Griqualand West

Griqualand West is an area of central South Africa with an area of 40,000 km2 that now forms part of the Northern Cape Province. It was inhabited by the Griqua people – a semi-nomadic, Afrikaans-speaking nation of mixed-race origin, who established several states outside the expanding frontier of the Cape Colony. It was also inhabited by the pre-existing Tswana and Khoisan peoples.
In 1873 it was proclaimed as a British colony, with its capital at Kimberley, and in 1880 it was annexed by the Cape Colony. When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, Griqualand West was part of the Cape Province but continued to have its own "provincial" sports teams.
Early history.
The indigenous population of the area were the Khoi-khoi and Bushmen peoples, who were hunter-gatherers or herders. Early on they were joined by the agriculturalist Batswana, who migrated into the area from the north. They comprised the majority of the population throughout the region's history, up until the present day. By the early 19th century the whole area came to be dominated by the powerful Griqua people, who gave the region its name.
Independent Griqua state.
Origins of the Griqua people.
The Griqua are a mixed people who originated in the intermarriages between Dutch colonists in the Cape and the Khoikhoi already living there. They turned into a semi-nomadic Afrikaans-speaking nation of horsemen who migrated out of the Cape Colony and established short-lived states on the Colony's borderlands, similar to the Cossack states of imperial Russia.
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) did not intend the Cape Colony at the Southern tip of Africa to become a political entity. As it expanded and became more successful, its leaders did not worry about frontiers. The frontier of the colony was indeterminate and ebbed and flowed at the whim of individuals. While the VOC undoubtedly benefited from the trading and pastoral endeavours of the trekboers, it did little to control or support them in their quest for land. The high proportion of single Dutch men led to their taking indigenous women as wives and companions, and mixed-race children were born. They grew to be a sizeable population who spoke Dutch and were instrumental in developing the colony.
These children did not attain the social or legal status accorded their fathers, mostly because colonial laws recognised only Christian forms of marriage. This group became known as Basters, or bastards. The colonists, in their paramilitary response to insurgent resistance from Khoi and San people, readily conscripted the Basters into commandos. This ensured the men became skilled in lightly armed, mounted, skirmish tactics.
Griqua migrations.
Equipped with guns and horses, many of the Basters who were recruited to war chose instead to abandon their paternal society and to strike out and live a semi-nomadic existence beyond the Cape's frontier. The resulting stream of disgruntled, Dutch-speaking, trained marksmen leaving the Cape hobbled the Dutch capability to crew their commandos. It also created belligerent, skilled groups of opportunists who harassed the indigenous populations the length of the Orange River. Once free of the colonies, these groups called themselves the Oorlam. In particular, the group led by Klaas Afrikaner became notorious. He attracted enough attention from the Dutch authorities to cause him to be rendered to the colony and banished to Robben Island in 1761.
One of the most influential of these Oorlam groups was the "Griqua". In the 19th century, the Griqua controlled several political entities which were governed by Kapteins or Kaptyns (Dutch for "Captain", i.e. leader) and their Councils, with their own written constitutions. The Griqua had also largely adopted the Afrikaans language before their migrations.
Adam Kok I, the first Kaptein of the Griqua and recognised by the British, was originally a slave who had bought his own freedom. He led his people north from the interior of the Cape Colony. Probably because of discrimination against his people, they again moved north—this time outside the Cape, taking over areas previously controlled by San and Tswana people. This area, where most of the Griqua nation settled, was near the Orange River, just west of the Orange Free State, and on the southern skirts of the Transvaal. It came to be called Griqualand West, and the territory was centered on its capital "Klaarwater", later renamed Griekwastad ("Griquatown").
Waterboer dynasty and Griqualand West.
While much of the Griqua people now settled, many remained nomadic, and Adam Kok's people later split into several semi-nomadic nations. After a significant schism, a portion of the Griqua nation migrated to the south-east under the leadership of Adam Kok's son Adam Kok II (to the south-east they were later to found Philippolis and then Griqualand East.
In the original area, which now came to be called Griqualand West, Andries Waterboer took over control and founded the powerful Waterboer dynasty. The Waterboer Kapteins ruled the region until the influx of Europeans accompanying the discovery of diamonds, and to some degree afterwards too.
In 1834, the Cape Colony recognized Waterboer's rights to his land and people. It signed a treaty with him to ensure payment for the use of the land for mining. In both Griqualands, East and West, the Griqua were demographically outnumbered by the pre-existing Bantu people and, in some areas, by European settlers, and thus the two Griqualands maintained their Griqua identity only through political control.
Diamond fields and land disputes.
In the years 1870–1871 a large number of diggers moved into Griqualand West and settled on the diamond fields near the junction of the Vaal and Orange rivers. This was land through which the Griqua regularly moved with their herds and it was additionally situated in part on land claimed by both the Griqua chief Nicholas Waterboer and by the Boer Republic of the Orange Free State.
In 1870, Transvaal President Marthinus Wessel Pretorius declared the diamond fields as Boer property and established a temporary government over the diamond fields. The administration of this body was not satisfactory to the Boers, the diggers, the Griqua or the indigenous Tswana. Tension rapidly grew between these parties until Stafford Parker, a former British sailor, organised a faction of the diggers to drive all of the Transvaal officials out of the area.
Diggers Republic (1870–71).
At the settlement of Klipdrift, on 30 July 1870 Stafford Parker declared the independent Klipdrift Republic (also known as the Digger's Republic and the Republic of Griqualand West) and was also chosen as president. Klipdrift was promptly renamed "Parkerton" after the new president, who began to collect taxes (often at gunpoint). Factions in the Republic also implored the British Empire to impose its authority and annex the territory.
By December of the same year about 10 000 British settlers made their home in the new republic. The republic sat next to the Vaal River, but existed for an extremely short time. During the following year, Boer forces unsuccessfully attempted to regain the territory through negotiation. British Governor Sir Henry Barkly was asked to mediate. Barkly set up the Keate Committee to hear evidence and, in the famous "Keate Award", ruled against the Boer Republics and in favour of Nicholas Waterboer.
Direct British rule (1871–1880).
At this juncture, Waterboer offered to place the territory under the administration of Queen Victoria.
The offer was accepted, and on 27 October 1871 the district, together with some adjacent territory to which the Transvaal had laid claim, was proclaimed (under the name of Griqualand West Colony) British territory.
Further territorial disputes.
Territorial disputes continued, even after the British annexation. When the annexation had taken place, a party in the Orange Free State volksraad had wished to go to war with Britain but the wiser counsels of its president prevailed. The Orange Free State did not abandon its claims, believing that the diamond fields were the means of restoring the credit and prosperity of the Free State. Griqualand West was not financially viable, and carried with it enormous public debt. The matter continued for a considerable time and caused immense tension in southern Africa.
In the face of claims from the Orange Free State and the Griqua authorities, the "Griqualand West Land Court" was established in 1875, under Justice Andries Stockenström.
Waterboer's claims to the diamond fields, strongly presented by his agent David Arnot, were based on the treaty concluded by his father with the British in 1834 and on various arrangements with the Kok chiefs; the Orange Free State based its claim on its purchase of Adam Kok's sovereign rights and on long occupation. The difference between proprietorship and sovereignty was confused or ignored. That Waterboer exercised no authority in the disputed district was admitted.
In a crucial finding Stockenström ruled that, as the Griqua people were nomadic, the Griqua chiefs (or "captains") were rulers over a people, but not over a fixed territory. The Griqua people had also only arrived in this part of southern Africa a little over 50 years before, in the early nineteenth century. The Griqua captains therefore did not automatically get the right to own & develop all of the land through which they moved, but only those areas in which they would settle. Other areas they could continue to move through, but were not given automatic title to own and develop. This resulted in the denial of many of the titles issued by the powerful Griqua Captain Nicolaas Waterboer, outside of his core areas around Griquatown and Albania, were also denied. It also effectively ruled in favour of the Orange Free State.
A furore resulted, as accusations were leveled that Stockenström was biased, and sympathetic towards the Orange Free State President Johannes Brand.
A form of resolution eventually came about in July 1876, when Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon, at that time secretary of state for the colonies, granted the Free State payment "in full satisfaction of all claims which it considers it may possess to Griqualand West."
In the opinion of Dr Theal, who has written the history of the Boer Republics and has been a consistent supporter of the Boers, the annexation of Griqualand West was probably in the best interests of the Orange Free State. "There was," he states, "no alternative from British sovereignty other than an independent diamond field republic." At this time, largely owing to the exhausting struggle with the Basutos, the Free State Boers, like their Transvaal Republic neighbours, had drifted into financial straits. A paper currency had been instituted, and the notes, known as "bluebacks", soon dropped to less than half their nominal value. Commerce was largely carried on by barter, and many cases of bankruptcy occurred in the state. But as British annexation in 1877 saved the Transvaal from bankruptcy, so did the influx of British and other immigrants to the diamond fields, in the early 1870s, restore public credit and individual prosperity to the Boers of the Free State. The diamond fields offered a ready market for stock and other agricultural produce. Money flowed into the pockets of the farmers. Public credit was restored. " Bluebacks " recovered par value, and were called in and redeemed by the government. Valuable diamond mines were also discovered within the Orange Free State, of which the one at Jagersfontein is the richest. Capital from Kimberley and London was soon provided with which to work them.
Pressure on the Cape Colony to annex the territory.
After annexing Griqualand West, the British initially attempted to incorporate it into the Cape Colony, and put significant pressure on the Cape Government to annex it. The new Prime Minister of the Cape, John Molteno refused, citing the enormous public debt of the territory, as well as objections from portions of the indigenous and settler communities of Griqualand.
Local control continued to pass increasingly from the Griqua kaptijns into the hands of the growing digger community of the diamond fields. The prospect of complete dis-empowerment in a "Diamond Fields Republic" became a significant concern of the remaining Griqua.
Under pressure, the embattled Griqua leader Nicolaas Waterboer send a formal request to the Cape Government to request incorporation; a request that coincided with renewed pressure on the Cape Government to agree to the union.
Union with Cape Colony (1880).
On being presented with a request from Nicholas Waterboer for union with the Cape Colony, there had begun a protracted debate over whether Griqualand West should be joined to the Cape in a confederation, or whether it should be annexed to the Cape Colony in a total union. The former view was supported by Lord Carnarvon and the British Colonial Office in London – as a first step to bringing all of southern Africa into a British-ruled confederation.
The latter view was put forward by the Cape Parliament, particularly by its strong-willed Prime Minister John Molteno, who had initially opposed any form of union with the unstable and heavily indebted territory, and now demanded evidence from Britain that the local population would be consulted in the process. Suspicious of British motives, in 1876 he travelled to London as plenipotentiary to make the case that union was the only viable way that the Cape could administer the divided and underdeveloped territory, and that a lop-sided confederation would be neither economically viable, nor politically stable. In short, Griqualand West should either be united with the Cape, or kept totally independent from it.
After striking a deal with the Home Government and receiving assurances that local objections had been appeased, he passed the Griqualand West Annexation Act on 27 July 1877.
The act specified that Griqualand West would have the right to elect four representatives to the Cape parliament, two for Kimberley and two for the Barkly West region. This number was doubled in 1882 ("Act 39 of 1882").
The Cape Government also enforced its non-racial system of Cape Qualified Franchise. This meant that all resident males could qualify for the vote, with the property-ownership qualifications for suffrage applied equally, regardless of race. This was welcomed by the Griqua, but rejected by the recently arrived diggers of the Kimberley diamond fields.
In the judiciary, the local Griqua attorney-general reported to the Cape Supreme Court, which got concurrent jurisdiction with the High Court of Griqualand West in the territory.
The implementation of the act was set for 18 October 1880, when Griqualand West was formally united with the Cape Colony, followed soon afterwards by Griqualand East.
Current.
Today, Basters are a separate ethnic group of similarly mixed origins living in south-central Namibia; Northern Cape at Campbell and Griquatown; (the historic territory of Griqualand West); the Western Cape (around the small le Fleur Griqua settlement at Kranshoek); and at Kokstad.
The total Griqua population is unknown. The people were submerged by several factors. The most important factor were the racist policies of the Apartheid era, during which many of the Griqua people took on the mantle of "Coloured" fearing that their Griqua roots might place them at a lower level with the Africans.
Genetic evidence indicates that the majority of the present Griqua population is descended from European, Khoikhoi and Tswana ancestors, with a small percentage of Bushman ancestry.


Republican Party for Liberty

The Republican Party for Liberty (, PRL) was a political party in Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso). The PRL was founded in 1959 by Nazi Boni as a reaction to the attempts by the Voltaic Democratic Union to create a one-party state. Boni built his new party largely out of the ashes of the defunct African Regroupment Party (PRA).
PRL was short-lived and failed to make any major impact. Boni went into exile in Dakar, Senegal.


Mulungushi

Mulungushi is a river (and a small town nearby) in central Zambia which has taken on a symbolic and historical meaning synonymous with the independence and identity of the nation. The name has been given to a number of events, localities, buildings and organisations, including:


History of Cape Town

The area known today as Cape Town has no written history before it was first mentioned by Portuguese explorer Bartholomeu Dias in 1488. The German anthropologist Theophilus Hahn recorded that the original name of the area was '||Hui !Gais' – a toponym in the indigenous Khoe language meaning "where clouds gather."
The arrival of Europeans.
The first Europeans to reach the Cape were the Portuguese. Bartholomeu Dias arrived in 1488 after journeying south along the west coast of Africa. The next recorded European sighting of the Cape was by Vasco da Gama in 1497 while he was searching for a route that would lead directly from Europe to Asia.
Table Mountain was given its name in 1503 by António de Saldanha, a Portuguese admiral and explorer. He called it "Taboa da caba" ("table of the cape"). The name given to the mountain by the Khoi inhabitants was "Hoeri 'kwaggo" ("sea mountain"). A Portuguese force led by Francisco de Almeida was defeated in the Battle of Salt River by the indigenous Goringhaiqua Khoikhoi clan.
1652: Arrival of the Dutch.
The area fell out of regular contact with Europeans until 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck and other employees of the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: "Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie", or simply VOC) were sent to the Cape to establish a halfway station to provide fresh water, vegetables, and meat for passing ships travelling to and from Asia. Van Riebeeck's party of three vessels landed at the cape on 6 April 1652. The Cape was under Dutch rule from 1652 to 1795 and again from 1803 to 1806. The group quickly erected shelters and laid out vegetable gardens and orchards, and are preserved in the Company's Garden. Water from the Fresh River, which descended from Table Mountain, was channelled into canals to provide irrigation. The settlers bartered with the native Khoisan for their sheep and cattle. Forests in Hout Bay and the southern and eastern flanks of Table Mountain provided timber for ships and houses. At this point, the VOC had a monopoly on trade and prohibited any private trade. The Dutch gave their own names to the native inhabitants that they encountered, calling the pastoralists "Hottentots", those that lived on the coast and subsisted on shellfishing "Strandlopers", and those who were hunter-gatherers were named "Bushmen".
The first wave of Asian immigration to South Africa started in 1654. These first immigrants were banished to the Cape by the Dutch Batavian High Court. These Asians helped to form the foundation of the Cape Coloured and Cape Malay populations, as well as bringing Islam to the Cape. The first large territorial expansion occurred in 1657, when farms were granted by the VOC to a few servants in an attempt to increase food production. These farms were situated along the Liesbeeck River and the VOC still retained financial control of them. The first slaves were brought to the Cape from Java and Madagascar in the following year to work on the farms. The first of a long series of border conflicts between the inhabitants in the European-controlled area and native inhabitants began in 1658 when settlers clashed with the Khoi, who realised that they were losing territory.
Work on the Castle of Good Hope, the first permanent European fortification in the area, began in 1666. The new castle replaced the previous wooden fort that Van Riebeeck and his men built. Finally completed in 1679, the castle is the oldest building in South Africa.
Simon van der Stel, after whom the town of Stellenbosch is named, arrived in 1679 to replace Van Riebeeck as governor. Van der Stel founded the Cape wine industry by bringing grape vines with him on his ship, an industry which would quickly grow to be important for the region. He also promoted territorial expansion in the Colony.
The first non-Dutch immigrants to the Cape, the Huguenots, arrived in 1688. The Huguenots had fled from anti-Protestant persecution in Catholic France to the Netherlands, where the VOC offered them free passage to the Cape as well as farmland. The Huguenots brought important experience in wine production to the Cape, greatly bolstering the industry, as well as providing strong cultural roots.
The 1700s.
By 1754, the population of the settlement on the Cape had reached 5,510 Europeans and 6,729 slaves. But by 1780, France and Great Britain went to war against each other. The Netherlands entered the war on the French side, and thus a small garrison of French troops were sent to the Cape to protect it against the British. These troops, however, left by 1784. By 1795, however, the Netherlands was invaded by France and the VOC was in complete financial ruin. The Prince of Orange fled to England for protection, which allowed for the establishment of the Dutch Batavian Republic. Due to the long time it took to send and receive news from Europe, the Cape Commissioner of the time knew only that the French had been taking territory in the Netherlands and that the Dutch could change sides in the war at any moment. British forces arrived at the Cape bearing a letter from the Prince of Orange asking the Commissioner to allow the British troops to protect the Cape from France until the war. The British informed the Commissioner that the Prince had fled to England. The reaction in the Cape Council was mixed, and eventually the British successfully invaded the Cape in the Battle of Muizenberg. The British immediately announced the beginning of free trade.
As elsewhere in Africa and other parts of the world, trading in slaves was a significant activity. A notable event was the mutiny, in 1766, of the slaves on the slaver ship Meermin.
The 1800 and 1900s.
Under the terms of a peace agreement between Britain and France, the Cape was returned to the Dutch in 1802. Three years later, however, the war resumed and the British returned their garrison to the Cape after defeating Dutch forces at the Battle of Blaauwberg (1806). This period saw major developments for the city, and can be said to be the start of Cape Town as a city in its own right. Taps and iron pipes were installed along major streets in the city. The native inhabitants were forced to declare a fixed residence and were not permitted to move between regions without written permission. The war between France and England ended in 1814 with a British victory. The British drew up a complex treaty whereby pieces of real estate were exchanged for money by various countries. The Cape was permanently taken from the Dutch by the British in return for a large sum of money. In this period, the British saw the control of the Cape as key to their ability to maintain their command in India. The Dutch government was too impoverished and depleted to argue, and agreed with the condition that they be allowed to continue to use the Cape for repairs and refreshment.
The vagrancy and pass laws of 1809 were repealed in 1829. Thus, the Khoikhoi, in theory, were equal with the Europeans. As in the rest of the British Empire, slaves – estimated to be around 39,000 in number – were emancipated in 1834. This led to the establishment of the Bo-Kaap by a Muslim community after being freed. The Cape Town Legislative Council was also established in the same year. One of the most momentous events in South African history, the Great Trek (), began in 1836. About 10,000 Dutch families, for various reasons, left for the north in search of new land, thereby opening up the interior of the country. Further political development occurred in 1840 when the Cape Town Municipality was formed. At its inception, the population stood at 20,016, of which 10,560 were white.
Ensuing political developments now saw gradual moves towards greater independence from Britain and towards a degree of political inclusiveness. In 1854, the Cape Colony elected its first parliament, on the basis of the multiracial Cape Qualified Franchise, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race. After a long political struggle, this was followed by responsible government in 1872, when the Cape won the right to elect its own locally-accountable executive and Prime Minister. A period of strong economic growth and social development ensued, with a rapid expansion of the Cape Government Railways and other infrastructure, connecting Cape Town to the Cape's vast interior.
The discovery and subsequent exploitation of diamonds and gold in the former Transvaal region in the central highveld in the 1870s and 1880s led to rapid change in Cape Town, as well as in Cape Colony as a whole. In particular, the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist Cecil Rhodes, fueled by the new diamond industry, led to great instability. On becoming the Cape's new Prime Minister, he restricted the multiracial Cape franchise, and instigated a rapid expansion of British influence into the hinterland. A rise in inter-ethnic tensions ensued, followed by the Anglo-Boer War.
As the city of Johannesburg grew from the gold fields, Cape Town lost its position as the single dominant city in the region, but, as the primary port, it nonetheless benefitted from the increased trade to the region. The mineral wealth generated in this period laid the foundation for an industrialised society.
This period marked the first incident of segregation in the city. Following an outbreak of bubonic plague which was blamed on the native Africans, the natives were moved to two locations outside of the city, one of which was near the docks and the other at Ndabeni, about six km east of the city.
The apartheid years.
The latter settlement was the start of what would later develop into the townships of the Cape Flats. In 1948, the National Party stood for election on its policy of racial segregation, later known as apartheid. After a series of bitter court and constitutional battles, the already limited voting rights of the Coloured community in Cape Province were revoked. In 1966, the once-vibrant District Six area was bulldozed and declared a white-only area. This and many similar declarations under the Group Areas Act resulted in whole communities being uprooted and relocated to the Cape Flats.
Under apartheid, the Cape was considered a "Coloured labour preference area", to the exclusion of Black Africans. The government tried for decades to remove largely Xhosa squatter camps, such as Crossroads, which were the focal point for black resistance in the Cape area to the policies of apartheid. In the last forced removal, between May and June 1986, an estimated 70,000 people were expelled from their homes.
Recent times.
Hours after being released from prison on 11 February 1990, Nelson Mandela made his first public speech in decades from the balcony of the Cape Town City Hall, heralding the beginning of a new era for South Africa.
In late August 1998, a terrorist explosion rocked the city's packed Planet Hollywood restaurant, killing one and injuring dozens.
Water Crisis.
Beginning in 2015, Cape Town entered a drought that lasted into 2018. The city was projected to run out of water, but a combination of rainfall and savings by residents averted this scenario.


Conus decoratus

Conus decoratus is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Like all species within the genus "Conus", these snails are predatory and venomous. They are capable of "stinging" humans, therefore live ones should be handled carefully or not at all.
Description.
The size of the shell varies between 20 mm and 35 mm.
Distribution.
This species occurs in the Atlantic Ocean off Santa Luzia and São Vicente, Cape Verde.


Othman II

Othman II was the emperor of Kanem-Bornu Empire from 1369 to 1371.


Ogbidi Okojie

Ogbidi Okojie, Onojie (king) of Uromi (1857 – February 3, 1944), was a ruler of the Esan people in what is now Edo State in Nigeria, still remembered for his opposition to British rule.
Biography.
According to Uromi lore, he was born in the seventh month of gestation, coming 14th in the line of succession to the Uromi throne. As an African monarch, he believed in his divine right to wield absolute power. Those beliefs motivated his opposition to British Rule, which led to his first exile to Calabar in 1900. In Nigeria, at the end of the nineteenth century, the old order was crumbling, yielding to the new British colonial system. After the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British government, the latter expanded and strengthened its control, unseating the traditional rulers. In 1900, Uromi was invaded by the British troops. Unlike Chief Nana Olomu of Brohimie-Warri, who opposed a strong resistance to the British troops when his domain was invaded, with 100 cannon, several shot-guns and over 5,000 slaves at his disposal, Okojie I, who had no modern weapons, but only Dane guns, bows and arrows, held out for six months, until he was betrayed by Iyahanebi, his "younger brother", and had to surrender to the British. As a consequence of his stiff resistance, in 1900 he was exiled to Calabar, where he met Oba Ovonramwen, late Oba of Benin, who had been exiled there by the British.
He survived the ordeal in detention and returned home to be crowned the 14th Onojie of Uromi in 1900. Back home in Uromi, he adapted to the British system of government through "indirect rule", establishing his court at Ubiaja as the Divisional Supreme Judge. Still, he did not fully accept the new system of government, countering it with passive disobedience and maintaining his opposition to British rule. He kept governing his subjects as his forebears had always done, until he was deported again, this time to Benin, in 1918. His presence in Benin unsettled Oba Eweka II, the then ruling Oba, who objected to the British Resident at Benin against Okojie's presence there. In 1924, he was transferred to Ibadan. In 1926, he made a dramatic escape to Uromi, was arrested and taken back to Ibadan, until he was finally released in 1931. From 1931 until his death in 1944 he consolidated his power in Uromi. His first son Prince Uwagbale Okojie was crowned Onojie of Uromi in 1944.
While alive, he was highly influential in Esan, Agbor and Benin City. In Esan he was the supreme judge of the criminal court that sat and tried murder cases at Agbede, Esan, Kukuruku (now known as Auchi) and Ologhodo (now Agbor). He built schools and supported higher learning. He built the roads from Uromi to Ilushi, Agbor and Ehor. When he died, he left behind an undisputed heir to the throne, glorious memories of life in exile and the fulfillment of his aspiration for renewed independence for black Africa and Nigeria.
These prompted the Nigerian founding father Chief Anthony Enahoro, one of his many grandchildren, in to initiate the self-government motion in the Western House of Assembly in 1953, which eventually led to Nigerian Independence on the 1st day of October, 1960. A younger grandson is Peter Enahoro, revered pan-African journalist and author of "How to be a Nigerian" (1966). Other grandsons include Cardinal Anthony Okogie, the first Esan Cardinal, and Dr. Robert Okojie, a NASA scientist based in the U.S.
Okojie I, the Onojie of Uromi, was survived by over sixty wives, over forty concubines, and innumerable children and grandchildren. He is still remembered by his people as
"Ogbidi the Uromi umbrella, the white son of Olokun, Okun the greatest native doctor that ever lived and ruled the native people of Uromi, who can turn into a girl, a lion or a leopard at will, the great doctor who can command the rain to fall and the air to stand still".
Although he died many years ago, his legacy continues in many different parts of the world, from North America to Europe to Australia, where his grandchildren and great grandchildren currently reside.


Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea

Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea affects a number of countries in West Africa as well as the wider international community. By 2011, it had become an issue of global concern. Pirates in the Gulf of Guinea are often part of heavily armed criminal enterprises, who employ violent methods to steal oil cargo. In 2012, the International Maritime Bureau, Oceans Beyond Piracy and the Maritime Piracy Humanitarian Response Program reported that the number of vessels attacks by West African pirates had reached a world high, with 966 seafarers attacked during the year. According to the Control Risks Group, pirate attacks in the Gulf of Guinea had by mid-November 2013 maintained a steady level of around 100 attempted hijackings in the year, a close second behind Southeast Asia.
Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea continues to be a concern to the shipping industry, which is affected significantly. At the same time, governments in the region generally highlight that the fight against piracy requires a broad understanding of maritime security throughout the Gulf of Guinea.
Scope of the problem.
The Gulf of Guinea stretches from Senegal to Angola, covering over 6,000 km of coast line. It comprises 20 coastal states, islands and landlocked states and forms two regions: West Africa and Central Africa. The sea basin is of geo-political and geo-economic importance for the transport of goods to and from central and southern Africa. Additionally, it is a choke point for the African energy trade, with intensive oil extraction in Nigeria's Niger Delta.
The term ‘piracy’ is widely used in the media and in official reports to generally refer to maritime crime in the region, but this is formally incorrect, as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines piracy as an act conducted on the high seas i.e. beyond territorial waters. Similar criminal activities that take place within territorial waters are not defined as acts of piracy following this definition in international law.
Reports of attempted or actual attacks considered acts of piracy, differ wildly. This has added to a general confusion with regards to understanding the scope of the problem, fuelled significantly by the varied use of the term piracy itself, the uncoordinated and heterogeneous sources of information drawn from to prepare reports and the different stakeholders' interests in portraying the problem one way or another.
Even though piracy in the region is not a new phenomenon, it has widely changed in the new century, with regards both to the typology and the number of attacks carried out. In the past, the vast majority of incidents could be categorized as simple maritime robbery: individual sailors, usually carrying cash, were often targeted for robbery on shore, and attacked when ships were at port or transferring cargo close to shore. However, since the early 2010s, attacks have started to differ from this profile: incursions have been more serious and aimed at directly acquired cargos containing refined petroleum, as the region has increasingly been marred by illegal oil-bunkering. According to a European Parliament report, this was due to the discovery of large amounts of offshore hydrocarbon, from which only the central government, local elites, and oil companies have actually profited. Consequently, some of those excluded from welfare have turned to such illegal maritime activity, in the form of 'petro-piracy'.
By 2010, 45 and by 2011 64 incidents were reported to the UN International Maritime Organization. However, many events go unreported. Piracy acts interfere with the legitimate trading interests of the affected countries that include Benin, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. As an example, trade of Benin's major port, the Port of Cotonou, was reported in 2012 to have dropped by 70 percent. The cost of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea due to stolen goods, security, and insurance has been estimated to be about $2 billion. Navies and law enforcement agencies trying to tackle problems with piracy in the Gulf of Guinea have to conduct a thorough analysis of different types of attacks.
As of 2014, pirate attacks in West Africa mainly occur in territorial waters, terminals and harbours rather than in the high seas. This incident pattern has hindered intervention by international naval forces. Pirates in the region operate a well-funded criminal industry, which includes established supply networks. They are often part of heavily armed and sophisticated criminal enterprises, who increasingly use motherships to launch their attacks. The local pirates' overall aim is to steal oil cargo. As such, they do not attach much importance to holding vessels for ransom. Additionally, pirates in the Gulf of Guinea are especially noted for their violent modus operandi, which frequently involves the kidnapping, torture and shooting of crewmen. The increasingly violent methods used by these groups is believed to be part of a conscious "business model" adopted by them, in which violence and intimidation plays a major role.
According to the 2018 Oceans Beyond Piracy report, covering the year 2017, the number of seafarers affected by piracy and armed robbery in the Gulf of Guinea has decreased slightly compared to 2016. In total 1,726 seafarers were affected by piracy and armed robbery in 2017 in West African waters, compared to the 1,921 the year before. While 880 failed attacks or boarding occurred, 21 episodes of kidnapping took place and 100 seafarers were taken hostages. In total, there were 97 piracy and robbery incidents involving weapons, 13 of those with guns and 2 with heavy machine guns. The total estimated cost in the area due to stolen goods, contracted maritime security, insurance has been $818.1 million.
The International Maritime Bureau said that 130 seafarers were kidnapped in 22 separate incidents in the Gulf of Guinea in 2020, surpassing the 2019 record of 121 kidnappings.
Factors behind piracy.
Academics and researchers agree that despite the presence of a series of maritime security issue in the area, interest at the national level has long been limited. The main cause for this is thought to be the high number and relevance of challenges that countries in the region face inland, such as even more severe security issues and political disputes, that have driven the attention away from the problem. Researchers have referred to the poor general maritime knowledge among both the political leadership and the public at large in the Gulf of Guinea, as ‘sea blindness’. From this perspective, sea blindness can be considered as an important element inhibiting the level of political commitment to tackle the issue of piracy in the region.
Youth unemployment and widespread poverty are one of the main triggering factors for piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, and as admitted by the UN Security Council during a meeting set to discuss a mission to the region ‘any comprehensive anti-piracy strategy might also need to take into account root causes, including high levels of youth unemployment’. In such context, it is understandable that young people can be easily recruited into criminal organizations and are tempted to take part in illicit activities, including piracy. Severe political disputes are considered another reason contributing to the rise of piracy in the area, and in some cases directly feeding into the piracy activity itself. Of particular relevance are the activities of the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta, in the south of Nigeria; this organization has publicly stated to steal and smuggle oil ‘as a form of re-appropriation of wealth and as a form of protest’. Another major and relevant controversy has involved the governments of Cameroon and Nigeria; the two countries have been in dispute about the sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula, which has caused a lack of cooperation between the governments resulting in poor control over illegal activities.
Corruption is another major contributing factor, especially with regards to the case of Nigeria. Attention has been called towards the political protection that some of those who attack installations and personnel of oil companies, especially in the Niger Delta, enjoy from certain local authorities. As reported, it is not infrequent that, once some pirate vessels are arrested by low rank officials, important military exponent intervene to order their release. Although the Nigerian government has implemented some measures to counter corruption, the problem is still widespread and the government remains unable to restrict corrupt practices.
A further element to consider is the legislative profile of the piracy issue in the region. This appears to be very lacking, both because of the inefficiency of laws and their poor implementation. For example, as it was explained during an interview at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Ghana, Ghana's maritime laws are outdated, and need to be revised in order to efficiently tackle illegal activities at sea. A number of actors, such as the International Maritime Organization (IMB), have engaged with African governments to encourage the ratification of international conventions to strengthen legal requirements implementation in view of combating maritime crime in the Gulf of Guinea.
Statistics.
This section provides a detailed account of the number and kind of attacks occurred in the Gulf of Guinea in the last years. This is done by resorting to the IMB's annual reports, in particular those ranging in the ten-year span between 2009 and 2018. These reports are the most detailed and complete source of piracy related facts, and provide a vast amount of information. However, IMB relies on ship-owners’ willingness to report piracy incidents, and needs the shipping industry to be comfortable to do so. As IMB itself admitted, this is not always the case. In fact, they may lack the willingness or simply the technical ability to do so, especially in the case of very small boats. This results in unreported acts of piracy, with some attacks falling outside the official statistics. Below, two tables list the actual and attempted attacks for the past ten years, where the numbers are all drawn from the same source for consistency purposes.
Regional response.
Operation Prosperity.
‘Operation Prosperity’ was an initiative launched by Nigeria and Benin in 2011 to ensure a secure maritime environment. The project was initially supposed to last for a period of six months, and was extended for another six months. The deal between the two countries foresaw that the Nigerian navy would provide the vessels and most of the logistics and human resources for the operation, while the Benin navy would open its waters for Nigerian naval vessels to patrol. Between the end of 2011 and the start of 2012, the area saw a reduction of attempted and actual attacks, thanks to the continuous presence of military forces in the maritime domain, and the two navies’ information and intelligence sharing. In addition to technical collaboration, the Benin navy also benefitted from training with its Nigerian counterpart.
Maritime Trade Information Sharing Centre Gulf of Guinea.
Another interesting countermeasure is the launch of the Maritime Trade Information Sharing Centre Gulf of Guinea (MTISC-GOG). As reported by RDDC, this ‘was initiated mainly by the industry as a result of the lack of involvement by regional states in maritime security’. This centre, which changed its name in 2016 to Maritime Domain Awareness for Trade – Gulf of Guinea, works as a voluntary reporting system, and encourages vessels to report their position and course of direction as well as any suspect activity they might encounter.
Yaoundé Code of Conduct.
The widest regional initiative to counter piracy is the Code of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery Against Ships, and Illicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa, also known as the ‘Yaoundé Code of Conduct’. This was adopted in June 2013 with a view to promoting maritime cooperation and information sharing and coordination. In particular, signatory states committed to arresting, investigating, and prosecuting persons who have committed piracy or are reasonably suspected of committing piracy; rescuing ships, persons and property subject to piracy; designating a national focal point to facilitate coordinated, effective and timely information flow; cooperating on the development and promotion of training and educational programs for the management of the marine environment. However, it is worth noticing that the Yaoundé Code of Conduct, as any other similar code of conduct, is not a legally binding document and does not impose any obligation on signatory states. Therefore, its full and effective implementation is necessarily dependent on the good will, wealth and capacity of such states.
International response.
The international community has expressed concern over the increasing number of reports of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea. The IMB Piracy Reporting Centre reported that the range of the attacks is extending and the level of violence against the crews is "dangerously high".
The United Nations.
The UN Security Council issued two resolutions, in 2011 and 2012 respectively, initiated by Benin and Togo, which set out the need for promoting the maintenance of peace and stability in general in the Gulf of Guinea region and encourage international partners to enhance the counter-piracy capabilities of regional states and organizations. In the 2011 resolution, the Security Council expressed
Consequently, the organization
In the 2012 resolution, the Security Council,
The International Maritime Organization.
The International Maritime Organization's 2017 strategy for implementing sustainable maritime security measures in West and Central Africa outlines the organization's strategy to enhance maritime security in West and Central Africa, with a view to countering piracy and armed robberies against ships and to support the development of the maritime sector. This strategy consists of several elements, including the effective implementation of IMO conventions, in order to build the necessary legislative infrastructure to criminalize piracy; bilateral assistance and continued follow up engagement, to be carried out in a tailored way so as to match the needs of IMO member states; regional training, which focuses on developing legal frameworks for the prevention and repression of piracy, and on training officials at various level for the investigation of piracy-related crimes; assignment of expertise to accelerate change and facilitating channels of communications among IMO member states.
The International Maritime Bureau (IMO) reported in January 2020 that piracy in the Gulf of Guinea had increased by 50% in 2019.
The European Union.
The European Union is one of the main actors in the fight against piracy in the Gulf of Guinea. In 2014 the EU adopted its strategy for the Gulf of Guinea, which is based on the overall goals laid out under the aforementioned Yaoundé Code of Conduct. It has four strategic objectives: building a common understanding of the scale of the threat (reducing so-called "sea-blindness"), helping regional governments to put in place robust multiagency institutions, supporting the development of prosperous economies and strengthening the existing cooperation structures. In addition, the EU is attempting to develop long-term security and stability through the promotion of inclusive growth, generating benefits from wealth and job creation for all people.
The maritime security of the Gulf is a source of major concern for Denmark. On average, 40 Danish ships sail there daily, representing a commodity value of almost DKK 10 billion per year. From November 2021 and for a period of five months, a Danish navy ship will be engaged in the Gulf with a SeaHawk helicopter and special forces from the naval task force on board. The ship will be tasked with combating piracy, supporting or "escorting" merchant ships, and if necessary to come to their aid or carry out rescues. The proposal from the Danish Ministry of Defence also grants the Danish frigate the mandate to "seize the pirates' weapons and equipment".
Interpol.
Interpol has also launched a number of initiatives to improve the capabilities of the local police forces to tackle piracy effectively. The action of Interpol has revolved around three main areas: improving the evidence collection capabilities of the local police forces; facilitating a better cooperation between the actors of the different countries involved; making sure that hostages are debriefed and interviewed and all relevant information is gathered.


Elections in Eswatini

The Parliament of Eswatini (or Libandla) is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber (the House of Assembly) and an upper one (the Senate). Some of the members of both chambers are elected, while the rest are appointed by the King of Eswatini. Election is by secret ballot in a first-past-the-post system of voting. Members of both chambers serve for five-year terms. All candidates run on a non-partisan basis, as political parties are banned.
Selection process.
The Assembly has 66 members, of which 55 are elected from single-member constituencies corresponding to the "tinkhundlas" (tribal communities). 14 "tinkhundlas" are located in Hhohho District, 11 in Lubombo District, 16 in Manzini District, and 14 in Shiselweni District. Candidates are first nominated at the "tinkhundla" level. The top three finishers then proceed to a general election, where the candidate who receives the most votes is elected. The King appoints the other ten members, at least half of whom must be women. The 66th member is the Speaker of the House, who is elected from outside the House. If the percentage of women members falls below 30%, a maximum of four women may be elected from the administrative regions.
The House selects ten of the 30 members of the Senate, and the King appoints the rest. Of these, at least five of the ten and at least eight of the 20 must be women. However, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union database, in 2008, there were 12 women senators instead of the minimum stipulated 13, and in 2013, there were only ten.
Qualifications and disqualifications.
Each Member of Parliament must be at least 18 years old, a citizen, a registered voter, and have "paid all taxes or made arrangements satisfactory to the Commissioner of Taxes". Disqualifications are: being insolvent under any law without having been "rehabilitated", being of unsound mind, sentenced to death or more than six months in prison for a crime in Eswatini, a member of the country's armed forces or holding or acting in a public office without being granted a leave of absence to serve in the Senate, unqualified to be a voter, otherwise disqualified by law, found incompetent to hold public office, connected to a firm with a government contract and having not made the proper disclosures regarding the contract, or holding or acting in any office connected with the conduct of any election or the compilation or revision of any electoral register.
Oversight.
The Elections and Boundaries Commission is an independent authority consisting of a chairperson, a deputy chairperson and three others whose duties include overseeing voter registration, ensuring fair and free elections and reviewing and determining "tinkhundla" boundaries. Members are appointed for a single term not exceeding 12 years.
Past elections.
The most recent election was held in September 2013. Gelane Zwane ran unopposed and was elected President of the Senate for the third consecutive time. Ngomuyayona Gamedze was chosen as Deputy President, also for the third consecutive time. Six of King Mswati III's selections were members of his family. The current Speaker of the House of Assembly is Prince Guduza Dlamini.


Qasr Ahmad

Qasr Ahmad or Gasr Ahmed () is a neighborhood and port in the eastern region of the city of Misurata in Libya. The neighborhood was developed to provide housing for port workers.
It is approximately 15 kilometers away from Misurata's city center, and about 250 kilometres away from Tripoli, capital of Libya.
History.
The Palace of Ahmad.
Qasr is an Arabic word for palace, and Qasr Ahmad according to the geographer Ayyubid Abu al-feda (1273 -1331) (p. 202) : "Kasr Ahmed is the name of a town in the province of Africa at the beginning of the fourth climate According Sayd Ibn his situation is on the border of the province of the east side of Africa and at the beginning of the country of Barca in the same latitude at a distance of about twelve miles dwellings of Berber family called Misurata. The land is planted with olive and palm trees Residents exporting horses in Alexandria The pilgrims traveling to Mecca the Maghreb face in them very politely Casr Ahmed is properly the name of a village that serves as it store Arabs and where they lock their commodities. From Ahmed Casr we went to Barca in the desert."
The name probably refers Ahmed Arab families from the tribe of Heyyeb s were established at this location.
Cephalae Promontorium.
Development and construction works in Qasr Ahmad revealed ruins of archeological interest, including Phoenician and Roman foundations which prove the existence of a huge wall in the surrounding area. Pre-construction clearing below the lighthouse removed the overburden that had buried Roman coins, pottery, and room formations that are believed to be Roman baths, which are remains of the Roman station port of Cephalae Promontorium.
Ports.
Qasr Ahmad is famous for being the location of the Port of Misrata, which holds its name, but the total number of ports in Qasr Ahmad is two.
Port of Misrata.
The Port of Misrata, also known as the Port of Qasr Ahmed, is one of the major business centers in Libya. The port is one of the most important maritime and ship transport centers in North Africa, being the major sea entrance to Libya. It is also the seat of the Libyan Ports Company. The port has a capacity is 6,000,000 mt per year, with a maximum draft of 11m and a total berth length of 3,550m.
Port of Libyan Iron and Steel Company.
Constructed as an extension to the Port of Misurata, the Port of LISCO is totally owned and operated by the Libyan Iron and Steel Company, serving its imports, and export services.
Business Importance.
Qasr Ahmad is the location of major commercial and financial activities of the Libya government, being the ground soil of the first Libyan free economic zone project, the headquarters and factories of the Libyan Iron and Steel Company, and the administration of major private Libyan banks.
Misurata Free Zone.
It's a zone free of any restrictions such as tax, custom duties, commercial and monetary restrictions, among others, established by decision of people's committee General No (495) 2000 and reorganized by decision of General People's Committee.
The free zone was established in order to vary and support the national income sources by attracting the investments to Great Jamahiriya in an environment free of management and fiscal restrictions development of commercial, goods and service exchange and creating an industrial base in addition to transporting and setting technology and training upon it and providing work opportunities for the citizens and with this zone and its development will increase opportunities of attracting the investors in industrial, service and commercial activities which target the African market to settle their investments in Jamahiriya.
Misrata Free Zone extends to 3539 hectares (8745.06 acres), including Misrata Seaport with a capability of expansion in the southern side up to more than 2000 hectares (4942.1 acres).
Libyan Iron and Steel Company.
The Libyan Iron and Steel Company (LISCO) is one of the largest iron and steelmaking companies operating in North Africa. Based in Misurata, it is subsidized and owned by the Libyan government. Muammar Gaddafi officially laid LISCO's foundation stone on 18 September 1979. In 2004, the online magazine Arab Steel ranked Lisco ranked third among the largest Arab iron and steel companies.
The company operates from a headquarters building, five factories, a sea port, and warehouses in Qasr Ahmad.


List of rulers of the Akan state of Assin Atadanso


John Jeremie

Sir John Jeremie (19 August 1795 – 23 April 1841) was a British judge and diplomat, Chief Justice of Saint Lucia and Governor of Sierra Leone. He was given an award in 1836 for advancing "negro freedom" after accusing the judges in Mauritius of bias. He understood that colour prejudice and slavery were different problems.
Biography.
Jeremie was born to John Jeremie, a barrister, on the British island of Guernsey in 1795. He went to Blundell's School in Devon before studying law in Dijon, France. His father died in Malta in 1810. He was called to the bar in his home island where he was successful, and published a posthumous legal work of his father's.
St Lucia.
Jeremie was appointed in 1824 to be Chief Justice of Saint Lucia, a post he held until 1831. During this time he was called upon to administer the slave laws that applied in the British Empire at that time. Although the slave trade had been abolished in the British Empire, slavery "per se" continued to be legal in some form during this time. The issue of slavery continued to be a subject that Jeremie was associated with throughout his life. He wrote four essays on "Colonial Slavery" pointing out the problems of slave communities and the improvements made in their conditions in Saint Lucia. He also advised on how to end slavery altogether. These publications were brought to the British public's attention and are thought to have contributed to slavery's abolition.
Mauritius.
Jeremie was appointed the procureur and advocate general of the island of Mauritius in 1832, but this was a very difficult appointment. In 1830, the Governor Sir Charles Colville reported that there was "a great deal of bad feeling against His Majesty's Government continues to prevail and shew itself here… there is an almost total cessation in the payment of taxes..." He arrived there in June 1832, and the hostility to him as a known abolitionist was very difficult to handle. It took an armed escort to get him off his boat after trying to leave for two days. The judges refused to turn up to appoint him, and he was attacked by a mob in the street. Sir Charles Colville ordered him home, but he was sent out again when he arrived back in Great Britain. He arrived again the following year but there were continued charges about his and others' behaviour. In 1833 he charged the judges with bias and involvement with slavery. The governor failed to support him, and he resigned again and left on 28 October 1833. His behaviour was justified in his 1835 report – "Recent Events at Mauritius".
Jeremie could see that slavery would be illegal soon, and he predicted that other existing laws predicated on colour prejudice would be a source of further ill feeling. He petitioned to have the respective laws revoked.
Ceylon.
On 2 October 1835 he was appointed second puisne judge of the Ceylon Supreme Court, and took up the position on 9 December 1836. In the same year he was honoured by the Anti-Slavery Society with a plaque that read:

Jeremie was in London to attend the World's anti-slavery convention on 12 June 1840.
With some premonition, Jeremie was to write later of his time in Ceylon, when others were worried that he had accepted a position as a Governor in Sierra Leone:
London.
The portrait above shows him in a detail from this painting made to commemorate the event which attracted delegates from America, France, Haiti, Australia, Ireland, Jamaica and Barbados.
Sierra Leone.
He was appointed Governor of Sierra Leone on 15 October 1840 which was both an honour and a health risk. His confidence is apparent in the quotation above where he notes that he survived six years in Ceylon and outlived the other judges appointed to the Supreme Court there. His only daughter Catherine married Captain Taylor in March 1841. He was knighted on 15 November 1840, before leaving for Africa. He died at Port Loko in Sierra Leone of a fever after only a few months in Africa. He is buried in Circular Road Cemetery.


Muhammadu Ndayako

Muhammadu Ndayako popularly known as "Baba Kudu" (b.1884 - 1966) is the 9th Etsu Nupe, from 1935 till his death in 1962.
Background.
He was born into 3rd Bida ruling house of Umaru Majigi. He is the son of 6th Etsu Nupe Malam Muhammad Makun who was the son of the 3rd Etsu Nupe, Umaru Majigi. Muhammadu Ndayako is a grand uncle to the 13th Etsu Nupe Yahaya Abubakar.
Etsu Ndayako reigned for 26 years from (1935 - 1962), also as his son the 12th Etsu Nupe Umaru Sanda Ndayako ruled for 28 years, being longest server of the throne.


Imperial coat of arms of the Central African Empire

The imperial coat of arms of the Central African Empire consists of a shield in the centre, with two flags on its edges, and with a sun rising over the shield, with an imperial eagle in the centre. With the imperial crown of Bokassa I above, below and above the shield are banners, and there is a medal located below the shield as well.
Symbolism.
Zo Kwe Zo, the motto on the left, means "A person is a person" in Sango.
Zo A Yeke Zo ("A person is also a person") is the motto on the right.
The elephant and the baobab tree represent nature and the backbone of the country. The gold star on a map of Africa symbolizes the position of the Central African Empire. The hand (bottom right corner) was the symbol of the dominant party in 1963 when the original arms were adopted.
The bottom left corner holds 3 diamonds, this symbolizes the mineral resources of the country.
The medal under the shield is the honorific decoration of the Order of Central African Merit.


Vincent Ryan (bishop)

The Rt Rev Vincent William Ryan (8 December 1816 – 11 January 1888), DD was the inaugural Bishop of Mauritius from 1854 to 1869.
He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and ordained in 1842 On his return from Mauritius he became Rector of Bedale.
After holding for just four months the archdeaconry of Suffolk, Ryan became rector of St. Nicholas, Guildford, and commissary of Winchester. In May 1870 he was transferred to the vicarage of Bradford, Yorkshire. He was rural dean from 1870 to 1876, and in 1875 became archdeacon of Craven and commissary to the bishop of Ripon. In 1872 he went on a special mission to Mauritius. In August 1880 Ryan became vicar of St. Peter's, Bournemouth, and in 1881 rector of Middleham, from where he moved in 1883 to the rectory of Stanhope, Durham.
He died at Stanhope on 11 January 1888.


Michael Kawalya Kagwa

Michael Kawalya Kagwa was the "Katikiro" (chief minister) of the Ugandan Kingdom of Buganda from 1945 to 1950. Kawalya Kagwa's father, Apolo Kagwa, was an influential "Katikiro" and regent.


Omu Okwei

Omu Okwei or Okwei of Osomari (1872–1943) was a Nigerian queen merchant from Osomari.
Life and career.
Omu Okwei was born in 1872 to Igbo Prince Osuna Afubeho and one of his wives, a granddaughter of Abo king Obi Ossai. At the age of nine, her mother sent her to live among the Igala with one of her aunts. She learned basic business practices, and traded fruits, yams and poultry. When she was 15, following the death of her father, she lived with her mother at Atani, a city on the Niger River.
In 1889, she married Joseph Allagoa, a trader from Brass. Her family disapproved of her choice and did not give her a dowry. The couple had a child, Joseph, and divorced the following year. She traversed the Niger River, selling clothing, pots, and lamps. She exchanged the merchandise for food which she then sold to Europeans. In 1895 she married Opene of Abo, whose mother was Okwenu Ezewene (1896–1904), another wealthy woman trader. Okwei had a second son, Peter.
The British colonial government formalized male institutions while undermining those of the women. Officials issued warrants to men that gave them the authority to sit in Native courts. Okwei was one of few women who were offered a warrant and served in the Onitsha Native Court from 1912 until the 1930s.
She was given the title of "omu" of the Osomari in August 1935. In the traditional dual-sex government, the omu was the apex leader of the congress of women leaders, overseeing women's affairs and settling disputes.
She was elected Market Queen, Chairwoman of the Council of Mothers after amassing a fortune. She was the last merchant queen before the British replaced the Council of Mothers' traditional role supervising retailing.
She is the great great grandmother of Nigerian-British singer Ikstarr.
Okwei died in 1943 in Onitsha, Nigeria.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 224

United Nations Security Council Resolution 224, adopted unanimously on October 14, 1966, after examining the application of Botswana for membership in the United Nations, the Council recommended to the General Assembly that Botswana be admitted.


Knysna

Knysna (; probably from a Khoisan word meaning "place of wood" or roughly "fern leaves") is a town with 76,150 inhabitants as of 2019 in the Western Cape Province of South Africa and is part of the Garden Route. It lies 34 degrees south of the equator, and is 55 kilometres east from the city of George on the N2 highway, and 33 kilometres west of the town of Plettenberg Bay on the same road.
History.
Little is known about the indigenous inhabitants of Knysna, the Khoikhoi. The area east of present-day George was separated by high mountains and deep gorges, making it virtually inaccessible to European travellers.
European settlement.
Nevertheless, the first Europeans arrived in the area in 1760, and the farm "Melkhoutkraal" (literally translating from Afrikaans as 'milk wood kraal’) was established on the eastern shore of the Knysna Lagoon. Stephanus Terblans, the first European farmer to settle in the area, was given a loan permit to farm here in 1770.
Upon moving to Knysna George Rex, a British-born entrepreneur credited as being the founder of Knysna, acquired the loan rights to Melkhoutkraal in 1804 and later, in 1816, to the farm "Welbedacht", which he renamed "Eastford". He gave of Eastford to the Colonial Government, on which the Royal Navy established the township of Melville. Rex’s properties were sold when he died in 1839.
In April 1817, the transport brig , belonging to the Cape Town Dockyard, was the first European vessel to enter the Knysna heads. She struck a rock, now known as Emu Rock, and was holed. Her crew ran "Emu" ashore to prevent her sinking. In late April arrived to render assistance. After surveying the area, "Podargus" sailed safely into the Knysna and retrieved "Emu"s cargo.
The next major settler in Knysna was Captain Thomas Henry Duthie, who married Caroline, George Rex’s daughter, and bought a portion of the Uitzigt farm from his father-in-law which Rex had named "Belvidere". The construction of a small Norman-style church was commissioned by Duthie on his property, and was consecrated in 1855. The settlement’s population grew slowly, and Englishmen such as Henry Barrington and Lt. Col. John Sutherland, who established the settlement of Newhaven on a portion of purchased land, settled in the area. At the time, Knysna was a field cornetcy of Plettenberg Bay within the Magisterial Division of George. In 1858, Knysna became a separate Magisterial Division, new stores and accommodation facilities were opened, and Knysna became the new commercial centre of the region.
On their way to New Zealand, the Thesen family who were travelling from Norway fancied the little hamlet of Knysna so much that they decided to stay, bringing with them their knowledge of commerce and sailing. Soon, timber was being exported to the Cape from the vast areas of forest surrounding Knysna, and a steam sawmill and small shipyard were established. Later, these were relocated to Paarden Island, later known as Thesen's Island.
Millwood Gold Rush.
In 1878, an important discovery was made in the area. A gold nugget was found in the Karatara River, near "Ruigtevlei". Soon fortune hunters from all over the world arrived at the Millwood Forest in search of gold, and Millwood grew into a bustling town. Millwood was declared a gold field, the first in South Africa. However, soon not enough gold was being recovered to sustain a growing town, and the mining industry in the area collapsed. Some miners relocated to Knysna, bringing their little homes with them. One of the houses, known as 'Millwood House', now functions as a museum.
Amalgamation and timber industry.
By 1880 over 1000 people had settled in Knysna. In 1882, the settlements of Newhaven, Melville and the "wedge" of land between the two villages were amalgamated to form the municipality of 'The Knysna', named after the Knysna River.
Knysna's timber industry peaked when George Parkes arrived from Britain and saw the opportunity to use the hardwoods of the Knysna Forest for export to elsewhere in the country, and even overseas. He established the Knysna Forest Company, later renamed Geo. Parkes and Sons Ltd., which is still trading to this day.
2017 Knysna fire.
On June 7, 2017, fueled by strong winds from a severe storm - the Cape Storm of 2017- coming in from the west, a fire swept through the town and surrounding areas. Killing 9 as a direct result of the fires and another 2 indirectly and displacing around 10,000 people from all walks of life. Initially reported as arson, the cause of the fire was later revealed to be lightning.
Geography.
The town is primarily built on the northern shore of a large warm-water estuary, known as the Knysna Lagoon, which is fed by the Knysna River. The estuary opens to the ocean after passing between two large headlands. These are popularly known as "The Heads", and have become infamous due to the loss of boats and fishermen passing through their treacherous and unpredictable waters. The "Paquita", a German vessel, sank on the eastern side of the Knysna Heads in 1903. Near them are geological formations, known locally as "The Map Stones." To the north of Knysna, Afro-Montane or temperate rainforest covers the hilly terrain for 20 km until changing to fynbos or macchia high in the Outeniqua Mountains. The eastern head is heavily developed, while the western head is a private nature reserve, formerly owned by teacher and television presenter William Smith. which he inherited from his father, famed ichthyologist J. L. B. Smith.
Climate.
Knysna has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification). Summers are warm and winters mild to chilly. During the summer, the average maximum temperature reaches about and rarely goes above . The average maximum temperature during the winter months ranges in the area of to . Knysna has one of the richest rainfall percentages in South Africa with the wettest time of year being between June and August. Knysna stays green in all seasons, and its temperate climate makes it a tourist destination all year round.
Tourism.
The town is a popular destination for both tourists and senior citizens entering retirement, especially among the British and former expatriates due to the year-round warm climate. Recently, the town has also become a preferred destination among golfers, as the town boasts several world class golf courses, including Pezula Golf Course, Simola Golf Course and the well established Knysna Golf Course situated on the lagoon. It is near the towns of Plettenberg Bay and George, where there are airports. Knysna is also home to Mitchell's Brewery although the company no longer brews beers in the town. The forest, rivers, estuary, and ocean surrounding the town are dotted with hiking trails and plenty of opportunities for outdoor activities. Hikers, runners, kayakers, swimmers, and fishermen are known to be particularly fond of Knysna.
Annual events.
Knysna hosts a variety of annual events, which draw local and international visitors alike. Such events include the Knysna Oyster Festival in late June and/or early July; the Pink Loerie Mardi Gras and Arts Festival at the end of April and/or beginning of May; the Knysna Speed Festival takes place in the first week of May, the highlight of the week being the Simola Hillclimb, currently sponsored by Jaguar South Africa. The Rastafarian Earth Festival takes place at the end of July, celebrating Rastafarian religion, culture and lifestyle.
Knysna Oyster Festival.
The Knysna Oyster Festival, held annually in late June/early July, is the town's biggest event. The duration of the festival is ten days. It was first held in 1983. Approximately 200,000 oysters are consumed over the 10-day period. Many sporting activities take place, such as rugby, golf, bowls, squash, cycling and marathons. The Knysna Forest Marathon and Half Marathon, as well as the Rotary Cycle Tour, draw many sporting enthusiasts to the town.
Knysna Speed Festival.
The best-known hillclimb event in South Africa is held annually in early May during the Knysna Speed Festival, currently known as The Jaguar Simola Hillclimb. It is a three-day event, with Classic Car Friday reserved for cars built prior to 1980 and restricted to 60 entries. The King of the Hill Challenge (limited to 84 entries), for unrestricted cars in various classes, takes place over the weekend. The Saturday is for practice and pre-qualifying, while Sunday features the "hot" cars taking on final qualifying and the final runs. The course length is up Simola Hill. It is very fast with the 2016 winning average speed being .. 2017 will be the eighth running of the event which was founded in 2009. There was no event in 2013.
Coats of arms.
Municipal arms.
The Knysna municipality assumed a coat of arms in 1959, and registered them with the Cape Provincial Administration on 24 June 1960.
The arms, which were designed by Ivan Mitford-Barberton, are: "Quarterly, I Or a white horse's head couped at the neck proper; II Azure a fern frond in bend sinister Argent; III Azure a yellowwood tree Or; IV Or an elephant's head caboshed proper" (in layman's terms: the shield is quartered, 1 a white horse's head on a gold background, 2 a silver fern frond on a blue background, 3 a yellowwood tree on a blue background and 4 an elephant's head on a gold background). The crest is a sailing ship, and the motto "Concilio et prudentia".
Divisional council arms.
The Knysna divisional council (the local authority for the rural areas outside the town) assumed a coat of arms in 1961 and registered them with the provincial administration on 28 July 1961.
The arms, designed by Schalk Pienaar, were: "Per saltire, I Or on a mount Vert a stinkwood tree proper; II & III Argent three bars wavy Azure; IV Vert the brig Knysna proper the sails charged with two lions rampant Gules and pennants flotant Azure". In layman's terms: the shield is divided into four sections by two diagonal lines, the top section displays a stinkwood tree on a golden background, the left and right sections display three wavy blue stripes against a silver background, and the bottom section displays a brig named 'Knysna' with red lions on the sails and a blue pennant flying from the mast. The motto was "Pulchra terra Dei donum".


Progressive Congolese Students

The Progressive Congolese Students (, or ECP) was a Zairean student political movement active in exile. Its main centre of activity was Belgium, particularly Université catholique de Louvain based in Louvain-la-Neuve. Politically, it had a Lumumbist orientation. It had relations with the Progressive Reform Party. The ECP was frequently plagued by infiltrations by agents of the Mobutist regime. ECP published a magazine entitled "Congo-Libération".
Following the Shaba I clashes in 1977, the Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FLNC) sought contact with ECP. ECP members went to Angola between July and November 1977, and where incorporated into the FLNC Central Committee. Nevertheless, relations between ECP members and the FLNC leader Mbumba were strained.
In July 1980, the ECP, together with the FLNC and other exiled opposition groups, founded the Council for the Liberation of the Congo-Kinshasa ("Conseil pour la Libération du Congo-Kinshasa", CLC) in Brussels.


Jean-Baptiste Queau de Quincy


Montagu Pass

Montagu Pass is situated in the Western Cape province of South Africa, on the unsigned road between Herold and George. The all gravel pass parallels the newer Outeniqua Pass which is designated as the N9/N12.
The pass was named after John Montagu, Colonial Secretary of the Cape in the 1840s, whose enthusiasm for good roads resulted in the first ambitious program of construction in Southern Africa. It was damaged by floods in November 1996, and was closed for most of 1997. It has been repaired and is now open. A driving time of about one hour will take one over the Outeniqua Mountains and through the village of Herold to the N9.
Construction.
In 1844, some 250 convicts started with the construction of the pass and it was opened for traffic in December 1847. The passage over the Outeniqua mountains, which used to take a full three days over the Cradock Pass, could now be accomplished within three hours. Today it takes 15 minutes by car.
Henry Fancourt White, an English born early emigrant to Then Cape colony was an experienced road engineer was in charge of the work. His name is perpetuated in the lovely Fancourt Estate and in the village of Blanco (originally called White's Village). On the ascent, one passes the Old Tollhouse where once the toll of one penny per wheel and one penny per ox had to be paid. This historic building, declared a National Monument, is currently in a bad state having been vandalised. "Keurrivier se brug" further on has also been declared a National Monument. The original stone wall still exists all along the pass. The name boards tell interesting tales. The narrowest part of the pass with overhanging cliffs was called "Die Noute". Here wagons could not pass abreast. Further on is "Regop Trek", the steepest part of the road. Where the road passes underneath the railway bridge, is "Stinkhoutdraai" where stinkwood trees used to grow in profusion. In this way the pass continues, until reaching the hotel at North Station. The oldest part of the building dates back to 1840.
The Old Toll House.
This building is built of local stone and it is a proclaimed heritage site. The toll was 2 pence per wheel and one penny for each pulling animal, 2 pence for a horse, cow, ox or mule and 1 half a penny for a sheep, goat or pig.
The first toll keeper was John Kirk Smith who was born in Nottingham, England, in 1818.


Kooki

The Kingdom of Kooki, also known as the Kooki Kingdom or the Omukamaiate of Kooki, was a pre-colonial African kingdom located within present-day Rakai District of Uganda that existed from approximately 1740 until 1896. The kingdom ceased to exist as an independent state in 1896 when it merged into the British Protectorate of Buganda. Its royal line still continues to this day as a Subnational Chiefdom, and is currently led by Kamuswaga Apollo Sansa Kabumbuli II. In 27 July, 2015, the Kooki Kingdom declared independence from Buganda but it wasn't recognized by Buganda or Uganda.
History.
Formation.
The Kooki Kingdom was established sometime between the years 1696 to 1740 by the Mubito prince of Bwohe. Bwohe was apart of the Bunyoro-Kitara dynasty who with his followers broke away from the larger Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom and created his own. Bwohe died in either 1740 or 1750.
Wars and Protection.
After annexing the province of Buddu in the late 1700s from Bunyoro-Kitara, King Jjunju Ssendegeya of Buganda established a tributary relationship with the Kooki Kingdom in order to gain access to the large market in Karagwe.
In September 1888, Christian and Muslim rebels forced the king of Buganda, Mwanga II, into exile in German East Africa. A few month later in 1889, he asked the king of Kooki, Edward Kezekia Nadahura II, for military support against the rebels, but he was denied.
During the Mohammadan war between June and August 1893, rebel forces fled into the independent kingdom of Kooki after being pushed out of Gomba by British forces. Sir John Gray thought the rebels might settle down in Kooki due to its reputation for aiding slave dealers and the arms traffic. An expedition into Kooki were ordered and lieutenants Hobart and C.S Reddie were told to attack the capital of Rakai if Kooki gave the rebels sanctuary. The rebels quickly surrendered to British forces after they were attacked. Ndahura welcomed the British soldiers and had a mutral understanding with the British to not support rebels.
In 1894, Ndahura II, went to the city of Kampala and asked the British government if his kingdom could become a British protectorate but his request was denied. The following year in 1895, Ndahura II went back to Kampala and asked if his "territories maybe included in Buganda Kingdom under the protection of Her Majesty’s government.” Again he was denied.
Incorporation into Buganda.
In 1896, the embattled Kooki was seeking protection against external invasion and signed an allegiance agreement at Mengo with the Kingdom of Buganda. This was done before the British commissioner to Uganda, Ernest James Lennox Berkeley, on behalf of the Queen of England. The treaty wouldn't be officially recognised and ratified until May 4, 1903, by commissioner Berkeley on behalf of the British Foreign Office.
Under this agreement the Kamuswaga (king) was given a special seat in Buganda's parliament (Lukiiko), cultural privileges, and a right to preserve cultural autonomy. The Kooki would also be made into a first class county (Saza) with a special status. The Kooki remained semi-independent until 1966 when Uganda's first Prime Minister Milton Obote abolished the Kingdom of Buganda.


Seewoosagur Ramgoolam

 Seewoosagur Ramgoolam (Bhojpuri-Hindi: सर शिवसागर रामगुलाम; September 18, 1900 – December 15, 1985; often referred to as Chacha Ramgoolam) was a Mauritian politician, statesman and philanthropist. He served as the island's first Chief Minister, Prime Minister of Mauritius, and Governor-General.
Early life.
Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, also known as Kewal, was born on 18 September 1900 at Belle Rive, Mauritius, in the district of Flacq in an Indo-Mauritian family. His father, Moheeth Ramgoolam was Indian immigrant labourer who belonged to Koeri caste. Moheeth came to Mauritius aged 18 in a ship called "The Hindoostan" in 1896. His elder brother, Ramlochurn, had left the home village of Harigaon in Bhojpuri district of Bihar in search of his fortune abroad. Moheeth worked as an indentured labourer and later became a Sirdar (overseer) at Queen Victoria Sugar Estate. When he married Basmati Ramchurn in 1898, he moved to Belle Rive Sugar Estate. Basmati was a young widow born in Mauritius. She already had two sons: Nuckchadee Heeramun and Ramlall Ramchurn.
Ramgoolam had his early grounding in Bhojpuri, Indian culture and philosophy, in the local evening school of the locality (called "Baitka" in Mauritian Hindu term), where children of the Hindu community learnt the vernacular language and glimpses of the Hindu culture. The teacher (guruji) would teach prayers and songs. Sanskrit prayers and perennial values taken from sacred scriptures like the "Vedas", the "Ramayana", the "Upanishads", and the "Bhagavad Gita" were also taught.
He enrolled in the neighbouring R.C.A. (Roman Catholic Aided) School, run by Madame Siris without his mother's knowledge. He learned History, Geography, English and French. After leaving the pre-primary school, he went to Bel Air Government School, travelling by train, until he passed the sixth standard. At the age of seven, Ramgoolam lost his father and at the age of twelve, he suffered a serious accident in a cowshed that cost him his left eye. He continued his scholarship class at the Curepipe Boys’ Government School while taking up boarding with his uncle, Harry Parsad Seewoodharry Buguth, a sworn land surveyor, in Curepipe. He would listen to the political discussions between his uncle and his circle of friends on local politics and on the current struggle for Indian independence under Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Rash Behari Bose. These initial conversations were to form the basis of his political beliefs years later. The scholarship classes, which formed the basis of lower secondary schooling, permitted Ramgoolam to go straight for the Junior Cambridge at the Royal College, Curepipe, where he was educated by the likes of Reverend Fowler and Mr Harwood. After secondary school, Ramgoolam worked for 3 months in the Civil Service, despite racism within the organisation .
With the financial help of his brother Ramlall, Ramgoolam was able to initiate medical studies in England. In 1921, Ramgoolam set sail on one of the ships of the Messageries maritimes for Marseille, and continued by train to London, his final destination, with a transit of a couple of days in Paris. In the French capital he purchased copies of the books of André Gide and André Malraux with both of whom he struck friendship. He graduated from University College London and attended lectures at the London School of Economics.
Family Life.
In 1939 Ramgoolam married Sushil Ramjoorawon. She gave birth to their daughter Sunita (now Sunita Joypaul) and their son Navin Ramgoolam.
Political career before Independence.
In 1935 he returned to Mauritius after completing medical studies in London and Seewoosagur worked to improve the living and working conditions of the bulk of the island's population which consisted of the descendants of indentured Indian laborers and enslaved Africans. In 1947 Ramgoolam joined the Labour Party. At that time the party was still under the leadership of its original founders Emmanuel Anquetil, Maurice Curé, Pandit Sahadeo, Renganaden Seeneevasen and Mamode Hassenjee, Jean Prosper, Barthelemy Ohsan, Samuel Barbe and Godefroy Moutia who initiated the party in 1936. In September 1940 and during the Second World War he became one of the founders of the Labour Party's newspaper "Advance" which advocated universal suffrage, economic reform and social justice. Ramgoolam wrote a series of articles using pseudonym "Thumb Mark II" which challenged the island's established conservative sugar oligarchs. He was also appointed as President of the group known as "Indian Cultural Association".
From 1940 to 1953 he was an elected Municipal Councillor in Port Louis and was re-elected to serve from 1956 to 1960. Then he was elected Deputy Mayor of Port-Louis in 1956 and became Lord Mayor of Port Louis in 1958. Seewoosagur Ramgoolam served as Nominated Member of the Legislative Council from 1940 to 1948. At the 1948 General Elections he was elected Member of Legislative Council for Pamplemousses-Rivière du Rempart. He was re-elected to the Legislative Council in 1953, 1959 (Triolet) and 1967 (Pamplemousses-Triolet). In 1948 and 1953 he was also appointed as member of the Executive Council. From 1951 to 1956 he joined the Civil Service to work as Liaison Officer for Education before becoming first MLA for Pamplemousses-Triolet in December 1956. In 1958 the Colonial Government appointed him as Ministerial Secretary to Treasury.
He led the Mauritian Labour Party from 1959 to 1982 following the death of Guy Rozemont in March 1956.
At the 1961 Constitutional Conference in London, the Parti Mauricien was in favour of an integration with Britain rather than independence within the Commonwealth. But Britain, at that time, had already decided that it would give up all its colonies with the exception of Hong-Kong, Gibraltar and the Falklands. In fact, the die had already been cast as early as 1959 when Harold Macmillan had made his famous “Wind of change blowing over Africa” speech. After the general election of 1963, Gaetan Duval, then deputy-leader of the Parti Mauricien, again lobbied for Integration with Britain. But this was once more rejected by the British who did not consider integration as “a practical proposition for Mauritius, even if the majority of parties in Mauritius wanted it”.
Under the supervision of the Colonial Office Ramgoolam served as Chief Minister and Minister of Finance from 1961 to 1965, then as "Premier" from 1965 to 1968, before becoming Prime Minister in 1968. In 1963, the British Conservative government assisted him to form an All-Party Government in Mauritius. His efforts were recognised as he was honoured as knighted in the Queen's Birthday Honours of 12 June 1965.
In 1967 he cooperated with the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB) led by Sookdeo Bissoondoyal (who were advocating complete decolonization and removal of British administration from all Mauritian territories) and the Comité d'Action Musulman (CAM) led by Abdool Razack Mohamed (which campaigned for constitutional guarantees to protect the Muslim and other minority communities in an effort to prevent a circumstantial Hindu hegemony) to form the Independence Party (Mauritius). This coalition eventually led to 1968 Independence from Great Britain after the 1967 Mauritian general election.
Political career after Independence.
In 1969 he contracted an alliance with his party's rival Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate (PMSD) which was led by Gaetan Duval. This alliance allowed Ramgoolam to stay in power despite the departure of its former ally IFB from the government. Sookdeo Bissoondoyal's IFB members went into opposition whilst some IFB MP's defected to the Labour Party to maintain their ministerial portfolios.
Due to the poor performance of his various governments from 1967 to 1982, his party lost the 1982 general elections when none of his candidates was elected to parliament. He lost his parliamentary seat which led to further downfall of the Labour Party. He then assisted the newly formed party named MSM and its ex-MMM leader Anerood Jugnauth to win the 1983 elections. The Labour Party became a minority party in a coalition MSM-Labour government and Ramgoolam was appointed as Governor-General, a position which he held until his death in 1985. Ramgoolam was succeeded as leader of the Labour Party by Sir Satcam Boolell in 1984 when the latter returned to the Labour Party after having formed and led a new party Mouvement Patriotique Mauricien (MPM) following his 1982 electoral defeat. Boolell remained president of the Labour Party until 1991.
Ramgoolam was also the Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity from 1976 to 1977.
Legacy and recognition.
Various streets and public places in Mauritius bear the name of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam (SSR) such as the SSR Botanical Garden, recreational centre for senior citizens, SSR Medical College, Pamplemousses SSR National Hospital (at the site of the defunct Royal Alfred Observatory), airport previously called Plaisance International Airport, Kewal Nagar (a small village previously called "Belle Rive". He also figures on every Mauritian Rupee coin and on the highest note tender of Rs2,000. Monument were also constructed at the Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden, Caudan Waterfront in Port Louis and even in the village of SSR's ancestor, near Patna, Bihar in India.


List of rulers of the Northern state of Wa

Territory located in Ghana


Edward Northey (British Army officer)

Major General Sir Edward Northey (28 May 1868 – 25 December 1953) was a senior British Army officer of the First World War who commanded a brigade on the Western Front until wounded in 1915. Returning to service in 1916, Northey took command of a colonial force in Nyasaland in the East African campaign, later becoming Governor of Kenya. He later served as a general of Territorial forces and retired in 1926.
Birth and early career.
Edward Northey was born in 1868 and educated at Eton College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being commissioned into the King's Royal Rifle Corps in 1888. He served in expeditions to Hazara and the Miranzai Valley in 1891 and one to Isazai the following year. In 1899, Northey took part in the Second Boer War, remaining in the theatre until 1902.
First World War.
When the First World War broke out in 1914, Northey was a lieutenant colonel in the King's Royal Rifle Corps and served with the regiment on the Western Front during the first year of the war. In March 1915, Northey was promoted to brigadier-general and took over the 15th Infantry Brigade but was seriously wounded during the Second Battle of Ypres. The date is unclear, but Northey was reportedly surveying the site of a new communication trench when he was struck in the thigh by shrapnel.
Returning to the army in 1916 after recovering from his wound, Northey was posted to Nyasaland in command of the Nyasa-Rhodesia Field Force, operating against Lettow-Vorbeck's indigenous and German forces in the East African Campaign.
Northey was appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1917 and was appointed Knight of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1918 for his war service, the same year he was promoted to major-general. He was elevated Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George.
Governor of the British East Africa Protectorate.
At the war's end Northey was appointed Governor of the British East Africa Protectorate, which became known as Kenya in 1920.
On 16 October 1919 "The Times" newspaper reported that Sir Edward Northey had met with an accident, while playing polo, which required the removal of his right eye. The accident occurred in British East Africa.
In 1919, Northey issued a circular which instructed government officials to coerce African labour to work on European-owned farms and estates, despite earlier Colonial Office objections to this plan. The scandal generated by the Northey proposal caused the Colonial Office to make clear in 1921 that compulsory paid labour by local Africans could only be used on government projects, not to direct labour to European estates, and then only if absolutely necessary and with Colonial Office approval.
In 1922, Northey was transferred to the lesser post of High Commissioner of Zanzibar, returning to Britain in 1924 to return to military service.
Late career.
On his return, Northey was placed in command of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, a Territorial Army formation. This responsibility was shared with command of the South West Area of Britain, and Northey performed well at both duties until his retirement from military service in 1926. Northey died in 1953 after a peaceful retirement.