Kishangarh State

Kishangarh State was a princely state of India from 1611 to 1948. It was founded by the Jodhpur prince Kishan Singh in 1609. Prior to Kishan Singh this area was ruled by Raja Samokhan Singh who was a distant relative of Kishan Singh's family and grandfather of Naubat Khan. Raja Samokhan Singh a Jodhpur prince lost to the forces of Akbar and his grandson Mishri Singh was kept under house arrest. Mishri Singh later accepted Islam and was renamed as Naubat Khan.
Kishangarh State was located between 25° 49′ and 26° 59′ in the north, and 70° 49′ and 75° 11′ east. Bordered on the North and northwest by Jodhpur; on the east by Jaipur; on the west and southeast by the Ajmer District and on the extreme south by Shahpura.
History.
Kishen Singh, who was the son of Udai Singh of Jodhpur left his family's lands for Ajmer in 1596. From the Mughal Emperor Akbar he received the district of "Hindaun" (now in Jaipur); and later, the grant of "Setholao" along with certain other districts. In 1611, he founded the town of Kishangarh which name was then also given to the state. The 13th Chief succeeding Udai Singh was Kalyan Singh (1797-1832) and in his time, on 26 March 1818, Kishangarh was brought under British Protection.
Kishangarh was the capital of the princely state during the British Raj, which was located in the Rajputana Agency. It had an area of 2210 km2 (858 miles²) and a population in 1901 of 90,970. This figure for population represented a decrease of 27% over the census figure of 1891, something presumably attributable to the famine of 1899–1900. Population was 85,744 in 1931. The state enjoyed an estimated revenue of £.30,000/- in 1875 and paid no tribute to the British Raj. In 1840, "Prithvi Singh", became the 15th Maharaja of Kishangarh, and reigned till his death in 1879, after which he was succeeded by his son, "Sardul Singh".
Maharaja Madan Singh ascended the throne in 1900 at the age of sixteen, at a time when the state was reeling from the impact of a devastating drought. The administration under him and his diwan was widely deemed worthy of approbation; irrigation from tanks and wells was extended and factories for ginning and pressing cotton were started. A social reform movement for discouraging excessive expenditure on marriages made remarkable impact during his reign.
Rulers.
The rulers of Kishangarh who belonged to the Rathor dynasty took the title of 'Maharaja'.


Bu-Ma Democratic Protests

The Bu-Ma Democratic Protests (; or ) against the Yushin regime (), took place between 16 and 20 October 1979 in Busan and Masan (now Changwon), South Korea). Students from Pusan National University began demonstrations calling for the abolition of the Yushin regime. On 17 October the protests grew to include citizens and spread to Masan on 18 and 19 October.
President Park Chung-hee declared martial law on 18 October and referred 66 people to military court. On 20 October, Park invoked the Garrison Act. The army was mobilized, and 59 civilians were brought to military court.
Background.
The 1978 National Assembly election was held in December and was influenced by the government. Nevertheless, the ruling Republican Party was defeated by the New Democratic Party.
In August 1979, female workers of the YH Trading Company () performed a sit in at the headquarters of the New Democratic Party. Because of the lockout, the ruling Republican Party expelled Kim Young-sam from the National Assembly, leading to the resignation of all opposition party members from the National Assembly.
Progress.
The protests history is as follows:
Influence.
This incident incited conflict inside the government, which led in turn to an early ending of the Yushin regime that was maintained by an emergency measure. The protest influenced the Gwangju Uprising and the June Democracy Movement.
Aftermath.
Democracy Park was built in 1999, and a monument was erected to honor the participants of the protests.


Turuberan

Turuberan () was the fourth Armenian region that was part of the ancient Kingdom of Armenia from 189 BC to 387 AD. Then it was part of the Sassanid Empire, Byzantine Empire, Arab Caliphate, medieval Kingdom of Armenia, Zakarian Armenia, various Turco-Mongol states, Safavid Empire, and finally the Ottoman Empire. A very large Armenian population remained until the Armenian Genocide in 1915. Currently it is situated in Turkey's south-east.
Divisions.
The area of Turuberan region was .
It had 16 cantons:


Kesang Choden Wangchuck

Princess "Ashi" Kesang Choden Wangchuck (born 23 January 1982), is a member of the royal family of Bhutan. She is a daughter of the fourth King of Bhutan Jigme Singye Wangchuck and Queen Mother "Ashi" Tshering Pem Wangchuck, one of the former king's four wives, all of whom are sisters and held the title 'queen consort'. She is a half-sister of the current Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King) Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who became king following the abdication of his father Jigme Singye Wangchuck on 9 December 2006.
Biography.
Her Royal Highness, named after her paternal grandmother, was educated at Luntenzampa Middle Secondary School and Yangchenphug Higher Secondary School, Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut.
She has a degree in psychology from Stanford University in California.
Marriage and children.
She married "Dasho" Palden Yoser Thinley at the Dechencholing Palace on November 11, 2008, on a day coinciding with the 13th day of the ninth Bhutanese month. Graduated from Mahidol University, he is a son of "Dasho" Jigme Yoser Thinley, the former Prime Minister of Bhutan, by his wife, "Aum" Rinsy Dem (died on 28 November 2018). The ceremony, organized by Je Khenpo was attended by the former king, the fourth Druk Gyalpo, the Royal Grandmother, Queen mothers and other members of the royal family, cabinet ministers and senior military officials.
They have three children:


Shirokiya

 is a department store located in Honolulu, a division of Shirokiya Holdings, LLC, a United States-based corporation.
Company overview.
Shirokiya, Inc. (the store) is overseen by a seven-person board, all of whom own a part of Shirokiya's parent company, Shirokiya Holdings, LLC. The CEO and President is Japanese native Koji Hayashi, who also oversees the few functions of the company that still remain in Japan. Director and Store Manager Walter Watanabe, as well as the remaining directors, oversee the bulk of the operations, also serving as store senior management.
History.
Hikotaro Omura opened a dry goods store at Nihonbashi in Edo, (now Tokyo) in August 1662. Omura called the store Shirokiya Gofukuten, a name that would last until the 20th century. Over the next few hundred years, the store slowly expanded, and as Japan entered the Meiji era, Shirokiya and its main rival at the time, Mitsukoshi, expanded into selling clothing and other goods in 1886. In 1903, Shirokiya opened a western-style department store, followed by the creation of a larger store down the street eight years later.
The turning point for Shirokiya was a series of natural, financial and man-made disasters that devastated the company's fortunes. The first was the Tokyo earthquake of 1923 that completely destroyed the original department store building (it was then reconstructed using modern architecture ). This was followed a few years later by a major fire on December 16, 1932, which destroyed the larger building and caused 14 fatalities. Finally, Shirokiya's assets, centered mainly in Tokyo, were devastated during World War II and the subsequent occupation of Japan, whereas Mitsukoshi, spread throughout the nation, fared better.
By 1958, Shirokiya was clearly on the downturn; despite the use of innovative marketing techniques common in the west but unheard of in Japan, Mitsukoshi continued to have a commanding lead in Japan's retail industry.
Tokyu era.
In 1958, in order to protect itself from a hostile takeover, Shirokiya agreed to be absorbed into the Tokyu Group, a railway company expanding into the retail industry at that time. In a move to unite all Japanese stores under the Tokyu Department Store chain, the Shirokiya brand progressively disappeared from Japanese life, culminating with the renaming of the Nihonbashi site in 1967.
However, the fusion with Tokyu also resulted in an overseas expansion using the Shirokiya branding. On October 29, 1959, the first branch of Shirokiya outside Japan opened in Hawaii's then brand-new Ala Moana Center. The branch would later move to its present location in Ala Moana, across from Liberty House (now Macy's) in 1966. A branch store was opened in Maui in November 1973. A second branch was opened up at Pearlridge, near Pearl Harbor, on April 2, 1981.
Though the three stores were popular with both local residents and tourists, the stores had an uneven profit record. By the 1990s, as the Japanese economy collapsed, the Tokyu Group went heavily into debt. By 2001, the company was already $470 million in debt, and in 1999, it was forced to close its 330-year-old flagship location in Nihonbashi. In order to further cut costs, Tokyu began to shed its overseas businesses, either selling them off or closing them outright. Eventually, attention turned to the Shirokiya stores, with the Pearlridge store closing in March 2001 and the Maui store shuttering in May of that same year.
Customer outcry was immense. Led by Senator Daniel Inouye, a petition signed by 30,000 residents of Hawaii and Japan was sent to Tokyu, in the hopes that Tokyu would find a fitting end to the "Shirokiya crisis". News reports both in Japan and Hawaii began to report that Tokyu would simply close all of its retail outlets and sell off its other properties and focus only on its Japanese businesses. This was compounded when Tokyu declined to renegotiate its leases for all the stores.
Modern era.
In a surprise move, Tokyu opted to sell the Shirokiya company to the seven highest-ranking executives of the Hawaiian store for the amount of $1, taking a $23 million loss. The deal, which included the rights to build a future expansion at Tokyu's lone remaining Hawaii asset, the Shirokiya Department Store at Ala Moana Shopping Center, ensured the survival of Shirokiya, though there were some reports in the Japanese media about the loss of one of Japan's oldest companies to the U.S.
The newly formed Shirokiya Holdings acted immediately, streamlining operations and assets, and renegotiating the lease on the remaining store. On November 17, 2002, Shirokiya reopened its doors, with then-Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano declaring the day to be "Shirokiya Day". The following year, on July 14, 2003, Shirokiya Holdings reported net sales of $35 million.
On June 25, 2016, Shirokiya opened the new Shirokiya Japan Village Walk, offering customers a unique experience showcasing a traditional Japanese town reminiscent of old Kyoto. Highlighting traditional Japanese culture, the new Shirokiya Japan Village Walk consists of four main themes: Yataimura (quality food court & beer garden featuring $1 beers), Zeppin Plaza (shopping alleys), Omatsuri Hiroba (festival and event square) and Guardian Spirits Sanctuary (good luck deities). The former Shirokiya space above the Vintage Cave Club was converted into another Ala Moana Center food court called "The Lanai."


Aria Wiraraja

Aria Wiraraja was named by Kertanegara of Singhasari governor in Sumenep Regency in the east part of Madura Island but in 1292 joined forces with the ruler of Kediri, Jayakatwang, in his rebellion.
The battle ended with the death of Kertanegara.
Jayakatwang immediately encountered opposition from Raden Wijaya, which defeated reached Madura and, unaware of his treason, asked support to Aria Wiraraja, which helped him to get the crown in 1294.
Later he declared himself independent at Lumajang.
He died in 1331.


Raham Mihran

Raham Mihran was a powerful Iranian military officer from the House of Mihran. He is first mentioned during the Sasanian dynastic struggle of 457-459 between the two brothers Hormizd III and Peroz I. Raham was a supporter of Peroz I, who was also his protege, and played a key role in the dynastic struggle, defeating Hormizd's forces and crowning Peroz I as the new Sasanian king.


Marcus Plancius Varus

Marcus Plancius Varus was an Anatolian Roman noble who lived in the 1st century in the Roman Empire. His paternal ancestors were originally from Latium in Central Italy. They had immigrated to Anatolia in the time of the late Roman Republic. Varus came from a local, wealthy family who were prominent and they came from an unknown town in Galatia. His family owned large estates in Galatia. Apart from this, not much is known on the family and early life of Varus.
History.
Between the years of 56-69, Varus served as a Praetor during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. He entered the Roman Senate as a praetor and through this entry, became a Roman Senator. After his service as a praetor, Varus implied treasonable behavior by a Roman called Dolabella. A Roman woman called Triaria (second wife of Lucius Vitellius the younger and sister-in-law to the brief future Roman Emperor Aulus Vitellius) terrified the City Prefect Titus Flavius Sabinus (brother to future Roman Emperor Vespasian) warning Sabinus not to seek a reputation for clemency by endangering Nero.
During the reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian (69-79), Varus served as governor of the public province of Bithynia and Pontus. During his time in Nicaea, the capital of the Roman province of Bithynia, Varus had struck coinage honoring the Roman State and himself.
Julia became a priestess and served in the temple of the Ancient Greek Goddess Artemis in Perga. Artemis was the most important Goddess in Perga. In Perga, the city’s most magnificent structure was the Hellenistic Gate that was the entrance to the city. Inside in the courtyard of the Hellenistic Gate, there are inscribed bases of statues that bear the names of Marcus Plancius Varus and his son.
From these inscriptions it is understood that Varus along with his son were wealthy, influential and generous citizens in Perga. Varus and his son were made benefactors whom they contributed to the prosperity of Perga. Due to the goodness and generosity of Varus and his son, they were both accepted as the second founders of the city. For who they were both honored with the title "‘’Ktistes’’" or "’’Founder’‘".
Varus also had contributed to the construction of the North Gate of Nicaea/İznik, now called Istanbul Gate, that was built between 70-71. He had appeared to have died before 81. There is a possibility that Varus could be buried west of this Gate. His epitaph was written and dedicated in common Emperorship by Vespasian and his son Titus. Varus’ epitaph is preserved inside the Istanbul Gate. His epitaph was written in metal letters:
Family.
At unknown date Varus married the Herodian Princess Julia, the daughter of King Tigranes VI of Armenia and sister of prince Gaius Julius Alexander. Julia bore Varus two children:


Archaeological Protected Monuments in Sri Lanka

The archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka is divided in to three ages as Prehistoric (Stone age), Protohistoric (Iron age) and historical periods. The presence of man activities in Sri Lanka probably dates from 75,000 years ago (late Pleistocene period). Prehistoric sites which are presently identified in the country are distributed from the maritime belt and the lowland plains of the wet and dry zones to the high plateaus and rain forest in the central and south western mountain region of the island. The protohistoric period expands from about 1000 BC to the historical period at about 500 BC. The main indicators of the distribution of protohistoric and early settlements in the island are the megalithic burials and pottery sites.
The beginning of the historical period of Sri Lanka is traditionally assigned to the reign of king Devanampiya Tissa (307–267 BC) when the Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka by the missionaries sent by the Indian emperor Ashoka. However the first clear information about the establishment of building and structures are dated back to the time of king Pandukabhaya (437–367 BC).
Sri Lanka's political and religious history is mainly set out by the ancient chronicles as well as over 4,000 stone inscriptions from 3rd century BC onward. Which give the history in considerable detail from the 3rd century and less reliably back to the 6th century BC.
Sri Lanka has more than 250,000 identified archaeological sites throughout the country and some of them have been declared as archaeological reserves and protected monuments by the Sri Lanka archaeological department. Archaeological reserves are the sites consist of archaeological remains which are under the direct control of the archaeological department. Protected monuments are privately owned but scheduled under section 18 of the Antiquities Ordinance No.09 of 1940.
Declaration of monuments.
According to the sections 16, 17, 18 and 19 of the Antiquities Ordinance No.09 of 1940, the minister who is in charge of the subject may declare the ancient monuments by notification published in the government Gazette.
Also under sections 16, 17 and 19, ancient buildings and trees on state or private lands, may be declared as ancient monuments to provide safety and protection for them.
Ancient construction with historical and archaeological value which are over 100 years of age can also be declared as ancient monuments in terms of the provisions of the Antiquities (amendment) Act No. 24 of 1988.


Orakzai dynasty

The Orakzai Dynasty is a South Asian dynasty, directly descended from the Orakzai tribe. Various branches ruled the princely states of Bhopal, Kurwai, Muhammadgarh and Basoda.
History.
The Orakzai Dynasty is divided into two branches, the Mirazi Khel founded by Dost Muhammad Khan and the Firuz Khel founded by Diler Khan.


History of the Loss of Vietnam

History of the Loss of Vietnam (, ) was a Chinese-language book written by Phan Bội Châu, the leading Vietnamese anti-colonial revolutionary of the early 20th century, in 1905 while he was in Japan.
It was published by Liang Qichao, a leading Chinese nationalist revolutionary scholar then in Japan, who assisted Chau during his time attempting to drum up support for Vietnamese independence in China. The book was intended for distribution mainly in China and abroad, but also for smuggling into Vietnam to rally people to the cause of Vietnamese independence. The book helped popularize the word "Vietnam." At the time, the country was generally called "Annam."
The book negatively assessed the response of the Nguyen dynasty in the 19th century to the colonial challenges facing Vietnam and the failure to modernise, with the Nguyễn instead turning to ultra-orthodox conservative Confucianism. The book presents strident and emotive memorials to the key figures of the Cần Vương ("Protect the King") movement of the late 1880s and early 1890s, led by mandarins such as Tôn Thất Thuyết and Phan Đình Phùng, who led guerrillas against the French. The Cần Vương attempted to overthrow the French rule and establish the boy emperor Hàm Nghi as ruler of an independent Vietnam. "History" analyzed French social and economic policies in Vietnam, which it regards as oppression. In the book, Chau argues for the establishment of a nationwide pro-independence front with seven factions or interested groups with a specific motivation to fight the French colonial authorities.
The book was written in a style that differed from the prevailing writing technique and structure of the scholar gentry of the time. Chau eschewed this traditional style to write in a direct, ordinary prose style, especially in his analytical and argumentative sections.
The book was distributed in China at least five times, and the first two printings were incorporated into Liang's periodical magazine "Hsin-min ts'ung-pao". The book was accompanied by a foreword by Liang, which was used to draw similarities between the situation facing Vietnam and China with respect to foreign domination. The book created a reaction in China, sparking follow-up essays by Chinese writers who were taken aback by the Chau's description of the life that faced Vietnamese people under French rule. It generated gloomy pieces by Chinese writers who predicted that their nation would suffer a similar fate if they failed to modernise. One such Chinese response later became a teaching text at the Tonkin Free School in Hanoi, a school run by Chau's contemporaries to promote the independence movement. However, Chau did not receive much of a reaction in terms of aid towards his independence efforts, since the book mainly had the effect of worrying Chinese about their own future. "History" had a much better reception among readers in Vietnam. Chau left Japan for the first time in August 1905, carrying fifty copies of the book that were distributed throughout Vietnam, of which further copies were made inside the country.


Abu Bakr Shah

Sultan Abu Bakr Shah (reigned 1389–1390), was a Muslim Turkic ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. He was the son of Zafar Khan and the grandson of Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq.
After Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II (who had succeeded Sultan Feroze Shah Tughluq) was murdered, Abu Bakr became ruler of the Tughlaq empire. However, his uncle, Muhammad Shah, also desired to be ruler, and struggled against Abu Bakr over the control of the throne. Abu Bakr was defeated in August 1390, and Muhammad Shah succeeded him as king, reigning from 1390 to 1394. After his defeat, Abu Bakr was imprisoned in the fort of Meerut and died soon after.


Maurice Cameron

Major Sir Maurice Alexander Cameron (1855–1936) was a naval engineer and expert in submarine mining who spent nine years in the Straits Settlements and Malaya.
He took up the position of Deputy Colonial Engineer and Surveyor-General in Penang in December 1883 and oversaw the construction of roads and other public works in Penang and Province Wellesley. In 1888, he was appointed Colonial Engineer in Singapore and involved in the construction of forts for defence purposes. He served as the chairman of a commission to investigate Chinese and Indian indentured labour in Malaya from 1890.
Cameron returned to England in 1894 and worked at the Designs Branch of the War Office briefly before taking up the post of Third Crown Agent for the Colonies. He retired in 1920 as First Crown Agent.
In retirement, Cameron was involved in the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, joining its Committee of Management in 1921 and being elected Vice-President in 1933.
Cameron was awarded the Order of St Michael and St George in 1900, and was promoted to KCMG in 1914.
Personal life.
Cameron married Ethel Ancrum in 1894. They had three children together: Ewen Arthur, Alexander Maurice and John Ancrum. Ethel Ancrum died in 1903 and in 1920 Cameron married Francis Perkins.


History of Brunei

The history of Brunei concerns the settlements and societies located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, which has been under the influence of Indianised kingdoms and empires for much of its history. Local scholars assume that the Islamisation of Brunei started in the fifteenth century, with the formation of the Bruneian Empire, a thalassocracy which covered the northern part of Borneo and the southern Philippines. At the end of the 17th century, Brunei subsequently entered a period of decline brought on by Brunei Civil War, piracy, and European colonial expansion. Later, there was a brief war with Spain, in which Brunei lost Manila and evacuated their capital for a brief period until the Spanish withdrew. The empire lost much of its territory with the arrival of the Western powers, such as the Spanish in the Philippines and the British in Labuan, Sarawak, and North Borneo. The decline of the Bruneian Empire accelerated in the nineteenth century when Brunei gave much of its territory to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts. Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin later appealed to the British to stop further annexation in 1888. In the same year, the British signed a "Treaty of Protection" and made Brunei a British protectorate until 1984 when it gained independence and prospered due to the discovery of oil.
Pre-Islamic Hindu-Buddhist Indianised kingdoms.
The history of Brunei before the arrival of Magellan's ships in 1519-1522 CE is based on speculation, the interpretation of Chinese sources, and local legends. Excavations unearthed near Bandar Seri Begawan suggest that the Chinese may have traded in the area as early as 835 AD. Camphor and pepper seem to have been prized objects of trade. Brunei hard camphor had a wholesale value equivalent to its own weight in silver. Ming dynasty accounts give detailed information about visits and tribute missions by rulers of P'o-ni (transliteration of "Bumi") during the late fourteenth and early fifteenth century. Their names and titles suggest either Hindu or Buddhist influence. The texts confirm that the state was tributary to the Hindu Javanese Majapahit Empire, but sought and received Chinese protection in 1408.
Syair Awang Semaun.
According to the official version of events mainly the national epic poem Syair Awang Semaun, Brunei was founded by a band of fourteen saudara (brothers and first cousins), who eventually settled in the Brunei river near the present capital and chose one of their number as the first ruler. Some known versions of the Syair Awang Semaun state that they were all the sons of Dewa Amas of Kayangan, a part supernatural being who descended to earth at Ulu Limbang in an egg. Discovered by the Sang Aji, he was married to that ruler's daughter by whom he fathered one son. He travelled to thirteen settlements in the region in search of an auspicious ox. At each of the villages, he fathered thirteen (or twenty-two) other sons by thirteen different aboriginal wives, daughters of the local penghulu.
The first ruler chosen by the saudara to rule the newly founded state was Awang Alak Betatar, the son of Dewa Amas and the Sang Aji's daughter. He was not necessarily the eldest among them, but chosen to rule because of his fitness to do so. The official account states that he journeyed to Johor, embraced Islam, married the daughter of a Sultan "Bahkei" of Johor and received the title of Sultan Muhammad Shah from him.
The Nunuk Ragang Connection.
Later this staging station became the permanent settlement now known as Nunuk Ragang the original home of the Kadazan-Dusun race. At the staging station the Chinese hung red colored pieces of fabric and red colored banner to indicate their presence to any follow-up parties. Red is an important symbolic color in Chinese culture, and even today whenever the Chinese set up a new project such as land development, they never neglect to set up a red coloured altar and offer sacrifice. There is no zoological record of a red coloured Banyan Tree so it can only be assumed that to the simple native mind the Banyan tree has turned red, hence the name Nunuk Ragang. Additionally, the local native women were themselves descendants of previous waves of migrations of Austronesian people from mainland China and Taiwan to Sahul. Meanwhile, the settlement at Nunuk Ragang had already been well established and thriving. The new Raja, having converted to Islam was no longer interested in Jewell and dragon, but more concerned with court affairs having been appointed an important adviser to the Brunei Sultanate. Trading in the abundant resources at Kinabatangan became his most primary concern and the men at Nunuk Ragang was abandoned and left to fend for themselves.
Relations with Europeans.
Brunei's relations varied with the different European powers in the region. The Portuguese, for the most part, were more interested in economic and trading relations with the regional powers and did little to interfere with Brunei's development. This does not mean that relations were always cordial, such as in 1536 when the Portuguese attacked the Muslims in the Moluccas and the ambassador to the Brunei court had to leave because of the sultan's hostility. The Portuguese also noted that the sultanate was heavily involved in the region's politics and wars, and that Brunei merchants could be found in Ligor and Siam.
Relations with Spain were far more hostile. From 1565 on, Spanish and Brunei forces engaged in a number of naval skirmishes, and in 1571 the Spanish who had been sending expeditions from Mexico succeeded in capturing Manila from the Brunei aristocracy that had been established there. Brunei raised several large fleets with the intention of recapturing the city, but the campaigns, for various reasons, never launched. In 1578, the Spanish took Sulu and in April attacked and captured Brunei itself, after demanding that the sultan cease proselytising in the Philippines and, in turn, allow Christian missionaries to be active in his kingdom. The Spaniards withdrew after suffering heavy losses due to a cholera or dysentery outbreak. They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on 26 June 1578, after just 72 days. The short-term damage to the sultanate was minimal, as Sulu regained its independence soon after. However, Brunei failed to regain a foothold in Luzon, with the island firmly in Spanish hands.
The long-term effects of regional changes could not be avoided. After Sultan Hassan, Brunei entered a period of decline, due to internal battles over royal succession as well as the rising influences of European colonial powers in the region, that, among other things, disrupted traditional trading patterns, destroying the economic base of Brunei and many other Southeast Asian sultanates.
Relationship with the British and Sarawak.
During Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II’s reign, disturbances occurred in Sarawak. In 1839, the British adventurer James Brooke arrived in Borneo and helped the Sultan put down this rebellion.
As a reward, he became governor and later "White Rajah" of Sarawak and gradually expanded the territory under his control. Brooke never gained control of Brunei, though he did attempt to. He asked the British to check whether or not it would be acceptable for him to claim Brunei as his own; however, they came back with bad news—although Brunei was poorly governed, it had a definite sense of national identity and could therefore not be absorbed by Brooke.
In 1843 an open conflict between Brooke and the Sultan ended in the latter's defeat. The Sultan recognised Sarawak's independence. In 1846, Brunei Town was attacked and captured by the British and Sultan Saifuddin II was forced to sign a treaty to end the British occupation of Brunei Town. In the same year, Sultan Saifuddin II ceded Labuan to the British under the Treaty of Labuan. In 1847, he signed the Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with the British and in 1850, he signed a similar treaty with the United States, which, after a series of events, resulted in the first consul of the US, Charles Lee Moses, burning down his consulate. Over the years, the Sultans of Brunei ceded further stretches of territory to Sarawak; in 1877, stretches to the east of the capital were leased (later ceded) to the British North Borneo Chartered Company (North Borneo). Eventually, due to these seizures of territory, which was accepted by the sultan for annual lease payments, the British occupied the vast majority of the coast of Brunei. The Sultan only stopped handing over territory when Sarawak asked for Limbang, which the Sultan refused. Against the Sultan's wishes, Sarawak obtained control over the territory.
In 1906, the British started a residency in Brunei. This was averted from greater British control from a friendly report by Malcolm Stewart Hannibal McArthur, who prevented the nation from being colonized completely, in the Report on Brunei in 1904. This residency, with the Sultan having control over internal policies, continued until 1984. During this residency, oil was discovered, in 1928, by Shell. This is what has changed the country from its former impoverished state to a much wealthier one today.
Prior to Independence.
The Sultan of Brunei participated in efforts to form a federation of Malaysia with the Federation of Malaya, Crown Colony of Sarawak, Crown Colony of North Borneo and the Colony of Singapore, but decided not to in the end due to the issue of oil profits and massive popular opinion against the move. This wish by the sultan resulted in a coup by the most populous party in the nation, comprising a vast majority of the population, by the Brunei People's Party (PRB). This failed due to poor organisation and their leader, A.M. Azahari, not even being in the country during the coup. Another option considered was a federation between North Borneo, Sarawak, and Brunei, but this was rejected due to oil revenues and the possible limitation of the Sultan's power.
Independence.
On 14 November 1971, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah left for London to discuss matters regarding the amendments to the 1959 constitution. A new agreement was signed on 23 November 1971 with the British representative being Anthony Royle.
Under this agreement, the following terms were agreed upon:
This agreement also caused Gurkha units to be deployed in Brunei, where they remain up to this day.
On 7 January 1979, another treaty was signed between Brunei and the UK. It was signed with Lord Goronwy-Roberts being the representative of the UK. This agreement granted Brunei to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation. Britain agreed to assist Brunei in diplomatic matters. In May 1983, it was announced by the UK that the date of independence of Brunei would be 1 January 1984.
On 31 December 1983, a mass gathering was held on main mosques on all four of the districts of the country and at midnight, on 1 January 1984, the Proclamation of Independence was read by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. The sultan subsequently assumed the title "His Majesty", rather than the previous "His Royal Highness". Brunei was admitted to the United Nations on 22 September 1984, becoming the organisation's 159th member.
After Independence.
Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984, joining ASEAN on the same year. Economic growth from its extensive petroleum and natural gas fields during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the Southeast Asian nations, after Singapore, and is classified as a "developed country". In 2014, the Sultan instituted an Islamic Sharia penal code


Talcher State

Talcher State () was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. Talcher town in Angul District was the capital of the state and the seat of the Raja's residence. Its last ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union in 1948.
History.
The origins of the state of Talcher goes back to 1471 CE during the reign of Purushottama Deva of the Gajapati Empire in the region when the overlordship of Bhimanagari was established by Narahari Singh who was the scion of the family of the ruling Suryavanshi Gajapati Kings of Odisha. In the late 16th century under the reign of Padmanabha Birabara Harichandan, the kingdom was renamed as Talcher after the name of the family goddess Taleshwari in 1578.
The state's accession to the Indian Union was signed by its last ruler Hrudaya Chandra Dev Birabar Harichandan Mahapatra on 1 January 1948.
Rulers.
The rulers of Talcher:


Kanittha Tissa of Anuradhapura

Kanittha Tissa was King of Anuradhapura in the 2nd century, whose reign lasted from 165 to 193. He succeeded his brother Bhatika Tissa as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his son Cula Naga.


List of Paleolithic sites in China

This is a list of Paleolithic sites in China. They are sorted in chronological order from the earliest founding to the latest:


Ken Dedes

Ken Dedes was the first queen of Singhasari. She was the consort of Ken Arok, the first ruler of Singhasari, Java, Indonesia. She was later considered the origin of the lineage of kings that rule Java, the great mother of the Rajasa dynasty, the royal family that ruled Java from the Singhasari to the Majapahit era. Local tradition mentioned her as an embodiment of perfect beauty.
Early life.
Most of the record of her life comes from the account of Pararaton (The Book of Kings), a mixed historical account including supernatural tales and stories. She was the daughter of a Buddhist monk, Mpu Purwa. According to tradition, Ken Dedes' exceptional and extraordinary beauty was famous throughout the land and attracted Tunggul Ametung, the ruler of Tumapel (now the Singhasari district, East Java) who later took her as his wife.
According to local tradition, Ken Dedes was kidnapped while her father was away meditating and forced to become Tunggul Ametung's wife. Her father cursed Tunggul Ametung, saying he would be killed because of Ken Dedes' beauty. The curse became reality when Ken Arok assassinated Tunggul Ametung and took Ken Dedes as his own wife.
The Consort of Ken Arok.
According to Pararaton and local tradition, Ken Arok's usurpation of Tunggul Ametung was caused by Ken Dedes' exceptional beauty and charisma. The story is that Ken Arok was standing close near the royal carriage as it halted and caught a glimpse of the young queen. When her clothes accidentally parted, Ken Arok caught sight of her naked legs and thighs and he saw that her genitals were 'shining'. A Brahmin, Lohgawe, told Ken Arok that this radiance was the sign that Ken Dedes bears the divine quality and would be the bearer of kings. Her beauty was said to have been so perfect that whoever married her, regardless of his status, would inevitably be destined to become king of kings. By this, Ken Arok was motivated to dispatch Tunggul Ametung.
Ken Arok later launched a campaign that defeated Kertajaya, King of Kediri and he founded his own kingdom, Singhasari. Ken Dedes became his wife, the first queen of Singhasari. According to local beliefs, the statue of Prajnaparamita, the goddess of transcendental wisdom in Buddhist tradition and found in Cungkup Putri near Singhasari temple, was made in her likeness and probably served as her mortuary deified statue.
Anusapati, Ken Dedes's son from Tunggul Ametung, murdered Ken Arok and became the second ruler of Singhasari.


Krishna Bai Holkar

Maharani Krishna Bai Holkar (died September 1849) was a queen of Yashwant Rao Holkar, Maharaja of Indore, and mother of Maharaja Malhar Rao Holkar III.


Chandar of Sindh

Chandra or Chandar was a Brahmin ascetic who succeeded his brother, Chach of Alor, as king of Sindh region of the Indian subcontinent. An account of Chandar's reign is presented in the "Chach Nama", a recording of this period of Sindhi history and the broader history of the Indian subcontinent.
Life and activity prior to reign.
According to the "Chach Nama", the Brahmin Chach of Alor was chamberlain and secretary to Rai Sahasi II, king of Sindh region of the Indian subcontinent. Chach ascended to the throne by marrying the king's widow, and appointed Chandar as his deputy. Chandar assisted in the administration of the kingdom during Chach's successful campaigns of expansion, and succeeded Chach upon his death.
Conflict with Kannuaj.
After Chach's death, Matta, the ruler of Sehwan Sharif, began to conspire against Chandar. Matta had formerly been the autonomous chief of Siwistan; however, he had been subjugated during one of Chach's campaigns, and intended to regain independence. He sent an emissary to Siharas, ruler of Kannauj, noting that Chandar was a monk who allegedly spent his entire day at prayer, and who would thus be a weak foe. He asked Siharas to invade Sindh, and to cede a portion of these lands to Siwistan. Siharas refused, but conceded to Matta's request for a governorship if he succeeded in conquering Sindh. Matta agreed to pay tribute to Siharas in exchange for this post.
Aligned with Chach's grandson, Siharas entered Sindh and besieged Chandar in Alor. During a parley with Sindhi forces, Siharas was seized; he agreed to end the war, sending hostages with robes of honor to Chandar. Chandar eventually formed an alliance with Siharas. Chandar’s reign lasted for eight years, according to the "Chach Nama"; his nephew Raja Dahir, Chach's eldest son, succeeded him after his death.


Fuvahmulah

Fuvahmulah City (Dhivehi: ފުވައްމުލައް) is an island (atoll) in the Maldives. It is under Maldives administrative divisions of Gnaviyani Atoll or Nyaviyani Atoll. The inhabitants speak a distinctive form of the Dhivehi language, known as "Fuvahmulaki baha".
Fuvahmulah means "Island of the Areca nut palms", "Fuvah" (or "Fuva") in the local language. Other places in the world like Penang in Malaysia and Guwahati in Assam, India, are also named after this nut. The original name of the island could have been Mulah, but was called Fuvahmulah (the "Mulah" with the areca nut palms) to distinguish it from Boli Mulah – another island in ancient Maldives.
The admiralty charts and some geographers named the island "Fua Mulaku". In old French maps the island appeared under the name "Poue Molluque".
History.
Little is known about the history of Fuvahmulah. All that remains are some landmarks of the historical past.
These include a much damaged Buddhist stupa known as "Fua Mulaku Havitta". Its actual shape has been lost because of the damage done by careless digging to find artifacts or for research purposes. The ruin is about 40 feet in height and it looks like a small hill. A smaller mound, about 15 feet in height, is located near the Havitta.
An ancient local poem says: "Havitta uhe haudahau, Redin taneke hedi ihau".(Thor Heyerdahl visited this island and wrote a book which is named 'Fua Mulaku' in its German edition.)
There is also the "Vasho-Veyo", an ancient circular bath with stone steps. This stone pool reveals great craftsmanship in the cutting of Porites coral stone (hirigal) by the locals.
Among the monuments of the Islamic period, the most important is the Gen Miskit, a neat compound including a coral stone mosque, an ancient graveyard and a well. It is located on the northern end of the island. The Gen Miskit is said to be the oldest mosque in Fuvahmulah.
It has been said that the island was depopulated and resettled thrice in the last thousand years owing to lethal epidemics. The last time the survivors of the epidemic went to the neighboring Addu, Huvadhu and Haddhunmathi Atolls and stayed there for a few years.
During the secession of the Southern Atolls from the North (1959–1963), Fuvahmulah was a part of the Suvadive Islands. Nothing eventful happened during those years except that once a boat (Elizabeth Boyer) with soldiers from Malé sent by the central government tried to disembark unsuccessfully at Rasgefanno. The island people gathered at the beach and threw stones at the soldiers. The soldiers fired back, and one man of the island was shot in the head and died instantly. Two other islanders who were seriously wounded by gunshots were ferried by dōni the same day, to Gan, in Addu Atoll. The British, who were stationed in Gan sent them by air to Ceylon for treatment.
Recent history.
On 4 February 2007 a fire burned down the Community Center building. The fire started around 3:00 am local time. The Regional Fire Services, Maldives Police Services, and locals contained the fire, within 2 hours after the fire started. An investigation was carried out by the Police, but a report was not published. Police said the most likely cause of the fire was an electrical short.
On 23 February 2007, a fire started at the boat yard near the harbor. The fire completely burnt 6 fiberglass dhows. Four of these dhows were 100 feet and the remaining two were 40 feet long. This fire also started around 3:40 am local time. Fire was first spotted, instantly after the fire started by a local fisherman. The Fire Service was called immediately. But since fiberglass resin is highly flammable, and there was no sprinkler system, the fire spread to the 6 dhows and the fiberglass resin barrels in the yard. It took the fire personnel, Maldives National Defense Force and local 2 hours to contain the fire. A forensics team of the Maldive Police Service did the investigation. All the dhows were insured. In an interview with media, the atoll chief said the loss is estimated to be around MRF 20 Million, although insurance companies never publicly disclosed the figures. This fire is said to be the worst fire in the history of the island.
Geography.
The island is south of the country's capital, Malé. The Fuvahmulah city is about by with a submerged reef (Rashikedefaro) extending for about in a southeasterly direction. The island is the third largest in the Maldives. In the past, Fuvahmulah was a small coral atoll whose southern end was open at a spot called Diyarehifaando and the inside of the island was a saltwater lagoon forming a natural harbor. There is a spot on the southern end known as Kudhuheraival (forest of a small islet), which indicates there was a small separate islet over there in ancient times.
The channel connecting the lagoon with the ocean was closed by massive coral boulders in the past. Thus the inside of the island is lower than its edges. In time the inner lagoon lost its saltiness and all that remains today are two small lakes, wetlands and marshy taro fields. In this respect, Fuvahmulah is like the island of Nukutavake in the Central Pacific.
The northern lake of the island is known as "Dhadimagi Kilhi" (lit. "Lake of Dhadimagu" or "Dhadimagu Lake" since the lake is located in Dhadimagu ward of the island) and the southern is "Bandaara Kilhi" (lit. "State Lake" since the lake has been under state custody throughout history).
Lacking a lagoon and being subject to ocean swells, Fuvahmulah was often inaccessible to seafarers in the past. In the early 2000s a harbor was built at the southeast tip of the island, which minimized the problem to a certain extent. The construction of a domestic airport on the island in 2011 has gradually opened the island to the rest of the country.
Environment.
Being the nearest atoll to the Equator and the first atoll in the Southern Hemisphere among the atolls of the Maldives, Fuvahmulah has many features which make the island unique. As H.C.P Bell says in his monograph, throughout history Maldivians themselves have fairly judged Fuvahmulah to be the most beautiful island in the Maldives. This judgement remains up to this day within the hearts of many Maldivians who express this both in words and deeds on different occasions ranging from TV and radio programmes to the polls taken by newspapers and websites online.
Being a one-island atoll itself and the third largest island in the Maldives (if not for land reclamation), Fuvahmulah includes a diverse range of habitats ranging from tropical woodlands and wetlands to freshwater lakes, well-vegetated marshland areas, white sandy beaches of different variations and pebble texture plus gravel beaches and fertile lands of humus greater in area than any other island in the Maldives. The two freshwater lakes in the island plus the many number of swamps and marshland areas in the island give habitat to different plant and animal species not to be found anywhere else in the Maldives. Among such species, the common moorhen (locally known as Valikukulhu) is a bird natively confined to Fuvahmulah only in the Maldivian archipelago. Also, the dense forest of Syzygium cumini (Jambul), locally known as "Dhanvah Baal" (literally "Jambul grove") to the North of Dhadimagi Kilhi is the largest vegetation of Jambul to be found anywhere in the Maldives since this plant variety is nearly extinct elsewhere in the country. Fuvahmulah is also the largest producer of mangoes in the Maldives. Mango trees are found in abundance and every year hundreds of thousands of mangoes are produced from the island. Fuvahmulah also produces pineapples and oranges which cannot be found anywhere else in the country.
The wetland areas of Fuvahmulah are mostly made up of dense vegetation ranging from ferns to reeds to taro fields. There is an abundance of water spinach locally known as Mahilanbo "މަހިލަނބޮ and plant varieties such as "Syzygium cumini" (jambul), pond-apple, mango, pineapple, screwpine, tropical almond, cheese fruit, ambarella, banana and many more. Fuvahmulah is also home to farmland where locals grow crops such as cucumber, tomato, carrot, cabbage, pepper, capsicum, eggplant and ladies' fingers.
Natural phenomena.
There is a broad sandy beach at the northernmost point of Fuvahmulah in the district of Dhadimago. It is locally known as "Thūndu" (In official Dhivehi "Thundi"). Its sands are formed by white small round pebbles, which are unusually smooth and shiny. This kind of pebbles are found in Fuvahmulah only in the Maldives and visitors to the island usually collect them as a memory of the island.
It is common for an annual phenomenon called "Bissaaveli" to form at the Thūndu. The Bissaaveli forms when part of the sand of the beach moves away from the shore towards the edge of the reef, thus creating a lagoon, enclosed by sand and the shore of the island. This natural event attracts hundreds – possibly thousands – of locals who love to go to watch it. When it is well-formed, the "Bissaaveli" is enclosed from all sides, creating a natural shallow swimming pool where locals like to swim.
Another natural phenomenon called "Kalho-Akiri" (meaning "Black Pebbles") occurs on the south-east shore of the island. This area only has black pebbles, quite unusual to the normal white coral sand beaches of the Maldives.
Every year, towards the end of the southwest monsoon season, flying fish (Hulhammaha) come to the northwestern shore of Fuvahmulah. Confused by the number of voracious tuna shoals in the water and by aggressive frigate birds hunting them from the air, the flying fish would end up flying close to the beach. They mostly end up in the area between Thoondu and Dhadimago fanno where this phenomenon is most common. Men, women and children like to go down to the reef to catch the flying fishes by hand in the midst of a joyful atmosphere. Large crowds will gather on the beaches for what the locals called "Hulhammaha Hifun".
Municipal divisions.
Fuvahmulah was traditionally divided into nine wards. From North to South these wards were: (1) Dhadimagu, (2) Dhiguvaandu (both stretching from East to West shore), (3) Hoadhadu, (5) Dhashukubaa (both segmental) and separated by, (4) Maadhadu, (A diagonal strip of parallel width). The other four divisions, occupying the southern part of the island, consisted of two eastern and western strips, bisected into four wards, (6) Maalegan and (8) Dhoondigan lying to the East, (7) Miskiymagu and (9) Funaadu to the West.
In time, some changes were made. In the 1950s, the number of wards were reduced to eight, with the village of Dhashukubaa being merged with Miskiymagu. Since then, no changes were made though the increase in population of some wards has put pressure on the neighboring areas, resulting in the extension of some wards with time, and some claims out of the traditional boundaries. An example of such a case is that of the Hoadhadu ward. The northerly extension of the settlements of Hoadhadu ward by time led to the land from eastern strip of Dhiguvaandu and Dhadimagu wards being claimed by the village. A similar case occurred in the Funaadu-Dhoondigan boundaries to the south of the island. However, no formal changes have been made in any of the cases and area claims of different views exist in modern times. The officially used maps and government sources as well do not portray any significant changes to the traditional boundaries.
Taking into consideration the geography of Fuvahmulah along with its size and population, the 8 wards of the island are officially considered to be administrative divisions which act as the replacement for islands in other atolls. In the past, a chief ('Katheeb') was appointed in charge of the day-to-day affairs of each ward of the island as was done for the remote islands of the other atolls. With the introduction of local government policy in the Maldives, the Decentralization Act of 2010 passed by the People's majlis specifically states that in the case of Fuvahmulah an island council has to be elected for each ward of the island. So like the islands of other atolls across the country, the wards of the island act as separate constituencies. From February 2011 onwards the councils have started functioning.
Each ward of Fuvahmulah has its own distinctive features. The largest division of the island is Dhadimagu while the most populous ward of the island is Dhoondigan.
Dhadimagu.
This is the largest division of the island, located on the north-west of the island. A centre of learning as well as an important location for the island's economy. Throughout history, scholars and famous personalities came into being from this district housing many of the historical sites and landmarks of the island. The number of 'Hafiz's from this district outnumber that of any other district in Fuvahmulah.
Dhiguvaandu.
Located just after Dhadimagu, this is one of the largest districts in Fuvahmulah. Apart from Dhadimagu, the district also share borders with Hoadhadu and Maadhadu.
Many residents of Dhiguvaandu rely on white-collar jobs for their income. Retail business is a main source of income as well. The most prominent feature of this district is the "Chas bin" (an area of wetland) associated with the Dhadimagi-Kilhi. Large amounts of taro fields can be found in the wetland area. Vast plantings of areca nut can be found in the district. Mango and breadfruit can be found in reasonable quantities. Almost every house in the district has a mango tree.
Hoadhadu.
Hoadhadu used to be the smallest district in Fuvahmulah, nearly the same size as Maadhadu. During the late 20th century, the increase in population of the district led to pressure on land in the neighbouring areas. This led to a northern extension of the village, resulting in land from Dhadimagu and Diguvaandu wards being claimed to the village. Though this has resulted in a change of the believed-to-be areas in a disputed state, no formal changes have been made and area claims of different views exist.
Hoadhadu is the first district in Fuvahmulah to have accepted Islam. The smaller size of the village with fewer people during the time of conversion may be the main reason for the village being the first district to be converted. What is clear from historical sources is that smaller districts of Fuvahmulah converted first and the larger districts last. Hoadhadu is a remarkable ward in Fuvahmulah. Historically, many residents of Hoadhadu depended on fishing as the primary source of income, although today retail business along with white collar jobs have diminished the dependency on fishing. One of the traditional harbours of Fuvahmulah, "Anbule Athiri" is located within Hoadhadu which explains the district's continued dependency on fishing.
Maadhadu.
With changes over time, this is the smallest district in Fuvahmulah. Located in the center of the island, this district houses the strategically most important buildings on the island. This district shares borders with Dhiguvaandu, Hoadhadu, Maalegan and Miskiymagu.
Maalegan.
This village stretches along the island fringe facing the Northeast. With some of the most significant features of the island this district shares borders with Maadhadu, Miskimmagu, Funaadu and Dhoondigan.
Miskiymagu.
The former Dashukubaa village was merged with Miskiymagu. This village has merged with neighboring Funaadu on its southern end and Maadhadu on its northern end. The village also shares borders with Maalegan ward towards the north-east of the village.
Funaadu.
This is the southernmost and one of the largest wards in Fuvahmulah. This district houses a center of learning.
Dhoondigan.
This is the most populous district and by area the second largest division of the island. This village lies in the southeastern corner of the island. It has merged with Maalegan on its northern end and Funaadu to the West. Being a center of learning as well as an important location for all islanders as it houses the island harbour, and a number of historical landmarks.
Demography.
The high rate of fertility has resulted in overpopulation. With more than 13000 inhabitants, the availability of land for market gardening is steadily diminishing.
The most updated population figure for the island is available on the Ministry of Atolls Development website. This gives a sex ratio of 0.88.
Services.
Communications.
Dhiraagu is the only landline telephone communication service provider on the island, as well as in the entire country. However, Ooredoo along with Dhiraagu provides mobile communication services on the island.
The Dhiraagu communications antenna, located in the premises of Dhiraagu Fuvahmulah Operations Center, stands 400 feet (121 meters) tall. It connects Gaafu Alif Atoll, Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll and Fuvahmulah to the rest of the nation.
Apart from Dhiraagu, Focus Infocom Private Limited provides internet services on the island.
Transport.
Formerly there were many bicycles on Fuvahmulah, an ideal mode of transportation on the flat, large island. Presently there are a large number of motorcycles. The construction of Fuvahmulah Harbour has led to a boost in the number of vehicles – notably motor cycles – on the island. This has increased road accidents, many of them fatal. The poorly constructed roads have indirectly contributed to road accidents. Finivaa Magu, the main road running from north to south of the island, along with the other roads are not paved. The only partly paved road is the Mohamed Jamaaludeen Naibu Thutthu Magu. This road is still under construction. When completed this road will be the longest road on the island, running from the harbor and connecting all 8 districts.
An airstrip is functional on the southeastern side of the island since 11 November 2011. Currently, there two scheduled flights every day to Malé from Fuvahmulah and from Malé to Fuvahmulah Airport.
Healthcare.
The first Health Centre officially started its services on 12 May 1973. Even though the center was fully owned by the government, it did not have its own building, so the center operated in a private house. A separate building for the Health Center was constructed and the services began in the new building on 24 March 1988. As the population of the island increased significantly, and due to the isolation of the island, government upgraded the Health Center to a Hospital on 11 June 2001.
Education.
Fuvahmulah is served by 10 schools. Consisting of 6 pre-schools, 3 primary schools and a secondary school. Gn. Atoll Education Centre, the only higher secondary school serving the island, is the largest education center on the island. Inaugurated on 20 April 1982, it currently serves more than 6080 people.
students. Fuvahmulaku School (FS) which was owned and operated by the citizens of Dūndigan, is one of the three primary schools on the island. Located in Dūndigan, it serves the south west part of the island. Government assumed full control over the school on 1 March 1992. Madharusathu-Sheik Mohammed Jamaaluddeen (MJM), opened on 3 November 1992. It serves the north-west part of the island. The school was built by the people of Dhadimago and Dhiguvaado. This is also a primary school. There is another primary school on the island, it is Hafiz Ahmed School (usually referred as HAS) which was opened on 22 April 2004. It currently serves more than 500 students.
Law enforcement and security UN.
Historically the island was and still is, considered as a peaceful island with low crime rates. However the crime rate has gone up, especially with regards to drugs. A regional branch of the Maldives Police Service was established on the island on 7 October 1996. Initially, the Police and the Armed Forces of the Maldives were the same, known as the National Security Service. The main objective of the Fuvahmulaku Police Station is to maintain peace and stability across the atoll. They carry out investigations into crimes and public complaints fairly and deliver justice to the locals of the atoll. The station also helps other government authorities in fighting and preventing crime. The station is commanded by a Sub Inspector of the police.
The appearance of the NSS (National Security Service) means that the armed forces of the Maldives established themselves on the island. However the police was separated from the armed forces (MNDF) in 2006. MNDF still operates on the island, but separate from the police. They are mostly active in the area of Fire and Rescue, along with military duties. The Defense Institute for Training and Education, a part of MNDF occasionally conducts training programs for new recruits on the island.
Notable figures.
Being home to the most number of Hafizs in the Maldives throughout known history, Fuvahmulah has produced many great scholars. Many figures from Fuvahmulah have been leaders in politics, religion and in business since early times. One such figure was the Independence Hero of Maldives, former President Ibrahim Nasir. Nasir was born in Fuvahmulah and the early childhood days of Nasir were spent in Fuvahmulah until his family moved to Malé.
Another notable figure from Fuvahmulah was the Maldivian cleric and poet Mohammad Jamaaluddeen, known as Naibu-Thutthu. He wrote several raivaru (Maldive couplets) books. These raivarus are taught and examined in schools, as part of Dhivehi language module. Not only was he good at literature, but was also considered to be the most knowledgeable in Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) during his time and was appointed as chief justice.
The former Vice President of the Maldives, Dr. Mohamed Jameel Ahmed is from Fuvahmulah and is the first Vice President of the country from outside the capital Male. Former Chief Justice and the current President of the Islamic Fiqh Academy, Ustaz Mohamed Rasheed Ibrahim is also from Fuvahmulah. He also served as the president of the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs. Dr.Mohamed Zahir Hussain, the current Chancellor of the Maldives National University, founder of the daily newspaper Haveeru and former Minister of Education as well as Minister of Youth and Sports is also a native Fuvahmulah citizen. Among other notables from the island include the current Minister of Youth and Sports, Mr. Mohamed Maleeh Jamal, former Minister of Health, Dr. Ahmed Jamsheed Mohamed, former Minister of Housing and Urban Development, Mr. Ibrahim Rafeeq, former Governor of the Maldives Monetary Authority and Chairman of the Board of MMA, Dr. Fazeel Najeeb, former Chairman of the Maldives Civil Service Commission, Mohamed Fahmy Hassan and former Editor in Chief of Haveeru Daily and Haveeru Online, Dr. Ali Rafeeq.
Abdul Majeed Mahir, who served key positions in Nasir administration and father of former Minister of Defence, Ameen Faisal and former Maldivian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Dr. Farahanaz Faisal, is also from Fuvahmulah. He was born in Fuvahmulah, to Funaadu Ganduvaru Aisha Didi of Fuvahmulah and Velaanaagey Mohamed Didi (paternal grandfather of President Nasir) of Male, Maldives who was in exile in Fuvahmulah.
Moreover, the paternal grandmother of former President Mohamed Nasheed is also from Fuvahmulah.
The Isdhoo dynasty which reigned the Maldives from 1692–1704 also has its roots in Fuvahmulah. The father of Sultan Ali VII, Shah Bandar Kilege, was from Fuvahmulah and he settled in Isdhoo of Haddhunmathi Atoll, thus resulting in the dynasty being named after Isdhoo. Sultan Ibrahim Muzhiruddin of Isdhoo dynasty was deposed and exiled to Fuvahmulah by his cousin Sultan Muhammad Imaduddin II of Dhiyamigili dynasty in 1704. His descendants still live in Fuvahmulah and the neighboring atolls of Addu and Huvadhu. Former President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom is among the descendants of Sultan Muzhiruddin through his son Mulaku Muhammad Manikfan and a lady from Fuvahmulah according to researchers.
In 1774, Sultan Muhammed Ghiya'as ud-din of Dhiyamigili Dynasty was deposed while he was on the Hajj pilgrimage and when he returned he was murdered by drowning and his son Abdullah (later Ibrahim Faamuladeyri Kilegefaanu) was banished to Fuvahmulah. Abdullah or his direct descendants never challenged the authority of the Huraagey sultans and continued to live in Fuvahmulah, where their line remains to this day. It is from Fuvahmulah that the branches of Dhiyamigili dynasty in Addu and Huvadhu Atolls too originated. Thus, the many educated figures and intellectuals from this lineage in Addu and Huvadhu Atolls, who later came up to be leaders in politics and different other fields too have their roots in Fuvahmulah. To name some, former Minister of Islamic Affairs Dr. Abdul Majeed Abdul Bari, former Chief Justice Abdulla Saeed, former Attorney General Dr. Mohamed Munavvar, former Minister of Economic Development as well as Minister of Civil Aviation Dr. Mahmood Razi, former Minister of Education Dr. Mustafa Lutfi, former Minister of Transport and Communication Dr. Ahmed Shamheed, former Minister of Justice and Speaker of Parliament Mr. Ahmed Zahir, former Minister of Fisheries and Agriculture Dr. Ibrahim Didi, former Attorney General Uz. Husnu Al Suood, Former Minister of Environment as well as Minister of Health and Gender, Dr Mariyam Shakeela; the current Minister of State for Islamic Affairs Sheikh Mohamed Didi, the current MP for Gemanafushi constituency and President of the Football Association of Maldives Ilham Ahmed, current MP for Galolhu-South constituency Ahmed Mahloof and many other, or most of the intellectuals in the country have their roots in Fuvahmulah.
Edhuru Hassan Naib Ranahamaadhi Thakurufan, the father of Chief Justice Mohamed Shamsuddin (Bodu Fandiyaaru Thakurufan) is also from Fuvahmulah. Thus, the Bodu Fandiyaaru Thakurufan family, which is considered by many authors to be the most knowledgeable family in the Maldives, along with the eight Qazis (Chief Justice) and the many number of Ministers and intellectuals to have served the country from this family also have their roots in Fuvahmulah. Sultan Mohamed IV (Devvadu Rasgefaanu) is the grandson of Bodu Fandiyaaru Thakurufan and thus he too has his roots in Fuvahmulah.


Theodosius II of Abkhazia

Theodosius II () was King of the Abkhazia from circa 828 to 855. He was the son and successor of Leon II of the Anchabadze dynasty.
Life.
Theodosius II supported his relative Ashot I of Iberia, ruler of Tao-Klarjeti, against Principality of Kakheti and its ally Arab emir of Tiflis, that invaded Inner Iberia (Shida Kartli), as a result Kakhetians were pushed from central Iberian lands to east of the Ksani River. In 837, Byzantine Emperor Theophilos sent "patrikios" Bardas together with the general Theophobos in a campaign against the Abkhazians, but the Byzantines were defeated.
Theodosius II died without heir and he was succeeded by his younger brother Demetrius II of Abkhazia, who disputed the throne for many years.


Angkor Thom

Angkor Thom ( ; literally: "Great City"), (alternative name: Nokor Thom, ) located in present-day Cambodia, was the last and most enduring capital city of the Khmer Empire. It was established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII. It covers an area of 9 km², within which are located several monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by Jayavarman and his successors. At the centre of the city is Jayavarman's state temple, the Bayon, with the other major sites clustered around the Victory Square immediately to the north. It is also a very big tourist attraction, and people come from all over the world to see it.
Etymology.
Angkor Thom () is the transform name from another alternative name of Nokor Thom (), which is believed to be the correct one, due to neglect of calling it in incorrect pronunciation. The word "Nokor" () is literally derived from Sanskrit word of "Nagara" (Devanāgarī: नगर), which means "City", combining with Khmer word "Thom" (), which means "Big" or "Great" so as to form "Nokor Thom" then being altered to current name of "Angkor Thom".
History.
Angkor Thom was established as the capital of Jayavarman VII's empire, and was the centre of his massive building program. One inscription found in the city refers to Jayavarman as the groom and the city as his bride.
Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site, however. Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest, and Angkor Thom overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the former state temple of Baphuon, and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace. The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura: even in the fourteenth century an inscription used the earlier name. The name of Angkor Thom—great city—was in use from the 16th century.
The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was dedicated in 1295. Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but any new creations were in perishable materials and have not survived.
The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked Angkor Thom, forcing the Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast to Phnom Penh.
Angkor Thom was abandoned some time prior to 1609, when an early western visitor wrote of an uninhabited city, "as fantastic as the Atlantis of Plato". It is believed to have sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people.
Style.
Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style. This manifests itself in the large scale of the construction, in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers.
The site.
The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. It is around 30 minutes from central Siem Reap.
The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire's cardinal points, or some combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself, would then be the pivot around which the churning takes place. The nagas may also represent the transition from the world of men to the world of the gods (the Bayon), or be guardian figures. The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as it is the main entrance to the city for tourists.
At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central tower, and orientated towards the east.
Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the
secular buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest.
Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals, like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art.
But among the ruins of Ta Prohm, near a huge stone entrance, one can see that the "roundels on pilasters on the south side of the west entrance are unusual in design."
What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes, roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people in the twelfth century.
References.
Notes
Bibliography


Akananda and Bakananda

Akananda and Bakananda () were the Bengali Hindu generals of Hatiagarh, who mortally wounded Arab missionary Pir Gorachand in a pitched battle.
Early life.
Little is known about the early life of the princes Akananda and Bakananda. Satish Chandra Mitra however identified Akananda with his apparently uncorrupted name viz. "Akshayananda". Akananda and Bakananda were the sons of Mahidananda, the ruler of Hatiagarh. According to Dr. Girindranath Das, Akananda and Bakananda were two generals based at Hatiagarh, under the command of king Chandraketu. According to Binay Ghosh, Akananda and Bakananda were either Poundra Kshatriyas or Byagra Kshatriyas by caste.
Resistance to Arab missionaries.
In the middle of the 14th century, an Arab missionary named Syed Abbas Ali arrived in lower Bengal with a team of 21 auliyas and other mercenaries. At Balanda, near Deganga in present North 24 Parganas district the missionaries started his charity work among the oppressed lower caste people and achieved huge popularity among them in a short while. At this time lower caste people ware oppressed by upper caste Brahmins which led to mass conversions to Islam. There was a cruel religious program in every year 'Sacrifice one young boy before the God' from the lower cast people. Although this was a cruel religious program, nobody from the lower cast could rise against it. The missionary Sayed Abbas Ali rise strong voice against the cruel system along with the oppressed lower cast common people. This was a big insult to the Brahmin & king Chandraketu so they send Akananda and Bakananda, the princes of Hatiagarh. A pitched battle ensued between them in the battle, Akananda mortally wounded Gorachand with a sharp arrow. According to Dr. Girindranath Das, both Akananda and Bakananda died in the battle.


Fujimoto Kannonyama Kofun

The is a "kofun" burial mound located in the city of Ashikaga in Tochigi Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It received protection as a National Historic Site in 2006.
Overview.
The Fujimoto Kannonyama Kofun is located in the Fujimoto neighborhood of Ashikaga City surrounded by rice fields, in the northern end of the Kantō Plain near the border with Gunma Prefecture. It is located on a plateau on the right bank of the Yaba River. The surrounding area has numerous smaller "kofun" and was densely settled in the ancient period.
The tumulus has a total length of 117.8 meters, and consists of a front part with two tiers and a height of 5.4 meters, and a back part with three tiers and a height of 11.8 meters. In the rear part, "fukiishi" covered the third tier, and although no "haniwa" were found, a clay pot with a double rim was placed on top of the mound. The tumulus was surrounded by a moat, and including the dimensions of the moat, the total length exceeds 210 meters. This is the fifth largest "zenpō-kōhō-fun" in Japan, and the third largest in eastern Japan. It dates from the middle of the 4th century, based on a pumice layer from a 4th century eruption of Mount Asama which was found in the topsoil beneath the tumulus.
The tumulus has not been excavated and the burial chamber appears to be intact, as no trace of digging has been detected. The first excavation survey was carried out in 1984, and further surveys were conducted for seven times by 2003. On the south side of tumulus, the remains of 21 pit dwellings and three storage pits dating from the same time as the "kofun" have been discovered. It is believed that this was a settlement either related to the construction of the tumulus, or connected to rituals associated with the "kofun" after its completion.
The "kofun" is located approximately a 30 minute walk from Fukui Station on the Tobu Isesaki Line.


Charles Yeater

Charles Emmett Yeater (April 24, 1861 – July 20, 1943) of Sedalia, Missouri was acting Governor-General of the Philippines from March 5, 1921 to October 14, 1921.
From 1901 to 1935, the governor-general was the chief political executive of the Philippines, when the country was governed by the United States of America.
The Charles E. Yeater Learning Center at State Fair Community College in Sedalia is named for him.
He served as Democratic member of the Missouri Senate in 1892, and was a supporter of the legislation to move the Missouri State Capital from Jefferson City to Sedalia, which failed in the popular vote.
He is buried at Crown Hill Cemetery, Sedalia, Missouri.


League of Filipino Students

The League of Filipino Students (, abbreviated as LFS) is a student-led national democratic mass organization and movement organized during the martial law era in the Philippines on September 11, 1977. It claims to be the leading anti-imperialist organization of the Filipino youth, under the ideological line of national democracy. It is part of the broader movement known as Bagong Alyansang Makabayan.
Brief History.
The League of Filipino Students started on September 11, 1977, as an alliance against tuition fee increases and school repression during the Martial law era.
During the Marcos regime, students were principal protesters against the government.
While the League focused on broad and unifying issues, including the restoration of student councils and governments in the Philippines, it has directed its attack against the government with the use of student protests, strikes, and mobilizations.
The assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr. in 1983, the Marcos' government became vulnerable and the organization sets off a nationwide student mobilization. They have participated in protests against the government and have joined street demonstrations with workers which shifted the group into student radicalism. They became the principal actors in the removal of Ferdinand Marcos from power.
Ideology.
The League of Filipino Students ascribes to the national democracy movement (locally known as ND), a Filipino left-wing alliance of various socialist, communist, and Marxist-Leninist-Maoist organizations that opposes foreign imperialism, landlordism, monopolistic capitalism, and corrupt government officials.
It is a youth activist group that primarily organizes among the anti-imperialist line. It opposes the existence of the Philippines as a neocolony of the United States. The League synthesizes that the roots of poverty in the Philippines at the present are caused by the continuous presence of American power in the country.


Timor-Leste Solidarity Medal

The Timor-Leste Solidarity Medal () is a state decoration of East Timor awarded to international security forces for their contribution to stability and peace operations in East Timor during the INTERFET operation, and following the 2006 East Timorese crisis.
Criteria.
Personnel may be awarded the medal if they meet personnel and time qualifications. Personnel eligible are military or police personnel who have served on a mandated mission assisting with peace and stability operations. Military or Police personnel may also be eligible if they were posted to a recognised bilateral support mission to East Timor.
Personnel must have served a minimum of 180 continuous or accrued days of service in East Timor from 1 May 2006. Personnel may also be nominated who served a minimum of 120 days from 1 May 2006, or who served with a start date in May or June 2006 for a period at least 90 days. The President of East Timor may also consider extraordinary circumstances for those who are outside of mandated time periods. Applications for extraordinary cases are approved and submitted through national missions to be considered and approved by the president. Notification of approved cases will be returned in writing.
Appearance.
The medal is circular and silver in colour, 38 mm in diameter, with a raise rim. The obverse depict the map of the country in relief. It is inscribed "TIMOR-LESTE" above and "SOLIDARIEDADE" below. The reverse bears the Coat of Arms of East Timor with the inscription of "REPUBLICA DEMOCRATICA DE TIMOR-LESTE" arching above and the letters "RDTL" below. The medal is suspended from a ribbon of black, white, yellow, and red. These colors are the same as the country's flag. The medal is manufactured by Cash’s International of Melbourne, Australia.


Sitamau State

Sitamau State was a princely state of the British Raj before 1947. Its capital was in Sitamau town, Mandsaur district, Madhya Pradesh. The total area of the state was 350 square miles. The average revenue of the state was Rs.130,000. Ratan Singh Rathore was killed in the battle of Dharmat, after which his descendants continued to rule Ratlam. In 1695 some soldiers of the Raja killed the Jaziya tax collectors due to which the Mughals completely annexed Ratlam. The ruling dynasty was later compensated with the Pargana of Titrod from which Raja Keshodas founded Sitamau in 1701. The State of Ratlam was restored to an uncle of Keshodas called Chattrasal in 1705. In 1714 the emperor Faruksiyar further added the paragana of Alot to the new state.
Rulers.
The rulers were Ratanawat Rathor Rajputs and descendants of Ratan Singh Rathore.


Dahsala system

The Dahsala system was introduced in A.D. 1580 under the reign of Akbar. This system was introduced by the finance minister of Akbar, Raja Todar Mal, who was appointed in A.D. 1573 in Gujarat. The Dahsala system is a land-revenue system (system of taxation) which helped to make the collecting system be in an organised form.
History.
Before the Dahsala system was established the system was disorganised and was in a chaotic form. There were number of reasons for this, one is that the most of the land was owned by wealthy and big landlords and jagirdars (King's officials who was gifted land by the King) who collected their own land revenue and kept majority of the collection and would give the rest to the government which meant that the government would incur big losses.
Another reason is that land owned by the government was unable to meet the expenses of the state. Therefore, this meant that the government had hardship in maintaining these lands.
Further one of the main reasons for the failure of previous land revenue system is that the cultivators of the land did not know the type of the land they owned, how it is measured, how much they had to pay in terms of cash if they wanted to pay in cash instead of produce.
These reasons meant that the government and the cultivators would lose in turn made the people lose out too.
There were three systems during this period, Dahsala system (also known as the Zabiti system), Nasaq and Galla-bakshi.
Dahsala System.
This system was land revenue system available in majority of Akbar's empire in areas such as Lahore to Allahabad, Malwa and Gujarat. Raj Todar mal was the person who pioneered and introduced this system to the empire.   It was known to be one of the most efficient and effective revenue and record system.
The land was measured in ‘bighas’. The Dahsala system changed the land measurement method from using a rope to land measuring system by bamboo pieces connected by iron rings to make the measurement method more accurate. This measurement method was called the Bamboo Jarid system.
Under the Dahsala system lands were classified into four different categories. One was Polaj land which was land which cultivated and yield crops regularly. Second was the Parauti land which was not cultivated as it was left to regain its productivity. Another was known as Chachar land was left uncultivated for 3 to 4 years to make sure yielding a crop once. Fourth type of land was the Banjar land was left for more than 4 years. These lands were of no use.
These lands were further categorised into three groups. These lands were categorised as grade number 1 land to grade number 3 land, with grade 1 being the best quality land. under the Dahsala system the one third of the crop is known to be the share of the government. The government had done surveys and research to estimate the average produce of different crops and the average crop which would last for 10 so the revenue which was collected by government was fixed according to this ten-year assessment.
The farmers had a choice of paying the government in cash or crops. The farmers who paid in cash the government would check how much the farmers had been producing for ten years and would find the average to find out how much should be paid to the government. Further under the Dahsala system farmers found it easier to obtain loans which was repaid in annual instalments. Also, in situation such as bad season which lead to bad crop yield the government would exclude them from paying the revenue collection. The farmers received a receipt for every payment made to government of the revenue which meant that there was establishment of records under the Dahsala system.
Ghalla Bakshi.
Ghalla Bakshi was another land revenue system used during this period in areas such as the region of Thatta, parts of Kashmir and sarkar of Oandhar. This system was divided into three different systems which include Batai, Khatt Batai and Lang Batai. Batai method was when the harvested crop would be stacked in heaps and the government officer would take one heap according to the state demand (e.g. 4 heaps if ¼; 2 heaps if ½) The Batai system was preferred by many farmers as it helped them during seasonal variations. Khatt Batai method was used in fields which have been sown and the crop unripe were divided by marking to be show the government share. This separation was done by drawing a Khatt or a line of demarcation. The Lang Batai method used the same method as the Batai method except the heaps was made after the grain was separated from the chaff.  The Ghalla Bakshi system used to collect the state share through produce rather than allowing the farmers to pay the estimate of crop. This system benefited the authorities as it was a profitable method however this method was known to be unmanageable as the crop collected from the farmers needed to be collected accurately and also converted into cash by selling them. This method also required people to guard the crops so it would not be stolen or go missing before it was sold.
Nasaq.
Nasaq is also another revenue system which available in this period in areas such as Bengal, Berar and Kashmir. This system was known to be very arbitrary. According to some historians it is believed that this system assessed the revenue demand by finding the average demand of the land for the past ten to twelve years. It was a method of assessment which was based on previous records. In this method the state and cultivator agreed that the fixed sum was paid to the state and the number of crops grown was not taken into consideration. This agreement was called Nasaq.
Appointed Officers.
To ensure that the revenue system was successfully established around the empire, Akbar divided the empire into 15 provinces. There officers in charge of the revenue collection system was structured and divided into specific segments to ensure the success of the system.
Faujdar.
Provinces in the empire was divided into districts. A Faujdar was in charge of a number of districts. The Faujdar was the head of the district.A Faujdar of a district is known to be a military officer. The function of the Faujdar according to the revenue system of the empire was to collect land revenue from areas of the district where the people were unmanageable. The Faujdar was also responsible of ensuring that the efficiency of the administration. Therefore, to ensure that the Faujdar does their job well, Akbar introduced officers to spy and check on the Faujdars.
Amal Guzar.
The Amal Guzar next important officer. They were also known as the revenue collectors. Amal Guzar were people who supervised the officers who were in charge of the revenue administration. The another function of the Amal Guzar other than collecting revenue was to protect the peasantry by punishing robbers and the miscreants. The Amal Guzar also had the authorisation of advance loans to the peasantry and they were responsible that these loans were repaid back. The Amal Guzar would ensure that the district treasurer would send information about the monthly receipts and expenditure of the district to the royal treasurer.
Bitikshi.
The Bitikshi is an important assistant to the Amal Guzar. Professionally he is known to be a writer, preparing records in terms about the land assessment. The Bitikshi was responsible to collect the average revenue statement of each village from the Quanungo. The Bitikshi also maintained data about the land such their boundaries and which land was useful for cultivation and which was waste land. The Bitikshi was also in charge in producing a receipt to the cultivators who pay the revenue to the treasurer. The Bitikshi would also keep record of the weekly and monthly income and expenditure.
Khazandar.
Khazandar is known to be the treasurer. Khazanzar was responsible for the collection of revenue in the district and forward it to the central treasurer. The Khazandar was told to accept coin from the former reigns to be collect as bullion and they were not allowed to harass the cultivators who pay in copper, silver or gold or any kind of coin. The Khazandar was not allowed to force the paying cultivators to pay more if the coins paid was less than the required amount they have to pay. To ensure that collected revenue is safe the Khazandar would have several locks and one of the keys was given to the Amil and the other is kept with himself.
Shiqqdar.
Shiqqdar was not directly involved with the revenue system. Shiqqdar is known to be the chief executive officer of the pargana and responsible to the general administration. The Shiqqdar contributes to the revenue system by provided the Amal Guzar with police assistance to collect money. The Shiqqdar would ensure that the pargana remained peaceful. The Shiqqdar is also responsible to supervise the treasury staff.
Fotadar.
The Fotadar and the Khazander had the same job except the Fotadar did it in terms of a pargana (treasure of the pargana). The karkuns kept records about information of the land such as which land is useful and which is waste land, the revenue payable from individual cultivator, and the actual collections and arrears.
Qanungo.
The Qanungo is the local revenue official of the pargana. The Qanungo was in charge of keeping records of the crop such as the revenue demands, payments and arrears. The Qanungo were also in charge of keeping records of value tenure such as the extent and the transfers of the land. The Qanungo was paid one per cent commission on the revenue of the pargana however this was changed by Akbar to a salary. Qanungo was divided into three grades, the lowest was given twenty rupees a month, the middle received thirty rupees per month and the highest grade received fifty rupees per month.
Muqaddam and Patwari.
The Muqaddam and Patwari are consider are in charge of the administration of village. The Patwari is in charge of the revenue affairs of the village. The Patwari has records of the land in the villages such as the land size, the crop grown, the cultivators, unused land.
Chaudhari.
The Chaudari plays a leading role in the revenue collection system. The Chaudari does the recording of the sale of lands, customer and commercial transaction. Another function of the Chaudhari is to check the work of the Qanungo to ensure there are no mistakes on their part. Further he was also required to show evidence for transactions such as the sale and mortgage of a land.
Twelve Regulations.
The Twelve Regulations of Todar Mal set a standard for future administrators to follow. There were many problems which came with the Dahsala system and other revenue systems which was present at the time. The Twelve Regulations help to overcome the difficulties faced and showed how the revenue system had to be followed. The Twelve Regulations were based on the organisational structure, procedure of measure, unit of assessment, method of collection. loan, relief and the working of the central revenue department.
The Regulations about the organisational structure would mention how to overcome the problems faced with the officers in charge of the revenue system. It also states if the changes which need to take place in each position. The Regulations about procedure of measure states how the land would be measured and which method would be used to measure the different types of land. The Regulations about the unit of assessment ensures that assessment is done in a such away where it is less time-consuming and laborious process. The Regulations about the method of collection states that the ideal method of collection is that the cultivators deposit the revenue and the obtain the receipt. This would get rid of any intermediaries. Therefore, to ensure this method is being effective the collector provides a due date to provide their revenue if not the collector would come and collect the revenue from the cultivator. However, if the treasurer fails to provide the receipt or the cultivator fails to obtain the receipt the fault would be on the collector. The Regulations also mentions about different payment methods such as progressive payment methods.
The Twelve Regulations of Todar mal's was used as standard a century after to create new regulations by Aurangzeb.
Main features.
The Dahsala system ensured that everyone a part of the system and affected by the system would benefit. Further system was organised which made maintaining accounts of income and expenditure easier. The system had been in effect for a long time therefore the government was able to make the system perfect by overcoming the problems. The Dahsala system ensured that there was no fluctuations or uncertainties in the amount to be paid to the government allowing the farmers to know exactly how much should be paid to the government. Also these farmers were protected from the officers who would usually exploit the farmers charging arbitrary amounts from different farmers without clear reasoning. Further the amount needed to be paid could easily be measured and rechecked.
There are also some limitations in the Dahsala System. There was misusing of authority during the measurement of land making the revenue to be paid inaccurate. Therefore, sometimes the farmers had to pay more than they are supposed to. Further many of the revenue officials were dishonest and corrupt which meant the peasants were affected by the power used by the officials. However Akbar ensured that welfare of the cultivators was improved and maintained. These officials also would bother the cultivators to pay high revenue.