Prime Minister of Mauritius

The prime minister of Mauritius () is the head of government of Mauritius. He presides over the Cabinet of Ministers which advises the President of the Country and is collectively responsible to the National Assembly for any advice given and for all action done by or under the authority of any Minister in the execution of his office.
The position is the most powerful constitutional office of the Republic. This is mainly because the office is amalgamated with other functions whereby conventions, the office holder is also the Minister of Defense & Home Affairs (which makes the office holder responsible for law & order, internal security, defense, the armed forces and intelligence services), the Leader of the National Assembly (which makes the office holder responsible for setting the agenda for parliament) and Minister for Rodrigues & Dependencies (which makes the office holder responsible for + occupancy, administration of local dependencies & their defense). It is also inter-alia, the head of government and presides over the cabinet of Ministers. It is second in the order of precedence just after the president and enjoys relative importance in the public as the office holder is usually the leader of the party/alliance that wins an election.
The current Prime Minister of Mauritius, Pravind Jugnauth, leader of the MSM, was appointed by the President on 23 January 2017 following the resignation of his father and coalition leader Sir Anerood Jugnauth who held the post following victory of his Alliance in the 2014 General Election. The official residence of the Prime Minister during his term in office is the Clarisse House, the Prime Minister's Office is located in Port Louis. The longest serving prime minister is Anerood Jugnauth who held the office for 19 years as Prime Minister.
Overview.
The current Prime Minister's portfolio includes, inter-alia, the following:
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. He or She holds the second most senior position in the country, second only to the president. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the ruling coalition. The position of Prime Minister along with the office of Deputy Prime Minister is specified under CHAPTER VI Section 59 Part 1 of the Constitution of Mauritius.
After the country became a Republic on 12 March 1992, the President became the Head of State. The President holds prerogative powers which includes summoning, prorogation and dissolution of parliament including appointment of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Prime Minister has the constitutional duty to advise him/her when to exercise these prerogatives.
History.
Pre-Independence.
During the British Mauritius period, it was the Chief Minister who was the head of government, executive powers was vested by the Governor, representative of the Monarch. The only Chief Minister which the country had known was Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, from 26 September 1961 to 12 March 1968.
Independence.
The office of the Prime Minister of Mauritius was created on 12 March 1968 when Mauritius became an independent state. Queen Elizabeth II remained as head of state as Queen of Mauritius, with her executive powers in Mauritius delegated to the governor-general.
After the 1967 General Election, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam (SSR) became the first Prime Minister of Mauritius, he was re-elected in the 1976 General Election and remained in office. In the 1982 General Election, Sir Anerood Jugnauth (SAJ) coalition was elected, he became Prime Minister. However his alliance broke up in 1983 and the 1983 General Election was held, SAJ formed another alliance, he was elected again and remain in office. In the 1987 General Election, another coalition concluded by SAJ won again, he remained in office. SAJ also won the 1991 General Election and remained the Prime Minister of Mauritius. The new leader of the Labour Party Dr. Navin Ramgoolam, became the Leader of the Opposition.
Republic.
After the country became a Republic on 12 March 1992, the President became the Head of State. The President holds prerogative powers which includes summoning, prorogation and dissolution of parliament including appointment of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Prime Minister has the constitutional duty to advise him/her when to exercise these prerogatives.
On 12 March 1992, Mauritius became a Republic State, with a new constitution in 1992, the terms of the General Elections was regulated to 5 years. Since then, each 5 years elections take place and a new Prime Minister is elected. After the 1995 General Election, Dr. Navin Ramgoolam became Prime Minister of Mauritius for the first time. However, he lost the 2000 General Election. In 2000, the Prime Minister's office was shared between two leaders, Sir Anerood Jugnauth spent 3 years as Prime Minister and Paul Bérenger spent 2 years. After the 2005 General Election, Dr. Navin Ramgoolam became the Prime Minister of Mauritius again. In 2010 General Election, he was re-elected and remained in office. The 2014 General Election returned Sir Anerood Jugnauth to the Prime Minister's office.
Oaths.
According to the third Schedule of the Constitution of Mauritius, an oath under this section shall be administered by the Prime Minister.


Murdo Stewart MacDonald

Captain Murdo Stewart MacDonald (1849 or 1852–1938) was known to the whole of the nautical world as the last of the Sea-Barons.
Early life.
MacDonald was born in about 1852 in Tigh a Chaolais, Great Bernera, Isle of Lewis, Scotland. He was the 6th child of John MacDonald 'an Domhnullach' of Tigh a Chaolais. An Domhnullach was the son of Donald MacDonald, tacksman of Little Bernera and was a direct descendant of Dòmhnall Cam.
Career.
MacDonald went to sea at the age of eighteen as an apprentice in the Glasgow ship, "Assaye". He served for four years in the Calcutta and New Zealand trades. From an early age he proved himself a competent seaman and ship driver. When he was 24 he was first mate on the "May Queen" the captain was injured during a storm. MacDonald remained on deck and drove the ship for 33 days and nights while the ship was battered by storms. The second mate was also washed overboard.
In 1882 when he was at home in Bernera he received a telegram asking him to report to Greenock to take captaincy of a vessel.
The vessel he was to take charge of was the "Sir Lancelot" one of the most famous clippers on the China run. The "Sir Lancelot" was a very fast vessel and frequently overtook other ships on the same routes by a matter of days.
Under MacDonald the ship was on the sugar and rice trade, taking sugar from Mauritius to the Indian coast or the Gulfs and salt to Calcutta or Rangoon. It took six cargoes a year, when speed meant money, and when almost every passage saw the breaking of a record.
The "Sir Lancelot" was sold to a merchant in Bombay in 1886 and in 1887 MacDonald settled in Mauritius. He was appointed Examiner for Masters' and Mates' Certificates in 1890, Surveyor to the Vice-Admiralty Court in 1892, and Surveyor to Lloyd's Register in 1895. He held the latter position until his son took over in 1923.
Family.
MacDonald was married to Elizabeth O'Keefe and they had two sons.
Last days.
MacDonald died on 4 March 1938 in Mauritius.


List of heads of government of the Comoros

The following is a list of heads of government of the Comoros since 1957, to the abolition of the post of Prime Minister in 2002.


Alexander Tennant

Alexander Tennant, born in Ochiltree, Ayrshire in 1772, was a leading British colonist in the Cape Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, an enterprising merchant, a brother to industrialist Charles Tennant and a friend of Robbie Burns.
Early life.
Alexander was the fourth son of John Tennant (1725-1810) and Margaret McClure (1738-1784). His father, a farmer, was well known in the industry. 'A worth, intelligent farmer, my father's friend and my own', was how Burns described the prolific John Tennant of Glenconner in a letter to his lover Clarinda, dated 2 March 1788. This work ethic was found throughout the family; his brother Charles becoming a highly successful industrialist, his brother William the Chaplain to the Honourable East India Company and a further brother, David, a noted privateer. In his "Epistle to James Tennant of Glenconner", possibly referring to an entrepreneurial flair, Burns wrote of Alexander:
"An’ Lord, remember singing Sannock, Wi’ hale breeks, saxpence, an’ a bannock! ", loosely translating to "And Lord, remember singing Alexander, With whole trousers, sixpence and a bannock (food)!"
Cape Colony.
Around 1795 Alexander embarked on a voyage to visit his clergyman brother, William Tennant (1758-1813), in India. His brother was emerging as one of the foremost experts on the sub-continent, a reputation cemented by the publication of "Indian Recreations" in 1808. Spotting opportunities in the Cape during his journey, Alexander remained there and took up a partnership with Donald Trail. The firm of Tennant and Trail then set about transporting convicts to Australia as well as moving slaves from Mozambique to be sold at the Cape to members of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). These dealings were frequently on the very edge of legality and it was alleged that, following the British Slave Trade Act of 1807, Tennant used a Portuguese flag to further his business. The Governor of the Cape, General Baird, had agreed to allow the sale of several hundred slaves before abolition but as Tennant took delivery after that date many of those slaves were left to fend for themselves on Robben Island. In 1801 Tennant was involved in a High Court lawsuit over financial irregularities regarding ships that he had bought acting as middle man between a Brazilian merchant, Marcos da Costa Guimarains and Admiral Cornwallis, the British Commander in False Bay.
Marriage and respectability.
Despite the questionable business arrangements and practices of his youth, at the time of his death in 1814, Tennant had gained an air of respectability. He married Cornelia Sandenberg in 1796, a member of an established Dutch/Norwegian colonial family and had built up a considerable land holding in Wynberg. His wife bore him eight children, many of whom would go on to hold positions of authority in the fledgling British administration of the Cape. His son, Hercules, was a civil commissioner and magistrate for Uitenhage and wrote "Tennant's Notary's Manual for the Cape of Good Hope". His grandson, Sir David Tennant, son of Hercules, was the Speaker of the Cape House of Assembly from 1874-1895.


History of Mali

Mali is located in Africa.
The history of the territory of modern Mali may be divided into:
The borders of Mali are those of French Sudan, drawn in 1891. They are artificial, and unite part of the larger Sudan region with parts of the Sahara.
As a consequence, Mali is a multiethnic country, with a majority of its population consisting of Mandé peoples.
Mali's history is dominated by its role in trans-Saharan trade, connecting West Africa and the Maghreb. The Malian city Timbuktu is exemplary of this: situated on the southern fringe of the Sahara and close to the Niger River , it has played an important role in the trans-Saharan trade from the 13th century on, with the establishment of the Mali Empire.
Prehistory.
Paleolithic.
The Sahara was often drier, but also more rainy for a long time than it is today. So it was a place uninhabitable for humans 325,000 to 290,000 years ago and 280,000 to 225,000 years ago, apart from favorable places like the Tihodaïne lake on the water-storing Tassili n'Ajjer . In these and other dry periods, the desert stretched repeatedly far to the north and south; its sand dunes can be found far beyond the present-day borders of the Sahara. Human traces can only be expected in the rainier green phases. It is possible that anatomically modern humans, which perhaps developed in the said isolated phase 300,000 to 200,000 years ago south of the Sahara, already in the long green phase over 200,000 years ago the water-rich area at that time. Even around 125,000 to 110,000 years ago there was an adequate network of waterways that allowed numerous animal species to spread northward, followed by human hunters. Huge lakes contributed to this, such as the Mega Lake Chad, which at times covered over 360,000 km2. On the other hand, the desert stretched far north and south again 70,000 to 58,000 years ago and is therefore likely to have represented a barrier that was difficult to overcome. Another green phase followed 50,000 to 45,000 years ago.
In Mali the find situation is less favorable than in the northern neighbors. Excavations at the Ounjougou complex on the Dogon Plateau near Bandiagara have shown that hunters and gatherers lived in the region more than 150,000 years ago. Dating back to between 70,000 and 25,000 years ago is certain. The Paleolithic ended very early in Mali because after this section 25,000 to 20,000 years ago there was another extreme dry phase, the Ogolia . When towards the end of the savannah landscape .
Neolithic.
After the end of the last maximum expansion of the northern ice masses towards the end of the last glacial period, the climate was characterized by much higher humidity than it is today. The Niger created a huge inland lake in the area around Timbuktu and Araouane, as well as a similarly large lake in Chad . At the same time, savannah landscapes and a landscape in northern Mali comparable to that which characterizes the south today. This around 9500 BC The humid phase that began after the Younger Dryas period, a cold period after the last glacial period, was around 5000 BC. Chr. Increasingly replaced by an increasingly dry phase.
The Neolithic, the time in which people increasingly produced their own food instead of hunting, fishing or collecting it as before, developed during this humid phase. This is usually divided into three sections, which are separated from each other by distinct dry phases. Sorghum and millet were planted and around 8000 BC. Large herds of cattle that were close to the zebus grazed in what is now the Sahara; Sheep and goats were not added until much later from West Asia, while cattle were first domesticated in Africa.
Here appears Ceramics, which was long thought to be a side effect of Neolithization in the earliest Neolithic, appeared at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to be an instance of the independent invention of pottery.
ie 9500 to 7000 v. BC, in the Aïr according to Marianne Cornevin as early as 10,000 BC. Chr. [8] The earliest Neolithic is attributed to the phase of the productive way of life, although no plants were cultivated and no cattle were kept. In Mali, the Ravin de la Mouche site, which belongs here, was dated to an age of 11,400–10,200 years. [9] This site belongs to the Ounjougou complex on the Yamé , where all eras since the Upper PaleolithicHave left traces [10] and the oldest ceramics in Mali to 9400 BC. Was dated. In Ravin de la Mouche, artifacts could date between 9500 and 8500 BC. The site Ravin du Hibou 2 can be dated to 8000 to 7000 BC. Thereafter, where the said oldest ceramic remains were found in the course of a research program that has been running since 1997 in the two gorges, a hiatus between 7000 and 3500 BC occurred . BC because the climate was too unfavorable - even for hunters and gatherers.
The middle Neolithic of the Dogon Plateau can be recognized by gray, bifacial stone tools made from quartzite . The first traces of nomadic cattle breeders can be found (again) around 4000 BC. BC, whereby it was around 3500 BC. The relatively humid climate came to an end. [11] Excavations in Karkarichinkat (2500–1600 BC) and possibly in Village de la Frontière (3590 cal BC) prove this, as do studies on Lake Fati . The latter consisted continuously between 10,430 and 4660 BPas evidenced by layers of mud on its eastern edge. A 16 cm thick layer of sand was dated around 4500 BP, which provided evidence that the region dried out around 1000 years later than on the Mauritanian coast. [12] A thousand years later, the dry phase, which apparently drove cattle nomads from the east to Mali, reached its peak. The northern lakes dried up and the population mostly moved south. The transition from the Neolithic to the Pre-Dogon is still unclear. In Karkarichinkat it became apparent that sheep, cattle and goats were kept, but hunting, gathering and fishing continued to play an important role. It may even be the case that successful pastoralism prevented agriculture from establishing itself for a long time.[13]
The late Neolithic was marked by renewed immigration from the Sahara around 2500 BC. Chr., Which had grown into an enormously spacious desert. This aridization continued and forced further migrations to the south, the approximate course of which is archaeologically understandable. On the basis of ethno-archaeological studies of ceramics, three groups were found that lived around Méma, the Canal de Sonni Ali and Windé Koroji on the border with Mauritania in the period around 2000 BC. Lived. This was made possible by ceramic research at the Kobadi site (1700 to 1400 BC), the MN25 site near Hassi el Abiod and Kirkissoy near Niameyin Niger (1500 to 1000 BC). Apparently the two groups hiked towards Kirkissoy last. [14] No later than the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC. Millet cultivation reached the region at the Varves Ouest site, more precisely the cultivation of pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ), but also wheat and emmer, which were established much earlier in the east of the Sahara, now (again?) Reached Mali. Ecological changes indicate that tillage must have started as early as the 3rd millennium. [15] But this phase of agriculture ended around 400 BC. In turn by an extreme drought.
The use of ocher in funerals was common up to the 1st millennium, even with animals, as the spectacular find of a horse in the west of the inland delta, in Tell Natamatao (6 km from Thial in the Cercle Tenenkou ) shows, whose bones are included Ocher had been sprinkled. [16] There are also rock carvings typical of the entire Sahara, in which not only symbols and depictions of animals but also depictions of people appear. From the 1st millennium BC Paintings in the Boucle-du-Baoulé National Park (Fanfannyégèné), on the Dogon Plateau and in the Niger River Delta (Aire Soroba). [17]
In Karkarichikat Nord (KN05) and Karkarichinkat Sud (KS05) in the lower Tilemsi Valley, a fossil river valley 70 km north of Gao, it was possible to prove for the first time in eleven women in West Africa south of the Sahara that the modification of the teeth for ritual reasons was also there was in use around 4500-4200 BP, similar to the Maghreb . [18] In contrast to men, women have modifications ranging from extractions to filings, so that the teeth are given a pointed shape. A custom that lasted until the 19th century. [19]
It was also found there that the inhabitants of the valley already obtained 85% of their carbon intake from grass seeds, mainly from C4 plants ; this happened either through the consumption of wild plants, such as the wild millet, or through domesticated lamp-cleaning grasses . [20] This provided the earliest evidence of agricultural activity and cattle breeding in West Africa (around 2200 cal BP). [21]
The sites of the Dhar-Tichitt tradition in the Méma region, a former river delta west of today's inland delta, also known as the "dead delta", [22] belong to the period between 1800 and 800/400 BC. Chr. Their settlements measured between one and eight hectares, but the settlement was not continuous, which may be related to the fact that this region was not suitable for cattle farming during the rainy season. The reason for this was the tsetse fly, which prevented this way of life from expanding southwards for a long time.
In contrast to these cattle breeders, who then drove their herds northwards again, the members of the simultaneous Kobadi tradition, who had lived exclusively from fishing, collecting wild grasses and hunting since the middle of the 2nd millennium at the latest, remained relatively stationary. Both cultures had copper that they brought from Mauritania . At the same time, the different cultures cultivated a lively exchange. [23]
Earlier Iron Age.
A series of early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River (in Mali) including at Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and at Djenné-Djenno, which was occupied from around 250 B.C to around 800 AD. Djenné-Djenno comprised an urban complex consisting of 40 mounds within a 4 kilometer radius.
The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres), and the town engaged in both local and long-distance trade During Djenné-Djenno's second phase (during the first millennium AD) the borders of the site expanded during (possibly covering 100,000 square meters or more), also coinciding with the development at the site of a kind of permanent mud brick architecture, including a city wall, probably built during the latter half of the first millennium AD using the cylindrical brick technology, "which was 3.7 meters wide at its base and ran almost two kilometers around the town".
Mali Empire.
The Mali Empire was the largest empire in West Africa and profoundly influenced the culture of West Africa through the spread of its language, laws and customs.
Until the 19th century, Timbuktu remained important as an outpost at the southwestern fringe of the Muslim world and a hub of the trans-Saharan slave trade.
Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became known for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I. The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River. It extended over a large area and consisted of numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces.
The Mali Empire began to weaken in the 15th century, but it remained dominant for much of the 15th. It survived into the 16th century, but by then had lost much of its former strength and importance.
Songhai Empire.
The Mali Empire began to weaken by the mid 14th century. The Songhai took advantage of this and asserted their independence. The Songhai made Gao their capital and began an imperial expansion of their own throughout the western Sahel. And by 1420, Songhai was strong enough to exact tribute from Masina. The emerging Songhai Empire and the declining Mali Empire co-existed during much of the later 14th and throughout the 15th century. In the later 15th century, control of Timbuktu shifted to the Songhai Empire.
After the empires (1591–1892).
The Songhai empire eventually collapsed under the pressure from the Moroccan Saadi dynasty. The turning point was the Battle of Tondibi of 13 March 1591. Morocco subsequently controlled Gao, Timbuktu, Djenné (also seen as Jenne), and related trade routes with much difficulty until around the end of the 17th century.
After the collapse of the Songhai Empire, no single state-controlled the region. The Moroccans only succeeded in occupying a few portions of the country, and even in those locations where they did attempt to rule, their hold was weak and challenged by rivals. Several small successor kingdoms arose. the most notable in what is now Mali were:
Bambara Empire or the Kingdom of Segou.
The Bambara Empire existed as a centralized state from 1712 to 1861, was based at Ségou and also Timbuktu (also seen as Segu), and ruled parts of central and southern Mali. It existed until El Hadj Umar Tall, a Toucouleur conqueror swept across West Africa from Futa Tooro. Umar Tall's mujahideen readily defeated the Bambara, seizing Ségou itself on March 10, 1861, and declaring an end to the empire.
Kingdom of Kaarta.
A split in the Coulibaly dynasty in Ségou led to the establishment of a second Bambara state, the kingdom of Kaarta, in what is now western Mali, in 1753. It was defeated in 1854 by Umar Tall, leader of Toucouleur Empire, before his war with Ségou.
Kenedougou Kingdom.
The Senufo Kenedugu Kingdom originated in the 17th century in the area around what is now the border of Mali and Burkina Faso. In 1876 the capital was moved to Sikasso. It resisted the effort of Samori Ture, leader of Wassoulou Empire, in 1887, to conquer it, and was one of the last kingdoms in the area to fall to the French in 1898.
Maasina.
An Islamic-inspired uprising in the largely Fula Inner Niger Delta region against rule by Ségou in 1818 led to the establishment of a separate state. It later allied with Bambara Empire against Umar Tall's Toucouleur Empire and was also defeated by it in 1862.
Toucouleur Empire.
This empire, founded by El Hadj Umar Tall of the Toucouleur peoples, beginning in 1864, ruled eventually most of what is now Mali until the French conquest of the region in 1890. This was in some ways a turbulent period, with ongoing resistance in Messina and increasing pressure from the French.
Wassoulou Empire.
The Wassoulou or Wassulu Empire was a short-lived (1878–1898) empire, led by Samori Ture in the predominantly Malinké area of what is now upper Guinea and southwestern Mali (Wassoulou). It later moved to Ivory Coast before being conquered by the French.÷
French Sudan (1892–1960).
Mali fell under French colonial rule in 1892. In 1893, the French appointed a civilian governor of the territory they called "Soudan Français" (French Sudan), but active resistance to French rule continued. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control.
French Sudan was administered as part of the Federation of French West Africa and supplied labor to France's colonies on the coast of West Africa. In 1958 the renamed Sudanese Republic obtained complete internal autonomy and joined the French Community. In early 1959, the Sudanese Republic and Senegal formed the Federation of Mali. On 31 March 1960 France agreed to the Federation of Mali becoming fully independent. On 20 June 1960 the Federation of Mali became an independent country and Modibo Keïta became its first President.
Independence (1960-present).
Following the withdrawal of Senegal from the federation in August 1960, the former Sudanese Republic became the Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, with Modibo Keïta as president.
President Modibo Keïta, whose Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally (US/RDA) party had dominated pre-independence politics (as a member of the African Democratic Rally), moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization. Keïta withdrew from the French Community and also had close ties to the Eastern bloc. A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses.
In 1962-64 there was Tuareg insurgency in northern Mali.
One-party rule.
On November 09, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. Moussa Traoré as president. The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms, but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought.
A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule. However, the military leaders remained in power. In September 1976, a new political party was established, the Democratic Union of the Malian People (UDPM), based on the concept of democratic centralism. Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and Gen. Moussa Traoré received 99% of the votes. His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led anti-government demonstrations that led to three coup attempts, which were brutally quashed.
The political situation stabilized during 1981 and 1982, and remained generally calm throughout the 1980s. In late December 1985, however, a border dispute between Mali and Burkina Faso over the mineral rich Agacher strip erupted into a brief war. The UDPM spread its structure to Cercles and Arrondissements across the land.
Shifting its attention to Mali's economic difficulties, the government approved plans for some reforms of the state enterprise system, and attempted to control public corruption. It implemented cereal marketing liberalization, created new incentives to private enterprise, and worked out a new structural adjustment agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). But the populace became increasingly dissatisfied with the austerity measures imposed by the IMF plan as well as their perception that the ruling elite was not subject to the same strictures. In response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy then sweeping the continent, the Traoré regime did allow some limited political liberalization. In National Assembly elections in June 1988, multiple UDPM candidates were permitted to contest each seat, and the regime organized nationwide conferences to consider how to implement democracy within the one-party framework. Nevertheless, the regime refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.
However, by 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, including the National Democratic Initiative Committee and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali (Alliance pour la Démocratie au Mali, ADEMA). The increasingly turbulent political situation was complicated by the rise of ethnic violence in the north in mid-1990. The return to Mali of large numbers of Tuareg who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the prolonged drought increased tensions in the region between the nomadic Tuareg and the sedentary population. Ostensibly fearing a Tuareg secessionist movement in the north, the Traoré regime imposed a state of emergency and harshly repressed Tuareg unrest. Despite the signing of a peace accord in January 1991, unrest and periodic armed clashes continued.
Transition to multiparty democracy.
As in other African countries, demands for multi-party democracy increased. The Traoré government allowed some opening of the system, including the establishment of an independent press and independent political associations, but insisted that Mali was not ready for democracy. In early 1991, student-led anti-government rioting broke out again, but this time it was supported also by government workers and others. On March 26, 1991, after 4 days of intense anti-government rioting, a group of 17 military officers, led by Amadou Toumani Touré, arrested President Traoré and suspended the constitution.
Within days, these officers joined with the Coordinating Committee of Democratic Associations to form a predominantly civilian, 25-member ruling body, the Transitional Committee for the Salvation of the People (CTSP). The CTSP then appointed a civilian-led government. A national conference held in August 1991 produced a draft constitution (approved in a referendum January 12, 1992), a charter for political parties, and an electoral code. Political parties were allowed to form freely. Between January and April 1992, a president, National Assembly, and municipal councils were elected. On June 8, 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré, the candidate of ADEMA, was inaugurated as the president of Mali's Third Republic.
In 1997, attempts to renew national institutions through democratic elections ran into administrative difficulties, resulting in a court-ordered annulment of the legislative elections held in April 1997. The exercise, nonetheless, demonstrated the overwhelming strength of President Konaré's ADEMA party, causing some other historic parties to boycott subsequent elections. President Konaré won the presidential election against scant opposition on May 11. In the two-round legislative elections conducted on July 21 and August 3, ADEMA secured over 80% of the National Assembly seats.
2000s.
Konaré stepped down after his constitutionally mandated limit of two terms and did not run in the 2002 elections. Touré then reemerged, this time as a civilian. Running as an independent on a platform of national unity, Touré won the presidency in a runoff against the candidate of Adema, which had been divided by infighting and suffered from the creation of a spin-off party, the Rally for Mali. Touré had retained great popularity because of his role in the transitional government in 1991–92. The 2002 election was a milestone, marking Mali's first successful transition from one democratically elected president to another, despite the persistence of electoral irregularities and low voter turnout. In the 2002 legislative elections, no party gained a majority; Touré then appointed a politically inclusive government and pledged to tackle Mali's pressing social and economic development problems.
2010s.
In January 2012 an insurgency has begun, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA).
On 22 March 2012, it was reported that rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV announcing they had seized control of the country. Unrest over the president's handling of the conflict with the rebels was a motivating force. The former president was forced into hiding.
However, due to the 2012 insurgency in northern Mali, the military government controls only the southern third of the country, leaving the north of the country (known as Azawad) to MNLA rebels. The rebels control Timbuktu, 700 km from the capital. In response, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali is dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from Senegal and Ivory Coast.
As of July 17, 2012, the Tuareg rebels have since been pushed out by their allies, the Islamists, Ansar Dine, and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (A.Q.I.M.). An extremist ministate in northern Mali is the unexpected result from the collapse of the earlier coup d'etat by the angry army officers.
Refugees in the 92,000-person refugee camp at Mbera, Mauritania, describe the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims." The Islamists in Timbuktu have destroyed about a half-dozen venerable above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to Shariah. One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians.
Ramtane Lamamra, the African Union's peace and security commissioner, said the African Union has discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali and that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out but negotiations with other armed factions is still open.
On 10 December 2012 Prime Minister Cheick Modibo Diarra was arrested by soldiers and taken to a military base in Kati. Hours later, the Prime Minister announced his resignation and the resignation of his government on national television.
On 10 January 2013, Islamist forces captured the strategic town of Konna, located 600 km from the capital, from the Malian army. The following day, the French military launched Opération Serval, intervening in the conflict.
By 8 February, the Islamist-held territory had been re-taken by the Malian military, with help from the international coalition. Tuareg separatists have continued to fight the Islamists as well, although the MNLA has also been accused of carrying out attacks against the Malian military.
A peace deal between the government and Tuareg rebels was signed on 18 June 2013.
Presidential elections were held in Mali on 28 July 2013, with a second round run-off held on 11 August. Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta defeated Soumaïla Cissé in the run-off to become the new President of Mali.
The peace deal between the Tuareg rebels and Malian government was broken in late November 2013 because of clashes in the northern city of Kidal. A new ceasefire was agreed upon on 20 February 2015 between the Malian government and the northern rebels.
2020s.
Since 5 June 2020 street protests calling for the resignation of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta began in Bamako. On 18 August 2020 mutinying soldiers arrested President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé. President Keïta resigned and left the country. The National Committee for the Salvation of the People led by Colonel Assimi Goïta took power, meaning the fourth coup happened since independence from France in 1960.


Ledi-Geraru

Ledi-Geraru is a paleoanthropological research area in Mille district, Afar Region, northeastern Ethiopia, along the Ledi and Geraru rivers (two left tributaries of the Awash, south of the Mille river). It stretches for about 50 km, located just to the northeast of the Hadar paleoanthropological area.
Early research was conducted in 1972–1974 The Ledi-Geraru Research Project was launched in 2002.
The site is known for its early stone tools, dated about 2.6 million years old. A hominin mandible was found in 2013, known as LD 350-1 and dated 2.8 million years old, which may qualify as a very early specimen of the genus "Homo".
LD 350-1.
LD 350-1 is a fossil hominin mandible fragment discovered in 2013 at the Ledi-Geraru site. It was found by Chalachew Seyoum, an Ethiopian graduate student in the Institute of Human Origins at Arizona State University.
The fossil was stratigraphically dated to 2.80 to 2.75 million years old.
It has been described as combining "primitive traits seen in early "Australopithecus" with derived morphology observed in later "Homo".
The fossil is the left mandibular body, but does not include the ascending ramus. It has attached the three molars, both premolars, and the left canine, some of which have complete crowns.


Olu Omagboye (Miguel)

Olu Omagboye was the 12th Olu of Warri who ruled over the Kingdom of Warri. He succeeded his father, Olu Akenjoye as the 12th Olu of Warri. He took the title, Ogiame Omagboye. His son Olu Akengboye succeeded him.


Salmama II of Kanem

Selma Ibn Abdullahi was a king of Kanem. His reign was turbulent as the kingdom was under attack from the Sao groups of Southern lake Chad.


Mariannhillers

The Mariannhillers, also known as the Congregation of the Missionaries of Mariannhill (, abbreviated as CMM), are a religious institute of the Catholic Church founded by Dom Franz Pfanner. They were originally a monastery of Trappist monks founded in 1882 by Pfanner, but were later branched off as a separate congregation by decree of the Holy See. The name of the congregation comes from Mariannhill, a suburb near Pinetown in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, where the congregation originated.
History.
In 1882, Pfanner, then prior of Mariastern Abbey, founded a Trappist monastery in Mariannhill at the invitation of Bishop Jolivet, OMI. It grew rapidly, and by 1885 it was raised to the status of an abbey, with Pfanner elected as its first abbot. It engaged significantly in missionary work, establishing a number of mission stations where priests and brothers taught the native Zulu people to read and trained them in trades and skills such as farming. The missionaries also emphasised learning Zulu and Xhosa, and even developed standard Zulu grammars. In 1892, Pfanner retired, and was succeeded by two abbots: Dom Amandus Schoelzig who died in 1900; then Abbot Gerard Wolpert who died in 1904.
In 1904, the abbot of Gethsemani Abbey, Edmond Obrecht, was appointed by the Holy See as administrator of Mariannhill. He studied the compatibility between monastic life and missionary work, submitting his report after three years of study. Following his report, the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda directed Bishop William Miller, OMI, the vicar-apostolic of Transvaal, to facilitate the independence of the Mariannhill monks. A general chapter of Mariannhill monks in 1908 under Bishop Miller recommended that the monks be formed into a missionary society loosely-associated with the Trappists. By 1 January 1910, nearly 20,000 persons, mostly adults, were baptized in the 55 churches and chapels scattered throughout the 26 missions and stations.
However, in 1909, the Holy See decreed that the monks of Mariannhill would be completely separate from the Trappists. Their new constitutions were approved by Pope Pius X in March 1914, however further development stalled due to the outbreak of World War I. After the conclusion of the war, they held their first general chapter in 1920, when they named themselves the Religious Missionaries of Mariannhill, and elected Adalbero Fleischer as their first superior general. As their religious habit, they adopted a black cassock, paired with a red cincture for priests, black cincture for other clerics, and black belt for brothers.
After separation, the Mariannhillers continued to work in South Africa, but also established presences in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the United States, England, Canada and Spain. Their generalate is based in Rome.
During the Holocaust, Blessed Engelmar Unzeitig, a priest of the congregation, was arrested for preaching against the Third Reich and persecution of Jews. He later died on 2 March 1945 in the Dachau concentration camp, where he was known as the "Angel of Dachau". He was later declared venerable by Pope Benedict XVI in 2009, recognised by Pope Francis as a martyr in January 2020, and beatified on 24 September 2016. His feast day is 2 March.
In 1946, Józef Wojaczek from Prudnik received a decree from the general superior of the congregation nominating him a provincial superior of Mariannhillers in Poland. 6 years later, Wojaczek was arrested by the Department of Security and imprisoned. He was paroled in 1955, after which he left Poland and settled in West Germany.
On 10 March 2019, George Kageche Mukua, a priest of the congregation, died as one of the passengers on board Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302.


Olumide Lucas

Jonathan Olumide Lucas (born 1897) was a Nigerian clergyman, educator and historian who is known for his work on the history of Yoruba traditional religion. As an author, he was among a group of West African historians who proposed a Hamitic origin of the people or of the cultural features of their ethnic group. Lucas work on Yoruba culture and language links some meaning and choice of words spoken by Yorubas with ancient Egypt.
Lucas was educated at Fourah Bay College, Durham University and as an external student of the University of London. Between 1932 and 1935, he was acting principal of CMS Grammar School, succeeding a trio of expatriate administrators. Lucas was a leading member of Lagos Union of Teachers which later merged with another association of teachers and headmasters to form the Nigerian Union of Teachers.
In 1944, he became the first vice president of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. He was father to Nigerian physician Adetokunbo Lucas.


Tony Peake

Tony Peake (born 1951) is a novelist, short story writer and biographer. He was born in South Africa, but has been based in Britain since the early 1970s.
Biography.
Early life.
Tony Peake was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1951 to English parents. His father, Bladon Peake (1902–1972), was a theatre and film director. Peake was educated at Waterkloof House Preparatory School in Pretoria, St. Martin's School in Johannesburg and at Rhodes University in Grahamstown, where he read History and English, graduating with a BA (Hons) degree in English.
Career.
Peake moved to London in 1973. He worked as production manager at the Open Space Theatre under Charles Marowitz and Thelma Holt. In the late 1970s he lived for a while on Ibiza and taught English, History and Drama at the Morna Valley School. Since then he has lived in London and Mistley and worked in modelling, acting, film distribution and as a literary agent.
As a short story writer and essayist, Peake has contributed to four volumes of "Winter’s Tales" (edited by Robin Baird-Smith, Constable); "The Penguin Book of Contemporary South African Short Stories" (edited by Stephen Gray); "The Mammoth Book of Gay Short Stories" (edited by Peter Burton, Robinson Publishing); "New Writing 13" (edited by Toby Litt and Ali Smith, Picador); "The Way We Are Now: gay and lesbian lives in the 21st century" (a Stonewall (UK) anthology edited by Ben Summerskill, Continuum); "Seduction" (Serpent's Tail), a themed anthology which he also edited; "Yes, I Am! Writing by South African Gay Men" (compiled by Robin Malan and Ashraf Johaardien, Junkets Publisher, Cape Town); "Speak My Language, and Other Stories" (edited by Torsten Højer, Robinson Publishing) and "Best British Short Stories 2016" (edited by Nicholas Royle, Salt Publishing).
Peake is also the author of three novels, "A Summer Tide" (Abacus, 1993), "Son to the Father" (Little, Brown, 1995; Abacus, 1996) and "North Facing" (Myriad Editions, 2017), and the authorised biography of Derek Jarman (Little, Brown, 1999; Abacus, 2000; Overlook Press, 2000; reissued in the States by the University of Minnesota Press, 2011).


Kigulu

Kigulu is one of the five traditional principalities of the kingdom of Busoga in Uganda. It is located in the Iganga District.
It was founded around 1737 and became a part of the British protectorate in Busoga in 1896. Its ruler is known as the Ngobi. From 1809 to 1899, part of its territory was independent as the chiefdom of Kigulu-Buzimba.


Elections in Liberia

Elections in Liberia occur solely at the national level. The head of state, the President of Liberia, is elected to a six-year term in a two-round system, in which a run-off between the two candidates with the highest number of votes is held should no single candidate earn a majority of the vote in the first round. The Legislature has two elected chambers.
The House of Representatives has 73 members, elected to six-year terms by the first-past-the-post method in single-member districts. The Senate has 30 members, 2 from each county, elected at-large to nine-year terms by the first-past-the-post method. Senatorial elections are staggered, with one senator from each county being elected in elections held three years apart, followed by a six-year period in which no senatorial elections are held.
All citizens who are 18 years or older may register to vote in elections. Under Article 83(a) of the Constitution, elections are held on the second Tuesday of October every election year, with presidential run-off elections being held on the second Tuesday following the announcement of the results of the first round. Elections are regulated by the National Elections Commission of Liberia (NEC).
The first round of a general election to elect the President and House of Representatives on 10 October 2017, resulted in a run-off between ex-football star George Weah and Vice President Joseph Boakai. George Weah won the run-off with more than 60% of the ballots cast.


Charles Petty-Fitzmaurice, 9th Marquess of Lansdowne

Charles Maurice Petty-Fitzmaurice, 9th Marquess of Lansdowne, (born 21 February 1941), styled Earl of Shelburne between 1944 and 1999, is a British peer and Vice-Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire from 2012 to 2016.
He is also Earl of Kerry in the peerage of Ireland (1722); Earl of Shelburne and Earl of Wycombe in the peerage of Great Britain (1753 and 1784); Viscount Clanmaurice, Viscount Fitzmaurice (1751), and Viscount Calne and Calston; the 30th Baron of Kerry and Lixnaw in the peerage of Ireland (1181); Baron Dunkeron, and Baron Wycombe.
Early life.
Lansdowne is the elder son of George Petty-Fitzmaurice, 8th Marquess of Lansdowne, a Conservative politician and landowner, by his marriage to Barbara, daughter of Harold Stuart Chase, of Santa Barbara, California. His father inherited the peerage titles (and the Bowood House estates in Wiltshire) from a cousin, the 7th Marquess of Lansdowne, who was killed in action in 1944, when the present Marquess became known as the Earl of Shelburne, a courtesy title. He was educated at Eton College and was Page of Honour to Queen Elizabeth II in 1956–1957.
Career.
Lord Shelburne (as he then was) served in the Kenya Regiment from 1960 to 1961. In 1962 he was gazetted a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry and in 1971 transferred with the rank of Lieutenant to the Royal Yeomanry attached to the Royal Armoured Corps.
He was a member of Calne and Chippenham Rural District Council from 1964 to 1973, President of the Wiltshire Playing Fields Association from 1965 to 1974, a member of Wiltshire County Council from 1970 to 1985, and a councillor of North Wiltshire District Council from 1973 to 1976. He was chairman of Calne and Chippenham Rural District Council from 1970 to 1973 and of North Wiltshire District Council from 1973 to 1976. Shelburne also served as a member of the South West Economic Planning Council from 1972 to 1977 and chaired its Population Settlement Pattern Working Committee during the same period. He was a member of the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission (English Heritage) from 1983 to 1989; Deputy President of the Historic Houses Association from 1986 to 1988 and President from 1988 to 1993; President of South West Tourism from 1989-2006; President of the Wiltshire Association of Boys Clubs and Youth Clubs from 1976 to 2003; and President of the North Wiltshire Conservative Association from 1986 to 1989.
In 1990, he was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Wiltshire, and served as the Vice Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire from 2012 to 2016. He has served as President of the Wiltshire Historic Buildings Trust since 1994 and of the Wilts & Berks Canal Partnership since 2001.
At the 1979 general election, he contested Coventry North East for the Conservatives, coming second behind Labour's George Park.
On 25 August 1999, his father died and he became Marquess of Lansdowne and a member of the House of Lords.
In 2001, Lord Lansdowne was appointed a Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order, shortly after retiring as a member of the Prince's Council of the Duchy of Cornwall (1996-2001).
Family.
On 9 October 1965, he married, firstly, Lady "Frances" Helen Mary Eliot (6 March 1943 – 6 January 2004), daughter of Nicholas Eliot, 9th Earl of St Germans, but they were divorced in 1987, having had four children:
In 1987 Lord Lansdowne married, secondly, Fiona Mary Merritt (b. 1954), daughter of Donald Merritt and Lady Davies, an interior decorator known by her married name of Fiona Shelburne.
The heir apparent to the title is Simon, Earl of Kerry (b. 1970), elder son of the Marquess.


List of prime ministers of Chad

This is a list of prime ministers of Chad since the formation of the post of Prime Minister of Chad in 1978 to the present day.
A total of seventeen people have served as Prime Minister of Chad (not counting one Acting Prime Minister). Additionally, two persons, Delwa Kassiré Koumakoye and Albert Pahimi Padacké, have served on two non-consecutive occasions.
The current Prime Minister of Chad is Albert Pahimi Padacké, since 26 April 2021.


Andriandramaka

Andriandramaka (Dian Ramach) was a king of the Antanosy tribe of the southeastern of Madagascar. He was the son of the king Tsiambany. His father concluded a treaty with Paulo Rodrigues Da Costa in which he had to entrust his son Andrianjerivao to be educated and baptized in Goa in 1613. At the time of departure, the king suddenly changed his mind and no longer agreed to separate from his son.
Instead of his brother, the furious Portuguese carried off Andriandramaka by force.
The Portuguese named him "Don André".
He came back to the country in 1616.
He attacked several times the French of Fort-Dauphin but he was killed by them in 1651 with his son Andriantsanjoa.


Olagbegi family

The Olagbegi family is a royal family in Owo, a city in Ondo State, southwestern Nigeria. Members of the family are descendants of Olagbegi Atanneye I, the Olowo of Owo who reigned between 1913 and 1938. Olagbegi Atanneye was himself a descendant of Ojugbelu Arere, the first traditional ruler of Owo, who was a direct descendant of Oduduwa.
Olateru Olagbegi I, the son of Olagbegi Atanneye had 300 wives during his reign and after his demise, it was discovered that five of them were still virgins.


List of colonial governors of Bechuanaland

This is a list of the colonial heads of Bechuanaland Protectorate, which gained independence as Botswana in 1966. From 1885 to 1891 the post was known as Deputy Commissioner; from 1891 to 1964 as Resident Commissioner; and from 1964 to independence as The Queen's Commissioner.
In the table below, dates in italics indicate "de facto "continuation of office.
For continuation after independence "see:" Heads of State of Botswana


John Mackenzie (missionary)

John Mackenzie (30 August 183523 March 1899) was a Scottish Christian missionary who worked in Southern Africa, and who argued for the rights of the native Africans.
Mackenzie was born in Knockando, Moray, Scotland in 1835. He was a member of the London Missionary Society (now, the Council for World Mission) and volunteered with the organisation in 1855. Three years later, he went to Southern Africa and began his missionary work at Kuruman (where David Livingstone had earlier served), at that time in the northern part of Cape Colony. He thereafter continued that work among the Tswana people of what later became the Bechuanaland Protectorate. He became disturbed by encroachments into Tswana territory by Boers (Dutch-speaking European settlers) from the Republic of Transvaal. From 1867, he publicly urged that the United Kingdom adopt the Tswana territories as a protectorate, arguing that British rule would safeguard the rights of the Africans against the racism of the Boers. In 1884, the UK government established the protectorate of British Bechuanaland, and appointed Mackenzie its deputy commissioner. In 1885, he was replaced in that post by Cecil Rhodes, but retained considerable political influence. That same year, he took part in the Warren Expedition, one result of which was that British Bechuanaland was enlarged to the north to become the Bechuanaland Protectorate (modern Botswana). In 1889, he retired from public life and resumed his missionary activities.
He died on 23 March 1899 at Kimberley, Cape Colony.
John Mackenzie School, Francistown, Botswana was founded in 1899 as Francistown European School; in 1958, it was renamed in his honour.


Tsehaiwork Darge

Woizero Tsehaiwork Darge was the daughter of Ras Darge Sahle Selassie, Prince of Selale, and granddaughter of Sahle Selassie, King of Shewa. She was a first cousin to Emperor Menelik II. Tsehaiwork was favored by her cousin Menelik and his wife Taytu Betul. She never formally married, but instead administered her vast land holdings herself and allegedly had a male "favorite". She was a formidable and headstrong woman who was greatly feared as a taskmaster by the domestic staff of her father's household, and of the Imperial Palace as well. She helped nurse Emperor Menelik during his long final illness, virtually running the Imperial Palace during those times that Empress Taitu herself was ill. She was also close to the next two rulers of Ethiopia Iyasu V and Empress Zewditu, although she fell into disfavor under Emperor Haile Selassie, and was convicted of plotting to overthrow him in favor of Iyasu. Tseshaiwork was confined to her estates at Selale where she lived out her days.


List of rulers of the Akan state of Akyem Kotoku

This is a list of rulers of the Akan state of Akyem Kotoku.


Caprivi Alliance Party

The Caprivi Alliance Party was a political party in Namibia. In September 1985, the party merged into the United Democratic Party.


Busoga University

Busoga University (BU), is a private university in Uganda, affiliated with Central Busoga Diocese of the Church of Uganda.
Location.
The main campus of Busoga University is located in the town of Iganga, approximately , by road, northeast of the city of Jinja, on the highway between Jinja and Tororo. The coordinates of Busoga University Campus are:0°35'29.0"N, 33°27'32.0"E (Latitude:0.591389; Longitude:33.458889).
Other campuses.
, in addition to the Main Campus, Busoga University maintains several other campuses, including the following:
History.
Busoga University was founded in 1999, following the issuance of a tertiary institutional license by the Ministry of Education and Sports. The university is a non-profit organization.
On 23 February 1993, Busoga College Mwiri’s Board of Governors, under the leadership of "Bishop Cyprian K. Bamwoze" passed a resolution to establish a university on the same hill and requested Busoga Diocesan Council and the House of Bishops to become the foundation body of the anticipated university. On 19 November 1994, a University Formation Task Force (UFTF) was appointed "to map out the process of establishing BU" and on 21 April 1995, it presented its report to the Bishop. On 6 May 1995, the Bishop inaugurated BU in the presence of His Royal Highness the Kyabazinga of Busoga, Henry Wako Muloki. Soon after, Busoga Diocese surrendered its Iganga land and buildings of Bishop Hannington Theological College to BU, and on 30 July, BU received its interim license. On 12 February 1999, BU opened its gates to students.
In 2017, its provisional license was revoked by the Uganda National Council for Higher Education, but it was given permission to reapply after two years.
Affiliations.
Busoga University has academic linkages with the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, United States and the University College Northampton, in Northampton, UK.
Academics.
The university offers certificate, diploma, undergraduate and post-graduate courses in the following disciplines:


Munsa

Munsa is an archaeological site in Uganda, located in the south-eastern part of Bunyoro (), and is commonly recognized by a rocky hill known by the locals as "Bikegete", which is enclosed within an earthworks system of ancient ditches. The site is approximately north-west of Kakumiro township in Bugangaizi County, Kakumiro District. "Munsa" is a Runyoro(Lunyoro/Runyoro Edited by Nicholas Aliganyira Nkuuna) name that means "in the trenches". The architects of the earthworks are unknown, although it has been speculated that the site can be linked to the Bachwezi. There is no evidence for this, however, and it seems likely that association of Munsa with the Bachwezi (or Cwezi) is a recent development.
Excavations of this site have reconstructed the late-Holocene environmental history through evidence of iron-working, human burials, food production, and earthworks. While Bikigete may have been occupied as early as the 9th century AD, radiocarbon and luminescence dates obtained during excavations indicate that the site's ditches were originally dug between the 15th and 16th centuries AD. The age of the outer ditch, Trench C, remains unknown. According to the limited archaeological evidence available, permanent settlement at Munsa was believed to have ceased around the end of the seventeenth century AD. Abandonment of Munsa may have been part of major economic, political, and social upheavals that brought about a shift in settlement patterns from permanent settlements to nomadic homesteads.
Background.
History of research.
Investigations at Munsa began in the 1950s when Eric Lanning mapped the earthworks, collected surface artifacts, and inquired about oral traditions. Lanning noted the presence of pottery at Munsa similar in form to pottery present at the earthworks site Bigo located approximately to the south. He also recognized that iron artifacts were present at both sites. Based on these findings, Lanning attributed the site to a Bigo Culture. Munsa consists of settlement debris, human burials, rock-shelters, and evidence of iron working, grain storage, and the consumption of cattle. Lanning's objective was to determine the extent of the ditches and to compare them with other known earthworks in the area. Subsequent excavations have since been carried out within the site. Phases of development within Munsa have been recognised by evidence of structural changes at the centre of the earthworks.
Excavations.
The first official archaeological excavations at Munsa were conducted in 1988 by Peter Robertshaw. During these investigations, units ranging from six to sixteen square metres in size, were excavated. The excavations were placed at the foot of Bikegete, with units yielding potsherds, a possible ceramic brazier fragment, bone mallets, iron artifacts, grindstones, cattle teeth, a green glass bead, and postholes from previous structures.
In 1994, Robertshaw conducted additional investigations at Munsa. Five test pits were excavated at Munsa during this field season, with excavations conducted on top of Bikegete and to the south of Bikegete in the cattle enclosure between Trenches A and B. Potsherds, pieces of iron, iron slag, and poorly preserved bone were recovered.
In 1995, Robertshaw returned to Munsa to conduct the first major excavations of the site. Around of the site were excavated. A series of test units was excavated across the site and included excavations within the ancient ditches, Trench A and Trench B. On top of Bikegete, a number of features were identified below the surface. These included postholes, pits (with varying contents), burials, and an iron furnace. Materials recovered during this field season included potsherds; fired clay vessels; glass beads; pipe fragments; iron artifacts such as beads, bracelets, razors, knives, spear butts, a possible hoe, and a bell; and cattle bones and teeth. Radiocarbon dates were acquired from charcoal samples recovered from Trench A and Trench B. Based in part on the results from these samples, the age of these ditches is placed between AD 1400 and 1650.
Environmental settings.
The ground level at Munsa are granite intrusions, and quartzites that have become visible on the surface, forming isolated, rocky hills. Rainfall at Munsa is bimodal, with the wet periods determined by cycles over the Indian Ocean and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) episodes. Sediment cores samples were collected from a small swamp nearest each trench, and a total of 15 radiocarbon dates were obtained. Sediments consisted of darkly colored clays and fine coarse sand deposits. Subfossil pollen and spore counts were collected and analyzed along with charcoal evidence. The pollen and spores suggested a forest, and the charcoal data indicated a low probability of fire. Overall, evidence from this site suggests the presence of forest until early in the second millennium AD, followed by forest clearance approximately 1000 years ago matches the dating of the main period of occupation for Munsa.
Discoveries.
Burials.
Topsoil was underlain by a loose, black layer, up to about thick, that contained over of slag, tuyère fragments, furnace lining, and potsherds. Beneath this layer was a loose reddish deposit with few archaeological finds, some in thickness, which was a fill of a burial pit. A male skeleton in the pit was recorded lying on its back, its head pointed in the west direction and its feet pointed east. The head was turned right, looking south, with its arms at its side and its legs having been draped across a rock. Many of the bones, including the hands and feet, were missing. Besides the skeletons found in pits, various single burials were discovered in shallow graves. The burial positions of these individual burials differed from those observed in the pits. The head was rested in the western direction, the feet were pointed east, and the feet were in a slight flexed position. All of the skeletons discovered were those of adults or sub-adults, some of which were missing their lower incisor. Poorly preserved bones of two to three human infants were also recovered. Grave goods within the individual burials included iron and copper bracelets, along with iron beads.
Food production.
Animal bones, mainly those of cattle, were recovered and analyzed along with remains of other animals. A vast number of hollow pits were found also, most likely used for the storage of grain. These pits, along with large grinding stones and pottery, are indicative of cereal agriculture.
Sediment core samples were collected from a swamp within Munsa in 2001. These sediments were found to contain ancient banana phytoliths, indicating the possible presence of cultivated bananas (and plantains) during the 4th millennium BC.
Iron working.
Excavations conducted at Munsa by Robertshaw in 1995 resulted in the discovery of a 14th century iron-smelting furnace. Radiocarbon dating showed that Munsa contains the oldest currently known iron smelting remains in western Uganda.
By the 14th century, the ironworks at Munsa were important for the role they served in producing iron goods that polities of central and eastern Africa viewed as important symbolic markers of power and wealth.
Earthworks.
The Munsa earthworks are the second largest in Uganda and are believed to have been created between AD 1400 and 1650. They consist of a series of ditches Bikekete Hill, a granite outcrop with rock shelters. The ditches vary in depth from and width from . The innermost ditch, Trench A, surrounds Bikigete Hill. The outermost ditch, Trench C, was originally interpreted as a defense feature to protect site inhabitants from hostile invaders, but it has since been shown that the ditches would offer little protection against people wanting to gain entry into the site. Another theory that has been suggested by Robertshaw is that the outer ditch was used to prevent elephants from entering the site. The area between Trench C and the interior Trench B is large enough for plant cultivation and for livestock.
Interpretation and significance.
Before the discovery of the evidence provided by this site, archaeologists longed to understand the development of the society and socio-economic changes within Uganda. The discovery of human burials, food production, iron-working, and earthworks suggested that Munsa may have once been a forested region supporting high densities of herbivores. Evidence at this site also supports archeological evidence of early cultivation. The remains at Munsa also provide an unparalleled opportunity to consider iron production in the context of habitation, burials, and other broader archaeological features. It is likely too that further furnaces remain undiscovered at Munsa. To maximise the potential of the iron working remains at Munsa, it is desirable to return to the site to undertake further excavation and systematic sampling of the iron working remains with a view to conducting a range of archaeometallurgical analyses.


African Regroupment Party (Upper Volta)

African Regroupment Party (in French: "Parti du Regroupement Africain") was a political party in Upper Volta. The interterritorial PRA had established a strong section in Upper Volta in 1958. This party disappeared as the country became a single-party state under the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV-RDA).
Following the coup of 1966 PRA was reconstituted. It emerged as one of the major political factions. In the 1978 legislative elections it came fourth, thus losing its legal status (the 1977 Constitution limited the number of political parties to three), and subsequently PRA merged into UDV-RDA.


List of colonial governors of South West Africa

This article lists the colonial governors of South West Africa. South West Africa was the colonial predecessor of the modern day Republic of Namibia from when the territory was controlled by the German Empire (as German South West Africa) and later by South Africa.
The title of the position changed a number of times. Under German rule, the title of the position went from Commissioner (1884–1893) to Provincial Governor ("Landeshauptleute") (1893–1898) to Governor (1898–1915). Under South African rule, the title was Administrator (1915–1977) and Administrator-General (1977–1990).
After the United Nations terminated South Africa's mandate to govern South West Africa, the UN appointed commissioners of its own. They had no authority and South Africa refused to recognize them, and are not included here.
List.
For continuation after independence, "see: "President of Namibia


Kingdom of Igara

The Kingdom of Igara traces its origin from the Kingdom of Mpororo. The Kingdom of Mpororo dates back in 1650 and was established by great men of the past. Mpororo’s first King: Omukama Kamurari was enthroned followed by Omukama Muntu, Kazi, Karagaire, Muzoora, Ntagu, Kinwa and Kamurara II. In 1753 Prince KAHAYA RUTINDANGYEZI RWA MURORWA fought his brother Omukama KAMURARI II and took over the throne. This resulted in the disintegration of the Kingdom of Mpororo and six (6) states emerged from the greater Mpororo Kingdom all led my KAHAYA RUTINDANGYEZI’s sons. Under Kahaya Rutindangyezi-from whom all the Bashambo clans descendend, Mpororo extended its frontiers to include all Kigezi (except the modern Bafumbira saza and part of Kinkizi), the Ankole sazas of Kajara, Igara, sheema and Rwampara (except the low ground south of the Rwizi River) and the northern portion of Ruanda. Kahaya had a large family, from whom the important sub-clans of the Bashambo trace their origin, and its members established themselves in various parts of his kingdom. The rule of the 6 states went as follows; Nshenyi was taken over by Prince Rukaari, Rujumbura by the Great Prince Kirenzi, Kajara by Prince Kihondwa, Rukiga by Prince Rugambagye, Igara by Prince Kaitezi and Obwera remained under the rule of their father Omukama Kahaya.
Prince Kateizi was sent to Igara with the royal drum “Kihoza” (meaning pleader in Runyankole). He settled in a place called Bumbaire, became the Omukama of Igara and gave birth to a son named NTAMBIKO and other children. Later on, Omukama Kateizi passed on and was succeeded by his brother Mafundo because his rightful heir and son- Ntambiko was still a small boy. This led to divisions amongst the people in the Kingdom, the people who followed Mafundo called themselves Abaine Mafundo and those that followed Ntambiko the rightful heir to the Igara throne called themselves Abagoma. After the war between Uncle and Nephew, Ntambiko remained with the royal drum kihoza and migrated from Bumbaire to Kyeitembe as the Omukama. The baine Mafundo kept migrating from place to place i.e. Irembezi, Rukararwe and Rwenjeru. Prince Ntambiko decided to go to war with his Uncle Mafundo, word around Igara spread that Prince Ntambiko wanted to go to war, when his Uncle Mafundo got to know that his nephew had powerful weapons to fight him and that he (Mafundo) wouldn't win the war against his nepwhew; Mafundo then sent a message to Ntambiko telling him that they should both give up on fighting and avoid bloodshed and unite as a family. Mafundo surrendered and gave his nephew Prince Ntambiko his rights as the Omukama. Mafundo later met with Ntambiko and agreed that Mafundo be the one in charge of the throne, while Ntambiko be in charge of the "Engoma" meaning the royal drum Kihoza, that's why his descendants up to now are called “Abagoma”.
The Bagoma settled in a place called "Kyeitembe" located in the current Bushenyi district. Until today and the BeeineMafundo, after the Omukama Kajuga killed his brother Kaihura for committing adultery with his wife started migrating. They left Kyeitembe and went to Rweibare, then Rwemikokora, Kyeshero, Keirere, Igorora, Rwakararwe, Rwihura, Rwekitoma etc. When Ntambiko and his siblings who are not known left Bumbaire and settled in Kyeitembe, the people who remained in Bumbaire were named 'Abashegu". After Ntambiko's death, Keishengura took over “Kihoza”, followed by Bucoco, then Mujuni, then Kamunyu, then Tibamanya, then Mutimbo, then G.W Binyindo in 1934.
Mutimbo Rubarenzya left Kyeitembe with the drums between 1928-1921. Later in 1936, George William Binyindo accepted Christianity; he denounced his leadership, acquired a Christian name and sent the drums to Kozi who was the "Nyakahita" of Kyabugimbi in what is now Bushenyi Municipality. When Kozi passed on, the drum Kihoza was taken over by Katana, when he also passed on, it was taken to Rwamyaniko, then Amosi Kabuga, Rumanzi's grandson.
In 1878, the British asked the then Omukama of Igara to go to Mbarara and make an agreement with Omugabe(King) of Nkole, but according to custom, fellow kings were not supposed to meet each other, to avoid humiliation, the Omukama stabbed himself in the stomach. After his death the 1900 Agreement was made and brought an end to the Igara Kingdom making it chiefdom and Mukotani was appointed as the chief of Igara.
All the split states including Igara were independent until the time of colonization when the British failed to recognize these states and were forced to join the then Nkole Kingdom that was a bit more powerful than each of these states. Some states were forcefully made to agree to join the new party to form the Ankole Kingdom. The leadership of those that completely refused to join the new partnership was suppressed to cease. The Bahinda ruling class of Nkole dominated the administration of the expanded Ankole Kingdom at the time of colonization. Later on Obote the President of Uganda at the time, abolished Kingdoms and all kingdoms in Uganda including the Mighty Buganda Kingdom collapsed. In the Year 1993 with the amendment of the National constitution, the Kingdoms were then freed to re -emerge and seek for their restoration. All the other Kingdoms that were organized were restored, but the Ankole Kingdom that was dominated by royal Bahinda failed to re-organize herself because the formerly marginalized Bahororo had started to demand their share in the administration of the Kingdom.


Kiweewa of Buganda

Mutebi Nnyonyintono Kiweewa was Kabaka of the Kingdom of Buganda from 2 August 1888 until 21 October 1888. He was the 32nd Kabaka of Buganda.
Claim to the throne.
He was born at Nakatema prior to 1856, the eldest son of Kabaka Mukaabya Walugembe Mutesa I Kayiira, Kabaka of Buganda, who reigned between 1856 and 1884. His mother was Kiribakka of the Mamba clan. He ascended to the throne following the defeat of his younger brother, Kabaka Mwanga II by the combined Christian, Muslim and rebel Baganda forces. The defeat of Mwanga II occurred on 2 August 1888. Kiweewa was crowned on 11 September 1888. He maintained his capital at Mengo Hill.
Married life.
He is recorded to have married twenty (20) wives:
Issue.
He fathered 23 children, 21 sons and two daughters:
His reign.
Kabaka Kiweewa Nnyonyintono's rein is the shortest in the recorded history of Buganda. He was the Kabaka-in-waiting for around six weeks; after he was crowned, he lasted a mere forty days on the throne. His reign was characterized by conflict and rebellion among the members of the royal court and intrigue and plotting among the Arabic Muslim and European Christian forces that supported the warring factions.
Some of the great officers of state during his reign included;
Kiweewa's reforms included lifting the ban on Arab trade with Bunyoro, as well as reducing the payment his predecessors had imposed on export and import of merchandise. he undertook to repay the ivory debt Mwanga owed the Arab traders.
In a meeting he held with the European missionaries and the Muslims, Kiweewa promised to build a mosque for the Muslims. However, his announcement that none of his subjects should be interfered with on the grounds of his religion was not heeded, and the Muslim party upon gaining power pressed for his circumcision and conversion to their faith.
The final days.
He was deposed by the Muslim forces of his brother Kabaka Kalema Muguluma, who reigned from 21 October 1888 until 5 October 1889. He was captured and thrown in jail. He was killed in prison by his Muslim captors in July 1889. He was buried at Masanafu, Kyaddondo.
Quotes.
"Like Vitellius, eight hundred years before, he had never wished to rule, and like Vitellius also, when he saw that they were resolved to kill him, he appealled in vain to his slayers not to put to death the man once they had made a ruler over them." <br>
"Kiweewa himself was a tall, thin man with a very dark skin which was heavily poxed. He was fairly advanced in age, completely devoid of political ambition and without any quality of leadership. The only good thing about him was that he was kind-hearted but conservative."
"When he ascended the throne Kiweewa was of the view that he would be the supreme authority in the land of just as his predecessors had been. But soon Kiweewa discovered that he was no more than a puppet in the hands of his officers and ministers."


Ezekiel Tenywa Wako of Busoga

Chief Ezekiel Tenywa Wako was the first Kyabazinga of Busoga and ascended to the throne on February 11, 1939.


List of colonial residents of Burundi

This article lists the colonial residents of Burundi, during the time when modern-day Burundi was part of German East Africa and Ruanda-Urundi.


Kaole

Kaole is a small town and archaeological site in Tanzania, located three miles east of Bagamoyo on the Indian Ocean coast. The area contains old stone ruins dating to a period between the 13th century and the 16th century. The ruins date back to the 13th century and consist of two mosques and 30 tombs. The tombs at Kaole were built from coral stones with stone pillars that marked some of the tombs. According to local tradition, some of the tombs are the graves of local rulers who were known as "diwanis". "Diwanis" are believed to be the descendants of the Sheikh Ali Muhamad al-Hatim al-Barawi, arguably the most well known Sheikh along the coast. A small museum has been established, where some artifacts are exposed that were found in the ruins. Some of these artifacts are Chinese and thus provide evidence of ancient commercial relationships.
History.
Kaole was originally settled in the 8th century as a trading town. Mangrove poles, sandalwood, ebony and ivory would have been the main trading items. The dwellings of the Kaole people were mostly constructed of wood, making them less durable than the stone mosques and tombs. Later on, the Zaramo people in the area called the place "Kaole", meaning "go and see". The first to study the Kaole Ruins was the British archaeologist Neville Chittick, around 1958.


Kamuli District

Kamuli District is a district in the Eastern Region of Uganda. The town of Kamuli is the site of the district headquarters.
Location.
Kamuli District is bordered by Buyende District to the north, Luuka District to the east, Jinja District to the south, and Kayunga District to the west. The district headquarters at Kamuli are approximately , by road, north of Jinja, the largest city in the Busoga sub-region.
Population.
In December 1991, the district had a population of about 249,300 according to the national census. In 2002, the census estimated the population at 361,400, with 40.5 percent male and 59.5 percent female. In 2012, the population was estimated at 500,800.
Ethnicity and language.
The district is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society, with the predominant ethnic group being the Basoga who comprise 76 percent of the population. The Iteso people make up 3.9 percent and the Banyoro and Bagungu together make up 1.8 percent. Other Ugandan ethnicities make up the remainder (18.3 percent). The predominantly language spoken in Kamuli District is Lusoga, with some Luganda and English.
The district is part of the Busoga sub-region, which is coterminous with the Kingdom of Busoga.
Economic activities.
Means of earning a livelihood in Kamuli District include:
The crops grown include the following:
Livestock kept includes cattle, goats, sheep, and chicken.
Non-Government Organizations.
Since 2003, Iowa State University's Center for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods has worked side-by-side with Kamuli District residents to discover and implement sustainable solutions to meeting the community’s most urgent needs. Starting with farmer training, the center has evolved into programming that touches every stage of the life cycle. The Iowa State University-Uganda Program is headquartered in Kamuli.


Colin Allan

Sir Colin Hamilton Allan (23 October 1921 – 5 March 1993) was a New Zealander who spent most of his professional life in the British administration of their overseas territories. He was the last Governor of the Solomon Islands from 1976 to 1978, prior to their independence.
Early life.
Allan was born in Wellington on 23 October 1921. He was the son of John Calder Allan and Mabel Eastwood.
He was educated at the Cambridge Primary School and Hamilton High School. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from Canterbury University College in 1943 and then graduated Master of Arts in 1945. He also obtained a Diploma in Anthropology from Magdalene College, Cambridge.
During World War II he was a naval officer in Wellington in 1942, transferred to the New Zealand Signals the same year and was in the Army Education Service until 1944 where he held the rank of lance corporal. In 1945 he was posted to the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force where he served as a lieutenant until 1946.
He married Betty Evans in 1955. They had three sons: Timothy, Johnathan, Christopher.
Colonial service.
Towards the end of the Second World War the British Colonial Service had a vast number of vacancies in its 50 dependent territories around the world. Restoration of basic civilian administration was a priority for the Service, particularly in those countries that had been invaded. Because of the shortage of suitable staff, the Service appointed some colonials, including Allan.
Solomon Islands.
The post-war period was a particularly difficult one for the Service, with various independence movements springing up around the globe. In the British Solomon Islands Protectorate where Allan was appointed as Administrative Officer (Cadet) in 1945, the Marching Rule was one such movement.
He was appointed as District Officer on Nggela (1945), Western Solomons (1946), Ysabel and Choiseul (1948), and Malaita in 1949. From 1947 to 1948 he was District Commissioner for Western Solomons. He became District Commissioner for Malaita in 1952. From 1953 to 1954 he was Special Lands Commissioner. By 1954 Allan had organised the first Council of Malaita for the local population. This effectively ended the influence of the Marching Rule.
Western Pacific High Commission.
From 1954 to 1955 Allan was attached to the Western Pacific High Commission's Secretariat (Finance and Development). He became Senior Assistant Secretary in 1955. Appointed to the Special Lands Commission from 1956 to 1957, member and Secretary BSIP Agriculture and Industry Loans Board (1956–1957), Secretary for Protectorate Affairs (1957–1958), Chairman BSIP Copra Marketing Board (1957–1958), and UK member of the South Pacific Commission Research Council (1958).
In 1957 he wrote a book called "Customary Land Tenure in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate" in which he outlined the native land ownership.
Vanuatu.
Allan was Assistant British Resident Commissioner to the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) from 1959 to 1966 and British Resident Commissioner from 1966 to 1973. Allan's residence was on Iririki by Port Vila.
Seychelles.
In 1973 Allan was appointed Governor of the Seychelles, a post he held till 1 October 1975 when he was appointed High Commissioner from 1 October 1975 to 28 June 1976, when the Seychelles became an independent republic.
Return to the Solomons.
Allan was appointed Governor of the Solomon Islands from 1976 to 1978. His appointment ended when the Solomons gained their independence in 1978.
Retirement.
When he retired the Australian National University and the Universities of Auckland, Otago and New South Wales all invited him as a visiting lecturer or fellow.
Allan was awarded the OBE in 1959, the CMG in 1968, and KCMG in 1977. He was also awarded the French Commander l'Ordre National du Merité.
He died on 5 March 1993 at Howick, Auckland.


Kosoko

Kosoko (died 1872) was a member of the Ologun Kutere Lagos Royal Family who reigned as Oba of Lagos from 1845 to 1851. His father was Oba Osinlokun and his siblings were Idewu Ojulari (who was Oba from 1829 to 1834/35), Olufunmi, Odunsi, Ladega, Ogunbambi, Akinsanya, Ogunjobi, Akimosa, Ibiyemi, Adebajo, Matimoju, Adeniyi, Isiyemi, Igbalu, Oresanya, and Idewu-Ojulari.
Ascendancy.
Kosoko's ascendancy to the Obaship of Lagos in 1845 was predated by a series of dramatic events.
Rift between the Osinlokun and Adele lines.
When Oba Ologun Kutere died (between 1800 and 1805), a succession struggle ensued between his older son (Osinlokun) and his younger and preferred son (Adele). Though the kingship was not determined by birth order but by Kingmakers and a consultation of the Ifa Oracle, Osinlokun and his followers mounted opposition to Adele's kingship. Adele's reign was then cut short in 1819 by his older brother, Osinlokun, around 1819, forcing Adele to exile to Badagry where he assumed headship of the town.
Genesis of Kosoko's feud with Eletu Odibo.
Kosoko offended the powerful prime minister (Eletu Odibo)and Kingmaker by marrying a woman betrothed to Chief Eletu Odibo. Eletu Odibo, as head of the Akarigbere class of chiefs, was vested with the authority to oversee the selection and installation of obas. Kosoko's arrogant decision would come to haunt his bid for the throne as Chief Eletu Odibo took great offense and the feud between both men altered the Obaship succession many times and set the stage for British intervention in Lagos later in 1851.
Osinlokun's death, Idewu Ojulari's short term, and manifestation of the Eletu and Kosoko feud.
When Osinlokun died in 1819, Kosoko's brother, Idewu Ojulari, became Oba and reigned from 1819 to around 1834/5. However, Idewu Ojulari's reign was unpopular and at the behest of the Oba of Benin, to whom the people of Lagos had petitioned, Idewu Ojulari committed suicide. Notably, Lagos had hitherto been under Benin suzerainty up until the reign of Oba Kosoko who was dethroned by British forces in 1851. Thereafter, Oba Akitoye and his successor, Oba Dosunmu, rebuffed payment of annual tributes to Benin.
Since Kosoko was now unacceptable to Eletu Odibo, the Kingmakers invited Adele home from Badagry to rule as Oba of Lagos for a second term. Oba Adele's second reign terminated upon his death in 1837 and again, Eletu Odibo blocked Kosoko's accession and installed Oluwole, Adele's son.
Increased strife between Kosoko and Eletu Odibo's allies.
The intensity of the Eletu Odibo and Kosoko feud increased with Eletu Odibo extending his vendetta to Opo Olu, Kosoko's sister, accusing her of witchcraft. The diviners found Opo Olu innocent however Oba Oluwole banished Opo Olu from Lagos, leading Kosoko and his followers to pursue a failed armed uprising known as Ogun Ewe Koko ("leaves of the coco-yam war") which resulted in Kosoko and his followers fleeing to Epe.
Eletu Odibo then ratcheted up the hatred between both camps by digging up Kosoko's mother's remains and throwing her corpse into the Lagos lagoon.
Oba Oluwole's death and Akitoye's ascendancy.
Oba Oluwole was killed in 1841 when lightning triggered an explosion at the Oba's place. Oluwole's body was blown to pieces and could only be identified by his royal beads adorning his body. Kingmakers would have invited Kosoko to become Oba but his whereabouts were unknown. Consequently, Akitoye, Kosoko's uncle, younger brother to Osinlokun & Adele, and son of Ologun Kutere was installed as Oba of Lagos.
Akitoye's naivety and Kosoko's revenge.
In an attempt at reconciliation (met with fierce resistance from chiefs, not least Eletu Odibo) with his nephew, Oba Akitoye naively recalled Kosoko to Lagos. Kosoko returned to Lagos aboard the ship of the famous slave trader Jose Domingo Martinez. Akitoye tried to placate Kosoko with gifts and granted him the title Oloja of Ereko or owner of Ereko. Kosoko quickly consolidated his position and found support among many war chiefs and among the Muslim community. Eletu Odibo was concerned with Kosoko's power consolidation and departed for Badagry. In turn, Akitoye recalled Eletu Odibo from Badagry, leading Kosoko to declare that if Eletu Odibo returned to Lagos, he would "make himself king".
A war of words ensued between Oba Akitoye and Kosoko sending his crier around Lagos singing "Tell that little child at court yonder to be careful; for if he is not careful he will be punished". Akitoye deployed his crier singing "I am like a pin firmly driven into the ground, which is always hard to root out but ever remains firm". Kosoko retorted "I am the digger who always roots out a pin".
The tensions led to an rising named Ogun Olomiro (Salt Water War) by the Kosoko faction in July 1845. The Kosoko faction laid siege to the Oba's Palace for three weeks. Akitoye eventually accepted defeat, escaped up the lagoon to the north, and was granted safe passage through the Agboyi Creek by Oshodi Tapa, Kosoko's war captain. Oshodi Tapa explained Akitoye's escape to Kosoko by saying that Akitoye put his enemies in a trance. Akitoye thereafter arrived in Abeokuta where he was granted asylum. Recognizing Akitoye's escape as a threat, Kosoko demanded Akitoye's head from the Egbas who refused Kosoko's demands. In March 1845, the Egbas provided the now deposed Akitoye with an escort to Badagry, the traditional town of refuge for Lagosians where he rallied his followers and built a partnership with European missionaries and with the British through their Consul John Beecroft.
Importantly, Eletu Odibo was captured in the battle and Kosoko avenged the scattering of his mother's bones by the Eletu by placing Eletu Odibo in an empty oil barrel, sealing it, setting it alight, and dumping it in the Lagos Lagoon.
British intervention in Lagos.
A confluence of interests in Lagos from the now deposed Akitoye who allied himself with the anti-slavery cause in order to get British support, the Anglican missionaries in Badagry who were in contact with Akitoye, and Egba and European traders who wanted freer movement of goods ratcheted up British intervention in Lagos. Akitoye's anti-slavery position appears born of self-interest considering his connection with the well known slave trader Domingo Martinez who backed Akitoyes's unsuccessful attack on Lagos in 1846.
In November 1851 a British party met with Oba Kosoko to present a proposal of British friendly relations along with giving up the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. The proposal was rejected by Kosoko "on the technical reason that Lagos was under the Oba of Benin and that it was only that Oba who could deal with foreign powers concerning the status of Lagos"
On 4 December 1851, upon Kosoko's successful repulsion and defeat of British forces, Consul Beecroft wrote to the Oba of Benin declaring that "Kosoko, by opening fire on a flag of truce, had declared war on England" and therefore had to be replaced by Akitoye. He threatened that Kosoko had till the end of the month to surrender otherwise "Lagos would be totally destroyed by fire".
On 26 December 1851, in what is now known as the Bombardment of Lagos or Reduction of Lagos, "HMS Bloodhound", "HMS Teazer", and a flotilla of boats mounted an attack on the Oba's palace. Kosoko put up a spirited defense but by 28 December 1851 the battle known locally as Ogun Ahoyaya or Ogun Agidingbi (after boiling cannons) was over with Kosoko and his followers fleeing to Ijebu. Akitoye was now installed Oba of Lagos with British support.
On 1 January 1852 Akitoye signed the Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos abolishing the slave trade.
Kosoko in exile at Epe.
Kosoko eventually settled in Epe with the permission of the Awujale of Ijebu. Epe was the place where about 15 years earlier a number of his followers such as his chiefs Dada Antonio and Osho Akanbi had taken refuge. By 1852, Kosoko had built up an independent base with about 400 warriors (including Oshodi Tapa) to mount his opposition to Akitoye.
In 1853 Kosoko mounted two attacks on Lagos; one on 5 August 1853 and another on 11 August 1853 which came dangerously close to the Oba's palace but was rebuffed just in time by a burst of fire from the British naval force under Commander Phillips of HMS Polyphemus.
Kosoko eventually signed The Treaty of Epe on 28 September 1854 with Consul Benjamin Campbell, agreeing not to make any claims to Lagos or to endanger commerce in Lagos. The treaty was a tactical success for Kosoko who got the British to recognize his state in Epe. In the big picture, however, the Lagos throne remained out of reach with Akitoye and Dosunmu's descendants firmly rooted.
Return to Lagos.
In 1860, Kosoko persuaded the Oba of Benin to send messages to Dosunmu pressing him to allow Kosoko's return to Lagos. Dosunmu, now under British authority, refused this request and noted that things were "not as in former times when Lagos was under the King of Benin to whom annually a tribute was paid"
After Britain annexed Lagos via the Treaty of 1861, Kosoko was allowed to return to Lagos with the title of Oloja of Ereko, receiving a pension of £400 annually. Oshodi Tapa, settled in Epetedo.
Death and legacy.
Kosoko died in 1872 and was buried at Iga Ereko in Lagos. The Kosoko-Akitoye/Dosunmu rivalry spilled over into the economic realm. Oba Dosunmu's supporters didn't fully appreciate the British presence in Lagos, while Kosoko's allies exploited the relationship. Kosoko's camp comprised men such as Oshodi Tapa and Taiwo Olowo, who enthusiastically entered into trade with European firms. At the head of the Dosunmu economic faction was Chief Apena Ajasa, who repeatedly clashed with Taiwo Olowo. When Kosoko died, the colonial government estimated that his economic faction was the more powerful one due to the fact that it was composed of at least 20,000 followers.
Two prominent descendants of his are Omoba Jide Kosoko, a noted Nollywood actor and Adekunle Gold, an Afro-Pop Nigerian artist.


Namutumba, Uganda

Namutumba is a town in the Namutumba District of the Eastern Region of Uganda. It is the main municipal, administrative, and commercial centre of the district.
Location.
Namutumba is approximately , by road, northeast of Jinja, the largest city in the Busoga sub-region. This is approximately , by road, northeast of Iganga, the nearest large town. The town of Busembatya in Iganga District, about to the southwest of Namutumba, is the closest neighboring trading center and has the nearest post office. To the northeast of Namutumba is Tirinyi in Kibuku District, another small town on the main Iganga–Tirinyi–Kamonkoli–Mbale Road. The coordinates of Namutumba are 0°50'06.0"N, 33°41'06.0"E (Latitude:0.8350; Longitude:33.6850). Namutumba Town sits at an average elevation of above mean sea level.
Population.
In 2014, the national population census and household survey put the population of Namutumba Town, at 18,736. In 2020, the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) estimated the mid-year population of the town at 22,600. The population agency calculated the average annual growth rate of Namutumba's population at 3.31 percent, between 2014 and 2020.
Points of interest.
The following additional points of interest lie within the town limits or close to the edges of the town:
1. The offices of Namutumba Town Council
2. The offices of Namutumba District Administration Headquarters
3. Namutumba Central Market
4. "Namutumba Community Hospital"
5. The Iganga–Mbale Road also "Tirinyi Road": the road passes through the middle of town, in a general southwest to northeast direction.
6. "Namutumba Islamic Hospital", a 60-bed hospital under development since 2016.


List of years in Kenya

This is a list of years in Kenya.


Robert Vere de Vere

Robert Stephen Vere de Vere (13 July 1872 – 15 September 1936) was an Irish judge in the British Colonial Service.
He was the son of Major Aubrey Stephen Vere O’Brien of Adare, Limerick, Ireland and changed his surname to de Vere by Royal Licence after inheriting Curragh Chase on the death of his father in 1898. He was educated at Winchester School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was awarded B.A. in 1891, and LL.B. in 1894. He then entered the Middle Temple to study law and was "called to the bar" in 1898.
He joined the Colonial Civil Service in Limerick and served as a Magistrate before going to South Africa with the Paget’s Horse Regiment to fight in the Boer War. He later served as Lieutenant in the 5th (Cinque Ports) Battalion of the Royal Sussex Regiment.
On his return he was posted to the Gold Coast as a District Commissioner (1903–1905) and then to the Seychelles as Legal Adviser and Crown Prosecutor he also was appointed Acting Chief Justice whilst maintaining residence in Ireland. During the First World War he was a Military Censor with the British Expeditionary Force. From 1922 to 1926, he was the British Judge in the Anglo-French Condominium of New Hebrides, before serving in Cyprus for two years as President of the District Court.
In 1928 he was transferred to the Seychelles as Chief Justice and acting Governor, creating a diplomatic incident when the outgoing Chief Justice and acting Governor, Justin Louis Devaux, refused to hand over power until his own departure a month later. In 1931 de Vere was posted to Grenada as Chief Justice, retiring in 1935.
He died on 15 September 1936. He had married Isabel Moule, the daughter of the Rev. Handley Moule, Bishop of Durham. They had one daughter, Joan, who married Martin Alban Wynne-Jones, a civil servant. Wynne-Jones later took order in the Anglican Church and they settled in Limerick. They had one son, the noted broadcaster Vere Wynne-Jones.