Pakubuwono I

Pakubuwono I (also as Pakubuwana I, before his reign was known as Pangeran Puger), uncle of Amangkurat III of Mataram was a combatant for the succession of the Mataram dynasty, in the First Javanese War of Succession.
He created a new name to his line, with the title "Pakubuwono", the standard name for rulers of the subsequently created Surakarta. Most Javanese chronicles () depicts him as a great wise ruler. He ruled from 1705 to 1719.
His son succeeded him with the title Amangkurat IV.
Origin.
Born as Raden Mas Darajat, he was the son of Amangkurat I, the last Mataram ruler based in Plered, from his second queen consort, Ratu Wetan. Ratu Wetan originated from Kajoran family, descended from Sultans of Pajang.
RM. Darajat was once appointed as a crown prince () when a conflict between his father and Raden Mas Rahmat (later Amangkurat II of Mataram) occurred. RM. Rahmat was Prince Puger's half-brother, born from Ratu Kulon (the first queen consort of Amangkurat I). Amangkurat I relinquished crown prince title from RM. Rahmat and ceded it to RM. Darajat. But, when Kajoran family was proven to support Trunajaya rebellion in 1674, Amangkurat I was forced to draw the title from RM. Darajat.
Defending Plered.
The peak of Trunajaya rebellion took place in 1677. This Madurese prince made a great invasion to Plered, capital of Mataram. Amangkurat I escaped to the west and assigned RM. Rahmat to defend the palace. But, RM. Rahmat refused and chose to evacuate as well. Prince Puger appeared to replace his half-brother to prove to his father that not all of Kajoran family members were involved in Trunajaya rebellion.
When Trunajaya troops came to Plered Palace, Amangkurat I had evacuated. Prince Puger stood against them. But, the enemy's strength was too great, so he was forced to escaped to Jenar village (now in Purwodadi, Purworejo). Prince Puger built a new palace namely Purwakanda there, and appointed himself as a king styled Susuhunan Ingalaga.
Trunajaya plundered Mataram heirlooms. He subsequently moved to his post in Kediri. Meanwhile, Sunan Ingalaga came back to Plered to destroy the remaining Trunajaya's followers placed there. Sunan Ingalaga then appointed himself as a new Mataram ruler.
Defeated by Amangkurat II.
In the meantime, Amangkurat I had died while escaping to Tegal. RM. Rahmat was appointed as a new ruler of Mataram, styled Amangkurat II. As his father's will, Amangkurat II requested Dutch East India Company for help. Trunajaya rebellion was eventually suppressed in the end of 1679.
Amangkurat II was a king without palace because Plered had been occupied by Sunan Ingalaga, his own half-brother. He built new palace in Wanakerta forest, later renamed to Kartasura, on September 1680. Amangkurat II then summoned Sunan Ingalaga to join with him, but Sunan Ingalaga turned it down.
The refusal caused a civil war. Eventually, on 28 November 1681 Sunan Ingalaga surrendered to Jacob Couper, a Dutch officer who helped Amangkurat II. Sunan Ingalaga himself was titled Prince Puger again and recognized his half-brother's rule Amangkurat II.
The defeat of Prince Puger marked the end of Mataram Sultanate which became vassal of Sunanate of Surakarta. Despite of that, Javanese chronicles still praise Prince Puger's existence as an ordinary man in Kartasura. The king was indeed Amangkurat II, but the government of sunanate was controlled by Prince Puger. It is understandable because the Javanese chronicles were written in the era of Prince Puger-descended rulers.
Death of Captain Tack.
Amangkurat II was successfully ascended to throne because of Dutch assistance, but accompanied by treaty that worsened Kartasura-based Mataram Sultanate. When the situation was conducive, the anti-Dutch Patih Nerangkusuma persuaded him to betray the treaty.
In 1685, Amangkurat II protected Dutch fugitive namely Untung Suropati. Captain François Tack arrived in Kartasura to arrest him. Amangkurat II pretended to help Dutch East India Company. But, he secretly tasked Prince Puger to be disguised as Untung Suropati's follower.
In a bitter fight taken place around Kartasura Palace in February 1686, the 75-man Dutch troops are killed by Untung Surapati's troops, including Captain Tack who was unable to go down from his horse.
Expelled from Kartasura.
Amangkurat II died in 1703, and succeeded by his son Amangkurat III, a king disliked by many people due to his bad attitude, so there were many supports for Prince Puger came. The relation between uncle and nephew strained. Amangkurat III's hostility toward his half-uncle severed when Raden Suryokusumo, son of Prince Puger, rebelled.
The hostility culminated in May 1704, when Amangkurat III sent troops to exterminate Prince Puger's family. But, he and his followers successfully escaped. The one tasked to chase was Duke Jangrana II, Regent of Surabaya. But Duke Jangrana II secretly supported Prince Puger, so his pursuing was no more than a drama.
Rangga Yudanegara, Regent of Semarang, acted as a mediator of Prince Puger in requesting Dutch East India Company for help. Yudanegara's diplomacy skill successfully made Dutch East India Company forgiving Captain Tack's death. They were prepared to help Prince Puger's struggle with some conditions beneficial to them.
The content of Semarang Treaty which had to be signed by Prince Puger is, among others, the transfer of Eastern Madura to Dutch East India Company.
Kartasura occupation.
On 6 July 1704, Prince Puger was appointed as a ruler styled Susuhunan Paku Buwana Senapati Ingalaga Ngabdurahman Sayidin Panatagama Khalifatulah Tanah Jawa, commonly abbreviated as Pakubuwana or Pakubuwono I.
One year later, Pakubuwono I, guarded by joint Dutch, Semarang, Western Madura, and Surabaya troops, moved to invade Kartasura. Kartasura troops assigned to ambush them were led by Arya Mataram, Pakubuwono I's own younger brother. Arya Mataram successfully persuaded Amangkurat III to evacuate to the east, when he himself joined with Pakubuwono I.
The throne of Kartasura thus fell to Pakubuwono I's hand, exactly on 17 September 1705.
Rule.
The rule of Pakubuwono I was brought up to a new treaty with Dutch East India Company as replacement ever signed by Amangkurat II. The old treaty stipulated that Kartasura was obliged to pay Trunajaya war cost in the amount of 4.5 million guilder, and the new one stipulated that Kartasura was obliged to send 13,000 ton rice per year for 25 years.
In 1706, joined Kartasura and Dutch troops run after Amangkurat III who sought for protection in Pasuruan. In a battle in Bangil, Untung Suropati, the then Regent of Pasuruan, was killed in action. Amangkurat III himself surrendered in Surabaya in 1708, and later exiled to Dutch Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).
One year later, Pakubuwono II was forced to sentence Duke Jangrana II of Surabaya, who previously helped him to ascend the throne, to death, on the ground that Dutch East India Company found proofs that Duke Jangrana II committed treason in First Javanese War of Succession in 1706.
Jangrana II was succeeded by his brother, Jayapuspita, as Regent of Surabaya. In 1714, Jayapuspita refused to appear before Pakubuwono I and prepared for rebellion. 3 years later, joined Kartasura and Dutch troops invaded Surabaya. According to "Babad Tanah Jawi", this newly battle is more horrible than in Pasuruan. Jayapuspita was eventually defeated and retreated to Japan (now Mojokerto) in 1718.
Later life.
Sunan Pakubuwono I died in 1719, and was succeeded by his son, Amangkurat IV, whose reign was marked by Second Javanese War of Succession.


Senasammata Vikramabahu

Sēnasammata Vikramabāhu was King of Kandy from 1469 to 1511. Before becoming independent the provinces that made up the Kingdom of Kandy belonged to the Kingdom of Kotte. Vikramabāhu founded the city of Kandy, and during the reign of Parakramabahu VI Kandy became a separate entity seceding from Kotte. He was from the House of Siri Sanga Bo and reigned for 4 decades, setting an example of longevity and stability for the new kingdom. His son Jayavira Bandara was his successor.


2009 North Korean parliamentary election

Parliamentary elections in North Korea, creating the 12th Supreme People's Assembly, were held on 8 March 2009. They were originally scheduled to be held in August 2008 but were postponed for unknown reasons. Observers of North Korea speculated that it was in relation to Kim Jong-il's ill health.
All candidates standing in the elections in North Korea were members of one of the parties comprising the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland. A single candidate, approved by the North-Korean leadership, ran in each of the 687 districts, thereby guaranteeing a full victory by the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland, regardless of voter turnout. Kim Jong-il, the "de facto" leader of North Korea and the Chairman of the National Defence Commission, ran for election in Constituency 333.
Background.
The 11th Supreme People's Assembly was dissolved and elections were called for North Korea's 687 electoral districts on January 7, 2009. The elections were to be originally held as per North Korea's constitution in August 2008.
The delay was not officially explained, but was believed to be related to the health of Kim Jong-il. The elections also come after a significant cabinet shuffle in recent months that saw the replacement of at least five members of cabinet. The elections were called for March 8, 2009 allowing leave for a 60-day campaign period.
After dissolution, nominating committees in all 687 districts nominated Kim Jong-il to stand for election. The 333rd district was the first to file their nomination, so he decided to run in that district. In the previous assembly, Kim Jong-il represented the 649th election district.
Electoral system.
Voter registration was conducted by the Resident Registration Bureaus of the National Security Agency. Completing the voters lists also had the side effect to discover missing residents who may have defected and left the country. Allegations have surfaced of bribes paid to officials conducting registration drives to declare family members who have defected as being deceased. The voter registration deadline for the election took place on March 4, 2009.
The bribes themselves have been overlooked by the National Security Agency as the North Korean government demands the lists be complete to ensure that there is 100% turnout in the vote. It is easier to explain missing persons as being dead than to have an incomplete voters list.
The voting for deputies of the Supreme People's Assembly in 2009 consisted of using paper ballots containing the name of a single candidate nominated in each district. To indicate support for the candidate a ballot is dropped into the box unmarked. If the voter does not support a candidate, that voter must cross out the name of the candidate before dropping the ballot.
The voting method is a departure from prior elections. In previous elections, the system consisted of two ballot boxes at each polling station. The boxes, one black and one white, were to indicate support for or against a candidate. There is no system in place to handle absentee ballots for North Koreans living abroad and there does not appear to be a system of advanced voting in place. Proxy votes were ordered cast by family members of North Korean defectors who were detained in prisons within China. All voting and the validation of official returns is overseen by the Central Election Committee.
Voting is supposed to be a secret process, but with the current method of casting ballots it becomes obvious who opposes candidates. The voter has the option of going to a booth to cross out the name or dropping the ballot directly in the box. Penalties for voting against a candidate or not voting are severe. Electors who refused to vote were sent to Labor camps. A member of the National Security Agency is stationed at every polling station to keep an eye out for people who use or look at the red pen.
Conduct.
Election day began with editorials being published in all state run media, encouraging voter participation. Voting officially began at 9:00am local time. Mobile polling stations were dispatched to infirm residents who could not travel to polling stations to cast ballots. Citizens of foreign nations resident in North Korea were also encouraged to come out and cast a ballot if they so wished.
By noon on election day the Korean Central News agency had reported that 71% of registered North Korean voters had turned out to cast ballots.
Voters in North Korea had dressed up for election day, wearing suits and chosŏn-ot traditional Korean dresses.
The most watched race of the election was district 333 where leader Kim Jong-il was running. On March 9, 2009, North Korean media announced that Kim Jong-il was unanimously re-elected to parliament. The election committee also stated that 99.98% of all registered voters took part in voting, with 100% voting for their candidate in each district.
The election was a largely peaceful event, but some vandalism of candidate posters along with anti-election graffiti occurred in Mundeuk, South Pyongan Province. Signage had also been changed on polling stations as official signage was replaced with new signs misspelling election booth.
Peter Hughes, the British ambassador to North Korea, garnered significant outrage and controversy from around the world after he blogged about the election having a festive atmosphere. The outrage was caused by claims that his blog read more like an official North Korean press release as he did not mention in his blog the negative aspects of the election such as citizens being forced to vote and that there is only a single candidate to vote for.
Results.
Official election results were announced by the Central Election Commission on March 2009. The official results showed 324 of the 687 Deputies had been replaced and were new to power with the rest being re-elected. A large portion of the Deputies elected were to fill vacancies from those who died. No form of appointment or by-elections currently exists to put Deputies into the Supreme Peoples Assembly between elections.
Elected members.
The following were elected as members of parliament:
Reactions.
The 2009 election in North Korea garnered significant attention from media agencies around the world. The attention was primarily to see if the potentially named successor to Kim Jong-il, Kim Jong-un was standing for a seat to the Supreme People's Assembly. Rumors surfaced in the world media on 8 March 2009 that Kim Jong-un, the youngest son of Kim Jong-il, appeared on the ballot for the elections to the Supreme People's Assembly. The rumors also stated that following the election the new parliament "may also replace members of [Kim's] cabinet and the National Defense Commission, the top ruling agency."
The Central Election Commission via the Korean Central News Agency released the complete list of Deputies elected to the Supreme Peoples Assembly. The list showed that Kim Jong-un was not among those who were elected. The results have left watchers of the regime in North Korea guessing as to the political future of the country.


Tangasseri

Tangasseri or Thangassery is a heavily populated beach area on the shores of the Arabian Sea in Kollam city, Kerala, India.
Location.
Tangasseri is located about from the city centre and from Thiruvananthapuram, the state capital. Archaeologists recently discovered Chinese coins and other artefacts along the coast, which reveal the historic background of the location. Kollam Port makes Tangasseri an important place on the world maritime map.
History.
In 1502, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a trading centre in Tangasseri and the area soon became a major centre for the pepper trade. Tangasseri's St Thomas Fort, built by the Portuguese in 1517, was destroyed in the subsequent wars with the Dutch.
In 1661, the Dutch took possession of the city. The remains of both the Dutch and Portuguese forts can still be seen in Tangasseri. In the 18th century, the kingdom of Travancore first conquered Kollam, followed by the British in 1795. Tangasseri remains an Anglo-Indian settlement in character, though there are few Anglo-Indians in the population. Tangassery was a part of Malabar District during British Raj. The Infant Jesus Cathedral in Tangasseri an old Portuguese-built church, remains as a memento of Portuguese rule. The old cathedral was demolished and replaced by a new cathedral at a cost of around ; it was consecrated and blessed on 3December 2005. The metallic cross on the top is one of the largest crosses in India.
Importance.
Tangasseri is a picturesque seaside village with a three kilometre long beach on which stands a 144 feet tall lighthouse—a silent sentinel warning seamen since 1902 of the treacherous reefs. There are also ruins of Portuguese and Dutch forts and 18th century churches. The fishery harbour at Tangasseri is a basin for traditional fishermen, achieved by the construction of two breakwaters. The length of the main breakwater is 2100 m and of the leeward breakwater 550 m. This provides sufficient beach length for landing facilities for all operational craft. Tangasseri is home to Kerala's oldest schools, Mount Carmel Convent Anglo-Indian Girls High School and Infant Jesus School Kollam.


Someshvara III

Someshvara III (; ) was a Western Chalukya king (also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas), the son and successor of Vikramaditya VI. He ascended the throne of the Western Chalukya Kingdom in 1126 CE, or 1127 CE.
Someshvara III, the third king in this dynasty named after the Hindu god Shiva made numerous land grants to cause of Shaivism and its monastic scholarship. These monasteries in the Indian peninsula became centers of the study of the Vedas and Hindu philosophies such as the Nyaya school. Someshvara III died in 1138 CE, and succeeded by his son Jagadekamalla.
Someshvara was a noted historian, scholar, and poet. He authored the Sanskrit encyclopedic text "Manasollasa" touching upon such topics as polity, governance, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, medicine, food, architecture, painting, poetry and music – making his work a valuable modern source of socio-cultural information of the 11th- and 12th-century India. He also authored, in Sanskrit, an incomplete biography of his father Vikramaditya VI, called "Vikramankabhyudaya." His scholarly pursuits was the reason he held such titles as "Sarvadnya-bhupa" ("lit", "the king who knows everything") and "Bhulokamala" ("the king who is lord of all living beings").
The "Manasollasa".
Someshvara III is credited with composing "" () (meaning "the refresher of the mind") or the (the magical stone that fulfills desires). It is an encyclopedic work in Sanskrit. The treatise deals with a wide range of topics (100 topics), which include the approach to acquire a kingdom, methods of establishing it and royal enjoyment. It contains valuable information regarding Indian art, architecture, cuisine, ornaments, sports, music and dance. It includes recipes for the king's favorite recipes including several types of rice, vegetables, meats and various sweets. In addition to milk based sweets it includes recipes for fried sweets like "golamu", "pantua" and "gharika".
The "Vikramankabhyudaya".
"Vikramankabhyudaya," a text found in 1925, is a historical document written by Someshvara III, in the form of a biography of his father. The first chapter provides a detailed description of the geography and people of Karnataka, the second chapter explains the grandeur of Kalyan, the capital city of the Western Chalukya Empire. The long third chapter pertains to the history of the Chalukyas starting with a legendary story ending with the sixteenth year of Someshvara III's father, Vikramaditya VI reign when the latter began his war of victory, "Digvijaya". However, the last chapter is incomplete as it terminates abruptly as: "The Brahmanas and the ladies on that day..."


Khao Sai On Archaeological Site

The Khao Sai On site is an archaeological site located in the Lopburi Province of central Thailand; findings at the site indicate metalworking dating as far back as the 1st millennium B.C.E in the South-Eastern Asian region. Archaeologists began excavating the site in 1988, and excavations of the site have continued over the years, with the last analysis of the site occurring in 2007. Excavations of the site have given archaeologists an insight into many aspects of the lives people living in the area such as their burial practices and their metalworking. The site serves as an important center for researching the early metalworking activities of Southeast Asia, and the artifacts discovered at the site display the importance of copper to the ancient people of the Khao Sai On site.
Excavation.
Excavation on the Khao Sai On Site began in 1988 by the Thai Italian Lopburi Regional Archaeological Project (Lo.R.A.P), with the intention of not only looking at the ancient history of the area but also by restoring the items discovered at the site, along with serving as an area to help preserve and promote local heritage awareness. The area was once subjected to looting, so a key goal of Lo.R.A.P. was transforming the site into a location of education in which the local people of the Lopburi can look to the site, to protect and value the cultural heritage of it.
Excavation Process.
Before excavating the site, the area was systematically surveyed by the archaeologists. In order to survey the site, the archaeologists broke the site into 10 x 10m squares in which the surveyors were then able to walk in parallel lines throughout the site, recording which units had the highest density of artifacts such as slag and pottery shards.  After surveying the site, the archaeologists then began excavating the site by digging trenches in areas of high artifact density, and analyzing the makeup of the stratum.
Burial Practices.
When excavating the site in 2006, archaeologists discovered several burial sites located deep in the soil, that demonstrated a shift in burial practices over time in the region. The earliest burial sites discovered include individuals being buried on top of a bed of broken pieces of pottery. The reasons behind why early burials contained remains being buried on pottery is still unknown, but more recent burial practices at the site do not follow the same pattern of breaking pottery in the grave.
Evidence of Metal Working.
When digging trenches throughout the site, archaeologists discovered evidence that metal production occurred in the area, as well as evidence of how the ancient people of the Khao Sai On site manufactured their metal. By examining the layers of soil of the site, archaeologists were able to discover areas of industrial deposit which were used as areas of disposal of metal works. The archaeologists were able to connect the industrial deposit sites to the use of metalworking, because these deposits included rocks containing copper ore, copper fragments, slag, charcoal, and terracotta works for refining the metal. Furthermore, around the site, located in the higher elevations of the surrounding mountains there is evidence of where the community mined for copper.
Artifacts Discovered.
Many of the artifacts discovered at the Khao Sai On Site display ways in which people were able to manufacture metal artifacts including: furnace-chimneys for smelting copper and terracotta molds used to mold the copper into tools.
Furnace-Chimneys.
Discovered within the industrial deposit is a furnace-chimney made of terracotta which was used by the ancient civilization of Khao Sai On as a way of heating up copper so that it could be molded into tools. The furnace-chimney discovered at the site is the second one found throughout all of South Eastern Asia, and will be important for archaeologists to study how the technology spread throughout the surrounding regions.
Terracotta Molds.
Also discovered at the site are terracotta casting molds. The terracotta molds discovered at the site were used as a way of taking the smelted down copper and molding it into ingots and tools, demonstrating the importance of metal to the people of the Khao Sai On Site because of its presence in tools.
Bibliography.
Ciarla, Roberto. “A Preliminary Report on Lo.R.A.P. Archaeological Excavations at Prehistoric Khao Sai On, Lopburi Province, Central Thailand.” "East and West", vol. 57, no. 1/4, 2007, pp. 395–401. "JSTOR", www.jstor.org/stable/29757737. Accessed 14 July 2020.
“File:Thailand Lopburi Locator Map.svg.” "File:Thailand Lopburi Locator Map.svg - Wikimedia Commons", 2011, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thailand_Lopburi_locator_map.svg.
Pryce, T. O., et al. “Intensive Archaeological Survey in Southeast Asia: Methodological and Metallurgical Insights from Khao Sai On, Central Thailand.” "Asian Perspectives", vol. 50, no. 1/2, 2011, pp. 53–69. "JSTOR", www.jstor.org/stable/42928783. Accessed 29 July 2020.


Panavitiya Ambalama

Panavitiya Ambalama (Sinhala: පනාවිටිය අම්බලම) is an ambalama situated in Sri Lanka. An "ambalama ()" is a place constructed for pilgrims, traders and travellers to rest. Panavitiya Ambalama is a place famous for its ornate wood carvings which are regarded to be on par with those at Embekka Devalaya, Lankathilaka and Gadaladeniya Viharas.
Location.
Panavitiya Ambalama is situated in the village of Panavitiya () off Matiyagane () in the Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka. The location is accessible by vehicles as of 2019.
One of the routes that can be taken for reaching the "ambalama" from Colombo is by taking the Negombo-Kurunegala highway to Matiyagane () school junction via Dambadeniya () and then turning left at the junction onto "Dangolla" () road. "Kajugas handiya" () bus stop can be reached by continuing on "Dangolla" () road for another 2 km. Panavitiya Ambalama can be reached by travelling another 1.5 km along the road after turning left at the "Kajugas handiya" () bus stop.
History.
It is said that this was erected in the 18th Century or before.
The "ambalama" is believed to be built to the wayside of two routes used by travellers on foot. One route is said to be a footpath made during Dambadeniya era. This route is purported to have originated from the eastern gates of the Dambadenya palace and follows northeast passing by the Panavitiya Ambalama and travels further northeast towards Yapahuwa, passing through another "ambalama" now identified as the Karagahagedara Ambalama (Sinhala: කරගහගෙදර අම්බලම). The other, more ancient route accessible from Panavitiya Amblama was said to be towards the Anuradhapura (Sinhala: අනුරාධපුර) city.
By early 1960s, the "ambalama" had fallen into disrepair as evidenced by the photographs taken at that time. Most of the timber framework had decayed and the roof was thatched with cadjun instead of the original brick tiles.In the following year the "ambalama" had completely collapsed
This is conserved by Archaeological Department, Sri Lanka.
Structure.
The original base holding the wooden structure of the Panavitiya Ambalama was quadrangular platform, filled with stone pebbles and crushed rocks and raised about half a foot from ground. The platform measures 12 feet 4 inches (approximately 3.7 m) by 9 feet 6 inches (approximately 2.9 m).The wooden frame was constructed on four round boulders, each about a foot in height and placed at the four corners of this stone filled base. This arrangement on the stone slabs kept the wooden floor and posts of the "ambalama" away from dampness and termite attack. In later conservation stages carried out by the Archaeological Department, Sri Lanka, a secondary base of granite was built over the original base to protect it.
Four timber logs, each about 4 feet in diameter were connected at seating height over the stone boulders at the base. These four logs serve as the building template to fit the four main wooden posts supporting the roof. Panavitiya Ambalama comprises a total of 28 wooden posts. On either side of the two main entrance pillars, 12 posts, arranged in two by six rows parallel to the main pillar, run towards the back of the "ambalama." Of the 28 posts 9 are set in the interior and the rest make up the "outer set".The 9 inner posts are approximately 6 feet high while the outer set of 19 posts are approximately 5 and a half feet high.
The posts are connected to the roof by a decorated pekada (පේකඩ -pillar head).
Wood Carvings at Panavitiya Ambalama.
Panavitiya Ambalama is famous for its elaborate and beautiful wood carvings which decorate the entire "ambalama". Some of the carvings date back to 18th century
The body of the posts are carved in an octagonal shape with a square panel at the middle of each post. Each of the square panels of all the 9 inner posts are decorated with elaborate carvings. There are 36 such panel carvings. Additionally, the pillar heads (connecting the posts to the roof), beams, rafters and reepers are also richly carved.
Carvings like "Gajasinghe Katayama", "Hansa Puttuwa", flower designs and sculptures of dancers could be seen. Other than that, carvings about day-to-day life can also be found. Many wood carvings that could be seen in Embekka Devalaya could also be seen here.


Artavasdes I of Armenia

Artavasdes I (also spelled Artawazd, ) was the Artaxiad king of Armenia from 159 BC to 115 BC. He was the son and successor of Artaxias I.
Artavasdes' name is the Latin attestation of an Old Iranian name "Ṛtavazdā", identical to the Avestan "Ašavazdah", presumably meaning "powerful/persevering through truth". In , the Parthian king Mithridates II () defeated Artavasdes I and made him acknowledge Parthian suzerainty. Artavasdes was forced to give the Parthians Tigranes as a hostage, who was either his son or nephew.
According to Professor Cyril Toumanoff, Artavasdes I can be identified with the Armenian king who, according to the medieval Georgian annals, interfered in Iberia at the request of local nobility and installed his son, Artaxias, on the throne of Iberia, thereby inaugurating the Iberian Artaxiad dynasty.


Mahatao Church

San Carlos Borromeo Church (Spanish: "Iglesia Parroquial de San Carlos Borromeo"), also known as Mahatao Church, is a Roman Catholic church located in Mahatao, Batan Island, Batanes, Philippines. The church's titular is Saint Charles Borromeo whose feast is celebrated every November 4. Its beauty and excellent state of preservation made it a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines on July 31, 2001.
History.
The town of Mahatao was first mentioned in history in 1720 with Fr. Juan Bel's report of villages in Batan Island. When Batanes became a part of the Philippines and as a consequence, a Spanish colony, Mahatao was founded as an ecclesiastical mission by the Dominicans in 1783. It was first a dependency of Basco, and placed under the advocacy of St. Bartholomew the Apostle but its patron saint and protector became St. Charles Borromeo later on, as stated in a report by Lieutenant Governor Joaquin del Castillo on May 6, 1792.
The earliest church in Mahatao was constructed in 1787. It was initially made of light materials but underwent modifications that by the time Mahatao evolved from being a visita to a vicariate under Fr. Tomas Sanchez albeit unofficially in 1789, the first stone church in Mahatao was built.
The first church was said to be ugly so when it was partially damaged during a very strong typhoon in 1872, then Vicar Fr. Crescencio Polo saw to the reconstruction of a stronger and more artistic structure in 1873, covering the roof with cogon. Fr. Polo also remodeled the convent made of stone and mortar, which is attached to the church.
On September 19, 1898, the Katipunan revolutionaries ransacked the church. There were records that during this time, the original gold Episcopal crosier of the image of San Carlos as well as the gold jewelry pieces of the Lady of the Rosary and the Sto. Niño were stolen.
Architectural features.
The church is made of stone and lime, common building materials in Batanes. An "espadaña" belfry is located on top of the facade's pediment with one of its bells dated 1874.
The church has uneven wall thickness due to addition of step buttresses and even buttress walls. Its interiors, decorated in Baroque style, showcase floral designs sunburst ornaments painted in polychrome and gilt which lends a golden glow among the statuary. The main retablo houses images of Saint Charles Borromeo, patron, on the center and surrounded by Saint Joseph, Saint Dominic de Guzman and Saint Rose of Lima. Two minor altar housing the image of the Our Lady of the Rosary on the right and of the Holy Child on the left of the central altar can also be found.
On the right side of the facade is the church convent. The second floor of the convent is not the typical "volada" or cantilevered gallery for convents in the Philippines but an open extended deck. At the back of the convent are remains of an old circular well. Located on the left side of the facade is a beacon used for navigation


Fangmatan

Fangmatan () is an archeological site located near Tianshui in China's Gansu province. The site was located within the Qin state, and includes several burials dating from the Warring States period through to the early Western Han.
Tomb 1.
The date of the burial of Tomb 1 was approximately 230 to 220 BCE at the very end of the Warring States period; it was excavated in 1986. The tomb contained a number of long-lost texts written on bamboo slips, including almanacs (Rishu 日書), legal texts, medical works, and seven maps. The maps are drawn in black ink on four rectangular pieces of pine wood, 26.7 cm in length and between 15 and 18.1 cm in width, and depict the tributary river systems of the Jialing River in modern Sichuan province. The areas covered by the seven maps overlap, but in total they cover 107 × 68 km in area.
Tomb 5.
Tomb 5, which was also excavated in 1986, dates to the early Western Han (early 2nd century BCE). The occupant of the tomb was buried with a paper map laid on his chest, but due to water damage only a single fragment (5.6 × 2.6 cm) of the map has survived. The map, which depicts topographic features such as mountains, waterways and roads, is drawn on the oldest extant piece of paper.


The Scandal of Empire

The Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain is a book written by Nicholas Dirks, who was at the time the Franz Boas Professor of Anthropology and Professor of History at Columbia University, United States. The book was published in 2006.
The book focuses on 18th century Britain and on one of its most dramatic political controversies, the impeachment and trial of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal from 1774 to 1784.


Maha Pyauk of Yamethin

Maha Pyauk (, ; d. November 1400) was governor of Yamethin and a key army commander from 1395/96 to 1400. He emerged as one of the pretenders to the Ava throne after King Tarabya's assassination. But Pyauk himself was assassinated by Prince Theiddat, who wanted his elder brother Minkhaung to succeed.
Brief.
Pyauk was a younger brother of Governor-General Thilawa of Yamethin. After Thilawa's death in 1395/96, King Swa Saw Ke of Ava appointed Pyauk to be the next governor of Yamethin as well as the commander of the army Thilawa previously commanded. According to the royal chronicles, Pyauk took command of an army consisted of 60 elephants, 800 cavalry and 10,000 men.
Pyauk became a pretender to the throne in November 1400 when King Tarabya was assassinated just seven months in office. The court led by Min Yaza executed the assassin Gov. Thihapate of Tagaung, and selected Minkhaung, another son of Swa. But Minkhaung, who did not command an army, was concerned about Pyauk, and told the court to offer the throne to Pyauk instead. But Minkhaung's younger brother Theiddat disagreed with his brother's decision. As Pyauk marched with his large army to Ava to take over the throne, Theiddat and his small army ambushed Pyauk near Pinya, and successfully assassinated Pyauk.
After Pyauk's death, Minkhaung ascended the throne on 25 November 1400. The new king appointed Min Yaza's son Pauk Hla governor of Yamethin.


Humban-Numena

Humban-Numena (or Kumban-Numena) was a king of Elam from the Igihalkid dynasty (Middle Elamite Period, mid-14th century BCE). He was a son and successor of King Attar-kittah, as it is attested in his inscriptions from temples in Liyan and in Susa. He is mentioned as the father of King Untash-Napirisha in a later inscription of King Shilhak-Inshushinak. According to a Neo-Babylonian copy of a letter from an Elamite king to the Babylonian court (the so-called the Berlin letter), he married a daughter of the Kassite king Kurigalzu or a daughter of his uncle, the Elamite king Pahir-ishshan.


Tivaru

Tivaru (ތީވަރު ) or Tiyya are said to be the first settlers of the Minocoy island of Lakshadweepa off the Indian mainland.
History.
The origin of the Tivaru is unknown. Clarence Malony suggests that they could be Dravidians from southern India. Local oral tradition says that when Dhivehis came to these islands, the Tivaru who had really already settled in these islands migrated to Sri Lanka, except for those who remained in Giraavaru.


Batavia, Dutch East Indies

Batavia, also called Batauia in the city's Malay vernacular, was the capital of the Dutch East Indies. The area corresponds to present-day Jakarta, Indonesia. Batavia can refer to the city proper or its suburbs and hinterland, the Ommelanden, which included the much-larger area of the Residency of Batavia in the present-day Indonesian provinces of Jakarta, Banten and West Java.
The founding of Batavia by the Dutch in 1619, on the site of the ruins of Jayakarta, led to the establishment of a Dutch colony; Batavia became the center of the Dutch East India Company's trading network in Asia. Monopolies on local produce were augmented by non-indigenous cash crops. To safeguard their commercial interests, the company and the colonial administration absorbed surrounding territory.
Batavia is on the north coast of Java, in a sheltered bay, on a land of marshland and hills crisscrossed with canals. The city had two centers: Oud Batavia (the oldest part of the city) and the relatively-newer city, on higher ground to the south.
It was a colonial city for about 320 years until 1942, when the Dutch East Indies was occupied by Japan during World War II. During the Japanese occupation and after Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was known as Jakarta. It was internationally known by its Dutch name until Indonesia achieved full independence in 1949, when the city was renamed Jakarta.
Dutch East India Company (1610–1799).
Arrival.
Amsterdam merchants embarked on an expedition to the East Indies archipelago in 1595 under the command of Cornelis de Houtman. The English East India Company's first voyage in 1602, commanded by James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Bantam. There, Lancaster was allowed to build a trading post which was the center of English trade in Indonesia until 1682.
The Dutch government granted the Dutch East India Company a monopoly on Asian trade in 1602. A year later, the first permanent Dutch trading post in Indonesia was established in Bantam, West Java. Prince Jayawikarta gave Dutch merchants permission to build a wooden warehouse and houses on the east bank of the Ciliwung River opposite Jayakarta in 1610, and the outpost was established the following year. As Dutch power increased, Jayawikarta allowed the English to build houses on the west bank of the Ciliwung and a fort near his customs office to maintain a balance of power.
Tensions between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch escalated until 1618, when Jayawikarta's soldiers besieged the Dutch fortress containing the Nassau and Mauritius warehouse. An English fleet of 15 ships arrived under Thomas Dale, former governor of the colony of Virginia. After a sea battle, newly-appointed Dutch governor Jan Pieterszoon Coen escaped to the Moluccas to seek support; the Dutch had taken over the first of the Portuguese forts there in 1605. Dutch garrison commander Pieter van den Broecke and five other men were arrested during negotiations, since Jayawikarta believed that he had been deceived by the Dutch. Jayawikarta and the English then forged an alliance.
The Dutch army was on the verge of surrendering to the English when, in 1619, the Sultanate of Banten sent a group of soldiers to summon Jayawikarta. Jayawikarta's agreement with the English had not been approved by the Bantenese authorities. The conflict between Banten and Jayawikarta and the tense relationship between Banten and the English provided a new opportunity for the Dutch. Coen returned from the Moluccas with reinforcements on 28 May 1619, razing Jayakarta to the ground two days later and expelling its population. Only the Luso-Sundanese padrão remained.
Jayawikarta retreated to Tanara, in the interior of Banten, where he later died. The Dutch established a closer relationship with Banten and assumed control of the port, which became the regional Dutch center of power.
Founding.
The region which became Batavia came under Dutch control in 1619, initially as an expansion of the original Dutch fort and a new building on the ruins of the former Jayakarta. Coen decided to expand the original fort into a larger fortress on 2 July 1619, and sent plans for Batavia Castle to the Netherlands on 7 October of that year. The castle was larger than the previous one, with two northern bastions protecting it from a maritime attack. The Nassau and Mauritius warehouses were expanded with the erection of an eastern fort extension, overseen by Commander Van Raay, on 12 March 1619.
Although Coen wanted to name the new settlement Nieuw-Hoorn after Hoorn (his birthplace), he was prevented from doing so by the board of the East India Company. Batavia was chosen as the new name of the fort and settlement, and a naming ceremony was held on 18 January 1621. It was named after the Batavi Germanic tribe, which inhabited the Batavian region during the Roman Empire; at the time, it was believed that the tribe was the ancestors of the Dutch people. Jayakarta was called Batavia for over 300 years.
There were three governmental administrations in the Batavia region. Initial authority was established in 1609 and became the colonial "High Government", consisting of the Governor-General and the Council of the Indies. The urban (or civil) administration of the city of Batavia was established in 1620. On 24 June 1620, two company officials and three free citizens (or burghers) were appointed to the first College of Aldermen. The local rural administration, formed in 1664, became fully functional in 1682. The Javanese people were prohibited from settling in Batavia from the time of its founding in 1619.
Expansion.
From its founding, Batavia was planned in a well-defined layout. Three trenches were dug east of the Ciliwung River in 1619, its first Dutch-made canals. The canals were named (from south to north) Leeuwengracht, Groenegracht, and Steenhouwersgracht. The Castle area begins in a former field north of Steenhouwersgracht, in which a town market was established. The first church and town hall were built c. 1622 on the east bank of the river; Batavia's first combined church and town hall (replaced during the 1630s) was at .
Around 1627, the three canals were connected with the Tijgersgracht canal. The new canal was lined with coconut trees; according to a contemporary observer, "Among the Grachts, the Tygersgracht is the most stately and most pleasant, both for the goodliness of its buildings, and the ornamentation of its streets, which afford a very agreeable shadow to those who pass along the street". The Prinsestraat, originally the street leading to the Castle, became an urban center connecting the Castle's south gate with the city hall.
Eastern Batavia was protected by a long canal which linked the castle moat and the Ciliwung riverbend, and ran at a slight angle to Tijgersgracht. The canal cost over 160,000 real, which was paid mostly by the Chinese and other Europeans instead of the company (who had strengthened the Castle with slave and prison labor. The short-lived outer canal was redesigned several years after the 1628–29 Siege of Batavia.
East of Batavia, Sultan Agung (king of the Mataram Sultanate) gained control of most of Java by defeating Surabaya in 1625. On 27 August 1628, Agung began the Siege of Batavia. After heavy losses in his first attempt, he retreated and launched a second offensive the following year. This also failed; the Dutch fleet destroyed his supplies and ships in the harbors of Cirebon and Tegal. Mataram troops, starving and decimated by illness, retreated again. Agung then moved east, attacking Blitar, Panarukan and the Blambangan Kingdom in eastern Java (a vassal state of the Balinese kingdom of Gelgel).
After the siege, it was decided that Batavia needed a stronger defense system. Based on the work of Flemish mathematician and military engineer Simon Stevin, Governor-General Jacques Specx designed a moat and city wall; extensions of the wall were built west of Batavia, and the city was completely enclosed.
In 1656, due to a conflict with Banten, the Javanese were not allowed to live within the city walls and settled outside Batavia. The Chinese and the Mardijkers were the only non-Dutch settlers within the walled city. In 1659, A 1659 truce with Banten enabled the city to grow, and more bamboo houses were built. Bamboo houses and livestock were banned in 1667, and the wealthy Dutch built tall houses and canals.
The region.
The region was an important source of food crops and building materials. The Dutch East India Company established a local government in 1664, which became fully functional in 1682. Chinese inhabitants began to cultivate sugarcane.
Large-scale cultivation negatively impacted the environment, and Batavia's northern area experienced coastal erosion. The canals required extensive maintenance, with frequent closures for dredging. Residents of the Ommelanden lived in country houses or ethnic kampungs governed by a headman.
1740 massacre.
Batavia's sugar industry declined during the 1730s, with rising unemployment and social disorder. In 1739, 10,574 Chinese people lived in the Ommelanden. Tensions grew as the colonial government attempted to restrict Chinese immigration with deportations to Ceylon and South Africa.
The Chinese, afraid that they would be thrown overboard to drown, rioted. Ten thousand Chinese were killed from 9 to 22 October 1740. The few surviving Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok, outside the city walls, the following year.
Dutch East Indies (1800–1949).
After the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1800, the Batavian Republic nationalized its debts and possessions and expanded its territorial claims into a colony known as the Dutch East Indies. Batavia evolved from a regional company headquarters into the colony's capital.
Southward expansion.
In 1808, Herman Willem Daendels decided to leave the dilapidated, unhealthy Old Town. A new town center was built further south, on the Weltevreden estate. Batavia became a city with two centers; Kota was the business hub with offices and warehouses of shipping and trading companies, and Weltevreden was home to the government, military, and shops. The centers were connected by the Molenvliet Canal and a road alongside the canal.
British rule.
Under British rule, Daendels was replaced by Stamford Raffles. In 1811, Raffles – who was employed by the East India Company as secretary to the governor of Malacca – decided to take over the government in Batavia. One reason was to prevent the French from stepping in completely, since Napoleon had nominated Daendels (who worked closely with the French).
In 1816, the Dutch returned to rule the region. Europeans were brought to the archipelago to establish a colony on vacant land, triggering wars in Java and Sumatra. Large numbers of troops were brought into the Dutch Indies to suppress unrest (particularly on Sumatra) and extend Dutch government influence beyond Java. However, the Dutch never conquered the entire archipelago.
The development of Weltevreden as the colony's administrative center continued, gradually shifting the center of Batavia south from Oud Batavia. A new Indies Empire style of architecture emerged; white-plastered villas with a large front porch were built, especially around the Koningsplein and at Weltevreden. This newer part of Batavia generally had a more open look than Oud Batavia's developed, canal cityscape.
Technological advances.
Unlike the first half of the 19th century, the second half of the century was a peaceful period characterized by economic and technological expansion and a stable government. In 1856, the region's first telegraph line was installed between Batavia and Buitenzorg. In 1859, Batavia was connected to Singapore with the Dutch East Indies' first international telegraph connection. The city completed its first gasworks two years later, and its streets were lit with gas by 1862. The first trams and telephones came in 1882.
Horse-drawn tram, introduced to Batavia in 1869, were upgraded to steam power in 1882 and electricity in 1900. The city's first railway also began in 1869, and the line from Batavia to Buitenzorg was completed in 1873.
The city's first ice house was built in 1870.
The 1869 opening of the Suez Canal increased the need for a new port. The port of Tanjung Priok was completed in 1885, replacing the centuries-old, inadequate Sunda Kelapa, significantly increasing trade and tourism in Batavia and the Dutch East Indies.
Abolition of Cultivation System.
The Cultivation System ("cultuurstelsel") was a mid-19th-century Dutch government policy which required a portion of agricultural production to be export crops. Indonesian historians refer to it as "tanam paksa" (enforced planting).
The 1870 abolition of the Cultivation System led to the rapid development of private enterprise in the Dutch East Indies. A number of trading companies and financial institutions were established on Java, particularly in Batavia. The Old Town's deteriorating structures were replaced with offices, usually along the Ciliwung River. Private companies owned (or managed) plantations, oil fields, and mines. The island's first railway line opened in 1867, and railway stations were built in urban centers such as Batavia.
Schools, hospitals, factories, offices, trading companies, and post offices were established throughout the city. Improvements in Batavia's transportation, health, and technology encouraged more Dutch people to move to the capital, and Batavian society became increasingly Dutch. The city traded with Europe, and increased shipping led to the construction of a new harbor at Tanjung Priok between 1877 and 1883.
Foreigners were known locally as totoks, distinguishing new Chinese arrivals from the peranakans. Many totoks adopted Indonesian culture, wearing kebayas, sarongs, and summer dresses.
By the end of the 19th century, Batavia's population was 115,887 people; of these, 8,893 were Europeans, 26,817 were Chinese and 77,700 were indigenous islanders. The city's expanding commercial activity led to the immigration of large numbers of Dutch employees and rural Javanese to Batavia. The 1905 population of Batavia and its surrounding area reached 2.1 million, including 93,000 Chinese people, 14,000 Europeans, and 2,800 Arabs. This growth resulted in an increased demand for housing, and land prices soared. New houses were built close together, and kampung settlements filled spaces between the houses. Settlements, built with little regard for the region's tropical conditions, resulted in overcrowding, poor sanitation, and an absence of public amenities. Java had an outbreak of plague in 1913.
Old Batavia's abandoned moats and ramparts experienced a boom during the period, as trading companies were established along the Ciliwung. The old city soon re-established itself as a commercial center, with 20th- and 17th-century buildings adjacent to each other.
Dutch Ethical Policy.
The Dutch Ethical Policy was introduced in 1901, expanding educational opportunities for the indigenous population of the Dutch East Indies. In 1924, a law school was founded in Batavia. The city's population in the 1930 census was 435,000.
The University of Batavia was established in 1941, and later became the University of Indonesia. In 1946, the Dutch colonial government established the Nood Universiteit (Emergency University) in Jakarta. The following year, its name was changed to Universiteit van Indonesië (UVI). After the Indonesian National Revolution the government established Universiteit Indonesia, a state university, in Jakarta in February 1950. Its name was later changed to Universitas Indonesia.
Independence movement.
Volksraad member Mohammad Husni Thamrin criticized the colonial government for ignoring the kampungs and catering to the wealthy in Menteng. In 1909, Tirto Adhi Soerjo founded the Islamic Commercial Union in Batavia to support Indonesian merchants. Branches in other areas followed. In 1920, Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto and Agus Salim established a committee in Batavia to support the Ottoman Caliphate.
Spies warned the Dutch about a planned revolt in 1926, and Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) leaders were arrested. Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff replaced Dirk Fock as governor-general, and uprisings in Batavia, Banten, and Priangan were quickly crushed. Armed Communists occupied the Batavia telephone exchange for one night before they were captured. The Dutch sent prisoners to Banden and to a penal colony at Boven-Digoel in West New Guinea, where many died of malaria. Sukarno and the Study Club founded the Indonesian Nationalist Association (which became the Indonesian National Party and later joined the Partai Sarekat Islam, Budi Utomo, and the Surabaya Study Club to form the Union of Indonesian Political Associations) on 4 July 1927.
A youth congress was held in Batavia in October 1928, and the groups began referring to the city as Jakarta. They demanded Indonesian independence, displayed the red-and-white flag, and sang the Indonesian national anthem written by Wage Rudolf Supratman. The Dutch banned the flag, the national anthem, and the words "Indonesia" and "Indonesian".
On 5 March 1942, Batavia fell to the Japanese. The Dutch formally surrendered to the Japanese occupation forces on 9 March 1942, and the colony's government was transferred to Japan. Batavia was renamed Jakarta. The economic situation and the physical condition of Indonesian cities deteriorated during the occupation. Buildings were converted to internment camps for the Dutch.
After the Japanese defeat in 1945, the region experienced a period of transition and upheaval during the Indonesian struggle for independence. During the Japanese occupation, and when the Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was renamed Jakarta. In 1945, it was briefly occupied by the Allies and returned to the Dutch. The Dutch name, Batavia, remained the internationally recognized name until Indonesian independence was achieved and Jakarta proclaimed the national capital on 27 December 1949.
Society.
Batavia, founded as the trade and administrative center of the Dutch East India Company, was never intended to be a Dutch settlement. Jan Pieterszoon Coen founded Batavia for trade, with the city's inhabitants producing and supplying food. There was no migration of intact Dutch families, and there were few Dutch women in Batavia. A mixed society was formed; relationships between Dutchmen and Asian women did not usually result in marriage, and the women did not have the right to return to the Dutch Republic. This societal pattern created a group of mestizos in Batavia. Since the Dutch East India Company preferred to maintain complete control of its business, a large number of slaves was employed.
Women became an important feature of Batavia's social network; they were accustomed to dealing with slaves, and spoke the same language (mostly Portuguese and Malay). Many of these women effectively became widows; their husbands left Batavia to return to the Netherlands, and their children were often removed as well.
Most of Batavia's residents were of Asian descent. Thousands of slaves were brought from India and Arakan; later, slaves were brought from Bali and Sulawesi. To avoid an uprising, a decision was made to free the Javanese people from slavery. Chinese people made up the largest group in Batavia (most being merchants and laborers), and were the most decisive group in the city's development. Other residents included Malays and Muslim and Hindu merchants from India.
Initially, these ethnic groups lived together; however, in 1688, segregation was imposed on the indigenous population. Each ethnic group was forced to live in its own village outside the city wall. Each person was tagged to identify their ethnic group; later, the identity tags were replaced with parchment.
Batavia experienced more malaria epidemics during the 18th century, as its marsh areas bred mosquitoes. The disease killed many Europeans and Batavia received the nickname "cemetery of Europeans". Wealthier European settlers moved to southern areas at higher elevations.
Within Batavia's walls, the wealthy Dutch built tall houses and canals. Commercial opportunities attracted Indonesian and Chinese immigrants, with the increasing population imposing a burden on the city. During the 18th century, over 60 percent of Batavia's population were slaves working for the Dutch East India Company. Laws protected slaves against overly-cruel actions by their masters; Christian slaves were freed after the death of their masters, and other slaves were allowed to own a store and earn money to buy their freedom.
Although Batavia became the political and administrative center of the Dutch East Indies and the main port in Southeast Asian trade, the city's population remained relatively small. Early-19th-century estimates of its population were smaller than that of Surabaya, although it overtook the latter by the end of the century; the 1920 census indicated a population of 306,000, compared to 192,000 for Surabaya, 158,000 for Semarang and 134,000 for Surakarta. Its population increased rapidly, exceeding half a million ten years later.
The population of the Dutch East Indies was never purely European. Of the 30,000 Dutch citizens in the Dutch East Indies in 1860, less than 5,000 were purely Dutch. Seventy percent of the population was male, since more male immigrants arrived from Europe.
Slavery existed in Batavia until its abolition in 1853. Slaves mainly lived in the back of the garden of the main house and were paid, with free food and lodging. Female slaves, known as "baboe", cooked and cared for children.
Children went to school, where the teachers were locally trained. Many children did not finish school; to counter this, the school system awarded prizes to well-performing children.
When Stamford Raffles was governor of Java, he changed social interaction in Batavian society. Raffles disapproved of the relaxed Dutch dress code, where many men wore Javanese attire. Raffles and his wife, Olivia, introduced European dress (with much white, because of the tropical climate) for men and women.
When the British left Batavia in 1815, most of the native people reverted to their original Javanese attire but some new aspects persisted. Native males chosen to be the governing elite wore a European outfit on duty, but after hours they would change to sarongs and kebaya. Lower-ranked Dutchmen might wear the local style all day. Women wore sarongs and kebaya to official events, where they wore tighter-fitting robes or richly-colored (or flowered) cloth – in the style of British India – and batik shawls.


Syarifah Fatimah


Vanniar (Chieftain)

Pandaram or pandaram (,) was a title borne by chiefs in medieval Sri Lanka who ruled in the Chiefdom of Vavuni regions as tribute payers to the Jaffna vassal state. There are a number of origin theories for the feudal chiefs, coming from an indigenous formation. The most famous of the Vavni chieftains was Pandara Vannian, known for his resistance against the British colonial power.
Etymology.
The word "Vanni" may have been a derivation of the Tamil word "vanam", meaning "forest", with Vanniar meaning "person from the forest".
History.
Medieval Tamil chronicles such as the 18th-century "Yalpana Vaipava Malai" and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu recount that the Chola royal Kankan, a descendant of the legendary King Manu Needhi Cholan of Thiruvarur, Chola Nadu, restored the Koneswaram temple at Trincomalee and the Kantalai tank after finding them in ruins. He visited the Munneswaram temple on the west coast, before settling ancient Vanniars in the east of the island. According to the chronicles, he extensively renovated and expanded the shrine, lavishing much wealth on it; he was crowned with the epithet "Kulakottan" meaning "Builder of tank and temple."
Further to the reconstruction, Kulakottan paid attention to agricultural cultivation and economic development in the area, inviting the Vanniar chief Tanniuna Popalen and families to a new founded town in the area Thampalakamam to maintain the Kantalai tank and the temple itself. The effects of this saw the Vanni region flourish. The Vanniars were brought here by this chief to make them cultivate in this region.
Following the re-rise of the Tamil kingdom in the medieval period and demise of the Rajarata kingdom period after the twelfth century AD, many petty chiefs took power in the buffer lands between the northern-based Jaffna Vassal State and other kingdoms based on the southwest of the island – namely Kotte Kingdom and the Kandyan Kingdom. These petty chiefs paid tribute to the Jaffna Vassal State. Sometimes they were independent of any central control or subdued by the southern kingdoms during the European colonial era for strategical purposes. The ruling class was composed of multi-caste origins.
The Vannimai ruling class arose from a multi-ethnic and multi-caste background Some scholars conclude the Vanniyar title as a rank of a local chieftain which was introduced by the Velaikkarar mercenaries of the Chola dynasty. There were also number of Vannia chiefs of Sinhalese ancestry. Many kings and chiefs with titles such as Vannia had ruled in northern areas of modern Sri Lanka termed as Vanni Nadu or Vannimai during the Jaffna Vassal State era.
As a title, it is no longer registered amongst northern Sri Lankan Tamils but in the 1900s it was present singly in the North and North Central provinces.