Luapula Province border dispute

This article deals with the disputed area on the borders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, in Luapula Province.
Origins in the 1894 treaty.
Zambia's formal northern frontier boundary was legally signed in the Anglo-Belgian Treaty of 1894, long after the 1884 Berlin Conference. This showed that the triangle of land at the northwestern point of Eastern Rhodesia from Pweto to as far south as the Lunchinda River was under Northern Rhodesia even though the Belgian Congo had administered it for many years. Belgians administered it as a matter of local convenience under a gentleman’s agreement. Much of this administration was facilitated by the Belgium missionary work in education and health, particularly the Roman Catholic Church and Greek fishermen who wanted more fishing points to supply the reported increase in demand for fish in the emerging mine town of Elizabethville (now Lubumbashi). Later, the Belgians wanted to claim this land. Over the years, during British colonial rule, District Commissioners and Provincial Commissioners were asked to provide information on the affected areas by central government authorities in Lusaka.
The real border issue for the Northern Frontier was reported to be on Lake Tanganyika's Cape Akalunga, mentioned in the treaty and described as the point of reference. In reality, officials had found it difficult to locate this cape. British maps show the boundary meeting at Cape Pungu (Chitankwa) whilst Belgian maps of 1955 show the meeting point at Cape Kipimbi which is far south of Cape Pungu, thereby cutting deep into assumed Northern Rhodesian territory.
During the time of the Central African Federation, the Northern-Rhodesian Federal government’s Assistant Secretary Fraser, believed that there may be mineral deposits in Pweto area and therefore all the more need for the Federal Government to protect sovereignty. Weedens Minerals & Chartered Exploration held prospecting rights in that area. These have never been challenged. There is documentation that in 1936, Belgians had asked for 180 acres (730,000 m2) of Northern Rhodesian land apparently where Belgian colonial residences were built. However, no evidence exists that Britain conceded to this request. In 1957, A V Ellison, an official in the Ministry of Lands & Local Government reported to the Federal government of Northern Rhodesia that triangulation surveys had been made by the Anglo-Belgian Boundary Commission from 1911–1913, when eventually a de facto boundary for the northern frontier was agreed upon. That boundary clearly indicates that Pweto was the northwestern point of reference for the northern frontier.
Belgian interests.
In 1931 another British/Belgian Boundary Commission was set up. A Peake/Gendarme agreement was proposed. It was suggested that a meandering line following the watershed and thalwegs of the streams replace the straight line between Lake Mweru and Lake Tanganyika. This exchange was to favour Northern Rhodesia but was consequently rejected by the Belgians. In July 1958 Thomson, District Commissioner who visited Chief Puta’s area, noted an influx of the populace from the area occupied by Belgians into Northern Rhodesia. They were running away from compulsory agricultural measures in Pweto’s area. The fact is that these were not refugees in the sense the term is used today. They were resisting the brutal Belgium occupation, under which they had been left without British protection. Distance and cost was the simplest excuse that British authorities in Northern Rhodesia could offer for not protecting them. After all, apart from the mining companies, the British definition of its interests in Northern Rhodesia were at best ambivalent, apart from occupying a piece of real estate.
On 8 August 1958, a preparatory meeting for the Belgian government and the Federal Government of Rhodesia & Nyasaland to discuss the Northern Rhodesia/Congo boundary was convened. Present at the meeting representing Northern Rhodesian interests were:
Belgium interests in the north appeared to be fishing and hunting in the Lake Mweru region, and possession of Kilwa Island. A joint Mweru-Luapula fisheries agreement was made between Northern Rhodesia and Belgium Congo with regards to:
At this meeting, maps and plans of the areas concerned were discussed. Northern Rhodesia needed the Pedicle Road that connects Luapula Province to the Copperbelt. (The Pedicle is a wedge of Congolese territory that cuts deep into Zambia to give the country its distinctive butterfly shape.) Belgians were not interested in the road, but were using it as a bargaining tool for other border issues. The Federal Government initially wanted to put a railway through to Luapula as suggested by the Mufulira Copper Mines Ltd. To build a railway, however, meant the land had to be under Federal government control. Parry also saw the advantage of linking the Rhodesian railway system with that of the Congo. At this point in the colonial period, the rights of native inhabitants were considered insignificant and not worthy of consultation.
While the Federal Government wanted control over the pedicle, the Belgians wanted to swop territory in their favour. The meeting decided to propose the following:
However, no such swap actually took place in any formal treaty. The Mokambo pedicle remained Belgium Congo territory and yet they still occupied the northern frontier. In effect, a de facto occupation continued without their making any concession.
In the same year, 1958, D F Smith, District Assistant and a team of 11 Africans (2 of whom claimed to know where Cape Akalunga was) visited Mporokoso area to
He visited 11 villages. He met with Chief Mulilo who told him Cape Akalunga was near Chisenga River and had once been called Mutunga village. It had been under Congolese rule.
18 November 1958.
Notes on the Northern Frontier, from the Assistant Secretary to the Executive Council.
a) Belgians concern: Kilwa island, fishing and hunting rights in Lake Mweru area
b) British concern: Nkana trespass, Mokambo strip.
The Assistant Secretary felt that Northern Rhodesia had bargaining power with the northern frontier (the Mpweto line), which the Belgians were keen on. He proposed that the Anglo-Belgian Fisheries Advisory Board meet regularly to resolve each territory's fishing rights, to agree on African fishing methods, to agree that the Europeans buy the fish caught by the Africans (Greeks at Mpweto had in the past been doing large scale fishing and refused to buy excess fish from the Africans), to check legislation, and to look into the issue of Belgian Congo's desire to hunt crocodiles. The Assistant Secretary noted that the Belgians were uncooperative.
22 December 1958.
British Consulate General in Leopoldville wrote to the Federal Government Minister of External Affairs in Salisbury. He noted that as the frontier between Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo was situated in Lake Mweru and on the thalweg of the Luapula in a part of its course, it was appropriate for each of the riparian states to exercise their sovereign rights in the waters falling respectively under their jurisdiction.
The maps showed the frontier deviating from the centre of the lake and passing to the west of Kilwa Island which, the Belgians said, was a peninsula attached to Belgian territory.
In the same year, 1958, Mr Bowles visited Brussels and discussed the border issues with M. Grosjean, Inspector General in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. No detailed records are available on this meeting, save to note that the frantic efforts between the British and Belgian authorities were taking place precisely at the time when the struggle for independence of the two states, particularly Congo, were getting intense. Congo gained independence in 1960; Northern Rhodesia got it four years later. In 1958 the British settlers were holding on to the territory and were keen to ensure that no land that they claimed to be theirs was surrendered to natives in the Congo.
20 March 1961.
Staff Sgt G F Tredwell, Provincial Commissioner for Northern province wrote that Cape Akalunga was north of the Libondwe River and a little south of the Chisenga stream. It was 2 miles in-shore from Lake Tanganyika. It has a valley where Headman Mutunga had a village many years ago, and it is believed that Chief Moliro had his headquarters there too. It was under Belgian administration.
17 April 1961.
Provincial Commissioner E L Button had, in response to a query about the boundary between Lake Mweru and Lake Tanganyika, commented thus: "Despite the rather nebulous nature of a common boundary, no administrative difficulties had been caused by it, and as such it would be better to let sleeping dogs lie." Nothing in diplomacy could be as irresponsible as this statement on the question of sovereignty over land, as the case of the submerging Kasikili/Sedudu island issue between Namibia and Botswana in recent years shows. In other words, this Briton was now quite happy to concede Zambian territory to the Congo as a matter of convenience when that was not the case when the British or their proxies were ruling the territory.
29 April 1961.
Acting Administrative Secretary wrote to the Governor of Northern Rhodesia. He informed the Governor that there were 4 enclaves that were under the Belgian administration, Mpweto- Lunchinda included. The residents were forced to carry Congolese identity cards and been fully subjected to Belgian rule. Chiefs who were living within the sphere of Belgian control provided tribal control.
February 1965.
There was a border incident on Luapula River, the details of which were not fully recorded. Since both Congo and Zambia had now gained independence, this incident was between two new republics dealing with an issue left over from the colonial period.
30 April 1965.
Education Minister John Mwanakatwe and Alex Shapi visited Mweru constituency. They were held at gunpoint and manhandled by the Congolese (Katangese) gendarmes after crossing the Lunchinda River at Chipungu. Despite explaining who they were, they were accused of being in Congolese territory. It was not until the following day that a senior Congolese official who spoke Chibemba saved them and apologised for their mistreatment. They crossed the Lunchinda in the knowledge that they were still in Zambian territory, as the maps showed. At this time, there was no clinic at Chipungu, so many Zambians sought medical facilities from the Congolese hospital at Mpweto. Even the Belgium Congolese franc was accepted currency in Chipungu area itself, as it was in Pweto. The fact was, Mwanakatwe was legitimately visiting his constituency, as far as the Zambian map showed.
30 September 1966.
Two English geologists, Dr Premoli and Dr Bratley, and 22 Zambians were to undertake geological investigations on the coast of Lake Tanganyika between Moliro and Nsumbu bay. They were arrested by the Congolese (Katangese) gendarme and their maps were confiscated. Congo was at war. The Zambian maps showed that this area was Zambian territory.
November 1966.
In Zambia, the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Lands wrote to the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs giving reference to the Mpweto/Lake Tanganyika boundary. He pointed out that since the border was not clearly established, negotiation was necessary and suggested the setting of a Joint Boundary Commission.
The Surveyor General, D J B Copeland, in a letter dated 18 August 1966, recalled a boundary incident that had occurred in 1961. Surveyors sent by De Beers Prospecting Ltd had an incident near Mpweto with Congolese officials. The surveyors were accused of being in Congo territory and of illegally prospecting for Congolese gold in Moba territory. This confusion was caused by the following definition of the border.
The Police report showed that they had been arrested at the Chisenga River near Chipunelu.
30 September 1967.
Foreign Affairs Assistant Secretary Lishomwa Muuka suggested the need for a boundary commission to discuss the dispute over:
He saw the need to clarify whether the point was Cape Akalunga or Cape Kipimbi. He wrote to the British High Commissioner for information on the true boundary, but was told there was none available, despite their having been discussions on the delimitation of the boundary in 1927 and 1933 . The British, it appeared had washed their hands of the issue and were not bothered at all if the two countries went to war over a border dispute which they had themselves defended for so many years.
1968.
The Congolese disputed air space and flying rights over Nippon Mining that had concession rights over Chipushi.
Summation.
The border issue is a part of the history Chienge District, an area in the northern part of Zambia, on the shores of Lake Mweru. David Livingstone visited the Lake Mweru area in 1867 during his search for the source of the Zambezi River. Following the 1889 Berlin conference and the ensuing Scramble for Africa by European powers, there was interest from Belgians, Germans and the British in Southern and Central Africa in securing the area that covered Lake Nyasa, Lake Mweru, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. In the early 1870s the Germans Reichardt and Bohn, and later in 1878, a larger group of Germans led by Wissman, visited the area around Lake Mweru. The Belgians were already looking at colonising the Congo including the area south of Lake Mweru.
Harry H. Johnston wrote in a London newspaper introducing the "Cape to Cairo" concept. He was sent by the Foreign Office to work in Southern Africa, with the African Lakes Company (ALC), which had its headquarters in Blantyre, Nyasaland (now Malawi). Scottish missionaries who were initially interested in stopping the slave trade by Arabs, and later engaged in trading with the locals had originally set up the Company. Johnston became Commissioner of the African Lakes Company, tasked by the British government with:
The Foreign Office was unable to provide adequate funds for his administering of the area under British rule, and therefore Johnston had to turn to Cecil Rhodes, who was the Chairman of the British South Africa Company (BSAC), and struck up a working relationship with him. He implored Rhodes to support his work by providing financial support. This Rhodes willingly did in return for Johnston’s representing the interests of the British South Africa Company in the areas that Johnston was to administer. Rhodes was interested in a future amalgamation with the African Lakes Company, as this would give the BSAC undisputed claim over Nyasaland. Rhodes thus fully funded the establishment of Johnston’s administration. Johnston played a major role in subjecting the area later to be known as North Eastern Rhodesia (NER) under British Crown rule. Sir Johnston was also instrumental in the setting up of the first form of civil service in NER, and which was later improved by his successors Alfred Sharpe and later Robert Edward Codrington.
Based in Blantyre, Johnston was concerned about the influence of the Belgians and Germans in the Congo Free State north of Lake Mweru. He was aware that the 2 German expeditions had visited the area in the 1870s and that both were keen to take control of the area. In order to show British administrative authority and determination to prevent the absorption of NER by the Belgians or Germans, Sir Johnston decided to send a former hunter and now agent of the African Lakes Company, Richard Crawshay, to set up a permanent post on the shores of Lake Mweru in 1890. Crawshay found a spot at Puta, where Chienge stream enters Lake Mweru and set up residence there. The area north of Puta at Mpweto in the Congo Free State was under the administrative control of a Belgian named Captain Jacques. Although the Berlin Conference had more or less divided Africa up by colonial powers, there were no distinct boundaries between Congo Free State and North Eastern Rhodesia. As the Germans had shifted their interest to Tanganyika and Zanzibar where they had set posts, Sir Johnston therefore decided to meet with the only real threat, the Belgian administrator Captain Jacques, and together they agreed on a boundary that would be a line running from the northern tip end of Lake Mweru where the Lualaba leaves Lake Mweru to Cape Akalunga on Lake Tanganyika. This understanding while respected by the establishment of Chienge post, it was not formalised until four years later. The formal agreements on the boundary between the Congo Free State under King Leopold of Belgium and the British Crown of King George represented by Sir Johnston through the African Lakes Company was finalised and signed on 12 May 1894.
Having secured the British post, and boundary, Sir Johnston chose to change the name of Puta and instead called Puta station Rhodesia, after his colleague and financial mentor Cecil Rhodes, also making it the first place historically to bear that name. Crawshay stayed at Rhodesia from 1890 to 1891 when he abandoned the station and returned to Blantyre in Nyasaland.
The peoples living under the administrative control of the Africa Lakes Company in the Lake Mweru region included the Ba Bwile or Ba Ansa under Chiefs Mpweto, Puta, Kalembwe, and Mwabu. Their neighbours to the west were the Shila under Chief Mununga, Nkula and Nshimba, there were to the South the Swahili and the Tabwa under Nsama and Katele. There were also regular visits from the Arabs of the east coast of Africa who were involved in trading in guns, gunpowder, and slaves. For the African Lakes Company, the most important posts were Abercorn on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and Rhodesia on Lake Mweru’s shores, but of similar importance were Sumbu and Kaputa. The people of Kaputa specialized in salt making and bought food from more fertile areas. Johnston was concerned that Crawshay had left the Rhodesia station hastily, and asked Cecil Rhodes to fund a special tour of the area by his second in command to assess the situation there. Cecil Rhodes obliged and Alfred Sharpe, Johnston’s second in command undertook a tour of the area.
When Alfred Sharpe toured the major posts in the Lake Mweru region including Rhodesia (Puta post) and Kaputa, he found that Abdullah bin Suleiman, (known by locals as Selemani) a Swahili chief who lived 60 miles from Kalungwishi, had driven out the people there and was demanding salt tribute from other villages. There was also evidence of slave traders harassing the inhabitants mercilessly. On his return to Blantyre, Sharpe gave a detailed report to Johnston. Sir Johnston decided to reopen the station and sent 2 agents, Kidd and Bainbridge to take control of Rhodesia and continue to show British administrative authority. However, Kidd and Bainbridge did not go to Rhodesia, but instead built a new post at Kafulwe some twenty kilometres from the Puta post on the shores of the Kalungwishi river where it crossed the old road to Kazembe, some 3 miles east off Lake Mweru. They decided to adopt the name of Rhodesia for this post as well, seeing as the old post had been abandoned. Kidd and Bainbridge remained at their new post until 1894 when they both died. It was rumoured that they were poisoned. The local people during this time were given protection by the collector at Rhodesia against the Arabs. Mkula, also known as Nsama after his father, and 4 African soldiers were recruited to assist the collector.
In 1896, Hubert T. Harrington, locally known as Chiana, was given charge over Mweru district. He was transferred where Dr Blair Watson was in charge as collector. Harrington described Kalungwishi as a strongly built Boma with four bastions. Beneath its flagstones were buried Kidd and Bainbridge. He built a barge called the Scotia or Mandala boat, which was written off in 1919 and abandoned at Chienge in 1922. The boat used to travel between Chienge and Kilwa Island. There is oral evidence that Hube Harrington was a relation of the famous Harrington family that settled in the Western province of Zambia and are accredited with the skills of building the first Nalikwanda, the boat of the Litunga of the Balozi. In 1899, Nasoro bin Suleiman, nicknamed Chisesa and a cousin to Abdullah bin Suleiman, was harassing the Ba Bwile and Shila peoples. Harrington arrested Abdullah bin Suleiman and kept him in Kalungwishi prison.
The Rhodesia station was closed after the death of Kidd and Bainbridge and was not reopened until 1907, possibly due to lack of staff. The station was returned to its original post at Puta, Chienge as a Boma. The collectors who reopened this Boma were J. F. Sealy and GT Wenham and they stayed there for the next 3 years. In 1908 the station was temporarily closed due to tsetse flies. In 1909 - 10, Dr JD Brunton, Mr WH Jollyman were sent by Alfred Sharpe to Chienge to help with the sleeping sickness campaign.
The following are the administrators that manned the Chienge Boma thereafter:
1910 S Hillier
1912 G H Jones
1917 PCJ Reardon and wife (January) Reardon went mad and ended up in an asylum.
1917 VR Anley and wife (August)
1918 ACJ Elworthy (October)
1919 S Hillier (December)
1920 Matthews (March)
1920 CP Oldfield (September)
1922 Wickins and wife (April)
In November 1922, the station was closed due to lack of funds.
In April 1925 G H Morton reopened the station
1926 FO Hoare (December)
1927 G H Morton (October) He went mad and was sent to Cape Town asylum
1929 FO Hoare (January)
1929 March, Hoare contracted black water fever and died at Kafulwe on his way to Kawambwa.
1929 JB Thomson (June)
1930 SL Langford (January)
1932 EGF Thomson (March)
1932 SL Langford (September)
In 1933, the Chienge station was closed for lack of staff and funds and the lake Mweru region was amalgamated with Mporokoso.
In 1941, the African Lakes Company surveyed 2010 acres (8 km2) of land in Chienge. The ALC had a farm at Chienge where it was said that there were traces of copper. The district was geologically surveyed by Luangwa concessions, a mining company but they retained no claims and no mines were opened.
Two Seventh Day Adventists Ellingworth and Lewis, missionaries from Chimpempe, visited Ponde mission, which was established in 1933 originally at Kalembwe. They drowned in Lake Mweru and were buried at Ponde on 31 August 1952.
Chienge was after 1933 administered from Mporokoso, later from Kawambwa and in the 1970s, Nchelenge. The current Senior Chief Puta (Kasoma) was christened as Hillier after the administrator Mr S Hillier. Senior Chief Puta Kasoma was born in 1910 and installed as Chief Puta in 1937 after the death of Puta Mulolwa.
Chienge was re-established as a sub-Boma in 1973 under the Kaunda UNIP government’s administration.
Before the end of the first term of President Frederick J.T. Chiluba’s MMD government, a quiet but effective lobby for Chienge to become a full district was mounted Dr Katele Kalumba a nominated member of Parliament and Deputy Minister of Health from November 1991 to May 1996 and full Cabinet Minister of Health thereafter, paid off. Dr Kalumba motives were clear. He had an eye, since joining government, on standing as a Parliamentary candidate for Chienge. A Circular No. 25/96 issued by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Local government and Housing dated 30 October 1996 declared Chienge a new district council pursuant to Section 3 of the Local Government Act No. 22 of 1996. At the time, Bennie Mwiinga was a Minister of Local government and Housing.
The narrative following the 12–13 December 1996 Nchelenge Council meeting defined the new Chienge as the area ‘Starting from the mouth of Kefulwa River on the Lake Mweru, the boundary follows the Kefulwa river in a straight line up to the confluence of Kasinga stream. The Boundary runs in a straight line in the north-easterly direction up to where it meets the Kapako stream; thence the boundary runs in the northerly direction along the stream up to where it meets the Kaputa-Nchelenge administrative boundary; thence it follows along the Kaputa-Nchelenge administrative boundary in the northerly direction up to the Zambia-Zaire international boundary; thence the boundary continues in the westerly direction from the Musungwishi river along the Kaputa-Nchelenge administrative boundary; then it runs in a straight line along the Zambia-Zaire international boundary up to the mouth of Lualaba river where it flows out of lake Mweru. The boundary thence follows the Zambia-Zaire international boundary along the lake Mweru up to the mouth of Kefulwa River, the point of starting”.
Chienge was reborn again after 106 years of its first opening. It was inaugurated on Friday the 20 December 1996 witnessed by the newly elected Member of Parliament for Chienge and Minister of Health Dr Katele Kalumba and scores of Party and Government officials. Sitting as a councillor of Chienge, Dr Kalumba, accompanied by the Commissioner of Town and Country Planning in the Ministry of Local Government Dr Khonje, the Director of Health Planning and Development, Mr Vincent Musowe of the Ministry of Health, and presided over by Mr T.S. Phiri, Council Secretary for Nchelenge, witnessed the election of Mr Mwanda of Senior Chief Puta’s area as the first Council Chairman of the new Chienge, while Mr Bowa from Senior Chief Mununga’s area was his Vice Chairman.
Important dates.
1798 death of Dr De Lacerda in Chienge?
1890-1 Crawshay opened the First known British colonial post and left the service of British central Africa and abandoned Rhodesia (PUTA) station as it was later named.
1893 Dr Blair Watson arrived at Kalungwishi as tax Collector of Mweru District
1895 Major Forbes visited Kalungwishi
1900-3 Dr Watson was Civil Commissioner and Magistrate
1901 African Lakes Company opened 2 shops at Kalungwishi and Puta
1902 ALC opens a shop at Kazembe
1902 R Codrington visits Kalungwishi
1906 R Codrington visits Kalungwishi
1907 Judge Beaufort visits Chienge
1908 E Averay Jones opened a station at Kawambwa
1908 ALC opens a shop at Kawambwa
1908/9 Hut tax introduced
1909 Male labour taken to Kasama and Fort Roseberry for the salt industry; to Salisbury to work in the mines; to Congo Free State and Angola to work for the border commission
1911 Mweru-Luapula district created. It included Chienge, Kawambwa and Fort Roseberry
1911 GGP Lyons was appointed District Commissioner and Magistrate of Mweru-Luapula
1911 Nsama’s line deregistered as chiefs and Mukupa’s line took over (end of the Katele wa pe Lemba rule)
1911 Mweru Marsh Game reserve established. Natives given game licences.
1922 Chienge closed for economic reasons (lack of funds)
1928/9 Hut tax removed
1929 Luangwa concession survey
1929 Indirect rule through chiefs was introduced with the Native ordinance act
1933 Chienge amalgamated with Mporokoso district under Babemba province, later to be called northern province
1936 Native treasuries introduced
1949 Ice factory built at Mulwe village. Aluminium boats, barge and 2 motorboats
1953/4 District Education Authority formed
1957 Chienge became part of Luapula province
1908 - 28 salt trading, tree cutting, fish and game
1908 - 32 Yearly census conducted by tribe of all males, females and children
1909 - 27 Cattle was owned by Chiefs Mukupa, Puta, Chiliata, Abdullah, Sefu, Malipenga and Mupini
Trees found in the area: mulombwa, nsaninga, mukula, mupa, mwenge.
Missions in Chienge.
NB. These missions are listed under Rhodesia Post (Chienge) as this was before other Bomas were established. Should not be mistaken with the current administrative structures.
Game found in Mweru area, 1908–56.
Elephant, buffalo, lion, leopard, eland, sable antelope, roan antelope, hartebeest, reedbuck, warthog, bushbuck, hippo, puku, waterbuck, lechwe, sitatunga, yellow buck, duiker, impala, crocodile, jackal, hyena, klipspringer, oribi, steinbok, hunting dog.
The private game areas designated in 1956 were Chisenga Island, Mununga and Chama.
Artisans.
Blacksmiths, brick makers, carpenters, canoe makers, mechanics, boat builders, sawyers
Trade.
Fish, iron tools, baskets & mats, tobacco, boat building


Nesta Rugumayo

Nesta Rugumayo (died 1972) was a Ugandan nutritionist and community developer. She was the mother of Prince Robert Masamba Kimera with Mutesa II, the 35th Kabaka of Buganda. She later married Edward Rugumayo.
Early life.
She was born Nesta Mukeri in the Kingdom of Tooro. She was a Mutooro.
Education and career.
In 1962, the Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) awarded her the first Lady Aberdeen Scholarship. She spent a year at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. In London, she began a lifelong friendship with Irene Spry, who shared her commitment to development.
Upon her return to Uganda, she worked for the Ministry of Community Development to increase awareness among women in rural communities about the nutritional needs of children. She was fully engaged in Uganda's development.”
Death.
Rugumayo died in 1972.


Popular Movement for the Development of the Republic of West Africa

The Popular Movement for the Development of the Republic of West Africa (PMD) was a political party in Mali.
History.
The party received 2.7% of the vote in the 1992 parliamentary elections, winning six seats.
The party boycotted the July 1997 parliamentary elections after the annulment of the April elections.


Bagauda Dynasty

The Bagauda Dynasty is a house of noblemen who founded and ruled the Kingdom (eventually Sultanate) of Kano throughout its existence. The Dynasty spanned roughly 808 years spread out through ten centuries, one of the longest in recorded human history and produced 43 kings.
History.
The dynasty started with the first King of Kano, Bagauda in 999 CE and lasted until 1807 CE when the last ruler from the lineage, Muhammad Alwali II was assassinated in exile during the Fulani War. Their reign started after Bagauda migrated to Kano and conquered the indigenous pagans of Dala Hill, although the rest of Kano would not fall under their control until during the reign of his early successors.
The dynasty is divided into three factions or eras, the Gaudawa, the Rumfawa and the Kutumbawa, but their lineage can all be traced to Bagauda according to the "Kano Chronicle". They are said to have descended from Bawo, the son of Hausa folk hero Bayajidda and his wife, the last Kabara, Magajiya Daurama. Though their origin remains ambiguous, Bagauda's real name (Dauda, Daud) and that of some of his companions suggested an Eastern origin. Their arrival is said to have fulfilled the prophecy of Barbushe.


Robert William Keate

Robert William Keate (16 June 1814 – 17 March 1873) was a career British colonial governor, serving as Commissioner of the Seychelles from 1850 to 1852, Governor of Trinidad from 1857 to 1864, Lieutenant-governor of the Colony of Natal from 1867 to 1872, and Governor of Gold Coast from 7 March 1873 to 17 March 1873.
Early life and family.
Keate was born in 1814 in Westminster, London, one of four children of Robert Keate, the brother of John Keate. Keate was educated at Eton College and later Christ Church, Oxford.
Cricket career.
Keate made his first-class debut for the Gentlemen in the 1832 Gentlemen v Players fixture. While attending Christ Church, Keate made his first-class debut for Oxford University in 1834 against the Marylebone Cricket Club. From 1834 to 1837, he represented the University in 3 first-class matches.
In 1835, he made his debut for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Cambridge University. From 1835 to 1848, he represented the club in 21 first-class matches, making his final appearance for the club against Oxford University.
In 1844, he represented Hampshire in a single first-class match against the Marylebone Cricket Club. In addition, Keate played first-class cricket for the Gentlemen of Kent, the Fast Bowlers (which indicates Keate was a quick bowler of some sort), the Gentlemen of England and an early England team against Kent in 1840.
In his overall first-class career, he scored 387 runs at a batting average of 6.14, with a high score of 30. With the ball, he took 2 wickets and in the field, he took 8 catches.
Colonial service.
Commissioner of the Seychelles.
In 1850, Keate was appointed as the Commissioner of the Seychelles. This was a position he held from 1850 to 1852.
Governor of Trinidad.
Keate later joined the colonial civil service upon, and was sent to the West Indies in 1857 as Governor of Trinidad, a position he held from 26 January 1857 to 1864.
Lieutenant-governor of Natal.
In 1867, Keate was appointed the Lieutenant-governor of the Colony of Natal, a position he held from 1867 to 1872.
Governor of Cape Coast.
In 1872, Keate was appointed the Governor of the Gold Coast from 7 March 1873 to 17 March 1873. Keate died at Cape Coast Castle in the Gold Coast on 17 March 1873, just ten days into his Governorship.


Reformed Churches in South Africa

The Reformed Churches in South Africa () is a Christian denomination in South Africa that was formed in 1859 in Rustenburg. Members of the church are sometimes referred to as "Doppers".
History of Gereformeerde Kerke in South Africa.
In the early 19th century a new hymnbook was introduced in the Dutch churches in the Netherlands, which was implemented in the Dutch Reformed Church in the Cape Colony. Many of these songs contradicted the teachings of the three confessions accepted at the Synod of Dort in 1618/1619 (The Heidelberg Catechism, the Belgic Confession and the Canons of Dort). Some of the church members could not accept these doctrines. When they refused to sing the hymns, they were threatened with excommunication. They had the view: "In Gods huis Gods lied" ("In God's house God's songs").
The main founders of the denomination, were particularly concentrated in the vicinity of Rustenburg, in the Transvaal. In 1859, 15 brothers decided to separate them from the Dutch Reformed Church. These 15 members made a meeting on 10 February 1859 convened under a seringboom at Rustenburg. At this meeting, 300 members have enrolled as members of "Gereformeerde Kerke". The spot is marked today by the Syringa Tree Monument.
The Gereformeerde Kerke founded a seminary for theological studies as well as teacher training in Burgersdorp in the Eastern Cape. It was moved to Potchefstroom in the early 20th century, where it became the Potchefstroom University College for Higher Christian Education, now the North West University. One of the faculties is the seminary for training their ministers.
The Gereformeerde Kerke today.
The official name of the church body today is "Die Gereformeerde Kerke in Suid-Afrika" (GKSA). It is also known as the "Reformed Churches in South Africa" (RCSA). It has 415 Congregations ministering to people in all 11 official languages of South Africa. There are congregations in Zimbabwe, Namibia and Lesotho.
The "General Synod" meets every third year in Potchefstroom.
It has ecumenical ties with churches on all the continents of the world, except Antarctica.
Songbook of Gereformeerde Kerke.
The Gereformeerde Kerke today uses only hymns from the Bible: the Psalms as well as "Skrifberymings". "Skrifberymings" are hymns based on passages from the Bible.
Besides the Psalms and "Skrifberymings", the hymnal contains the following:
Church government.
The Reformed Churches have a Presbyterian - Synodal system of church government. The church consists of the Eastern Regional Synod, the Bushweld Synod, the Northwest Synod, the Regional Synod of Free State and KwaZulu-Natal, the Southern Regional Synod, and the Randvaal Regional Synod.
Criticism that the churches in the RCSA have abandoned the principle that Christ is the only Head of the church, exists. The impression that some of the churches have abandoned the principles from the Reformation has been discussed at the "GKSA Forum". Since Christ reigns through his Word and Spirit (see Heidelberg Catechism, Sunday 48), tension arrises when important decisions are made that is perceived to deviate from Scripture. In 2017, the Reformed church Bet-El was placed outside the communion of the RCSA as result of such differences.
Seminary.
The Reformed Churches in South Africa have their own Theological Seminary " Die Teologiese Skool" in Potchefstroom.
Missions.
The Reformed Churches in South Africa has a number of growing local congregations. The denomination has local outreaches in Botswana and Mozambique. There are churches that support missionaries in Burundi. The Reformed Church in Rustenburg, South Africa has agreement with Koshin Presbyterian Church in Korea to support evangelism, and establishing new multicultural churches in Rustenburg area. The church cooperates with the Presbyterian Church of Brazil in missions in Angola and Mozambique. It is also involved in a Reformed church plant in Hanoi, Vietnam. Through membership in the World Reformed Fellowship, Gereformeerde Gemeenten collabotates WRF's works, also for example in the International Institute of Islamic Studies.
Relations with other Reformed churches.
Reformed Churches in South Africa is a member of the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches
The Gereformeerde Kerke has sister church relationship with the :


Boamponsem

Boamponsem (died 1694) was a Denkyirahene, or ruler of the Denkyira people, from the 1650s until his death.
Denkyira was an African nation that existed in Ghana before the United Kingdom incorporated the Gold Coast into the British Empire. The Denkyira people maintain tribal identity and their traditional royalty despite losing their independence and sovereignty.
In 1692, Boamponsem sent an envoy to the Gold Coast to engage with the newly encamped Dutch and English trading posts and military installations, to gather intelligence, trade, and advocate his people's interests. Boamponsem is remembered in Denkyiran tradition as a successful but autocratic ruler. He was also named after the Boa Amponsem Senior High School in Dunkwa-on-Offin


Dick Wathika

Dick Mwangi Wathika (20 October 1973 – 19 December 2015) was a Kenyan politician who served as mayor of Nairobi. He was elected in July 2004, and was re-elected in 2006.
He vied successfully for the Makadara Constituency parliamentary seat in the 2007 Kenyan parliamentary elections, on a Party of National Unity ticket.
Wathika's 2007 election to Nairobi's Makadara Constituency was annulled on 30 April 2010. The judgment was delivered by Lady Justice Kalpana Rawal, who said the electoral process was marred by irregularities. Lady Justice Rawal told a packed court that Mr Wathika was not validly elected, but said that she would issue a ruling in the afternoon on whether to stay the judgment before giving the parliamentary Speaker a certificate nullifying the MP's election.
The by-election was held on 20 September 2010. He failed to retain the seat, as the poll was won by Gideon Mbuvi Kioko of NARC-Kenya followed by Reuben Ndolo of ODM, while Wathika was left third.
Dick Wathika contested unsuccessfully the Mukurwe-ini Parliamentary Seat in the 2013 general elections. He died on 19 December 2015 for as of yet undetermined cause after having gone to the hospital.


Dawud of Kanem

Daoud was the half-brother of the 14th-century Kanem emperor Idris I of Kanem. After the death of Idris, a struggle for the throne began. Daoud was chosen as Mai against his competitors, the sons of Idris. This left the sons dejected and bitter, due to which they waged war against Daoud and his supporters; this led to a century of successive conflicts between the Idrisus and the Daouds. It is believed the conflict may have weakened the Sefuwa dynasty and made it vulnerable to external attacks.


Presidential Commission of Uganda

The Presidential Commission of Uganda held the office of President of Uganda between 22 May and 15 December 1980. It was composed as follows:


List of rulers of Matamba

The following is an incomplete list of the rulers of the Kingdom of Matamba, a late medieval West−Central African state centered in a region of present day Angola.
History.
The Kingdom of Matamba was ruled by native Northern Mbundu kings and queens since at least the early 16th century. During much of this time it was a nominal vassal to the powerful Kingdom of Kongo to its north.
In 1631, Matamba was invaded by the warrior queen Nzinga Mbande of the neighboring Northern Mbundu Kingdom of Ndongo. From then on, the state would be ruled by Ndongo monarchs of the Guterres Dynasty.


Oba Fatai Ayinla Aileru

Oba Fatai Ayinla Aileru (born 11 March 1938) The Great Monarch, is the current Oba (king) of Mushinland and the Chairman of Obas and Chiefs of Mushin Local Government. He is a First Class Oba (King) which qualifies him to be a Permanent Member of Council of Obas in Lagos State, Nigeria. Lagos State Council of Obas and Chiefs is one body, which has the capacity to contribute phenomenally to good governance in the State by constantly availing government of its wisdom and sound advice: using its tremendous influence to mobilize popular support for public policy as well as being an important source of communication and feedback between the government and the grassroots. The Institution of the Council of Obas and Chiefs is a critical building block that every government must engage seriously if development and orderly societal growth is at the core of its vision.
As an Institution, the Council of Obas and Chiefs is as old as Lagos state itself. It was established following the creation of Lagos State through the Council of Obas and Chiefs of Lagos State, Edict 1969 which came into force in April, 1969. The erstwhile Council of Obas and Chiefs, which was constituted in December 1995 with Thirty-One members, was dissolved by the immediate past State executive Council at its 11th meeting held on Monday 28 May 2007. The new Council has a total of Fifty-one members drawn from the five divisions of the State namely Lagos Island, Ikeja, Epe, Ikorodu and Badagry.
Life.
He was the first-born child of Oba (King) Jimoh Gbadamosi Aileru and Olori (Queen) Elizabeth Alake, born on 11 March 1938. Having started his primary school career at the Christian Public School, Mushin, he proceeded to the Metropolitan College, Surulere, for his secondary school education. On completion, Fatai Ayinla Aileru joined Pan African Metals (NIG) limited, Ikorodu Road, Yaba where he worked as a cashier. As a result of his interest in public service, Fatai Ayinla Aileru joined the Mushin District Council, created in 1955, which later became Mushin Local Government in 1964. In 1977, while still with the Council, he was called upon to take the place of his forefathers as the next in line to the Throne of Mushinland. Oba Fatai Ayinla Aileru II (Justice of Peace) has travelled far and wide. He is a philanthropist as well as a sport lover whose major objective is attaining the best for his people. This effort of his resulted to the renaming of a market street to Oba Fatai Ayinla Aileru street by the Chairman of Mushin Local Government: Sir Olu Aina in 1989.


Cingolo

Overview.
Cingolo (also known as Quingolo) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.


Kingdom of Orungu

The Kingdom of Orungu (c. 1700–1927) (, ) was a small, pre-colonial state of what is now Gabon in Central Africa. Through its control of the slave trade in the 18th and 19th centuries, it was able to become the most powerful of the trading centers that developed in Gabon during that period.
Origins.
The Kingdom of Orungu is named for its founders, the Orungu, a Myènè speaking people of unknown origin. Most scholars believe they migrated into the Ogooué River delta in the early 17th century from the south. This is further backed up by the fact that the Orungu seemed to have been heavily influenced by the Kingdom of Loango or at very least its BaVili traders. During this period of migration, the Orungu drove another Myènè speaking people, the Mpongwe, toward the Gabon Estuary in an effort to dominate trade with Europeans. The scheme was successful, and a prosperous kingdom emerged at Cape Lopez.
Government.
The Orungu Kingdom was made up of some 20 clans. One of these clans held the line to succession as king, while the others exercised control over maritime commerce coming from the interior. The kingdom was unique in an area where the basic political unit was a clan ruling a village via a kind of collective leadership. The Orungu cast this aside for a single big chief/king , which their tradition maintains was descended from a legendary figure called the Mani Pongo The titles of the kingdom's political offices were adopted from the kingdom of Loango as well as a sense of clan hierarchy. These institutions likely moved with the Orungu from the Chilongo district in Loango. The king's title, "Agamwinboni", seems to have its origin among the Orungu themselves and does not borrow from the "mani" prefix attached to kingdoms like Loango and Kongo.
Economy.
The kingdom of Orungu developed a broker culture thanks to their position on the coast. In the 17th century, the Dutch dominated the coastal trade and ivory was the major export. The Orungu were a metal-working and boatbuilding culture, which allowed them to dominate the riverine trade. Maritime commerce was divided among the non-royal clans and included trades in Ivory, beeswax, dyewood, copal and ebony. By the start of the 19th century, the tiny but wealthy kingdom was able to import slaves from the interior.
Slavery.
The Gabon coast, like that of Cameroon, played only a minor role in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade compared with the Niger Delta, the Loango coast or the coast of Angola. The export of slaves only became significant in the last 3rd of the 18th century. At the start, the kingdom was a purchaser rather than seller of slaves, which they bought with ivory. Other than slave imports, the kingdom of Orungu also imported iron. By the 1760s, the Orungu were trading in slaves through which the agamwinboni was able to grow rich via taxation on the Nazareth River and San Mexias River. Still, the trade in Orungu territory paled in comparison with its southern neighbor. In 1788, Cape Lopez and the Gabon estuary were exporting around 5,000 slaves per year in contrast to the 13,500 per year exported from Loango's coast. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Fernan Vaz Lagoon south of Cape Lopez supplied large numbers of slaves to the Orungu Kingdom. By the mid 19th century, most prominent coastal groups such as the Mpongwe were not selling their own people, but would raid their neibours instead. The Orungu, however, often sold debtors, sorcerers, adulterers and cheats to the Portuguese slavers. In 1853, the Orungu monarchy under Chief Ombango-Rogombe agreed to abandon the slave trade; the old slave barracoons (or barracks) near what is now Libreville had already been given to American missionaries. They set up a school and church settlement, which they named Baraka. The Chief then simply moved the slave trade upriver and tried to continue the trade secretly. The trade lasted until the 1870s as illicit slavers sent people from further up the river to Portuguese buyers on the coast.
Culture.
Despite their reputation as the most prominent slave traders in the region, some visitors to the kingdom left favorable reviews of the region and its people. John Newton visited the area in 1743 and remarked that they seemed "the most humane and moral people I ever met with in Africa; and they were the people who had the least intercourse with Europe at that time". This must not have remain true for very long. As time passed, the Orungu took on European dress and customs. However, the Orungu people held strongly to their traditional beliefs and were hostile to European missionaries; the mission at Baraka was a diplomatic manoeuvre as part of their negotiations with anti-slavery forces. As a result, few gained western educations thus limiting their influence in colonial administration or post-colonial politics of Gabon. Today, the former slaver tribe is one of Gabon's smaller ethnic groups numbering around 10,000 people.
Decline.
The fall of the Orungu Kingdom was directly tied to the European suppression of the slave trade. The king had become dependent on it and was unable to maintain the custom of royal patronage without it. This caused the kingdom to disintegrate and in 1873, Chief Ntchengué signed a treaty granting the French a post on Orungu territory. In 1927, the French had colonized the remnants of the kingdom.


Liberian exodus

The Liberian exodus was a mass emigration of black people from South Carolina to Liberia in 1878.
Interest in emigration had been growing among blacks throughout the South since the political campaign of 1876 and the overthrow of the Radical Republican government. Congressman Richard H. Cain called for a million men to leave the injustices they suffered in the United States and leave for Africa. In 1877, the Liberian Exodus Joint Stock Steamship Company was formed in Charleston, South Carolina with a fund of $6,000. Blacks began arriving in January 1878. The company then purchased a bark called the "Azor," which arrived in Charleston in March.
On April 21, the "Azor" set sail with 206 emigrants. A young reporter for the "News and Courier," A.B. Williams, accompanied the emigrants all the way to Monrovia and wrote a comprehensive account of the voyage.
The management committed several serious blunders which resulted in the deaths of 23 of the emigrants before they reached Africa. The water supply gave out shortly before arrival. Intended to last the emigrants six months after they started their new lives in Liberia, the food supply was of poor quality and was consumed entirely on the journey. Contrary to law, no physician was on board. One of the organizers, George Curtis, volunteered to serve as physician, but had no medical knowledge. He carried a copy of "The Mariner's Medical Guide" and improvised from the ship's medicine chest as well as he could.
The "Azor" stopped at Sierra Leone for supplies on May 19, and arrived at Monrovia on June 3, a journey totaling 42 days. In Liberia, many of the new emigrants found themselves impoverished and without supplies, and had to depend on charity. Enthusiasm for the Liberian exodus had been fed partly by exaggerated reports of the land's fertility, including claims that potatoes grew so large that a single one could feed a family for a day, and that certain trees produced bacon. Upon arrival, the passengers discovered that these claims were not true. Eighteen returned on the "Monrovia" in December 1879, reporting that not a single passenger of the "Azor" would stay in Liberia if he had the means to return to the U.S.
The "Azor's" stop at Sierra Leone incurred heavy, unforeseen expenses, creating a debt that the Liberian Exodus Company was unable to pay. The company announced a second voyage in early 1879, charging passengers fares rather than selling stock. However, due to the company's financial mismanagement, reports of the fatalities on the first voyage, and reports of the miserable conditions of the emigrants in Liberia, no second voyage ever took place.
Success did come for many of the emigrants who stayed, albeit slowly. By 1880, most had found a livelihood and did not wish to return. By 1890, the "Azor's" passengers were well represented among Liberia's most prominent citizens. Saul Hill, an earlier immigrant from York, South Carolina, established a successful, 700-acre coffee farm. Clement Irons, also of Charleston, built the first steamship constructed in Liberia. The Reverend David Frazier opened a coffee farm with 20,000 trees and was elected to the Liberian Senate in 1891. One passenger, Daniel Frank Tolbert, originally of a town called Ninety-Six in Greenwood County, was the grandfather of President William R. Tolbert, Jr.


Hendrik Crudop

Hendrik Crudop ( 1646 – after 1720) was a VOC official who also acted as commander at the Cape of Good Hope after the death of Commander Johan Bax van Herenthals in 1678 until the arrival of Simon van der Stel.
Career.
Crudop arrived at the Cape in 1668 as a midship man and in the same year became steward to Commander Cornelis van Quaelberg and later to Commander Jacob Borghorst, a position which he held 'with considerable diligence and success'. Since the VOC's policy was to reduce its expenses, Crudop had in 1671 to combine the duties of fiscal, secretary of the Council of Policy and accountant. In addition, he acted as president of the Orphan Chamber from 1674, became the Company's storekeeper in 1675. In 1676 he was appointed secunde (second in command). He obtained the rank of merchant when appointed as secunde but retained all his previous duties.
After the death of Johan Bax van Herenthals on 29 June 1678, he acted as Commander until 12 October 1679. In 1680, he asked the visiting Commissioner Sybrand Abbema for a transfer to Batavia. His request was granted in 1680 and in 1681 he was appointed Governor of Honimoa in the Governorate of Ambon. Illness however forced him to return to Batavia in 1682 and after he recovered, he was appointed secunde at Banda in January 1684 and four days later became senior merchant. In 1687 he was appointed secunde of Amboyna in the Governorate of Ambonand in 1720 he was still mentioned in the Monsterrollen of Batavia among the officials of the VOC.
Personal.
Crudop was the son of Hinrich Krutop and his wife Ilsabe Grothaus. He married Catharina de Vooght in 1671 and the couple had three sons. The youngest son, Johan Adriaan became Councillor Ordinary of the Dutch East Indies in Batavia.


Mary Carver Affair

The "Mary Carver" Affair occurred in April 1842 when the American merchant ship "Mary Carver" was attacked by Bereby warriors in canoes near the kraal of Little Bereby Ivory Coast. After the crew was massacred, the natives plundered the ship, provoking a response by warships of the United States Navy's African Slave Trade Patrol.
Affair.
It was April 24 when the affair unfolded. Captain Eben Farwell commanded the small schooner "Mary Carver" and he was at the port of Little Bereby to pick up a 600-pound load of camwood from a Bereby trader named Young Crack-O. However, Captain Farwell discovered that his wood was not ready for shipment and demanded that Cracow give him a canoe as payment. The trader reluctantly agreed and when the shipment was ready for transportation, it was taken to the "Mary Carver" by canoe. The ship's mate did not suspect danger so he allowed some of the canoemen to board the schooner and help with stowing the cargo. But instead of helping load the camwood, the Africans attacked with concealed weapons. The mate and the ship's cook were killed and one seaman was thrown overboard and drowned. A second seaman climbed the rigging to escape the massacre and when he finally came down he was "butchered" by the Bereby. Captain Farwell did not know his ship was under attack until the natives came for him, he asked the Africans to allow him to say one last prayer but his request was denied.
Women were among the attackers, one of them hit Farwell in the face with and broke the bone above his right eye socket, making his eye bulge out. After that Farwell was tied up and thrown overboard; in the water he was able to free himself of the ropes and he made it to the surface only to be clubbed in the head again and killed. The "Mary Carver" was then plundered, some pieces of the vessel were taken along with her American flag which ended up in the home of Chief Ben Crack-O in Little Bereby. The Episcopal missionary E. L. Minor was working in the town of Taboo, thirty miles from Little Bereby, and he informed the United States Secretary of the Navy Abel P. Upshur of the affair in a letter. Minor's letter also suggested that military action take place in order to prevent the Africans from attacking American and European shipping. After the "Edward Barley" Incident, later that year, the United States Congress approved a punitive expedition to the area under Commodore Matthew C. Perry, which destroyed Little Bereby.


2020 Seychellois general election

General elections were held in Seychelles on 22–24 October 2020 to elect the President and members of the National Assembly. The National Assembly elections had been due in 2021, but in July 2020 were brought forward by President Danny Faure in order to hold them together with the presidential elections, a proposal supported by opposition parties.
The presidential elections were won by Wavel Ramkalawan of the Linyon Demokratik Seselwa (LDS), with the LDS also increasing its majority in the National Assembly, winning 25 of the 35 seats.
In this election, first Hindu member of Seychelles National Assembly-Satya Naidu was elected.
Electoral system.
The President of Seychelles is elected using the two-round system; if no candidate receives a majority of the vote in the first round, a second round is held between the top two candidates.
Members of the National Assembly are elected by two methods; 26 (with a new constituency established in 2020) are elected from single-member constituencies using first-past-the-post voting, and up to a further ten are elected based on the percentage of votes received by each party; for each 10% of the total national vote received, a party gets one additional seat.
Presidential campaign.
In August 2019 the United Seychelles Party nominated its leader and incumbent president Danny Faure as its candidate during its thirty-third annual congress. Wavel Ramkalawan from the liberal Linyon Demokratik Seselwa (LDS) and Alain St. Ange from the progressive One Seychelles Party (founded on 26 April 2019 and registered on 12 June 2019) are challenging the incumbent. While former speaker of national assembly Patrick Pillay sought nomination, the election commission rejected his candidacy on the ground that he failed to collect the required 500 signatures from registered voters.
While the country recorded only 149 (mostly imported) COVID-19 cases, public health directives still impacted the campaign. For instance, public election rallies were banned. Since there are no active polling institutes, rally attendance had been used to measure support in previous elections. However, the candidates were active in social media, and also participated in the country's first televised presidential debate. The economy was a major campaign issue due to the high cost of living and recent reduction in tourism. While Transparency International ranks Seychelles as one of the 30 least corrupt countries in the world, the incumbent government was considered too accommodating to offshore business interests.
Results.
On 25 October, Wavel Ramkalawan was declared the winner of the presidential election with 54.91% of the vote, marking the first peaceful transfer of presidential power between different political parties since independence in 1976. He had run unsuccessfully in the presidential elections from 1998 onward. Danny Faure attended Ramkalawan's victory speech; in his speech, Ramkalawan emphasized reconciliation: "In this election, there were no losers, there were no winners — our country was given the opportunity as the ultimate winner."


Harry Escombe

Harry Escombe (25 July 183827 December 1899) was a South African statesman.
Early life.
A member of a Somersetshire family, Escombe was born at Notting Hill, London, and was educated at St Paul's School.
After four years in a stockbroker's office, he emigrated, in 1859, to the Cape. The following year he moved to the Colony of Natal, and, after trying other occupations, qualified as an attorney.
Career.
Escombe became recognized as the ablest pleader in the colony, and, in 1872, was elected for Durban as a member of the legislative council, and subsequently was also placed on the executive council. In 1880 he secured the appointment of a harbour board for Natal, and was himself made chairman. The transformation of the port of Durban into a harbour available for ocean liners was as a result of his and Cathcart William Methven's work.
In 1888–1889 he defended Dinizulu and other Zulu chiefs against a charge of high treason. For several years he opposed the grant of responsible government to Natal, but by 1890 had become convinced of its desirability, and on its conferment in 1893 he joined the first ministry formed, serving under Sir John Robinson as attorney-general. In February 1897, on Sir John's retirement, Escombe became premier, remaining attorney-general and also holding the office of minister of education and minister of defence.
In the summer of that year he was in London with the other colonial premiers at the celebration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and was made a member of the privy council. Cambridge University conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. The election that followed his return to Natal proved unfavourable to his policy, and he was succeeded in office, in October 1897, by Sir Henry Binns KCMG. Throughout his life he took an active interest in national defence. He had served in the Zulu War of 1879 in the Durban Mounted Reserve, was commander of the Natal Naval Volunteers and received the volunteer long service decoration. In October 1899 he went to the northern confines of the colony to take part in preparing measures of defence against the invasion by the Boers.
On 13 January, 1897, Mahatma Gandhi arrived on a ship with his family in Natal docks. Escombe criticized Gandhi in the media due to the unpopularity of the Indian immigration at the time.
Escombe was instrumental in the creation of the Natal Observatory. In 1882 David Gill, director of the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, requested the government of Natal to establish an astronomical observatory at Durban, in anticipation of the transit of Venus on 4 December that year. A site for the observatory was chosen in the southwest corner of the Natal Botanic Gardens. Escombe equipped the observatory with an 8-inch refractor from which he personally bought from Grubb for £600.
He lived at 15 Beach Grove in Durban in a house designed by Philip Maurice Dudgeon.
Legacy.
He is commemorated with a statue on Francis Farewell Square outside the Durban City Hall. A Durban Harbour tug was named in his honour. A suburb in Queensburgh in Durban is named after him.


Adedotun Aremu Gbadebo III

Adedotun Aremu Gbadebo III (born 14 September 1943) is the current Alake of Egba, a clan in Abeokuta, Nigeria. He has ruled since 2 August 2005.
Early life.
Gbadebo was born on 14 September 1943, into the Laarun Ruling House. He is a grandson of the sixth Alake of Egbaland, Oba Gbadebo, who ruled from 1898 to 1920, and is a nephew of Oba Gbadebo II.
Gbadebo attended the Baptist Boys’ High School in Abeokuta and Ibadan Grammar School, then went on to University of Ibadan in 1965, obtaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1969. He joined the army in 1969, and attended the Command and Staff College, Jaji from September 1978 to August 1979. He eventually became a Principal Staff Officer to Major-General Tunde Idiagbon, the Chief of Staff at the Supreme Headquarters, Dodan Barracks, from January 1984 to September 1985. He retired from the army as a Colonel.
Election.
Gbadebo's election as Alake in August 2005 ended a six-month period of uncertainty about who would succeed the former Alake, Oba Oyebade Lipede, who died on 3 February 2005. He scored 15 out of 23 votes in an election conducted by the Egba kingmakers, defeating eight competitors including his younger brother, Adeleke.
Dispute.
In April 2010, a dispute between Gbadebo and the Olu of Igbein, Oba Festus Oluwole Makinde, was taken to the High Court of Ogun State, Abeokuta Judicial Division, Ogun State, Nigeria. The Olu of Igbein was contesting an attempt by the Alake to change his title from Olu of Igbein to Olu of Mowe, a change which would affect his rights to use certain traditional symbols including the Igbein stool.


2000 in Nigeria

The following lists events that happened during 2000 in Nigeria.


Baraza-Kerubo Village Market incident

The Baraza-Kerubo Village Market incident refers to an incident between the then Kenyan Deputy Chief Justice Nancy Makokha Baraza and Rebecca Kerubo who worked as a guard at the Village Market shopping mall in Nairobi. The incident led to the suspension and subsequent resignation of the Deputy Chief justice after less than one year in office.
The village market saga was condemned by many and termed unethical after Nancy Baraza withdrew a gun on the female guard.
Initial Media Reports.
In January 2012, local media reported that an incident had occurred between the Deputy Chief Justice and a security guard. The Deputy Chief Justice Nancy Baraza issued a statement denying the allegations
JSC Probe.
In January 2012, the Judicial Service Commission formed a sub-committee to investigate reports that Deputy Chief Justice Nancy Baraza assaulted a security guard at the Village Market shopping mall on 31 December 2011.
Suspension and Tribunal.
The JSC subsequently recommended her suspension to President Mwai Kibaki and requested the President to appoint a tribunal to investigate her conduct in line with Article 168 (4) of the Constitution. After her suspension, a commission formed to investigate her conduct recommended her removal from office.
Supreme Court Appeal.
On 9 August 2012, Justice Baraza filed a notice of appeal against a tribunal's recommendation that she should be sacked. She said she was "dissatisfied" with the decision
Resignation Aftermath.
On 18 October, Baraza resigned after withdrawing her supreme court appeal of the tribunal's verdict.


Voltaic Union

Voltaic Union (in French: "Union Voltaïque") was a political party in Upper Volta. It was formed soon after World War II on the initiative of the French governor Albert Mouragues, and Mouragues was accused of interference in the June 1948 local elections on behalf of the party. Also known as the Union pour la Défense des Interêts de la Haute Volta (UDIHV), it was an alliance of young Catholic-trained Voltaics and traditional chiefs opposed to domination by the Ivory Coast. Early members included Joseph Conombo, Henri Guissou, Joseph Ouedraogo and Maurice Yaméogo.
In the 1951 elections UV sent four members to the National Assembly: Dr. Joseph Conombo, Henri Guissou, Nazi Boni and Mamadou Ouédraogo.
However, when its main backer, Governor Mouragues, left Upper Volta in 1953, the unity of UV became fragile. In 1955 Conombo and Guissou formed a new party, the Social Party for the Emancipation of the African Masses (PSEMA). Similarly Nazi Boni founded the African Popular Movement (MPA) the same year.


Nii Kwabena Bonnie III

Nii Kwabena Bonnie III (1888 – 1968), also known as Kwamla Theodore Taylor, was a Ghanaian (Ga) traditional ruler in Gold Coast, a British colony in West Africa, in 1947. He was a chief of Osu Alata Mantse and Oyokohene of Techiman.
Life and career.
In 1947, he formed an Anti-Inflation Campaign in Accra in response to the inflated prices by the European imported goods to Ghana. He directed his letter to the United Africa Company. In waiting for the response he toured the country to explain the plan for a boycott throughout the cities. The chiefs who supported or pledged to join the boycott were in Sekondi, Manya Krobo, Cape Coast, Suhum, Akim Oda, Tarkwa, and Axim.
He became the first Gold Coaster to earn an invitation from the British Royal Couple to tour Buckingham Palace in February 1925.He also hosted Sir Osei Agyemang Prempeh II, the Asantehene, and 500 entourage at the Royal Castle and its precincts in Accra for the inauguration of the 1946 Constitution, an invitation from the Colonial Governor.
The boycott.
Gold Coast was a British colony in West Africa in 1947. On 26 January 1948 the boycott began as planned. The slogan for the boycott was: "We cannot buy; your prices are too high. If you don’t cut down your prices then close down your stores; and take away your goods to your own country."
Agreement.
An agreement was reached as foreign firms reduced their overall profit form 75 to 50 percent on 20 February 1948. The result of the negotiations prompted the government to announce on radio to end the boycott on 28 February. The negotiating was between Anti-Inflation Campaign Committee and Chamber of Commerce.
The boycotters were disappointed when prices were not reduced as they anticipated;taking the 75 to 50 percent as a price reduction but rather overall profit margins. This in reality resulted in negligible change of cost of living. Ex-servicemen on the last day of the boycott marched from Accra to the British governor, but were stopped by the police to present the petition to the governor. This led to a riot, positioning Kwame Nkrumah to demonstrate for Independence as the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) leader.
An outcome of the boycott was dismissal of some students from government schools who participated in the boycott. The UGCC executive/steering committee initiated the establishment of alternative high school for the students dismissed as supporters of Nii Kwabena Bonnie of European merchants and traders. The results led to the founding of Ghana National College, which was later adopted by Kwame Nkrumah.


Letsie II Lerotholi

Letsie II Lerotholi (Letsienyane) (1867–1913), paramount chief of Basuto (later Lesotho) from 1905–1913. Letsienyane was the son of Lerotholi. He became the ruler upon the death of Lerotholi in 1905, but took little interest in government. He was succeeded by his brother, Nathaniel Griffith Lerotholi.


Voltaic Labour Party

Voltaic Labour Party (in French: "Parti Travailliste Voltaïque"), was a centre-left political party in Upper Volta. PTV contested the 1970 elections, without any significant result.
PTV functioned as the political branch of the Voltaic Organization of Free Trade Unions (OVSL).
Source: Englebert, Pierre. "La Revolution Burkinabè". Paris: L'Harmattan, 1986.


Kasanje Kingdom

The Kasanje Kingdom, also known as the Jaga Kingdom, (1620–1910) was a pre-colonial Central African state. It was formed in 1620 by a mercenary band of Imbangala, which had deserted the Portuguese ranks. The state gets its name from the leader of the band, Kasanje, who settled his followers on the upper Kwango River. The Kasanje people were ruled by the Jaga, a king who was elected from among the three clans who founded the kingdom.
In 1680 the Portuguese traveller António de Oliveira de Cadornega estimated the kingdom had 300,000 people, of whom 100,000 were able to bear arms. However, it is noted that this claim may be exaggerated.
The kingdom of Kasanje remained in a constant state of conflict with its neighbours, especially the kingdom of Matamba then ruled by queen Nzinga Mbande. The Imbangala state became a strong commercial center until being eclipsed by Ovimbundu trade routes in the 1850s. Kasanje was finally incorporated into Portuguese Angola in 1910–1911.
List of kings of Kasanje.
The kings of Kasanje are listed below based on a compilation of several different contemporary king lists by Joseph C. Miller.
Location.
Kasanje is located on the upper Kwango River in what is now Angola.


Ttembo of Buganda

Ttembo Kiridde was Kabaka (King) of the Kingdom of Buganda. He ruled between 1404 and 1434. He was the 4th Kabaka of Buganda.
Claim to the throne.
He was the only surviving son of Prince Lumansi, son of Kabaka Kimera. His mother was Nattembo. He killed his grandfather while on a hunting trip by clubbing him on the head. Accounts of the event differ; some say the event was an accident, while others say it was a deliberate act. Ttembo established his capital at Ntinda Hill.
Married life.
He married Najjemba, daughter of Semwanga, of the Ngonge clan.
Issue.
He fathered three children, two sons and one daughter:
The final years.
Kabaka Ttembo became insane during the latter years of his reign. He died at Busiro and was buried at Katikamu. Other credible sources give his burial place as Bujuuko, Busiro.


Mwezi IV of Burundi

King Mwami Mwezi IV Gisabo Bikata-Bijoga (1840–1908) was the last independent ruler of Burundi before its colonization by the German Empire.
Biography.
He ascended to the throne in 1852 after succeeding his father. Ntare IV Rutaganzwa Rugamba who was the King of Burundi until 1850. Mwezi IV would continue to reign up until his death in 1908, when he would be succeeded by his son Mutaga IV Mbikije. In his position as king of Burundi, he was seen as the ‘Father’ of the Nation, a figure seen as more religious than political, who was revered as a mystical figure. Mwezi was one of the younger sons of Ntare, he came to power under the regency of his older brother, and there was some question of his own parentage. This would end up leading to a struggle with his older brothers in order to retain his claim to kingship. During the more than fifty-year reign of King Mwezi IV, a four-tiered system of administration emerged in order to help govern the country of Burundi more effectively. A central area around the Muramvya Province was under the direct control of the king; an area under the administration of his sons or brothers, which was most closely allied to him; a broad area further east and south that was administered by Batare chiefs, who were descendants of Ntare IV of Burundi: and a final zone that covered the west and northwestern areas of the country and was under the administration of other, mostly Hutu authorities. This method of leadership ended up in multiple revolts in attempts to overthrow Mwezi Gisabo, with the principal actors in these revolts often being the sons and grandsons of Ndivyariye, an older brother of Mwezi Gisabo. The issue of governance in Burundi concerned the ways in which the society was governed and how it was presently governed, the distribution of the contested authority and resources in the society, and most importantly to what level of degree were the political leaders seen as a legitimate leader with authority in the eyes of Burundian society. The sources of power in Burundi had always been authority, human resources, skills and knowledge, intangible psychological and ideological factors, and material resources and sanctions, and when legitimacy of a leader did not exist or was thrown into doubt, the result was political turmoil and social unrest. Mwezi IV was forced to control a number of new forms of political intrusion that threatened to undermine his power as king and his control over Burundi. He was forced to deal with attacks by African actors from the east (such as Mirambo), as well as threats from the commercial power associated with the east coast Swahili networks, and direct European intervention in his country. There were some Burundian figures that allied themselves with the German colonial empire in exchange for their help seizing King Mwezi. The powerful individuals that betrayed their king were to be rewarded with important or prominent administrative positions that had political power of their own, the most prominent of these being Inanga Maconco. Maconco was originally the son-in-law of Mwezi, who became an early ally to him after marrying one of Mwezi’s daughters. After she died, Maconco allied himself with the German forces as they sought to capture Mwezi, and in exchange the Germans promised him a prominent administrative position. However, he was arrested and hanged by the Germans after he was accused of stealing a gun. The German forces along with some of the Burundi that had allied themselves with the Europeans, including Maconco, drove Mwezi from his compound and were able to force him into an agreement. The contents of this 1890 agreement were that King Mwezi be forced to recognize German authority, respect the presence of foreign missionaries, and accept the administrative authority of German allies (such as those who betrayed him like Maconco) in certain areas. However, in exchange for this, the Germans would support Mwezi as the continued King of Burundi. The year 1890 would also see the country of Burundi, along with Rwanda and Tanganyika, become part of the German East Africa. Although this occurred under the reign of Mwezi, the German Protectorate of East Africa was a short-lived venture for the Germans, as they ended up losing all of their colonies, Burundi included, as one of the consequences resulting from World War I.


Union of Communist Struggles

Union of Communist Struggles (, ULC) was a Communist party in the country now known as Burkina Faso. ULC was formed out of a split of the Voltaic Communist Organization (OCV). It was constituted on 14 October 1979. ULC promoted 'Popular and Democratic Revolution' (RDP).
In 1981 ULC dissolved. In 1983 it was reconstituted, and known as Union of Communist Struggles - Reconstructed (ULC-R).
The ULC published "Prolétaire" and "Révolution Bolchévique".


Kyari of Borno

Kyari or Khair bin Bukhar al-Kanemi (?-1894) was "Shehu" of Borno in 1893-1894.
Reign of Kyari.
Kyari became "Shehu" of Borno in 1893 when the country was invaded by Rabih az-Zubayr. One of his first acts was to kill his predecessor and uncle Ashimi of Borno.
He set to reconquer Kukawa already occupied by Rabih az-Zubayr but was captured during the battle. According to oral tradition, his last words for Rabih were


Baruch Dego

Baruch Dego (; born 28 March 1982) is a former Israeli international footballer.
Biography.
Baruch Dega was born in Addis Ababa. His younger brother Messay Dego also played football and became the manager of Hapoel Kfar Saba.
Sports career.
Dego initially played for Maccabi Ironi Ashdod F.C.. In 2000-2001 he was transferred to Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C., winning the championship and three national trophies. In 2004/05, he was the only player to score for Maccabi in the UEFA Champions League group stage. He scored two goals against Ajax Amsterdam in the local win 2–1, one goal from penalty against Juventus (1–1) and another penalty goal at Bayern Munich (5–1 to Bayern).
After spending 3 seasons with Hapoel Tel-Aviv winning two more Israeli State Cup he moved to Maccabi Natanya which was coached by Lothar Matthäus He played one official match before being released and signing a two-year contract with F.C. Ashdod. He reunited with his former coach Nir Klinger at Nea Salamis Famagusta FC.
On 28 May Apollon Limassol announced that Dego signed a two-year contract with the club. Dego reunited with his former Maccabi Tel Aviv attack partner Aldo Adorno with whom he played with during the 2003–2004 season.
On 6 July 2011, he joined Ironi Ramat HaSharon. He was released in the middle of the 2012–13 season, and signed a contract to play for Hapoel Rishon LeZion of Israel's second league until the end of the season, with the hope of helping them to move up a league to Israel's top league for the next season.


Stephen Rapp

Stephen J. Rapp (born January 26, 1949) is an American lawyer and the former United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues in the Office of Global Criminal Justice.
Career.
Rapp has been a lawyer in private practice, a Democratic member of the Iowa House of Representatives, and a Staff Director and Counsel for the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee. Rapp ran for the U.S. House of Representatives for Iowa's 3rd congressional district twice, losing to Charles Grassley. From 1993 to 2001, Rapp was the U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Iowa. In 2001, he joined the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, where he led the prosecution in the "Media Trial" against the leaders of the RTLM radio station and Kangura newspaper for inciting the Rwandan genocide of 1994. He became the Chief of Prosecutions of the ICTR in 2005, and continued to assist Chief Prosecutor Hassan Jallow in prosecuting those involved in the 1994 genocide. In 2007, Rapp succeeded Desmond de Silva to become the third Chief Prosecutor of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, where he directed the prosecution of former Liberian President Charles Taylor and others alleged to have violated international criminal law during the Sierra Leone Civil War.
Rapp was appointed Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues by President Barack Obama, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on September 8, 2009. Rapp leads the State Department's Office of Global Criminal Justice. In that position, he advises the Secretary of State and the Under Secretary for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights and works to formulate U.S. policy on prevention and accountability for mass atrocities. He stepped down from the post on August 7, 2015.
Secretary of State Madeleine Albright created the position of Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues in 1997 in order to bring focus in American foreign policy to the twin imperatives of enabling the prevention of, and ensuring accountability for, atrocities around the world. In 1997, President William J. Clinton appointed David Scheffer to serve as the first advisor to the Secretary of State on U.S. policy responses to atrocity crimes. In 2001, President George W. Bush appointed Pierre-Richard Prosper to serve as Ambassador-at-Large to Secretary of State Colin Powell, and, in 2005, he appointed John Clint Williamson to succeed Prosper as Ambassador-at-Large to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.
In February 2011, Rapp gave a lecture entitled "Achieving Justice for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity" at the University of San Diego's Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice Distinguished Lecture Series.
The office coordinates U.S. government support for "ad hoc" and international courts trying persons accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed (among other places) in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Cambodia, and helps bolster the capacity of domestic judicial systems to try atrocity crimes. It also works closely with other governments, international institutions, and non-governmental organizations to establish and assist international and domestic commissions, courts, and tribunals to investigate, judge, and deter atrocity crimes in every region of the globe. The Ambassador-at-Large coordinates the deployment of a range of diplomatic, legal, economic, military, and intelligence tools to help expose the truth, judge those responsible, protect and assist victims, enable reconciliation, and build the rule of law.
In an interview with the CBS newsmagazine 60 minutes about ongoing war crimes investigations on Syria, Rapp stated that there was more incriminating evidence against Syrian president Bashar al-Assad "than we had against the Nazis at Nuremberg" due to the existence of official documents and photographs that were smuggled out of the country.
Currently, Rapp is a Senior Visiting Fellow of Practice at the Blavatnik School of Government, Distinguished Fellow at The Hague Institute for Global Justice, a think tank in The Hague, Netherlands and a Global Prevention Fellow at the Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide.
Education.
Rapp received his B.A degree with honors from Harvard University in government and international relations. He attended Columbia Law School and received his J.D. degree with honors from Drake University.
References.
2.https://www.npr.org/2017/04/05/522690548/chemical-attack-and-bombs-kill-at-least-58-in-syria


Omashaka massacre

The Omashaka massacre was a mass murder that occurred in Omashaka, a village five miles north of Ondangwa in Ovamboland, South West Africa on March 27, 1981, when a black soldier killed eight people and wounded twelve others, two of them seriously, before being arrested.
The 18-year-old soldier, a member of the 101 Battalion, was reported to have shot at shoppers in a trading or liquor store, and at people sitting in front of their huts with an assault rifle, killing three soldiers and five women, and wounding two other soldiers and ten civilians.


Ciyaka

Overview.
Ciyaka (also known as Quiyaca or Quiaca) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.


Abraham Faure

Abraham Faure (29 August 1795 – 28 March 1875) was a clergyman and author from Cape Colony, part of what later became South Africa.
Church career.
Born in Stellenbosch, Faure was educated in both England and the Netherlands and, with a strong Calvinist background, in 1818 he was inducted as a dominee (minister) in the Dutch Reformed Church in Graaff-Reinet, Cape Colony. In 1822 he was called to the "Groote Kerk in Cape Town" (), where he played a significant role in the first synod there in 1824. He remained a member of the church executive for 43 years. He married Geertruida Isabella Caldwell. His family was heavily involved in the Church and his relative was also a Doctor of Divinities and a Moderator of the Dutch Reformed Synod.
Political involvement.
Politically Faure remained loyal to the British Crown on grounds that the Crown was part of the God-willed social order, expressing disapproval of the Dutch farmers who left the Cape Colony at the time of the Great Trek. His sermon on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the arrival of Dutch settlers under van Riebeeck reflected social responsibility, this time the responsibility of the Dutch Reformed Church for bringing the gospel to the [former] slaves and the indigenous population.


Ali Eisami

Ali Eisami Gazirmabe of Bornu (born 1786–1787), later known as William Harding, was a Kanuri man liberated from slavery by the British Royal Navy. Afterwards, he lived in Sierra Leone and worked with the German missionary Sigismund Koelle in creating a Kanuri grammar. In addition, Koelle recorded Eisami's stories of his life, composing a short memoir of his enslavement; Koelle refers to the Kanuri man as "Ali Eisami Gazirma", that is, Ali, whose mother was Eisa, from Gazir.
Eisami was taken as a captive from his home during warfare in Bornu and enslaved. After being sold years later at a coastal slave market, he and other captives were liberated at sea in 1817 by the Royal Navy, as the Atlantic slave trade had been banned. They were taken to the new colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa for resettlement, where he made a new home.
Biography.
Ali Eisami was born in Gazir in the Kanem–Bornu Empire, in 1786 or 1787, among the Kanuri people (in the area of present-day Niger, Nigeria and Chad). His father was a mallam, a scholar, and Eisami was educated according to Islamic tradition. During the Fulani War, he witnessed the fall of Ngazargamu; his family lost their home and he was captured and enslaved. Taken with other slaves west through the Hausa Kingdoms, Eisami was held in Kano during the years of the Sokoto Caliphate and Katsina. He was a witness when Afonja rebelled in Oyo against the Oyo Empire and the Ilorin Emirate was founded.
In 1817 Eisami's Yoruba owner sold him to a slave market at the coast to prevent him from being liberated by Afonja, who had begun freeing slaves that year if they would join his army (this was the army that would enslave Samuel Ajayi Crowther at the capture of Crowther's hometown, Osogun, in 1821). In 1818 Eisami was taken on board by European slavers to sail for the New World, but the slave ship was intercepted by the British Royal Navy, who enforced the Blockade of Africa to abolish the Atlantic slave trade. The captives were liberated and taken to Sierra Leone, the British colony established in the late 18th century in West Africa for freed slaves.
In Sierra Leone, under governor Charles MacCarthy, thousands of liberated slaves were settled. The "Captured Negro Department" sent some as apprentices to the African-American settlers from North America, and some to previously liberated African individuals who had settled in Sierra Leone. Others were settled in specially designed villages, which were named for English counties or prominent people and run by Europeans; many of those belonged to and were operated by the Church Missionary Society of Britain. Initially subsidized by the government, the newly free people were expected to become self-sufficient. As they assimilated into the new community, they frequently took European names. Eisami took an English name, William Harding, as did many liberated slaves after him, such as Samuel Ajayi Crowther and Joseph Wright. He lived in Bathurst, the village run by the Church Missionary Society, and became a nominal Christian. (Ajayi Crowther settled here four years later after also being liberated by the British Navy.)
The missionary and linguist Sigismund Koelle, who was working on a grammar of the Kanuri language, employed Eismai as an informant, that is, a person to help him learn and translate the language, as well as to explain culture. In addition, he recorded Eisami's memoir or slave narrative, titling it as "Ali Eisami Gazirmabe of Bornu", and published it in his "African Native Literature" (1854). Eisami described his enslavement as a result of the transatlantic slave trade in the same terms as other victims, as "the white man's barbaric cannibalism", in the words of historian William Dillon Piersen. Koelle left the mission and the country in 1853, and one scholar surmises that "his work with Ali Eisami ended in 1852" – and that the engraving for the frontispiece may have been based on a photograph, a very early photograph in a country where soon Krio people would enter that profession. The biography was included in Philip D. Curtin's 1967 anthology "Africa remembered; narratives by West Africans from the era of the slave trade".


Osman Tisani

Osman Tisani (1887–1920) was an African expatriate, who became the first known person of African origin to speak the Irish of the Galway Gaeltacht.
Biography.
There is little detail known about Tisani's early life, but there are two theories. One is that he was a son of an African chief who was exchanged during the Second Anglo-Boer War for the son of Marcus Óg Lynch of Barna House, County Galway, who was serving in the British army. The other is that he was the son of a servant, with his place of birth being recorded as "Tumtutu / French coast Africa" in 1885, or in "Timbuctoo" (Timbuktu) in 1889. Lynch's son died during the war, and by some means, Tisani came to live in Barna as early as 1905, when Lynch built a handball alley in the village for his amusement. Lynch's only other children, three sisters, were all members of the Sisters of Charity, while his own sister, Miss Lilly, lived with him.
Tisani is notable for becoming fluent in Irish, making him the first known person of African origin to speak the Irish of the Galway Gaeltacht. He is listed on the 1911 Census aged 22, working there as a valet in Lynch's house. In 1908, Tisani was jailed for 7 days hard labour for aiding "one John Caine to desert from the 88th Connaught Rangers". The contemporary records show that he was a catholic and that he could read and write. A month after his arrest, Tisani was assaulted by local man, Frederick Hoare.
He became an object of great curiosity in the area, few of the population having ever seen anyone who was not white-skinned before, and thus became part of local folklore for some generations. Tradition states that he died of loneliness and was buried in the local graveyard.
Tisani's death record states that he died on 2 June 1920 or 7 October 1920, in the Ballinasloe Asylum, of pulmonary congestion and cardiac failure. He was recorded as Osman Joseph Tissani of Barna, with his age was given as 33, and his occupation was listed as farmer. The property in Barna was taken by the Land Commission in 1923 and the entire property sold on the death of Miss Lilly Lynch in 1930.


Natal Labour Party

The Natal Labour Party (NLP) was a social democratic political party in the Natal Colony.
At the 1906 Natal general election, four candidates from the labour movement were elected, nominated by the Durban Workers' Political Union or the General Workers' Political Association of Pietermaritzburg. This success inspired the establishment of a single party representing white workers across the colony.
The party was formed early in 1907. Nelson Pond Palmer became the group's parliamentary leader, and MPs Charles Henry Haggar and John Connolly also joining. Its president was A. L. Clark, while its secretary was J. White, and its treasurer was Joseph Edwards. In 1908, Edwards moved to become secretary, L. M. Sanderson became treasurer, and Haggar was employed as a full-time organising secretary. In 1909, Sanderson was succeeded by T. W. Marshman. The new party began publishing the weekly "South African Tribune" newspaper.
By 1908, all the local trade unions representing white workers had affiliated, with the exception of the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners. Like the unions, the new party was strongly anti-Asian and advocated the restriction of suffrage to white voters. However, a section of the party led by Connolly moderated their views following a speaking tour by British socialist Keir Hardie. On other issues, the party adopted broadly socialist views, and it advocated women's suffrage.
By 1909, the party was in discussions to form a South African Labour Party (SALP), to coincide with the anticipated creation of the Union of South Africa. However, decisions over who the party would sponsor to stand in the 1910 South African general election proved highly controversial. Both the Journeyman Tailors' Society and the Amalgamated Society of Engineers disaffiliated from the party in protest, leaving the Durban Workers' Political Association and the South African Typographical Union as its leading forces. Harry Norrie was suspended from the party, and Connolly decided to distance himself from it. Haggar moved to the Rand, and Edwards, Clark and Marshman all moved away from political involvement.
The party became part of the new SALP at the start of 1910. While its anti-Asian positions featured in the new party's constitution, following the defections, it lacked strength in Natal.