Gibraltar 2

Gibraltar 2, also known as Devil's Tower Child, represented five skull fragments of a male Neanderthal child discovered in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The discovery of the fossils at the Devil's Tower Mousterian rock shelter was made by archaeologist Dorothy Garrod in 1926. It represented the second excavation of a Neanderthal skull in Gibraltar, after Gibraltar 1, the second Neanderthal skull ever found (after Engis 2). In the early twenty-first century, Gibraltar 2 underwent reconstruction.
History of Gibraltar 1.
Prehistoric man resided in Gibraltar, the British Overseas Territory at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. The evidence was first found in the Devil's Tower Road area, at Forbes' Quarry, in the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. This was the site of the 1848 discovery of the first Neanderthal skull by Lieutenant Edmund Flint (d. 12 January 1857) of the Royal Artillery.
The fossil, an adult female skull, is referred to as Gibraltar 1 or the Gibraltar Skull "(pictured at left)". Neanderthals were unknown at the time that the fossil was found. Lieutenant Flint, secretary of the Gibraltar Scientific Society, presented his discovery to the organisation on 3 March 1848. Eight years later, in 1856, fossils were discovered in a cave of the Neander Valley near Düsseldorf, Germany. Those remains were described in 1864 as "Homo neanderthalensis" by Professor William King of Queen's College, Galway, now University College. Later that year, the Gibraltar Skull was sent to England and exhibited by George Busk at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, with its similarity to the Neander Valley fossils noted. However, it wasn't until the early twentieth century that it was realized that Gibraltar 1 was the skull of a Neanderthal. If the skull's significance had been understood in the nineteenth century, Neanderthal Man would probably have been termed "Gibraltar Man".
Discovery of Gibraltar 2.
Additional evidence of Neanderthal occupation in Gibraltar was found at the Devil's Tower Mousterian rock shelter, also at the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. Devil's Tower was a seventeenth century watchtower which was located at the eastern end of Devil's Tower Road. The archaeological site was initially discovered by Abbé Henri Édouard Prosper Breuil (1877 – 1961), who had recommended investigation. Breuil, a French paleontologist and archaeologist, is renowned for his expertise on prehistoric cave art.
The excavations at the Devil's Tower cave started in November 1925 and continued until December 1926 in three phases. In 1926, the skull of a Neanderthal child was discovered by archaeologist Dorothy Garrod. Garrod, who had studied with Breuil in Paris, went on to perform archaeological excavations in France, Palestine, Kurdistan, and Bulgaria. She was the first female professor at both the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford. In addition, in 1939, Garrod was elected to the Disney Chair.
Garrod found five skull fragments which were described by the archaeologist and others in "The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland" in 1928. The five fragments were maxillary, parietal, temporal, cranial, and mandibular. Mousterian flake stone tools were found near the child's remains. The skull of the male Neanderthal child is known as Gibraltar 2 or Devil's Tower Child "(pictured above)".
In a study described in 1993 in the "Journal of Human Evolution", the striation pattern of the dental enamel of the Devil's Tower Child fossil was compared to that of modern hunter-gatherers and medieval individuals from Spain. It was found that the Devil's Tower Child had a more abrasive diet than medieval individuals. Gibraltar 2 had a high number of striations. Further, the ratio of horizontal to vertical striations suggested that Gibraltar 2 may have been primarily carnivorous. The child is estimated to have been about four years old at the time of death.
By 2008, the face of the Devil's Tower Child had been reconstructed "(pictured below)" at the University of Zurich by means of computer-assisted paleoanthropology (CAP). This involved using computed tomography (CT) to perform volume data acquisition of the five skull fragments unearthed by Garrod in 1926. The five cranial fragments were then transformed with the software FoRM-IT into virtual 3D images. With the five virtual images then suspended in anatomical space according to scientific criteria, the missing fragments were replaced with mirror images of the excavated fragments. By means of laser stereolithography, the virtual reconstruction of the face and skull of the Devil's Tower Child was converted to a physical model. The soft tissues were then approximated using 3D Thin Plate Splining (TPS) with data from a modern child. Plasticine modelling clay was accordingly applied on the physical model to simulate soft tissue. The final model of Gibraltar 2 was then cast; finishing touches included paint and human hair "(link to final image below)".
Earlier claims of Gibraltar as a refugium.
At the end of the 20th century, it was believed that the Neanderthals disappeared "c." 35,000 years ago. In 2006, radiocarbon dating of charcoal from Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, suggested that Neanderthals survived in southern Spain and Gibraltar at least to 28,000 BP, well after the arrival of "Homo sapiens" in Europe "c." 45,000 years ago. More recently, new decontaminated radiocarbon dating (from the same Oxford laboratory that published the late date in 2006) suggests Neanderthals had vacated Gibraltar by 42,000 BP, earlier than elsewhere in Europe.


Sebri

The sebri () was the lower-half social class, commoners, of the medieval Serbian state. The status of the groups comprising the class was regulated in medieval code of laws, such as "Dušan's Code" (1349). It included several groups, mainly divided into:


Kennkarte

The Kennkarte was the basic identity document in use inside Germany (including occupied incorporated territories) during the Third Reich era. They were first introduced in July 1938. They were normally obtained through a police precinct and bore the stamps of the corresponding issuing office and official. Every male German citizen aged 18 and older, and every Jewish citizen (both male and female) was issued one and was expected to produce it when confronted by officials.
Occupied countries.
After World War II began, Nazi Germany began issuing these "Kennkarten" () to citizens of conquered countries, such as in occupied Poland (General Government). They were issued to residents aged 15 and above, from 1941 to 1943, but they were often forged by the Polish resistance.
In the first weeks of the German occupation of Poland, pre-war documents issued by the Second Polish Republic were used for identification. On 26 October 1939, following a decree of Hans Frank, "Kennkarten" were announced. Due to legal arguments, the first cards were not issued until June 1941. German authorities continued to issue them until 1943. A "Kennkarte" was a sheet of thin cardboard, measuring about 30 by 14 cm (12 x 5.5 inches). It had two parallel folds, and text on both sides, making it a six-page document, with each page measuring 10 by 14 cm (5.5 x 4 inches). The color of a "Kennkarte" was based on ethnicity. Poles had gray ones; Jews and Romas, yellow; Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Georgians and Goralenvolk, blue. Furthermore, letters were introduced to mark each ethnicity, based on the initial letter of the German word for the ethnicity (Juden, Weissrussen, Zigeuner etc) – J for Jews, U for Ukrainians, R for Russians, W for Belarusians, K for Georgians, G for Goralenvolk, Z for Roma (Gypsies).
To receive a "Kennkarte", an applicant had to fill out an application, and provide such documents as birth certificate, pre-war Polish ID, and marriage certificate (in specified cases). Polish citizens of appropriate ethnicity were obliged to make a formal declaration that they belonged to the Aryan race. Upon receiving the card, applicants were fingerprinted. Since Polish-speaking civil servants were involved in the process, the cards were frequently forged, which allowed for members of the Home Army, and Polish Jews, to obtain a new identity. Furthermore, illegal printing shops manufacturing the "Kennkarten" operated in occupied Poland. The cards were available on the black market, for the price of 500 zlotys. According to the Gestapo, in 1943 in Warsaw there were up to 150,000 fake cards in circulation. The Home Army estimated that in late 1942, some 10% of residents of the General Government had fake "Kennkarten".
Other important documents in Nazi-occupied Poland included:


San Lorenzo, Melfi

San Lorenzo is a Baroque-style Roman Catholic church building in Melfi, province of Potenza, region of Basilicata, Italy.
The octagonal church was initially built in the 1000s by the Byzantine rulers of the city, and was soon occupied by canons belonging to the nearby Abbey of Monticchio. In 1500, it became a parish church. The church has suffered damage over the centuries from the earthquakes. The present portal and long stairs appears to date to the 17th century. The adjacent bell-tower, rebuilt in the 14th century by the family of Niccolo Acciaiuoli, has since collapsed, and only the base remains. In 2015, the church underwent refurbishment including demolishing a parish house built to the left of the entrance portal.


Alexander Riesenkampff

Karl Alexander Justus Riesenkampff (7 August 1888 – 28 December 1940) was a Baltic German lawyer and politician who was the second mayor of Tallinn from March 1918 to 13 November 1918, with Erhard Arnold Julius Dehio as lord mayor. He graduated in 1910 from the Faculty of Law of the University of Tartu in jurisprudence. He first worked in courts in Yaroslavl and Riga, before eventually becoming a lawyer in Tallinn. He was the second mayor of Tallinn during the German occupation of Estonia during World War I, when the German Empire occupied most of newly independent Estonia, including Tallinn. Riesenkampff resigned as second mayor after the end of the occupation, but was still active in Tallinn, becoming the curator for the Tallinn Cathedral School, as well as a member of the German Cultural Association. He was succeeded as temporary deputy mayor by Aleksander Pallas. Riesenkampff eventually left for Germany, moving to Berlin, where he was previously a journalist. He died in 1940.


Ordralfabetix

Ordralfabetix is an extinct genus of planthoppers in the family Lophopidae and containing the single species Ordralfabetix sirophatanis. The species is known only from the Early Eocene, Ypresian stage Oise amber from the Quesnoy locality, Oise Department, France.
History and classification.
"Ordralfabetix sirophatanis" is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "PA. 2378". It is a single partial adult preserved as an impression on the surface of a clear orange amber specimen. The fossil was recovered from an outcrop of Oise amber which was discovered in 1997 at Quesnoy, near the Oise River in Northern France. The type specimen is currently preserved in the entomology department of the French Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. "Ordralfabetix" was first studied by Jacek Szwedo of the Muséum with his 2011 type description for the genus and species being published in the journal "Zootaxa". The generic name was coined by Szwedo in reference to The Adventures of Asterix character Ordralfabetix, the village fishmonger. The etymology of the specific epithet "sirophatanis" is a combination of two proto-Celtic word cores, "siro" which translates to "long" and "phatano" meaning "wing". This is a reference to the length of the fore wing.
When "Ordralfabetix sirophatanis" was described, it was one of three hundred identified arthropod species that have been found in the Oise ambers. Of the three hundred arthropod species, seven planthopper families are represented: Achilidae, Dictyopharidae, Lophopidae, Ricaniidae, Nogodinidae, and Tropiduchidae plus another family which has not been formally described. "O. sirophatanis" was the second Lophopidae species to be described from the fossil record of Europe. The first species "Baninus thuringiorum" was described by Szwedo and Wappler in 2006 from specimens found in the Messel fossil site.
Description.
The "O. sirophatanis" type specimen is a well-preserved almost complete adult left fore-wing, called a tegmen, plus portions of the head and pronotum, the right clavus and portions of the left hind-wing. The tip of the left fore-wing is still covered in a small amount of amber. The fore-wing has a total length of and at its widest it is . Shorter than the fore-wing, the hind wing has an estimated length of while the width is not known. Similar to members of the Sarebasa+ group of genera in Lophopidae, such as "Serida" and "Pyrilla", "Ordralfabetix" is separated from the other genera by the several characters. The distinct shape of the shallowly concave fore-wing with an elongated postclaval margin, called the tornus, and a rounded wing tip. The venation of the wing tip has distinct oblique subapical line of veinlets. The narrow costal area of the wing has veinlets running almost the entire length, excluding the base region, and is longer than the clavus.


Eotetraodon

Eotetraodon is an extinct genus of prehistoric puffer fish that lived during the Lutetian epoch of middle Eocene. Fossil specimens are from the Monte Bolca lagerstatten ("E. pygmaeus"), and the Kuma Horizon of the Gorny Luch locality, from the North Caucasus ("E. gornylutshensis").


Battle of Moira

The Battle of Moira, also known as the Battle of Magh Rath, was fought in the summer of 637 by the High King of Ireland, Domnall II, against his foster son Congal Cáech, King of Ulaid, supported by his ally Domnall Brecc, King of Dál Riata. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the High King and his army, and Congal Cáech was killed in the fighting.
The battle was reputedly fought near the woods of Killultagh just outside the village of Moira in what would become County Down. It was allegedly the largest battle ever fought on the island of Ireland, and resulted in the death of Congal and the retreat of Domnall Brecc. However, the location of the battle is not settled and some commentators identify the location as being a few miles outside Newry, County Down in the vicinity of the townlands of Sheeptown and Derrylecklagh near to the ancient rath known as the Crown Mound.
Background.
Ireland in the period was a patchwork of petty statelets, fused together and driven apart by tribal loyalties, often given to a state of war. Other realms from across the water in Great Britain and in particular Scotland frequently became involved in the affairs of Ireland, notably the Scottish branch of Dál Riata, which had originally been from north of Lough Neagh but expanded across to Scotland. Indeed, the tribal loyalties often spilled across the Irish Sea, where the same clans could be found on either side, especially in Scotland. Rivalries and alliances between the petty kingdoms changed frequently. For example, Dál Riata, which fought with Congal in this battle, had seen one of their kings killed by his brother at the Battle of Fid Eoin (either 629 or 630).
Congal himself had first established his power base in Dál Riata, where he became King, before being recognised as King of Ulaid in 627. His ambitions soon came into conflict with Domnall II, who became High King of Ireland in 628. Ironically, Domnall II only rose to such a position because Congal had defeated and killed the previous High King, Suibne Menn, (who was Domnall's distant cousin in the Uí Néill dynasty) in a previous battle.
Domnall at first launched a raid into Leinster in 628 to secure his authority as High King. Some primary sources state that Congal had initially become the Ard Rí following his defeat of Suibne Menn. It may be therefore that Domnall seized the position indirectly from his Ultonian rival. Regardless, the two had become enemies.
Domnall pressed this rivalry very quickly, and in 629 the two kings engaged each other at the Battle of Dún Ceithirn in what is now County Londonderry. On this occasion Congal was defeated and fled to Scotland to seek support, and Domnall was left unchallenged as the High King.
Throughout the 630s, Domnall continued to wage war on his rivals in the Uí Néill clan. In 637, however, Congal once again rose to challenge the Ard Rí, and enlisted the help of the Dál Riata to do so. Congal returned from Scotland, gathered his native Irish armies which were supported by a more diverse Dál Riata army consisting of many British soldiers, particularly Scots.
Location.
In 637, the settlement of Moira was substantially smaller than it is in present times. However, there was at the very least a motte (the mound of which can still be seen in the village). The area was also much more forested in the 1st millennium, with the existence of expansive woodland near the hamlet. The location may also have been outside Newry in an area that is today rich in historical monuments.
Battle.
Little is known about the actual battle itself. The armies of both Domnall II and Congal were primarily made up of warriors native to Ireland. However, Domnall I of Dál Riata brought a more varied force to the fight. His army included Scots, Picts, Anglo-Saxons and Britons (Welshmen). There were about 50,000 men on either side. At least one side had a substantial cavalry force.
Congal and his army probably landed near Dunseverick on their return from Scotland. He possibly planned on marching to Tara, as one of the five main roads running from Tara, the High King's Road, ran north and ended at Dunseverick, where there was a bridge that crossed the Lagan located near modern Moira. Domnall II had gathered his army at Tara and he marched north to meet the enemy forces. Congal marched south to meet him. The two armies comprising 100,000 men in total met at Moira.
According to Sir Samuel Ferguson "there appears reason to believe that the fight lasted a week", at the end of which the defeated force fled towards the woods of Killultagh. The forces of Ulaid and Dál Riata were defeated, with Domnall of Dál Riata forced to flee north to his kingdom's holdings. Congal was killed in the course of the battle.
The scale of the battle was, however, confirmed in the 19th century when the Ulster Railway which ran through Moira was being constructed. Thousands of bodies of men and horses were excavated. When one considers that the survivors probably numbered quite considerably more, then the reputation of the scale of the battle becomes obvious.
Aftermath.
With the death of Congal in the battle the chance for Dál nAraidi and its local allies to undo the advances of Domnall had been scuppered, and the Ulaid had to endure the advances that the High King had made. They were not to be completely subjugated however. By contrast, the consequences were much more keenly felt for Dál Riata. The land defeat at Moira was coupled with a naval defeat on exactly the same day; at the Battle of the Mull of Kintyre the Ard Rí's fleet had succeeded in defeating Dál Riata's. As a result of both battles the High King's forces were able to occupy the Dál Riata lands in north Antrim, unprotected as they now were.
As a direct result of the battle, the Uí Néill dynasty became dominant in the north of Ireland. Their descendants would claim overlordship of at least some of the land until the Flight of the Earls almost a thousand years later in 1607.
Some of the townlands around modern Moira get their names from the battle, notably Aughnafosker, which in Irish means 'Field of Slaughter', as well as Carnalbanagh which means 'The Scotsman's Grave'. In the latter area there was a large stone pillar in a nearby field, which marked the burial site of many of the Scottish princes who were killed in the battle. However, the stone was removed by a farmer in the late 19th century.


Kawina (trilobite)

Kawina is an extinct genus of trilobite in the order Phacopida. It contains one species, "K. wilsoni".


Thomas Branch

Thomas Branch (fl. 1738–1753), was a British author. His "Principia Legis et Æquitatis" was regarded as "the accumulated spirit and wisdom of ... the English law."
Life.
Nothing is known of Branch's life, but if the "lady of Thomas Branch, Esq." in the obituary of the "Gentleman's Magazine" for December 1769 was his wife, it may be presumed that he was still alive at that time.
Works.
Branch was the author of "Thoughts on Dreaming" (1738), and "Principia Legis et Æquitatis" (1753).
"Thoughts on Dreaming" was a response to Andrew Baxter's "Enquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul" (1733), in which Branch refuted Baxter's argument that dreams are the work of supernatural agents.
"Principia Legis et Æquitatis" was a collection of maxims, definitions, and remarkable sayings about law and equity, mostly in Latin, presented in alphabetical order. Several editions were published, including an enlarged fifth edition of 1822, which gave translations of the Latin, and an American edition of 1824. It was highly thought of as a student's textbook. James Kent in his "Commentaries on American Law" (1832) described it as "an admirable "vade mecum", for the use of the bench and the bar", adding that "It draws so copiously from the common law reports and writers of the age of Elizabeth, and since that time, that it may be regarded as the accumulated spirit and wisdom of the great body of the English law."


Duchy of Durazzo (Republic of Venice)

The Duchy of Durazzo was a short-lived overseas colony of the Republic of Venice, encompassing the port city of Durazzo (modern Durrës in Albania) and its environs. It was established in 1205, following the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, and lasted until it was reclaimed by the Byzantine Despotate of Epirus in 1213.
Background.
During the late 11th and the 12th centuries, the city of Durazzo and its province (the "Theme of Dyrrhachium"), had risen to assume great strategic importance to the Byzantine Empire. The city was the "key of Albania", the western terminus of the Via Egnatia and the main point of entry for trade, but also for the Norman invasions, from Italy, and was ideally placed to control the actions of the Slavic rulers of the western Balkans.
Establishment and end.
After the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade and the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, the city was up for grabs. In the partition treaty among the Crusaders, the Republic of Venice had secured recognition of her claims on the westernmost Byzantine provinces, which were crucial in view of the vital Venetian interests in the Adriatic Sea. However, the claim had to be quickly enforced, lest others, and chiefly the Venetians' main rivals, the Genoese, occupy it first. As a result, in the summer of 1205, the Venetian fleet carrying the new Latin Patriarch of Constantinople to his see, also attacked and captured Durazzo and Corfu.
At Durazzo, the Venetians met little opposition and one of the captains, Marino Vallaresso, was appointed governor of Durazzo with the title of duke, a sign of the value the Venetians placed in their new possession. For the same reason they insisted on the appointment of the city's Roman Catholic archbishop, who replaced the previous Greek Orthodox prelate, directly by Venice, without the involvement of the Pope.
Although the Venetians had also laid claim to the mainland region of Epirus, they did not move to establish control there. Consequently, the area came under the rule of a Byzantine Greek aristocrat, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, who established his own principality there, the Despotate of Epirus. Doukas' power grew quickly, and he soon controlled all the mainland between the Venetian Duchy of Durazzo and the Corinthian Gulf in the south. Unable and unwilling to undertake the effort necessary confront him, the Venetians preferred to conclude a compromise treaty with Doukas in June 1210, which recognized him as ruler of Epirus, but as the nominal vassal of Venice, which had claimed this territory since 1204. This treaty was expedient for Doukas, but did not mean the abandonment of his own designs on Durazzo: in 1213, his forces captured the city, ended the Venetian presence, and restored a Greek Orthodox archbishop to the local see. Soon after, Doukas' forces also took Corfu, and moved to extend his rule over Albania and western Macedonia, capturing the lordship of Croia and pushing up to the borders of Zeta.
Aftermath.
In 1216, the Venetians turned to the new Latin Emperor, Peter II of Courtenay, to help them recover Durazzo. Peter landed at Durazzo in 1217, but although he may have briefly recovered the city, he was soon defeated and captured by Michael Doukas' half-brother and successor, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, and the city returned to Epirote hands.
After the Epirote conquest, the city declined as an entrepôt for trade, as the Venetians moved their commerce to Ragusa instead.
The city continued to change hands in the 13th and 14th centuries between the Greeks of Epirus and the restored Palaiologan Byzantine Empire, the Angevins of Naples, and the Serbs. Venice once again took possession of the city in 1392, holding it until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1501.


Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers

Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers (18 August 1720 – 5 May 1760) was an English nobleman, notable for being the last peer to be hanged, following his conviction for murdering his steward.
Biography.
Shirley was the eldest son of The Honourable Laurence Ferrers, himself the third son of the first Earl Ferrers. At the age of twenty, he quit his estates and Oxford University education, and began living a debauched life in France in Paris. At the age of 25 he inherited his title from his insane uncle the 3rd Earl Ferrers, and with it estates in Leicestershire, Derbyshire and Northamptonshire. He lived at Staunton Harold Hall in northwest Leicestershire. In 1752, he married Mary, the youngest sister of Sir William Meredith, 3rd Baronet. Ferrers was also a cousin to Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, the prominent Methodist lady and supporter of George Whitefield, though he was not involved in the Methodist revival.
Marriage troubles.
It was said that there was insanity in his family, and from an early age his behaviour seems to have been eccentric, and his temper violent, though he was quite capable of managing his business affairs. Significantly, in 1758, his wife obtained a separation from him for cruelty, which was rare for the time. She would not accept her husband's drinking and womanizing, and was particularly upset by his illegitimate children. The old family steward, Johnson, may have given evidence on Mary's behalf and was afterwards tasked with collecting rents due to her. After Ferrers' death she was married again, on 28 March 1769, to Lord Frederick Campbell. Mary later died in a fire at her country seat, Coomb Bank, Kent, on 25 July 1807.
Murder.
The Ferrers' estates were then vested in trustees; Ferrers secured the appointment of an old family steward named Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did not prove amenable to Ferrers' personal wishes. On 18 January 1760, Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton Harold, Leicestershire, by appointment, and was directed to his lordship's study. Here, after some business conversation, Lord Ferrers shot him. Johnson did not die immediately, but instead was given some treatment at the hall followed by continued verbal abuse from a drunken Ferrers before Dr. Thomas Kirkland was able to convey him to his own home where he died the following morning.
Trial.
In the following April, Ferrers was tried for murder by his peers in Westminster Hall, Attorney General Charles Pratt leading for the prosecution. Shirley's defence, which he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of insanity, and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was found guilty. According to Lord Orford, "Lord Ferrers was not mad enough to be struck with Lady Huntingdon's sermons. The Methodists have nothing to brag of his conversion, though Whitefield prayed for him." Ferrers subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity to oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed of such a defence.
Execution.
On 5 May 1760, aged 39, dressed in a light-coloured suit embroidered with silver (the outfit he had worn at his wedding), he was taken in his own carriage from the Tower of London to Tyburn and there hanged by Thomas Turlis. There are several illustrations of the hanging. It has been said that as a concession to his rank the rope used was of silk. After the execution his body was taken to Surgeon's Hall for public exhibition and dissection. The execution was widely publicised in popular culture as evidence of equality of the law and the story of a wicked nobleman who was executed "like a common criminal" was told well into the 19th century.
Contemporary account.
Caroline Powys witnessed the procession and wrote in her Journal:-
"1760 - may 6" <br>
"Earl Ferrers was carried from the Tower to Tyburn executed by a party of Horse and Foot Guards, a Clergyman and the two Sherifs were in the Coach with him he poor unhappy man was drest in his wedding suit, dating as he himself said his whole unhappy conduct from a forced marriage He observed that the apparatus, and being made a spectacle of to so vast a multitude was greatly worse than death itself the procession was two hours & 3/4 from setting out, the Landau & six in which he was ye Sheriffs each in their Chariots one mourning Coach and a Hearse attended, and return’d thro’ Lincolns Inn Fields about one, I think I never shall forget a procession so moving, to know a man an hour before in perfect health then a Lifeless course, yet a just victim to his Country, for the abuse of [f.7] of that power his rank in Life had given him a Title too, his rank indeed caused his punishment, as the good Old King, in answer to numerous petitions of his greatly to be pitied Family made this memorable speech, “ That for the last years of his Life, he had been beyond his most Sanguine hopes successful, for which he should ever return thanks to God, and on his part he had and always would endeavor to Administer justice as he ought, as Events had shown by the punishment of his most exalted Subjects.” This was a noble answer. yet none could help pitying this unhappy Lord, his intellects most probably was rather more in fault than his heart in the murder for which he Suffer’d, and had he been low born his majesty would have shewn more Mercy without such strict Justice."


Sarah Malcolm

Sarah Malcolm (died 1733) was a British murderer who was sketched by William Hogarth as she awaited execution for a multiple murder.
Life.
Malcolm came from an Anglo–Irish family in County Durham, where she was born around 1710. She was brought up in Dublin. She came to London and found work in domestic service, working as a laundress for residents above the Inns of the Court. She came to know an old lady named Lydia Duncomb (aged about 80). Duncomb lived with two maids: Elizabeth Harrison (aged about 60), who was infirm; and Ann Price (aged about 17). In February 1733 the three women were found murdered and their apartment burgled, and Malcolm was brought in for questioning.
Malcolm confessed to being involved in the robbery (itself a capital crime), but said that she was part of a group of four. If she could have implicated the other three for the murders then she might still have escaped a death sentence, but the investigators were not convinced. The key evidence was that her clothing had blood stains (Malcolm claimed this was simply her own menstrual blood rather than the blood of the victims) and that 45 guineas were found hidden in her hair. During the trial she defended herself eloquently, and Jane Magreth considers that her defence was "convincing" and "at least worthy of consideration". However, Malcolm was sentenced to be hanged after the jury took 15 minutes to decide her guilt. Hanged in Fleet Street in London in early March 1733, still denying the killing, she is remembered because William Hogarth visited her in Newgate Prison a few days before she was executed and sketched her and later arranged for both an engraving and later an oil painting to be made of her. Hogarth was not alone in exploiting her notoriety as others went to see if they could gain a confession that they could publish.


Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria

Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska Maria of Austria (17 January 1831 – 14 February 1903) was born in Ofen (Buda), Hungary, the daughter of Palatine Joseph of Hungary (1776–1847) and his third wife Maria Dorothea of Württemberg (1797–1855).
First marriage.
Her first marriage, on 4 October 1847 in Vienna, was to her second cousin Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este (1821–1849), by whom she had one daughter:
Second marriage.
Her second marriage, on 18 April 1854, in Vienna, was to her first cousin Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria (1818–1874) by whom she had six children:
Elisabeth died at her son's "palais", the Albertina, Vienna, of pneumonia. She is buried in Baden bei Wien, where there is a street named after her.


Rijeka Philological School

Rijeka Philological School () was a 19th-century philological school that operated in Rijeka, offering a set of solutions for the issues involved in the standardization of Croatian literary language. It was led by .
According to Kurelac, standard language should be based on elements shared by most of the Slavic languages. Modern literary language should be based on archaic forms, so archaicity became the main characteristic of the language of school's proponents. Among such features where:
Kurelac's enthusiasm for archaic forms provided a basis for his purist views. He was opposed to loanwords and calques from German, Italian and Ottoman Turkish, but a bit more tolerant towards the loanwords from Slavic languages. Because most of his followers were gymnasium students with no trained future philologist among them, Rijeka Philological School soon ceased being a relevant competitor to Zagreb Philological School.
One of the most active followers was , who published "Rěčnik lěčničkoga nazivlja" (Zagreb, 1868).


Petter Stenborg

Petter Stenborg (1719 – 6 November 1781) was a Swedish stage actor and theater director. He was the director of the Stenborg Company or "Svenska Comoedi-truppen" from 1758 onward and as such the director of the "Humlegårdsteatern" (1773–80) in Stockholm. Petter Stenborg played an important role in Swedish theater history: he was a member of the pioneer actors of the first Swedish national stage in "Bollhuset", and as the leader of the Stenborg theatre company, one of only two professional Swedish language theater companies active in the mid 18th-century, he kept professional Swedish language theater alive from the closure of the public theater in "Bollhuset" in 1754, until the inauguration of the Royal Swedish Opera (1773) and Royal Dramatic Theatre (1788).
Life.
Early career.
Petter Stenborg was initially a soldier of the Royal Guard. In 1746, he was engaged as an actor in the theater of "Bollhuset" in Stockholm. Two years after his employment, the director Charles Langlois referred to him as one of the most valuable members of the theater.
Among his roles were Philemon in "Syrinx" by Lars Lalin or Peter Lindahl with music by Johan Ohl, opposite Elisabeth Lillström (title role) Peter Lindahl (Harlequin), Johanna Embeck (Chlorix), Trundman (Sylvanus) and Elisabeth Olin (Astrild) in the 1747–48 season, which is known as the first Swedish "opéra comique", and he is also believed to have had the leading role in "Slafve-ön" ('Slave island') by Marivaux (1749–50).
Director.
After the season of 1753–54, the Swedish theater lost its permission to use the royal Bollhuset theater building, which was transferred to the use of the French Du Londel theater by king Adolph Frederick of Sweden and queen Louisa Ulrika. The Swedish language theater split in two travelling Swedish theater companies: the company of Peter Lindahl and Johan Bergholtz, and the Stenborg Company of Petter Stenborg, which became the first two Swedish language theater companies in Sweden.
Petter Stenborg initially made an attempt to start an inn, but successfully applied for a theater permit in 1758, and formed the Stenborg Company. The theater company performed in a number of temporary localities in Stockholm during the winter, and toured the country in summer. They also frequently performed in Finland, then a Swedish province, during his leadership in companionship with the tight-rope-walker von Carl Fredrik von Eckenberg: when they visited Åbo in 1761, it was likely the first time a professional theater company performed in Finland. He was the rival of the theater company of Peter Lindahl, who preferred to tour the Swedish country side, while Petter Stenborg mostly toured in Finland and in Stockholm.
The Stenborg Company was ridiculed by the upper classes, who preferred the French language Du Londel theater and described Stenborg theater company as composed by a staff of actors from "jail, soldiers, alcoholic lawyers, servants and washing-women", its costumes from rag shops, the music from taverns and the plays as vulgar as the taverns in which they performed. However, these judgement was likely unfair, made by aristocrats who preferred the fashionable French language plays, and the
Stenborg Company was popular and appreciated by the public, though their trouble in finding suitable localities where a problem also for their quality.
They were, alongside the theater companies of Peter Lindahl and Carl Seuerling, the only representatives of Swedish language professional theater during the reign of Frederick Adolph.
Among its most noted actors were Adolph Fredrik Neuman, Jean Löfblad, Johanna Embeck and Christina Catharina Lindberg.
Later career.
In 1771, the French Du Londel theater was dissolved by after the succession to the throne by king Gustav III of Sweden. Petter Stenborg sent a petition to the monarch and asked him to protect the native speaking theater. He also successfully petitioned for the use of the now empty Bollhuset theater building, and were allowed to perform a public play at the opening of the Riksdag of the Estates in 1772. During the performance, the son of Petter Stenborg, Carl Stenborg, repeated the appeal to the king to protect the native theater.
After this, King Gustav III announced his wish to establish a professional national stage, though he rejected the Stenborg Company to form it: he was to create the Royal Swedish Opera the following year, and later the Royal Dramatic Theatre.
The Stenborg Company, though rejected in its hope to staff the national royal stage, was still given protection from the king as a private company. In 1773, the theater company finally managed to secure a permanent theater building in Stockholm, the "Humlegårdsteatern" in "Humlegården", where they performed every summer for the next seven years. The Stenborg Company became very successful in Humlegården as a part of the city's summer life, and staged Swedish language comedies, and popular parodies of the performances at the Royal Swedish Opera: the opera "Thetis och Phelée", for example, became "Petis och Nasenblom"and "Acis och Galathea" became "Kasper och Dorotea". It was, however, impossible to perform in the building during winter time.
Petter Stenborg had several children with Anna Sara Krüger, most notably Carl Stenborg. His wife had previously been the housekeeper of count Adam Horn and through her connections, their children were given a much better education than himself. Carl Stenborg became a star singer of the Royal Opera, and though forbidden by his contract to perform in his father's theater, he acted as his adviser. In 1780, Petter Stenborg retired and transferred the leadership of the Stenborg Company to his son, who immediately secured a permanent theater building where the company could perform also during the winters: the "Eriksbergsteatern" (it moved to the Stenborg Theatrefor years later).
Petter Stenborg died in 1781.


Wiek County

Wiek County (, , , , ) was one of the four counties of the Russian Empire located in the Governorate of Estonia. It was situated in the western part of the governorate (in the northwestern part of present-day Estonia). Its capital was Haapsalu ("Hapsal"). The territory of Kreis Wiek corresponds to the present-day Lääne and Hiiu counties, the westernmost part of Rapla County and a small part of Pärnu County.
Demographics.
At the time of the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Kreis Wiek had a population of 82,077. Of these, 92.2% spoke Estonian, 5.6% Swedish, 1.2% German, 0.6% Russian, 0.2% Ukrainian and 0.1% Latvian as their native language.


Germany in the early modern period

The German-speaking states in the early modern period (1500–1800) were divided politically and religiously. They all suffered greatly in the Thirty Years War (1618–1648). Catholic Austria and Lutheran Prussia were the major players.
The 16th century.
The Holy Roman Empire was dominated by the House of Habsburg throughout the Early Modern period.
German Renaissance.
The German Renaissance, part of the Northern Renaissance, was a cultural and artistic movement that spread among German thinkers in the 15th and 16th centuries, which originated with the Italian Renaissance in Italy. This was a result of German artists who had traveled to Italy to learn more and become inspired by the Renaissance movement. Many areas of the arts and sciences were influenced, notably by the spread of humanism to the various German states and principalities. There were many advances made in the development of new techniques in the fields of architecture, the arts, and the sciences. This also marked the time within Germany of a rise of power, independent city states, and spread of Franciscan humanism.
German Reformation.
The German Reformation initiated by Martin Luther led to the German Peasants' War in 1524–1525. Luther, along with his colleague Philipp Melanchthon, emphasized this point in his plea for the Reformation at the Imperial Diet of 1529 amid charges of heresy, but the edict by the Diet of Worms (1521) prohibited all innovations. With efforts to be understood as Catholic reformer as opposed to a heretical revolutionary, and to appeal to German princes with his religious condemnation of the peasant revolts backed up by the Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms, Luther's growing conservatism would provoke more radical reformers. At a religious conference with the Zwinglians in 1529, Melanchthon joined with Luther in opposing a union with Zwingli. With the protestation of the Lutheran princes at the Diet of Speyer (1529) and rejection of the Lutheran "Augsburg Confession" at Augsburg (1530), a separate Lutheran church finally emerged.
In Northern Europe, Luther appealed to the growing national consciousness of the German states because he denounced the Pope for involvement in politics as well as religion. Moreover, he backed the nobility, which was now justified to crush the Great Peasant Revolt of 1525 and to confiscate church property by Luther's Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms. This explains the attraction of some territorial princes to Lutheranism. However, the Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim I, blamed Lutheranism for the revolt and so did others. In Brandenburg, it was only under his successor Joachim II that Lutheranism was established, and the old religion was not formally extinct in Brandenburg until the death of the last Catholic bishop there, Georg von Blumenthal, who was Bishop of Lebus and sovereign Prince-Bishop of Ratzeburg.
Although Charles V fought the Reformation, it is no coincidence either that the reign of his nationalistic predecessor Maximilian I saw the beginning of the Reformation. While the centralized states of western Europe had reached accords with the Vatican permitting them to draw on the rich property of the church for government expenditures, enabling them to form state churches that were greatly autonomous of Rome, similar moves on behalf of the Empire were unsuccessful so long as princes and prince bishops fought reforms to drop the pretension of the secular universal empire.
The printing press and literacy.
The Reformation and printing press combined to mark a major breakthrough in the spread of literacy. From 1517 onward religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas. Reformist writers used pre-Reformation styles, clichés, and stereotypes and changed items as needed for their own purposes.
Illustrations in the newly translated Bible and in many tracts popularized Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), the great painter patronized by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatized Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.
Baroque period and Thirty Years' War.
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a religious war principally fought in Germany, where it involved most of the European powers. The conflict began between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, but gradually developed into a general, political war involving most of Europe. The Thirty Years' War was a continuation of the France-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, and in turn led to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers.
The major impact of the Thirty Years' War, fought mostly by mercenary armies, was the extensive destruction of entire regions, denuded by the foraging armies. Episodes of famine and disease significantly decreased the populace of the German states and the Low Countries and Italy, while bankrupting most of the combatant powers. Some of the quarrels that provoked the war went unresolved for a much longer time. The Thirty Years' War was ended with the Treaty of Münster, a part of the wider Peace of Westphalia.
The Baroque period (1600 to 1720) was one of the most fertile times in German literature. Many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years' War, in poetry and prose. Grimmelshausen's adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in the eponymous book Simplicius Simplicissimus, became the most famous novel of the Baroque period. Andreas Gryphius and Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein wrote German language tragedies, or "Trauerspiele", often on Classical themes and frequently quite violent. Erotic, religious and occasional poetry appeared in both German and Latin.
Rise of Prussia and the end of the Holy Roman Empire.
The 18th century history of Germany sees the ascendancy of the Kingdom of Prussia and the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars which lead to the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
Silesia.
When Emperor Charles VI failed to produce a male heir, he bequeathed lands to his daughter Maria Theresa by the "Pragmatic sanction" of 1713. After his death in 1740 the Prussian king Frederick the Great attacked Austria and invaded Silesia in the First Silesian War (1740–1742). Austria lost and in the Treaty of Berlin (1742) Prussia acquired nearly all of Silesia. Prussia's victory weakened Austria's prestige and Maria Theresa, and gave Prussia an effective equality with Austria within the Holy Roman Empire" for the next century.
French Revolutionary Wars and final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
From 1792 onwards, revolutionary France was at war with various parts of the Empire intermittently.
The German Mediatisation was the series of mediatisations and secularisations that occurred in 1795–1814, during the latter part of the era of the French Revolution and then the Napoleonic Era.
"Mediatisation" was the process of annexing the lands of one sovereign monarchy to another, often leaving the annexed some rights. "Secularisation" was the redistribution to secular states of the secular lands held by an ecclesiastical ruler such as a bishop or an abbot.
The Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon (see Treaty of Pressburg). Napoleon reorganized much of the Empire into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite. Francis' House of Habsburg-Lorraine survived the demise of the Empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I.
The Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by a new union, the German Confederation, in 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. It lasted until 1866 when Prussia founded the North German Confederation, a forerunner of the German Empire which united the German-speaking territories outside of Austria and Switzerland under Prussian leadership in 1871. This later served as the predecessor-state of modern Germany.
List of emperors.
Early Modern Holy Roman Emperors:


Nykarleby

Nykarleby (; ) is a town and municipality of Finland. It is located in the Ostrobothnia region. The municipality is bilingual, with the majority speaking Swedish () and the minority Finnish ().
The largest employers in the town are Prevex (member of KWH Group), a packaging and piping products manufacturer, Westwood, which manufactures wooden staircases, and in the village of Jeppo, KWH Mirka, a coated abrasives manufacturer. A Swedish-speaking art school ("") is located in Nykarleby town.
Politics.
Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Nykarleby:
Notable people.
List of notable people that were born in, or have lived in, Nykarleby.
History.
The town is located at the mouth of the Lapua river. The name of the place was "Lapuan Joensuu" or "mouth of Lapua river". The municipality was founded in 1607 by merging parts of Pedersöre and Vörå into a new parish. In 1620, the small village of Lepua was chartered as a city, with the Swedish name Nykarleby, which means "New Karleby", and the Finnish name is a Finnicized version of the same. The town was chartered in the same year as the nearby city of Kokkola, or in Swedish, "Gamlakarleby" (later, "Karleby").
The battles of Nykarleby and Jutas were fought there between Swedish and Russian troops during the Finnish War in 1808.
Zacharias Topelius, an important author in Finland, was born in Nykarleby.
In 1995, the small, idyllic town was ranked as "the happiest city in Finland" in a controversial article in Helsingin Sanomat, the leading newspaper of Finland.
International relations.
Twin towns – Sister cities.
Nykarleby is twinned with:


Aziz Vrioni

Aziz Pasha Vrioni (1859–1919) was an Ottoman-Albanian politician of the early 20th century. He was a member of the Ottoman Parliament representing Berat, and Albanian Minister of Finance and Minister of Agriculture and of Mines.
He was born in Berat, Ottoman Empire, member of the influential and well-known Vrioni family. Aziz Pasha Vrioni got involved in the Albanian preparations in the eve of the Albanian Declaration of Independence in 1912. He carried over various ministries of the Albanian governments after.

During the turmoils of 1914 he organized his men into local militia, fighting against the Islamic Peasant Rebels and Greek insurgents. After failing to defend Lushnja, he was shortly arrested by the government of Turhan Pasha Përmeti, accusing him of conspiracy and collaboration with the rebels.

In October 1914, he joined the government of Essad Pasha Toptani in Durres and was elected General Director of the Administration.


Triceromeryx

Triceromeryx is an extinct genus of Artiodactyla, of the family Palaeomerycidae, endemic to Europe from the middle Miocene epoch, 16.9—16.0 Ma, existing for approximately .
It was similar to "Ampelomeryx", a herbivore.
Taxonomy.
"Triceromeryx" was named by Villalta Commela et al. (1946). It was assigned to Giraffidae by Carroll (1988); and to Palaeomerycinae by Prothero and Liter (2007).


2009 in Northern Ireland

Events during the year 2009 in Northern Ireland.
Sport.
Football.
Northern Ireland fail to qualify for the FIFA World Cup finishing 4th in their group behind the Czech Republic.


Battle of Pedum (358 BC)

The Battle of Pedum was fought in 358 BC, near Pedum between the Roman Republic and a group of Gauls who had entered Latium. The Romans, led by dictator Gaius Sulpicius Peticus and his magister equitum, Marcus Valerius Poplicola, defeated the Gauls at their encampment near Pedum after a prolonged standoff.
Background.
News of Gallic tribes in Latium had been common towards the end of 359 BC. Upon hearing news of a force of Gauls entering Latium and encamping near Pedum, the Romans resolved to appoint Gaius Sulpicius Peticus as dictator, who, along with his magister equitum, Marcus Valerius Poplicola, quickly set off for Pedum in anticipation of an easy victory.
Upon reaching Pedum, Peticus, to the displeasure of his men, ordered that no soldier be permitted to attack without his command. Peticus's men soon began publicly voicing their distaste for the dictator's orders. The opposition culminated when Sextus Tullius, one of Peticus's senior centurions, delivered a speech to his men, denouncing Peticus's choice and effectively convincing Peticius to engage with the Gauls.
Battle.
Skirmishing began between Romans and Gauls shortly after Tullius's address, prompting Peticus to formulate a strategy. Peticus decided to send a mix of muleteers and cavalry atop a nearby mountain, and lined up the rest of his forces along the plains near base of the mountain. The Gauls were quick to attack after they spotted the Romans descending the mountain, but the move ultimately resulted in disorder, and the Romans were able to rout both the right and left flanks of the Gaulish forces, driving them to retreat. At this, Peticus ordered his cavalry and muleteers to intercept the fleeing Gallic army.
Aftermath.
Peticus, Poplicola, and the Roman force returned to Rome with a considerable amount of gold taken from the Gallic camps. The spoils were brought to the Capitoline Hill and consecrated.


Palazzo Re Enzo

Palazzo Re Enzo is a palace located on Piazza del Nettuno, 1 in the historic center of Bologna, northern Italy. The palace takes its name from Enzio of Sardinia, Frederick II's son, who was prisoner here from 1249 until his death in 1272. The palace is presently used to sponsor cultural events and exhibitions.
History.
The palace was built between 1244 and 1246 as an extension of the nearby Palazzo del Podestà, which had proven insufficient for the exigences of the Commune of Bologna. It was therefore initially known as "Palatium Novum" ("New Palace").
Three years after the palace completion, Enzio was captured by the Guelphs at the Battle of Fossalta, and after a short stay in Anzola he was moved here, where he remained until his death. Enzio was allegedly left free within the palace by day, but by night he was kept into a cage hanging from the ceiling. He was also allowed to meet women: in his will he mentions three natural daughters, but a legend talks about a fourth son he had from a peasant, Lucia di Viadagola. The son was called Bentivoglio, from the words "Amore mio, ben ti voglio" that he said to his beloved (meaning "My love, I'm fond of you"), and he would be the ancestor of the Bentivoglio family, later rulers of Bologna.
In 1386 Antonio di Vincenzo finished the "Sala dei Trecento" ("Hall of the Three-Hundred"), which was to become the city's archive. The last floor was largely renovated in 1771 by Giovanni Giacomo Dotti. The current Gothic appearance dates from the restoration of 1905 due to Alfonso Rubbiani.
On the right of the palace is the access to the chapel of Santa Maria dei Carcerati, where the condemned to death went to. In the first floor was held the Carroccio and the war machines, while in the middle floor were the offices of the praetor and the chapel.


Bezdonys

Bezdonys (; Russian and Belarusian: Безданы) is a town in Lithuania, located to the north of Vilnius, within the Vilnius district municipality. It is best known for the 1908 Bezdany raid, one of the most daring and successful train robberies in history. According to the Lithuanian census of 2011, the town had 743 inhabitants.
History.
The site of the modern village has been inhabited at least since early Middle Ages. Local dense forests were a hunting resort of the Grand Dukes. Jan Długosz mentions, that the local hunting manor was visited by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila. In 1516 a hunting manor and surrounding land was granted by Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund I the Old to Ulrich Hosius, better known as father of Stanislaus Hosius. The area donated to the Hosius family consisted of roughly 7000 hectares of forests, with a single mill and three villages.
On March 1, 1605 Ulrich Hosius' great-grandson sold the village and the adjoining land for 5000 złoty to canon of Vilna Wilczopolski, who in turn donated it to the Jesuits in 1609. The village remained administered by the Jesuits until the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1774. The area was taken over by the royal treasury, but already on July 12 of that year king Stanislaus Augustus of Poland donated it to Mikołaj Łopaciński in exchange for a yearly donation for the Commission of National Education. At that time the village had roughly 300 inhabitants, including roughly 20 noble families.
After the Partitions of Poland the village remained in the hands of the Łopaciński family. The yearly fee however was instead paid to Saint Petersburg. Following the January Uprising the peasants living in Bezdany were granted with roughly 400 hectares (or "desiatinas") of land. On March 15, 1862 the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway was opened and one of its stations was located in Bezdany (or Безданы in Russian). It was there that the Bezdany raid of September 26, 1908 took place. A group of Polish revolutionaries led by Józef Piłsudski stole roughly 200,000 Russian rubles from a passenger train.
After Poland regained independence, the village started to grow. Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski, the owner of the nearby village of Arvydai and future Prime Minister of Poland financed a new public school in Bezdany. Also, in 1937 a new wooden church was opened in the presence of the President of Poland Ignacy Mościcki. Until then, the nearest church was located in Nemenčinė, 8 kilometres away. By the end of the 1930s the village grew to almost 500 inhabitants and 70 houses.
On July 9, 1943, 350 local Jews are murdered in a forest nearby Bezdonys. The massacre was perpetrated by an einsatzgruppen of Germans and local collaborationists lead by Bruno Kittel.
Following World War II the village was returned to Lithuania. Roughly half of pre-war inhabitants were evicted and expelled to within post-war Poland. In the late 1930s as a means of Polonisation of local peasant population, a hundred Polish schools, named after Józef Piłsudski were built in Vilnius region – one such wooden school was built in Bezdonys too. In 1946 a Russian language class was added to the Polish language school, in 1957 also Lithuanian language class was opened. In 1968 a new school building was opened and in 1992 a new Lithuanian language only school was built.


Zenel Gjoleka

Zenel Gjoleka (1805-1852) was an Albanian revolutionary fighter who participated in rebellions against the Ottoman Empire central authority, being against reforms of Tanzimat (that decreased the power of the local Albanian Pashas and Beys) . After those events he was pardoned by Abdülmecid I, the Sultan of Ottoman Empire at that time. In 1852 he died fighting as an Albanian for the Ottoman Empire and for the protection of Albanian populated lands against Montenegrin forces.
On 28 April 2012 Albanian President Bamir Topi posthumously awarded Gjoleka the Honor of Nation Order.


Mihailo II of Duklja

Mihailo II () was the King of Duklja from 1101 to 1102. He was the eldest son of King Constantine Bodin of Duklja and Queen Jaquinta. He succeeded his father on the throne of Duklja, but soon lost ground to cousins, pretenders to the throne. left without support, he abdicated and retreated to monastery.


Geocoma

Geocoma is an extinct genus of brittle stars that lived in the Jurassic. Its fossils are known from Europe.


Vroedschap

The vroedschap () was the name for the city council in the early modern Netherlands; the member of such a council was called a "vroedman", literally a "wise man". An honorific title of the "vroedschap" was the "vroede vaderen", the "wise fathers"
Most early modern Dutch cities were ruled by a government of male burghers or "poorters" (bourgeois) who were members of the regent class, the ruling elite. During late Medieval times, the regents had in all cities gradually managed to exclude men of the artisan class from membership, making themselves a sort of hereditary city nobility. In the Dutch Republic, a city administration consisted of the magistrate and the "vroedschap". The magistrate (or city government) consisted of a number, often four, of burgomasters assisted by a number of aldermen ("schepenen"), and looked after the daily administration of the city. In most cities, the mayors were chosen for a period of four years. The previous (and usually the youngest) mayor was responsible for the schutterij, the civil militia. The vroedschap appointed the magistrate, mostly from its own ranks; sometimes other members of the regent class were proposed. There was a complicated system of drawing lots and in many cities a shortlist was made from which the stadtholder, the highest provincial executive official, could choose; from 1748 this became a general system for the Dutch Republic.
The vroedschap was convened on financial questions, sometimes on national politics, and always for elections for the appointment of important local posts. Thus, the vroedschap mainly served the economic interests in which its members had an important share. In contrast to magistrates, "vroedschapsleden" ("members of the city council") were appointed for life. The council consisted of ten to forty citizens, that met weekly or less often. They chose one or two new mayors and representatives to the Provincial States in January each year.
Membership was in principle a question of "uitverkiezing" (cooptation) and inheritance. Family ties were very important, but also good breeding and social status. "Vroedmannen" had to satisfy two conditions: membership of the Calvinist church and the possession of a house. Although city administrations, by present standards, were more oligarchic than meritocratic, family ties never formed a formal legal basis for election.
In times of crisis, the stadholder sometimes appointed new "vroedschapsleden" in a province, to ensure that his followers were in power, a so-called "wetsverzetting" ("change of the legislative"). This happened in 1619, 1672, 1748 and 1787. There was no legal basis for such an act.


Dublin Liberal Unionist Association

Dublin Liberal Unionist Association was a grouping founded in Dublin Ireland in the early years of the twentieth century of Liberal supporters who supported the Union between Britain and Ireland. They supported Chamberlins Trade and Tariff policies.
It supported Liberal Unionist figures in city politics, and candidates in the 1906 General Election.
People involved in the Association included Major George Bernard O'Connor, Henry Forbes, the socialist John Lincoln Mahon and the barrister James Alexander Porterfield Rynd who acted as its chairman.


Prehistoric Shetland

Prehistoric Shetland refers to a period in the human occupation of the Shetland archipelago of Scotland that was the latter part of these islands' prehistory. The period of prehistory prior to occupation by the genus "Homo" is part of the geology of Scotland. Although some written records refer to Shetland during the Roman invasions of Scotland, prehistory in Shetland does not end until the later part of the Early Historic Period in Scotland, around AD 900.
Due to the practice, dating to at least the early Neolithic, of building in stone on virtually treeless islands, Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of the prehistoric eras and there are over 5,000 archaeological sites all told.
Mesolithic and Neolithic.
A midden site at West Voe on the south coast of Mainland, dated to 4320-4030 BC, has provided the first evidence of Mesolithic human activity in Shetland. The same site provides dates for early Neolithic activity and finds at Scord of Brouster in Walls have been dated to 3400 BC. This site includes a cluster of six or seven walled fields and three stone circular houses that contains the earliest hoe-blades found so far in Scotland. "Shetland knives" are stone tools that date from this period made from felsite from Northmavine.
Heel-shaped cairns, are a style of chambered cairn unique to Shetland, with a particularly large example on the island of Vementry. Staneydale Temple near Bixter is a large Neolithic ruin containing an oval chamber. Around it are the remains of houses, walls and cairns of the same period. There are numerous Neolithic era standing stones including those at Yoxie on Whalsay and at Boardastubble, Unst. Hjaltadans on Fetlar is a ring of stones, although there are no true stone circles as such in Shetland. Funzie Girt is a remarkable dividing wall that ran for across the island of Fetlar. The level of organisation involved suggest a relatively high population for Shetland in the Neolithic, perhaps as much as 10,000.
Bronze Age and early Iron Age.
Pottery shards found at the important site of Jarlshof indicate that there was Neolithic activity there although the main settlement dates from the Bronze Age. This includes a smithy, a cluster of wheelhouses and a later broch. The site has provided evidence of habitation during various phases right up until Viking times.
Numerous brochs were erected during the Iron Age. The Broch of Mousa is the finest preserved example in Scotland of these round towers. In addition to Mousa there are significant broch ruins at Clickimin, Culswick, Old Scatness and West Burrafirth, although their origin and purpose is a matter of some controversy. In 2011 the collective site, "The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland" including Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof joined the UKs "Tentative List" of World Heritage Sites.
Travelers in antiquity.
In AD 43 and 77 the Roman authors Pomponius Mela and Pliny the Elder referred to the seven islands they call "Haemodae" and "Acmodae" respectively, both of which are assumed to be Shetland. Thule is first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC, but it is unlikely he meant Shetland as he believed it was six days sail north of Britain and one day from the frozen sea (description that seems referred more or less with Iceland). However, another early written reference to the Shetland islands may have been when Tacitus reported that the Roman fleet had seen "Thule" on a voyage that included Orkney in AD 98. Watson (1926) states that Tacitus was referring to Shetland, although Breeze (2002) and D. Ellis Evans (1975) are more skeptical (because they think that Tacitus included Shetland in the "Orcades islands", as the northernmost area of the Orkney archipelago). The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of partial military occupation "within a longer continuum of indigenous development" and there is no evidence of any direct contact between Shetland and Roman forces. But for Orkney there are some significant archeological evidences: according to scholars like Montesanti, "Orkney might have been one of those areas that suggest direct administration by Imperial Roman procurators, at least for a very short span of time".
Later Iron Age.
The later Iron Age inhabitants of the Northern Isles were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD: "As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence."
The St Ninian's Isle Treasure was discovered in 1958 by a local schoolboy, Douglas Coutts. Coutts was helping visiting archaeologists led by A. C. O'Dell of Aberdeen University at a dig on the island. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces are believed to date from approximately AD 800. O'Dell stated that "The treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period" and that "the brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal-head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal".
Viking era.
Shetland was colonised by Norsemen in the late 8th and 9th centuries; the fate of the previous indigenous population is uncertain. According to the "Orkneyinga Saga", Vikings then used the islands as a base for pirate expeditions against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") annexed the Northern Isles (comprising Orkney and Shetland) in 875 and Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom in reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland. Some scholars believe that this story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs. Nonetheless, as the Viking era developed Shetland emerged from the prehistoric period and into the era of written history.


Ganuenta

Ganuenta was a settlement of roman antiquity near the Zeelandic place Colijnsplaat. It was situated on the southern shore of the river Scheldt.
There was a temple for the goddess Nehalennia here. Little is known about Nehalennia, but it must have been a Celtic or Germanic goddess. She had power over trade and seafaring. Many travelers would visit Ganuenta on their journey, to pray to Nehalennia for a safe journey over sea. The large amount of altarstones indicates that it was a major site for the worship of the goddess. In 1970 altars and remains of the temple were lifted out of the Eastern Scheldt. In 2005 a replica of the Gallo-Roman temple was opened to the public in Colijnsplaat.
Finds after 1970.
On 14 April 1970 fisherman K.J. Bout found parts of an altar to Nehalennia in his nets, while he was fishing near Colijnsplaat. Focussed searches in 1970 and 1971 (and later in 1974) resulted in the finds of about 240 altars and statues, votive stones and remains of a roman building. These are now stored and displayed in the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden. These were found in the "Schaar of Colijnsplaat", a fairway in the Eastern Scheldt, where the temple of Nehalennia once stood.
The names of the persons who gifted the statues and altars show they were merchants from Italia, Cologne, Trier and Britannia. They traded in salt, fish sauce and textiles. Other wares were ceramics from the area around the Rhine, terracotta figurines from Cologne and Trier, and wine from Southern France and the Mosel-area. One inscription found translates to: "Before Nehalennia, Marcus Exingius Agricola, citizen of Trier, salt merchant in Cologne, has fulfilled his promise, willing and with reason.". The majority of the votive offerings were donated by merchants to beseech the goddess for safe passage to Britannia.
In the period after the year 300 the temple disappeared into the "Schaar of Colijnsplaat", near the settlement of Ganuenta. Sinds 1999 a group of Flemish amateur archaeologists of the "Landelijke Werkgroep Archeologie Onder Water" (national working group underwater archaeology) works to map the bottom of the sea, around the location where the temple disappeared beneath the waves. In 2004 a replica of the temple was built in Colijnsplaat.


Sea Roads

Sea Roads is a detached house in Penarth in the Vale of Glamorgan noted for its distinctive Modernist design.
It was designed by the Welsh architect Gordon Griffiths for John Gibbs and built in 1939. It is a rare example of Modernist domestic architecture of the 1930s in Wales; featuring typical Modernist details of white walls, flat roofs and a curved internal staircase framed by a full height window. The house was originally created with four bedrooms with accommodation for domestic staff, though it has been expanded since into six bedrooms with two bathrooms. All of the main rooms of the house and four of the bedrooms overlook the garden.
It is situated on Cliff Parade in Penarth.
The Cadw listing describes Sea Roads as an "exceptionally well-preserved modernist house" and notes its "expressive use" of windows to demonstrate the curvature of the facades and the internal organisation of the interior. The interior was "virtually intact" at the time of its 2006 listing.
It has been listed Grade II by Cadw since August 2006.
It was for sale in 2012 for £1.35 million, it was subsequently reduced to £1.1 million in 2014 ().


Baldovin

Baldovin (; ) was a Serbian "knez" (duke) and "kaznac" (financial chancellor) that served King Stefan Uroš III (). He held the province around Vranje.
Life.
According to Jirechek, he was most likely born in Kotor. Most scholars maintain that Baldovin was a nobleman mentioned by both his titles (knez and kaznac), although some theorize that there were in fact two magnates by that name. Baldovin was possibly an ancestor of the Bagaš noble family.
Metropolitan Arsenije of Prizren, "kaznac" Baldovin, "vojvoda" Gradislav, "župan" Vratko, "knez" Grgur Kurjaković, "stavilac" Miloš (title mentioned for the first time), "vojvoda" Dejan Manjak, Gradislav Sušenica, Nikola Buća, and archdeacon Marin Baranić, all signed the document issued by Stefan Uroš III, dated 22 January 1325, for the sale of some maritime possessions to the Republic of Ragusa. The possessions, Ston and Pelješac, were officially handed over in 1333, with Baldovin also being present.
He ruled over the province around Vranje, which he had received from King Stephen Uroš III. The King's chrysobull mentioned "Baldovin and his children", who received the "Church of St. Nicholas in Vranje, the villages, the march, the vineyards, the "katun", the meadows, the mills, and all sides of the village [Vranje]." The entry was cited by King Stefan Dušan in one of his charters dated between 1343 and 1345, where he confirmed the gift of the Church of St. Nicholas to Hilandar by "župan" (count) Maljušat, the son of Baldovin. Emperor Dušan does mention that Baldovin and his children received the chrysobull for their service to King Stephen Uroš III, meaning that the "children" were already adults by the time of the chrysobull of Uroš III.


2002 in England

Events from 2002 in England


Second Battle of Tapae

The Second Battle of Tapae (101) was the decisive battle of the first Dacian War, in which Roman Emperor Trajan defeated the Dacian King Decebalus's army. Other setbacks in the campaign delayed its completion until 102. The battle is most likely the battle-scene depicted on Plate 22 of Trajan's column.
Background.
As soon as Trajan became Roman emperor, he planned a campaign against Dacia. This campaign resulted in the first Dacian war fought between 101 and 102.
The reason used for this campaign was Decebalus' lack of respect for the Romans, and the fact that he failed to respect the agreements of the peace reached following the First Battle of Tapae from 87/88.
Beside the nine Roman legions that were already stationed on the Danube frontier, Trajan brought two more, Legio X Gemina and Legio XI Claudia, and created two new legions, Legio II Traiana Fortis and Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix.
The battle.
The Roman army crossed the Danube at Viminacium, slowly making its way into Dacia. Just like in 87/88, the battle took place at Tapae. The Dacians resisted the Roman offensive, but as a storm broke out, the Dacians believing it is a sign from the gods, decided to withdraw.
Aftermath.
Because the winter was near, Trajan decided to wait until spring to continue his offensive on Sarmizegetusa. Decebalus took advantage of the new situation, and in the winter of 101 to 102, he attacked the Roman province of Moesia, a major clash taking place at the Battle of Adamclisi.


Collatia

Collatia was an ancient town of central Italy, c. 15 km northeast of Rome by the "Via Collatina".
It appears in the legendary history of Rome as captured by Tarquinius Priscus. Vergil speaks of it as a Latin colony of Alba Longa. In the time of Cicero it had lost all importance; Strabo names it as a mere village, in private hands, while for Pliny it was one of the lost cities of Latium.
According to Livy, it was taken, along with its population and surrounding land, from the Sabines by Tarquinius Priscus at the conclusion of his war against them. Livy records the wording of the form of the town's surrender. The date of Tarquinius' triumph over the Sabines, according to the Fasti Triumphales, which Livy says occurred shortly after the surrender of Collatia, is 13 September, 585 BC.
By 509 BC the town was governed by the Roman Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, who took his name from the town. It was the site of the rape of Lucretia in that year, and Livy records that the leaders of the revolution which followed thereafter, gathered in Collatia to hear Lucretia's tale, then gathered the youth of Collatia to commence their revolution.
The site is undoubtedly to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval fortified farmhouse of Castello di Lunghezza immediately to the south of the Anio, which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a narrow neck to the tableland to the southeast on which the city stood: this is protected by wide valleys on each side, and is isolated at the southeast end by a deep narrow valley enlarged by cutting.
No remains are to be seen, but the site is admirably adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be traced leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course only. The current identification with Castellaccio, c. 3.5 km to the southeast, is untenable.


2005 in the Netherlands

This article lists some of the events that took place in the Netherlands in 2005.