Edo society

Edo society refers to the society of Japan under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.
Edo society was a feudal society with strict social stratification, customs, and regulations intended to promote political stability. Japanese people were assigned into a hierarchy of social classes based on the Four Occupations that were hereditary. The Emperor of Japan and the "kuge" were the official ruling class of Japan but had no power. The "Shōgun" of the Tokugawa clan, the "daimyō", and their retainers of the "samurai" class administered Japan through their system of domains. The majority of Edo society were commoners divided into peasant, craftsmen, and merchant classes, and various "untouchable" groups.
The "Bakumatsu" from 1853 on led to growing opposition to the Edo system and it was dismantled after the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
Historic context.
Feudalism, social stratification, and explicit fine grained ranking of people existed in Japan long before the Edo period, beginning with attempts as far back as the Taika Reforms in 645 A.D., initiating the "Ritsuryō" legal system that was modeled from Chinese Tang dynasty legal code. The reforms were following a major and devastating coup d'etat attempt by Soga no Emishi, with the events not only exterminating entire clans, but tearing apart a gaping hole in the Japanese indigenous religion, Ko-Shintō, paving the way for a Buddhist-Shinto syncretism of religion. The Taika Reforms were the "legal glue" deemed necessary to thwart future coup d'etat attempts, and the "Ritsuryō" system led to the formation of castes in Japan. Nevertheless, frequent warfare and political instability plagued Japan in following centuries, providing countless opportunities to usurp, bend, and mobilize positions within social ranks. Even the ranks themselves, especially military ranks, became more respected if only out of necessity. Confucian ideas from China also provided the foundation for a system of strict social prescriptions, along with political twists and turns of the day.
The Ashikaga Shogunate established a loose class system when it ruled Japan as a feudal shogunate during the Muromachi period from 1338 to 1573. The final collapse of the Ashikaga worsened the effects of the Sengoku period (or "Age of Warring States"), the state of social upheaval and near-constant civil war in Japan since 1467. Tokugawa Ieyasu of the Tokugawa clan and his Eastern Army emerged victorious after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, defeating the Western Army of Toyotomi Hideyori, ending the Sengoku civil wars. Ieyasu founded the Tokugawa Shogunate as a new feudal government of Japan with himself as the "Shōgun". However, Ieyasu was especially wary of social mobility given that Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of his peers and a "Kampaku" (Imperial Regent) whom he replaced, was born into a low caste and rose to become Japan's most powerful political figure of the time. The Tokugawa clan sought to eradicate any potential opposition across Japanese society from top-to-bottom to consolidate their rule.
Tokugawa class system.
The Tokugawa introduced a system of strict social stratification, organizing the majority of Japan's social structure into a hierarchy of social classes. Japanese people were assigned a hereditary class based on their profession, which would be directly inherited by their children, and these classes were themselves stratified with their own hierarchies.
Aristocracy.
Emperor.
The Emperor of Japan was the official ruler of Japan at the very top of the Tokugawa class hierarchy. However, the Emperor was only a "de jure" ruler, functioning as a figurehead held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the "Shōgun "'s authority. The Emperor and his Imperial Court located in Kyoto, the official capital of Japan, were given virtually no political power but their prestige was invincible.
Court nobility.
The Court nobility, the "kuge", were the civil aristocracy of Japan and second on the Tokugawa class hierarchy. Similar to the Emperor, the "kuge" were incredibly prestigious and held significant influence in cultural fields, but wielded very little political power and served functions only for symbolic purposes.
"Shōgun".
The "Shōgun" was the "de facto" ruler of Japan and third on the Tokugawa class hierarchy. Officially, the "Shōgun" was a title for a prominent military general of the "samurai" class appointed by the Emperor with the task of national administration. In reality, the "Shōgun" was a military dictator with only a nominal appointment from the Emperor who held the ultimate political power in Japan, controlling foreign policy, the military, and feudal patronage. The "Shōgun" was a hereditary position held by members of the Tokugawa clan who were direct descendants of Tokugawa Ieyasu. The "Shōgun" was based in the Tokugawa capital city of Edo, Musashi Province, located 370 kilometres east of Kyoto in the Kanto region, and ruled Japan with his government, the "Bakufu".
"Daimyō".
The "daimyō" were "samurai" feudal lords and fourth on the Tokugawa class hierarchy. The "daimyō" were high-ranking members of the "samurai" and, similar to the "Shōgun", held most of the real political power in Japan. The "daimyō" was responsible for administration through their large personal domains, the "han", which served as unofficial administrative divisions in tandem with the legal provinces. A "daimyō" was determined if a "samurai"'s domain was assessed at 10,000 "koku" (50,000 bushels) or more under the Tokugawa "Kokudaka" system of taxation. The "daimyō" held significant autonomy but the Tokugawa policy of "Sankin-kōtai" required them to alternate living in Edo and their domain every year. The "daimyō" were separated into the "Shinpan", relatives of the Tokugawa, the "Fudai daimyō", who filled the ranks of the Tokugawa administration, and the "Tozama daimyō", those who only submitted to the Tokugawa after the Battle of Sekigahara.
Four Classes.
The Tokugawa government intentionally created a social order called the Four divisions of society ("shinōkōshō") that would stabilize the country. The new Four Classes were based on ideas of Confucianism that spread to Japan from China, and were not arranged by wealth or capital but by what philosophers described as their moral purity. By this system, the non-aristocratic remainder of Japanese society was composed of "samurai" (士 "shi"), farming peasants (農 "nō"), artisans (工 "kō") and merchants (商 "shō"). Samurai were placed at the top of society because they started an order and set a high moral example for others to follow. The system was meant to reinforce their position of power in society by justifying their ruling status. However, the "shinōkōshō" does not accurately describe Tokugawa society as Buddhist and Shinto priests, the "kuge" outside of the Imperial Court, and outcast classes were not included in this description of hierarchy. In some cases, a poor samurai could be little better off than a peasant and the lines between the classes could blur, especially between artisans and merchants in urban areas. Still, the theory provided grounds for restricting privileges and responsibilities to different classes and it gave a sense of order to society. In practice, solidified social relationships in general helped create the political stability that defined the Edo period.
Samurai.
"Samurai" were the noble [warrior] class in Japan and fifth on the Tokugawa class hierarchy. The "samurai" constituted about 10% of the population and functioned as soldiers in the employment of a lord in a master-warrior feudal relationship. Other classes were prohibited from possessing long swords such as the "tachi" or "katana", and carrying both a long sword and a short sword became the symbol of the "samurai" class. However, their services were in limited demand as the Edo period was largely free from both external threats and internal conflicts. Instead, the "samurai" maintained their fighting skills more as an art form than to fight. "Samurai" were paid a stipend from their lord, limiting their ties to the economic base. In addition, "samurai" could not own land, which would have given them income independent from their duty. "Samurai" generally lived around their "daimyō"s castle, creating a thriving town or city environment around the middle of a domain.
There were social stratifications within the "samurai" class: upper-level samurai had direct access to their "daimyō" and could hold his most trusted positions, with some achieving a level of wealth that allowed them to retain their own "samurai" vassals. Mid-level samurai held military and bureaucratic positions, and had some interactions with their "daimyō" if needed. Low-level "samurai" could be paid as little as a subsistence wage and worked as guards, messengers and clerks. Positions within the "samurai" class were largely hereditary and talented individuals could not rise above a few social steps beyond their birth.
Peasants.
Peasants ("heimin") were sixth on the Tokugawa class hierarchy and first of the commoner classes.
Peasants were held in high regard as commoners by the Tokugawa because they produced the most important commodity, food. According to Confucian philosophy, society could not survive without agriculture. Life for rural peasants focused on farming in and around their villages. Peasants rarely moved beyond their villages, and journeys and pilgrimages required a permit, but young people occasionally sought seasonal employment outside of their village. As a result, people were highly suspicious of outsiders. Social bonding, critical to the survival of the whole village, also reinforced through seasonal festivals. Villages were highly collective; there were strong pressures to conform and no room to deviate from custom. Though there were conflicts, they were seen as disruptive to the village and order and were to be limited as much as possible.
The peasant class owned land, but rights to tax this land were given to the local "daimyō". Peasants worked to produce enough food for themselves and still meet the tax burden. Most agriculture during this time was cultivated by families on their own land in contrast to the plantation or "hacienda" model implemented elsewhere. Peasants could amass relatively large amounts of wealth but remained in the same class because of their association with the land. Wealthier families and those that held their own land and paid taxes were held in much higher regard and had more political influence in village matters. However, the survival of the village depended on every household cooperating to meet the tax burden and overcome natural disasters such as famines. During the reign of the third "Shōgun", Tokugawa Iemitsu, farmers were not allowed to eat any of the rice they grew. They had to hand it all over to their daimyo and then wait for him to give some back as charity.
Artisans.
Artisans were seventh on the Tokugawa class hierarchy and second of the commoner classes.
Artisans were placed below the peasants because they were producers but they produced non-essential goods. Artisans typically lived in urban areas, and by 1800, as much as 10% of the population of Japan may have lived in large urban areas, one of the highest levels in the world at the time. The "daimyōs" and their "samurai" did not produce any goods themselves, but they used the tax surplus from the land to fuel their consumption. Their needs were met by artisans, who moved to be around the castles and were restricted to living in their own quarter.
Merchants.
Merchants were eighth on the Tokugawa class hierarchy and third of the commoner classes.
Merchants were placed at the very bottom of the official system because they did not produce any goods, and due to their low status, were forced to hustle trading local and regional goods. Merchants, similar to artisans, typically lived in cities within their own quarter. Merchants grew increasingly powerful during the Edo period, in spite of their social standing, and the top merchants commanded a certain amount of respect, with Osaka and later Edo having concentrations of the merchant class. Wealthy merchant houses arose to organize distributors and hold legal monopolies. As their wealth grew, merchants wanted to consume and display their wealth in the same manner as the "samurai", but laws prevented them from doing so overtly. Still, their consumption combined with that of the samurai served to reinforce the growth of the merchant and artisan classes.
Untouchables.
Underneath the merchant class were various communities and levels of outcasts not included within the official Tokugawa class system. These people were "untouchables" who fell outside of mainstream Japanese society for one reason or another, and were actively discriminated against at the societal level.
"Burakumin".
The "Burakumin" ("hamlet people"/"village people" or "those who live in hamlets/villages") were ethnic Japanese people whose occupations were considered impure or tainted by death, such as executioners, undertakers, slaughterhouse workers, butchers, and tanners. These occupations were seen to be "kegare" (穢れ or "defilement") in the Shinto religion; and, in the Edo period, the social stigma of being a "Burakumin" developed into a hereditary status.
Although technically commoners, the "Burakumin" were victims of severe ostracism and lived in their own isolated villages or ghettos away from the rest of the population.
Ethnic minorities.
Ethnic minorities in Japan were generally excluded from the class system, though certain individuals in service of the "Shōgun" or "daimyō" were included. The Tokugawa isolationist policy of "Sakoku" banned most foreigners from entering Japan.
Role of women.
A Japanese woman's life varied immensely according to her family's social status. Women in samurai families were expected to submit to their male heads of household, but as they aged, they could become the ranking household member if their husband died. Children were enjoined to respect both of their parents, even as adults. Women from the lower classes were much less restricted by social expectations and could play an integral part in the family's business. Peasant women were expected to do household chores in the early morning before working in the fields with their male relatives and, regardless of age, were important, working members of their families.
Marriage was not based on romantic attraction. Families tried to use marriage as a way to increase their social standing or, among wealthier groups, to increase one's influence and holdings. Most often, however, marriage occurred between two families of equal status. Female virginity at marriage was important in the samurai classes; it was much less important to the lower classes. After marriage, women were restricted from taking additional sexual partners. Males of the upper classes, however, were able to take concubines and have relations with unmarried women. Divorce was common, and a woman from a poor household could very easily leave her husband and return to her original family.
Decline.
The foundation of Edo society was its stable social order, but changes to Japanese society over the next two centuries began to challenge the Tokugawa system. Increasing urbanization and rising consumerism saw wealth become concentrated outside of the "samurai" class, and their fixed stipends did not increase despite the rising cost of commodities. The increasingly burdensome cost of proper social etiquette led many "samurai" to become indebted to wealthy urban merchant families. The merchants, in turn, were restricted from showing their wealth for fear of violating the laws that restricted privileges to the "samurai" class. That created deepening resentment but also increasing interdependence between the two classes. Some Japanese scholars began to question the Confucian beliefs that provided the foundation of Edo society. Additionally, numerous changes in rural areas increasingly challenged the Tokugawa system. New technology which increased productivity allowed some peasant families to produce a surplus of food, creating a disposable income that could be used to support ventures beyond farming. Some peasants also became indebted to their wealthier neighbors, and more families lost ownership of their land. This sparked resentment that sometimes erupted into violence towards landlords and the village elite.
In 1853, the beginning of the "Bakumatsu" saw Edo society increasingly questioned by Japanese people when Western powers used their technological superiority to force concessions from the Tokugawa in the Unequal treaties. Many Japanese people, including members of the "samurai", began to blame the Tokugawa for Japan's "backwardness" and subsequent humiliation. A modernization movement which advocated the abolition of feudalism and return of power to the Imperial Court eventually overthrew the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The new Meiji government of the Empire of Japan soon abolished the Tokugawa class system that characterized Edo society. The "kuge" and "daimyo" classes were merged into the "kazoku" aristocratic class with class privileges which formed the Meiji oligarchy. Most remaining "samurai" that did not become "kazoku" were designated as "shizoku", a distinct class without class privileges that was purely a title on the government register. Commoners and the "Burakumin" were merged into a single commoner class without restrictions or distinction for their occupation, though "Burakumin" continued to face discrimination similar to Edo society.


Qasba Mosque

Qasba Mosque is an ancient mosque and archaeological site located in Barisal District of Bangladesh. It is located in the Qasba village under Gournadi Upazila. It is named after the village. The mosque, which has a total of nine domes, is very similar to the Nine Dome Mosque in Bagerhat.
According to local tradition, it was built by Sabhi Khan in early 16th century. It is almost the exact replica of Nine Dome Mosque built by Khan Jahan Ali in Bagerhat and Masjidkur Mosque in Khulna. Though still in use, the mosque is a protected monument by Department of Archaeology.
The mosque measures 11.68×11.68 meters and the walls are 2.18 meters wide. There are three archways on the east side while there are one arch on each side of the north and south. The arches are decorated with terracotta paintings. It has four stone pillars inside.


Akita Yoshisue


Bampur

Bampur ()
(, also Romanized as Bampūr and Bampoor) is a city in and capital of Bampur County, Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 9,073, in 1,664 families.
Location.
It is located south-east of Kerman at an elevation of In 1911 its population was about 2,000 and it was the capital of the province. It is situated on the banks of the Bampur river which flows from east to west and empties itself about west into a "hamun", or depression, in length, and called Jaz Murian.
History.
The old citadel of Bampur, on a hill about high north of the river, fell into ruins. A new fort called Kalah Nasseri, was built at Pahrah, which is known as Iranshahr, further east, in the 1880s.
Fahraj, which in 1911 had a population of about 2,500, has become more important than Bampur. Fahraj, which is also known as Pahura (or Paharu or Puhra), is by some identified as the Poura where Alexander the Great halted on his march from the Indus Valley.
The majority of the population are ethnic Baloch, who speak the Balochi language.
Archaeology.
Bampur is an important site in relation to the ancient Helmand culture of western Afghanistan, and to the closely related Jiroft culture of eastern Iran.
The position of Bampur is near a river and major routes. Thus, prehistoric and later settlements were founded in the area. Sir Aurel Stein carried out reconnaissance here in 1932. In 1966, Beatrice de Cardi excavated next, and she established that there were six successive occupational phases (Periods I-VI) at the site.
There were links with major sites such as Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran, and Mundigak.
During the Period I of Shahr-e Sukhteh (3200–2800 BCE), there were already close connections between that city and the Bampur valley. These contacts also continued in the Period II of Shahr-e Sukhteh.
New ceramics appeared at the end of Period IV, suggesting contact with Iran, Makran, and Oman. Ceramics similar to Shahr-i Sokhta IV (ca. 2200-1800 b.c.) style were introduced in Periods V-VI.
There are also links with Umm an-Nar culture of Oman, dating possibly to the last quarter of the 3rd millennium.
Tepe Yahya in Kerman Province, Iran, is another important site that may be related.


Taika (era)

 was a during the reign of Kōtoku. The Taika era immediately preceded the "Hakuchi era." This period spanned the years from August 645 through February 650.
History.
In 645, also known as , the new era name was created to mark the beginning of the reign of the emperor Kōtoku. The previous reign ended and the new one commenced in the fourth year after the beginning of Empress Kōgyoku's reign.
In Japan, this was the first nengō, derived from the Chinese system of eras ("nianhao"); although some scholarly doubt has been cast on the authenticity of "Taika" and "Hakuchi" as historically legitimate era names.
Timeline.
The system of Japanese era names was not the same as Imperial reign dates.


Power Jets W.2/700


Nakajima Aircraft Company

The was a prominent Japanese aircraft manufacturer and aviation engine manufacturer throughout World War II. It continues to the present day as the car and aircraft manufacturer Subaru.
History.
Japan's first aircraft manufacturer, it was founded in 1918 by a naval engineer, Chikuhei Nakajima, and a textile manufacturer, Seibei Kawanishi as Nihon Hikoki (Nippon Aircraft). In 1919, the two founders split and Nakajima bought out Nihon Aircraft's factory with tacit help from the Imperial Japanese Army. The company was renamed Nakajima Aircraft Company in 1919.
Nakajima Aircraft Company's manufacturing facilities consisted of the following:
After World War II.
After Japan's defeat in World War II the company had to close down since production and research of aircraft was prohibited by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. This had a severe impact on Nakajima because it was one of the two largest aircraft manufacturers, together with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). Unlike MHI though, it was not diversified into shipbuilding and general machinery, and so had to dissolve into a number of spin-off companies set up by former managers, engineers, and workers. As a result, leading aeronautical engineers from NAC, such as Ryoichi Nakagawa, helped transform Japan's automobile industry.
The company was reborn as Fuji Heavy Industries, maker of Fuji Rabbit scooters and Subaru automobiles, and as Fuji Precision Industries (later renamed Prince Motor Company which merged with Nissan in August 1966), manufacturer of Prince Skyline and Prince Gloria automobiles. Fuji began aircraft production in the mid-1950s and has been producing military training aircraft and helicopters for the Japan Self-Defense Forces. In 2017 it rebranded as Subaru Corporation.


Xichehe

Xichehe (洗车河镇) is a town and township in Longshan County, in Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hunan Province, China.
Xichehe is home to the Tujia people. The Sheba Festival is celebrated annually at the town's grand ancestral temple, and the Tujia language is spoken. The Dragon Boat Festival features dragon boat racing on the river.
80 per cent of the children in Xichehe are left-behind children. Many elderly residents are hard pressed to care properly for the children for whom they are responsible, leaving the children in need of emotional as well as material support. A children's charity has built a drop-in center, which provides a safe place with beds, a meal, and a chance to talk, and serves 200 children.


Kedareshwara Temple, Halebidu

Kedareshwara Temple (also spelt "Kedaresvara" or "Kedareshvara") is a Hoysala era construction in the historically important town of Halebidu, in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It is located a short distance away from the famous Hoysaleswara Temple. The temple was constructed by Hoysala King Veera Ballala II (r. 1173–1220 A.D.) and his Queen Ketaladevi, and the main deity is "Ishwara" (another name for the Hindu god Shiva). The temple is protected as a monument of national importance by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Temple plan.
According to art historian Adam Hardy, the temple was constructed before 1219 A.D and is constructed with Soap stone. The usage of Soap stone was first popularised by the Western Chalukyas before it became standard with the Hoysala architects of the 12th and 13th centuries. The temple stands on the platform called "jagati" which is typically five to six feet in height and which can be reached by a flight of steps. According to historian Kamath, this is a Hoysala innovation. Hoysala temples normally don't provide a path for circumambulation ("pradakshinapatha") around the inner sanctum ("garbhagriha"). However, the platform provides this convenience in addition to giving the onlooker a good view of the wall relief and sculptures. The outlay of the main shrine ("Vimana") is star-shaped (stellate) with two smaller shrines that have perforated windows (called "Jali", literally, "sieve") on the sides. According to the art historian Gerard Foekema, star-shaped or "staggered square" (or cross in square) temple plans are quite common among Hoysala constructions creating multiple projections and recesses in the outer walls. In these projections, the Hoysala architects created repetitive decorative sculptures and reliefs called "architectural articulation".
Since the temple has three shrines, it qualifies as a "trikuta", a three shrined structure. Often in "trikutas", only the central shrine has a tower while the lateral shrines are virtually hidden behind the thick outer walls and appear to be a part of the hall itself. Despite being a Shaiva temple (related to god Shiva) it is well known for its friezes and panel relief that bare depictions from both the Shaiva and Vaishnava (related to the god Vishnu) legend. The three sanctums are connected to a "staggered square" (indented) central hall ("mahamantapa") by individual vestibules called "sukanasi". A porch connects the central hall to the platform. The base of the temple wall ("adhisthana") around the common hall and the two lateral shrines consist of mouldings, each of which is treated with friezes in relief that depict animals and episodes from the Hindu lore ("purana"). Historian Kamath calls this "horizontal treatment". The image of the deity of worship is missing in all three sanctums and the superstructure over all three shrines are lost. Some noteworthy pieces of sculpture worthy of mention are the dancing Bhairava (a form of Shiva), Govardhana (the god Krishna lifting a mountain), the god Vishnu as "Varadaraja", and a huntress.


Ruhizzi

Ruhizzi, was a city, or city-state located in northern Canaan or southern Amurru territories, in the foothills of Mount Hermon during the time of the Amarna letters correspondence. During the 15-20 year Amarna letters of 1350-1335 BC, Arsawuya was the 'mayor' of Ruhizzi and corresponded with the Egyptian pharaoh.
According to EA 53, (EA for 'el Amarna'), a letter concerning a warring Etakkama, Ruhizzi was associated with the problems of Upu in the region to the south at Damascus, (named Dimašqu), and in the region of Amqu, (the Beqaa), in the northwest.
Ruhizzi is located near Kadesh-("Qidšu"), and east of the Anti-Lebanon. In 1350 BC Syria did not exist, and the "regional empire" of Assyria was ascendant-(the king of Assyria, Ashur-uballit I also wrote letters to the pharaoh).


Weingreen Museum of Biblical Antiquities

The Weingreen Museum of Biblical Antiquities is located in the Arts and Social Sciences Building, in Trinity College, Dublin. It received its present title in 1977 in recognition of Professor Jacob Weingreen's contribution to the creation of the museum. Professor Weingreen was Erasmus Smith's Professor of Hebrew at Trinity College Dublin between 1939 and 1979.
The museum consists mainly of pottery and other artefacts from the Ancient Near East. The nucleus of the museum's collection is constituted by artifacts from the excavations of four Biblical cities in Israel: Lachish (Director: J.L. Starkey, 1932–1938), Jericho (Kathleen Kenyon 1952-1959), Jerusalem (Kathleen Kenyon, 1961–1967) and Buseirah in Jordan (Crystal Bennett, 1971–1975). It holds over 2000 objects. It is curated by Zuleika Rodgers, and is available to view by appointment only, though it is being digitised for online viewing.


Baitul Mukarram National Mosque

Baitul Mukarram, also spelled as Baytul Mukarrom (; ; The Holy House) is the National Mosque of Bangladesh. Located at the center of Dhaka, capital of Bangladesh, the mosque was completed in 1968. It has a capacity of 42,000+.
Architecture.
The mosque has several modern architectural features whilst at the same time it preserves the traditional principles of Mughal architecture which has for some time been dominant in the Indian sub-continent. Baitul Mukarram's large cube shape was modeled after that of the Ka'abah at Mecca making it a noticeable structure being unlike any other mosque in Bangladesh.
Exterior design.
The mosque is on a very high platform. The Baitul Mukarram National Mosque's building is eight storied and 99 feet high from the ground level. According to the original plan, the main entrance of the mosque was to be on the eastern side. The 'shaan' on the east is 29,000 square feet with ablution space on its south and north sides. Ablution or Wu’du Place cached an important part when the Baitul Mukarram was begun. The absence of a dome on the main building is compensated by the two superficial domed entrance porticoes, one on the south, and the other on the north. The height of these porticoes consists of three rabbit's foot shaped arches, the middle of which is bigger than the rest.
Interior design.
Two patios (roofless inner courtyard) ensure that enough light and air enter the prayer hall of Baitul Mukarram National Mosque. The prayer niché of the hall is rectangular instead of semi-circular. Excessive ornamentation is avoided throughout the mosque, since minimizing ornamentation is typical of modern architecture.
Garden.
The garden is laid out in a style borrowed heavily from Mughal gardens, however unlike the traditional Mughal gardens which represent the Islamic Heaven, the garden does not have the Char-Bagh system most likely due to not having enough room for such a garden. The future of this garden is unknown, if the Bangladeshi government extends the mosque, it will most likely have to remove the garden.
History.
The mosque complex was designed by architect, Abdulhusein M. Thariani. In 1959, owner of then Bawany Jute Mills, Haji Abdul Latif Bawany proposed to Major General Omrao Khan, then military administrator of East Pakistan, of building a grande mosque in Dhaka. Omrao Khan agreed to help on building such mosque. Same year, 'Baitul Mukarram mosque committee' had been established and 8.30 acre of land between new Dhaka and old Dhaka had been chosen. At that time, there was a large pond in present mosque's location. It was known as 'Paltan pond. The pond was filled up and on 27 January 1960 then president of Pakistan Ayub Khan commenced the work. Pray for first time took place on Friday, 25 January 1963.
The plan included shops, offices, libraries and parking areas within the complex. Though there has been a tradition of dome mosque for Muslim, this building did not maintain the rule of traditional mosque in that time. A Mosque without a dome over the roof of its main prayer hall must have been a unique experiment. The mosque was built when the country was the Part of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
in 2008 the mosque was extended, financed by a donation from the Saudi government.


Henry Scharbau

Henry Scharbau (1822-1902) or "Henry Sharbau" was a British Cartographer remembered for his work as an Oyatoi in the Meiji period.
Biography.
Scharbau was born at Luebeck in North Germany in 1822, but came to England in his youth. Due to his skills in surveying and draughtsmanship, firstly in work on the Ordnance Survey of the south of Scotland, and between 1858 and 1864 in the Admiralty Surveys in the Hebrides and some western lochs. In 1865 he was appointed temporary assistant in the Hydrographic Office, a post he held until 1874. In 1873, Scharbau became a naturalized British subject and he received an invitation from the Japanese government to work as an assistant and advisor of the Surveying Department in the Ministry of Interior.
Scharbau went to Japan in 1873 to teach triangulation in Japan from November 1, 1873. Scharbau travelled with McVean and John Francis Campbell to Nikko in November 1874. Scharbau set up a surveying base on Mt. Asama with British colleagues in October 1875. In April 1876, he went out with a Japanese surveying engineer to set up a base around Nikko along the Ushū Kaidō, passing through Utsunomiya and Imaichi. Between 1874 and 1876 'シャボー' kept a diary of these travels which are now housed in Skaill House in Orkney. Intriguingly he stuck to European customs in his time in Japan, eating from the "estimable firm of Crosse & Blackwell". He left Japan at the end of October 1876.
In 1877 he worked as a draughtsman for the Home Office until his work as chief draughtsman under the Royal Geographical Society in April 1881. One notable map Scharbau created a Lithographic map of Tibet, compiled from his own and traveller accounts under the superintendence of General Walker, and first published by the Society in 1894. In 1902 his wife died, and Scharbau would die the same year.


Keiko Holmes

 is a Japanese coordinator for a charity named Agape, which helps to promote reconciliation between Japan and her former World War II prisoners of war (POWs). She lectures at universities and schools, and was awarded the O.B.E.
Early life.
Keiko was born in Kiwa-cho, Kumano, Mie Prefecture, Japan in 1948. She travelled to Tokyo to study, and there met Paul Holmes, a visiting business man from England. They married and then moved to London with their sons Daniel and Christopher in 1979.
Paul was killed in an air accident in 1984 while on a business trip. They had been together for 15 years. Through Paul, Keiko had converted to Christianity. During their time in Japan, while living in Mie the couple had come across a memorial stone laid for 16 British army soldiers. The soldiers had died in the local area called Iruka, now called Kiwa-cho, while working as prisoners in a copper mine. The local people had created the memorial and had written the names of the soldiers on the memorial.
The Iruka mine was different from many others because the British soldiers worked side by side with Japanese miners.
When Keiko returned to Mie for a trip after Paul's death, she went back to the memorial site and was surprised to see that it had been improved into a memorial garden with a marble headstone and kept beautifully decorated with flowers. The soldiers' names had been engraved on a large copper cross.
Holmes had the inspiration to organise reconciliation trips for ex-POWs of Iruka during her long period of mourning for her husband.
In 1991, Holmes attended the annual conference of the British Far East Prisoners of War Association in London.
In October 1992, Holmes took 26 FEPOWs and two widows back to attend a memorial service at the Iruka (now called Itaya) memorial. These men and woman had for 50 years held hatred and bitterness for Japan and its people. Upon arrive at the memorial and witnessing the beauty of the memorial donated by the local people and receiving their sincere apologies the 50 years of hate gave way to new positive feelings and healing.
Career.
Since the first pilgrimage, Holmes has gone on to organise more trips and eventually founded “Agape”, in 1996. The name is taken from an ancient Greek word meaning, unconditional love. Supported by many people in Britain and Japan, as well as by donations from Japanese firms, including Sumitomo Corp. The Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi and many others. Agape now brings small veteran groups from Britain, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to Japan twice a year. On the trips, the FEPOWs come face to face with their old guards. Former soldiers, camp and prison guards often attend the Agape memorial service and meetings. Hiroshi Abe was a young officer in a railway regiment during the war assigned to the infamous Thai-Burma railway known to FEPOWs as the “Death Railway”. He attends the memorial every year to meet the soldiers. Abe's apology is printed in the Agape pamphlet:
"I cannot deny that l am partly responsible for the deaths of many POW’s, and l apologise sincerely for what we did during the war."
After many uphill struggles since the first pilgrimage to Japan in 1992. Agape has taken hundreds of FEPOWs to Japan's former war camp sites. Many FEPOWs express how their hated towards Japan has changed into love for the Japanese people. Holmes was awarded the O.B.E by Queen Elizabeth II at Windsor Castle on 28 April 1998. She attended the ceremony with her sons Daniel and Christopher.
In the 2003, Holmes met the Emperor and Empress of Japan in Buckingham Palace, England. In 2018 she received the Order of the Rising Sun.
In 2004 Holmes, Kosuge and some other members of Agape including Holmes' son Daniel Holmes went to Nanjing, China to apologise for the crimes committed and pain inflicted by her country men during the war. Holmes also has visited Malaysia, the Netherlands, Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Australia, United States, Canada and India holding meetings and lecturing at universities.


2002 in Brunei

Events in the year 2002 in Brunei.
References.


2004 in Taiwan

Events from the year 2004 in Taiwan, Republic of China. This year is numbered Minguo 93 according to the official Republic of China calendar.


Odawara Domain

 was a Japanese domain of the Edo period, located primarily in western Sagami Province (modern-day Kanagawa Prefecture). It was centered on Odawara Castle in what is now the city of Odawara.
History.
Following the defeat of the Later Hōjō clan in the Battle of Odawara by the forces of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590, their vast territories in the Kantō region were assigned to Tokugawa Ieyasu. Ieyasu selected Edo to be the headquarters of his new domains, and assigned his close retainer, Ōkubo Tadayo to rebuild Odawara Castle and to rule as a daimyō over the strategically important post town, which guarded the approaches to Edo from the west via the Hakone Pass. Ōkubo Tadayo’s territory included 147 villages in Ashigarakami and Ashigarashimo districts with total revenues of 40,000 "koku". His son Tadachika served in the Tokugawa shogunate as a "rōjū" and had his revenues increased by 20,000 "koku" with additional territories in Musashi Province.
The domain then passed to Abe Masatsugu, former castellan of Otaki Castle in Shimōsa Province. After a four-year tenure, he was transferred to Iwatsuki Domain in Musashi and was replaced at Odawara by Inaba Masakatsu, formerly of Masaoka Domain in Shimotsuke Province. Masashige was the son of 3rd Tokugawa Shōgun Iemitsu's wet nurse Kasuga no Tsubone and played an important role in the Tokugawa administration. His two sons ruled Odawara after his death, before being transferred to Takada Domain in Echigo Province.
Odawara then reverted to the Ōkubo clan, when Ōkubo Tadatomo was transferred from Sakura Domain in Kazusa Province. Tadatomo was the great-great-grandson of Ōkubo Tadayo, and the domain remained in the hands of his descendants until the Meiji Restoration.
In 1707, the Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji devastated much of the lands of the domain, and much of the original domain became "tenryō" under direct control of the shogunate, with Odawara Domain compensated by equivalent lands in other parts of Sagami, Musashi, Harima and Izu Provinces.
During the Bakumatsu period, the shogunate relied on troops from Odawara to maintain a guard on the increasing foreign presence in Izu Peninsula, particularly Shimoda and Heda.
After the Meiji Restoration, the final daimyō of Odawara, Ōkubo Tadayoshi surrendered his domain to the new Meiji government without resistance.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Odawara Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In the case of Odawara Domain, a substantial portion of its holdings was in western Japan.
Odawara Prefecture.
After the abolition of the han system on August 29, 1871, the portion of Odawara Domain within western Sagami Province (Ashigarakami, Ashigarashimo and Yurugi Districts) together with 31 villages which had been former hatamoto territory in those same districts, became “Odawara Prefecture”, with Ōkubo Tadayoshi continuing as governor. However, on December 25, 1871 Odawara Prefecture and merged into the short-lived Ashigara Prefecture.
Subsidiary domains.
Ogino-Yamanaka Domain.
Ogino-Yamanaka Domain was a subsidiary domain of Odawara Domain, established in 1783 when Ōkubo Norinobu, relocated his "jin'ya" from Matsunaga Domain in Suruga Province what is now Numazu, Shizuoka to Sagami Province in what is now part of Atsugi, Kanagawa. Matsunaga Domain had been created in 1698 for Ōkubo Norihiro, the younger son of Ōkubo Tadatomo. The domain had holding scatted across Sagami, Suzuga and Izu provinces. During the Bakumatsu period, the domain was assigned to guard Kofu Castle in Kai Province. In 1867, while most of the samurai were still in Kofu, anti-Tokugawa partisans burned the "jin’ya" of the domain to the ground. After the Meiji restoration, in 1871, with the abolition of the han system, the domain became Ogino-Yamanaka Prefecture, which was merged into Kanagawa Prefecture in 1876.


Sim Bong-geun

Sim Bong-geun (born October 3, 1943 in Goseong) is an archaeologist, university professor and administrator at Dong-A University in Greater Busan, South Korea. Sim was appointed as the 12th president of Dong-A University in 2007.
Sim received his bachelor's and master's degrees at Dong-A University and earned his PhD from Kyushu University in Fukuoka, Japan.
Sim started his archaeological career at the Dong-A University Museum, and was the museum's longtime Director. Upon earning a PhD, Sim joined the faculty of the Department of Archaeology and Art History at Dong-A University. In the 1990s Sim became the department head, and was named the Dean of the Graduate School in 1999. Sim was the vice-president at Dong-A University from 2000–2007.


2008 in Malaysia

This article lists important figures and events in Malaysian public affairs during the year 2008, together with the deaths of notable Malaysians.


Ii Naonori (Yoita)


Matsumoto Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. It is located in Shinano Province, Honshū. The domain was centered at Matsumoto Castle, located in what is the city of Matsumoto in Nagano Prefecture.
History.
During the Sengoku period, Matsumoto was the seat of the Ogasawara clan, the "shugo" of Shinano Province. However, Ogasawara clan was defeated by Takeda Shingen in a series of battles from 1542 to 1548, and his lands became part of the Takeda clan territories. After the fall of the Takeda clan, the area became a disputed region, eventually coming under the control of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who placed Ogasawara Hidemasa in charge of Matsumoto.
When Toyotomi Hideyoshi transferred Ieyasu to the Kantō region in 1590, he placed Ieyasu’s former retainer Ishikawa Norimasa in charge of Matsumoto Domain, with assessed "kokudaka" of 100,000 "koku". Norimasa and his son Yasunaga built much of the present-day Matsumoto Castle by 1593–94. The Ishikawa were confirmed as "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain after the formation of the Tokugawa shogunate, but were dispossessed due to a political scandal in 1613 involving Ōkubo Nagamasa.
In 1613, Ogasawara Hidemasa was allowed to return to Matsumoto Domain, with revenues of 80,000 "koku". His son, Ogasawara Tadazane was transferred to Akashi Domain in Harima Province in 1617, and Matsumoto was subsequently ruled by two branches of the Matsudaira clan to 1638, the Hotta clan to 1642, the Mizuno clan to 1725, and finally the Toda-branch of the Matsudaira clan from 1725 to the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
During the Bakumatsu period, forces from Matsumoto supported the Tokugawa shogunate against the Mito rebellion and at the Kinmon incident and in both Chōshū expeditions. However, with the start of the Boshin War, the final "daimyō" of Matsumoto, Matsudaira Mitsuhisa, changed sides to the imperial cause, and his forces fought in the imperial armies at the Battle of Hokuetsu and the Battle of Aizu. He later served as domain governor until 1871, and was awarded the title of "shishaku" (marquis) under the "kazoku" peerage system. Matsumoto Domain subsequently became part of Nagano Prefecture.
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Matsumoto Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.
List of daimyō.
Matsudaira Mitsuchika.
 was a "daimyō" under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. He was the 2nd "daimyō" of Yodo Domain in Yamashiro Province in 1717, 1st "daimyō" of Toba Domain in Shima Province from 1717-1725 and the 1st "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain in Shinano Province from 1725-1732. His courtesy title was "Tamba-no-kami". Mitsuchika was the fifth son of Matsudaira Mitsuhiro of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. In 1716, he was adopted as heir by his uncle, who was a 3000 "koku" "hatamoto"; however, he was adopted back by his real father only a few months later after the deaths of his two elder brothers. He became "daimyō" on his father's death in 1717, and the same year the clan was ordered to transfer from Yodo to Toba. In 1723, he was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune. In 1725, the clan was again transferred, this time to Matsumoto Domain. In 1728, he was captain of the guard for Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune's pilgrimage to the Nikkō Tōshō-gū. He first visited his domain for the first time in 1730. He spent several weeks the following year touring his domain. In 1732, the palace of Matsumoto Castle burned down, but as there were no funds for rebuilding, he moved into the secondary residence in the second bailey of the castle. He died later the same year at the age of 32 without heir.
Matsudaira Mitsuo.
 was the 2nd Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 7th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. His courtesy title was "Tamba-no-kami". Mitsuo was the fifth son of Matsudaira Mitsuhiro and was born at Yodo Castle. In 1732, he was posthumous adopted as heir by his elder brother, Matsudaira Mitsuchika and was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune. In 1735, the authority to issue travel permits to women passing through official checkpoints at the Usui Pass and Fukushima-juku on then Nakasendō highway was restored to Matsumoto Domain. In 1743, the shogunate abolished its "jin'ya" at Shiojiri and placed the 159 "tenryō" villages with a "kokudaka" of 53,290 "koku" under the administration of Matsumoto Domain, although subsequently (in 1788), Naka-no-jō "jin'ya" was established to administer 13,000 "koku" of this territory. His wife was a daughter of Satake Yoshimune of Kubota Domain. He died at the clan's Gofukubashi residence in Edo in 1756 at the age of 41.
Matsudaira Mitsuyasu.
 was the 3rd Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 8th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsuyasu was the eldest son of Matsudaira Mitsuo and was born at Matsumoto Castle. He became "daimyō" on his father's death in 1756; however, he died in 1759 at the clan's Gofukubashi residence in Edo at the age of 23. His wife was a daughter of Abe Michichika of Oshi Domain.
Matsudaira Mitsumasa.
 was the 4th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 9th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsumasa was the sixth son of Matsudaira Mitsuo and was posthumously adopted as heir to his brother, Matsudaira Mitsuyasu. He was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ieshige in 1759, and was appointed a "sōshaban" in 1767, holding that post until 1772. He retired in 1774 and was given the courtesy title of "Ise-no-kami". He died the following year. His wife was a daughter of Matsudaira Takechika of Tanagura Domain; however, he had no male heir.
Matsudaira Mitsuyoshi.
 was the 5th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 10th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsuyoshi was the 8th son of Matsudaira Mitsuo and was adopted as heir to his brother, Matsudaira Mitsumasa in 1774. He was born at the clan's Gofukubashi residence in Edo. He was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ieharu the same year. In 1777, Matsumoto Castle was destroyed by a fire, and he was forced to apply to the shogunate for a loan of 5000 "ryō" for rebuilding. He died at the clan's Gofukubashi residence in Edo in 1786. His wife was a daughter of Abe Masatoshi of Oshi Domain.
Matsudaira Mitsuyuki.
 was the 6th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 11th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsuyuki was the son of a 5000 "koku" "hatamoto" descended from the 4th son of Matsudaira Mitsuhiro. He was posthumously adopted as heir to Matsudaira Mitsuyoshi in 1786 and married one of Mitsuyoshi's daughters. He was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ienari the same year. He founded a han school in 1793. He retired from public life in 1800, and took the tonsure, becoming a lay monk. He died at the clan's secondary residence in Edo in Azabu in 1840.
Matsudaira Mitsutsura.
 was the 7th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 12th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsutsura was the eldest son Matsudaira Mitsuyoshi, but as he was only an infant at the time of his father's death, Matsudaira Mitsuyuki was selected by the clan elders to become "daimyō" . Mitsuyuki adopted Mitsutsura as his heir in 1794, and he was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ienari. He became "daimyō" on Mitsuyuki's retirement in 1800. He was appointed a "sōshaban" in 1817, and became "Jisha-bugyō" in 1828. In 1812 and 1820, the shogunate entrusted an additional 8000 "koku" of "tenryō" lands to his administration. He died in Matsumoto in 1837. His wife was a daughter of Toda Ujinori of Ogaki Domain, and after her death, he remarried to a daughter of Hachisuka Shigeyoshi of Tokushima Domain; however, he had no male heir.
Matsudaira Mitsutsune.
 was the 8th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 13th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan. Mitsutsune was the third son Matsudaira Mitsuyuki, and was adopted as heir by Matsudaira Mitsutsura in 1819. He was received in formal audience by Shōgun Tokugawa Ienari the same year. He became "daimyō" on Mitsutsune's death in 1837. He attempted to reform the fiscal administration of the domain, but this led to conflict between the conservative hereditary advisors to the domain and the new advisors he hired, which eventually caused him to retire in 1845. He relocated to Tokyo in 1872, where he died in 1878. His wife was a daughter of Kuze Hiroyasu of Sekiyado Domain.
Matsudaira Mitsuhisa.
 was the 9th Matsudaira "daimyō" of Matsumoto Domain and 14th hereditary chieftain of the Toda-Matsudaira clan.
See also.
List of Han


Abdullah Khan II

Abdullah Khan (Abdollah Khan Ozbeg) (1533/4–1598), known as "The old Khan", was an Uzbek ruler of the Khanate of Bukhara (1500–1785). He was the last Shaybanid Dynasty Khan of Bukhara, from 1583 until his death.
Abdullah Khan initiated a war with Persia which lasted from 1587 to 1598. He was able to focus on this thanks to a non-aggression pact with the Mughal emperor, Akbar, through which Abdullah Khan recognized Akbar's right to rule in the territory of Kabul.
During the reign of Abdullah Khan, Abdul Karim Khan was the ruler of Kashgaria, to the east in present-day Xinjiang. However, diplomatic relations were not good between the two khans.
Biography.
Abdullah Khan was born in 1533 or 1534, in the town of Afarinkent, Samarkand Province.
The ascent to the throne.
After the death of Abdulaziz Shaybanid was a struggle for the throne. Khan Abdullatif, who ruled the Samarkand, sought to ruler Bukhara through his two grandchildren: Shaibani Khan Yar Muhammad Sultan and Burhan-Sultan.
However, after the death of Abdullatif Khan in 1551, Barak Khan, who ruled Tashkent, took Samarkand and established himself as ruler there under the name of Newroz Ahmed Khan. He was declared the supreme khan of the Uzbeks. Shaybanidov Abdullah Sultan, who was then governor of Kermine, led the resistance against Newroz Ahmed Khan. He was assisted by his uncle, the governor of Balkh, Pirmuhammed Khan. In 1556 Newroz Ahmad died. With his death, Pirmuhammed Khan was proclaimed the supreme ruler of the Uzbeks.
The struggle for the unification of the state.
In 1557, Abdullah Sultan captured Bukhara with the support of Sufi sheikhs and became its ruler. In 1561, he was bold enough to proclaim his father Iskander as supreme khan of the Uzbeks. He had previously ruled Kermine and Miankal. Abdullah's father was more interested in religious rites, so he entrusted the conduct of state affairs to his son Abdullah Sultan.
Abdullah set out to combine all four of the Sheibanids: Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent and Balkh in one single state. This took many years and it was only in 1582 that he was able to create a single state out of the four Sheibanids.
To achieve unification, he had to fight a long war to take possession of Tashkent. He then took control of Fergana and in 1573 after a long siege took Balkh.
In 1574, his possessions were attached Karshi, Karshi and Hisar. In 1576, he fought off the enemies of Samarkand and Tashkent took.
In the service of the vassal Abdullah Khan were some Kazakh sultans: Sheehan and his son Tauekel.
In 1582, Abdullah Khan made a trip to Dasht-i-Kipchak, Bobo Khan killed and captured his fortress Shohruhiya Sairam and Ahangeran. In 1583, his son Abd al-Mumin captured and plundered Mashhad. In the same 1583, after the death of his father, Abdullah Khan was declared the Uzbeks and his state was called Bukhara khanate.
Abdullah Khan's monetary reform.
Abdullah Khan II, in several stages, held a monetary reform. To redress the lack of silver metal and silver coins he is still with his father organized a regular production of gold coins and controlled their stamp in Bukhara, paying particular attention to maintaining a high standard. Reform of Abdullah Khan was primarily aimed at changing the course of silver coins in accordance with the rise in prices of silver. At a time when the formal head of the dynasty was still Iskandar Khan (1560-1583), minted silver coins remained decentralized. However, with the name of Iskandar bind silver thong issued in Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Tashkent, Andijan, and Ahsi Yasse (Turkestan).
In 1583, Abdullah Khan spent another part of the monetary reform: it is largely centralized in Bukhara, its capital, minted silver thong. For everyday urban trade of consumer goods, Abdullah Khan forged copper coins minted several advantages.
Monetary reform Abdullah Khan II was successful, it eliminated the monetary crisis, suspended mass leakage outside the state. This reform was part of domestic politics, Abdullah Khan II, aimed to create the most favorable conditions for all types of trade: transit, intercity, intercity.
Expanding the boundaries of the state.
Combining Shaybanid state has opened up new opportunities to expand its territorial boundaries. In 1584, Abdullah Khan seized Badakhshan and Khorasan in 1588.
In the later period of his reign Abdullah waged war for the conquest of Khorezm. In the years 1593-1594 the country was finally conquered by the troops without a fight Abdullah came to Khiva. Khiva sultans were caught and executed.
Soon soured relations with the Kazakh khans, who learned about the uprising against Abdulmumin Abdullah Khan, in 1598 made a trip to Tashkent. Abdullah Khan, who was forced to go to war with his own son Abdulmumin, prepared a new army, but died before the collision with the Kazakh Chingized who, taking advantage of the situation, took Turkestan, Tashkent, Samarkand and Andijan, but have not been able to take Bukhara.
Foreign policy.
During the reign of Abdullah Khan khanate maintained close diplomatic relations with Akbar in India, the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Russia. In a letter dated 1577 Akbar informed Abdullah Khan Uzbek about his intention to expel the Portuguese from India.
Recovered A.Dzhenkinsona-Russian ties soured Bukhara in the early 1580s in connection with the support of Abdullah Khan, his cousin Shaybanids - Siberian Khan Kuchum.
Tribal composition of troops.
Abdullah Khan's army consisted of a detachment of soldiers from various Uzbek tribes: Shirins, Utarchs, Bishyuzs, Jalairs, Keralas, Katagans, Tan-Yaruks, Alchins, Hitays, Bahrin, Naimans, Manghud, Kushchis, Arguns, Mings, Karluks, Kungrats, Tubais (tuvas), etc.
Cultural policies.
Abdullah Khan was not only a talented warrior, but also an outstanding statesman. He cared about strengthening trade ties broad Bukhara (especially with Russia and India), paid great attention to the construction of monumental buildings - madrassahs and khanqahs, shopping malls and caravanserais, reservoirs and bridges.
During the reign of Abdullah Khan II (1557-1598) the architectural ensemble of the Kosh-Madrasah was erected in Bukhara. It consists of two opposing madrassas. First - madrassas Modari Khan, built around 1567 in honor of his mother, Abdullah Khan, the second is the name of Abdullah Khan and was built in 1588–1590 years.
Abdullah Khan is also the patron of education and philanthropist, has surrounded himself with scholars, writers and chroniclers. Court poets and historians have praised him. Among the poets first place belonged Mushfiki - author laudatory odes, lyric poems and epigrams, he was also able diplomat. On behalf of Abdullah Khan Mushfiki was grandiloquent labels for buildings. Court historian Hafiz Tanysh was a rich chronicle of facts "Abdullah-name". Literature continued to develop in Persian, Turkish and part in Arabic. According to the observation of Academician VV Bartold "historical literature when Uzbeks in quality and quantity was even higher than in the previous century."
Abdullah Khan II himself wrote poems and left his legacy under the pseudonym "'Avaz Gazi".
Death.
After the death of Abdullah in 1598 the throne passed to his son Abd al-Mumin, but soon began to confuse and he was killed by the rebels, with the death of Abd al-Mumin ended Shaybanids dynasty.
Abdullah Khan was buried at the mausoleum of Bahauddin Naqshbandi near Bukhara.


Shimotsuma Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan, located in Hitachi Province (modern-day Ibaraki Prefecture), Japan. It was centered on Shimotsuma "Jin'ya" in what is now the city of Shimotsuma, Ibaraki. It was ruled for much of its history by a junior branch of the Inoue clan; however, it suffered from frequent changes of rules due to the tendency of the Inoue daimyō to die at young ages.
History.
During the Sengoku period, the area around Shimotsuma was controlled by the Tagaya clan, retainers of the Yūki clan. Although the Tagaya clan pledged allegiance to Tokugawa Ieyasu following the Battle of Odawara in 1590, their support of the Tokugawa was less than lukewarm, and during the Battle of Sekigahara, the clan defected to the Uesugi clan, and were therefore stripped of their 60,000 "koku" holdings.
The domain was then awarded to the 11th son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tokugawa Yorifusa, who later went on to become founder of the Mito Domain. He was replaced at Shimotsuma by Matsudaira Tadamasa, the son of Yūki Hideyasu, followed by Matsudaira Sadatsuna. After his transfer to Kakegawa Domain in 1619, the domain became "tenryō" territory controlled directly by the shogunate until 1712.
In 1712, Inoue Tadanaga, a confidant and retainer of Tokugawa Ienobu from the time before he became Shōgun, had risen through the government hierarchy and through merit and inheritance, has achieved the 10,000 "koku" necessary for daimyō status. Shimotsuma Domain was revived to become his fiefdom, and remained in the hands of the Inoue clan until the Meiji restoration. However, ten of the 14 Inoue daimyō were adopted into the clan from other families due to the tendency of the rulers to die young and without heir.
During the Boshin War, the final Inoue daimyō, Inoue Masaoto initially sided with the pro-Tokugawa forces, but then switched sides to the Imperial cause. However, many of his samurai opposed this change, and defected to fight on the side of Aizu Domain during the Battle of Aizu. Because of this, the Meiji government initially declared him to be a traitor and forfeit of his domain, but due to the strong arguments of his "karō" and the "seppuku" of leading pro-Tokugawa retainers, the decision was rescinded. He was later elevated to the "kazoku" peerage with the title of viscount ("shishaku") during the Meiji period.
The domain had a population of 2055 people in 329 households per a census in 1855.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Shimotsuma Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.


Phoenicia Prima


Ii Naokazu


Soga Seikan

Soga Seikan (1592-?) was a samurai from Joseon who served Nakagawa Hidenari, the first daimyō of Oka as a retainer.
He was born in 1592 in Joseon.
Hidenari participated in the Imjin war. In 1597, he heard the crying near his camp in Suwon, and his retainer found a child by the river. The appearance of the child was so “uncommon” and “friendly” that Hidenari invited him. A prisoner said he was the son of 曾清官, commanding officer of Joseon who led 500 soldiers, but his name was still unknown. Hidenari felt pity for him, and decided to raise him in the camp. Hidenari named him Seikan (清官) using the same character of his father.
In the following year, Hidenari returned to Japan with Seikan. Seikan stayed the residence of Hidenari in Osaka for a few years.
In 1601, Seikan moved Hidenari's territory, Bungo province. Seikan became the retainer of Hidenari because his personality and descend was appreciated. He was given the surname Soga(曾我) which resembles his father's one, 曾. He worked alongside and pleased Hidenari. After a time, he was given the salary and became the page of Hidenari.
He was given 150 koku in 1607 or 1608.
In 1608, he was married with the daughter of Yaishi Jinbei, former retainer of Ōtomo clan.
It is unknown of the date, and month he was born in. And even the year of which he died on and how he died.


Tazabagyab culture

The Tazabagyab culture is a late Bronze Age culture which flourished along the lower Amu Darya and on the south shore of the Aral Sea from ca. 1500 BC to 1100 BC. It was a southern offshoot of the Andronovo culture, and was composed of Indo-Iranians.
Origins.
The Tazabagyab culture emerged in 1500 BC as a southern variant of the Andronovo culture. Unlike the Andronovo peoples further to the north, who were largely pastoral, the people of the Tazabagyab culture were largely agricultural.
It is probable that they were descended from Indo-Iranian steppe pastoralists from the north who had expanded southwards and founded agricultural communities.
Characteristics.
Tazabagyab settlements show evidence of small-scale irrigation agriculture. About fifty settlements have been discovered. These contained subterranean rectangular houses, usually three per village. Tazabagyav houses are generally large, some being more than 10 x 10 m in dimensions. They are built of clay and the reeds are supported by timber posts. Ca. 100 individuals, belonging to around ten families, would have inhabited a Tazabagyav village. Figurines and remains of horses have been found.
In Tazabagyav burials, males are buried on their left, while females are buried on their right. This is similar to contemporary Indo-European cultures in the region, such as the Andronovo culture, Bishkent culture, the Swat culture and the Vakhsh culture, and the earlier Corded Ware culture of central and eastern Europe. This practice has been identified as a typical Indo-Iranian tradition.
Metal objects of the Tazabagyab culture are similar to those of the Andronovo culture in Kazakhstan, and of the Srubnaya culture further west. Archaeological evidence show that Tazabagyab settlements included metal-working craftsmen.
Its ceramics were of the Namazga VI type which was common throughout Central Asia at the time. Tazabagyav pottery appears throughout a wide area.
The Tazabagyab people appears to have controlled the trade in minerals such as copper, tin and turquoise, and pastoral products such as horses, dairy and leather. This must have given them great political power in the old oasis towns of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex. Their mastery of chariot warfare must have given them military control. This probably encouraged social, political and also military integration.
Successors.
David W. Anthony suggests that Tazabagyav culture might have been a predecessor of early Indo-Aryan peoples such as the compilers of the Rigveda and the Mitanni.


Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1309 – 20 September 1388) was a Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughlaq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had gone in pursuit of Taghi the ruler of Gujarat. For the first time in the history of Delhi Sultanate, a situation was confronted wherein nobody was ready to accept the reins of power. With much difficulty, the camp followers convinced Firoz to accept the responsibility. In fact, Khwaja Jahan, the Wazir of Muhammad bin Tughlaq had placed a small boy on throne claiming him to the son of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who meekly surrendered afterwards. Due to widespread unrest, his realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He established Sharia across his realm.
Background.
His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title "Sipahsalar". His mother Naila was a Bhati Rajput princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur.
Rule.
We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in part through his 32-page autobiography, titled "Futuhat-e-firozshahi". He was 42 when he became Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled until 1388. At his succession, after the death of Muhammad Tughlaq, he faced many rebellions, including in Bengal, Gujarat and Warangal. Nonetheless he worked to improve the infrastructure of the empire building canals, rest-houses and hospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and digging wells. He founded several cities around Delhi, including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hissar, Firozabad, Fatehabad. Most of Firozabad was destroyed as subsequent rulers dismantled its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials, and the rest was subsumed as New Delhi grew.
Religious and administrative policies.
Tughlaq was a fervent Muslim and adopted sharia policies. He made a number of important concessions to theologians. He imposed Jizya tax on all non-Muslims. He tried to ban practices that the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic, an example being his prohibition of the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the graves of saints. He persecuted a number of Muslim sects which were considered heretical by the theologians.
Tughlaq took to heart the mistakes made during his cousin Muhammad's rule. He decided not to reconquer areas that had broken away, nor to keep further areas from taking their independence. He was indiscriminately benevolent and lenient as a sultan. He decided to keep nobles and the Ulema happy so that they would allow him to rule his kingdom peacefully.
"The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions to against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute. He converted Chauhan Rajputs from Hinduism to Islam in the 14th century. They are now known as Qaimkhanis in Rajasthan.
He laid siege to Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute, and did the same with Thatta.
Rather than awarding position based on merit, Tughlaq allowed a noble's son to succeed to his father's position and jagir after his death. The same was done in the army, where an old soldier could send his son, son-in-law or even his slave in his place. He increased the salary of the nobles. He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments such as cutting off hands. He also lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised. Tughlaq's reign has been described as the greatest age of corruption in medieval India: he once gave a golden tanka to a distraught soldier so that he could bribe the clerk to pass his sub-standard horse.
Infrastructure and education.
Tughlaq instituted economic policies to increase the material welfare of his people. Many rest houses ("sarai"), gardens and tombs(Tughluq tombs) were built. A number of madrasas (Islamic religious schools) were opened to encourage the religious education of Muslims. He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor and encouraged physicians in the development of Unani medicine. He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families under the department of Diwan-i-khairat. He commissioned many public buildings in Delhi. He built Firoz Shah Palace Complex at Hisar in 1354 CE, over 300 villages and dug five major canals, including the renovation of Prithviraj Chauhan era Western Yamuna Canal, for irrigation bringing more land under cultivation for growing grain and fruit. For day-to-day administration, Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq heavily depended on Malik Maqbul, previously commander of Warangal fort, who was captured and converted to Islam. When Tughlaq was away on a campaign to Sind and Gujarat for six months and no news was available about his whereabouts Maqbul ably protected Delhi. He was the most highly favoured among the significant number of the nobles in Tughlaq's court and retained the trust of the sultan. Sultan Feroze Shah Tughlaq used to call Maqbul as 'brother'. The sultan remarked that "Khan-i-Jahan" (Malik Maqbul) was the real ruler of Delhi.
Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and Arabic. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages. He brought 2 Ashokan Pillars from Meerut, and Topra near Radaur in Yamunanagar district of Haryana, carefully cut and wrapped in silk, to Delhi in bullock cart trains. He re-erected one of them on the roof of his palace at Firoz Shah Kotla.
Transfer of capital was the highlight of his reign. When the Qutb Minar struck by lightning in 1368 AD, knocking off its top storey, he replaced them with the existing two floors, faced with red sandstone and white marble. One of his hunting lodges, Shikargah, also known as Kushak Mahal, is situated within the Teen Murti Bhavan complex, Delhi. The nearby Kushak Road is named after it, as is the Tughlaq Road further on.
Legacy.
His eldest son, Fath Khan, died in 1376. He then abdicated in August 1387 and made his other son, Prince Muhammad, king. A slave rebellion forced him to confer the royal title to his grandson, Tughluq Khan.
Tughlaq's death led to a war of succession coupled with nobles rebelling to set up independent states. His lenient attitude had strengthened the nobles, thus weakening the his position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak and the empire had shrunk in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi. His tomb is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi), close to the tank built by Alauddin Khalji. Attached to the tomb is a madrasa built by Firoz Shah in 1352–53.


Nasrullah Khan (Bukhara)

Nasrullah Khan or Nasr-Allah bin Haydar Tora was the Emir of Bukhara from 1827 to 1860. His father was emir Haydar bin Shahmurad (1800–1826).
After Haydar's death Mir Hussein bin Haydar came to power. He died two months later and was succeeded by Umar bin Haydar, who in 1827 was succeeded by Nasrullah.
Nasr-Allah bin Haydar Tora was ruler in a time when the Central Asian states were under pressure from the advance of the Russian Empire in the north and the British Indian Empire in the south. Nasr-Allah is best known in the West as the Emir who imprisoned and eventually executed in 1842 the British envoys Charles Stoddart and Arthur Conolly, and imprisoned but eventually released Joseph Wolff, who came in 1843 to seek news of them.
Emirate of Bukhara - Kokand Khanate Wars.
Nasrullah bin Haydar Tora organized several unsuccessful military campaigns against the Kokand Khanate. In 1839 he declared war against Kokand due to their building of the Pishagar fort near the Bukhara front. He conquered Khojand twice in 1839 and 1841, forcing the Khan of Kokand into a peace in his favour and took Ura Tepe and Khojend as compensation. The Khan of Kokand was also forced to pay a heavy amount and recognize him as lord, putting his name on the coins and the khutba. After a revolt in Khujent the Emir's forces occupied Khojent and Kokand. Madali Khan, the Khan of Kokand escaped to Marghilan, but was captured and executed in Bukhara at the end of April 1842. Nasrullah also personally ordered execution of Ali-Khan and Nodira of Kokand along with most of their families. Bukharan forces in the Khanate of Kokand were expelled after a revolt in Kokand two months later.
Nasr-Allah bin Haydar Tora died in 1860 and his son Muzaffar bin Nasrullah (1860–1885) came to power.


2009 in Philippine television

The following is a list of events affecting Philippine television in 2009. Events listed include television show debuts, finales, cancellations, and channel launches, closures and rebrandings, as well as information about controversies and carriage disputes.


2002 Pakistani referendum

A referendum on allowing Pervez Musharraf to continue as President for five years was held in Pakistan on 30 April 2002. The proposal was approved by 97.97% of voters. However, the referendum was boycotted by the opposition on the basis that it was unconstitutional. Although turnout was reported to be 56.1%, the opposition claimed it was between 5% and 7%. The poll was criticised for being "marred by gross irregularities" by the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan.
Background.
Musharraf came to power in a military coup on 12 October 1999. He initially referred to himself as "Chief Executive", before later removing President Rafiq Tarar from office and assuming the post himself. Musharraf claimed that holding a referendum was abiding by democratic laws, despite the constitution of Pakistan not containing a reference to electing Presidents by referendums.
Conduct.
The referendum was seen by many as a sham or fixed. Opposition parties including the Pakistan Peoples Party and the Pakistan Muslim League referred to the decision of Musharraf to hold a referendum as inappropriate and urged citizens to boycott the vote. In response, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 and the number of polling stations significantly increased, whilst ID cards were not required for people to cast a vote.


2004 in Nepal

Events from the year 2004 in Nepal.


Kushidashin Site

The is an archaeological site containing the remnants of a late Jōmon period settlement and encompassing two circular Kofun period burial mounds located in what is now the Daimon neighborhood of the city of Imizu, Toyama in the Hokuriku region of Japan. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1976.
Overview.
The Kushidashin Site is located on a hill with an elevation of approximately 45 meters. An excavation survey was conducted in 1949, and middle and late period Jōmon pottery of a style unique to this site was excavated. The ruins included the foundations of a number of pit dwellings with stone-lined hearths. Also within the close proximity were two small dome-shaped "kofun" (円墳) from the much later Kofun period. Currently, it is maintained as an archaeological park. It is located about 20 minutes by car from Takaoka Station on the JR West Hokuriku Main Line.


Horio Mosuke


Sakastan (Sasanian province)

Sakastan (also known as Sagestān, Sagistan, Seyanish, Segistan, Sistan, and Sijistan) was a Sasanian province in Late Antiquity, that lay within the kust of Nemroz. The province bordered Kirman in the west, Spahan in the north west, Kushanshahr in the north east, and Turan in the south east. The governor of the province held the title of marzban. The governor also held the title of "Sakanshah" (king of the Saka) until the title was abolished in ca. 459/60.
Etymology.
The word "Sakastan" means "the land of the Saka", a Scythian group which from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century migrated to the Iranian Plateau and India, where they carved a kingdom known as the Indo-Scythian Kingdom. In the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian scripture written in Pahlavi, the province is written as "Seyansih". After the Arab conquest of Iran, the province became known as "Sijistan" and later as "Sistan", which still remains a province to this day in Iran (Sistan and Baluchestan Province).
History.
The province was formed in ca. 240, during the reign of Shapur I (r. 240–270), as part of his intention to centralise his empire - before that, the province was under the rule of the Parthian Suren Kingdom, whose ruler Ardashir Sakanshah became a Sasanian vassal during the reign of Shapur's father Ardashir I (r. 224–242), who also had the ancient city Zrang rebuilt, which became the capital of the province. Shapur's son Narseh was the first to be appointed as the governor of the province, which he would govern until 271, when the Sasanian prince Hormizd was appointed as the new governor.
Later in ca. 281, Hormizd revolted against his cousin Bahram II (r. 274–293). During the revolt, the people of Sakastan was one of his supporters. Nevertheless, Bahram II managed to suppress the revolt in 283, and appointed his son Bahram III as the governor of the province. During the early reign of Shapur II (r. 309-379), he appointed his brother Shapur Sakanshah as the governor of Sakastan. Peroz I (r. 459–484), during his early reign, put an end to dynastic rule in province by appointing a Karenid as its governor. The reason behind the appointment was to avoid further family conflict in the province, and in order to gain more direct control of the province.
During the Muslim conquest of Persia, the last Sasanian king Yazdegerd III fled to Sakastan in the mid-640s, where its governor Aparviz (who was more or less independent), helped him. However, Yazdegerd III quickly ended this support when he demanded tax money that he had failed to pay. In 650/1, Abd-Allah ibn Amir, who had recently conquered Kirman, sent Rabi ibn Ziyad Harithi to an expedition in Sakastan. After some time, he reached Zaliq, a border town between Kirman and Sakastan, where he forced the dehqan of the town to acknowledge Rashidun authority. He then did the same at the fortress of Karkuya, which had a famous fire temple, which is mentioned in the "Tarikh-i Sistan".
He then continued to seize more land in the province. He thereafter besieged Zrang, and after a heavy battle outside the city, Aparviz and his men surrendered. When Aparviz went to Rabi to discuss about the conditions of a treaty, he saw that he was using the bodies of two dead soldiers as a chair. This horrified Aparviz, who in order to spare the inhabitants of Sakastan from the Arabs, made peace with the Arabs in return for heavy tribute, which included a tribute of 1,000 slave boys bearing 1,000 golden vessels. Sakastan was thus under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Population and religion.
During the Achaemenid period, Sakastan (then known as Drangiana), was populated by a Persianized east Iranian group known as the Drangians. From the 2nd century BC to the 1st century, Sakastan saw a huge influx of Saka tribesmen and also some Parthians, which, in the words of Brunner, "reshaped the region's older population pattern".
The inhabitants of Sakastan were mainly Zoroastrian, while a minority of them were Nestorian Christians.
House of Suren.
The House of Suren, a Parthian noble family that served the Parthian and later the Sasanian Empire, was part of the seven Parthian clans of the Sasanian Empire—each family owned land in different parts of the empire, the Surens owning land in parts of Sakastan.
Mint.
Under Shapur II, a Sasanian mint was established in Sakastan (mint-mark: SKSTN, S, SK). From the first reign of Kavad I (r. 488–496) onwards, this mint was located at the provincial capital Zrang (mint-mark: ZR, ZRN, ZRNG).


Quba

Quba () is a city and the administrative centre of the Quba District of Azerbaijan. The city lies on the north-eastern slopes of Shahdag mountain, at an altitude of 600 metres above sea level, on the right bank of the Kudyal river. It has a population of 38,100 (2010).
History.
Quba was mentioned in works of various European geographers, in ancient Arabic and Albanian sources. The castle built by the ruler Anushiravan in the 11th century was called "Bade-Firuz Qubat", and in the Arabic sources of the XII century Quba was mentioned as "Cuba". In the 13th century, in the Dictionary of Geographical names of Arabian scientist Hamabi it was mentioned among the Azerbaijani cities as Kubba, and in the sources of 16th century Quba was referred to as "Dome".
Guba (Quba) city originated from the riverside village of Gudial. In the mid-18th century, after moving his residence from Khudat, Hussain Ali became Quba's Khan (tribal Turkic Muslim ruler) and raised fortress walls around the city. He thereafter attempted to create a state separate from other Azerbaijani khanates. The position of the Quba khanate grew stronger during the reign of Fatali Khan (1758–1789), son of Hussain Ali Khan.
Nevertheless, Quba Khanate, like other Transcaucasian khanates, was occupied by Czarist Russia in the early 19th century and formally annexed to the Russian Empire under the agreement of 1813. After the rehabilitation Quba was included in the Derbent province in 1840 and then in the Baku province in 1860.
Alexandre Dumas, Russian orientalist Berezin, the writer Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, the Norwegian scholar and adventurer Thor Heyerdahl visited Quba at the time.
Quba is also a center of carpet weaving industry. There is located a carpet making company called "Qadim Quba". The carpet "Golu Chichi" woven here in 1712 is now exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
Population.
Demographics.
The officially registered population of Quba in 2010 was 38,150.
Ethnic groups.
The majority of the population is Azerbaijanis, while Tats and Lezgians constitute other minorities. The city's suburb of Qırmızı Qəsəbə (formerly in , "Krasnaya Sloboda"; literally "Red Town") is home to the country's largest community of Mountain Jews and one of the largest Jewish populations in the former Soviet Union.
Points of Interest.
Juma Mosque.
Juma Mosque was built in the 19th century. The mosque was built from the red brick and it was erected in 1802. It is also called "Jama". This mosque was constructed in typical Quba province style mosques. The brick for the mosque were made in the village of Igryg. In appearance it resembles a faceted cylinder, and it's shaped like a regular octagon. Inside of the mosque there is a big hall crowned with a huge 16 m diameter dome.
Sakina-Khanum Mosque.
Sakina-Khanum Mosque was built in 1854 by the widow of Abbasgulu Bakikhanov. It was erected in memory of her deceased husband. The mosque was built from red bricks and is similar to faceted cylinder. Each facet has a window in the form of a semicircular arch. The top of the facade is surrounded by an original eaves made from small bricks. From top this stately building is crowned with a big white metal dome in the shape of a multi-faceted helmet. The top of the dome is decorated by a graceful thin spike.
Chuhur hamam.
Chuhur hamam is a bathhouse. The hamam is unique in its beehive shaped dome made of brick. The building of the bathhouse was built from the red brick. Its large dome enabled it to maintain the right temperature and humidity inside the house. The house has a quadrangular shape and it has 6 rooms, 2 doors and 6 windows. Water was supplied from the well under the bath or from the city waterpipes. In his time, Alexandre Dumas bathed in this bathhouse, during his stay in Quba. 150 years later, his great-grandson visited these places. The bathhouse was the main resting place for the Quba people and it was used until 1985. The Chuhur hamam is no longer operational.
The House-museum of Abbasgulu Bakikhanov.
The Museum of Local History named after Abbasgulu Bakikhanov was founded in 1943 in Quba. The museum was opened in the building, located along Ardabil Street, in which Bakikhanov himself lived at the time. The building dates back to the 19th century. There are more than 10 thousand different exhibits on the museum territory which is 742 sq. m. in total. More than 3,000 people visit this museum every year.
Portal Frame Bridge.
The only bridge that has survived to this day, also called the Kudyalchay Bridge. It is one of the seven bridges that existed in the Quba district in the 17th–19th centuries. This bridge was built in 1894 on the draft of Alexander III. 14 of its spans with a total length of 275 metres and a width of 8 metres are made of burnt bricks. This design allows the bridge to remain intact even during heavy mudflows and floods. The bridge has recently been restored and is protected by the state as an architectural monument. This is the only bridge with such structure in Azerbaijan.
Nizami Park.
It is said that this park, named after Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi, was built by captured Germans in 1946. A statue of the poet is erected in the park. There are bas-reliefs, depicting scenes from the works of Nizami around the monument along the avenues.
Olympic complex.
The Olympic complex, located 120 km from Baku, was opened on October 11, 2003. The area of this recreational and sports center is 16 hectares. There are conditions for the development of football, mini-football, basketball and volleyball.
There are two-storey cottages, spacious apartments, as well as a conference hall with a capacity of 200 people on the territory of the complex.
The largest of 5 halls in this complex is designed for 2000 spectators. One of the two small training halls is equipped with simulators, and the other with a boxing ring. The wrestlers can use the auxiliary room.
The football field, which accommodates 5,100 spectators, is equipped with all the amenities that meet the requirements of this sport. The 50-meter pool is suitable for both training and competition. There are 3 stands, accommodating 1010 people.
Economy.
Quba has enjoyed strong economic growth over the last decade, much of it spurred by tourism and the construction industry.
Tourism.
Quba is attractive with its green nature, forests and mountain areas which is a part of range of Caucasus Mountains. A village of Khinalig considered as one of the highest (more than 2000 metres above sea level) and isolated areas are located in Quba region and frequently visited by tourists. Popular waterfall Afurdja which's height is 75 meters is also located in Quba. The Kudyal River which takes its sources from high altitudes of Caucasus mountains flows through the territory of Quba.
Transportation.
Main transports to Quba are buses from Baku International Bus Terminal. The buses start to travel at 8:00 a.m every day in 1 hour intervals. Taxi is also available from Baku to Quba anytime. Shamakhinka area of the Baku city is known to be the point for regular taxi drivers to Quba..
There are also buses from neighbour towns (Khachmaz, Qusar, Shabran, Khudat, Sumqayit).
Transportation inside Guba from center to villages and different regions is performed by buses, minibuses and taxi, which are available every day.
Education.
There are 155 educational facilities in Quba. 135 high schools, 15 preschool and 5 out of school child education training facility. Out of 135 schools 27 are primary schools, 43 are high school which provide 9 years education, 65 provides eleven year education. In January 2017 these schools hosted 24620 students.
There are also private schools in Quba the most well known of which is Quba İstek High School which is successor of previous Private Turkish High School.
Most villages have their own schools. There are also regional branch of Azerbaijan Pedagogical University, Quba State Social-Economic College, Medical College, Vocational liseum and Special vocational school in Quba.
Cuisine.
Quba's cuisine has largely been affected by its multicultural history. Quba's signature cuisine includes "Quba tıxması", spicy kebab, "sac", "Quba baklava" and tandir kebab.
International relations.
Twin cities.
Quba is twinned with the following cities: