Ichinoseki Domain

 was a "tozama" feudal domain of Edo period Japan It was located in Mutsu Province, in northern Honshū. The domain was centered at Ichinoseki jin'ya, located in the center of what is now the city of Ichinoseki in Iwate Prefecture.
History.
Ichinoseki Domain (Date clan).
The first Ichinoseki Domain was created in 1660 for Date Munekatsu, the 10th son of Date Masamune, although a fortification had existed at Ichinoseki since the Muromachi period. It was a subsidiary domain to Sendai Domain. However, Data Munekatsu was a central figure in the Date Sōdō, an "O-Ie Sōdō" over the succession to the Date clan and was dispossessed in 1671, with his holdings reverting to Sendai Domain.
Iwanuma Domain.
Iwanuma Domain was another 30,000 "koku" subsidiary domain of Sendai Domain, created in 1660 for Tamura Muneyoshi. It was located in what is now the city of Iwanuma, Miyagi. Muneyoshi was the third son of Date Tadamune. His grandmother Megohime was the only child of the last hereditary chieftain of the Tamura clan, and the clan was restored in accordance with her will. Tamura Muneyoshi was one of the guardians of Date Tsunamura, but was later forced to retire by the shogunate due to his role in the Date Sōdō succession dispute. His son, Tamura Tatsuaki moved his seat from Iwamura to the vacant seat of Ichinoseki in 1681.
Ichinoseki Domain (Tamura clan).
In 1681, the second "daimyō" of Iwanuma, Tamura Tatsuaki relocated his seat to Ichinoseki. Tatsuaki was the great-grandson of Date Masamune, and was especially favoured by "shōgun" Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, and despite his "tozama" status enjoyed many of the privileges accorded to a "fudai daimyō".
The Tamura clan continued to rule Ichinoseki until the Meiji restoration. However, their position was somewhat ambiguous. Although treated by the Tokugawa shogunate as completely independent, Ichinoseki never received a formal document from the shogunate authorizing its han status. On the other hand, Sendai Domain still regarded Ichinoseki has part of its own territory, and Ichinoseki was compelled to abide by Date clan house rules. This meant that Ichinoseki was not able to issue its own laws and regulations. The situation of Ichinoseki was further complicated by the fact that it was not a unitary territory, but consisted of two areas separated by the Kitakami River and several Date-held territories in between.
As commemorated in the story of the "Chūshingura", Asano Naganori was invited to commit "seppuku" while being held under house arrest at the Tamura's Edo residence over the incident at the Matsu no Ōrōka in Edo Castle where he drew his sword against Kira Yoshinaka.
During the Bakumatsu period, an Ichinoseki doctor was influential in the establishment of a medical school in Sendai in 1822.
During the Boshin War, Tamura Kuniyoshi led the domain into the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei, but along with Sendai Domain, was forced to surrender to imperial forces a few months later. In July 1871, with the abolition of the han system, Ichinoseki Domain briefly became Ichinoseki Prefecture, and was merged into the newly created Iwate Prefecture. Under the new Meiji government, he and his son, Tamura Takaaki, the final "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain was given the "kazoku" peerage titles of "shishaku" (viscount).
List of "daimyōs".
Tamura Tatsuaki.
 was the second and final "daimyō" of Iwanuma Domain and first Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Ukyō-no-daifu", later "Inaba-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Tatsuaki was the second son of Tamura Muneyoshi, the "daimyō" of the 30,000 "koku" Iwanuma Domain. He underwent the "genpuku" ceremony in 1660 and was received in formal audience by "shōgun" Tokugawa Ietsuna, who confirmed him as heir to Iwanuma. However, in May 1681, the seat of Iwanuma Domain was relocated to Ichinoseki. Tatsuaki was noted for his scholarship, and in 1691 was elevated to the status of provisional "Fudai daimyō". In 1692, he was appointed a "sōshaban". The same year, he changed his name from Tamura Munenaga (宗永) to Tamura Tatsuaki. In 1693, he received the additional honor of being styled as castellan, although his domain was only ranked that of a "jin'ya". In 1694, his younger brother was elevated to the ranks of the "hatamoto". He was married to the daughter of Matsudaira Chikayoshi, from Matsue Domain, but as he had no sons, he adopted the son of a "hatamoto" to be his heir. In 1701, in the aftermath of the famous "Chūshingura" incident, he was assigned custody of Asano Naganori, who later committed seppuku at the Ichinoseki Domain's residence in Edo.
In 1705, he received the courtesy title of "Inaba-no-kami". He died at age 53, and his grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Tōzen-ji in Takanawa, Edo.
Tamura Nobuaki.
 was the 2nd Tamura"daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Shimōsa-no-kami", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Nobuaki was the 5th son of Tamura Akiate, a "hatamoto" from a subsidiary line of the Tamura clan．As the "daimyō" of Ichinoseki, Tamaura Tatsuaki had no sons, he was adopted as heir in February 1696 and became "daimyō" on the death of Tatsuaki in 1708. He died in 1727 at the age of 58 after an uneventful tenure, and his grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Shoun-ji in Ichinoseki. He was succeeded by the son of Date Muneyoshi of Uwajima Domain, whom he had adopted as his son under the name of Tamura Muraaki.
Tamura Muraaki.
 was the 3rd Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Oki-no-kami" (later "Sakyō-no-daifu"), and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade.
Muraaki was the 2nd son of Date Muneyoshi, "daimyō" of Uwajima Domain. In October, 1726 he was adopted as heir to Ichinoseki Domain by Tamura Nobuaki, and became "daimyō" on the latter's death the following year. He had an uneventful tenure, which is fortunate as contemporary records indicate that he spent most his time at falconry and hunting. At the time of his death at the age of 49 in 1755, he had only a young daughter, so the fifth son of Date Yoshimura, "daimyō" of Sendai Domain was posthumously adopted as his successor. His grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Tōzen-ji in Takanawa, Edo.
Tamura Murataka.
 was the 4th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Shimōsa-no-kami" (later "Sakyō-no-daifu"), and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Murataka was the 5th son of Date Yoshimura, "daimyō" of Sendai Domain and was born in Aoba Castle. In 1742, he was adopted by Date Muratomo, chieftain of the Tome-Date clan, a "hatamoto" branch of the main Date clan, taking the name , and subsequently . In May 1752, he was adopted as heir to Ichinoseki Domain by Tamura Muraaki, and became "daimyō" on the latter's death in September 1755. In 1756, his young nephew Date Shigemura became "daimyō" of Sendai, and Murataka was appointed to act as guardian. His tenure was marked by repeated crop failures caused by cold summers and drought, which drove the domain to the edge of bankruptcy, and he had to turn to Sendai Domain for financial assistance on three occasions. On his death at the age of 46 in 1782, he was succeeded by his grandson, Tamura Murasuke. His grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Tōzen-ji in Takanawa, Edo.
Tamura Murasuke.
 was the 5th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Sakyō-no-daifu", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Murasuke was the eldest son of Date Murayoshi, chieftain of the Tome-Data clan, a "hatamoto" branch of the main Date clan. In 1778, he was adopted as heir by Tamura Murataka, and became "daimyō" on the latter's death in March 1782. The following year, he ordered the construction of a han school. In 1796, an "O-ie-sodo" erupted in Sendai Domain following the sudden death of Date Narimura and quick action on part of Tamura Murasuke in closing off the highways in the area prevented the violence from spilling over into Ichinoseki. In 1798, he retired from public office, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Tamura Muneaki. His grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Tōzen-ji in Takanawa, Edo.
Tamura Muneaki.
 was the 6th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Sakyō-no-daifu", later "Ukyō-no-Daifu" and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Muneaki was the younger son of Nakamura Murayoshi, a "hatamoto" serving Sendai Domain and son of Date Munemura who had been adopted as heir by Hotta Masatomi of Katata Domain in Omi Province. In 1793, Muneaki returned to Ishinoseki as heir to Tamura Murasuke, who effectively retired in 1798. At this time, he was called Tamura Takaaki (田村敬顕). He married Murasuke's daughter in 1802 and took the name of Muneaki in 1808. The domain continued to suffer from repeated crop failures, and the domain finances were further complicated by orders from the shogunate to contribute to the defenses of the frontier of Ezo. His grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Shoun-ji in Ichinoseki.
Tamura Kuniaki.
 was the 7th "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Sakyō-no-daifu", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Kuniaki was the younger son of Tamura Muneaki and was born at the clan's "nakayashiki" in Edo. He became "daimyō" on the death of his father in 1827, and was received in formal audience by "shōgun" Tokugawa Ienari in 1828. He underwent the "genpuku" ceremony at the Sendai Domain's "hamayashiki" in 1829, with Date Narikuni as master of ceremonies, and received the "kanji" of "kuni" in his name at that time. The domain continued to suffer from repeated crop failures, and financial problems during his tenure. On his death at the age of 25, he was childless, and his younger brother was posthumously adopted to maintain the family line. His grave is at the clan mortuary temple of Tōzen-ji in Takanawa, Edo.
Tamura Kuniyuki.
 was the 8th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Sakyō-no-daifu", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Kuniyuki was the fourth son of Tamura Muneaki and was initially named Akichika (顕允). He was posthumously adopted by his brother, Tamura Kuniaki on the latter's death in 1840, becoming "daimyō". He changed his name to Tamura Kuniaki (行顕) at that time. In 1841, he changed his name again, this time to Kuniyuki. The same year, he married the daughter of the "daimyō" of Inuyama Domain, Naruse Masanaga. During his tenure, he reformed the domain's finances, undertook land reform, and rebuilt the domain academy, emphasizing medical science. He also took steps to modernize the domain's military by introducing more modern firearms. Regarded as an able ruler, he died at the age of 38 and his grave is at the clan temple of Tōzen-ji, in Tamanawa, Tokyo.
Tamura Yukiaki.
 was the 9th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Mimasaka-no-kami" and "Jijū", and his Court rank was Junior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade. Yukiaki was the eldest son of Tamura Kuniyuki and became "daimyō" in 1857 on the latter's death. However, in 1863 he was adopted by Date Yoshikuni to become heir to Sendai Domain and changed his name to Date Mochimura. This left Ichinoseki without a ruler. Initially, Date Kunishige from a junior branch of the Date clan was proposed, but this was strongly opposed by the domain leadership, and Tamura Kuniyoshi, the son of a Date clan "hatamoto" Ishikawa Yoshimitsu was selected instead. However, Yukiaki died at the age of 18 at the Date clan's Edo residence, and thus did not become "daimyō" of Sendai. His grave is at the Date clan temple of Dainen-ji, in Sendai.
Tamura Kuniyoshi.
 (July 7, 1852 – February 26, 1887) was the 10th Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Sakyō-no-daifu", and his Court rank was Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade. Kuniyoshi was the 7th son of Ishikawa Yoshimitsu, the 13th hereditary chieftain of the Ishikawa clan, a cadet branch of the Date clan of Sendai Domain. In 1863, Tamura Yukiaki, the 9th "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain was adopted by Date Yoshikuni as heir apparent to Sendai Domain, which left Ichinoseki Domain leaderless. Kuniyoshi was appointed by clan elders to become "daimyō" and became the adopted son of Yukiaki through marriage to Yukiaki's daughter. He initially took the name of Tamura Yoshiaki (田村栄顕), but later changed to Tamura Kuniyoshi. In 1868, he obeyed the call of Sendai Domain, and led Ichinoseki troops into the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei against the new Meiji government in the Boshin War. However, only a few months later, he retired in favor of his younger brother, Tamura Takaaki. His grave is at the Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.
Tamura Takaaki.
 was the 11th and final Tamura "daimyō" of Ichinoseki Domain. His courtesy title was "Mimasaka-no-kami" and "Ukyō-no-daifu" (右京大夫), and his Court rank was Junior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade. Takaaki was the ninth son of Ishikawa Yoshimitsu, a "hatamoto" from a cadet line of the Date clan of Sendai Domain. In 1868, his step-brother Tamura Kuniyoshi was forced to abdicate due to his role in leading the domain against the new Meiji government in the Boshin War, and the clan elders were forced to quickly select a successor. Takaaki became "daimyō" at the age of 10; however, the following year the title was abolished, and he became domain governor. He returned the post of clan chieftain to Kuniyoshi in 1882. In 1887, when Kuniyoshi died, he resumed the title, and well as the "kazoku" peerage title of "shishaku" (viscount). On his death at the age of 65 in 1922, the titles passed to Kuniyoshi's son, Tamura Hiroaki (1875–1945), a career naval officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy. and graduate of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. His grave is at the Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Ichinoseki Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.


List of Cultural Properties of Japan - archaeological materials (Nara)

This list is of the Cultural Properties of Japan designated in the category of for the Prefecture of Nara.
National Cultural Properties.
As of 1 November 2015, forty-eight Important Cultural Properties (including seven *National Treasures) have been designated, being of national significance.
Prefectural Cultural Properties.
As of 1 May 2015, fourteen properties have been designated at a prefectural level.
Municipal Cultural Properties.
Properties designated at a municipal level include:


Mawaki Site

The is an archaeological site with the ruins of a Jōmon period settlement in the Mawaki neighborhood of the city of Noto, Ishikawa in the Hokuriku region of Japan. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1989.
Overview.
The Mawaki Site is located at the back of a small cove on the Noto Peninsula surrounded by hills on three sides, overlooking Toyama Bay. It is one of the largest Jōmon archaeological sites in the Hokuriku region and contains the site of a settlement which was continuously occupied over a 4000 year period from the beginning to the end of the Jōmon period. In an archaeological excavation conducted over a four year period from 1987 an enormous number of artifacts were discovered, and the site was found to have clearly defined stratigraphic layers facilitating dating. The relics included an abundance of animal bones (especially dolphins), plant remains, as well as engraved pillars, rope, knitted materials, masks, the foundation posts for large raised-floor buildings, and pit dwellings. The site also contained an unparalleled range of pottery from every portion of the Jōmon period, and also all the Jōmon pottery forms known to have existed in the Hokuriku region, as well as many examples from other regions in Japan, making the site of critical importance into Jōmon pottery research.
In 1991, 219 items of earthenware, stone tools, bone tools, clay figurines, rock figurines, stone sticks, and other ritual items, wooden plates, and paddles were designated Important Cultural Properties. The "Mawaki-style pottery" believed to have been made at this location, has been found in Akita Prefecture and also in sites in the Kantō region.
In addition, the site has a number of unique features which have not been found in other archaeological sites. These include the "Ita-shiki clay pot grave" where the body was buried after laying a board in the grave, and the "Paste floor dwelling site" where the furnace was rebuilt six times in the exact same place. In addition, site has a ring of chestnut wooden columns forming a timber circle, such as has been found at the Chikamori Site in Kanazawa.
The site is now an archaeological park with the displaying some of the findings.


List of Mesopotamian dynasties

Mesopotamian dynasties range from the periods between 2900-2800 BCE (Dynasty I), 2800-2600 BCE (Dynasty II) and 2600-2334 (Dynasty III). The first Dynastic period can be referred to as the Early Dynastic Period
Eclipse and Venus observation records.
Base on an Assyria record of Eclipse on June 15, 763 BC, and the related date documents between Assyria and Babylonia, the dates after 1400 BC are reliable. According to the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a record of astronomical observations of Venus in Old Babylonian Empire king Ammisaduqa (1646–1626 BC), the rough date can be concluded. But about the accuracy date, the Historians have different opinions, in high chronology the finish date of Old Babylonian is 1651 BC, in middle chronology the finish date of Old Babylonian is 1595 BC，and in low chronology the finish date of Old Babylonian is 1531 BC. In this article we use the middle chronology, same as most of the books about Mesopotamia, but there are many evidence support the low chronology (even extreme low chronology).


Osroene (Roman province)

Osroene (), also spelled Osrohene and Osrhoene, was a Roman province which existed for nearly 400 years. It was formed after the absorption of the Kingdom of Osroene in 244 CE and served as a frontier province against the Sassanid Empire until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century.
For the whole of its existence, the province would remain a bone of contention between the Romans and their eastern neighbors, the Sassanid Persians, suffering heavily in the recurrent Roman–Persian Wars. War broke out after the death of the Roman emperor Decius in 251 and the province was invaded by the Persians. In the second half of the 250s, the Persian shah Shapur I (r. ca. 240–270) attacked the Roman east, which was defended by the Roman emperor Valerianus (r. 253–260), whom he captured at Edessa in 260. In the next year however, Shapur was heavily defeated by Odaenathus of Palmyra and driven out of Osroene and Mesopotamia.
It was taken and retaken several times. Being a province on the frontier it had a Roman legion stationed there, Legio III Parthica and its Castrum (homebase) was Resaena though there are some doubts on that fact.
Since Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy reforms during his reign 284-305 CE, it was part of the diocese of Oriens, in the praetorian prefecture of the same name. According to the late 4th-century "Notitia Dignitatum", it was headed by a governor of the rank of "praeses", and was also the seat of the "dux Mesopotamiae", who ranked as "vir spectabilis" and commanded (c. 400) the following army units:
as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:


Abe Masahisa


Thanjavur Maratha kingdom

The Thanjavur Maratha kingdom of bhonsle dynasty was a principality of Tamil Nadu between the 17th and 19th centuries. Their native language was Thanjavur Marathi. Venkoji was the founder of the dynasty.
Maratha conquest of Thanjavur.
Following the demise of Chola rule in the 13th century (specifically around 1279), the Thanjavur area came under the rule of the Pandyas and then, following the invasion of Malik Kafur, it fell into disorder.
Pandya nadu very quickly reasserted their independence and forced the Delhi Sultan to flee Thanjavur. Soon afterwards, however, they were conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. The Emperor appointed his trusted Kin, who belonged to the Telugu Balija caste as Governors (Nayakas) of Madurai and Tanjavur. An internal family squabble between Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai Nayak dynasty and his uncle Vijayaraghava Nayaka of Tanjavur, let to a war, and eventually defeated Thanjavur. The rule of the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed its ruler, Vijayaraghava.
Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijaya Raghava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675, the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji (alias Ekoji) to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protege on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.
Maratha kings.
Venkoji.
Venkoji, a half-brother of the Maratha king Shivaji, was the first Raja of Thanjavur from the Bhosale dynasty. It is believed that he took over the administration of Thanjavur in April 1674 and ruled until 1684. During his reign, Shivaji invaded Gingee and Thanjavur in 1676–1677 and made his brother Santaji the ruler of all lands to the north of the Coleroon. During the last years of his reign, Venkoji also allied with Chokkanatha of Madurai to repulse an invasion from Mysore.
Shahuji I.
Shahuji I was the eldest son of Venkoji and he ascended the throne at the age of twelve. During his reign, the Mughals occupied the Coromandel coast and Tiruchirapalli and forced him to pay tribute. Shahuji was a patron of literature. During his reign, there were frequent skirmishes and battles with the Raja of Madurai and Ramnad for control of the border lands.
Serfoji I.
Serfoji I was a younger son of Venkoji and he ruled from 1712 to 1728. His rule was marked by regular warfare and disputes with the Madurai Nayak.
Tukkoji.
Tukkoji, a younger brother of Serfoji I, ruled Thanjavur from 1728 to 1736. His reign witnessed the invasion of Chanda Sahib and he is credited with having repulsed a Muslim invasion of Madurai.
Pratapsingh.
A period of anarchy followed the death of Tukkoji and came to an end when Pratapsingh came to the throne in 1739. He ruled until 1763. He allied with Muhammad Ali, the Nawab of the Carnatic, and aided the British East India Company against the French East India Company in the Carnatic Wars and the Seven Years' War. He was the last king to be addressed to be the Directors of the British East India Company as "His Majesty". In 1762, a tripartite treaty was signed between Thanjavur, Carnatic and the British by which he became a vassal of the Nawab of the Carnatic.
Thuljaji.
Thuljaji was a very weak ruler and the last independent ruler of Thanjavur. In 1773, Thanjavur was annexed by the Nawab of the Carnatic who ruled till 1776. The throne was restored to him by the Directors of the British East India Company. But his restoration came at a heavy price as it deprived him of his independence.
Serfoji II.
Thuljaji was succeeded by his teenage son Serfoji II in 1787. Soon afterwards, he was deposed by his uncle and regent Amarsingh who seized the throne for himself. With the help of the British, Serfoji II recovered the throne in 1798. A subsequent treaty forced him to hand over the reins of the kingdom to the British East India Company, becoming part of the Tanjore District (Madras Presidency). The district collectorate system was installed thereafter to manage the public revenues. Serfoji II was however left in control of the Fort and the surrounding areas. He reigned till 1832. His reign is noted for the literary, scientific and technological accomplishments of the Tanjore country.
Shivaji.
Shivaji was the last Maratha ruler of Thanjavur and reigned from 1832 to 1855. As his first wife did not have any male heir, the Queen adopted her nephew, and the adoption took place after the Maharaja's (Shivaji I) death in 1855. The British did not accept this adoption and Thanjavur was annexed by them as per the provisions of the Doctrine of Lapse.
Literature.
The Thanjavur Maratha Rajas favoured Sanskrit and Telugu to such an extent that classical Tamil began to decline. Most of the plays were in Sanskrit. Venkoji, the first ruler of the Bhonsle dynasty composed a 'Dvipada' Ramayana in Telugu. His son Shahuji was a great patron of learning and of literature. Most of the Thanjavur Maratha literature is from his period. Most of them were versions of the Ramayana or plays and short stories of a historical nature. Sanskrit and Telugu were the languages used in most of these plays while there were some Tamil 'koothu' as well. "Advaita Kirtana" is one of the prominent works from this period. Later Thanjavur rulers like Serfoji II and Shivaji immersed themselves in learning and literary pursuits when they were dispossessed of their empire. Serfoji built the Saraswathi Mahal Library within the precincts of the palace to house his enormous book and manuscript collection. Apart from Indian languages, Serfoji II was proficient in English, French, Dutch, Greek and Latin as well.
Administration.
The king was assisted in the administration of his country by a council of ministers. The supreme head of this council of ministers was a "Mantri" or "Dalavoy". The "Dalavoy" was also the Commander-in-chief of the Army. Next in importance at the court was a "Pradhani" or "Dewan" also called "Dabir Pandit". The country was divided into subahs, seemais and maganams in the decreasing order of size and importance. The five subahs of the country were Pattukkottai, Mayavaram, Kumbakonam, Mannargudi and Tiruvadi.
Economy.
The ruler collected his taxes from the people through his "mirasdars" or "puttackdars". They were collected right from the village level onwards and were based on the agricultural produce of the village. Rice was one of the primary crops in the region and the land used for cultivation was owned by big landlords. It was Anatharama Sashtry who proposed collecting taxes to improve conditions for the poor. No foreign trade was carried out. The only foreign trade in the country was carried out by European traders who paid a particular amount of money as rent to the Raja. The currency system used was that of a "chakram" or "pon" (1 chakram = one and three-fourths of a British East India Company rupee). Other systems of coinage used were that of "pagoda" (1 pagoda = three and a half Company rupees), a big "panam" (one-sixth of a Company rupee) and a small "panam" (one-thirteenth of a Company rupee).


Abba Kohen Bardela

Abba Cohen of Bardela, most commonly known as Abba Kohen Bardela, was a Jewish scholar of the last tannaitic generation (about the beginning of the third century). The few halakhot emanating from him refer to the rabbinical civil law. In Biblical homiletics several of his expositions have been preserved. The last-mentioned passage runs as follows: "Woe to mankind, because of the day of judgment; woe, because of the day of trial! Balaam, the wisest among the Gentiles, was confounded at the reproof of his ass. Joseph, one of the youngest of Jacob's sons, silenced his elder brethren. How will man be able to endure the judgment of the omniscient Lord?"
Abba Jose ben Hanan transmitted one of his aggadahs.


Karasuyama Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan, located in the Nasu region of northern Shimotsuke Province (modern-day Tochigi Prefecture), Japan. It was centered on Karasuyama Castle in what is now part of the city of Karasuyama, Tochigi. Karasuyama was ruled by a number of clans in its early history, but was ruled by a junior branch of the Ōkubo clan from the mid-Edo period onwards. The Karasuyama Ōkubo clan maintained a secondary jin'ya in what is now Atsugi, Kanagawa to administer its extensive holdings in Sagami Province.
History.
The Nasu clan ruled the Nasu district of northern Shimotsuke Province from the Kamakura period. During the late Sengoku period, partly for failing to participate in the 1590 Battle of Odawara, Toyotomi Hideyoshi divided their holdings, creating Nasu Domain (20,000 "koku") for the Nasu clan, and awarding their ancestral castle, Karasuyama Castle and 20,000 "koku" to Narita Ujinaga. The Narita were vassals of the Odawara Hōjō, who pledged allegiance to the Toyotomi after the fall of their liege. Ujinaga’s son Narita Ujitada fought on the side of Tokugawa Ieyasu against the Uesugi clan and in the Battle of Sekigahara and was awarded an increase to 37,000 "koku". His son, Narita Ujimune died without heir in 1622 and the clan was reduced to "hatamoto" status.
Karasuyama was briefly ruled by the Matsushita clan from 1623–1627, before their transfer to Nihonmatsu Domain. From 1627–1672, the Hori clan ruled Karasuyama, during which time they made extensive renovations to the castle and surrounding castle town. They were followed briefly by a branch of the Itakura clan (1672–1681) and then the Nasu clan (1682-1687). However, the Nasu were dispossessed by "Shōgun" Tokugawa Tsunayoshi following a succession dispute, and were replaced by Nagai Naohiro (1687–1701), who later was transferred to Ako Domain after its confiscation from Asano Naganori following the Forty-seven "rōnin" incident. A junior branch of the Itakura clan then ruled Karasuyama from 1701–1725.
Karasuyama was then awarded to Ōkubo Tsuneharu, a former "wakadoshiyori" who already had a 15,000 "koku" holding in Omi province. He later became a "rōjū", and his descendants continued to rule Karasuyama until the end of the Tokugawa shogunate. The 3rd Ōkubo "daimyō", Ōkubo Tadaaki faced severe financial difficulties compounded by peasant uprisings. His successors, Ōkubo Tadayoshi and Ōkubo Tadashige opened new rice lands and reformed the domain’s finances. The 6th Ōkubo daimyō, Ōkubo Tadayasu had able administrators, and followed the teachings of Ninomiya Sontoku.
The Boshin war of the Meiji restoration largely bypassed the area. After the abolition of the han system in July 1871, Karasuyama Domain became part of Tochigi Prefecture.
The domain had a population of 26,257 people in 5957 households for all of its holdings, per a census in 1869.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Karasuyama Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. Due to its history, its majority of its territory was divided between Shimotsuke and Sagami Provinces.


2007 in Malaysia

This article lists important figures and events in Malaysian public affairs during the year 2007, together with births and deaths of notable Malaysians. 2007 marked 50 years of Malaysian independence.


Shen (state)

The State of Shen () was a Chinese vassal state during the Zhou dynasty (1046 – 221 BCE) ruled by the Jiāng family (姜) as an earldom. At the beginning of the Spring and Autumn period the State of Shen was annexed by the State of Chu and became one of its counties.
Territory.
Located around the states of Chén and Zhèng, the State of Shēn lay to the south of modern-day Huáiyáng and Xīnzhèng counties in Henan Province. The state's capital stood in Wăn County (宛县) , Nányáng bordered to the north by the Míngè Pass (冥厄關/冥厄关) and to the south by the Huai River.
History.
The history of the State of Shen began with the bestowal of the Earldom of Shēn (later a Marquessate) which descended from the matriarchal line of the Zhōu Kings. During the reign of King Xuān of Zhōu (reigned 827 – 782 BCE), the Earl of Shēn was granted the title and lands of King Xuān's maternal uncle in the former State of Xiè (謝國/谢国). The enfeoffed territory of the State of Shen acted as a strategic southern gateway to the lands controlled by the Zhou Kings. King Xuan dispatched Hŭ, the Earl of Shao (召伯虎), to Shen to negotiate with the Earl of Shēn and obtain part of their land for use in the public fields system (公田). The King also sent his close aide Fù Yù (傅御) to relocate the population (the Earl of Shēn's former subjects) in order to rapidly consolidate his control over the area.
King Yōu ascended the throne of Zhōu in 781 BCE. His queen and first wife was the daughter of the Marquess of Shēn. The king's concubine Bāo Sì wanted to oust Crown Prince Yíjiù (宜臼) and replace him with her own son Bófú (伯服) thereby arousing the fury of the Marquess of Shēn. As a result, in 771 BCE the Marquess of Shēn allied with the State of Zēng (繒/缯) along with Quănróng nomads (犬戎) and attacked the Zhōu capital at Hàojīng (鎬京/镐京). King Yōu lit beacons to summon his nobles in defence but none came and he was subsequently killed at the foot of Líshān near modern-day Xī’ān (西安). Thereafter the Marquesses of Shēn and Lŭ (鲁) together with Marquess Wén of Xŭ (许文公) enthroned Yíjiù as King Ping of Zhou in the State of Shēn thereby ushering in the Spring and Autumn period.
In 761 BCE, another daughter of the Marquess of Shēn called Wǔjiāng () married Duke Wǔ of Zhèng (鄭武公/郑武公). She subsequently gave birth to two sons, the elder of whom, Wùsheng (寤生) would succeed his father as Duke Zhuāng of Zhèng.
During the early years of the Spring and Autumn period the State of Chŭ began to expand. In 688 BCE King Wén of Chŭ (楚文王) dispatched an army to attack the State of Shen. According to the Zuo Zhuan, as the troops passed through the State of Dèng, Marquess Qí of Dèng remarked: "King Wén of Chu is the son of my sister." As a result, Marquess Qí allowed him to stop in the State of Shen and provided a feast and entertainment. The officials Zhuīshēng (騅甥/骓甥), Dānshēng (聃甥) and Yǎngshēng (養甥/养甥) asked Marquess Qí to kill King Wén but he would not hear of it whereupon the three officials replied:
After King Wén suppressed the State of Shēn using armed force he became caught up in a war between the State of Deng and the State of Ba. What happened to the State of Shēn after this suppression is not clear.
The "Zuo Zhuan • Fourteenth Year of Duke Ai" traces the establishment of the counties of Shēn and Xī (息), dating the overthrow of the State of Xī to 680 BCE. As a result, the destruction of the State of Shēn must have taken place around the same time – somewhere between 688 and 680 BCE.
After its absorption into the State of Chǔ, Shēn became an important northern county. At the Battle of Chéngpú, Chǔ Prime minister Chéng Déchén (成得臣) did not lead the main Chǔ army but a smaller force composed of troops from the counties of Shēn and Xī. As a result, Chéng Déchén lost the battle whereupon King Chéng of Chŭ said "If you return home, what will the elders of the counties of Shēn and Xī do?"
In 594 BCE, King Zhuāng of Chŭ agreed to confer territory in the counties of Shēn and Lŭ on Zĭchong (子重). The king's senior official Wū Chén (巫臣) remonstrated with him:
In the sixth year of Duke Cheng of Lu (585 CE), the State of Jìn attacked the State of Cài. Chǔ sent troops from Shēn and Xī to assist Cài. The high-ranking military leaders of Jìn knew that if they won this battle it would only mean the defeat of Shēn and Xī counties, not the entire State of Chǔ – if they lost it would be a major humiliation so the army decided to retreat. Academic Gu Jiegang points out that since the two counties of Shēn and Xī had enough troops and were sufficiently powerful to deal with the State of Jin's army, it is clear that the counties were both rich and populous.
Later on, in 529 CE, King Ling of Chu died and King Ping of Chu ascended the throne. During the reign of King Ling, after he had overthrown the State of Cài he had annexed the states of Xŭ, Hú (胡国), Shĕn (沈国), Dào, Fáng (房国) and Shēn, bringing them within the borders of his territory. After King Ping took over the throne of Chŭ, he restored the states of Chén and Cài so that they once more became small countries.
Records of bronze artifact inscriptions.
In the 1980s, archaeological excavations around the former Shēn capital of Nanyang uncovered a number of the state's bronze artifacts. These included a bronze sacrificial vessel inscribed with text that scholar Li Xueqin has deciphered as "Count of Southern Shen" (南申伯). Li further infers that the nobleman referred to is one of those mentioned in the Daya (大雅) section of the Book of Songs in the poem entitled "Song Gao" (崧高).


Ogi Domain

 was a Japanese domain in the Edo period. It is associated with Hizen Province in modern-day Saga Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū.
In the han system, Ogi was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of "kokudaka", not land area. This was different from the feudalism of the West.
History.
Ogi Domain was originally a sub-domain of the Saga Domain, founded in 1642 for Nabeshima Motoshige, the eldest son of the first "daimyō" of Saga Domain, Nabeshima Katsushige. Although Motoshige was the eldest son, he was displaced in the line of succession for Saga Domain by his younger half-brother, Nabeshima Tadanao, whose mother was a daughter of "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Motoshige was assigned holdings of 73,000 "koku", and also served as an advisor to "shōgun" Tokugawa Iemitsu His son Nabeshima Naoyoshi became second "daimyō" of Ogi and built a fortified house ( "jin'ya" ) to be the domain headquarters in what is now the city of Ogi. His son, Nabeshima Mototake rose to high positions within the Tokugawa shogunate under "shōgun" Tokugawa Tsunayoshi; however, from his time onwards, the domain's financial situation was very severe and on the verge of bankruptcy, causing relations with the main line at Saga Domain to become increasingly strained.
During the time of Nabeshima Naotaka, Ogi Domain was finally recognized as an independent domain directly reporting to the Shōgunate, and permission was granted to erect a castle; however, the domain lacked the finances to do so.
The Boshin War of the Meiji Restoration, Nabeshima Naotora, the 11th and final "daimyō", supported the Satchō Alliance was called upon to lead Ogi's forces against the Tokugawa remnants at Akita in northern Japan. For his loyalty to Emperor Meiji and efforts in the war, the revenues of Ogi Domain were raised by an additional 5,000 "koku" in August 1869. However, this reward was only nominal, as with the abolition of the han system less than two years later in 1871 Ogi Domain became part of the new Saga Prefecture.
Nabeshima Naotora and his heirs were granted the title of viscount ("shishaku") under the "kazoku" peerage.
List of "daimyōs".
The hereditary "daimyōs" were head of the clan and head of the domain.
Geography.
The lands of Ogi Domain were in Ogi District and portions of Saga District and Matsuura District in Saga Prefecture.


Honda Sukeyoshi


Indrabhishek

Indrabhisheka was a ceremony performed by Indian kings and mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana. Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 1 By Gaṅgā Rām Garg
History.
With the loss of political power to the Turushka Islamic hordes, and collapse of tradition, Indrabhishek ceremony was relegated to the background. The Yadavas and Chauhans were the last dynasties to perform a coronation ritual, but whether they performed Indrabhishek ceremony is not clear. Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire, revived the Indrabhishek tradition. Pandit Gaga Bhatt, who presided over his coronation ceremony, wrote a detailed book on the procedure. A thread ceremony, Upanayana, of Shivaji took place on May 29, 1674, and then a Vratya Stoma ceremony was performed.
Legacy.
Modern interpretations vary, but this coronation ceremony created a legacy. After the death of Shivaji, Marathas fought the mughals and defeated them in the war of 27 years. This demonstrated that coronation was an instrument of sovereignty valid in other parts of the world.


Muzaffar bin Nasrullah

 Muzaffar bin Nasrullah was the Uzbek ruler (Emir) of Bukhara from 1860 to 1885. His father was emir Nasrullah.
Ruler of Bukharan Emirate emir Nasrullah died in 1860 and was succeeded by his son Muzaffar.
Having entrenched himself on the throne, Emir Muzaffar removed the senior officials appointed by his father from their posts, confiscated their property and appointed his loyal people in their places. However, Shakhrisabz became independent. With great difficulty, he suppressed the separatist movement in Gissar, Kulyab and Baldzhuan. During the reign of Muzaffar, a Persian by origin, kushbegi (prime minister) Muhammad-biy (1811-1889), enjoyed great influence. Having unlimited influence over Muzaffar, he was able to bring other members of his family to higher positions..
The beginning of the reign of Emir Muzaffar was accompanied by some successes in foreign policy. With the support of Bukhara, Khudoyarkhan came to power in Kokand. However, the internal weakness of the Bukhara Emirate soon came to light. Since 1868, the Bukhara Emirate was subordinated to Tsarist Russia. Despite repeated attempts to change military tactics and the support of Turkish military specialists, the Bukhara troops were defeated three times by the troops of the Russian Empire under the leadership of K.P. von Kaufman in the battles of Irdzhar (1866), Chupan-ata (1868), Zerabulak (1868).
From July 1868 until his death in 1885, the emir maintained peaceful relations with the Russian Empire. A number of Russian embassies were sent to him. The reception ceremonies for the ambassadors were carried out in the Uzbek language.
Emir Muzaffar himself honored the work of the poet Alisher Navoi and in 1872 presented the manuscript of Navoi's Divan to the British Queen Victoria.
Emir Muzaffar died in 1885 and was buried in Bukhara. His heir and fifth son Abdulahad came to power.


Hunterston Brooch

The Hunterston Brooch is a highly important Celtic brooch of "pseudo-penannular" type found near Hunterston, North Ayrshire, Scotland, in either, according to one account, 1826 by two men from West Kilbride, who were digging drains at the foot of Goldenberry Hill, or in 1830. It is now in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. Made within a few decades of 700 AD, the Hunterston Brooch is cast in silver, gilt, and set with pieces of amber (most now missing), and decorated with interlaced animal bodies in gold filigree. The diameter of the ring is 12.2 cm, and in its centre there is a cross and a golden Glory representing the Risen Christ, surrounded by tiny bird heads. The pin, which is broken, can travel freely around the ring as far as the terminals, which was necessary for fastening; it is now 13.1 cm long, but was probably originally 15 cm or more.
The brooch may have been made at a royal site, such as Dunadd in Argyll, though is more likely to have been made in Ireland, especially as its pseudo-penannular form is typical of Irish brooches, whereas the truly penannular form remained usual in Pictish brooches. On the other hand, its style is closely comparable to a terminal fragment of a penannular brooch found in Dunbeath in 1860 which probably was made in Scotland; craftsmen may have travelled across the area using the locally popular forms. Lloyd and Jennifer Laing feel it was probably made in Dalriada, and the Museum of Scotland say "The style of the brooch has Irish parallels, while the filigree resembles metalwork from England. The brooch was probably made in western Scotland where the two traditions were joined, or perhaps in Ireland by a craftsman trained in foreign techniques."
The brooch has a complex construction typical of the most elaborate Irish brooches. Panels of filigree work were created separately on gold trays, which were then fitted into the main silver-gilt body. On the reverse four panels of silver-gilt were also inserted; as in other examples like the Tara Brooch the decoration on the reverse uses older curvilinear "Celtic" motifs looking back to La Tène style Insular Celtic decoration, though on the Hunterston Brooch such motifs also appear on the front.
The brooch was worn by rulers or gifted from the ruler to people of importance. The Hunterston brooch showed power and wealth in the viking civilisation age.
The back of the brooch has a scratched inscription in runes in the Old Norse language, probably 10th century, "Melbrigda owns this brooch"; Maél Brigda, "devotee of Bridgit" is a common Gaelic female name, though seen as male by other sources. Much later ownership inscriptions are not uncommon on elaborate Celtic brooches, often from Norse-Gael contexts. The Hunterston Brooch is clearly an object of very high status, indicating the power and great prestige of its owner. With the Tara Brooch in Dublin, and the Londesborough Brooch in the British Museum, it is considered one of the finest of over 50 highly elaborate Irish Celtic brooches to survive, and is "arguably the earliest of the ornate penannular brooches from Britain and Ireland".


Itakura Katsutoshi


Hyrcani (tribe)

The Hyrcani were a people group in the classical era. They were mentioned in both the southern coastline of the Caspian Sea and the Hermos River valley, in Lydia, (Turkey).
Curtius, Plutarch, Isidore of Charax and Strabo all refer to the inhabitants of Hyrcania on the southern Coast of the Caspian Sea as Hyracani. They were one of the people encountered by Alexander the Great on his journey, and they sent a delegation to Antoninus Pius.
Jerome and Cicero both comment on their funerary practice, leading to the identification of their religion as Zoroastrian. A reading of Pliny indicates they may have been nomadic.
The Hyracani were also known from the Hermos River valley, of Lydia during the Hellenistic, and Roman Empires. They were often mentioned as one of two tribes, living adjacent to their neighbors the Mosteni. Both tribes are often referred by ancient authors together, but as distinct peoples. Unlike the Hyrcani, the Mosteni, were indigenous Lydians.
The Hyracani had been forcibly settled on the Pidasus river, a tributary of the Hermos River, by Cyrus the Great. Strabo tells us that Cyrus had wanted the Hyracani as a military coloni near the troublesome Ionia. The Caspian, Hyrcani were fearsome warriors, with Aelian (3rd century) telling us they would be accompanied into battle with their hounds.
Pliny and Tacitus tell us that a Macedonian colony was later settled among the Hyrcani. This may explain in part the greater degree of Hellenization in Hyrcani than their neighbors.
The Hyracani appear to have been a rural people, building no cities. Their neighbours the Mostini were to the north and the Mosteni coins indicate they had retained their own culture into the Hellenistic age while the Hyracani were more Hellenised.
We know of three villages of the Hyracani: Dareeioukaome (Darius village), Ormoita and Tyanolla.


Ismayilli

Ismayilli () is a city and the capital of the Ismayilli District of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 14,435 as of 2008.
History.
The territory of the district was part of the Albanian state, which was formed in the late 4th century and early 3rd century BC, long before it was erected. Historical facts prove that Mehranis, who belonged to Javanshir, had created Girdiman's prince in Ismayilli territory. Javanshir was of this generation. There is a fortress called Javanshir on the coast of Akchay, 4 km north of the village of Talantan. Ismayilli district, located in the northeastern part of Azerbaijan, was founded in 1931. At first, the administrative centre of the district was in the Basgal village and was soon transferred to Ismayilli village. Until the district was organized, a large part of its territory was part of the Goychay accident, part of the Shamakhi accident, and a small part of Sheki's accident. Ismayilli was the village until 1959, until 1967, it was a city-type settlement, and then it was renamed the city. Ismayilli region was established on November 24, 1931. From 1939 to 1977 the executive committee of the Soviet Union of deputies of the Ismayilli district, acting as the Executive Committee of the Council of People's Deputies of Ismayilli region from October 7, 1977, till October 17, 1991. In accordance with the Decree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan dated October 18, 1991, the Soviet of People's Deputies of Ismayilli was abolished, and the Ismayilli Executive Authority was established and functioned since November 1991.
Politics and economy.
The political and economic life of Ismayilli is dominated by local representatives and clients of the Azerbaijani strongman Ilham Aliyev such as the local governor of Ismayilli District Nizami Alakbarov. In January 2013 rioting broke out after a client of the ruling party from Baku became involved in a fight with a local taxi driver after a traffic accident. The businessman from Baku owned a hotel rumoured to contain a brothel controlled by Governor Nizami Alakbarov. A mob of several thousand local citizens defended the driver, rioted, burned the hotel and attacked the residences of the governor and his son. Police fought back with water cannons and scores were arrested.
Enterprises.
There are enterprises such as light and food industries, asphalt plant in Ismayilli. There has been found and obtained granite in the mountains near Ismayilli. The district has strong agriculture. A "kolkhoz" named after Kalinin and located in Ivanovka village is famous for its achievements and has broad fame beyond the borders of Azerbaijan.
Besides that, there is a workshop producing kelaghayi (national headscarf) in Basgal, pharmaceutical LLC “Shafa-T”, four milk enterprises, a workshop producing table water, some private carpet weaving workshops and also some little and middle enterprises in Ismayilli.
Twin towns.
Ismayilli is twinned with:


Akita Sadasue


List of years in Russia

This is a list of years in Russia.


Qusar (city)

Qusar (also Gusar; , ) is the capital of Qusar District, Azerbaijan. Qusar is located in foothills of Greater Caucasus, over the Qusarchay River, 35 kilometers southwest from Khudat railway station and 180 km from Baku.
Etymology.
According to the "Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names", the word literally means "man" and derives from Lezgian "kus".
History.
Lermontov's visit.
In 1836, Mikhail Lermontov visited Qusar, where he met with scientist-philosopher Haji Ali-efendi. There he heard “Ashiq Qarib” dastan from an eminent ashiq Lazgi Ahmad; he later wrote his famous work “Ashiq Qarib” based on its motifs. A home-museum of the poet is reserved in the city with a memorial plate, inscribed with the famous lines of Lermontov:
20th century.
In 1938, Qusar settlement acquired a city status.
Geography.
The city is located not far from Bazarduzu, Shahdagh Mountains and a border with Russia. The mountain river Qusarchay, in honor of which the city acquired its name, flows in Qusar. There is also an artificial lake, Fialka.
Climate.
Qusar is located in a zone of subtropical climate and the northern part of the rayon is in zone of mild climate. But because of the heights above the sea level and proximity of the mountains winter is always cold here, and summer is not hot. Temperature of air can change more than 15 degrees during a day. For instance, in summer incessant days-long rains can begin after hot weather.
Demographics.
According to “The Caucasian calendar” of 1916, there lived 1203 people, primarily Russian, in the territory of Qusar. In 1926, there were 120 Mountain Jews, a number which had increased to 241 by 1939.
According to a census of 1959, at least 7366 people lived in Qusar. According to a census of 1979, population of the city consisted of 12225 people, and in 1989 it reached 14230.
97% of the population consists of Lezgins.
Economy.
The economy of Qusar is partially agricultural, partially tourist based, with some industries in operation. There are tinned food, milk and asphalt factories in the city.
Tourism and shopping.
Qusar is home to Shahdag Winter Complex, the largest ski resort in Azerbaijan.
Culture.
Local history museum was established in 1980 and moved into its current building with an area of 1652 sq.m. in 1982. There are 3700 exhibits in the museum.
The Qusar State Art Gallery opened in 1986 in Hil village of Qusar raion was moved to Qusar city in 1998 . 152 works of Azerbaijani artists, including 111 paintings, 34 graphic and 7 sculptural works are on display in the gallery.
In 1998, the State Drama Theatre of Lezgins was opened in Qusar.
Heydar Aliyev Center was built in Heydar Aliyev Memorial Complex in 2012 with the aim of organizing different events and involving young people in various career and personal development activities. The Center features a memorial museum, a library, a reading hall, different conference rooms, and dance, carpet-weaving training centers.
Parks and gardens.
Qusar has plenty of parks and gardens, mostly well maintained. The Nariman Narimanov Park is the most scenic park in the town.
Sports.
The city has one professional football team, Shahdag Qusar, currently competing in the second-flight of Azerbaijani football, the Azerbaijan First Division.
Transport.
Qusar's urban transport system is managed by the Ministry of Transportation.
Education.
In 2008, 6 secondary schools, one of which functions in Azerbaijani and 5 in Russian language, were operating in the city. There are also two state run preschools and one private preschool, Panda School, as well as Azerbaijan State Pedagogical College, which trains future teachers of Azerbaijani, English, and elementary school. As of 2016 there are three language schools in the city. The most popular one, Apex English Language School, has been operating in Qusar since 2013.


List of Cultural Properties of Japan - archaeological materials (Wakayama)

This list is of the Cultural Properties of Japan designated in the category of for the Prefecture of Wakayama.
National Cultural Properties.
As of 1 February 2015, eight Important Cultural Properties (including one *National Treasure) have been designated, being of national significance.
Prefectural Cultural Properties.
As of 26 February 2014, sixteen properties have been designated at a prefectural level.


Shihsanhang Museum of Archaeology

The 13th Site Museum of Archaeology (Het Dertiende Plaats Museum van de Archeologie/十三行博物館) is an archaeological museum in Bali District, New Taipei, Taiwan. The museum conserves and displays artifacts from the 13th archaeological site.
History.
Modern.
The origins of the museum date back to excavations undertaken at the 13th site in 1990. The 13th Site Museum was built in 1998. It includes a "Bridge of Time" or Tijd Brug, that allows visitors to travel back through time to explore its civilization and culture.
In 2017, the museum became the first museum exhibiting its artifacts outside Taiwan when they held an exhibition in Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan at the Saitobaru Archaeological Museum displaying 105 artifact sets from the museum in Taiwan. The exhibition was jointly organized by scholars and experts from both sides.
Ancient.
Prehistoric Shihsanhang was a wealthy settlement, it was only one of two communities in Taiwan to master iron smelting. The ironwares they produced were traded throughout Taiwan. This wealth is responsible for the large number of grave goods buried with the dead at Shihsanhang which form the core of the Museum's current collection.
Geology.
The museum is located at the foot of Guanyin Mountain near Däamzui, old Dutch administrative region (see Dutch Red Haus, Fort Äarmmo-Schee).
Archeology.
The archaeological site dates back 1,800 years to the Iron Age. Over 300 skeletons have been unearthed dating from 1,800 to 600 years old. The burial customs of the people at Shihsanhang were unique, according to Kuo Su-chiu “All the skeletons were buried in a fetal position: on their sides with their limbs bent. Except one, an adult female, who was buried on her front and with her head turned to one side, which is typical of the contemporaneous Fantsuyuan (番仔園) Culture of central western Taiwan.”
Architecture.
The architecture of the museum has an archaeological theme, reflecting ancient civilization in Taivan (Taiwan) islandwide and in its outlying minor islands.
Transportation.
The museum is accessible by bus from Guandu Station of Taipei Metro.


Wiman of Gojoseon

Wi Man (in Korean) or Wei Man (in Chinese) was originally a military leader of the Kingdom of Yan. When king Lu Wan of Yan was defeated by the Han in 195 BCE, Wi Man fled to Gojoseon in north-western Korea and later usurped power from its king in 194 BCE, establishing Wiman Joseon. Recorded in the "Shiji" and the "Book of Han", Wiman was the first ruler in the history of Korea to have been recorded in documents from the same time period.
Biography.
After Emperor Gaozu of Han suppressed the rebellion of Zang Tu, king of Yan, he appointed general Lu Wan as Yan's new king. In 196 BC, Emperor Gaozu suspected Lu Wan of plotting rebellion and ordered an attack against Yan. Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu while his general Wiman (Wei Man) led a thousand followers east to Gojoseon. He was initially ordered to fortify Gojoseon's northwestern border by King Jun of Gojoseon, however with the help of Yan refugees, Wiman usurped the throne (194~180 BCE). King Jun fled to Jin and called himself the "King of Han."
Wiman's capital of Gojoseon was Wanggeom-seong, generally identified as Pyongyang. Since the Han dynasty was not completely stabilized yet, the governor of Liaodong appointed Wiman as an outer subject, provided that he did not prevent natives going up to the empire. The appointment is dated at 191 or 192 BCE. Having superior military strength, Wiman Joseon was able to subjugate the state of Jinbeon (진번, 眞番) and Imdun (임둔, 臨屯), vastly extending its borders. His kingdom was eventually conquered by Emperor Wu of Han in 108 BCE during the reign of Ugeo of Gojoseon.


Iwamurada Domain

 was a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. It is located in Shinano Province, Honshū. The domain was centered at Iwamurada Jin’ya, located in what is now part of the city of Saku in Nagano Prefecture. It was ruled for all of its history by a junior branch of the Naitō clan.
History.
In 1703, Naito Masatomo, the "daimyō" of Akanuma Domain in Musashi Province exchanged his scattered holdings in Musashi, Kōzuke, Hitachi, Kazusa and Shimōsa Provinces for a holding consisting of 27 villages with an assessed "kokudaka" of 16,000 "koku" in Saku District in Shinano Province. This marked the start of Iwamurada Domain, which his descendants continued to rule uninterrupted until the Meiji restoration.
The 6th "daimyō", Naito Masatsuna, was a brother of Mizuno Tadakuni and served as a rōjū in the administration of the Tokugawa shogunate. During his time, the status of the domain was upgraded to that of a “castle-holding domain”, although no castle was actually built.
During the Boshin War, the domain quickly supported the imperial side, and participated in the Battle of Utsunomiya Castle and Battle of Hokuetsu and Battle of Aizu. In July 1871, with the abolition of the han system, Iwamurada Domain briefly became Iwamurada Prefecture, and was merged into the newly created Nagano Prefecture. Under the new Meiji government, Naitō Masanobu, the last "daimyō" of Iwamurada Domain was given the "kazoku" peerage title of "shishaku" (viscount).
Bakumatsu period holdings.
As with most domains in the han system, Iwamurada Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.
See also.
List of Han


Konoe Iemoto

, son of Motohira, was a "kugyō" or Japanese court noble of the Kamakura period (1185–1333). He held a regent position kampaku from 1289 and 1291 and from 1293 to 1296. He had sons Tsunehira with a daughter of Emperor Kameyama and Iehira with a daughter of regent Takatsukasa Kanehira.


Vijayamitra

Vijayamitra (ruled 12 BCE - 20 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in modern Pakistan.
Rukhana reliquary.
Vijayamitra is mentioned in a recently discovered inscription in Kharoshthi on a Buddhist reliquary (the "Rukhana reliquary", published by Salomon in 2005), which gives a relationship between several eras of the period, and especially gives confirmation of a Yavana era in relation to the Azes era:
This dedication indicates that King Vijayamitra was a follower of Buddhism. His coins also bear the triratna Buddhist symbol.
Since Vijamitra is said to have ruled 27 years already, as the inscription is dated to 16 CE (Year 73 of the Azes era and 201 of the Yavana era), his reign started in 12 BCE, and ended probably a few years after the dedication took place, around 20 CE.
Shinkot casket.
Vijamitra also made a second inscription in the Shinkot casket, which had initially been dedicated under the reign of Indo-Greek king Menander I.


Upagupta

Upagupta (c. 3rd Century BC) was a Buddhist monk. According to some stories in the Sanskrit text Ashokavadana, he was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. In the Sarvāstivādin tradition he is the fifth patriarch after Mahākaśyapa, Ānanda, Madhyāntika, and Śāṇakavāsin, and in the Ch'an tradition he is regarded as the fourth. Upagupta's teacher was Śāṇavāsa, who was a disciple of Ānanda, the Buddha's attendant. Due to the absence of his name in Theravada literature it is assumed that Upagupta was a Sarvāstivādin monk. In South East Asian countries and Bangladesh Upagupta is a great cult figure. In Myanmar he is known as Shin Upagutta. In the Lokapannatti Upagupta is sent by Ashoka to tame Mara during an enshrinement ceremony festival, afterwards he asks her to take the physical form (rupakaya) of Buddha so that everyone at the festival can see what Buddha looked like.
In literature.
Rabindranath Tagore in his poem 'Abhisar' collected in 'Katha' relates a story of Upagupta. In the story, in the month of Sraban, the monk was at sleep in Mathura, when Vasavdatta - the city's diva or courtesan trips over and notices the monk. Enchanted by the handsome appearance of the monk, Vasavdatta invites him to go with her to her house. But Upagupta tells her that he cannot go with her at this point; when time comes, he will go. After a passage of seven months, when the month of Chaitra came, the city folks went to a festival out in the forest. In the lone city, Upagupta goes beyond the precincts and finds Vasavdatta severely deformed by a disease with pustules covering her body. The city people had cast her out of the city's wall. The monk nurses the woman with care - telling her that the time for their togetherness has come.
Rabindranath adopted the story with some changes from the Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā by Kshemendra, the 10th-11th century Kashmiri poet.
In Transmission of Light, Keizan describes Upagupta as a great teacher who helped many people. "Whenever anyone attained realization, Upagupta would cast a talisman four fingers in breadth into a cave. The cave was eighteen cubits by twelve cubits, and it was filled with talismans – that is how many people attained enlightenment."


Manaw Gododdin

Manaw Gododdin was the narrow coastal region on the south side of the Firth of Forth, part of the Brythonic-speaking Kingdom of Gododdin in the post-Roman Era. It is notable as the homeland of Cunedda prior to his conquest of North Wales, and as the homeland of the heroic warriors in the literary epic "Y Gododdin". Pressed by the Picts expanding southward and the Northumbrians expanding northward, it was permanently destroyed in the 7th century and its territory absorbed into the then-ascendant Kingdom of Northumbria.
The lands both south and north of the Firth of Forth were known as 'Manaw', but from the post-Roman Era forward, only the southern side is referred to as Manaw Gododdin, the Manaw associated with the people of Gododdin. Manaw Gododdin was adjacent to – and possibly included in – Eidyn, the region surrounding modern Edinburgh.
Though Manaw Gododdin was located within the territory of modern Scotland, as a part of "Yr Hen Ogledd" () it is also an intrinsic part of Welsh history, as both the Welsh and the Men of the North () were self-perceived as a single people, collectively referred to as "Cymry". The arrival in Wales of Cunedda of Manaw Gododdin in c. 450 is traditionally considered to be the beginning of the history of modern Wales.
The name appears in literature as both "Manaw Gododdin" and "Manau Gododdin". The modern Welsh form is spelled with a 'w'.
Sources of information.
Background: confusion with the Isle of Man
The Isle of Man is known in Welsh as "Ynys Manaw", and this has introduced ambiguity in literary and historical references where Manaw (or Manau) was used without further elaboration, as to whether the reference was to Manaw Gododdin or to the Isle of Man.
A similar problem exists in Irish, where both the northern Pictish Manaw and the southern Manaw Gododdin are referred to as "Manann" (or "Manonn"). Certain forms of the Irish name for the Isle of Man produce the genitive name "Manann" (or "Manonn"). Either place can be inferred if the context is uncertain.
Historia Brittonum
In the "Historia Brittonum", Nennius says that "the great king Mailcun reigned among the Britons, i.e., in Gwynedd". He adds that Maelgwn's ancestor Cunedda arrived in Gwynedd 146 years before Maelgwn's reign, coming from Manaw Gododdin, and expelled the Scots (i.e. the Gaels) with great slaughter.
In the chapters of the "Historia Brittonum" discussing the circumstances leading up to the death of Penda of Mercia in 655, Oswiu of Northumbria is besieged at "Iudeu" by Penda and his allies and offers up the wealth (i.e. the royal dignities) of that place, which had been recently captured by the Northumbrians (the "Restoration of Iudeu", so-called), as well as that which he held "as far as Manaw". In Latin the phrase is "usque in manau pendae". The recensions are not all consistent on this point. There is also "esque in manu pendae" and "esque in manum pendae", which if reliable, would allow for a different interpretation, as "manus" (4th declension) is Latin for "hand" (as in "into the hand [of Penda]").
Welsh genealogies
The royal genealogies provide no information "per se" about Manaw Gododdin. However, as it was the homeland of Cunedda and he was the progenitor of many Welsh royal lines, he is prominent in the Harleian genealogies. Some of these genealogies reappear in Jesus College MS. 20, though it focuses mainly on the ancient royalty of South Wales. All of Cunedda's descendants claim a heritage from Manaw Gododdin.
Annals of Ulster
According to the "Annals of Ulster", Áedán mac Gabráin, king of Dál Riata, was victor in a "bellum Manonn" () in 582 (his opponent is not given).
There is some scholarly disagreement as to the place meant, whether Manaw Gododdin or the Isle of Man. Both are plausible and have some supporting evidence, but lacking hard information, the issue probably will not be settled definitively. Both those favouring the Isle and those favouring Manaw Gododdin say so and include a footnote to the effect that the balance seems to be on one side or the other, with accompanying arguments.
Annals of Ulster", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The "Annals of Ulster" say that in 711, the Northumbrians defeated the Picts at the "campus Manann", the field of Manaw. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" gives the year as 710, saying that "Beorhtfrith the ealdorman fought against the Picts between Haefe and Caere".
This is assumed to be between the Rivers Avon (Haefe) and Carron (Caere). William Forbes Skene first argues for it in "The Four Ancient Books of Wales" (1868), noting that the Avon rises in the place still known as Slamannan Moor (i.e. "Sliabhmannan", the Moor of Manann). He repeats the conjecture in his "Celtic Scotland" (1886), and later historians have accepted his suggestion, citing him as the source.
Name survivals.
The Gaelic form of the name is "Manann". Like "Manaw", its etymology is uncertain, with neither form necessarily owing a heritage to the other. In the Early Middle Ages, Brythonic was replaced by Gaelic in the region of Manaw. It was common to retain original place-names, but to alter the pronunciation to be in accord with the language that was then current.
Manaw Gododdin
South of the Firth of Forth and River Forth the name survives in the name of Slamannan Moor and the village of Slamannan, in Falkirk. This is derived from "Sliabh Manann", 'Mount Manann'. It also appears in the name of Dalmeny, some 5 miles northwest of Edinburgh. It was formerly known as Dumanyn, assumed to be derived from "Dun Manann".
Pictish Manaw
North of the Forth it survives in the name of the burgh of Clackmannan and the eponymous county of Clackmannanshire. This is derived from "Clach Manann", the 'stone of Manann', referring to a monument stone located there.
Treatment by historians.
With little known about Manaw Gododdin, there is little that can be said of it with any authority. Aside from parenthetical references to it as Cunedda's homeland, discussion is scant. William Forbes Skene ("The Four Ancient Books of Wales", 1868) has a chapter on "Manau Gododdin and the Picts", and later historians either repeat him or cite him, but do not add more. Kenneth Jackson ("The Gododdin", 1969) provides the same information as Skene, enhanced by his notice and commentary on some of the speculations and conjectures made by historians in the century since Skene published his work. He adds that the early Irish form of the name "Gododdin" is "Fortudán".
John Koch ("Celtic Culture", 2005) incorporates some of Skene's material on Manaw (and credits Skene for it), including an independent view of the historical record (reaching the same general conclusions as Skene), but also asserting conjectures as though they were facts (e.g., asserting that the "Iudeu" mentioned in the "Historia Brittonum" was at Stirling).
John Rhys ("Celtic Britain", 1904) both repeats and cites Skene, but adds nothing new. John Edward Lloyd ("History of Wales", 1911) makes only a few comments about Manaw in passing, and John Davies ("History of Wales", 1990) omits even that. Christopher Snyder ("An Age of Tyrants", 1998) mentions Manaw twice in passing, saying nothing about it there or in his references to the literary "Y Gododdin". D. P. Kirby ("The Earliest English Kings", 1991) mentions Manaw several times, but only in passing and with no information about it. Alistair Moffat ("Before Scotland", 2005) makes several passing references to Manaw Gododdin and Gododdin.
In general, there is as much information about Manaw to be found in literary discussions as in historical ones and often more, though it is not more than Skene provided. For example, John Morris-Jones, in his comprehensive discussion of works attributed to Taliesin ("Y Cymmrodor" XXVIII, 1918), repeats and cites the information provided by Skene that is typically omitted in historical works.
Regional history.
The earliest reliable information on the region of the Firth of Forth during the time when Manaw Gododdin existed is from the archaeology of Roman Britain. The homeland of the Votadini, like those of the Damnonii and Novantae, was not planted with forts, suggesting (but not confirming) that the peoples of these regions had reached an amicable understanding with the Romans (such as an unequal alliance), and consequently these tribes or kingdoms continued to exist throughout the Roman Era. There is no indication that the Romans ever waged war against any of these peoples.
However, the Romans were frequently at war with the more northerly peoples now known as Picts, and their military lines of communication (i.e. their roads) were well-fortified. This includes the road through Manaw Gododdin, the northern end of Dere Street.
The earliest reliable historical reference to the peoples of Northern Britain is from the "Geography" of Ptolemy in c. AD 150. He says that this was the territory of the Otadini (i.e. the Votadini), a people later known as the Kingdom of Gododdin (i.e. the Kingdom of the Votadini). Their lands were along the coast of south-eastern Scotland and north-eastern England, and included the lands along the Firth of Forth, both north and south of it.
Ptolemy says that in 150 both the Damnonii and the Otadini possessed the land north of the Firth of Forth and south of the Firth of Tay. The Picts were constantly pressing southward, and by the early 3rd century the Roman Emperor Severus ineffectively campaigned against them. Known then as the Maeatae, the local Picts would ultimately push south to the Firth of Forth and beyond, and by the 7th century the Votadini were being squeezed between them and the Anglian Bernicians, who were expanding northward.
Neither Gododdin nor Manaw Gododdin could have existed as a kingdom beyond the 7th century. The Kingdom of Northumbria was ascendant, and it would conquer all of Scotland south of the Firths of Clyde and Forth. The definitive years were the middle of the 7th century, when Penda of Mercia led an alliance of Mercians, Cymry (both from the north and from Gwynedd), East Anglians, and Deirans against Bernicia. Penda was defeated and killed at the Battle of Winwaed in 655, ending the alliance and cementing Bernician control over all of Britain between the English Midlands and the Scottish firths. Bernicia was again united with Deira to form Northumbria as the premier military power of the era. Alt Clut soon re-established its independence, but all other Brythonic kingdoms north of the Solway and Tyne were gone.


2005 in Malaysia

This article lists important figures and events in Malaysian public affairs during the year 2005, together with births and deaths of notable Malaysians.


Seasons of Fear

Seasons of Fear is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series "Doctor Who".
Plot.
When the Doctor finally manages to bring Charley to Singapore in 1930, they meet the immortal being Sebastian Grayle whose secret power they must discover in order to defeat him. Travelling across Earth in four different periods of its history, the Doctor comes face to face with an old enemy...


Greater East Asia Railroad

 was an idea for a railroad linking Japan with the Asian mainland and Europe, formulated in 1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War leading to World War II. Part of the plan included a tunnel or bridge somewhat similar to the more recent Japan–Korea Undersea Tunnel proposal.
Studied routes.
A report published in 1942 titled (About the Greater East Asia Through Railway) presents the following routes as proposals:


Satrapy of Armenia

The Satrapy of Armenia ( ; Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴 or 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴𐎹 , a region controlled by the Orontid Dynasty ( ; 570–201 BC) was one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, which later became an independent kingdom. Its capitals were Tushpa and later Erebuni.
History.
Origins.
After the collapse of the Kingdom of Urartu (Ararat), the region was placed under the administration of the Median Empire and the Scythians. Later the territory was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, which incorporated it as a satrapy, and thus named it the land of "Armina" (in Old Persian; ""Harminuya" in Elamite; "Urashtu"" in Babylonian).
Orontid Dynasty.
The Orontid Dynasty, or known by their native name, Eruandid or Yervanduni, was a hereditary dynasty of ancient Armenia, and the rulers of the successor state to the Iron Age kingdom of Urartu (Ararat). Historians state that the dynasty was of Iranian origin, and suggest, albeit not clearly, that it held dynastic familial linkages to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty. Throughout their existence, the Orontids stressed their lineage from the Achaemenids to strengthen their political legitimacy.
Members of the dynasty ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning from the 6th to at least the 2nd centuries BC, first as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid empires and later, after the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, as rulers of an independent kingdom, and later as kings of Sophene and Commagene, which eventually succumbed to the Roman Empire.
The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC. Its founder was Orontes I Sakavakyats (Armenian: Երվանդ Ա Սակավակյաց, Yervand I Sakavakyats). His son, Tigranes Orontid, united his forces with Cyrus the Great and killed Media's king. Moses of Chorene called him "the wisest, most powerful and bravest of Armenian kings."
From 553 BC to 521 BC, Armenia was a subject kingdom of the Achaemenid Empire, but when Darius I was king, he decided to conquer Armenia. He sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to stop a revolt against Persian rule, later replacing him with the Persian general, Vaumisa, who defeated the Armenians in 521 BC. Around the same time, another Armenian by the name of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus, and renamed himself Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius' bow carrier.
After the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), Orontes III was able to regain independence for Armenia. But in 201 BC, Armenia was conquered by Artashes, a general from the Seleucid Empire, and also said to be a member of Orontid dynasty. The last Orontid king Orontes IV was killed, but the Orontids continued to rule in Sophene and Commagene until the 1st century BC.
In two inscriptions of king Antiochus I of Commagene on his monument at Mount Nemrut, Orontes I (son of Artasouras and husband of Artaxerxes' daughter Rhodogoune), is reckoned as an ancestor of the Orontids ruling over Commagene, who traced back their family to Darius the Great.


2000 in the Philippines

2000 in the Philippines details events of note that happened in the Philippines in the year 2000.


Maeda Toshiyuki


2000 in Bangladesh

The year 2000 was the 29th year after the independence of Bangladesh. It was also the fifth year of the first term of the Government of Sheikh Hasina.
Climate.
Flood.
In September 2000, at least 50,000 people are marooned in Bangladesh after flood water gushed into 30 villages when India opened sluice gates of several rivers.
Economy.
Note: For the year 2000 average official exchange rate for BDT was 52.14 per US$.


Chandragiri Fort, Andhra Pradesh

Chandragiri Fort is a historical fort, built in the 11th century located in Chandragiri, Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh, India. Although mostly associated with the Kamma Vijayanagara Emperors, it was built much earlier in 11th century by the Yadava rulers.
History.
Chandragiri was under the rule of Kamma royals for about three centuries and came under the control of the Kamma Vijayanagarayadava rulers in 1367. It came into prominence during 1560s during the reign of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya. Later, the most famous Vijayanagara emperor Srikrishna Devaraya, was kept in this fort as a prince, till his coronation at Penukonda. It is also said that he met his future queen Chinna Devi at this fort. Chandragiri was the 4th capital of Vijayanagara Empire, Rayas shifted their capital to here when the Golconda sultans attacked Penukonda. In 1646 the fort was annexed to the Golkonda territory and subsequently came under Kingdom of Mysore rule. It went into oblivion from 1792 onward. The Raja Mahal Palace is now an archaeological museum. The palace is an example of Indo-Sarcen architecture of Vijayanagara period. The crowning towers represents the Hindu architectural elements. The palace was constructed using stone, brick, lime mortar and devoid of timber.
Some of important kavyas or epic poems are written in this fort under the patronage of Vijayanagara kings. Inside the fort are eight temples, Raja Mahal, Rani Mahal and other ruined structures.
Inside the fort are Raja Mahal and Rani Mahal which are quite well maintained for more than 300 years and Raja Mahal is converted as Archeological Museum by Arechological Survey of India. The museum holds models of fort, main temple and other structures of surrounding area. Both of these building were constructed without using wood and only lime, brick and morter was used. Rani Mahal has flat roof and at base level it has stable and epigraphical evidence says that this building was also used as commanders quarters.
The fort is the place where the pact of granting lands for Fort St. George to the British was signed by Vijayanagara King Sri Rangaraya during August 1639.
Vyasathirtha.
Sage Vyasatirtha used to reside here and was a spiritual advisor to King Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya and he was entrusted with worship at Tirumala temple. Vyasathirtha remained in Chandragiri in the court of Narasimha Raya II. The fort is at a distance of 11 km from the famous Tirupati Temple and there is a foot path to temple from this fort, which is the reason the sage resided here.
Srivari Mettu.
The famous Srivari Mettu, one of the well known walking pathis to Thirumala Venkateshwara Temple starts from this fort and it was originally used by Royal family of Vijayanagara Kingdom, which over the years is allowed to be used to public.


Tako Domain

 was a minor feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo-period Japan, located in Shimōsa Province (the northern portion of Chiba Prefecture Japan. It was centered on what is now part of the town of Tako in Katori District. It was ruled for most of its history by the Matsudaira (Hisamatsu) clan.
History.
Tako Domain was originally created for Hoshina Masamitsu in 1590, a retainer of Tokugawa Ieyasu. After the Battle of Sekigahara, he was transferred to Takatō Domain, and Tako Domain passed into the "tenryō" territories directly controlled by the Tokugawa shogunate, and administered by "hatamoto," which included members of the Matsudaira (Hisamatsu) clan.
In 1713, Matsudaira Katsuyuki, who administered 8000 "koku" within Katori District, gained an additional 3000 "koku" of revenue in Settsu Province. The combined amount of 12,000 "koku" was enough to qualify him as a "daimyō" and Tako Domain was revived. He was allowed to build a "jin'ya" in what later become the town of Omigawa, Chiba, where his successors continued to rule until the Meiji Restoration.
Holdings at the end of the Edo period.
As with most domains in the han system, Tako Domain consisted of several discontinuous territories calculated to provide the assigned "kokudaka", based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields.


Five kings of Wa

The are kings of ancient Japan who sent envoys to China during the 5th century to strengthen the legitimacy of their claims to power by gaining the recognition of the Chinese emperor. Details about them are unknown. According to written records in China, their names were San (讃), Chin (珍), Sai (濟), Kō (興) and Bu (武).
Chinese records and the bestowed titles on the kings of Wa.
479 and 502 was automatic rank up by the establishment of new dynasty of China.
These titles for the military Sovereignly over the countries had no actual powers. The appointments reflected the struggle for hegemony over the region between Goguryeo and Wa, depicted in the Gwanggaeto Stele.
Comparison with the Nihon Shoki.
As the name of kings recorded in Chinese history are very different from the names of Emperors in the "Nihon Shoki", the specification of which emperor was the one recorded is the subject of numerous disputes which have endured for centuries. Most contemporary historians assign the five Japanese kings to the following emperors (two possibilities are identified for the Kings San and Chin), mostly based on the individual features of their genealogies reported in the Chinese sources.
On the other hand, archeological evidence, such as the inscriptions on the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Sword, also supports the idea that Bu is an equivalent of Emperor Yūryaku, who was called "Wakatakeru Ōkimi" by his contemporaries.
Since Bu is most likely to be Yūryaku, Kō, who is said to be Bu's older brother, is likely to be an equivalent of Ankō, who is also noted in the "Nihonshoki" as an elder brother to Yūryaku. However, the "Book of Song" records Kō as ""Crown Prince" Kō"; there is a possibility that he is not Ankō, but rather Prince Kinashi no Karu, who was a crown prince of Ingyō.


Early Muslim-Meccan Conflict

The Early Muslim-Meccan Conflict refer to a series of raids in which the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions participated. The raids were generally offensive and carried out to gather intelligence or seize the trade goods of caravans financed by the Quraysh. The raids were intended to weaken the economy of Mecca by Muhammad. His followers were also impoverished. The raids were intended to weaken the economic and in turn the offensive capabilities of Mecca by Muhammad. He also broke an Arab tradition of not attacking one's own kinsmen by raiding caravans. The Muslims felt that the raids were justified and that God gave them permission to defend against the Meccans' persecution of Muslims.
Background.
Muhammad's followers suffered from poverty after fleeing persecution in Mecca and migrating with Muhammad to Medina. Their Meccan persecutors seized their wealth and belongings left behind in Mecca.
Beginning in January 623, some of the Muslims resorted to the tradition of raiding the Meccan caravans that traveled along the eastern coast of the Red Sea from Mecca to Syria. Communal life was essential for survival in desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. The tribal grouping was thus encouraged by the need to act as a unit. This unity was based on the bond of kinship by blood. People of Arabia were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly traveling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. The survival of nomads (or Bedouins) was also partially dependent on raiding caravans or oases, thus they saw this as no crime.
Earliest Quran verse about fighting.
According to William Montgomery Watt and the Muslim scholar Ibn Kathir, the Quran verse was the earliest verse permitting Muslims to fight. However, he says there was a "disinclination" among the Muslims to follow the permission to fight, but they were given an incentive, after the Muslims were told that God prefers fighters to those who sit still and remain at home, and that for fighters there is a reward in paradise ("Jannah").
Al-Is Caravan raid.
According to "Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum" (The Sealed Nectar), a modern Islamic hagiography of Muhammad written by the Indian Muslim author Safi ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, Muhammad ordered the first caravan raid led by Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib (Muhammad's uncle) seven to nine months after the Hijra. A party of thirty to forty men assembled at the seacoast near al-Is, between Mecca and Medina, where Amr ibn Hishām (Abu Jahl), the leader of the caravan was camping with three hundred Meccan riders.
Hamza met Abu Jahl there with a view to attack the caravan, but Majdi bin Amr al-Juhani, a Quraysh who was friendly to both the parties intervened between them; so, both parties separated without fighting. Hamza returned to Medina and Abu Jahl proceeded towards Mecca. Muhmmad also entrusted the first flag of Islam to Kinaz bin Husain an Ghanawi.
Islamic primary sources.
It is mentioned in Ibn Hisham and Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad (the earliest surviving biography of Muhammad from the 7th century), that for these caravan raids Muhammad gave permission to "plunder" the caravans of theirs enemies and seize their goods and property(s) and said:
The Muslim scholar Al-Waqidi also mentions in his Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi ("Book of History and Campaigns") that Muhammad said: "This caravan of the Quraysh holds their wealth, and perhaps God will grant it to you as a plunder".
Second raid.
Ubaydah ibn al-Harith was the commander of the second raid. This raid took place nine months after the Hijra, a few weeks after the first one at al-Is.
About a month after Hamzah's unsuccessful bid to plunder, Muhammad entrusted a party of sixty "Muhajirun" led by Ubaydah to conduct another operation at a Quraysh caravan that was returning from Syria and protected by two hundred armed men. The leader of this caravan was Abu Sufyan ibn Harb.
The Muslim party went as far as Thanyatul-Murra, a watering place in Hejaz. No fighting took place, as the Quraysh were quite far from the place where Muslims were in the offing to attack the caravan. Nevertheless, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas shot an arrow at the Quraysh. This is known as the first arrow of Islam. Despite this surprise attack, no fighting took place and the Muslims returned empty-handed. It is believed that Ubaydah was the first to carry the banner of Islam; others say Hamzah was the first to carry the banner .
The incident is partly referenced in the Sahih al-Bukhari hadith collection:
Kharrar raid (3rd raid).
Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead the third raid. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was done about a month after the previous. Sa'd, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a returning Meccan caravan from Syria. But the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without a fight.
Invasion of Waddan.
The fourth raid, known as the invasion of Waddan, was the first offensive in which Muhammad took part personally with 70, mostly Muhajir,troops. It is said that twelve months after moving to Medina, Muhammad himself led a caravan raid to Waddan (Al-Abwa). The aim was to intercept the caravans of the Quraysh. The raid party did not meet any Quraysh during the raid.
But the caravan of the Banu Damrah was raided. Negotiations began and the two leaders signed a treaty of non-aggression. Banu Damrah pledged to not attack Muslims or side with the Quraysh; and Muhammad pledged to not attack the caravans of Banu Damrah or seize their goods.
According to Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Zurqani, the provisions of the pact/treaty go as follows:
Buwat caravan raid (5th raid).
The fifth raid, known as the invasion of Buwat, was also commanded by Muhammad. A month after the raid at al-Abwa, he personally led 200 men including Muhajirs and Ansars to Bawat, a place on the caravan route of the Quraysh merchants. A herd of 1,500 camels, accompanied by 100 riders under the leadership of Umayyah ibn Khalaf, a Quraysh.
According to Muslim scholars Ibn Hisham and Ibn Ishaq's the purpose of these raid were to plunder this rich Quraysh caravan, it is mentioned in their biography of Muhammad (the earliest surviving biography of Muhammad from the 7th century) that for these caravan raids Muhammad gave permission to "plunder" the caravans of theirs enemies and seize their goods and property(s) and said: "Go forth against this caravan; it may be that Allah will grant you plunder. The Muslim scholar Al-Waqidi also mentions the same.
No battle took place and the raid resulted in no booty. This was due to the caravan taking an untrodden unknown route. Muhammad then went up to Dhat al-Saq, in the desert of al-Khabar. This was the first raid where a few Ansars took part. The caravan was led by 100 Quraysh and 2,500 camels were with them.
Sixth raid.
Two or three months after Muhammad's return from Buwat, he appointed Abu Salamah Ibn Abd al-Assad to take his place in Medina while he was away commanding another raid. Between 150 and 200 followers joined this operation to al-Ushayra, Yanbu in either the month of Jumada al-awwal or Jumada al-Thani.
They had 30 camels that they rode upon by turns. When they arrived at al-Usharayh, they expected to raid a rich Meccan caravan heading towards Syria led by Abu Sufyan. Muhammad already had the knowledge of this caravan's departure from Mecca and waited for about a month for this caravan to pass. But the Meccan caravan had already passed.
In this operation, Muhammad entered into an alliance with Banu Madlaj, a tribe inhabiting the vicinity of al-Ushayra. He also concluded another treaty that was made with Banu Damrah previously. All those treaties established good political connections for him.
Nakhla raid.
The Nakhla Raid was the seventh Caravan Raid and the first successful raid against the Meccans. Abdullah ibn Jahsh was the Commander .
It took place in Rajab 2 A.H., i.e. January 624 A.H. Muhammad despatched ‘Abdullah bin Jahsh Asadi to Nakhlah at the head of 12 Emigrants with six camels.
After his return from the first Badr encounter (Battle of Safwan), Muhammad sent Abdullah ibn Jahsh in Rajab with 8 or 12 men on a fact-finding operation. Abdullah ibn Jahsh was a maternal cousin of Muhammad. He took along with him Abu Haudhayfa, Abdullah ibn Jahsh, Ukkash ibn Mihsan, Utba b. Ghazwan, Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, Amir ibn Rabia, Waqid ibn Abdullah and Khalid ibn al-Bukayr. Muhammad gave Abdullah ibn Jahsh a letter, but not to be read until he had traveled for two days and then to do what he was instructed to do in the letter without putting pressure on his companions. Abdullah proceeded for two days, then he opened the letter; it told him to proceed until he reached at Nakhla, between Mecca and Taif, lie in wait for the Quraysh and observe what they were doing. The sacred months of the Arab Pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th and 12th months of the Islamic calendar according to the Muslim scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri
Muhammad initially disapproved of that act and suspended any action as regards the camels and the two captives on account of the prohibited months . The Arab Pagans, exploited this opportunity to accuse the Muslims of violating what is Divinely inviolable (fighting in the months considered sacred to the Arab pagans). This idle talk brought about a painful headache to Muhammad’s Companions, until at last they were relieved when Muhammad revealed a verse regarding fighting in the sacred months
According to Ibn Qayyim, he said "most of the scholars have explained the word Fitnah here as meaning Shirk"
Aftermath after new Quran verse revealed.
According to Ibn Kathir Prophet Muhammad refused to accept ransom until he was sure his companions were safe. He also threatened to kill the captives "For we fear for their safety with you. If you kill them, we will kill your people", Ibn Kathir cites Ibn Ishaqs 7th century biography of Prophet Muhammad as the primary source for this quote. The Muslim scholar Muhammad Husayn Haykal also mentions this and said the verse which permitted Muslims to fight in the months which were considered sacred by the Arab pagans (i.e. 1st, 7th, 11th and 12th months of the Islamic calendar) had "brought the Muslims relief", and that then Prophet Muhammad had accepted his share of the booty
Soon after his release, al-Hakam bin Kaysan, one of the two prisoners captured, became a Muslim. Mubarakpuri mentions that the Quran verse 47:20 was also sent down, dispraising the hypocrites and cowards who are scared of fighting, and exhorted Muslims to fight.
Nejd caravan raid (8th raid).
The Nejd Caravan Raid took place in Jumad at Thaniya, in the year 3 A.H. The Meccan polytheists lived on trade and as summer approached, it was time for the Meccans to leave for Syria for their seasonal trade business.
After receiving intelligence, Zayd ibn Harithah went after the caravan (after receiving orders from Muhammad), and they successfully raided it and captured 100,000 Dirham's worth of booty. Safan (the caravan leader) and his guards fled away. As a result, the Muslims foiled the Quraysh plan to find another trade route.
Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in Al-Is (9th raid).
The expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in al-Is took place in September, 627 AD, 5th month of 6 AH of the Islamic calendar.
Zaid bin Haritha, at the head of a 170 horsemen, set out to a place called Al-‘Ais, intercepted a caravan of Quraish led by Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee, Muhammad's son-in-law (Zainab bint Muhammad's husband) and captured their camels as booty.
Abu al-Aas was released at the insistence of Muhammad's daughter Zainab bint Muhammad. The whole caravan, including a large store of silver was captured and some of those who guarded it, taken prisoners.
Expedition of Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah (10th raid).
The expedition of Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah, also known as the "Expedition of Fish" and "Invasion of al-Khabt", took place in October 629 AD, 8 AH, 7th month, of the Islamic calendar, or according to some scholars in 7 AH, 4th month.
Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah along with 300 men to attack and chastise the tribe of Juhaynah at al-Khabat, on the seacoast, five nights journey from Medina. He was sent to observe a Quraysh caravan. There was no fighting as the enemy fled after they heard of the arrival.
This expedition is famous because the Muslims were short of supplies and food was running out, and they were fighting for survival, they suffered from famine. In the end, the Muslims found a sperm whale that came ashore and ate it for twenty days. Ibn Hisham mentions the incident in detail. This is why it is also known as the 'expedition of fish.' They brought some of the stale meat to Muhammad and he ate it too.
Expedition of Abu Qatadah ibn Rab'i al-Ansari, Batn Edam (11th raid).
The expedition of Abu Qatadah ibn Rab'i al-Ansari, to Batn Edam (also spelt Idam) took place in November 629 AD, 8 AH, 8th month, of the Islamic calendar
Muhammad was planning on attacking Mecca, with view of securing a complete news black-out concerning his military intentions, then Muhammad despatched an 8-man platoon under the leadership of Abu Qatadah bin Rab‘i in the direction of Edam, a short distance from Medina, in Ramadan 8 A.H., in order to divert the attention of people from his main target of attacking Mecca, with which he was pre-occupied.
According to Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Hisham, and many Sunni "hadith" collections, a Bedouin caravan passed by and they greeted the Muslims with "Assalamu Alaikum". But Abu Qatadah attacked the caravan anyway and killed the people. They returned to Muhammad with the flock they captured and told him the story.
Muhammad then had revealed to him the verse 4:94. Ibn Kathir interprets this as, God asking Muslims to be more careful when killing Muslims accidentally.
Permission to fight.
The permission to fight was given in many stages during Muhammad's prophetic mission: