Operation Hastings

Operation Hastings was an American military operation in the Vietnam War. The operation was a qualified success in that it pushed the North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) forces back across the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). As the PAVN clearly did not feel constrained by the "demilitarized" nature of the DMZ, US military leadership ordered a steady build-up of U.S. Marines near the DMZ from 1966 to 1968.
Background.
During late June and early July 1966, Marine reconnaissance units operating south of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) had observed and engaged increased numbers of uniformed regular PAVN troops. On 6 July, troops of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) 1st Division captured a PAVN soldier near The Rockpile who identified himself as being from the 812th Regiment of the 324B Division and advised that the other regiments of the division had also moved into South Vietnam. On 9 July a lieutenant from the 812th Regiment surrendered in the same area and advised that the 324B Division's mission was to liberate Quang Tri Province.
Prelude.
Convinced that the PAVN had moved across the DMZ in force, Major General Wood B. Kyle, Commanding General of the 3rd Marine Division recommended to General Lew Walt that the US launch an operation to drive back the NVA. General Walt passed on this recommendation to COMUSMACV, General Westmoreland, who gave his approval. On 11 July Brigadier General Lowell English, Assistant Division Commander of the 3rd Marine Division met with General Ngô Quang Trưởng, commanding General of the ARVN 1st Division and Colonel Sherman, commander of the 4th Marines at the 1st Division HQ in Huế to plan the operation. It was decided that a Marine task force would move into the area south of the DMZ to participate in Operation Hastings (the name given to Marine DMZ reconnaissance operations on 7 July), while ARVN forces would launch Operation Lam Son 289 south of the Marines.
On 13 July Task Force Delta became operational under the command of General English with Colonel Sherman as Chief of Staff. The Task Force consisted of four infantry Battalions, 2nd Battalion 1st Marines, 1st Battalion 3rd Marines, 2nd Battalion 4th Marines and 3rd Battalion 4th Marines, one artillery Battalion 3rd Battalion 12th Marines and various supporting forces. General English established his command post at Cam Lộ.
Intelligence determined that the PAVN 90th Regiment with an estimated strength of 1500 men was using the Song Ngan River Valley some 10 km northwest of Cam Lo as an infiltration route and that the command post of the 324B Division was located on Hill 208 overlooking the southwest of the Valley. The plans for the operation were for 3/4 Marines to be helilifted into the southwestern part of the Valley to establish blocking positions, while 2/4 Marines would land at the mouth of the valley and move southwest along the high ground towards Hill 208 and 3/4's positions. 2/1 Marines would secure Đông Hà while 1/3 Marines would protect Cam Lộ Combat Base and 3/12 Marines' artillery. SLF 3rd Battalion 5th Marines would launch Operation Deckhouse II, 13 km northeast of Đông Hà on 16 July and after establishing positions ashore Deckhouse would be terminated and 3/5 Marines would join Task Force Delta. The ARVN 1st Division and an airborne task force would launch Operation Lam Son 289 to the west of Route 1, with the 1st Division operating north of Đông Hà and the airborne operating south of Route 9.
Battle.
D-Day in Helicopter Valley.
On the morning of 15 July, A-4 Skyhawks from MAG-12 and F-4B Phantoms from MAG-11 began bombing and napalming the two landing zones, LZ Crow (), 8 km northeast of the Rockpile and LZ Dove () at the mouth of the Valley, 5 km northeast of Crow. At 07:25 3/12 artillery took over the bombardment of LZ Crow and at 07:45 20 CH-46s of HMM-164 and HMM-265 began landing 3/4 Marines on LZ Crow. While the Marines met no initial resistance, LZ Crow proved to be too small for the operation, two CH-46s collided and crashed while a third CH-46 hit a tree while trying to avoid the other two. As a result of these collisions, two Marines were killed and seven injured. All three CH-46s were too badly damaged to be recovered and would have to be destroyed. Later that day another CH-46 carrying men from 2/1 Marines was hit by NVA fire and crashed killing 13 Marines. Marines promptly renamed the Song Ngan as "Helicopter Valley".
Companies K and L began establishing blocking positions around LZ Crow while Company I stayed in reserve. Company K took fire and soon located a 200-bed hospital and some 1200 rounds of ammunition. Company K continued on to their objective south of LZ Crow, but they were repulsed by PAVN fire as they tried to cross the Ngan River with the loss of three Marines killed and five wounded. Company K decided to set up night positions on a hill from the river. The PAVN were now aware of the arrival of 3/4 Marines and the Battalion started to come under sustained small arms, machine gun and mortar fire. By 19:30, the Battalion CO Lt Col Vale reported that his Battalion was surrounded but 30 minutes later under artillery and tactical air fire the PAVN withdrew. At 20:15 a reinforced PAVN Company attacked Company K's position and only withdrew after 3 hours of fighting, the following morning 25 PAVN bodies were found in front of the position.
At 09:35 HMM-164 and HMM-265's CH-46s began lifting three Companies of 2/4 Marines into LZ Dove. Once landed, 2/4 Marines began moving west towards 3/4 Marines but their progress was hindered by high elephant grass and oppressive heat and humidity. 2/4 Marines were unable to move to assist 3/4 Marines and set up night positions with orders to abandon the move towards Hill 208 and proceed directly to join 3/4 Marines in the morning.
16 July.
The PAVN launched mortars into 3/4 Marines CP in the morning and the Marines responded with airstrikes and artillery. Company K was still unable to cross the Song Ngan, but the other two Companies were able to patrol unmolested to the north and northwest. 2/4 Marines set off at dawn towards 3/4's position and engaged the PAVN several times calling in close air strikes before linking up with 3/4 at 14:45. At 19:30 the PAVN again attacked Company K's position making three attacks over three and a half hours, the Marines suffered 1 dead, 5 seriously wounded and over 40 wounded from grenades thrown at short range. The PAVN dragged away some of their dead but the Marines counted 79 bodies the following morning.
General English decided to deploy 2/1 Marines and they were lifted into LZ Robin () 3 km northeast of LZ Crow by 30 helicopters of HMM-161, HMM-163, HMM-164 and HMM-265. At 16:00 a platoon of Marines from the 1st Force Reconnaissance Company rapelled from a MAG-16 helicopter onto the summit of the Rockpile, three hours later they spotted a PAVN force to their east and called in artillery fire from 3/12 Marines killing 21 PAVN and later that night called in further fire on suspected PAVN positions south of the Rockpile.
17–18 July.
Based on the sightings from the Rockpile, 2/1 Marines were redeployed from LZ Robin to the river valley near the Rockpile by helicopters of MAG-16 on the morning of 17 July. In Helicopter Valley there was little contact with the PAVN, but 3/4 Marines gave up trying to push south and anticipating further night attacks they established a common perimeter with 2/4 Marines. General English ordered the two Battalions to withdraw to the northeast the following day, 2/4 was to establish blocking positions below the DMZ while 3/4 would move to the south of 2/4 and then attack south and take Hill 208. With the conclusion of Operation Deckhouse II on the morning of 18 July 3/5 Marines would be inserted into a small valley south of the Song Ngan in a suspected PAVN marshalling area, this area also provided a possible escape route for PAVN retreating from 3/4's advance on Hill 208.
At LZ Crow on the morning of 18 July 2/4 Marines swept north towards their new positions which they reached without incident by mid-afternoon. At 14:00 3/4 Marines began to move out leaving Company K as a rearguard to provide security for the Battalion CP and the engineers who were tasked with destroying captured ammunition and the three crashed CH-46s. At 14:30 the PAVN began mortaring the position and then attacked with infantry. As the Marines had filled in their fighting holes they quickly had to dig them out again as an estimated 1000 PAVN attacked. Company K's 1st Platoon bore the brunt of the assault and its squads were separated from each other as small groups of PAVN moved between them. Airstrikes were called in as close as 45m from the Marines and Lt Col Vale called for Company L to return to the LZ and for 2/4 Marines to provide support. By 17:00 Company L had arrived at the LZ and a Company from 2/4 Marines occupied high ground overlooking the LZ and 1st Platoon of Company K was able to withdraw, but had to leave their dead behind. By 17:00 2/4 and 3/4 had established a common perimeter northeast of LZ Crow. 3/4 Marines had suffered 14 dead and 49 wounded while the PAVN had suffered 138 known dead with estimates as high as 500. Captain Robert Modrzejewski, CO of Company K and Sergeant John McGinty commander of the 1st Platoon would each be awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions.
3/5 Marines were lifted into their position on the afternoon of 18 July. Only Company M encountered any serious resistance and after calling in airstrikes they overran the PAVN positions killing 21.
19–25 July.
On 19 July Company K was pulled out for rest and the remainder of 3/4 Marines were assigned blocking positions while 2/4 Marines reorganised for the assault on Hill 208. On the morning of 20 July following intense airstrikes, 2/4 assaulted up Hill 208, but found the heavily fortified position abandoned. 3/4 Marines was pulled out and replaced by 1/3 Marines on 21 July.
On 20 July 1/1 Marines joined 3/5 Marines in the valley below the Song Ngan and they met light but persistent resistance from small groups of PAVN as they patrolled to the west. General English also ordered 2/1 Marines to deploy and establish blocking positions at the western end of the valley north of the Rockpile. On the night of 21 July 2/1 Marines came under fire across their entire front and responded with small arms, mortar and artillery fire to break up the attack. The Marines suffered two dead, while the number of PAVN casualties was unknown.
On 21 July Company H, 2/4 Marines returned to LZ Crow to recover the Marine dead left behind on 18 July. The bodies of all eight Marines were found unmolested and still with all their weapons and equipment. On 22 July the other companies of 2/4 joined Company H and began patrolling through Helicopter Valley. During these two days of the operation, which also included search and destroy missions, on 21 July elements of one platoon of Company H were fired upon and the point man hit and killed by machine gun fire. At that point LCPL Richard David Kaler immediately moved forward through the heavy fire and carried the fallen Marine back. On 22 July Kaler's platoon re-engaged the position and took heavy casualties and was pinned down by machine gun fire. LCPL Kaler then advanced and exposed himself to intense fire and charged the enemy positions. In this attack, and after being wounded in the thigh, LCPL Kaler silenced one enemy position before being mortally wounded. He was credited by his actions with saving many of his fellow Marines and was awarded the Navy Cross.
On 24 July Company I, 3/5 Marines was setting up a radio relay station on Hill 362 approximately north of the Rockpile. As the 2nd Platoon moved to establish forward defences on the hillside the PAVN opened fire from concealed positions. LCPL Richard A. Pittman of the 1st Platoon ran forward with a machine gun to cover the retreat of the 2nd Platoon and he and the survivors retreated to the crest of the hill, but the dead and wounded were left behind. One of the survivors hid among the dead as the PAVN moved forward finishing off any surviving Marines. The PAVN then dropped accurate mortar fire on the crest of Hill 362 for the next two hours until a Marine UH-1E Gunship from VMO-2 silenced them. Company K moved to support Company I, but was stopped by heavy fire despite air and artillery support. Company I was also battered by heavy rains from Typhoon Ora and this and the thick jungle canopy complicated the evacuation of wounded. Eventually engineers were lowered in to cut out an LZ, but only 11 wounded were able to be evacuated. The PAVN made repeated assaults on Company I closing to within 5m at times, the Marines could hear the PAVN talking and breathing nearby. By dawn the PAVN had pulled out, Company I had suffered 18 dead and 82 wounded, 21 PAVN bodies were found and two prisoners taken. Prisoner interrogation revealed that the Marines had been attacked by the PAVN 6th Battalion, 812th Regiment. LCPL Pittman was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions on Hill 362.
On 25 July Generals Kyle and English met at Dong Ha and decided to withdraw Task Force Delta to the south due to the difficult terrain for manoeuvre and the lack of LZs for helicopter assaults.
26 July – 3 August.
On 26 July 1/1 Marines moved south to Cam Lộ. 3/5 Marines continued to sweep to the west and operate north of the Rockpile. On 27 July 2/1 Marines moved east towards the Rockpile. In Helicopter Valley, 2/4 Marines was replaced by 2/9 Marines on 26 July and on 27 July 1/3 and 2/9 and marched south out of the valley. Despite the withdrawal of the Battalions, Marine recon patrols continued to operate in the "Hastings" operations area and on 28 July a recon patrol spotted 150–250 PAVN 5 km southwest of the Rockpile and called in artillery strikes killing at least 50 PAVN. Following a report of this mission General Walt christened such recon patrols as "Stingray Patrols." While Operation Hastings officially ended on 3 August, the action on 28 July was the last major action of the Operation and it appeared that the 324B Division had either crossed back over the DMZ or dispersed into jungle to the west. General Walt described the PAVN troops encountered during Operation Hastings as follows: "We found them well-equipped, well-trained and aggressive to the point of fanaticism. They attacked in massed formations and died by the hundreds".


Bombardment of San Juan

The Bombardment of San Juan, or the First Battle of San Juan, on 12 May 1898 was an engagement between United States Navy warships and the Spanish fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was the first major action of the Puerto Rican Campaign during the Spanish–American War.
Background.
Under the command of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, a U.S. fleet—consisting of the flagship armored cruiser , battleships and , the unprotected cruisers and , the monitors and , the torpedo boat , the auxiliary cruiser , the collier , and two unarmed yachts transporting officials and the press,—prepared to attack Puerto Rico.
Their mission was to intercept the Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete and his fleet steaming from the Cape Verde Islands to the Antilles. American commanders believed the Spanish fleet was steaming for Puerto Rico. With this understanding, Sampson set steam from Key West and lifted anchor at about noon on 2 May, for the Spanish province. The Fleet reached Cape Haitien, Haiti, on 8 May, where Rear Admiral Sampson telegraphed Washington to report updates and await for further instructions. Sampson intended to destroy the Spanish squadron and then move on to attack San Juan's castles, forts and batteries.
On 8 May, in San Juan Bay, the captured the Spanish cargo ship "Rita". The Americans installed a prize crew and sent the cargo vessel to Charleston, South Carolina. The following day, a Spanish auxiliary cruiser, name unknown, and "Yale" fought a minor battle off San Juan. The Spanish auxiliary cruiser was much better armed, which led to "Yale", fleeing shortly after the commencement of the engagement. The next day, on May 10, "Yale" returned to San Juan Bay and briefly exchanged fire with Fort San Cristobal, with little effect.
Finally on 11 May, a day away from Puerto Rico and after receiving no new information about the Spanish fleet, William Sampson boarded "Detroit" and issued his orders. "Detroit" was to lead the U.S. battle line up San Juan's bay, their orders where to initiate a bombardment of the enemy positions if fired upon. Sampson also transferred his flag to "Iowa".
Bombardment.
The next morning at 05:00, "Detroit" proceeded with leading the American battle line. Steaming far up into the bay, initially no Spanish shots were fired on the approaching U.S. fleet. Which allowed the American ships to reach the tip of the bay in full view of San Juan's harbor. Commander Sampson, feeling his warships were steaming too close to the enemy held city, ordered his ships to stop. Despite these orders, "Detroit" steamed forward, which prompted the other U.S. ships to follow.
After failing to stop his vessels, Sampson ordered "Iowa" to train her guns on the nearest enemy stronghold, the Morro castle. This was only a ruse though; "Iowa" fired one shot into the water and the Spanish, believing they had been fired on, returned a salvo from their battery which failed to score a direct hit. "Iowa" fired again with a massive broadside which reportedly blew away a large portion of the castle.
Rough seas and high winds meant that both American and Spanish rounds were being blown off target, which resulted in a severe disadvantage for the American and Spanish gunners. Several shots ended up falling on San Juan houses and other buildings. The rough seas made the U.S. ships wobble back and forth, disallowing the sailors a steady platform to fire from, this also attributed to stray rounds. At least one shell struck the 16th-century San José Church.
All the damaged civilian structures were adjacent to Morro castle, which meant that any round failing to hit the castle would most likely hit the town accidentally. The U.S. warships maneuvered in circular motions, firing from both their port and starboard guns. Once Morro seemed to be considerably damaged, Sampson ordered his fleet to begin bombarding Fort San Cristóbal, the Spanish Ballaja Barracks, a small sea fort, El Cañuelo, which appears from Spanish records to have been unarmed and unoccupied, and a battery known as San Carlos.
The American ships were reported to be so close to the Spanish positions that their infantry were in able range to fire on the U.S. warships. However, none of their small arms were capable of inflicting serious damage on the modern steel vessels. A French cruiser—the "Amiral Rigault de Genouilly"—sat in San Juan's harbor, along with three small Spanish gunboats. Two of the gunboats were most likely the and . Possibly to avoid an international crisis with France, no major American attack was made on the Spanish gunboats as they were quite close to "Amiral Rigault de Genouilly".
Still, a few shots that did go in that direction damaged to the French cruiser's smoke stack and rigging. Apparently neither the French nor Spanish ships responded returned fire towards the Americans. From 05:00–08:00, Sampson's fleet fired their guns, while receiving light damage on only two ships, "New York" and "Iowa".
At 08:00, Sampson instructed his ships to cease firing due to the lack of Spanish return fire. The crew of the monitor "Terror" failed to understand these orders and they continued the bombardment solo until 08:30.
Casualties.
The only U.S. sailor killed in action served aboard the "New York" with four injured; three others were slightly wounded aboard "Iowa". "Amphitrite" suffered one gunner's mate killed of heat exposure while occupying one of the barbettes. After the battle, the commanding Spanish Military Governor, Manuel Macías y Casado, confirmed that two of his troops were killed while manning the few different batteries and another 34 injured. Civilian casualties were five killed and 18 wounded. Most of the Puerto Rican civilians had fled their city at the sound of the first salvo. The number of refugees was reportedly so large that San Juan's streets were almost deserted, with the exception of the several hundred strong Spanish garrison.
Armament.
The U.S. Navy had more and larger guns than the Spanish. The battleships, cruisers and monitors carried four 13", four 12", eight 10", twelve 8", and four 6" guns, in addition to many smaller pieces. Fort San Cristobal had two 150mm (5.9") Ordóñez guns and two 240mm (9.45") Ordóñez howitzers, Castillo San Felipe del Morro, which apparently fired the first shot, had five 150mm Ordóñez guns and two 240mm Ordóñez howitzers, the San Antonio battery had four 150mm Ordóñez guns, the San Fernando Battery had four muzzleloading 210mm (8.3") "sunchado" (or "zunchado", meaning banded), howitzers, the Santa Elena battery had three more, the San Agustin battery had three almost as obsolete 150mm "sunchado" guns, and the Santa Teresa battery had three 150mm Ordóñez guns. The Navy fired 1,362 shells whereas the Spanish fired only 441 rounds.
Aftermath.
The U.S. fleet steamed, or sailed in some cases, back to the Havana, Cuba, blockade. On May 18, Sampson learned that Admiral Cervera's force had sailed to Santiago de Cuba.


Battle of Hiltersried

The Battle of Hiltersried took place on 21 September 1433 near the village Hiltersried in Bavaria. A Bavarian feudal army under Count Palatine John of Neumarkt took an expedition into the Upper Palatinate against marauding Hussites and soundly defeated the Hussite section whose task was to ensure the protection for troops besieging Pilsen. The Hussites, who on that day were not expecting any attack, were totally surprised and did not have time to prepare to defend. After a sharp firing of crossbows, the mounted knights attacked in wedge formation toward the entrance to the camp. At the same time the infantry attacked from the wings, binding part of the struggle of defenders. After the Palatinate knighthood broke the defense and burst into the camp, the defenders started to rout. Knights of the Palatinate took chase.
During the fighting and the pursuit, about 1,500 Hussites were killed and 300 taken prisoner. Their commander escaped, however, and led 130 Taborites from the battlefield and headed for Pilsen. Losses among the knighthood of Palatinate were only 14 dead and about 120 wounded. The failure at Hiltersried led to internal clashes within the ranks of the Hussites, public opinion among the Hussites at Pilsen turned against the organizers Jan Pardus and Jan Řitka of Bezdědice and led to several days of imprisonment for the spiritual administrator of the Tabor municipality Prokop, who defended both captains. The Hussite movement was falling apart from the inside, contributing to the end of the Hussite wars. It was one of the major battles in which documents the Hussites.


Eastern Region Army Group

The Eastern Region Army Group, (GERO), was a military formation of the Spanish Republican Army during the last phase of the Spanish Civil War. It was established in June 1938 as a response to the splitting in two of the territory under the sovereignty of the Spanish Republic after the Central Region Army Group "(GERC)", under the command of General Miaja, had been set up in the central-southern region of Spain.
This army group of the Spanish Republican military lasted until the Fall of Catalonia on 9 February 1939.
History.
The Republican territory split in two.
Catalonia had become an isolated enclave following the rebel Aragon Offensive in the spring of 1938. Since the loyalist armies of the former Aragon Front were in a state of disarray after the Republican debacle, the President of the Spanish government Juan Negrín requested the Chief of Staff commander of the Republican Army, Vicente Rojo, to reorganize the Republican forces.
Owing to the loyalist territory having been split in two by the rebels, General Rojo saw the need of establishing two army groups in order to coordinate the specific defence requirements of each zone. Thus after the establishment of the "GERO", a new Eastern Army was organized in the Catalan territory, in charge of the defensive line of the Segre River. Meanwhile, in the southern sector the Ebro Army was established, which would have as its goal to eventually reunite the northeastern Republican area with the larger zone further to the southwest. The commander of both armies was a prestigious military figure, General Juan Hernández Saravia, who had been the former commander of the Southern and the Levantine Army.
Right from the moment of its inception the Eastern army group saw action at the Segre Front where there were constant battles along a long defensive line of Republican positions and fortifications. During most of 1938 there would be numerous attacks, counterattacks and skirmishes from both sides along the Segre River. A great number of manpower and material was sent to the Eastern Army in that front, which was a crucial line for halting the devastating advances of the Francoist armies and to keep crucial hydroelectric dams from falling into the hands of the enemy. Eventually the Spanish Republic was able to hold unto that line until the beginning of January 1939 when it became impossible to keep holding the resistance in the Segre against the overwhelming pressure of the rebels.
To complement the battles in western Catalonia the high command quarters of the Republican Armed Forces, led by General Vicente Rojo, were planning a large-scale operation with the aim to reconnect the two isolated enclaves in which the Spanish Republic had been recently divided. Thus on 25 July 1938 Republican troops crossed the Ebro River successfully beginning the Battle of the Ebro. After establishing some bridgeheads, loyalist forces advanced against the rebel-held towns of Gandesa and Vilalba dels Arcs, where after weeks of intense combats the Republican counteroffensive lost steam. Although the Republican operation failed, the Ebro Army dug in within a protracted defensive battle that lasted four months. There were heavy casualties on both sides, but especially on the Republican side, which lost irreplaceable military units and most of its former high morale.
Catalonia Offensive.
During the Battle of the Ebro the rebel military had inflicted severe losses to the Republican Armed Forces in Catalonia. At that critical time the "GERO" still had about 300,000 troops, 360 pieces of artillery and about 200 tanks and armoured vehicles. Also, the General Staff of the Republican Military had kept the commanding structure of the Eastern Region Army Group intact, still under the command of General Juan Hernández Saravia. However, after the numerous casualties —including the many invaluable battle-hardened veterans— , most of the troops of the army group were inexperienced recruits and, owing to the heavy material losses endured, the loyalist troops saw a marked reduction in their ability to operate. To compound matters, the Catalan sector was a bad strategic location bound by Francoist territory on the Spanish side, the Mediterranean Sea on the other, and, even if in the north it still held the French border, non-interventionist France was unreliable at best, when not overtly hostile to the Spanish Republic.
When the Francoist Catalonia Offensive was launched on 23 December 1938, the high command in Barcelona did not fathom that it was a large-scale attack. Thus the rebel faction troops were able to open many gaps in the Eastern Army front, causing some Republican units to flee in panic. In order to try to mend things, the elite V Army Corps led by Enrique Líster was sent to the Main Line of Resistance, but even after an intense series of combats Lister was only able to contain the massive penetration of the enemy armies for a period of twelve days at the confluence of the Ebro and the Segre Rivers. An increase of the river flow at the Ebro sector temporarily barred the feared Moroccan troops of General Juan Yagüe from crossing the river.
The Francoist attack subsided somewhat until 3 January 1939, when a Fascist Italian tank column forced a retreat of Republican troops in the Segre sector. That same day General Yagüe's Moroccan divisions successfully crossed the Ebro and established a number of bridgeheads. As a consequence of these simultaneous victories towards mid-January it became evident for the Republican armies that they were unable to halt the sheer avalanche of rebel troops that pressured their resistance lines. Putting off any idea of a counter-offensive, or even resistance, all Spanish Republican units began to withdraw towards the north. By then there was great confusion within Republican ranks and Hernández Saravia informed President Manuel Azaña that his troops had only 17,000 guns. Actually, although ill-equipped, the number of guns that the Republican troops had was far higher, but this arbitrary comment is an illustration of the administrative chaos that preceded the Fall of Catalonia.
The Fall of Barcelona and the end of the "GERO".
Following the Fall of Barcelona on 27 January, Juan Hernández Saravia was relieved of his duties as leader of the Eastern Region Army Group, allegedly for his "defeatism" "(derrotismo)", but the real motives went far deeper. General Hernández Saravia had fallen from grace because his views had often conflicted with those of the Chief of the General Staff of the Central Region, Vicente Rojo, and the President of the Council of Ministers, Juan Negrín. Hernández Saravia had tried to replace Juan Modesto, the head of the Ebro Army, whom he saw as self-important and not up to the mark and hand over the command to Juan Perea, the more competent commander of the Eastern Army, but Modesto was protected by the highest leaders of the doomed Spanish Republic.
In an eleventh-hour decision the command of the Eastern Region Army Group was transferred to Enrique Jurado Barrio, but he was not able to organize a line of defence while the whole Northeastern section of the Republican Army was unfit for battle and in the middle of a hasty retreat. Cold, ill-equipped and hungry both the troops and the average citizens were exhausted and had stopped listening to the official propaganda telling that a victory against Fascism was at hand; fear was the pervading mood and what most hoped was not to be treated too badly by the advancing Francoists during the purge of the conquered territory. Since Barcelona was already in rebel hands the most that Jurado Barrio could do was to try to limit the chaos of the desperate withdrawal of the long civilian and military columns towards the border and to evacuate the demoralized Republican troops in a manner as orderly as possible.
By 5 February most of the military units of the Spanish Republic had crossed the border into France, where all Spanish Republicans were arrested by the authorities and sent to French concentration camps. On 10 February, when the Francoist forces reached the frontier posts, the Eastern Region Army Group was already history.
Structure.
The Eastern Region Army Group included the armies that were defending Catalonia that were still loyal to the Spanish Republic led by General Juan Hernández Saravia. It was composed by the following armies:


List of Cornish soldiers, commanders and sailors

This is a list of Cornish people who were notable soldiers, seamen or airmen.


Washington Grays Monument

Washington Grays Monument, also known as the Pennsylvania Volunteer, is a bronze statue by John A. Wilson. The monument represents the Washington Grays who served in the 17th, 21st and 49th Pennsylvania Militia during the American Civil War. In 1925, almost 20 years after the sculpture was made, renowned sculptor and art historian Lorado Taft wrote, "No American sculpture has surpassed the compelling power which John A. Wilson put into his steady, motionless 'Pennsylvania Volunteer'." Joseph Wilson built the base of the monument which was unveiled on April 19, 1872. Over 35 years later John Wilson sculpted the bronze statue, which was dedicated on April 18, 1908 at Washington Square, and rededicated June 14, 1991 at its present location in front of the Union League of Philadelphia, 140 South Broad Street, in Center City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The sculpture is positioned adjacent to the sculpture 1st Regiment Infantry National Guard of Philadelphia.
History.
On October 21, 1871, a communication was received by the Trustees from Mr. Edwin N. Benson, an honorary member of the Corps, tendering "the sum of Two Thousand Dollars to defray the expenses of erecting a granite monument, in a proper place, to the memory of the gallant comrades who fell in the war for the Union," suggesting it be completed and dedicated on the occasion of the semi-centennial Anniversary of the Corps.
The base of the monument was unveiled at the intersection of Broad Street and Girard Avenue, with impressive and appropriate ceremonies on Friday, April 19, 1872, at 3 o'clock P. M., and the day concluded with a banquet of which three hundred persons partook, at the Continental Hotel. The monument was subsequently removed from the place of its dedication to the centre of Washington Square.
At a meeting of the "Old Guard of the Artillery Corps, Washington Grays," held February 22, 1906, a committee consisting of the Trustees and Comrade Captain John O. Foering was appointed to procure and have erected upon the base of the monument in Washington Square a bronze figure of a "Washington Gray" in the old uniform. The Committee reported at the meeting of May 4, 1908, that they had attended to the duty assigned them, and defrayed the entire cost ($5000) out of the Treasury of the old Guard without assistance from any other source whatever, and that the figure had been made by John A. Wilson and had been uncovered without ceremony in the presence of the few surviving members of the old Guard at 7 o'clock on the morning of Saturday, April 18th, 1908.
John Oppell Foering described the monument:
In 1954 the monument was moved to Lemon Hill and remained unprotected for almost four decades. The unnamed Grays soldier suffered the neglect of an uninterested public. Bored kids probably assaulted the statue with stones, knocking off his bayonet and plume. The monument was moved to its present location in 1991.
Inscription.
The inscription reads:

J. Wilson

Bureau Bros.

This statue was dedicated at this site on June 14, 1991 By the Union League of Philadelphia. The First Regiment Infantry of Pennsylvania & Fairmount Park Commission through the efforts of a combined committee of those organizations.

The Union League of Philadelphia

Robert M. Flood Jr., President

Stanley W. Root Jr., Esq. Chairman

Leon Clemmer A.I.A., Architect

Raymond K. Denworth, Esquire

First Regiment Infantry of Pennsylvania

Colonel Jack C. Betson, Pres.

Major William M. Barnes, Sec'y

Fairmount Park Commission

F

Eugene Dixon, Jr., Chairman signed Founder's mark appears.


Operation Essential Harvest

Operation Essential Harvest (or Task Force Harvest) was a deployment mission in the Republic of Macedonia by NATO, officially launched on August 22, 2001 and effectively started on August 27. Because national contributions were larger than expected, the force ultimately grew to approximately 4,800 troops.
Troops from the 2nd Battalion The Parachute Regiment and members of the SAS working in the A.O.R.
Working from a fruit and peanut factory, all operations to collect weapons and ammo were staged.
Background.
"Although France was not a member of the NATO integrated command structure, then President Chirac had begun to reintegrate into the military structure of the Alliance in order to allow for French participation in combined operations in Bosnia under NATO command. . . . At the summit in Freiburg on 12 June, Chirac's suggestion for military cooperation with German units within NATO was confirmed by Schröder and put in place by the foreign and defence ministers of the two countries on 5 July. Both countries cooperated in NATO Operation Essential Harvest – two German, two French and one Spanish companies were placed under the overall French Command."
Battle of Tetovo.
The Battle of Tetovo occurred in the beginning of January 2001 which also involved NATO and the Macedonian Armies to disarm Albanian insurgents who had occupied a number of cities, towns and villages in the Republic of Macedonia. This battle lasted until November 2001.
Operation Amber Fox.
Following the conclusion of Operation Essential Harvest and at the request of the Macedonian President, NATO established Operation Amber Fox, to allow for a continuing NATO presence in the country.


East Suffolk Militia

The East Suffolk Militia was one of two regiments of militia raised in Suffolk. Formed in 1759 it was converted in 1853 to an Artillery Militia unit, which was eventually disbanded in 1909.
History.
The Militia Act of 1757 established militia regiments for each county and required each parish to provide a number of able-bodied men, aged between 18 and 50 (reduced to 45 in 1762) for military training. Militia regiments served in Britain or Ireland but not overseas. Men had to serve for three years (for five years after 1786). As well as the East Suffolk Militia, the county also raised the West Suffolk Militia. In 1831 the East Suffolk Militia became the East Suffolk Light Infantry Militia.
In May 1853 the Militia was reorganised with the East Suffolk being converted into an Artillery unit. The Corps of Artillery was designated The Suffolk Artillery Militia and had its headquarters at Ipswich. The unit had a purpose built artillery barracks in Ipswich which were completed in 1855. The first commanding officer was Colonel Robert A Shafto Adair MP, who later became Robert Adair, 1st Baron Waveney.
The unit was embodied during the Crimean War (1855-6), the Indian Mutiny (1859-1860) and during the South African War (1900) but never served overseas. By 1893 the War Office Mobilisation Scheme had allocated the Suffolk Militia Artillery Volunteers to the Harwich fixed defences. The unit was redesignated as The Suffolk Royal Garrison Artillery (Militia) in 1902. It was transferred to the Special Reserve Royal Field Artillery in 1908 on the formation of the Territorial Force and disbanded the following year.


Hood event

The Hood event () was an incident on July 4, 2003 following the 2003 American invasion of Iraq where a group of Turkish military personnel operating in northern Iraq were captured, led away with hoods over their heads, and interrogated by the United States military. American soldiers seized 15 kg of explosives, sniper rifles, grenades and maps of Kirkuk, with circles drawn around positions near the governor's building when they raided Turkish offices in Sulaimaniya. The soldiers were released after sixty hours, after Turkey protested to the United States. A Kurdish intelligence official claimed that the Turkish soldiers had been linked to a plot to assassinate the newly elected governor of Kirkuk to destabilise the region so that Turkish forces would be needed to restore order.
Though neither side ever apologized, a US-Turkish commission set up to investigate the incident later issued a joint statement of regret. In addition, US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld wrote a letter to the Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan expressing sorrow over the incident. The Hood event damaged diplomatic relations between Turkey and the United States and marked a low point in US-Turkish relations. While the incident received comparatively little coverage in the United States, it was a major event in Turkey, many of whose citizens saw it as a deliberate insult and nicknamed it "The Hood event".
Background.
Turkey had long viewed northern Iraq, with its large mountain ranges, as a possible national security threat. During the 1980s and 1990s, Turkey fought against PKK, operating mainly in southeastern Turkey. More than 30,000 people were killed and millions more were displaced. During the war, the PKK established bases in Iraq and Syria.
Turkish fears intensified after Iraqi Kurdistan gained autonomy after the 1991 Gulf War. In 1996, after a civil war had broken out there, Turkey deployed troops there to monitor a ceasefire between the two main Kurdish factions. In 1998, Turkey was able to use military threats to force neighboring Syria to expel PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan. However, because of the United States, it was never able to move decisively against the PKK in northern Iraq.
Under American protection, Iraqi Kurdistan had evolved into a semi-autonomous region. US pressure helped lead to a peace deal in 1999 between the major Iraqi Kurdish factions, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iraq. While both parties officially swore off independence, the Turkish government remained sufficiently concerned, and continued to keep troops in northern Iraq.
The Iraq War.
By 2003, many Turks had come to see American foreign policy in the region as a threat. The election in 2002 of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) gave hopes that relations could be improved, especially given AKP leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan's positive comments regarding the US-Turkish cooperation in the Middle East, specifically concerning the so-called "Greater Middle East Project". Shortly after the election of the AKP tensions with America increased however, due to the Parliament's decision not to send any Turkish troops to Iraq further eroded US-Turkish relations. 70% of the parliament members were Justice and Development Party members. Although more than half of AKP members voted to authorize the troop deployment, a significant minority of the AKP along with almost all of the main opposition CHP voted against it. It was considered Erdogan's first significant political defeat as part of the AKP given his vocal support for the authorization before the vote.
On April 24, 2003, only two weeks after the fall of Baghdad, a dozen Turkish special forces were arrested in Da Quq (a tribal village 45 minutes north of Kirkuk). According to "Time", a weekly world news magazine, they were wearing civilian clothes and intended to infiltrate Iraq, lagging behind a humanitarian convoy, in order to destabilize the region to a level where Turkey could reasonably send its own peacekeeping force. However, they were intercepted by American forces, who claimed they had received prior knowledge of the group.
Colonel Bill Mayville, a U.S. brigade commander who was responsible for the region where this took place, accused the Turks of having links to the Iraqi Turkoman Front (ITF), an ethnic-Turkish militia. However, US forces made no effort to incarcerate the Turks, merely detaining them for a day, with food, security and comfort, and then escorting them back to the Iraqi-Turkish border. In the following months, Turkey continued its policy of sending small groups of soldiers into Iraqi Kurdistan, ostensibly to search for PKK bases. According to "The Economist", Turkey also began covertly arming the ITF as a lever against the PKK.
Raid on Al Sulaymaniyah.
On July 4, 2003, soldiers from the United States Army's 173d Airborne Brigade raided a safehouse in the Iraqi Kurdish city of Sulaymaniyah. Seemingly acting on an intelligence tip that there were individuals in the safehouse plotting to assassinate the Iraqi-Kurdish governor of the province of Kirkuk. The safehouse instead housed members of the Iraq's Turkoman Front and Turkish Special Forces soldiers, including a colonel and two majors, whom they promptly arrested. Turkish sources refer to eleven soldiers commanded by a major. An unknown number of other individuals were also detained during the raid, although thirteen were later released. Apart from these, and the Turkish soldiers who were to be released after intense diplomatic activity, a British citizen named Michael Todd, who was in the area looking for his girlfriend and their 19-month-old daughter, was also taken into custody.
Negotiations.
The Turkish military immediately threatened retaliatory measures, including closing Turkish airspace to US military flights, stopping the use of the southern Incirlik Air Base and sending more troops into northern Iraq. A delegation of Turkish military and diplomatic officials immediately left for Sulaymaniyah on Saturday to discuss the matter with the Americans, but according to the Turks most of the American commanders were off celebrating Independence Day. Following direct protests by Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to US Vice President Dick Cheney, as well as by Turkish Foreign Minister Abdullah Gül to US Secretary of State Colin Powell, the Turkish soldiers were released after sixty hours in captivity.
Aftermath.
The Hood event made a much greater impact in Turkey than in the West, which by and large agreed with the U.S. government's interpretation. While the story received comparatively little coverage outside of the Middle East, Turkish newspapers loudly condemned the raid, referring to U.S. forces with nicknames such as "Rambos" and "Ugly Americans". On the last day of the incident, Hilmi Özkök, Chief of the General Staff (Turkey), declared that the Hood event had caused a "crisis of confidence" between the US and Turkey.
The event periodically gets front coverage in the Turkish media, such as in the mass-circulation daily "Hürriyet", in keeping with new declarations made to the press by the involved parties and new details divulged. Most recently, the key witness in the Ergenekon investigation, Tuncay Güney, alleged that the event was the U.S. response to the discovery of documents about the clandestine Ergenekon network's Iraq connection in the archives of Tariq Aziz.
The Hood event was the inspiration for the 2006 Turkish action film "Valley of the Wolves Iraq". The film opens with the depiction of an almost identical incident, following afterwards a fictional story in which the Turkish protagonist seeks retaliation against the American commander responsible for the incident.
Claims.
Various municipal and government buildings were set on fire in Mosul and Kirkuk by Kurdish forces on 10 and 11 April 2003. A Turkish daily newspaper reported that the Turkish Special Forces soldiers, who were captured by US Army and Peshmerga, had already filmed the deed records and sent the digital records to Turkey before the historical records were terminated. The newspaper also reported that the US party was, in fact, in search of those records, but they were unable to find them. However, Turkish Ministry of Public Works declared that the ministry archives holds historical deed records from the Ottoman era and there were no operations involved.
Retired Department of Intelligence Chief of General Staff of the Republic of Turkey, Korg. İsmail Hakki Pekin, claims in his book named "Dikkat Cemaat Çıkabilir KOZMİK ODA" that, after the secret archives about Turkmens captured during the raid, local Turkmen leaders were assassinated or died in suspicious traffic accidents.


Ogdensburg Agreement

The Ogdensburg Agreement was an agreement concluded between Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Heuvelton near Ogdensburg, New York on August 17, 1940. It outlined a permanent plan for mutual defense overseas between the United States and Canada and established the Permanent Joint Board of Defense.
History and Rationale.
Although Canada and the United States had long been economic partners, Canada had always considered Great Britain as its primary military partner. While Canada had been granted independence in its foreign policy from Britain in 1931, Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, the strength of the British Empire, and the historic and cultural ties between them made a military alliance with the United States seem unnecessary. Most Canadians believed that Britain could provide for all of Canada's defence needs.
Canada had declared war on Nazi Germany shortly after the Second World War began in early September 1939 but the United States remained neutral. By mid-1940, the situation in Europe had grown dire; Germany's military successes had led to the occupation of most of Europe, and most importantly, France, which surrendered in June 1940. With Germany in control or allied with nearly all of continental Europe, it began to develop plans for an invasion of the British Isles. Germany's seemingly unstoppable military, its submarine campaign against British merchant shipping, and its neutrality pact with the Soviet Union, convinced many, including American President Franklin Roosevelt, that Britain itself would soon be invaded or forced to surrender.
By July 1940, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, along with a growing number of Canadians, was becoming increasingly concerned that Britain would fall and that Canada, with its small population and abundant natural resources, would become Germany's next target. In addition to transferring its gold reserves to Canada at the beginning of the war, the British government had also prepared a contingency plan (which was largely kept secret to avoid hurting morale) to evacuate the Royal family, the government and as many critical military and scientific personnel to Canada as possible if the British Isles fell to Germany. These factors only increased concerns that Germany would eventually target Canada for its next conquest.
Both Canada and the United States recognized this threat. Subsequently, it was the United States that initiated preliminary military discussions that became formative in July 1940. On August 18, Roosevelt and King met inland from the border town of Ogdensburg, New York. Roosevelt outlined his plan to create a joint board to oversee the defence of both nations, not just for the duration of the current crisis, but as a permanent body. King immediately agreed, and the Permanent Joint Board on Defence was created.
Most Canadians supported this agreement, which was soon known as the Ogdensburg Agreement, as they deemed it necessary not only for security purposes but also to improve relations with the United States (it was also hoped that the agreement would help pull the United States into the war). However, some Canadians, most notably former Conservative prime minister Arthur Meighen were furious - they argued that by signing this agreement, Canada was not only abandoning Britain but was effectively placing itself under the control of the United States. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was also angry, stating that "all these transactions will be judged [at the end of the war] in a mood different to that prevailing while the issue still hangs in the balance." King's government recognized these concerns; Canadian negotiators resolutely refused to give the United States control of Canada's forces, and rejected proposals to integrate much of the country's defences into Washington's Northeast and Northwest Defence Commands. King's approach satisfied most Canadians - although co-operation with the United States was essential, it did not mean abandoning Canada's national interests.
Since World War II.
The agreement inaugurated closer Canadian-United States military co-operation and established the Permanent Joint Board of Defence, which remains as the senior advisory body on continental security and which is composed of two national sections made up of diplomatic and military representatives. For seven decades its meetings have served as a window on Canada-U.S.A. Defence relations. Canadian-U.S.A. military cooperation was further enhanced by the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 but the Board continued to serve in an important capacity for bilateral military relations and coordination.
Initially, it was argued that Ogdensburg Agreement involved Canada abandoning Britain in favour of the United States on matters of defence. However, the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 (which linked Canada and the United States into a collective security agreement with Britain and Western Europe) helped to alleviate these concerns.
The Board has examined virtually every important joint defence measure undertaken since the end of World War II, including construction of the (DEW-line) Canadian slang -- Distant Early Warning Line of radars, the creation of the North American Aerospace Defence Command (NORAD) in 1958. The bi-national operation of total North America Defence. North American Air Defense Modernization program in 1985.
To this day, The Ogdensburg Agreement stands paramount in all background military operations between the United States and Canada. The DEW-Line has been dismantled due to Satellite Improvement Technology and now relies on innovation driven by the Internet. Many outposts still physically stand, like in Sudbury Ontario, but have been cut in service and are nothing but dead historical monuments.


Suresnes American Cemetery and Memorial

The Suresnes American Cemetery (French: "Cimetière américain de Suresnes") is a United States military cemetery in the Suresnes, Hauts-de-Seine, France. It is the resting place of 1,541 American soldiers killed in World War I. A panoramic view of Paris can be seen from the site, which is located high on the slopes of Mont Valérien.
History.
Cemetery.
Originally a World War I cemetery, designed in 1922 on Boulevard Washington by French architect Jacques Gréber, Suresnes American Cemetery now shelters the remains of U.S. dead of both World Wars. The cemetery contains the remains of 1,541 Americans who died in World War I and 24 Unknown dead of World War II. Bronze tablets on the walls of the chapel record the names of 974 World War I missing. Rosettes mark the names of those since recovered and identified.
Memorial.
The World War I memorial chapel was enlarged by the addition of two loggias dedicated to the dead of World Wars I and II, respectively. In the rooms at the ends of the loggias are white marble figures in memory of those who lost their lives in the two wars. Inscribed on the loggia walls is a summary of the loss of life in the Armed forces of the United States in each war, together with the location of the overseas commemorative cemeteries where American war dead are buried.


Mersin Naval Museum

Mersin Naval Museum () is a naval museum in Mersin, Turkey.
Geography.
The museum is located in the Yenişehir municipality of Mersin. It is on Adnan Menderes Boulevard and about to the Mediterranean Sea side. It is next to the Mersin Archaeological Museum. The Muğdat Mosque is to the northeast of the museum. Its total area (including the yard) is . The ground area of the building is
History.
Mersin is one of the important ports of Turkey. The Turkish Navy decided to establish a naval museum there and construction began on 16 September 2009. The Mersin Naval Museum is the fourth naval museum in Turkey after those of İstanbul, Çanakkale and İskenderun. It was opened to public on 14 July 2011.
Museum.
In the main hall, objects such as uniforms, weapons, historical battle ship models and paintings about important battles and portraits of admirals such as Çaka Bey, Umur Bey, Piri Reis and Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha are displayed. In the interactive display hall the visitors can watch videos of the cruiser "Hamidye", the "Mahmudiye", the Battle of Preveza and Hayreddin Barbarossa, the minelayer "Nusret", and the cruiser "Yavuz". Bigger military equipment such as radar, torpedoes, etc. are displayed in the museum's yard.


Battle of Kaipiais

The Battle of Kaipiais took place on July 15, 1789 during Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), between Sweden and the Russian Empire. The Swedes lost the battle and had to withdraw with a loss of 265 men.


Light Division (United Kingdom)

The Light Division was a light infantry division of the British Army. Its origins lay in "Light Companies" formed during the late 18th century, to move at speed over inhospitable terrain and protect a main force with skirmishing tactics. These units took advantage of then-new technology in the form of rifles, which allowed it to emphasise marksmanship, and were aimed primarily at disrupting and harassing enemy forces, in skirmishes before the main forces clashed.
Formed in 1803, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Light Division was raised thrice thereafter: during the Crimean War, the First World War and from 1968 to 2007. Some light infantry units remained outside the Light Division.
Origins of the Light Division.
The British Army's first three "Rifle Battalion" was raised by the 60th (Royal Americans) in 1797–99. The command of this first rifle battalion was given to Francis de Rottenburg, who had extensive experience with light infantry. While the 60th did not officially become part of the Light Division, it and Rottenburg were influential in terms of British Army doctrine regarding rifle-armed light infantry.
In 1800, an "Experimental Corps of Riflemen", was raised by Colonel Coote Manningham and Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. William Stewart – drawn from officers and other ranks from drafts of a variety of British regiments. The corps differed in several regards from the Line infantry of the British Army. Most significantly, it was armed with the formidable Baker rifle, which was more accurate and of longer range than the musket, although it took longer to load. As the rifle was shorter than the musket, it was issued with a 21-inch sword bayonet. Riflemen wore dark green jackets rather than the bright red coats of the British line infantry regiments of that time; pantaloons, rather than breeches; black leather facings and belts rather than white and; a green plume on their "stovepipe shakoes". They were trained to work alone or in pairs, in open order and to think for themselves.
Napoleonic Wars.
Four months after its formation, the Rifle Corps was judged ready for its first operation. On 25 August 1800, three companies, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel William Stewart, spearheaded a British amphibious landing at Ferrol, Spain, where the Rifles helped to dislodge the Spanish defenders on the heights. However the expedition was defeated and withdrew the following day. In 1801, one company of the corps, under the command of Captain Sidney Beckwith, served as marksmen aboard Royal Navy ships at the First Battle of Copenhagen. During the battle, the Rifle Corps suffered one lieutenant killed, its first officer to fall, and two other ranks killed and six wounded, some of whom died later. (In 1847 the Admiralty made the Naval General Service Medal with the clasp "Copenhagen 1801" claimable by surviving veterans, including members of the Rifle Corps.)
In January 1803, the corps became an established regular regiment and was renamed the 95th Regiment of Foot (Rifles).
On 17 July 1803, an unofficial "Corps of Light Infantry" was formed, by brigading together the
General Sir John Moore finished training the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th in September 1805.
Because the three Rifle battalions of the 60th Royal Americans were already wearing the green clothing and black leather equipment that were typical of continental light infantry, the 95th Rifles adopted the same uniform as the 60th. But despite the best efforts of Moore, the other light infantry regiments were ordered to conform to the regulations for light companies of line regiments by retaining their red jackets.
Armed with the Baker rifle and wearing dark green uniforms, the Green Jackets were hard to spot and spent their time sniping at enemy officers, NCOs and any other figure of authority in an enemy formation. A well-aimed shot could bring down an enemy commander with ease, lowering morale in the enemy. The Baker Rifle had far greater accuracy and range than the standard muskets of the time and the men using them were considered marksmen, trading devastating firepower for superior accuracy and range.
In 1807, Denmark while officially neutral, was suspected by the British of planning to ally itself with France. The corps of light infantry (43rd, 52nd and 95th Regiments) led by Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, was part of a force that defeated Danish forces at the Siege of Køge and Second Battle of Copenhagen, and with it the entire Danish fleet.
The Corps of Light Infantry, under Moore, sailed for Spain for what would become known as the Peninsular War. The campaign established the value of light infantry armed with rifles.
Four further battalions were trained by Rottenberg in the Curragh of Kildare in Ireland during May 1808. Later, Rottenberg returned to England and, at Brabdourn Lees barracks in Ashford, retrained the 68th, 85th and 71st Regiments as light infantry, to help meet the demand for such troops in the Peninsula.
During the Peninsular war of 1808–1809, "Caçadores" Battalions of the Portuguese Army were attached to the Light Division.
Battle of Corunna.
The Battle of Corunna, (16 January 1809), was an attack by 16,000 French under Marshal Soult during the amphibious evacuation of 16,000 British under General Sir John Moore. Moore had hoped to draw the French Army away from Portugal, to allow the small British force in that country to be reinforced, and to allow the Spanish armies to reform. Hugely outnumbered, Moore was forced to retreat. Made in a harsh winter and under constant pressure, the retreat severely tried his men. The exhausting marches, cold weather and frequent skirmishes with the pursuing French units saw many fall to illness or exhaustion, or to turn to alcohol and become so drunk that they were left behind. The Light Division (then the Light Brigade) was one of the few units that kept its discipline and, along with units of British cavalry, fought a series of rearguard actions against the French. The brigade then fought at Corunna where the French were repulsed. It was then sent to Vigo for embarkation.
"Thomas Plunket was a Rifleman in the 95th Rifles. During the retreat Plunket shot the French Général de Brigade Auguste-Marie-François Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 metres using a Baker rifle. Plunket had run forward to make this shot, and before returning to his own lines he reloaded, and shot a trumpet-major who had rushed to the aid of the fallen general. This second feat showed that the first shot had not been a fluke, and the deaths were sufficient to throw the pending French attack into disarray. The shots were at a sufficiently long distance to impress others in the 95th Rifles, whose marksmanship (with the Baker rifle) was far better than the ordinary British soldier who, armed with a Brown Bess musket, was trained to shoot into a body of men at 50 metres with volley fire."
Battle of Talavera.
While reforming in England after their evacuation from Corunna, Brigadier-General Robert Craufurd was ordered to take his brigade, now composed of the 1st Battalion of the 43rd, 1st Battalion of the 52nd and 1st Battalion of the 95th, back to the Peninsula. The brigade landed at Lisbon on 2 July 1809 and embarked on a series of grueling marches in the July heat to join Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington's army. Wellesley fought and won the battle while the Light Brigade was still pouring sweat on the road, although at times it averaged 30 miles per day. The Riflemen of the 60th performed sterling service in their absence, being one of the few regiments mentioned by name in Wellesley's dispatch to the British government. During the reorganizations that followed, Craufurd was given command of the 3rd Division, whose previous commander, Major-General Mackenzie, had been killed at Talavera. With the subsequent addition of Captain Hew Ross's troop of Royal Horse Artillery, the 1st Hussars of the K.G.L. and the Portuguese 3rd "Caçadores" Battalion (commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel George Elder), this became the Light Division.' Craufurd also wrote the first "Standing Orders for the Light Division", a training manual and handbook.
Battle of the River Côa.
Craufurd's operations on the Côa and Águeda in 1810 were daring to the point of rashness; the drawing on of the French forces into what became the Battle of the River Côa (24 July 1810), in particular was a rare lapse in judgement that almost saw his removal from command. Although Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time increased his force to a full division by the addition of two picked battalions of Portuguese "Caçadores", Chestnut troop, Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) & part of the 14th & 16th, Light Dragoons
Battle of Bussaco.
The Battle of Bussaco, (27 September 1810) was a defensive battle won by the Allies which allowed Wellington to resume the retreat of his army into the previously fortified Lines of Torres Vedras. He reached these by 10 October. Finding the lines too strong to attack, the French withdrew into winter quarters. Deprived of food and harried by British hit-and-run tactics, the French lost 25,000 men captured or dead from starvation or sickness before they retreated into Spain early in 1811, freeing Portugal from French occupation except for Almeida, near the frontier. During the retreat, the Battle of Sabugal was also fought.
Battle of Sabugal.
The Battle of Sabugal (3 April 1811), Craufurd had taken ill and was home in England so the Division was under the command of Major-General William Erskine, the plan was for the "Light Division" and two brigades of cavalry to circle behind the French open left flank while the other four divisions attacked the front. On the day of the battle there was a heavy fog, the other commanders decided to wait until visibility improved. Undeterred, Erskine ordered Lieut-Colonel Thomas Sydney Beckwith's 1st Brigade forward. Instead of crossing the Côa beyond the French, the brigade drifted to the left in the fog, crossed at the wrong location and struck the French left flank.
Erskine, who was very nearsighted and mentally unbalanced, then became cautious and issued explicit instructions to Colonel George Drummond not to support his fellow brigade commander. At this point, Erskine rode off to join the cavalry, leaving the "Light Division" leaderless for the rest of the battle. The French switched most of their 10,000-man corps against Beckwith's 1,500 and pressed the light infantry back. When Drummond heard the sounds of battle approaching, he deduced that Beckwith's men were retreating. Disobeying orders, Drummond led his 2nd Brigade across the Côa and joined Beckwith. Together they drove the French back.
Battle of Fuentes De Onoro.
At the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro (3 May 1811) the 51st Foot and 85th Light Infantry, along with the Light Division demonstrated how the French Cavalry could be beaten by a combination of rapid movements, accurate rifle fire and disciplined formations. During the battle the Light Division was sent to reinforce the 51st and 85th Light Infantry, who had been caught in open ground and surrounded by French Cavalry. When reinforced, the whole force was able to retire rapidly – chased by the French cavalry. Whenever the French came close, the light infantrymen, riflemen and caçadores, rapidly formed squares at the last safe moment, beating off the cavalry. This series of rapid moves, combined with the disciplined forming of squares – off the line of march, was a spectacle that few could have believed was possible.
Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo.
The Division, now once again under the command of Major-General Robert Craufurd, was involved in the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (8 January 1812), where they stormed and took the Grand Teson redoubt. Then on 19 January together with Major-General Thomas Picton's 3rd Division they were ordered to storm the city. Picton's Division assaulting the greater breach in the northwest of the city's walls while the Light Division was sent against the lesser breach in the north.
Launched at 7 pm, the assault was completely successful, although amongst the dead were Major-Generals Henry Mackinnon and Craufurd. The victory was somewhat marred when the British rank and file thoroughly sacked the city, despite the efforts of their officers.
Battle of Salamanca.
Following on from the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo and the death of Crauford the Division now under the command of Charles Alten, was held as the reserve division for the Battle of Salamanca (22 July 1812) and did not take a major part in the fighting.
Battle of Vitoria.
At the Battle of Vitoria (21 June 1813), the division was part of the Right Center Column under Wellington's personal direction. Wellington launched his attack in four columns, and after hard fighting the enemy's centre was broken and soon the French defence crumbled. About 5,000 French soldiers were killed or wounded and 3,000 were taken prisoner, while Wellington's forces suffered about 5,000 killed or wounded. 152 cannons were captured, but King Joseph Bonaparte narrowly escaped. The battle led to the collapse of Napoleonic rule in Spain.
Battle of the Pyrenees.
During the French withdrawal across the Pyrenees and into France the Light Division was involved in the Battle of the Pyrenees (25 July 1813) and the Battle of the Bidassoa (1813) (7 October 1813), during which the toughest fighting of the day occurred in Major General Bertrand Clausel's center sector. John Colborne's brigade of Charles Alten's Light Division attacked "La Bayonette". Not waiting for the attack, the French charged downhill and drove back the 95th Rifles. Suddenly the 52nd appeared and quickly turned the tables. Following closely behind the retreating French, they overran the redoubt with surprising ease.
Meanwhile, James Kempt's second Light Division brigade and Francisco de Longa's Spanish division attacked up two spurs of Mont Larroun to secure some positions. The next day the French abandoned the position to avoid encirclement.
Battle of Nivelle.
The Battle of Nivelle (10 November 1813), started just before dawn as the Light Division headed towards the plateau on the summit of the Greater Rhune (the summit had been garrisoned by French troops but they had fled after the skirmish on the River Bidassoa, fearing to be cut off from their own army). The objective of the division was to sweep the three defensive forts constructed by the French out of the battle. They moved down into the ravine in front of the Lesser Rhune and were ordered to lie down and await the order to attack. After the signal from a battery of cannon, the offensive began. It started with the 43rd, 52nd and 95th – with the Portuguese Caçadores in support, storming the redoubts on the crest of the Rhune. Despite this being a risky move and the men being almost exhausted, the surprise and boldness of the British sent the French fleeing towards other forts on other hills.
While the 43rd and 95th were dealing with the French on the Rhune, there still remained one very strong star-shaped fort below on the Mouiz plateau which reached out towards the coast. This was attacked by Colborne's 52nd, supported by riflemen from the 95th. Once again, the French were surprised and the British succeeded. They had, in the French eyes, appeared from the ground at which point, in danger of being cut off, the French soldiers quickly fled leaving Colborne in possession of the fort and other trenches without loss of a single fatal casualty.
Battle of Toulouse.
The final action of the Peninsula War was the Battle of Toulouse, (10 April 1814), In the evening of 10 April 1814, Marshall Soult, received an official communiqué from Paris informing him that Napoleon had surrendered to the Coalition forces in northern France. Unsure of what to do, Soult's generals advised him to surrender the city, as reinforcements were unlikely to arrive and further news reached Toulouse informing Soult of the surrender of French armies across France.
This ended the Peninsula War.
Claimed to be one of the strongest divisions in the British army in the Peninsula War, the Light Division proved its tough nature in the numerous actions it had been involved in from the infamous retreat to Corunna right up until the invasion of France in 1814 and the conclusion of the war at the Battle of Toulouse.
Waterloo.
After the abdication of Napoleon in 1814 and his exile to the island of Elba, the Peninsula army was dismantled and divided. Following Napoleon's escape and return to power in France, there was one more battle to fight.
A "Light Division" by name was not formed for Waterloo but the Light Infantry battalions, excepting the 1st battalion of the 95th which was assigned to the 5th Division, were massed into the 3rd British Brigade assigned to the 2nd Division. The 3rd Brigade was commanded by then Major-General Frederick Adam. The other brigades were foreign troops with the 1st Brigade consisting of 4 line battalions of the Kings German Legion and 3rd Brigade consisting of four battalions of Hanoverian Landwehr (militia). Since the British army had so few light troops, 16 of 21 light infantry battalions in the Allied Army at Waterloo came from allied forces. The 3rd British Division, for example, had over 2,300 light infantry in King's German Legion and Hanoverian battalions.
The final action of the day saw Sir John Colborne bring the 52nd Light Infantry round to outflank the Old Guard, of the French Imperial Guard as it advanced towards the British centre in a last-ditch attempt to defeat Wellington.
As the column passed his brigade, the 52nd charged, fired a destructive volley into the left flank of the Chasseurs and attacked with the bayonet. The whole of the Guard was driven back down the hill and began a general retreat to the cry of "La Garde recule"
After their unsuccessful attack on the British centre, The French Imperial Guard made a last stand in squares on either side of the La Belle Alliance. The "3rd (Light) Brigade" charged the square which was formed on rising ground to the (British) right of La Belle Alliance and again threw them into a state of confusion. The other square was attacked by the Prussians. The French retreated away from the battle field towards France.
Crimean War.
The Crimean War (1853–1856) was fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, with additional actions occurring in western Turkey, and the Baltic Sea region and is sometimes considered to be the first "modern" conflict and "introduced technical changes which affected the future course of warfare."
A "Light Division" was again formed for service, but this was in name only as no light infantry battalions were assigned to it. The division was involved in the Battle of the Alma (20 September 1854), which is usually considered the first battle of the Crimean War, took place in the vicinity of the River Alma in the Crimea. An Anglo-French force under General St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan defeated General Menshikov's Russian army, which lost around 6,000 troops.
They were also engaged in the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855), and the battle of Battle of Inkerman (5 November 1854) before the end of hostilities.
Structure during the Crimean War.
By the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in practice. Some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect no difference between them and other infantry regiments.
World Wars.
During the First World War two Light Divisions were formed the 14th (Light) Division (they were the first division to be attacked by Germans using flamethrowers), and the 20th (Light) Division. Both served on the Western Front and were involved in the major battles, including the Battles of the Somme, Battles of Arras and the Battles of Ypres.
Following the end of the First World War, the British formed an occupation army in Germany: British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). In February 1919, the 2nd Division was redesignated as the Light Division, and it joined the BAOR.
The British Army did not form a Light Division for service during the Second World War, with the exception of the 61st Division, which was briefly redesignated as one in the final months of the war. The ethos of the Light Division, however, was carried on in new infantry formations such as the Commandos, Parachute Regiment and the Chindits all lightly armed fast and agile units.
1968–2007.
After the Second World War the British Army had fourteen infantry depots, each bearing a letter. Infantry Depot J at Farnborough was the headquarters for the six English light infantry regiments and Infantry Depot O at Winchester was the headquarters for the two rifle regiments and the Middlesex Regiment.
In 1948, the depots adopted names and this became the Light Infantry Brigade and Green Jackets Brigade.
Then in 1968 the Light Division was reformed as an Administration Division with the regimentation of the Light Infantry Brigade and the Green Jackets Brigade.
As formed, the Light Division comprised seven regular infantry battalions:
The Light Infantry lost its 4th Battalion in 1969, while both regiments lost a battalion in 1992.
In 2005, two further regiments were attached to the Light Division:
This was in preparation for all four regiments being amalgamated into a single large regiment named The Rifles,
which was formed in February 2007. Regimental names of the regiments that formed The Rifles were not maintained. As a consequence, upon the formation of The Rifles, the name Light Division was no longer to be used.


Second Battle of the Corunna Road

The Second Battle of the Corunna Road () was a battle of the Spanish Civil War that took place from 13 December 1936 to 15 January 1937, northwest of Madrid. In December 1936, the Nationalists launched an offensive in order to cut the Corunna Road and isolate Madrid, but a Republican counter-offensive stopped the Nationalist advance. The Nationalists cut the Corunna road but failed to encircle Madrid.
Background.
The Battle of Madrid in November 1936 had been fought to a standstill, including the First Battle of the Corunna Road, with the Nationalists under Franco failing to take the city. They then started to besiege it, aiming to cut its links to the rest of Spain. Franco decided to attack the city from the north-west in order to cut off water and electricity supplies from the Sierra de Guadarrama and encircle the city. After a failed offensive in November, the Nationalists summoned a force of 17,000 men, led by General Orgaz, with four mobile brigades (led by García Escámez Francisco García Escámez, Barron, Saenz de Buruaga and Monasterio), backed by heavy artillery and Ju 52 bombers. The Republican army had a few battalions led by Luis Barceló.
Battle.
The Nationalist offensive.
The Nationalists' offensive started with a heavy artillery bombardment on the 14 December and Franco's troops occupied the town of Boadilla del Monte. As a counter-measure, the Republicans sent a detachment of Russian tanks led by General Pavlov and two International Brigades (XII and XIV) at Boadilla and re-occupied it. Yet they finally became cut-off in the town by Nationalist counter-attacks, and took a defensive stance. After a stalemate, Orgaz decided to halt the offensive on 19 December after gaining a few kilometres.
The Battle of the Fog.
Towards the end of December, Orgaz received reinforcements and decided to relaunch the offensive on 3 January. This offensive became known as the Battle of the Fog. The Republican high command redeployed their units in the Pozuelo-Brunete sector. The Republicans had an army corps led by Miaja with five divisions (led by Nino Nanetti, Modesto, Colonels Perea, Adolfo Prada and Galan) but had little ammunition or supplies.
As the Nationalists advanced on the right flank, the Republican troops collapsed, and Barron advanced from Boadilla and reached Las Rozas on 4 January. Yet in Pozuelo the Republican Modesto division, consisting of four mixed brigades, led by El Campesino, Luis Barcelo, Gustavo Duran and Cipriano Mera, managed to hold the front. Furthermore, the heavy fog slowed the Nationalist advance. On 5 January Nationalist forces under Varela concentrated his eight batteries of 105 and 155 mm artillery, tanks and aircraft on Pozuelo. The Republican troops collapsed and fled in disorder, despite their six Russian T-26 tanks having destroyed 25 German light tanks. With Republican troops scattered without contact and no ammunition, Miaja tried to regroup Lister's brigade and the XIV International Brigade as best as possible.
The Nationalist columns reached the Corunna road at Las Rozas and surrounded Pozuelo. The Republican troops under the German Thälmann Battalion of the XIV International Brigade was ordered to hold Las Rozas and not to retreat. On 7 January, the town was heavily shelled by the Nationalist troops and the Thälmann Battalion subsequently suffered appalling losses, with only 35 men surviving. Historian Hugh Thomas has also claimed that many of the wounded were killed by the Nationalist "regulares".
Republican counter-attack.
By 9 January, the Nationalists had conquered seven miles of the Corunna Road from "Puerta de Hierro" to Las Rozas. On 10 January, the Republicans started a counter-offensive in heavy mist and cold and the XII International Brigade reached recaptured territory to the west of Madrid including the towns of Majadahonda, Villanueva, Pozuelo and Boadilla. However, by 15 January both sides were exhausted and the battle ceased.
Aftermath.
The Nationalists cut the Corunna road, but failed to encircle Madrid from the west flank. Both sides suffered about 15,000 killed or wounded. After the Third Battle of the Corunna Road in January 1937 with similar results, the next Nationalist attempt to encircle Madrid was the Battle of Jarama, taking place between 6 and 27 February.


Extremadura campaign

The Extremadura campaign was a campaign in Extremadura, Spain during the Spanish Civil War. It culminated in the Battle of Badajoz in August 1936, from which the troops of the Army of Africa under the command of Francisco Franco moved quickly to begin the march to Madrid.
Background.
After the victory of the Popular Front in February 1936, the new government promised to start the land reform, but the agricultural unemployment was very high and the peasants started to illegally occupy large states. On 25 March 1936, 60,000 landless peasants in Badajoz led by the socialist's land union, the "Federación Nacional de Trabajadores de la Tierra" or "FNTT", took over 3,000 farms and started to plough. The government decided to legalise the land occupations. By June 1936, 190,000 landless peasants had been settled in the southern Spain. Many landowners left for the cities.
In August 1936 the Nationalists, with the aid of Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy, managed to transport to the Peninsula thousands of soldiers of the Spanish Army of Africa. Then Francisco Franco decided to advance to the north, and occupy Extremadura, in order to connect the two nationalist held zones and start the advance towards Madrid. The July's "coup" had succeeded in the Caceres province but in the Badajoz province the armed forces had remained loyal to the government.
Opposing forces.
Nationalists.
The Nationalists had a force of 8,000 men of the Spanish Army of Africa, mainly members of the "Spanish Legion" and the "Regulares" (Moroccan mercenaries), backed by Andalusian "Requetes", under the command of the Colonel Juan Yagüe. This force was organized in five motorized columns of some 1,500 men each (a "bandera" of the "Legion" and a "Tabor" of "Regulares" with one or two batteries of 75mm), led by the colonels José Asensio, Francisco Delgado Serrano, Fernando Barron and Heli Rolando Tella and the Major Antonio Castejón. This force had the air cover of eight Italian Sa-81 bombers flown by Italian pilots and nine Junkers Ju 52 flown by German pilots and CR.32 and He-51 fighters.
Republicans.
Opposing the Nationalists, the Spanish Republican Army had a force of 13,000 militiamen and soldiers. Most of them were militiamen, for example in the city of Badajoz there were 500 soldiers and 2,000 militiamen. The members of the Republican militias had no military training and were poorly armed, there only was one rifle per three men, and one machine-gun per 150–200 men. The militiamen refused to dig trenches, had no idea of how to prepare a defensive position and the aircraft bombings caused maximum terror to peasants (a group of militiamen abandoned their positions after being bombed with melons). Furthermore, they had no artillery, barbed wire or professional staff officers. The "FARE" lacked gasoline, spare parts and trained pilots, and most of the Republican planes were 15-year-old Breguets, which had no nose guns and were slower than the Italian fighters, and obsolete Ni-52 fighters.
The drive.
On 2 August the Nationalist force left Seville and headed to the north towards Mérida and Badajoz. When the Nationalist troops reached a town, they bombed it with artillery and aircraft for half an hour, and after that the legionaries and regulares entered the town. If there was resistance they assaulted it. The militiamen fought bravely while the ammunition lasted, but when threatened by a flanking movement the militiamen would flee. In most cases the leaders of the left-wing parties and anyone with a shoulder bruised from the recoil of a fired rifle would be shot. The "red"’s corpses would be piled up, sprinkled with gasoline, and burned. In every town dozens or hundreds were executed by the Nationalists. Furthermore, the colonial troops looted the houses of the Republican supporters and raped thousands of working-class women. Thousands of refugees fled from the Nationalists northwards. According to Helen Graham: "...the Army strategically butchered and terrorized the pro-Republican population, especially the rural landless...It was a war of agrarian counter-reform...The large landowners who owned the vast estates which covered most of the southern half of Spain rode along with the Army of Africa to reclaim by force of arms the land on which the Republic had settled the landless poor. Rural labourers were killed where they stood, the 'joke' being they had got their 'land reform' at last -in the form of a burial plot." More than a half of the victims of the Nationalist repression in Badajoz were landless peasants and journeymen.
On 5 August the Nationalists defeated a column of militiamen and Guardias de Asalto at Los Santos de Maimona. On 7 August the Nationalist troops occupied Zafra and reached the town of Almendralejo, about 100 militiamen barricaded themselves in the town’s church and resisted a week of shelling. On 14 August, 40 survivors surrendered and were killed by the Nationalists. On 10 August the Nationalists won the Battle of Mérida. After that, Yagüe turned west and advanced to the city of Badajoz and on 14 August, after a heavy bombardment, Yagüe’s troops won the Battle of Badajoz. The Massacre of Badajoz saw Yagüe's troops kill between 500 and 4,000 republican soldiers and civilians and looted the city, even the shops and houses of the Nationalist supporters. One Nationalist officer said that this was a "war tax they pay for they salvation". Many Republican refugees tried to escape across the Portuguese frontier, but they were handed over to the Nationalists by the Portuguese government and executed.
Aftermath.
After the occupation of Mérida and Badajoz, the Nationalists connected the Nationalist-held northern zone and the southern zone. Furthermore, the Nationalists occupied the western half of the province of Badajoz and the Republican government lost control of the Portuguese frontier. The Nationalists carried out harsh repression in the conquered territory. Between 6,600 and 12,000 Republican supporters were executed by the Nationalists (the Republicans had executed 243 Nationalist supporters).
After the fall of Badajoz, Yagüe turned east and pushed towards Madrid. He defeated the Republican troops in the Battle of the Sierra Guadalupe and on September 3, he occupied Talavera de La Reina after defeating the Republican militiamen. Yagüe had advanced 500 km in four weeks and the road to Madrid was open.


Battle of Tricamarum

The Battle of Tricamarum took place on December 15, 533 between the armies of the Byzantine Empire, under Belisarius, and the Vandal Kingdom, commanded by King Gelimer, and his brother Tzazon. It followed the Byzantine victory at the Battle of Ad Decimum, and eliminated the power of the Vandals for good, completing the "Reconquest" of North Africa under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. The main contemporary source for the battle is Procopius, "De Bello Vandalico", which occupies Books III and IV of his magisterial "Wars of Justinian".
Prelude.
After the great Byzantine victory at the Battle of Ad Decimum, Belisarius and his army captured Carthage. Vandal king Gelimer set up at Bulla Regia in Numidia, about to the west of Carthage (at what is now the western border of modern Tunisia). He knew that in his current state he would not be able to face Belisarius's forces, so he sent messengers to his brother Tzazon who was currently campaigning in Sardinia. When he received the message, Tzazon set about returning to Africa to join Gelimer.
Meanwhile, Gelimer also attempted to divide the forces helping Belisarius. He offered rewards to the local Punic and Berber tribes for every Byzantine head they could bring, and sent agents to Carthage to attempt to have the Byzantine Hun mercenaries — vital to his success at Ad Decimum — betray him.
Tzazon and his army joined Gelimer early in December, at which point Gelimer felt his forces were strong enough to take the offensive. With the two brothers at the head of the army, the Vandal force paused on the way to Carthage to destroy the great aqueduct which supplied the city with most of its water.
Belisarius had fortified the city in the twelve weeks since Ad Decimum, but knew about Gelimer's agents and could no longer trust the Huns in his forces. Instead of waiting for a possible treachery during a siege, he formed up his army and marched out with the cavalry at the front, the Byzantines in the center, and the Huns at the rear of the column.
Battle.
The two forces met at Tricamarum, some west of Carthage, and the Byzantine cavalry immediately charged the Vandal lines, reforming and attacking two more times. The Byzantine infantry then furiously attacked the Vandal infantry, and the Byzantines gained the advantage. During the third Byzantine cavalry charge Tzazon was killed within sight of Gelimer. As had happened at Ad Decimum, Gelimer lost heart. The Vandal lines began to retreat, and soon were in rout. Gelimer fled back into Numidia with what remained of his army, having lost 800 men. Belisarius then marched on the city of Hippo Regius, which opened its gates to him.
Aftermath.
Gelimer realized that his kingdom was lost, and attempted to flee to Spain where some Vandals still remained, not having followed the main forces when they crossed into North Africa years earlier. However, the Byzantines heard of his plans and intercepted him. He was forced to abandon his belongings and take refuge in the mountains of Tunis with the Berbers. The next year he was found and surrounded by Roman forces led by Pharas the Herulian. At first he refused to surrender, even after promises of being allowed to rule. After a particularly nasty winter, he eventually gave up and surrendered to Belisarius. The Vandal Kingdom ended, and their provinces in Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands came under the control of Justinian.
Importance.
Paul K. Davis writes, "With this victory, the Byzantines regained control of North Africa for the Eastern Roman Empire. This position became a springboard for the Byzantine invasion of Italy, and that invasion reincorporated, temporarily, the Eastern and Western Roman Empire."