History of the Jews in Spain

The history of the Jews in Spain stretches back to Biblical times according to Jewish history. Spanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities in the world. Spain was the unquestioned leader of world Jewry: scientific and philological study of the Hebrew Bible began, secular poetry was written in Hebrew for the first time, and for the only time between Biblical times and the origins of the modern state of Israel, a Jew (Samuel ha-Nagid) commanded a Jewish army. This period ended definitively with the anti-Jewish riots of 1391 and the Alhambra Decree of 1492, as a result of which the majority of Jews in Spain (around 300,000) converted to Catholicism and those who continued to practice Judaism (between 40,000 and 80,000) were forced into exile, although many thousands returned in the years following the expulsion.
An estimated 13,000 to 50,000 Jews live in Spain today, concentrated in the provinces of Málaga, Madrid and Barcelona as well as having a historic presence in the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla. A significant portion of these are Spanish-speaking Jews who returned to Spain after centuries of exile in northern [[Morocco]] both during and after the [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Spanish protectorate]]. [[Ashkenazi Jews]], primarily from [[Latin America]] but also of European origin, are also present in Spain. As a measure of atonement, from 2015 to 2019, the Spanish government offered Spanish citizenship to Spanish speakers who could prove they were descendants of [[Sephardi Jews]] who were exiled in 1492. Over 130,000 people, mainly from Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela had applied for citizenship under the law with just over 1.5% of applicants having been granted citizenship by late 2019, and many applications still in process.
Early history (before 300).
Some associate the country of [[Tarshish]], as mentioned in the books of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[First Book of Kings|I Kings]], [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] and [[Book of Romans|Romans]], with a locale in southern Spain. In generally describing [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]]'s empire from west to east, Tarshish is listed first (Ezekiel 27.12–14), and in Jonah 1.3 it is the place to which Jonah sought to flee from the Lord; evidently it represents the westernmost place to which one could sail.
[[File:Ancient colonies.PNG|right|300px|thumb|Map of Phoenician (red) and Greek colonies (blue) at about 550 BC]]
[[File:Spain 1849.jpg|thumb|200px|Roman Province of Hispania]]
The link between Jews and Tarshish is clear. One might speculate that commerce conducted by Jewish emissaries, merchants, craftsmen, or other tradesmen among the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] Tyrean [[Phoenicians]] might have brought them to Tarshish. Although the notion of Tarshish as Spain is merely based on suggestive material, it leaves open the possibility of a very early Jewish presence in the Iberian peninsula.
More substantial evidence of Jews in Spain comes from the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] era. Although the spread of the Jews into Europe is most commonly associated with the [[diaspora]], which ensued from the Roman conquest of [[Judea]], emigration from [[Eretz Yisrael]] into the greater Roman Mediterranean area predated the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|destruction of Jerusalem]] at the hands of the Romans under [[Titus]]. In his "[[Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium|Facta et dicta memorabilia]]", [[Valerius Maximus]] makes reference to Jews and [[Chaldea|Chaldaeans]] being expelled from Rome in 139 BCE for their "corrupting" influences. According to [[Josephus]], King Agrippa attempted to discourage the Jews of Jerusalem from rebelling against Roman authority by reference to Jews throughout the Roman Empire and elsewhere; Agrippa warned that "the danger concerns not those Jews that dwell here only, but those of them which dwell in other cities also; for there is no people upon the habitable earth which do not have some portion of you among them, whom your enemies might slay, in case you go to war..."
The Provençal rabbi and scholar, [[Abraham ben David|Rabbi Abraham ben David]], wrote in "anno" 1161: “A tradition exists with the [Jewish] community of Granada that they are from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, of the descendants of Judah and Benjamin, rather than from the villages, the towns in the outlying districts [of Palestine].” Elsewhere, he writes about his maternal grandfather's family and how they came to Spain: "When [[Titus]] prevailed over Jerusalem, his officer who was appointed over Hispania appeased him, requesting that he send to him captives made-up of the nobles of Jerusalem, and so he sent a few of them to him, and there were amongst them those who made curtains and who were knowledgeable in the work of silk, and [one] whose name was Baruch, and they remained in [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]]." Here, Rabbi Abraham ben David refers to the second influx of Jews into Spain, shortly after the destruction of Israel's [[Second Temple]].
The earliest mention of Spain (Hispania) is, allegedly, found in Obadiah 1:20: “And the exiles of this host of the sons of Israel who are among the Canaanites as far as Ṣarfat (Heb. צרפת), and the exiles of Jerusalem who are in Sepharad, will possess the cities of the south.” While the medieval lexicographer, [[David ben Abraham al-Fasi|David ben Abraham Al-Fāsī]], identifies Ṣarfat with the city of [[Sarepta|Ṣarfend]] (Judeo-Arabic: צרפנדה), the word Sepharad (Heb. ספרד) in the same verse has been translated by the 1st century rabbinic scholar, Yonathan Ben Uzziel, as "Aspamia". Based on a later teaching in the compendium of Jewish oral laws compiled by Rabbi Judah Hanasi in 189 CE, known as the [[Mishnah]], "Aspamia" is associated with a very far place, generally thought of as [[Hispania]], or Spain. In "circa" 960 CE, [[Hisdai ibn Shaprut|Ḥisdai ibn Šaprūṭ]], minister of trade in the court of the [[Abd-ar-Rahman III|caliph in Córdoba]], wrote to Joseph, the king of [[Khazaria]], saying: “The name of our land in which we dwell is called in the sacred tongue, "Sepharad", but in the language of the Arabs, the indwellers of the lands, "Alandalus" [Andalusia], the name of the capital of the kingdom, Córdoba.”
According to [[David Kimchi|Rabbi David Kimchi]] (1160–1235), in his commentary on Obadiah 1:20, Ṣarfat and Sepharad, both, refer to the Jewish captivity (Heb. "galut") expelled during the war with Titus and who went as far as the countries "Alemania" (Germany), "Escalona", France and Spain. The names Ṣarfat and Sepharad are explicitly mentioned by him as being France and Spain, respectively. Some scholars think that, in the case of the place-name, Ṣarfat (lit. [[Sarepta|Ṣarfend]]) – which, as noted, was applied to the Jewish [[diaspora]] in France, the association with France was made only exegetically because of its similarity in spelling with the name פרנצא (France), by a reversal of its letters.
Spanish Jew, [[Moses de León]] (ca. 1250 – 1305), mentions a tradition concerning the first Jewish exiles, saying that the vast majority of the first exiles driven away from the land of Israel during the Babylonian captivity refused to return, for they had seen that the Second Temple would be destroyed like the first. In yet another teaching, passed down later by Moses ben Machir in the 16th century, an explicit reference is made to the fact that Jews have lived in Spain since the destruction of the First Temple:
Similarly, [[Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph|Gedaliah ibn Jechia]] the Spaniard has written:
[[Don Isaac Abrabanel]], a prominent Jewish figure in Spain in the 15th century and one of the king's trusted courtiers who witnessed the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, informs his readers that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship to Spain by a certain Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to a certain Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. This Heracles later renounced his throne because of his preference for his native country in Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, by whom the country of España (Spain) derives its name. The Jewish exiles transported there by the said Phiros were descended by lineage from Judah, Benjamin, Shimon and Levi, and were, according to Abrabanel, settled in two districts in southern Spain: one, Andalusia, in the city of [[Lucena, Córdoba|Lucena]] - a city so-called by the Jewish exiles that had come there; the second, in the country around "Ṭulayṭulah" ([[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]).
Abrabanel says that the name "Ṭulayṭulah" ([[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]) was given to the city by its first Jewish inhabitants, and surmises that the name may have meant טלטול (= wandering), on account of their wandering from Jerusalem. He says, furthermore, that the original name of the city was Pirisvalle, so-called by its early pagan inhabitants. He also writes there that he found written in the ancient annals of Spanish history collected by the kings of Spain that the 50,000 Jewish households then residing in the cities throughout Spain were the descendants of men and women who were sent to Spain by the Roman Emperor and who had formerly been subjected to him and whom Titus had originally exiled from places in or around Jerusalem. The two Jewish exiles joined together and became one.
[[Hispania]] came under Roman control with the fall of [[Carthage]] after the [[Second Punic War]] (218–202 BCE). Exactly how soon after this time Jews made their way onto the scene is a matter of speculation. It is within the realm of possibility that they went there under the Romans as free men to take advantage of its rich resources and build enterprises there. These early arrivals would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under [[Vespasian]] and [[Titus]], and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish-Roman War]], and especially after the defeat of Judea in 70. The Jewish historian, Josephus, confirms that as early as 90 CE there was already a Jewish "Diaspora" living in Europe, made-up of the two tribes, Judah and Benjamin. Thus, he writes in his "Antiquities": “ …there are but two tribes in Asia (Turkey) and Europe subject to the Romans, while the ten tribes are beyond Euphrates till now and are an immense multitude.” One questionable estimate places the number carried off to Spain at 80,000. (Graetz, p. 42). Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean. (Assis, p. 9.)
Among the earliest records which may refer specifically to Jews in Spain during the Roman period is Paul's "Letter to the Romans". Many have taken Paul's intention to go to Spain to minister the [[gospel]] (15.24, 28) to indicate the presence of Jewish communities there, as has Herod's banishment to Spain by Caesar in 39 ([[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], "[[The Wars of the Jews]]", 2.9.6). So too, the [[Mishna]] implied that there was a Jewish community in Spain, and that there was communication with the Jewish community in [[Israel]].
From a slightly later period, "[[Midrash|Midrash Rabbah]]" (Leviticus Rabba § 29.2), and "[[Pesikta de-Rav Kahana]]" ("Rosh Hashanna"), both, make mention of the Jewish Diaspora in Spain (Hispania) and their eventual return. Among these early references are several [[decrees]] of the [[Council of Elvira]], convened in the early fourth century, which address proper Christian behavior with regard to the Jews of Spain, notably forbidding marriage between Jews and Christians.
Of material evidence of early Iberian Jewry, representing a particularly early presence is a [[Seal (device)|signet ring]] found at [[Cadiz]], dating from the 8th–7th century BCE The inscription on the ring, generally accepted as Phoenician, has been interpreted by a few scholars to be "paleo-[[Hebrew language|hebraic]]" (Bowers, p. 396). Among the early Spanish items of more reliably Jewish origins is an [[amphora]] which is at least as old as the 1st century. Although this vessel is not from the Spanish mainland (it was recovered from [[Ibiza]], in the [[Balearic Islands]]), the imprint upon it of two Hebrew characters attests to Jewish contact, either direct or indirect, with the area at this time. Two trilingual Jewish inscriptions from [[Tarragona]] and [[Tortosa]] have been variously dated from the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century. (Bowers, p. 396.) There is also the [[Epitaph|tombstone inscription]] from [[Adra, Spain|Adra]] (formerly [[Abdera, Spain|Abdera]]) of a Jewish girl named Salomonula, which dates to the early 3rd century ("Encyclopaedia Judaica", p. 221).
Thus, while there are limited material and literary indications for Jewish contact with Spain from a very early period, more definitive and substantial data begins with the third century. Data from this period suggest a well-established community, whose foundations must have been laid some time earlier. It is likely that these communities originated several generations earlier in the aftermath of the conquest of Judea, and possible that they originated much earlier. There may have been close contact between the Jewish community of Babylon and Spain, as the Talmud documents that Yitzhak the [[Exilarch]], son of the sister of Rav Beivai traveled from "Cordoba to Hispania".
As citizens of the [[Roman Empire]], the Jews of Spain engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations, and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province (Assis at p. 9). The edicts of the [[Synod of Elvira]], although early examples of priesthood-inspired [[anti-Semitism]], provide evidence of Jews who were integrated enough into the greater community to cause alarm among some: of the council's 80 [[Canon law|canonic]] decisions, all which pertain to Jews served to maintain a separation between the two communities (Laeuchli, pp. 75–76). It seems that by this time the presence of Jews was of greater concern to Catholic authorities than the presence of pagans; Canon 16, which prohibited marriage with Jews, was worded more strongly than canon 15, which prohibited marriage with pagans. Canon 78 threatens those who commit adultery with Jews with [[ostracism]]. Canon 48 forbade Jews from blessing Christian crops, and Canon 50 forbade sharing meals with Jews; repeating the command to Hebrew the Bible indicated respect to Gentile.
Visigoth rule - Repression and forced conversions (5th century to 711).
[[Migration period|Barbarian invasions]] brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under [[Visigoth]]ic rule by the early 5th century. Other than in their contempt for Catholics, who reminded them of the Romans, the Visigoths did not generally take much of an interest in the religious creeds within their kingdom. It wasn't until 506, when [[Alaric II]] (484–507) published his "[[Breviarium Alaricianum]]" (wherein he adopted the laws of the ousted Romans), that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews.
[[File:Recared.jpg|left|thumb|Visigothic coinage: [[Recared|King Recared]]]]
The tides turned even more dramatically following the conversion of the Visigothic royal family under [[Recared]] from [[Arianism]] to Catholicism in 587. In their desire to consolidate the realm under the new religion, the Visigoths adopted an aggressive policy concerning the Jews. As the king and the church acted in a single interest, the situation for the Jews deteriorated. Recared approved the [[Third Council of Toledo]]'s move in 589 to forcibly [[baptize]] the children of mixed marriages between Jews and Christians. [[Toledo III]] also forbade Jews from holding public office, from having intercourse with Christian women, and from performing circumcisions on slaves or Christians. Still, Recared was not entirely successful in his campaigns: not all Visigoth Arians had converted to Catholicism; the unconverted were true allies of the Jews, oppressed like themselves, and Jews received some protection from Arian bishops and the independent Visigothic nobility.
[[File:Sisebut1.jpg|thumb|right|Visigothic coinage: [[Sisebur|Sisebut]]]]
While the policies of subsequent Kings [[Liuva II]] (601–604), [[Witteric]] (603–610), and [[Gundemar]] (610–612) are unknown to us, [[Sisebut]] (612–620) embarked on Recared's course with renewed vigor. Soon after upholding the edict of compulsory baptism for children of mixed marriages, Sisebut instituted what was to become a recurring phenomenon in Spanish official policy, in issuing the first edicts against the Jews of expulsion from Spain. Following his 613 decree that the Jews either convert or be expelled, some fled to Gaul and North Africa, while as many as 90,000 converted. Many of these "conversos", as did those of later periods, maintained their Jewish identities in secret. During the more tolerant reign of [[Suintila]] (621–631), however, most of the "conversos" returned to Judaism, and a number of the exiles returned to Spain.
In 633, the [[Fourth Council of Toledo]], while taking a stance in opposition to compulsory baptism, convened to address the problem of [[crypto-Judaism]]. It was decided that, if a professed Christian were determined to be a practicing Jew, his or her children were to be taken away to be raised in monasteries or trusted Christian households. The council further directed that all who had reverted to Judaism during the reign of Swintila had to return to Christianity. The trend toward intolerance continued with the ascent of [[Chintila]] (636–639). He directed the [[Sixth Council of Toledo]] to order that only Catholics could remain in the kingdom, and taking an unusual step further, Chintila [[excommunication|excommunicated]] "in advance" any of his successors who did not act in accordance with his anti-Jewish edicts. Again, many converted while others chose exile.
And yet the "problem" continued. The [[Eighth Council of Toledo]] in 653 again tackled the issue of Jews within the realm. Further measures at this time included the forbidding of all Jewish [[rite]]s (including [[circumcision]] and the observation of the [[Shabbat]]), and all converted Jews had to promise to put to death, either by [[Execution by burning|burning]] or by [[stoning]], any of their brethren known to have relapsed to Judaism. The council was aware that prior efforts had been frustrated by lack of compliance among authorities on the local level: therefore, anyone — including nobles and clergy — found to have aided Jews in the practice of Judaism were to be punished by seizure of one quarter of their property and excommunication.
These efforts again proved unsuccessful. The Jewish population remained sufficiently sizable as to prompt [[Wamba, Visigothic king|Wamba]] (672–680) to issue limited expulsion orders against them, and the reign of [[Erwig]] (680–687) also seemed vexed by the issue. The [[Twelfth Council of Toledo]] again called for forced baptism, and, for those who disobeyed, seizure of property, corporal punishment, exile, and slavery. Jewish children over seven years of age were taken from their parents and similarly dealt with in 694. Erwig also took measures to ensure that Catholic sympathizers would not be inclined to aid Jews in their efforts to subvert the council's rulings. Heavy fines awaited any nobles who acted in favor of the Jews, and members of the clergy who were remiss in enforcement were subject to a number of punishments.
[[Egica]] (687–702), recognizing the wrongness of forced baptism, relaxed the pressure on the "conversos", but kept it up on practicing Jews. Economic hardships included increased taxes and the forced sale, at a fixed price, of all property ever acquired from Christians. This effectively ended all [[agricultural]] activity for the Jews of Spain. Furthermore, Jews were not to engage in [[commerce]] with the Christians of the kingdom nor conduct business with Christians overseas. Egica's measures were upheld by the [[Sixteenth Council of Toledo]] in 693.
As demonstrated, under the Catholic Visigoths, the trend was clearly one of increasing persecutions. The degree of complicity which the Jews had in the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Islamic invasion]] in 711 is uncertain. Yet, openly treated as enemies in the country in which they had resided for generations, it would be no surprise for them to have appealed to the Moors to the south, quite tolerant in comparison to the Visigoths, for aid. In any case, in 694 they were accused of conspiring with the Muslims across the Mediterranean. Declared traitors, the Jews, including baptized ones, found their property confiscated and themselves enslaved. This decree exempted only the converts who dwelt in the mountain passes of [[Septimania]], who were necessary for the kingdom's protection.
The Jews of Spain had been utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule by the time of the Muslim invasion. To them, the Moors were perceived as, and indeed were, a liberating force. Wherever they went, the Muslims were greeted by Jews eager to aid them in administering the country. In many conquered towns the garrison was left in the hands of the Jews before the Muslims proceeded further north. Thus was initiated the period that became known as the "[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Golden Age]]" for Spanish Jews.
The Eastern Roman Empire sent its navy on numerous occasions at the end of the 7th and beginning of the 8th centuries to try and instill uprisings in the Jewish and Christian Roman populations in Spain and Gaul against Visigoth and Frankish rule, which was also aimed at halting the expansion of Muslim Arabs in the Roman world.
In 694, at the Council of Toledo, Jews were condemned to slavery by the Visigoths because of a plot to revolt against them encouraged by the Eastern Roman Empire and Romans still residing in Spain.
Moorish Spain (711 to 1492).
Moorish conquest.
With the victory of [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. For the most part, the invasion of the Moors was welcomed by the Jews of Iberia.
Both Muslim and Catholic sources tell us that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders. Once captured, the defense of Córdoba was left in the hands of Jews, and [[Granada]], [[Málaga]], [[Seville]], and [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. The Chronicle of [[Lucas de Tuy]] records that when the Catholics left Toledo on Sunday before [[Easter]] to go to the [[Iglesia de Santa Leocadia, Toledo|Church of Saint Leocadia]] to listen to the divine sermon, the Jews acted treacherously and informed the [[Saracen]]s. Then they closed the gates of the city before the Catholics and opened them for the Moors. Although, in contradiction to de Tuy's account, [[Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada]]'s "[[De rebus Hispaniae]]" maintains that Toledo was "almost of completely empty from its inhabitants", not because of Jewish treachery, but because "many had fled to Amiara, others to Asturias and some to the mountains", following which the city was fortified by a [[militia]] of Arabs and Jews (3.24). Although in the cases of some towns, the behavior of the Jews may have been conducive to Muslim success, such was of limited impact overall. (Assis, pp. 44–45).
In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as [[dhimmi]]s, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity in comparison to that under prior Catholic [[Visigoths]], as testified by the influx of Jews from abroad. To Jews throughout the Catholic and Muslim worlds, Iberia was seen as a land of relative tolerance and opportunity. Following initial Arab-Berber victories, and especially with the establishment of [[Umayyad dynasty]] rule by [[Abd al-Rahman I]] in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab territories from Morocco to [[Mesopotamia]] (the latter region known as [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]] in Jewish sources) (Assis, p. 12; Sarna, p. 324). Thus the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions. Contacts with Middle Eastern communities were strengthened and it was during this time that the influence of the Babylonian academies of [[Sura (city)|Sura]] and [[Pumbedita]] was at its greatest. As a result, until the mid-10th century, much of Sephardic scholarship focused on [[Halakha]].
Although not as influential, traditions of the Levant, known as [[Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina|Palestine]], were also introduced, in an increased interest in Hebrew language and biblical studies (Sarna, pp. 325–326).
Arabic culture, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General reevaluation of [[scripture]] was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish [[polemics]] and the spread of [[rationalism]], as well as the anti-[[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbanite]] polemics of [[Karaite Judaism]].
In adopting Arabic, as had the Babylonian [[geonim]], the heads of the [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], not only were the cultural and intellectual achievements of Arabic culture opened up to the educated Jew, but much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of Greek culture, which had been best preserved by Arab scholars, were as well. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest among Jews in [[philology|philological]] matters in general (Sarna, pp. 327–328). Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy, and everyday business. From the second half of the 9th century, most Jewish prose, including many non-halakhic religious works, were in Arabic. The thorough adoption of Arabic greatly facilitated the assimilation of Jews into Arabic culture (Dan, p. 115; Halkin, pp. 324–325).
Although initially the often bloody disputes among Muslim [[political faction|factions]] generally kept Jews out of the political sphere, the first approximately two centuries which preceded the "[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Golden Age]]" were marked by increased activity by Jews in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance, and agriculture (Raphael, p. 71).
By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] amongst previously Jewish "Catholics". Most famous were the heated correspondences sent between [[Bodo (deacon)|Bodo the Frank]], a former [[deacon]] who had [[conversion to Judaism|converted to Judaism]] in 838, and the [[converso]] Bishop of Córdoba, [[Álvaro of Córdoba (Mozarab)|Álvaro of Córdoba]]. Each man, using such [[epithet]]s as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to his former religion, to no avail (Katz, pp. 40–41; Stillman, pp. 54–55).
The caliphate of Córdoba.
The first period of exceptional prosperity took place under the reign of [[Abd ar-Rahman III]] (882–955), the first independent [[Caliph of Córdoba]]. The inauguration of the Golden Age is closely identified with the career of his Jewish councillor, [[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]] (882–942). Originally a court physician, Shaprut's official duties went on to include the supervision of [[customs]] and foreign trade. It was in his capacity as dignitary that he corresponded with the kingdom of the [[Khazars]], who had converted to Judaism in the 8th century (Assis, pp. 13, 47).
Abd al-Rahman III's support for Arabic scholasticism had made Iberia the center of Arabic philological research. It was within this context of cultural [[patronage]] that interest in Hebrew studies developed and flourished. With Hasdai as its leading patron, Córdoba became the "Mecca of Jewish scholars who could be assured of a hospitable welcome from Jewish [[courtiers]] and men of means" (Sarna, p. 327).
In addition to being a poet himself, Hasdai encouraged and supported the work of other Sephardic writers. Subjects covered the spectrum, encompassing religion, nature, music, and politics, as well as pleasure. Hasdai brought a number of men of letters to Córdoba, including [[Dunash ben Labrat]], innovator of Hebrew [[Meter (poetry)|metrical poetry]] and [[Menahem ben Saruq]], compiler of the first Hebrew dictionary, which came into wide use among the Jews of Germany and France. Celebrated poets of this era include [[Solomon ibn Gabirol]], [[Yehuda Halevi]], [[Samuel ibn Naghrela|Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela]], and [[Abraham ibn Ezra|Abraham]] and [[Moses ibn Ezra]] (Sassoon, p. 15; Stillman, p. 58).
Hasdai benefitted world Jewry not only indirectly by creating a favorable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia, but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews, as is reflected in his letter to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Princess Helena. In it he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attesting to the fair treatment of the Christians of "al-Andalus", and indicating that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad (Assis, p. 13; Mann, pp. 21–22).
The intellectual achievements of the Sephardim of "al-Andalus" influenced the lives of non-Jews as well. Most notable of literary contributions is [[Ibn Gabirol]]'s [[Neo-Platonism|neo-Platonic]] "Fons Vitae" ("The Source of Life"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, this work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages (Raphael, p. 78). Some Arabic philosophers followed Jewish ones in their ideas (though this phenomenon was somewhat hindered in that, although in Arabic, Jewish philosophical works were usually written with Hebrew characters) (Dan, p. 116). Jews were also active in such fields as [[astronomy]], [[medicine]], [[logic]], and [[mathematics]]. In addition to training the mind in logical yet abstract and subtle modes of thought, the study of the natural world, as the direct study of the work of the Creator, was ideally a way to better understand and become closer to God (Dan, pp. 7–8). "Al-Andalus" also became a major center of Jewish philosophy during Hasdai's time. Following in the tradition of the [[Talmud]] and the [[Midrash]], many of the most notable Jewish philosophers were dedicated to the field of [[ethics]] (although this ethical Jewish rationalism rested on the notion that traditional approaches had not been successful in their treatments of the subject in that they were lacking in rational, scientific arguments) (Dan, p. 117).
In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Greek texts were rendered into Arabic, Arabic into Hebrew, Hebrew and Arabic into Latin, and all combinations of vice versa. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of [[Renaissance]] learning, into the rest of Europe.
The Taifas, the Almoravids and the Almohads.
[[File:Al-andalus_229.png|thumb|right|250px|A Jew and a Muslim playing chess in 13th century al-Andalus. "[[Libro de los juegos]]", commissioned by [[Alphonse X of Castile]], 13th century. Madrid.]]
In the early 11th century, centralized authority based at Córdoba broke down following the [[Berber people|Berber]] invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent "[[taifa]]" principalities under the rule of local Arab, Berber, [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]], or [[Muwallad]] leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets, and scholars were generally valued by the Christian as well as Muslim rulers of regional centers, especially as recently conquered towns were put back in order (Assis, pp. 13–14; Raphael, p. 75).
Among the most prominent of Jews to serve as [[vizier]]s in the Muslim taifas were the ibn Nagrelas (or Naghrela). [[Samuel ibn Naghrela|Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela]] (993–1056) served Granada's [[King Habbus]] and his son Badis for thirty years. In addition to his roles as policy director and military leader (as one of only two Jews to command Muslim armies — the other being his son Joseph), Samuel ibn Nagrela was an accomplished poet, and his introduction to the Talmud is standard today. His son [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] also acted as vizier. He was murdered in the 1066 Granada massacre. There were other Jewish viziers serving in [[Seville]], [[Lucena, Córdoba|Lucena]], and [[Saragossa]] (Assis, p. 14).
The [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada massacre of 1066]] was an Anti-Jewish Pogrom that took place in Granada in 1066 when a Muslim mob stormed the Royal Palace where Joseph had sought refuge, then crucified him. After that, the instigators attacked 1500 Jewish families, killing approximately 4,000 Granada Jews.
The Golden Age ended before the completion of the Christian "[[Reconquista]]". The Granada massacre was one of the earliest signs of a decline in the status of Jews, which resulted largely from the penetration and influence of increasingly zealous Islamic sects from North Africa.
Following the fall of Toledo to Christians in 1085, the ruler of Seville sought relief from the [[Almoravides]]. This [[Asceticism|ascetic]] sect abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of "al-Andalus", including the position of authority that some "dhimmis" held over Muslims. In addition to battling the Christians, who were gaining ground, the Almoravides implemented numerous reforms to bring "al-Andalus" more in line with their notion of proper Islam. In spite of large-scale forcible conversions, Sephardic culture was not entirely decimated. Members of Lucena's Jewish community, for example, managed to bribe their way out of conversion. As the spirit of [[Andalusia]]n Islam was absorbed by the Almoravides, policies concerning Jews were relaxed. The poet [[Moses ibn Ezra]] continued to write during this time, and several Jews served as diplomats and physicians to the Almoravides (Assis, p. 14; Gampel, p. 20).
Wars in North Africa with Muslim tribes eventually forced the Almoravides to withdraw their forces from Iberia. As the Christians advanced, Iberian Muslims again appealed to their brethren to the south, this time to those who had displaced the Almoravides in North Africa. The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the "dhimmis" harshly. Jews and Christians were expelled from [[Morocco]] and [[Islamic Spain]]. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to the more tolerant Moslem lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. (Assis, p. 16; Gampel; pp. 20–21; Stillman, pp. 51, 73.)
Meanwhile, the "Reconquista" continued in the north. By the early 12th century, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms became increasingly favorable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns following the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the Christian leaders who were increasingly emerging victorious during the later "Reconquista". Their knowledge of the language and culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals, as well as their desire for relief from intolerable conditions, rendered their services of great value to the Christians during the "Reconquista" — the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Moslem invasion. The necessity to have conquerors settle in reclaimed territories also outweighed the prejudices of [[anti-Semitism]], at least while the Moslem threat was imminent. Thus, as conditions in Islamic Iberia worsened, immigration to Christian principalities increased (Assis, p. 17).
The Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations, however. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with the Moslems were alive and well as Jews immigrated from Muslim territories, speaking the Muslim tongue. However, many of the newly arrived Jews of the north prospered during the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during this period refers to their landed property, fields, and vineyards (Ashtor, pp. 250–251).
In many ways life had come full circle for the Sephardim of "al-Andalus". As conditions became more oppressive in the areas under Muslim rule during the 12th and 13th centuries, Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered and developed as communities grew in size and importance (Assis, p. 18). However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age.
Christian kingdoms (974–1300).
[[File:Leon1030.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Spanish kingdoms in 1030]]
Early rule (974–1085).
Catholic princes, the counts of Castile and the first kings of Leon, treated the Jews as mercilessly as did the Almohades. In their operations against the Moors they did not spare the Jews, destroying their synagogues and killing their teachers and scholars. Only gradually did the rulers come to realize that, surrounded as they were by powerful enemies, they could not afford to turn the Jews against them. [[Garcia Fernandez]], Count of Castile, in the fuero of Castrojeriz (974), placed the Jews in many respects on an equality with Catholics; and similar measures were adopted by the Council of Leon (1020), presided over by [[Alfonso V of León|Alfonso V]]. In Leon, the metropolis of Catholic Spain until the conquest of Toledo, many Jews owned real estate, and engaged in agriculture and viticulture as well as in the handicrafts; and here, as in other towns, they lived on friendly terms with the Catholic population. The [[Council of Coyanza]] (1050) therefore found it necessary to revive the old-Visigothic law forbidding, under pain of punishment by the Church, Jews and Catholics to live together in the same house, or to eat together.
Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212).
Ferdinand I of Castile set aside a part of the Jewish taxes for the use of the Church, and even the not very religious-minded Alfonso VI gave to the church of Leon the taxes paid by the Jews of Castro. Alfonso VI, the conqueror of Toledo (1085), was tolerant and benevolent in his attitude toward the Jews, for which he won the praise of Pope Alexander II. To estrange the wealthy and industrious Jews from the Moors he offered the former various privileges. In the fuero of Najara Sepulveda, issued and confirmed by him (1076), he not only granted the Jews full equality with the Catholics, but he even accorded them the rights enjoyed by the nobility. To show their gratitude to the king for the rights granted them, the Jews willingly placed themselves at his and the country's service. Alfonso's army contained 40,000 Jews, who were distinguished from the other combatants by their black-and-yellow turbans; for the sake of this Jewish contingent the [[Battle of Sagrajas]] was not begun until after the Sabbath had passed. The king's favoritism toward the Jews, which became so pronounced that Pope Gregory VII warned him not to permit Jews to rule over Catholics, roused the hatred and envy of the latter. After the unfortunate [[Battle of Uclés (1108)|Battle of Uclés]], at which the Infante Sancho, together with 30,000 men were killed, an anti-Jewish riot broke out in Toledo; many Jews were slain, and their houses and synagogues were burned (1108). Alfonso intended to punish the murderers and incendiaries, but died before he could carry out his intention (June, 1109). After his death the inhabitants of Carrion fell upon the Jews; many were slain, others were imprisoned, and their houses were pillaged.
[[File:Spanishhaggadah.jpg|thumb|Image of a [[Hazzan|cantor]] reading the [[Passover]] story, from the 14th-century Barcelona [[Haggadah]]]]
[[Alfonso VII]], who assumed the title of Emperor of Leon, Toledo, and Santiago, curtailed in the beginning of his reign the rights and liberties which his father had granted the Jews. He ordered that neither a Jew nor a convert might exercise legal authority over Catholics, and he held the Jews responsible for the collection of the royal taxes. Soon, however, he became more friendly, confirming the Jews in all their former privileges and even granting them additional ones, by which they were placed on an equality with Catholics. Considerable influence with the king was enjoyed by [[Judah ben Joseph ibn Ezra]] (Nasi). After the conquest of Calatrava (1147) the king placed Judah in command of the fortress, later making him his court chamberlain. Judah ben Joseph stood in such favor with the king that the latter, at his request, not only admitted into Toledo the Jews who had fled from the persecutions of the Almohades, but even assigned many fugitives dwellings in Flascala (near Toledo), Fromista, Carrion, Palencia, and other places, where new congregations were soon established.
After the brief reign of King Sancho III, a war broke out between Fernando II of Leon (who granted the Jews special privileges) and the united kings of Aragon and Navarre. Jews fought in both armies, and after the declaration of peace they were placed in charge of the fortresses. Alfonso VIII of Castile (1166–1214), who had succeeded to the throne, entrusted the Jews with guarding Or, Celorigo, and, later, Mayorga, while [[Sancho VI of Navarre|Sancho]] the Wise of Navarre placed them in charge of [[Estella - Lizarra|Estella]], Funes, and Murañon. During the reign of Alfonso VIII the Jews gained still greater influence, aided, doubtless, by the king's love of the beautiful Rachel (Fermosa) of Toledo, who was Jewish. When the king was defeated at the battle of Alarcos by the Almohades under Yusuf Abu Ya'kub al-Mansur, the defeat was attributed to the king's love-affair with Fermosa, and she and her relatives were murdered in Toledo by the nobility. After the victory at Alarcos the emir Mohammed al-Nasir ravaged Castile with a powerful army and threatened to overrun the whole of Catholic Spain. The Archbishop of Toledo called to crusade to aid Alfonso. In this war against the Moors the king was greatly aided by the wealthy Jews of Toledo, especially by his "almoxarife mayor", the learned and generous Nasi Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan (Al-Hajib ibn Amar).
Turning point (1212–1300).
[[File:Spanish kingdoms 1210.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Spanish kingdoms in 1210]]
The Crusaders were hailed with joy in Toledo, but this joy was soon changed to sorrow, as far as the Jews were concerned. The Crusaders began the "holy war" in Toledo (1212) by robbing and killing the Jews, and if the knights had not checked them with armed forces all the Jews in Toledo would have been slain. When, after the sanguinary battle of [[Las Navas de Tolosa]] (1212), Alfonso victoriously entered Toledo, the Jews went to meet him in triumphal procession. Shortly before his death (Oct., 1214) the king issued the "fuero de Cuenca", settling the legal position of the Jews in a manner favorable to them.
A turning-point in the history of the Jews of Spain was reached under [[Ferdinand III of Castile|Ferdinand III]] (who united permanently the kingdoms of Leon and Castile), and under [[James I of Aragon|James I]], the contemporary ruler of Aragon. The clergy's endeavors directed against the Jews became more and more pronounced. The Spanish Jews of both sexes, like the Jews of France, were compelled to distinguish themselves from Catholics by wearing a [[yellow badge]] on their clothing; this order was issued to keep them from associating with Catholics, although the reason given was that it was ordered for their own safety. Some Jews such as [[Vidal Taroç]], were also allowed to own land.
The [[papal bull]] issued by [[Pope Innocent IV]] in April 1250, to the effect that Jews might not build a new synagogue without special permission, also made it illegal for Jews to proselytize, under pain of death and confiscation of property. They might not associate with the Catholics, live under the same roof with them, eat and drink with them, or use the same bath; neither might a Catholic partake of wine which had been prepared by a Jew. The Jews might not employ Catholic nurses or servants, and Catholics might use only medicinal remedies which had been prepared by competent Catholic apothecaries. Every Jew should wear the badge, though the king reserved to himself the right to exempt any one from this obligation; any Jew apprehended without the badge was liable to a fine of ten gold [[maravedí]]s or to the infliction of ten stripes. The Jews were forbidden to appear in public on Good Friday.
The Jewish community in 1300.
[[File:Sarejevohagadah.gif|right|thumb|300px|An illustration from the [[Sarajevo Haggadah]], written in fourteenth-century Spain]]
The Jews in Spain were citizens of the kingdoms in which they resided ([[Crown of Castile|Castile]], [[Aragón]], and [[Valencia]] were the most important), both as regards their customs and their language. They owned real estate, and they cultivated their land with their own hands; they filled public offices, and on account of their industry they became wealthy while their knowledge and ability won them respect and influence. But this prosperity roused the jealousy of the people and provoked the hatred of the clergy; the Jews had to suffer much through these causes. The kings, especially those of Aragon, regarded the Jews as their property; they spoke of "their" Jews, "their" "juderías" (Jewish neighborhoods), and in their own interest they protected the Jews against violence, making good use of them in every way possible. The Jews were vassals of the king, the same as Christian commoners.
There were about 120 Jewish communities in Catholic Spain around 1300, with somewhere around half a million or more Jews, mostly in Castille. Catalonia, Aragón, and Valencia were more sparsely inhabited by Jews.
Even though the Spanish Jews engaged in many branches of human endeavor—agriculture, viticulture, industry, commerce, and the various handicrafts—it was the money business that procured to some of them their wealth and influence. Kings and prelates, noblemen and farmers, all needed money and could obtain it only from the Jews, to whom they paid from 20 to 25 per cent interest. This business, which, in a manner, the Jews were forced to pursue in order to pay the many taxes imposed upon them as well as to raise the compulsory loans demanded of them by the kings, led to their being employed in special positions, as "almonries", bailiffs, tax collectors.
The Jews of Spain formed in themselves a separate political body. They lived almost solely in the Juderias, various enactments being issued from time to time preventing them from living elsewhere. From the time of the Moors they had had their own administration. At the head of the aljamas in Castile stood the "rab de la corte", or "rab mayor" (court, or chief, rabbi), also called "juez mayor" (chief justice), who was the principal mediator between the state and the aljamas. These court rabbis were men who had rendered services to the state, as, for example, [[David ibn Yah.ya]] and [[Abraham Benveniste]], or who had been royal physicians, as [[Meïr Alguadez]] and [[Jacob ibn Nuñez]], or chief-tax-farmers, as the last incumbent of the court rabbi's office, [[Abraham Senior]]. They were appointed by the kings, no regard being paid to the rabbinical qualifications or religious inclination of those chosen
1300–1391.
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|270px|"At the Feet of the Savior", [[pogrom|massacre of Jews]] in Toledo, oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
In the beginning of the fourteenth century the position of Jews became precarious throughout Spain as [[antisemitism]] increased. Many Jews emigrated from Castile and from Aragon. It was not until the reigns of [[Alfonso IV of Aragon|Alfonso IV]] and [[Peter IV of Aragon]], and of the young and active [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] (1325), that an improvement set in. In 1328, 5,000 Jews were killed in [[Navarre]] following the preaching of a mendicant friar.
[[Peter of Castile]], the son and successor of Alfonso XI, was relatively favorably disposed toward the Jews, who under him reached the zenith of their influence - often exemplified by the success of his treasurer, [[Samuel ha-Levi]]. For this reason the king was called "the heretic" and often "the cruel". Peter, whose education had been neglected, was not quite sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne (1350). From the commencement of his reign he so surrounded himself with Jews that his enemies in derision spoke of his court as "a Jewish court".
Soon, however a civil war erupted, as [[Henry II of Castile]] and his brother, at the head of a mob, invaded on 7 May 1355 that part of the [[Judería of Toledo]] called the "Alcaná"; they plundered the warehouses and [[pogrom|murdered about 1200 Jews]], without distinction of age or sex. The mob did not, however, succeed in overrunning the Judería of Toledo proper, which was defended by the Jews and by knights loyal to the King.Following the succession of [[John I of Castile]], conditions for Jews seem to have improved somewhat. With John I even making legal exemptions for some Jews, such as [[Abraham David Taroç]].
The more friendly Peter showed himself toward the Jews, and the more he protected them, the more antagonistic became the attitude of his illegitimate half-brother, who, when he invaded Castile in 1360, murdered all the Jews living in [[Nájera]] and exposed those of [[Miranda de Ebro]] to robbery and death.
[[File:Spain and Western North Africa 1360.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Spanish kingdoms in 1360]]
Anti-Jewish enactments.
In the [[Soria (Cortes of Castile and León constituency)|Cortes of Soria]] (1380) it was enacted that rabbis, or heads of [[aljama]]s, should be forbidden, under penalty of a fine of 6000 [[maravedí]]s, to inflict upon Jews the penalties of death, mutilation, expulsion, or excommunication; but in civil proceedings they were still permitted to choose their own judges. In consequence of an accusation that the Jewish prayers contained clauses cursing the Catholics, the king ordered that within two months, on pain of a fine of 3000 maravedís, they should remove from their prayer-books the objectionable passages. Whoever caused the conversion to Judaism of a Moor or of any one confessing another faith, or performed the rite of circumcision upon him, became a slave and the property of the treasury. The Jews no longer dared show themselves in public without the badge, and in consequence of the ever-growing hatred toward them they were no longer sure of life or limb; they were attacked and robbed and murdered in the public streets, and at length the king found it necessary to impose a fine of 6,000 maravedís on any town in which a Jew was found murdered. Against his desire, John was obliged (1385) to issue an order prohibiting the employment of Jews as financial agents or tax-farmers to the king, queen, infantes, or grandees. To this was added the resolution adopted by the [[Council of Palencia]] ordering the complete separation of Jews and Catholics and the prevention of any association between them.
Massacres and mass conversions of 1391.
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|270px|"Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391" ([[Josep Segrelles]], c. 1910)]]
"The execution of Joseph Pichon and the inflammatory speeches and sermons delivered in Seville by Archdeacon [[Ferrand Martínez]], the pious Queen Leonora's confessor, soon raised the hatred of the populace to the highest pitch. The feeble King John I, in spite of the endeavors of his physician Moses ibn Ẓarẓal to prolong his life, died at Alcalá de Henares on October 9, 1390, and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son. The council-regent appointed by the king in his testament, consisting of prelates, grandees, and six citizens from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, and Murcia, was powerless; every vestige of respect for law and justice had disappeared. Ferrand Martínez, although deprived of his office, continued, in spite of numerous warnings, to incite the public against the Jews, and encourage it to acts of violence. As early as January, 1391, the prominent Jews who were assembled in Madrid received information that riots were threatening in Seville and Córdoba.
A revolt broke out in Seville in 1391. Juan Alfonso de Guzmán, Count of Niebla and governor of the city, and his relative, the "alguazil mayor" Alvar Pérez de Guzmán, had ordered, on [[Ash Wednesday]], March 15, the arrest and public whipping of two of the mob-leaders. The fanatical mob, still further exasperated thereby, murdered and robbed several Jews and threatened the Guzmáns with death. In vain did the regency issue prompt orders; Ferrand Martínez continued unhindered his inflammatory appeals to the rabble to kill the Jews or baptize them. On June 6 the mob attacked the [[Judería of Seville]] from all sides and killed 4000 Jews; the rest [[Marrano|submitted to baptism]] as the only means of escaping death."
"At this time Seville is said to have contained 7000 Jewish families. Of the three large synagogues existing in the city two were transformed into churches. In all the towns throughout the archbishopric, as in [[Alcalá de Guadaíra|Alcalá de Guadeira]], [[Écija]], [[Cazalla]], and in [[Fregenal de la Sierra]], the Jews were robbed and slain. In Córdoba this butchery was repeated in a horrible manner; the entire [[Judería of Cordoba]] was burned down; factories and warehouses were destroyed by the flames. Before the authorities could come to the aid of the defenseless people, every one of them — children, young women, old men — had been ruthlessly slain; 2000 corpses lay in heaps in the streets, in the houses, and in the wrecked synagogues."
"The last town visited was [[Lérida]] (August 13). The Jews of this city vainly sought protection in the [[Alcázar]]; 75 were slain, and the rest were baptized; the latter transformed their synagogue into a church, in which they worshiped as [[Marrano]]s."
Several responses bearing on the widespread persecution of Iberian Jewry between the years 1390 and 1391 can be found in contemporary Jewish sources, such as in the "Responsa" of [[Isaac ben Sheshet]] (1326 – 1408), and in the seminal writing of [[Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph]], "Shalshelet haQabbalah" (written ca. 1586), as also in [[Abraham Zacuto]]’s "Sefer Yuḥasin", in [[Solomon ibn Verga]]’s "Shevaṭ Yehudah", as well as in a Letter written to the Jews of [[Avignon]] by Don [[Hasdai Crescas]] in the winter of 1391 concerning the events in Spain in the year 1391.
According to Don Hasdai Crescas, persecution against Jews began in earnest in [[Seville]] in 1391, on the 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz (June). From there the violence spread to [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and by the 17th day of the same lunar month, it had reached [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] (called then by Jews after its Arabic name, "Ṭulayṭulah") in the region of [[Old Castile]]. From there, the violence had spread to Mallorca and by the 1st day of the lunar month Elul it had also reached the Jews of [[Barcelona]] in [[Catalonia]], where the slain were estimated at two-hundred and fifty. So, too, many Jews who resided in the neighboring provinces of [[Province of Lleida|Lérida]] and Gironda and in the kingdom of [[Valencia|València]] had been affected, as were also the Jews of [[al-Andalus]], whereas many died a martyr's death, while others converted in order to save themselves.
1391–1492.
Many of the Jews from Valencia, Catalonia and Aragon thronged to [[North Africa]], particularly [[Algiers]].
Anti-Jewish laws.
At the Catholic preacher Ferrer's request a law consisting of twenty-four clauses, which had been drawn up by [[Paul of Burgos]], né Solomon haLevi, was issued in January 1412 in the name of the child-king [[John II of Castile]].
The object of this law was to reduce the Jews to poverty and to further humiliate them. They were ordered to live by themselves, in enclosed Juderías, and they were to repair, within eight days after the publication of the order, to the quarters assigned them under penalty of loss of property. They were prohibited from practising medicine, surgery, or chemistry (pharmacy) and from dealing in bread, wine, flour, meat, etc. They might not engage in handicrafts or trades of any kind, nor might they fill public offices, or act as money-brokers or agents. They were not allowed to hire Catholic servants, farmhands, lamplighters, or gravediggers; nor might they eat, drink, or bathe with Catholics, or hold intimate conversation (have sexual relations) with them, or visit them, or give them presents. Catholic women, married or unmarried, were forbidden to enter the Judería either by day or by night. The Jews were allowed no self-jurisdiction whatever, nor might they, without royal permission, levy taxes for communal purposes; they might not assume the title of "Don", carry arms, or trim beard or hair. Jewish women were required to wear plain, long mantles of coarse material reaching to the feet; and it was strictly forbidden for Jews to wear garments made of better material. On pain of loss of property and even of slavery, they were forbidden to leave the country, and any grandee or knight who protected or sheltered a fugitive Jew was punished with a fine of 150,000 maravedís for the first offense. These laws, which were rigidly enforced, any violation of them being punished with a fine of 300–2,000 maravedís and flagellation, were calculated to compel the Jews to embrace Catholicism.
[[File:Jewish Quarter Gerona.jpg|thumb|A lane in the old Jewish Quarter, called "El Call", of [[Girona]], which includes the [[Girona Synagogue]]. Girona's Jewish community was lost as a result of the Expulsion.]]
The persecution of the Jews was now pursued systematically. In the hope of mass-conversions, Benedict issued, on May 11, 1415, a bull consisting of twelve articles, which, in the main, corresponded with the decree ("Pragmática") issued by Catalina, and which had been placed on the statutes of Aragon by Fernando. By this bull Jews and neophytes were forbidden to study the Talmud, to read anti-Catholic writings, in particular the work "Macellum" ("Mar Jesu"), to pronounce the names of Jesus, Maria, or the saints, to manufacture communion-cups or other church vessels or accept such as pledges, or to build new synagogues or ornament old ones. Each community might have only one synagogue. Jews were denied all rights of self-jurisdiction, nor might they proceed against "malsines" (accusers). They might hold no public offices, nor might they follow any handicrafts, or act as brokers, matrimonial agents, physicians, apothecaries, or druggists. They were forbidden to bake or sell [[matzo]]t, or to give them away; neither might they dispose of meat which they were prohibited from eating. They might have no intercourse (sex) with Catholics, nor might they disinherit their baptized children. They should wear the badge at all times, and thrice a year all Jews over twelve, of both sexes, were required to listen to a Catholic sermon. (the bull is reprinted, from a manuscript in the archives of the cathedral in Toledo, by Rios ["Hist." ii. 627–653]).
As soon as the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella ascended their respective thrones, steps were taken to segregate the Jews both from the [[converso]]s and from their fellow countrymen. At the Cortes of Toledo, in 1480, all Jews were ordered to be separated in special barrios, and at the Cortes of Fraga, two years later, the same law was enforced in Navarre, where they were ordered to be confined to the Juderías at night. The same year saw the establishment of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], the main object of which was to deal with the conversos. Though both monarchs were surrounded by Neo-Catholics, such as Pedro de Caballería and [[Luis de Santángel]], and though Ferdinand was the grandson of a Jew, he showed the greatest intolerance to Jews, whether converted or otherwise, commanding all "conversos" to reconcile themselves with the Inquisition by the end of 1484, and obtaining a bull from [[Pope Innocent VIII]] ordering all Catholic princes to restore all fugitive conversos to the Inquisition of Spain. One of the reasons for the increased rigor of the Catholic monarchs was the disappearance of the fear of any united action by Jews and Moors, the kingdom of Granada being at its last gasp. The rulers did, however, promise the Jews of the Moorish kingdom that they could continue to enjoy their existing rights in exchange for aiding the Spaniards in overthrowing the Moors. This promise dated February 11, 1490, was repudiated, however, by the decree of expulsion. See the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain]].
Architecture.
A small number of pre-expulsion synagogues survive, including the [[Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca]] and the [[Synagogue of El Tránsito]] in Toledo, the [[Córdoba Synagogue]], the [[Híjar Synagogue]], the [[Old main synagogue, Segovia]] and the [[Synagogue of Tomar]].
Edict of Expulsion.
[[File:Alhambra Decree.jpg|right|thumb|A signed copy of the [[Alhambra Decree]]]]
[[File:Expulsión de los judíos.jpg|thumb|"The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (in the year 1492)" by [[Emilio Sala (painter)|Emilio Sala Francés]]]]
Several months after the [[fall of Granada]], an edict of expulsion called the [[Alhambra Decree]] was issued against the Jews of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella on 31 March 1492. It ordered all Jews of whatever age to leave the kingdom by the last day of July: one day before [[Tisha B'Av]]). They were permitted to take their property provided it was not in gold, silver, or money.
The reason alleged for this action in the preamble of the edict was the relapse of so many conversos owing to the proximity of unconverted Jews, who seduced them from Christianity and kept alive in them the knowledge and practices of Judaism.
It is claimed that [[Isaac Abarbanel]], who had previously ransomed 480 Jews of Málaga from the Catholic Monarchs by a payment of 20,000 [[doubloon]]s, now offered them 600,000 [[crown (currency)|crowns]] for the revocation of the edict. It is said also that Ferdinand hesitated, but was prevented from accepting the offer by [[Tomás de Torquemada]], the grand inquisitor, who dashed into the royal presence and, throwing a crucifix down before the king and queen, asked whether, like Judas, they would betray their Lord for money. Torquemada was reputedly of converso ancestry, and the confessor of Isabella, Espina, being previously a Rabin. Whatever the truth of this story, there were no signs of relaxation shown by the court, and the Jews of Spain made preparations for exile. In some cases, as at [[Vitoria-Gasteiz|Vitoria]], they took steps to prevent the desecration of the graves of their kindred by presenting the cemetery, called the "Judumendi", to the municipality — a precaution not unjustified, as the Jewish cemetery of Seville was later ravaged by the people. The members of the Jewish community of Segovia passed the last three days of their stay in the city in the Jewish cemetery, fasting and wailing over being parted from their beloved dead.
Number of exiles.
The number of Jews exiled from Spain is subject to controversy, with highly exaggerated figures provided by early observers and historians offering figures which numbered the hundreds of thousands. By the time of the expulsion, little more than 100,000 practicing Jews remained in Spain, the majority having already converted to Catholicism. This in addition to the indeterminate number who managed to return has led to recent academic investigations such as those of Joseph Pérez and Julio Valdeón to offer figures of somewhere between 50,000 and 80,000 practicing Jews expelled from Spanish territory.
European context of expulsions.
[[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|Jewish expulsion]] is a well established trend in [[History of Europe|European history]]. From the 13th to the 16th century, at least 15 European countries expelled their Jewish populations. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain was preceded by expulsions from [[Edict of Expulsion|England]], [[History of the Jews in France#Expulsion of 1394|France]] and [[Erfurt massacre (1349)|Germany]], among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions.
Conversos.
[[File:Maimon-Marrans.jpg|thumb|"[[Marranos]]: Secret [[Passover Seder|Seder]] in Spain during the times of inquisition", an 1892 painting by [[Moshe Maimon]] ]]
Henceforth the history of the Jews in Spain is that of the [[converso]]s, whose numbers, as has been shown, had been increased by no less than 50,000 during the period of the expulsion to a possible total of 300,000. For three centuries after the expulsion, Spanish Conversos were subject to suspicion by the Spanish Inquisition which executed over 3000 people in the 1570-1700 period on charges of heresy (including Judaism among others). They were also subject to more general discriminatory laws known as "limpieza de sangre" which required Spaniards to prove their "old Christian" background in order to access certain positions of authority. During this period hundreds of conversos escaped to nearby countries such as England, France and the [[Netherlands]], or converted back to Judaism, thus becoming part of the communities of Western Sephardim or [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]].
Conversos played an important leadership role in the [[Revolt of the Comuneros]] (1520-1522), a popular revolt and Civil War centered in the region of Castile against the imperial pretensions of the Spanish monarchy.
1858 to the present.
Small numbers of Jews started to arrive in Spain in the 19th century, and synagogues were opened in Madrid.
The [[Moroccan Jews|Jews of Morocco]], where the initial welcome had turned to oppression as centuries passed by, had welcomed the Spanish troops establishing the [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco]] as their liberators, [[General Franco]] had interviews with some Sefardim, and spoke well of them.
By 1900, and not taking Ceuta and Melilla into account, about 1,000 Jews lived in Spain.
Spanish historians started to take an interest in the Sephardim and [[Judaeo-Spanish]], their language. There was a Spanish rediscovery of the Jews of Northern Morocco who still conserved this language and old Spanish customs.
The [[dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera]] (1923–1930) decreed the right to Spanish citizenship to a certain number of Sephardim on December 20, 1924. The condition was that they had enjoyed Spanish protection before while living in the [[Ottoman Empire]] and that they applied before December 31, 1930. A similar measure was undertaken by the French government regarding non-Muslims in the [[Levant]] who had been protected by France before. The decree especially addressed [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Jews from Thessaloniki]] who had refused to take either Greek or Turkish citizenship. The decree was later used by some Spanish diplomats for saving Sephardi Jews from persecution and death during [[the Holocaust]].
Prior to the Spanish Civil War and not taking Ceuta and Melilla into account, about 6,000–7,000 Jews lived in Spain, most of them living in Barcelona and Madrid.
Spanish Civil War & World War II.
During the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939), synagogues were closed and post-war worship was kept in private homes. Jewish public life resumed in 1947 with the arrival of Jews from Europe and North Africa.
In the first years of the World War II, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored." They were mainly from Western Europe, fleeing deportation to concentration camps from occupied France, but also Jews from Eastern Europe, especially Hungary. Trudi Alexy refers to the "absurdity" and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis' [[Final Solution]] to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries."
Throughout [[World War II]], Spanish diplomats of the Franco government extended their protection to Eastern European Jews, especially in [[Hungary]]. Jews claiming Spanish ancestry were provided with Spanish documentation without being required to prove their case and either left for Spain or survived the war with the help of their new legal status in occupied countries.
Once the tide of war began to turn, and Count [[Francisco Gómez-Jordana Sousa]] succeeded Franco's brother-in-law [[Ramón Serrano Suñer]] as Spain's foreign minister, Spanish diplomacy became "more sympathetic to Jews", although Franco himself "never said anything" about this. Around that same time, a contingent of Spanish doctors travelling in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Occupied Poland]] were fully informed of the Nazi extermination plans by Governor-General [[Hans Frank]], who was under the impression that they would share his views about the matter; when they came home, they passed the story to Admiral [[Luís Carrero Blanco]], who told Franco.
Diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near [[Casablanca]] but it came to naught due to lack of [[Free France|Free French]] and British support. Nonetheless, control of the Spanish border with France relaxed somewhat at this time, and thousands of Jews managed to cross into Spain (many by smugglers' routes). Almost all of them survived the war. The [[American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee]] operated openly in Barcelona.
Shortly afterwards, Spain began giving citizenship to [[Sephardi Jews]] in [[Greece]], Hungary, [[Bulgaria]], and [[Romania]]; many [[Ashkenazi Jews]] also managed to be included, as did some non-Jews. The Spanish head of mission in [[Budapest]], [[Ángel Sanz Briz]], saved thousands of Ashkenazim in Hungary by granting them Spanish citizenship, placing them in safe houses and teaching them minimal Spanish so they could pretend to be Sephardim, at least to someone who did not know Spanish. The Spanish diplomatic corps was performing a balancing act: Alexy conjectures that the number of Jews they took in was limited by how much German hostility they were willing to engender.
Toward the war's end, Sanz Briz had to flee Budapest, leaving these Jews open to arrest and deportation. An Italian diplomat, [[Giorgio Perlasca]], who was himself living under Spanish protection, used forged documents to persuade the Hungarian authorities that he was the new Spanish Ambassador. As such, he continued Spanish protection of Hungarian Jews until the Red Army arrived.
Although Spain effectively undertook more to help Jews escape deportation to the concentration camps than most neutral countries did, there has been debate about Spain's wartime attitude towards refugees. Franco's regime, despite its aversion to [[Zionism]] and "Judeo-Marxist"-[[Freemasonry]] conspiracy, does not appear to have shared the rabid anti-Semitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 25,000 to 35,000 refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond.
Some historians argue that these facts demonstrate a humane attitude by Franco's regime, while others point out that the regime only permitted Jewish transit through Spain. After the war, Franco's regime was quite hospitable to those who had been responsible for the deportation of the Jews, notably [[Louis Darquier de Pellepoix]], Commissioner for Jewish Affairs (May 1942 – February 1944) in [[Vichy France]], and to many other former Nazis, such as [[Otto Skorzeny]] and [[Léon Degrelle]], and other former Fascists.
[[José Finat y Escrivá de Romaní|José María Finat y Escrivá de Romaní]], Franco's chief of security, issued an official order dated May 13, 1941 to all provincial governors requesting a list of all Jews, both local and foreign, present in their districts. After the list of six thousand names was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver it personally to [[Heinrich Himmler]]. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived.
At around the same time, synagogues were opened and the communities could hold a discreet degree of activity.
On December 29, 1948, the official state bulletin (BOE) published a list of Sefardím family surnames from [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]] to which a special protection should be granted.
The [[Alhambra Decree]] that had expelled the Jews was formally rescinded on December 16, 1968.
Spain and Israel.
The later Israeli ambassador [[Shlomo Ben-Ami]] still remembers the [[Spanish Legion]] escorting his family out of [[Tangiers]], Morocco, towards Israeli ships anchored in [[Ceuta]]. During the [[Spanish transition to democracy]], the recognition of Israel was one of the issues of modernization.
The [[Union of the Democratic Centre (Spain)|Union of the Democratic Centre]] governments were divided. They did not want to risk the Arab friendship and subjected the establishment to the beginning of a durable solution of the Israeli-Arab conflict. After years of negotiations, the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] government of [[Felipe González]] established relations with Israel in 1986, denying links between relations and the admission of Spain into the [[European Economic Community]]. Spain tries to serve as a bridge between Israel and the Arabs as seen in the [[Madrid Conference of 1991]].
Between 1948, the year Israel was created, and 2010, 1747 Spanish Jews made [[aliyah]] to Israel.
Modern Jewish community.
There are currently around 50,000 Spanish Jews, with the largest communities in [[Barcelona]] and [[Madrid]] each with around 3,500 members. There are smaller communities in [[Alicante]], [[Málaga]], [[Tenerife]], [[Granada]], [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]], [[Benidorm]], [[Cadiz]], [[Murcia]] and many more.
[[Barcelona]], with a Jewish community of 3,500, has the largest concentration of Jews in Spain. [[Melilla]] maintains an old community of Sephardic Jews. The city of [[Murcia]] in the southeast of the country has a growing Jewish community and a local synagogue. [[Kosher]] [[olive]]s are produced in this region and exported to Jews around the world. Also there is a new Jewish school in Murcia as a result of the growth in Jewish population immigrating to the Murcia community PolarisWorld.
The modern Jewish community in Spain consists mainly of [[Sephardim]] from Northern Africa, especially the [[Spanish Africa (disambiguation)|former Spanish colonies]]. In the 1970s, there was also an influx of [[History of the Jews in Argentina|Argentine Jews]], mainly Ashkenazim, escaping from the military Junta. With the birth of the European community, Jews from other countries in Europe are moving to Spain because of its weather, lifestyle as well as for its cost of living relative to the north of Europe. Some Jews see Spain as an easier life for retirees and for young people. Mazarron has seen its Jewish community grow as well as La Manga, Cartagena and Alicante.
Moreover, Reform and liberal communities have arisen in cities like Barcelona or Oviedo during the last decade.
Some famous Spaniards of Jewish descent are the businesswomen [[Alicia Koplowitz, marquise of Bellavista|Alicia]] and [[Esther Koplowitz, consort marquise of Cubas|Esther Koplowitz]], the politician [[Enrique Múgica Herzog]], and [[Isak Andic]], founder of the clothing design and manufacturing company [[Mango (clothing)|Mango]], though only the latter is of Sephardic origin.
There are rare cases of [[Conversion to Judaism|Jewish converts]], like the writer [[Jon Juaristi]]. Today there is an interest by some Jewish groups working in Spain to encourage the descendants of the Marranos to return to Judaism. This has resulted in a limited number of conversions to the Jewish faith.
Like other religious communities in Spain, the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain (FCJE) has established agreements with the Spanish government,<ref name="25/1992">"Ley 25/1992, de 10 de noviembre, por la que se aprueba el acuerdo de cooperación del Estado con la Federación de Comunidades Israelistas de España.</ref> regulating the status of Jewish clergy, places of worship, teaching, marriages, holidays, tax benefits, and heritage conservation.
In 2014 it was announced that the descendants of [[Sephardic Jews]] who were expelled from Spain by the [[Alhambra Decree]] of 1492 would be offered Spanish citizenship, without being required to move to Spain and/or renounce any other citizenship they may have. In 2014, residents of a village in Spain called Castrillo Matajudios voted to change the name of their town due to risk of confusion resulting from the etymology of the name. "Mata" is a common suffix of placenames in Spain, meaning "forested patch". In this case, it is likely to be a corruption of "mota" meaning "hill". Confusion arises from the word "mata" also meaning "kill", thus rendering a name which could be interpreted as "kill the jews". The name was changed back to its earlier name which would be less subject to surprise by newcomers [[Castrillo Mota de Judíos]] (Castrillo Hill of the Jews). Although a mere anecdote in Spain, where it barely made the national press, this story was widely covered in the English speaking press of the United States, United Kingdom and Israel, often misrepresenting the name of the village as "Camp Kill the Jews".
2014-2019 Citizenship law.
In 2014 it was announced that the descendants of [[Sephardic Jews]] who were expelled from Spain by the [[Alhambra Decree]] of 1492 would be offered Spanish citizenship, without being required to move to Spain and/or renounce any other citizenship they may have. The law lapsed on October 1, 2019 and by that point the justice ministry claimed to have received 132,226 applications and approved 1,500 applicants. In order to be approved applicants needed to take "tests in Spanish language and culture... prove their Sephardic heritage, establish or prove a special connection with Spain, and then pay a designated notary to certify their documents." Most applications came from nationals of countries with high levels of insecurity and violence in Latin America (mainly Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela).
Further reading.
[[Category:Jewish Spanish history| ]]


Admiral of the Narrow Seas

The Admiral of the Narrow Seas also known as the Admiral for the guard of the Narrow Seas was a senior Royal Navy appointment. The post holder was chiefly responsible for the command of the English navy's Narrow Seas Squadron also known as the Eastern Squadron that operated in the two seas which lay between England and Kingdom of France (the English Channel particularly the Straits of Dover) and England and the Spanish Netherlands later the Dutch Republic (the southern North Sea) from 1412 to 1688. His subordinate units, establishments, and staff were sometimes informally known as the Command of the Narrow Seas.
History.
The first royal commission as Admiral to a naval officer was granted in 1303. By 1344 it was only used as a rank at sea for a captain in charge of a fleet or fleets.
In the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Kingdom of England claimed sovereignty over certain bodies of water close to the British Isles: those between the Kingdom of France and England (the English Channel particularly the Straits of Dover) and the Spanish Netherlands later the Dutch Republic and England (the southern North Sea). As a result of England's claim of these territorial waters there was an enforceable requirement placed on any foreign ships passing through the area to acknowledge all English warships. England also exercised control over all fishing rights within the same waters.
Among the most important naval postings during these times was the "Admiral of the Narrow Seas", sometimes called the "Vice-Admiral of the Narrow Seas" to denote that he was junior to the Lord Admiral of England. These flag officers were formally appointed by the crown. His responsibilities were to guard the narrow seas from foreign threats, protect English fishing vessels and enforce English sovereignty over said waters.
Claims to the narrow seas lasted until the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, along with other European countries, agreed to set a new three-mile limit in 1822.
References.
Citations
Sources


Dedisimedi

Dedisimedi (; died ) was a Georgian noblewoman of the House of Mukhrani, a collateral branch of the royal Bagrationi dynasty. She was princess consort of Samtskhe as wife of Kaikhosro II Jaqeli (r. 1545–1573) and regent for her son Qvarqvare IV Jaqeli (r. 1573–1581). She played a leading role in a civil war that plagued Samtskhe from 1576 to 1578. After the Ottoman takeover of her principality, Dedisimedi retired to Kartli, leaving the government to her son, Manuchar II Jaqeli, who continued to rule as an Ottoman pasha.
Family background and name.
Dedisimedi was born into the princely family of Mukhrani, the Mukhranbatoni, a collateral branch of the royal house of Kartli. The sources differ as to her parents. The 16th-century "Chronicle of Meskhian Psalter" as well as the 18th century Georgian historian Prince Vakhushti and a church inscription from Vale suggest that Dedisimedi's father was Bagrat, son of King Constantine II. In contrast, Vakhushti's contemporaneous editor of the "Georgian Chronicles", Beri Egnatashvili, makes her, erroneously, daughter of Bagrat's son Ashotan and, hence, sister of Saint Ketevan the Martyr.
As Egnatashvili claims, on her marriage into the Jaqeli family she was given the name Dedisimedi—literally, "a mother's hope"—already known in the family earlier: so was named a consort of Qvarqvare IV Jaqeli, who died in 1489. When relating events in her widowhood, one of the editions of the "Georgian Chronicles" refers to the dowager princess as "Deborah, formerly Dedisimedi". This gave rise to a hypothesis that, at some point of her life and probably after her husband's death in 1573, Dedisimedi might have become a nun under the name of Deborah. Many modern scholars such as K. Sharashenidze and Sh. Lomsadze have dismissed such a possibility on account of her energetic involvement in war and politics.
Marriage.
Dedisimedi married Prince Kaikhosro II Jaqeli, a 22-year-old prince-atabag of Samtskhe, in 1545. Kaikhosro's rule over Samtskhe, one of the breakaway states of the Kingdom of Georgia, was marred by incessant Iranian–Ottoman rivalry over the territory, uneasy relations with neighboring Georgian polities, and internecine feuds. Installed through the Ottoman intervention, Kaikhosro ended up his reign, watching the western part of his principality being assimilated by the Ottomans and the eastern moiety—where he preferred to stay—being subjected to Iran. He died while visiting the court of Shah Tahmasp I at Qazvin in 1573.
Not much is known about Dedisimedi's life during the turbulent years of Kaikhosro's rule. In a period of ascendancy of the Muslim empires, she patronized Christianity and rebuilt the Church of Theotokos of Vale in the years of 1561–1563. She is also credited to have been one of the authors of the "Chronicle of the Meskhetian Psalter", a fragmented account of the 1561–1587 events in Samtskhe (Meskheti) attached to a Psalter manuscript.
Regency.
On the death of Kaikhosro, Qvarqvare IV, the eldest of his eight children with Dedisimedi, succeeded to the principate of Samtskhe. Since he was still young and inexperienced, the actual government of the country was taken over by Dedisimedi and the nobleman Varaza Shalikashvili, whose sister was a favorite wife in Shah Tahmasp's harem.
In 1574, the Kakhetian nobleman Cholokashvili—in a quest to divert the shah's attention from the affairs of Kakheti—successfully spread rumors to convince Dedisimedi of Shalikashvili's perfidy. The princess dowager—described by the historian Vakhushti as imperious, jealous, and cruel—had Shalikashvili murdered on charges of plotting with the Iranians. Shah Tahmasp reacted to the killing of his brother-in-law and ally by invading Samtskhe. Dedisimedi and her sons were put into flight to the mountains of Adjara and many of their castles were conferred on the murdered Shalikashvili's Islamized son, Kokola (Mahmud Khan). As the shah left, Dedisimedi was able to resume her reign, but an uprising and an attempt on Qvarqvare IV followed. From 1576 through 1578, civil war raged through eastern Samtskhe between the Jaqeli faction and the aristocratic opposition led by Kokola Shalikashvili, leaving towns such as Tmogvi in ruins. Dedisimedi was personally involved in fighting, directing operations at Queli and Tmogvi.
Eventually, the Jaqeli prevailed, but the decimated country became an easy target for the powerful thrust of the Ottoman army under Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha's command in August 1578. The nobles of Samtskhe submitted after a token resistance and Lala Pasha made a common cause with Dedisimedi's more able and calculating son Manuchar, a co-regent with his mother. The Jaqeli accepted Ottoman suzerainty. Lala Pasha met Dedisimedi at her base at Okros Tsikhe (Altunkal'a) and politely made it clear that her elder sons should become Muslims. In 1579, both Qvarqvare and Manuchar repaired to Constantinople and the latter pompously converted to Islam under the name of Mustafa. Following Qvarqvare's death in 1581, Manuchar-Mustafa became an Ottoman governor of a reduced Samtskhe, that is, pasha of Childir.
Dedisimedi left the Ottoman-occupied Samtskhe in 1585 and retired to Akhaldaba, in Kartli, where Manuchar, having revolted from the Ottoman authority, had also taken refuge. Early in 1586, Manuchar acceded to the Ottoman demands and sent Dedisimedi and her grandson, Kaikhosro's son, to Samtskhe. Thereafter, she disappears from the contemporary historical records, save for the Ottoman fiscal documents of 1595, listing the estates formerly belonging to her in Samtskhe.
Children.
Dedisimedi had eight children with Kaikhosro II:


Herman Brusselmans

Herman Frans Martha Brusselmans (; born 9 October 1957) is a Belgian novelist, poet, playwright and columnist. He lives in Ghent. He is one of the best-selling authors in Flanders, but controversial at the same time for his profane language and offensive comedy.
Life and career.
Herman Brusselmans studied Germanic philology at the University of Ghent. In his early twenties he was a football player. He played as a left winger for Vigor Hamme and Sporting Lokeren. He now has his own football team called "De Woody's", after his late dog Woody. Brusselmans married Gloria Van Iddergem in 1981 but divorced from her ten years later. He married his second wife Tania De Metsenaere in 2005. Their relationship ended in 2010. In March 2016 he met his current girlfriend with whom he now lives together in his home in Gent. Although it's known her given name is Lena, her family name remains undisclosed up until this day. Their relationship generated a lot of media attention in Flandres because of their age difference of almost 34 years.
Brusselmans gained widespread popularity in the early 1980s as part of the new generation of young Flemish novelists that included Tom Lanoye and Kristien Hemmerechts.
Although Herman Brusselmans once stated in the Flemish magazine "HUMO" that he would stop writing about existing people and situations, his work kept on being highly autobiographical. Alcohol, sex and boredom are recurring themes throughout his work.
Not only his work contributed to his stardom, but also his media appearances. He used to have his own television show, and still appears regularly on talk shows. He also has a weekly column in HUMO. Bold, straightforward statements and comments have become his trademark throughout the years and don't fail to attract attention, what cost him several lawsuits, the most memorable of which was when Ann Demeulemeester, a Belgian fashion designer, filed a complaint with the courts about a derogatory remark about her in "Uitgeverij Guggenheimer". This led to a temporary recall of the book in Belgium.
He played an autistic Hells Angel painting surrealist slogans on caravans in the movie "Camping Cosmos" (1996).
In the 1980s he wrote some scripts for comics by Erik Meynen.
In early 2007 a film adaptation of Brusselman's novel "Ex Drummer" was released, directed by Koen Mortier.


Luise Aston

Luise Aston, or Louise Aston (26 November 181421 December 1871), was a German author and feminist, who championed the rights of women, and was known for dressing in male attire. She was an advocate of democracy, free love, and sexuality.
Biography.
Louise Aston was the daughter of the theologian Johann Gottfried Hoche. She married Samuel Aston, a wealthy factory owner of English descent, in 1835. She was later to say that her father had forced her to marry. The spouses lived in Magdeburg, where she caused scandals in the local society. In 1839, was given a divorce in Berlin. The couple remarried and divorced a second time in 1844. After her second divorce she lived in Berlin with the poet Rudolf Gottschall, befriended Otto von Corvin and Max Stirner and walked around on the street smoking cigars dressed as a male.
She was an atheist, a democrat, and a republican, and she criticized marriage. She also believed in love outside of marriage: as a woman was often forced to marry for money and she was economically dependent on her husband, she reasoned it was difficult to marry for love and to keep love in a marriage. Marriage under such circumstances was for these reasons a form of prostitution. The contemporary women's movement had similar views, but considered it dangerous to expose them for fear of being considered immoral. Aston was therefore criticized by both the women's movement and the conservative society for different reasons because of her view that it should be allowed to have a sexual love relationship without being married.
She was called a whore, a shameless marriage broker, and a seductress by the press. She was watched by the secret police, who sent spies after her and read her letters. Finally, she was banished from Berlin in 1846 because her way of life was seen as threatening to conventional order: " I must leave Berlin within eight days because I have expressed and lived according to ideas who were dangerous for the conservative law and order." In 1848, she took part in the revolutionary wave in Germany. She served in the Freikorps in Schleswig during the war.
She was active within the democracy movement. She started a paper, which was stopped by the censorship authorities. She was expelled again but returned with a false passport. In 1850, she married the doctor Eduard Meier, with whom she became very happy. They moved to Bremen. They were often harassed by the authorities as dangerous radicals.
Aston was watched by the police, who sent agents to her home and read her letters. Different cities in Germany collaborated in these efforts. Her spouse was head doctor and was much harassed and fired several times because of his marriage. He was forced to guarantee that she would not meet his patients or live in his quarters; he was also accused of having allowed an unmarried pregnant woman to remain in his employ and of having given her his care. At one occasion, he asked them this directly: "Is this an attempt to separate me from my wife?" and was given the answer: "Yes, that is correct."
The police agent reported that she had few female friends, but many male ones, who often visited her and "had the appearance of democrats." She admitted to a police officer that she believed in democracy and republic: "At present, I view the cause of democracy to be lost. It would be madness to do anything now, but soon, there will be an opportunity to do so."
Her spouse had a wild rose carved upon her grave stone, and at his own, wrote, "The one God gave a woman, was given a treasure."
Quote.
"I have asked for permission to wear male attire so that I can hear the lectures at the university. I do not believe in God and I smoke cigars. My goal is to free the women even if it may cost me my heart's blood. I consider marriage immoral, because I do not believe that love can last within it." (?)
Works.
This list may be incomplete


Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth

The Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth was a senior commander of the Royal Navy for hundreds of years. Portsmouth Command was a name given to the units, establishments, and staff operating under the post. The commanders-in-chief were based at premises in High Street, Portsmouth from the 1790s until the end of Sir Thomas Williams's tenure, his successor, Sir Philip Durham, being the first to move into Admiralty House at the Royal Navy Dockyard, where subsequent holders of the office were based until 1969. Prior to World War I the officer holder was sometimes referred to in official dispatches as the Commander-in-Chief, Spithead.
History.
The Command extended along the south coast from Newhaven in East Sussex to Portland in Dorset. In 1889 the Commander-in-Chief took as his Flagship.
In the late 18th century port admirals began to reside ashore, rather than on board their flagships; the Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth was provided with a large house at 111 High Street, which was renamed Admiralty House (and which had formerly been home to the Mayor of Portsmouth). In the 1830s Admiralty House was sold to the War Office (as Government House, it went on to house the Lieutenant-Governor of Portsmouth for the next fifty years). The Commander-in-Chief moved in turn into the former Dockyard Commissioner's house, which still stands within HMNB Portsmouth.
During the Second World War the Command Headquarters was at Fort Southwick. Operation Aerial, the evacuation from western French ports in 1940, was commanded by Admiral William Milbourne James, the Commander-in-Chief. James lacked the vessels necessary for convoys and organised a flow of troopships, storeships and motor vehicle vessels from Southampton, coasters to ply from Poole and the Dutch "schuyt"s to work from Weymouth, while such warships as were available patrolled the shipping routes. Demolition parties sailed in the ships but it was hoped that supplies and equipment could be embarked as well as troops.
In 1952 the Commander-in-Chief took up the NATO post of Commander-in-Chief, Channel (CINCHAN). This move added Allied Command Channel to the NATO Military Command Structure. The admiral commanding at Portsmouth had control naval operations in the area since 1949 under WUDO auspices.
The post of Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth was merged with that of Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth in 1969 to form the post of Commander-in-Chief, Naval Home Command. The posts of Second Sea Lord and Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command were amalgamated in 1994 following the rationalisation of the British Armed Forces following the end of the Cold War. In 2012, however, all distinct Commander-in-Chief appointments were discontinued, with full operational command being vested instead in the First Sea Lord; he now flies his flag from HMS "Victory".
Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth.
Post holder have included:
Portsmouth Command.
Considered as the most prestigious of the home commands, Portsmouth Command was responsible for the central part of the English Channel between Newhaven and Isle of Portland. Below is a list of units that served under this command.
Main units.
Included:
Naval units.
Included:
Shore units.
Included:


John Arnway

John Arnway (1601–1653) was an English royalist divine.
Life.
Arnway was of a Shropshire family and heir to a considerable estate. He was a commoner of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, and in 1635 rector of Hodnet and Ightfield. When he joined the king at Oxford in 1642, the Parliament garrison at Wem plundered his house so completely that (according to his own account) they left him neither bible, nor money, nor clothes.
He was promoted to be Archdeacon of Lichfield and Coventry and prebendary of Woolvey. Resuming his activity in the royal service, his estate was sequestrated and he imprisoned until after the King's death. He was then exiled and took refuge at The Hague.
Arnway was compelled by poverty to accept an invitation to exercise his function among the English in Virginia. There he died, it is supposed, in 1653.
Works.
In 1650, at The Hague, Arnway published two pamphlets:
Both there tracts were reprinted in 1661 by William Rider of Merton College.