the empire, including Transylvania. The data were published in 1787; however, this census showed only the overall population. , a 19th-century Hungarian statistician, estimated in 1842 that in Transylvania between 1830 and 1840 62.3 percent were Romanians and 23.3 percent Hungarians.
The first official census in Transylvania distinguishing nationalities (by mother tongue) was conducted by Austro-Hungarian authorities in 1869. Between 1880 and 1910, the census system in Austria-Hungary was based on first language used for communication. Before 1880, Jews were counted as an ethnic group; later, they were counted according to their first language, and the majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the censuses.
The data recorded in all estimates and censuses is presented in the table below.
Coat of arms.
The Transylvanian coat of arms depicts:
These symbols (representing the three Transylvanian estates) had been in use (usually with the Hungarian coat of arms) since the 16th century because Transylvanian princes maintained their claims to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Diet of 1659 codified the coat of arms. While the Hungarians, Saxons and Szeklers are represented the Romanians are not, despite their proposal to include a representation of Dacia.
Regions are not legal administrative units in Romania; consequently, the coat of arms is only used within the coat of arms of Romania. This officially recognised image is based on the 1659 symbols, and includes the traditional Transylvania estates.
Another, short-lived heraldic representation of Transylvania is found on the coat of arms of Michael the Brave. Besides the Wallachian eagle and the Moldavian aurochs, Transylvania is represented by two lions holding a sword (referring to the Dacian Kingdom) standing on seven hills.
The 1848 revolutionary movement proposed a revision to the Transylvanian coat of arms, with representation of the Romanian majority. To the 1659 representation it introduced a central section, portraying a Dacian woman (symbolizing the Romanian nation) holding in her right hand a sickle and in her left a Roman legion's flag with the initials "D.F." ("Dacia Felix"). On the woman's right there was an eagle with a laurel crown in its beak, and on its left side a lion. This representation of the Romanian nation was inspired by a coin issued by the Roman emperor Marcus Julius Philippus at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa to honor the province of Dacia.
Historiography.
The history of Transylvania has been subject to disagreement between national narratives, especially those of Romania and Hungary. In November 2006, a Romanian newspaper reported on a project for a book on the history of Transylvania under the joint auspices of the Romanian Academy and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.


Istrian Demarcation

The Istrian Demarcation () is a legal document on the demarcation of territories between neighbouring municipalities in Istria, currently shared by Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy. More precisely, between the possessions of the Patriarchate of Aquileia, the Duke of Gorica and Pazin and the representatives of the Venetian Republic. In addition to the borders that were being agreed upon only in disputed parts of Istria, the Istrian Demarcation also established the payment of fees for the use of forests, vineyards and pastures.
Origin.
The document was probably the result of separates documents being combined into the Istrian Demarcation in 1325. A commission to map and record the borders was established. The scribes of the commission were three: one to write the data in Latin, one to write it in German and one to write the data in Croatian. The data used by the commission were old documents of individual municipalities or labels found on the trees and rocks that were used for demarcation purposes. In addition, witnesses were questions on memory of the borders under oath.
There are no 14th century originals but two copies are preserved, both in Croatian (one found in Momjan, the other in Kršan). The original text in Croatian was written in the Glagolitic script by a priest called Mikul from Gologorica. The copy from Kršan was written in 1502, and is kept at the University Library in Zagreb. It was written by Levac Križanić. The copy from Momjan was also supposedly written by Kižanić.
Contents.
The Istrian Demarcation vaguely shows us the social organization, economic conditions and life of the rural communities in medieval Istria. The document was often claimed as unauthentic, mostly because of political reasons. The modern edition was first published by Ante Starčević in 1852.
The language of the document is not very different from other Croatian medieval legal texts, that is, the non-liturgical texts written in the Chakavian literary language with a low degree of Church Slavonic influence. However, even the younger copies retain some older features of Croatian (e.g. the dual form of some nouns) and minor traceas of Church Slavonic (e.g. the use of absolute construction of the dative case). The Demarcation is also famous for referring to the Croatian language as "‘hrvacki’", which is an unusual term for the language: "I ondi gospodin Menart sluga naprid sta i pokaza listi prave v keh se udržahu zapisani razvodi i kunfini meju Sovińakom z Vrhom i Plzetom, ki bihu pisani na let Božjih 1195, ke listi ondi pred nas trih nodari postaviše, keh ta gospoda izibra: jednoga latinskoga, a drugoga nimškoga, a tretoga hrvackoga, da imamo vsaki na svoj orijinal pisat, poimeno od mesta do mesta, kako se niže udrži, po vsoj deželi. I tako mi niže imenovani nodari preda vsu tu gospodu pročtesmo kako se v ńih udrži. I tako onde obe strane se sjediniše i kuntentaše i kordaše i razvodi svojimi zlameniji postaviše, i jednoj i drugoj strani pisaše listi jazikom latinskim i hrvackim, a gospoda sebe shraniše jazikom nemškim."Historian Dražen Vlahov says ‘The Croatian Glagolitic document of the demarcation of the holdings of certain Istrian municipalities, i.e. of their feudal lords (Duke Albrecht of Pazin and Gorica, Patriarch Raimund of Aquileia and Venetian authorities in Istria), also known as the Istrian Demarcation, originally dated 5 May 1325, and written, as stated in the text, in three languages (Latin, German and Croatian) in three originals, written by three selected scribes: a priest called Mikula for Duke Albrecht who wrote in the Croatian language in the Glagolitic script, Mr Pernar from Gorica who wrote in German and Mr Ivan from Krmina who wrote it in Latin. All three specimens are considered original. None of the original documents were preserved but two copies were preserved in cursive Glagolitic in Croatian, three copies in Latin and several copies in Italian. According to experts, the Latin and Italian copies were made on the basis of the translation of the Croatian-Glagolitic specimens.’
Vlahov denies the claims of Milko Kos and Josip Bratulić that the Croatian Glagolitic copy of the Istrian Demarcation, found in Momjan in Istria in 1880, was written by an unknown author on the basis of an unpreserved copy of the notary Levac Križanić. The analysis the manuscripts of both Glagolitic copies of the Istrian Demarcation (one from Momjan and one from Kršan) written in Glagolitic cursive script concludes that both Croatian copies of the document in question were written by the same person, i.e. Levac Križanić, and that the unanalysed copy from Momjan originated before the Kršan copy, probably in 1530s.


Matvey Manizer

Matvey Genrikhovich Manizer (, 1891 – 1966) was a prominent Russian sculptor. Manizer created a number of works that became classics of socialist realism.
Life.
Manizer was born in St. Petersburg into the family of Genrikh Manizer (, ), a well-known Memel-born artist of Baltic German descent.
As a student Manizer attended the State Artistic and Industrial Academy there, and the art school of the Peredvizhniki from 1911 through 1916. From 1926 he was a member of the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia. In 1941 he moved to Moscow.
Working in an academic and realistic style, Manizer produced a great number of monuments situated throughout the Soviet Union, including some twelve portrayals of Lenin. Manizer was awarded the People's Artist of the USSR (1958), Member of USSR Academy of Arts (1947), vice president of USSR Academy of Arts (1947-1966), chairman of the Saint Petersburg Union of Artists from 1937 to 1941, and winner of the Stalin Prize three times.
Manizer's wife Elena Alexandrovna Yanson-Manizer (1890-1971) was a sculptor in her own right, with work at the Dynamo station of the Moscow Metro. Their son Hugh Matveyevich Manizer (born 1927) is a noted painter. Among Manizer's students was the Stalin Prize-winning Fuad Abdurakhmanov.
Manizer is buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery of Moscow.


7th century in England

Events from the 7th century in England.


Duchy of Belz

Duchy of Belz or principality of Belz was a duchy, formed in the late 12th century in Kievan Rus. During its history the duchy was a constituent part of some other political entities such as the Kingdom of Rus, the Kingdom of Hungary, Duchy of Masovia when eventually in the late 14th century was incorporated into Poland becoming later the Bełz Voivodeship.
History.
The duchy formed in 1170 because of the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' when the Volhynia region (centered at Volodymyr-Volynsky) was passed to Mstislav II of Kiev who later split it between his sons. Mstislav was married to Agnes of Poland and in a fierce opposition to Yuri Dolgoruki. Being exiled to Poland for a short period of time Mstislav was able to drive the Suzdal's Prince out of Volhynia.
With time the city of Belz with its surrounded territories was passed to Vsevolod Mstislavich who in turn passed it to his son Alexander. In the early 13th century, Alexander, a nephew of Roman the Great, was deposed in 1234 from Belz by Daniel of Galicia who incorporated Belz into the Duchy of Galicia–Volhynia (later the Kingdom of Rus) which would control Belz till 1340. Soon afterwards, in 1240 and 1241, it was ravaged by the Mongols, as were most other Rus principalities; the town was burned, the local castle destroyed and locals had to recognize the Mongol suzerainty. The Mongol influence waned in the following decades, because of the decline of the Mongol Empire and Pax Mongolica.
Early in the 14th century, after the death of Boleslaw-Yuri II of Galicia, the King of Rus, there started a war for its succession. Eventually the Duchy was inherited by a prince Yuri, son of Narimantas (Jerzy Narymuntowicz) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The period of Yuri's rule of Belz (1340-1377) saw the Galicia–Volhynia Wars; Belz was besieged several times (in 1351, 1352 and 1355). From 1378 to 1387 it fell into the sphere of influence of the Kingdom of Hungary, as in 1377 Belz was captured by Louis I of Hungary; for several years, the duchy was governed in Louis's name by prince Władysław Opolczyk. At that time, Poland was in a brief union with Hungary, but in 1387, after the end of the union, Belz was taken by Queen Jadwiga of Kingdom of Poland.
At first it was part of another Polish fiefdom, the Duchy of Masovia, as in 1388 the king of Poland, Władysław Jagiełło, granted Belz to Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, for his recognition of Masovia as a fiefdom of Poland and as a dowry for Siemowit's marriage with Jagiełło's sister, Alexandra. In 1462, after the death of Władysław II of Płock, the last of Siemowit's IV direct descendants, Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland attempted to incorporate the entire Duchy of Masovia to Poland; eventually he succeeded only in incorporating the Duchy of Belz into the administrative structure of Poland as the Bełz Voivodeship (palatinate). Eventually, the Duchy of Masovia was incorporated in 1526. Belz remained part of Poland (later, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) till its partitions in the late 18th century.
Territory.
The duchy's capital was in Belz.


Siegenthal

Siegenthal was a village (a "colony") in the vicinity of what is now Brzegi Dolne, in the administrative district of Gmina Ustrzyki Dolne, within Bieszczady County, Subcarpathian Voivodeship, in south-eastern Poland.
The settlement was established in the course of Josephine colonization by Lutheran Germans settlers in 1788. They belonged to the Lutheran parish in Bandrów, but maintained a school during winter with one teacher. They left during World War II. In the years 1945-1951 the area belonged to the Soviet Union, later to Poland. It was eventually depopulated and abandoned in 1946. There are remnants of a Lutheran cemetery.


Khazar invasion of Transcaucasia


Collegium Melitense

The Collegium Melitense was a Jesuit college in Valletta, Hospitaller Malta which existed between 1592 and 1769. Lectures at the educational institution began in 1593, and it moved to a purpose-built building adjacent to a Jesuit church in 1597. The 17th century saw an expansion of its curriculum and an increase in the number of students in the college, and in 1727 it was recognised as a university and subsequently it also became known as the Academia Parthenia. After the Jesuits were suppressed from Malta, the college was reorganised into the "Pubblica Università di Studi Generali", which was established on 22 November 1769. The latter is now known as the University of Malta.
History.
Plans to open a Jesuit college in Malta were made several times in the 16th century. In 1553, Bishop Domenico Cubelles sought the assistance of the Jesuits to open a college, but there was a shortage of manpower so the request was denied. By 1578, the Jesuits, the Inquisition and the Bishop were negotiating on whether or not to open a college, and in 1592 Pope Clement VIII intervened and ordered the establishment of the college. On 12 November 1592, the "Collegium Melitense" was formally established by a legal instrument entitled "Instrumentum Fundationis Collegii", which was published by the notary Giacomo Sillato and witnessed by Grand Master Hugues Loubenx de Verdalle, Bishop Tomás Gargallo, Inquisitor Ludovico dell'Armi and the Jesuit priest Pietro Casati.
The college became operational in 1593, shortly after the end of a plague epidemic, with its staff initially consisting of 12 Jesuits. The establishment of the college was met with opposition from some local clergy, who made a petition to the Pope to set it up at Mdina instead of Valletta in 1593. Bishop Gargallo provided funds and temporary premises in Valletta for the new educational institution, while a permanent campus was constructed between 1595 and 1602.
On 7 June 1727, Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena issued a bull which gave the "Collegium" the status of a university. Subsequently, the institution was sometimes referred to as the "Academia Parthenia", possibly in reference to Parthenius of Nicaea.
In 1768, the Jesuits were expelled from Malta as part of a wider suppression of the religious order in Europe. Their property including the college were taken over by the Treasury of the Order of St John, and on 28 April 1768 Grand Master Manuel Pinto da Fonseca ordered the closure of the educational institution and most of its Jesuit staff were sent to Civitavecchia. Despite this, Pinto did not want to close the college and interim staff were appointed to resume lectures. On 29 August 1769, Pinto made a request to the papacy to establish a "Pubblica Università di Studi Generali" to replace the "Collegium Melitense", and Pope Clement XIV authorised this through a papal brief entitled "Sedula Romani Pontifici" on 20 October 1769. Pinto signed a decree which established the new university on 22 November 1769, and this institution still exists today as the University of Malta.
Campus.
For the first few years of its existence, the "Collegium Melitense" had no dedicated premises and classes were held at a house in Valletta which had been provided by Bishop Gargallo. Construction of a Jesuit church in Valletta had commenced in 1592, and construction of an adjacent building to house the college began in 1595. The college moved into the new building in 1597, although construction works continued until 1602. The college and the church were damaged in a gunpowder factory explosion in 1634, and both buildings were subsequently remodelled. They also suffered some damage in an earthquake in 1693 but they were also repaired.
After 1769, the premises continued to house the University of Malta and some alterations were made to the building in the 19th century. The former college was the university's main campus until the 1960s, when it moved to a much larger site at Msida. Now known as the Old University Building, the college building is now the university's Valletta campus and it is used for various conferences and seminars.
Organisation and administration.
The college was headed by a Rector.
Academic profile.
Initially, the "Collegium Melitense" only taught grammar and humanities ("Literae humaniores"), and one of its aims was to educate the clergy in the absence of a seminary. In the 17th century, its curriculum was expanded to other fields of study. Theology and logic were being taught at the college by 1615 and 1622 respectively. In 1655 a Chair of Mathematics was established by Grand Master Giovanni Paolo Lascaris, but the class stopped soon after his death in 1657 and it was not re-established until 1682. Philosophy and Scholastic Theology were being taught regularly by the end of the 17th century.
After the college was granted the status of a university in 1727, it began to grant degrees of Master and Doctor of Philosophy and Theology to students. Students of the institution presented public demonstrations of their academic capabilities known as "Accademie" at the end of each scholastic year. A pre-grade class for the youngest students, which was referred to as "La Terza (Classe)", was established on 19 October 1741.
Student life.
The number of students at the college increased during the course of the 17th century. It is recorded that there were 34 students in the logic class in 1622, and by 1630–31 the college had over 100 students. In 1658, the humanities class had 97 students. By 1706, there were over 400 students studying at the college.
In the 17th century, there were strict rules on how students were to behave themselves within the college. They had to wear simple clothing, and could only speak in Latin, with the exception of Thursdays and Sundays when they were allowed to speak Italian and Maltese. Apart from lectures, daily routines included choir practice and prayers several times a day.
Commemorations.
The "Collegium Melitense"'s 400th anniversary in 1992 was commemorated with publications, the issue of commemorative stamps and coins and a Quatercentenary Exhibition.