Henry McBride (politician)

Henry McBride (February 7, 1856 – October 7, 1937) was a Washington State pioneer, lawyer, and politician. McBride served as the state's 4th lieutenant-governor from 1900 to 1901 and 4th governor of Washington State in 1901–1905.
McBride came to Washington State in 1882. He worked as a teacher while studying law, and was admitted to the bar in 1884 in La Conner, Washington. In 1888, he became the Republican candidate for and was elected to the position of Prosecuting Attorney for Skagit, Whatcom, and Snohomish counties. In 1891, he became the first Superior Judge for the newly established judicial district of Skagit and Island counties. He ran for re-election in 1896, but, like every Republican candidate that year, was defeated by a candidate from the Fusionists party (a combination of Populists, Democrats, and Silver Republicans).
McBride was elected lieutenant-governor in 1900, but didn't finish his term as he became governor after the death of Governor Rogers in 1901. McBride was the first Washington State governor born in the west, the first candidate to become governor as a result of the previous office-holder's death, and the first to succeed to the position from the lieutenant-governor office. From the beginning, McBride promoted the establishment of the State Railroad Commission and new railroad regulations. He advocated for the separation of politics from institutions' activity, in particular decreasing the railroads' monopolistic practices in the Legislature. This placed him in strong opposition to the railroad lobbyists who effectively controlled the Legislature and political parties. The outcome of McBride's confrontation with the railroads was mixed. On one hand, the lobbyists successfully prevented McBride's re-election in 1904. On the other hand, eventually the commission was established and the Legislature cleared of powerful railroad lobbies. McBride ran for governor again in 1908 and 1916, but wasn't re-elected.
As his political influence dwindled, McBride kept following political events and supported the Republican party, but decided to pursue a career in banking and law in Seattle. He was a partner in the law firm McBride, Stratton & Dalton, until he left it to become a labor conciliator. In later years and until his retirement, McBride was president of the Provident Savings & Loan Association, which he co-founded with Herbert S. Conner.
Early life and family.
Henry McBride was born in February 1856, in Farmington, Utah. His parents were Ruth Ann Miller, born in Indiana, and George McBride, born in New York. McBride's ancestors were from Scotland and Ireland on his father's side, and England on his mother's side.
In 1858, McBride's father was killed by Shoshonee Indians at Fort Lemhi, Idaho. Many of the attacking Indians lived around the Fort and "had previously been very friendly." A member of Governor Stevens' surveying party fought with the natives.
After his father's death, McBride lived with his mother, who lived to be at least seventy years old. McBride's family was known for longevity; his maternal grandmother reached at least one hundred years old.
Education.
McBride began his education in the public schools of Utah, and attended an Episcopalian high school in Logan. He wanted to pursue a career in Episcopal ministry, so he went to study in the preparatory school in Trinity College, located in Hartford, Connecticut. He planned to attend Episcopalian theological school after that.
At Trinity College, McBride contracted malaria, becoming a "physical wreck," and was later transferred to Hobart College in New York, another Episcopalian institution. McBride's health failed during his time in New York. The president of Hobart College suggested McBride had less than a year to live, and advised him to return home to the west.
Eventually, McBride left Hobart College and returned home. In 1880, he moved to California, where he spent two years recuperating.
In 1882, McBride moved to Washington Territory. He wanted to start career in law, and went to La Conner (at the time the county seat of Skagit County) to pursue better educational opportunities. He had been learning law for three years.
Teaching and legal career.
Teaching and becoming a lawyer (1882–1884).
Coming to Washington, McBride was "literally fighting for existence" until he passed a teacher's examination and started teaching in Oak Harbor on Whidbey Island. There, he also worked as an operator in a telegraph office. Later, McBride moved from Island to Skagit County, settling in La Conner and becoming a school teacher there. He spent three years combining teaching with his study of the law. As an educator, McBride was a member of the examining board during the first teachers' examination held in Skagit County.
In 1884, McBride was admitted to the bar in La Conner by Territorial Judge Roger S. Greene. McBride entered the practice alongside older specialists, whose "reputation and patronage were already assured," and received essential experience and skills in the field.
Legal career in 1886–1896.
In 1886, McBride was a nominee for the position of Probate Judge in Skagit County on a Republican ticket, but he lost the election to Democrat Harrison Clothier. McBride proceeded with his legal practice, and the following year moved to Mount Vernon to partner with E. M. Carr and Harold Preston, co-owners of a law firm in Seattle. For two years, he handled the firm's branch office in Mount Vernon. After two years, the partnership ended and the firm was dissolved.
In 1888, McBride became Prosecuting Attorney for Skagit, Whatcom, and Snohomish Counties, serving at the position for one term.
In 1891, McBride became one of the charter members for the newly-established Bar Association of Skagit County. That year, the Superior Court of the new judicial district for Skagit and Island Counties was formed, and McBride was appointed to become its first Superior Judge.
He was first appointed to the office on March 10, 1891, to work until 1892 as a substitute for Judge Winn, who was transferred to Whatcom County. At the end of this term, McBride travelled around the counties on a bicycle, campaigning for re-election. He was re-elected for the full term of four years and stayed in the office until 1896.
At the end of his four-year term as Superior Judge, McBride ran for re-election on the Republican ticket, but was defeated, as was every other Republican nominee that year, due to the "fusion" between the Populists, Democrats and Silver Republicans, who "swept the county" that year. After McBride left the Superior Court, he dedicated his time to practicing law in Mount Vernon.
Over the years, McBride gained recognition on the state level due to his part in a number of important court proceedings and sensational murder cases.
Career in politics.
Early political activity.
From the start of his legal career, McBride lead an active political life. He was a member of the Republican party, attending party conventions and promoting the party. By 1888, he became a "recognized leader" in political circles of Washington State.
In 1884, McBride was a member of the Republican Central Committee. That year, the towns of La Conner and Mount Vernon competed to become the county seat of Skagit County, and McBride took an active part in the event. He personally rode to Sedro-Woolley to prevent potential voter fraud there in favor of Mount Vernon. Nevertheless, Mount Vernon received the majority of votes to become the county seat instead of La Conner, which had played the role of temporary county seat.
In 1898, McBride became a chairman of the Republican County Central Committee. He was in charge of a county campaign, and his work was esteemed as "well planned and efficiently carried." That year, the campaign resulted in the victory of the entire Republican ticket.
Lieutenant-governor and becoming governor (1900–1901).
In 1900, McBride became a Skagit County nominee for governor of Washington State. However, at the party convention, it was decided to make John M. Frink a governor candidate instead, and McBride was up for the lieutenant-governor. McBride received public support and won the election by a vast majority of votes.
Prior to 1900, all state offices were under control of Populists, Democrats, and Silver Republicans elected in 1896. However, the picture changed completely: in 1900, members of the Republican ticket won every office except for the governor. Governor Rogers was the only Democratic candidate to succeed. His victory was a surprise for Republicans, especially after the "upsurge" of their party at the 1898 elections.
Governor Rogers died within a year, on December 26, 1901. By constitutional rule, McBride was appointed in his place, becoming the 4th Washington State governor. He didn't find out about his appointment right away due to a storm that broke down communications.
McBride officially started his governor term in January 1902, giving the Republican party full control of official positions for the 1901–1905 term.
Governorship (1901–1905).
McBride was the first governor of Washington State, born in the U.S. west, the first who succeeded to the office from the position of the lieutenant-governor, and the first man in Washington State to become governor as a result of the death of the previous office-holder.
Starting his term as governor, McBride believed the Legislature was throttled by "certain interests" and that "business meddled too much with politics." His aim was to defeat the lobbyists' "death grip on the Legislature." His other interest was the demarcation of educational institutions from politics, but he was mostly known as the "recognized leader" fighting against the railroad monopoly and supporting the railroad reform. In this he followed in the footsteps of his former law partner, Harold Preston, who advocated for the new railroad regulations between 1987 and 1901.
Railroad Commission promotion (1901–1903).
In the 1890s, the question of regulating the railroads was raised by many politicians, but was seen as a "revolt against the established order." By the time McBride became governor, a number of railroad companies operated in the state and competed to dominate the state government. Railroad control of the Legislature became one of the biggest political issues of that time, and McBride was in active opposition to it. He started to promote the establishment of the State Railroad Commission, claiming it was his "first priority." Despite the fact that Democrats as well as Republicans supported the creation of the commission at first, the opposition, led by powerful railroad lobbyists and influential politicians, "restrained" the Legislature from any action in regard to it. Legislature failed to pass a number of commission bills, and some
"questionable rulings in favor of the anti-commission" were met with near-riots.
McBride's campaign against the railroad lobby caused the most notable gathering of "famous transportation chiefs" in the history of the inland Northwest on August 4, 1902. The meeting discussed softening McBride's hit on the railroad lobby and soothing "people's clamor" in regard to regulating common carriers. McBride hoped to persuade the Republican state convention in September 1902 to accept the Railroad Commission and create it in 1903; the subject was a "notable plank" in the Republican platform of that year. However, that campaign promise disappeared from the official committee report presented at the convention, and was replaced by one in favor of "equitable railroad legislation."
McBride kept promoting the state regulation and separation of railroads from politics. His stance at the Legislature convention of 1903 was described as "resolute and uncompromising." He was ready for a strong confrontation and built his campaign for the Railroad Commission thoroughly. He convinced many delegations of the necessity of the commission, drew public attention to the railroad's "brazen interference with politics," and spurred public resentment towards it. McBride was present at every convention to defend his idea and to build and discuss strategy in regard to the commission. The Legislature didn't go through with the commission in 1903, as McBride wanted. Eventually, the railroads agreed to establish the commission but postponed it until the next year's legislative session. McBride was considered a winner in the fight for the commission. The entire campaign was called the "hardest floor battle" the Republicans were a part of in a decade.
1904 campaign and defeat.
McBride decided to "take the issue to the people," building his 1904 electoral campaign around the question of railroad regulation and the commission making it the main controversy of that year's election.
In the beginning of the campaign, McBride gained strong support as a candidate for governor. His candidacy was supported by the majority of Washington State Republicans, especially in eastern Washington, where organizations came out strongly in favor of him.
Several railroads that operated in Washington State and their lobbies were still tightly connected to the state politics and had a strong influence on it. They "controlled" the Republican party, were in opposition to McBride, and planned to remove him from politics by nominating their own Republican candidate and writing the platform. McBride's opposition controlled the majority of the votes in several Washington counties and encouraged western counties to give up on McBride's candidacy and come up with others. McBride was supported by the majority of counties, but fewer votes.
Trying to win over some votes and break up the railroad's agreements in the west, McBride's steering committee tried to make a deal with the King County delegation. J. D. Farrell, vice president of the Great Northern Railway, spokesman for railroad political interests, and one of the men leading the anti-McBride's campaigns, found out about the deal and rushed to the Tacoma convention to veto it.
The day after Farrell's arrival, the convention was held, McBride's nomination for governor was rejected, and Whatcom lawyer Albert E. Mead was nominated instead, subsequently becoming the new governor of Washington State. That year, all of the Republican state ticket won to make up the new Legislature.
The outcome of Governor McBride's official term.
During the election of 1904, Albert E. Mead answered the Democratic party's demand for the Railroad Commission, stating he was ready to approve it if the Legislature passed it. At the same time, immediately after McBride's defeat, the railroads agreed to accept the Railroad Commission and keep their lobbying away from the Legislature in Olympia.
In early 1905, Mead proceeded to create the commission, but it wasn't based on McBride's ideas and was mainly aimed in the railroads' favor. Although McBride didn't achieve his main goal during his official term, the railroads finally took a step back, gave up their Legislature lobbyists, and accepted the Railroad Commission. For years afterwards, it was considered the strongest organized lobby to exist in the state.
Afterwards, the Railroad Commission duties were re-appointed to the Board of Public Works, which had authority not only over railroads, but over all corporations providing public service. Later, the responsibility was moved to the State Department of Public Service.
During McBride's official service, Prosser, founder of Washington State Historical Society, described him as a "painstaking and careful" governor who concentrated all of his abilities "in behalf of the state." Years after McBride's governorship, he was considered "one of the most independent, honestly self-sufficient figures in the political history of the state" not only a Washington State pioneer but a "pioneer in progressive Republican leadership."
Other activity as governor.
On July 4, 1902, the keel was laid for the first Washington-built battleship, the "USS Nebraska", and a special ceremony was held to celebrate the event. McBride attended the ceremony with Governor Savage of Nebraska. Both governors made speeches and drove the first rivet into the ship's keel. The ship, built by the Moran Brothers shipyard in Seattle, Washington, was launched on October 7, 1904. It later became part of the Great White Fleet and the Pacific Fleet, and served during World War I.
For years, the Washington State Good Roads Association has been lobbying to improve and expand the state's highways. In 1903, the Legislature was finally convinced to pass House Substitute Bill No. 30, "Providing for the Establishment and Repair of Certain State Roads". On March 21, 1903, Governor McBride vetoed a vast array of appropriations, including Bill No. 30, due to the fact that their costs significantly exceeded provided funds. McBride's veto of the road bill, as well as a number of other vetoes, were overridden by Governor Mead in 1905. Only two Senators voted in support of McBride's road veto during the 1905 convention.
Career in later years.
Later political activity.
Defeated in the 1904 elections, McBride proceeded with his political career and campaigned for re-election as governor in 1908. At the time, he was considered "the leading 'first choice' candidate" for the gubernatorial nomination on the Republican ticket, but eventually was defeated by Samuel G. Cosgrove.
In 1912, McBride presided at the Republican State Convention, which preceded the National Convention in Chicago. There were two conventions held in Aberdeen; McBride took part in the one supporting Theodore Roosevelt's candidacy over William Howard Taft's in the presidential election.
In 1916, McBride became a nominee for governor elections, but was defeated by his opponent, Democrat Ernest Lister. McBride called the direct primary elections of that time "the cause of all that is wrong in politics" and "the cause of public overspending." He was against the new governor, calling him an "inferior type of man," and complained about the deterioration of the political and electoral situation with the creation of the new direct primary system.
In later years, McBride continued to closely follow political events and actively support the Republican party, despite the New Deal's influence on it.
Later career in banking, law and timber businesses.
In 1907, McBride became president of the Lake Goodwin Shingle Mill Company in Snohomish County.
Although McBride was still active politically, between 1913 and 1918 he also became recognized in Seattle banking and law circles. He worked with W. B. Stratton and Charley Dalton in a law firm named McBride, Stratton & Dalton. At the beginning of World War I, McBride left his law practice to become a Pacific Coast labor conciliator.
In later years, McBride entered the lumber business once more to manufacture shingles and lumber. He partnered with Herbert S. Conner to open their own enterprise. They left the business after some time and founded the Provident Savings & Loan Association in Seattle, where McBride served as president.
Although McBride officially retired from business by 1933, he still regularly attended shareholder meetings of the Provident Savings & Loan Association. Around 1935, McBride started to withdraw from his remaining duties due to failing health.
Other activity.
McBride was one of the main stockholders of the La Conner Water Works Company, which managed all the water works of La Conner.
From 1885 to 1887, McBride became co-editor and manager of the "Puget Sound Mail". It was the oldest newspaper in western Washington publishing first on July 5, 1873 under the name "Bellingham Bay Mail". Its office was originally situated in Whatcom (Bellingham), but later moved to La Conner. In 1891, McBride was publisher for the "Birdsview Bell" newspaper, which quickly closed. In 1902, McBride became a co-owner of the "Republican" newspaper. Its first issue was published under the name of "Wenatchee Republican" on September 8, 1898, and it changed owners a number of times both before and after McBride's ownership.
Personal life.
McBride married Alice Marie Garrett on February 7, 1884, in La Conner, Washington. Alice was born in Coupeville, Washington on February 27, 1864. Her father was an Englishman known as a "prominent pioneer" of Island County. While McBride became the first governor of Washington State who was born in west, Alice was the first Washington-born First Lady.
The McBrides had no children. They were both members of the Episcopal Church.
Alice McBride died on August 15, 1925 in the family home in Seattle. Her body was entombed in Washelli Mausoleum.
After his wife's death and his own retirement, McBride moved to Kirkland, Washington. He spent his later years living with his friends, the Bouchard family, on their ranch at Juanita Beach (or Juanita Point) near Lake Washington. The most exercise he did at the time, in his own words, were walks with his three collies: Laddie, Bonnie, and Sandy.
Hobbies and memberships.
As bicycles became popular, McBride used to ride from town to town campaigning and for personal pleasure. In his own words, he used to leave the court where he worked "at 4 o'clock in the afternoon and ride 50 miles before dinner." Among his other interests was fishing. McBride used to get up at 3 o'clock in the morning to ride with a friend to fish for trout.
McBride was a member of a number of popular fraternities and organizations, including the Masonic fraternity, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, and the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks.
Death and heritage.
After a long illness, McBride died on October 7, 1937 near Juanita, where he lived for the last eleven years of his life. His last request was to be buried near his wife in Washelli Cemetery in Seattle.
McBride's funeral was held on October 11, 1937, in Sessions Mortuary in Kirkland. His funeral was attended by many of his friends, colleagues, and acquaintances, including the only surviving former Washington State governor at the time, Roland Hartley, and McBride's former colleague, Harold Preston, founder of the Preston Gates & Ellis law firm.
At the time of his death, McBride had an estate valued at $11,000 ($203,000 in 2020 dollars). In his will, McBride left $7,500 ($138,000) to the Bouchard family, with whom he lived for the last years of his life. His will also mentioned two of his sisters-in-law, his brother William, and his niece, Alys Garret.


Roman Catholic Diocese of Bardstown

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Bardstown (Kentucky) was established on April 8, 1808, along with the dioceses of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, out of the territory of the Baltimore Diocese, the first Catholic diocese in the United States. When founded, the Bardstown Diocese included most of Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Michigan. The geographical area was large, and today there are 44 dioceses in the area comprising the original diocese.
History.
The first Catholic immigrants to the area came from Maryland in the year 1785. By 1796 it is estimated that there were 300 Catholic families in Kentucky. Among the early missionaries were Fathers Stephen Badin and Michel Barriere who set out on foot for Kentucky on September 3, 1793, sent by Bishop John Carroll of Baltimore. In April, 1794 Barriere left Bardstown, for New Orleans but Fr. Badin established the home base for his missionary journeys on Pottinger's Creek. For the next 14 years Fr. Badin travelled on foot, horseback and boat between widely scattered Catholic settlements in Kentucky and the Northwest Territory. After the departure of Father Barriêres, for three years Father Badin was the only priest in the whole of Kentucky. In 1797 the Rev. M.J.C. Fournier and, in 1799, the Rev. Anthony Salmon joined Father Badin, but the latter was killed by a fall from a horse nine months after his arrival, and Father Fournier died in 1803. In 1805 he received permanent help with the arrival of Rev. Charles Nerinckx.
The Dominicans arrived in Springfield in 1805. The Sisters of Loretto were founded in Marion County in 1812, that same year, Sisters of Charity of Nazareth were founded near Bardstown. A French colony arrived at Louisville in the year 1806 and settled near the Falls of the Ohio, to engage in the milling business, utilizing the falls for power. Their first church was built in 1811; Father Badin was the first pastor, and continued as such until 1817.
In 1808, Bardstown became a diocese in its own right, when Benedict Joseph Flaget was appointed by the Holy See as the first Bishop of the newly established Diocese of Bardstown on April 8, 1808. This was the largest diocese ever formed in the United States and comprised an area now covering 10 modern states, including Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, Michigan, Indiana and others. But Flaget opposed the appointment and traveled to France in an effort to have it reversed. He was unsuccessful in this effort. On his return trip to the United States, Flaget brought other early Sulpician missionaries to America: Simon Bruté, Guy Ignatius Chabrat, Anthony Deydier, and James Derigaud. The first two also became bishops in America. Upon his arrival, Flaget was consecrated a bishop by now-Archbishop Carroll on November 4, 1810 in a ceremony at the Baltimore Cathedral, now a basilica. So only three years after his appointment did Flaget arrive in Kentucky, and the following year he returned to Baltimore with Fr. Badin to discuss land title and other problems.
Upon taking office, Flaget found himself charged with the pastoral care of the western frontier of the United States, having the assistance of seven priests. Saint Thomas Seminary was established in 1811, and Saint Joseph College in Bardstown in 1820. The college was closed during the American Civil War and the building briefly served as a hospital for Union soldiers. Saint Mary College was founded in 1821. Before it was closed in 1976, it was the third oldest Catholic college for boys in the country.
The Diocese of Bardstown established its first church, Saint Thomas Parish, within four years of its founding. The diocese eventually increased the number of parishes to 23, and the number of priests from six to 36 within the first 25 years of its founding. The cornerstone of historic Basilica of Saint Joseph Proto-Cathedral was laid on July 16, 1816. Many of the paintings and interior decorations were donated by Pope Leo XII, King Louis-Philippe of France and others. The former cathedral of the Diocese of Bardstown, it is now a parish church. Flaget was responsible for a growing network of congregations.
John Baptist Mary David (who had been with Flaget in Kentucky since 1810) was ordained a bishop and named Flaget's co-adjutor in 1817, but for two years he tried to refuse the difficult position. He briefly succeeded Flaget in 1832, but he resigned less than a year later, when Flaget was again appointed to head the diocese.
In 1841, the Diocese was transferred from Bardstown to Louisville and was renamed the Diocese of Louisville with its Cathedral of the Assumption. Later it was raised to Archdiocese of Louisville. The Diocese of Bardstown, no longer a residential bishopric, is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Pope Benedict XVI's visit to the United States in April 2008 celebrated the 200th anniversary of the 1808 creation of the new dioceses and the elevation of Baltimore to an archdiocese.


Oregon Electric Railway

The Oregon Electric Railway (OE) was an interurban railroad line in the U.S. state of Oregon that linked Portland to Eugene. Service from Portland to Salem began in January 1908. The Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway purchased the system in 1910, and extended service to Eugene in 1912. Regular passenger service in the Willamette Valley ended in May 1933. Freight operations continued and the railway survived into the 1990s, ultimately as a Burlington Northern feeder. Operation as an electric railroad ended July 10, 1945.
The tracks run parallel to the main modern Union Pacific line between Portland and Eugene, used for freight and passenger service. The OE line is to the west, closely following the Willamette River. In the 2000s, the line has been under consideration as an alternative for Amtrak's Cascades and Coast Starlight passenger lines. Removing passenger service from the clogged Union Pacific track would improve the timeliness of the trains, permit higher capacity, and allow higher-speed travel, peaking at 110 MPH.
Burlington Northern operated the last freight train on the Portland-Beaverton segment of this mainline on December 31, 1994, in preparation for the construction of Westside MAX, part of the TriMet light rail system.
The right-of-way between Portland and Tigard has since been abandoned. From the north bank depot, it followed 10th Avenue, Salmon Street, and West Bank of the Willamette River. Portions of the right-of-way between the Southwest Waterfront and Multnomah Boulevard are currently under Interstate 5.
Stations.
Main line.
In order from north to south
United Railways line.
In order from west to east
Forest Grove line.
In order from west to east


Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency

Bill Clinton, a Democrat from Arkansas, was elected President of the United States on November 3, 1992 and was inaugurated as the nation's 42nd president on January 20, 1993. Re-elected on November 5, 1996, his second inauguration was on January 20, 1997, and his presidency ended on January 20, 2001 with the inauguration of George W. Bush. The following articles cover the timeline of Clinton's presidency:


Synergistic Software

Synergistic Software was a video game developer based in Seattle. Founded in 1978, the company published some of the earliest available games and applications for the Apple II family of computers. They continued developing games for various platforms into the late 1990s.
History.
Synergistic was founded in 1978 by Robert Clardy and Ann Dickens Clardy. They developed the "Dungeons & Dragons"-inspired "Dungeon Campaign / Wilderness Campaign" game, which was later expanded and repackaged as "".
Synergistic also published a number of business applications, including a word processor and simple database program.
Synergistic was acquired by Sierra On-Line in 1996. They maintained their identity as an independent development group within Sierra until the studio was closed on February 22, 1999.


Augustus Newbold Morris

Augustus Newbold Morris or A. N. Morris (June 3, 1838 – September 1, 1906) was a prominent American during the Gilded Age in New York City.
Early life.
Morris was born on June 3, 1838 to William Henry Morris (1810–1896) and Hannah Cornell Newbold (1816–1842). His paternal grandparents were Helen (née Van Cortlandt) Morris (1768–1812) and James Morris (1764–1827), High Sheriff of New York. His grandfather was a son of Lewis Morris (1726–1798), signor of the Declaration of Independence, from the prominent Colonial-era Morris family of the Morrisania section of the Bronx.
Career.
Morris graduated from Columbia College in 1860, and later, Columbia Law School. He was considered a "man of leisure," but worked nevertheless. He was a manager of the Home for Incurables at Fordham, a director of the Zoological Society, and a vice-president of the Plaza Bank. While he did not hold office, he was considered an Independent Democrat.
Society life.
In 1892, Morris and his wife were both included in Ward McAllister's "Four Hundred", purported to be an index of New York's best families, published in "The New York Times".
He was a governor, and one of the founders, of the Metropolitan Club, a member of the Union Club of New York, member of The New York Young Republican Club, president of the Suburban Riding and Driving Club, president of the Ridgefield Club, a director of the Coney Island Jockey Club, a director of the National Horse Show Association, a member of the Riding Club, the Automobile Club, and the Delta Phi fraternity.
Personal life.
On December 10, 1862, Morris was married to Eleanor Colford Jones (1841–1906), daughter of General James I. Jones (1786–1858) and Elizabeth (1817–1874), the older sister of Caroline Schermerhorn Astor (1830–1908), also known as "The Mrs. Astor," Mrs. Charles Suydam, and Mrs. John Treat Irving. Her father's country home became Jones's Wood. They had three sons and two daughters. His wife died at their home, 19 East 64th Street, in April 1906, and Morris died shortly thereafter on September 1, 1906, at his country home in Ridgefield, Connecticut.
Descendants.
Through his son Augustus, he was the grandfather of Augustus Newbold Morris (1902–1966), who was a lawyer, president of the New York City Council, and two-time candidate for mayor of New York City, George Lovett Kingsland Morris (1905–1975), a painter who married Suzy Frelinghuysen, and Stephanus "Stephen" Van Cortlandt Morris (1909–1984), a diplomat.


Commercial Iron Works

Commercial Iron Works was a manufacturing firm in Portland, Oregon, United States. Established in 1916, the company is best remembered today for its contribution to America's emergency shipbuilding program during World War II.
The company was founded in November 1916, by William T. Casey, Otto J. Hoak and Robert Boogs, on a site on the Willamette River just south of the Ross Island Bridge. Little is known about the company's early years, but it appears to have served diverse markets. For example, it placed a bid for the manufacture of 200 fire hydrants for the City of Portland in 1927, and supplied the high pressure outlet gates for the Unity Dam on the Burnt River near Baker, Oregon in 1937. The company is recorded as having built only one ship prior to World War II - a small 140-ton tender for the US Coast Guard in 1935. The CIW built the 25-ton tugboat Constance J for the Crown Willamette Paper Company. The Constance J was still in service as an active workboat as late as 2017 under the name Diane.
Commercial Iron Works established a shipyard on the Ross Island site in the early 1940s, which turned out close to 200 small warships during the war, including net layers, minelayers, submarine chasers, and LCI and LCS landing craft. It also outfitted larger ships built at other yards with armaments.
Following the war, the shipyard was acquired in 1946 by another local firm, the Zidell Machinery and Supply Company, which was eventually to transform the yard into America's largest shipbreaking operation.


Prince of the Union

Prince of the Union was the title created June 22, 1822, by the Constituent Congress, to be granted to the father of the emperor Agustín de Iturbide. This title went to Don José Joaquín de Iturbide.
Decree.
The Sovereign Mexican Constituent Congress decreed on June 22, 1822 the following:


Lewis Southworth

Lewis Southworth, also identified as Louis Southworth (1830–1917), was a pioneer and freed slave who settled a donation land claim in 1880 near Waldport in the U.S. state of Oregon. Born in Tennessee, he was brought to the territory by his "master", from whom he bought his freedom with cash earned chiefly from his expertise with the fiddle or violin. Southworth lived or worked near Monroe, Jacksonville, and Buena Vista before settling along a small tributary of the Alsea River, where he farmed and engaged in other enterprises and civic undertakings. After his wife died in 1901, Southworth bought a house in Corvallis, where he lived for the rest of his life.
Southworth was the first African-American member of the Oregon militia. Southworth Creek, a small tributary of the Alsea River, is named in his honor.
Slave.
In 1853, James Southworth, a Tennessee slave owner, had brought Southworth to the Oregon Territory as property. Slavery was not legal in the territory, and African Americans were prohibited from settling there. Efforts to discourage former slaves and their descendants from moving to Oregon continued through at least 1926, when a clause in the state constitution that made it illegal for African Americans to live in Oregon was repealed. Despite restrictions, James Southworth brought Lewis to Oregon and continued to regard him as his property.
In 1854 Lewis Southworth settled on an abandoned donation land claim near Monroe, in Lane County. Another pioneer, Benjamin Richardson, allowed him to live there on a claim that Richardson’s son no longer wanted. According to an article in "The Old Time Herald", James Southworth, thought to be cash-poor, lived with Lewis on the Richardson claim. Shortly thereafter, Lewis traveled to the gold fields near Jacksonville, where he earned $300 that he remitted to James in partial payment for his freedom.
While returning from Jacksonville to Monroe, Lewis encountered soldiers fighting in the Rogue River Wars who threatened to confiscate his rifle. To avoid proceeding unarmed through dangerous places, Southworth joined the militia but was subsequently wounded in a skirmish in 1856. He was the first African-American member of the Oregon militia.
Soon the James Southworth family moved again, this time to California to try gold mining, taking Lewis with them. While mining in Yreka, Lewis found fiddle playing more lucrative than looking for gold, and he subsequently taught violin and played for dance schools in Yreka and in Virginia City, Nevada. In this way, Lewis earned enough to pay James Southworth another $700 to be set free in 1858 or 1859.
After Lewis bought his freedom, James Southworth circulated a petition in Lane Country, Oregon, to protect "slave property." The petition made its way to the state legislature, but was not adopted.
Independent land owner.
Lewis Southworth returned to Oregon, and by 1870 he was running a livery stable in Buena Vista and working as a blacksmith. He married Mary Cooper in 1873 and helped raise her adopted son, Alvin McCleary. Under provisions of the Homestead Act of 1862, Southworth acquired a land grant near the Alsea River upstream of Waldport, where he farmed, fished, hunted, built a sawmill, became active in community affairs, and played the fiddle for dances. He donated land for a school near Waldport and served as a chairman of the school board.
After Cooper died in 1901, Southworth moved to Corvallis, where he bought and lived in a house at the corner of Southwest Fourth Street and Adams Avenue. He died in 1917 and is buried in Corvallis' Crystal Springs Cemetery next to his wife.
The tributary along which Southworth lived near Waldport was until 2000 officially known as "Darkey Creek". On the recommendation of the Oregon Geographic Names Board, it was changed by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names to "Southworth Creek" in 2000 in honor of Southworth.


Fortified Hill Works

Fortified Hill Works is a registered historic site near Hamilton, Ohio, listed in the National Register on July 12, 1974.
Survey history.
The site was surveyed in 1847 by Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis. The works would be documented in their 1848 book, "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley". They noted that the ditch around the earthworks was on the outside, instead of inside of the wall. As of 1847, they described the ditch as being "equal" at the steepest points of the hill, and "almost obliterated" in other areas. The wall is noted as being eight to ten feet high, and following the shape of the hill it was built on. There are three entrances into the earthwork.
The top part of the earthwork is described as enclosing a small circle, one hundred feet in diameter, with two small mounds inside of it. A third mound, which has been "truncated" was just north of the small circle. Both the small mounds had altars found in them after excavation. Ash and sherd were found in the altars. The two men believed it was a fort for defense, with the altars providing spiritual assistance. This group is called the "Newark Group".


David Brydie Mitchell

David Brydie Mitchell (October 22, 1766 – April 22, 1837) was an American politician in Georgia who was elected in 1809 as governor of the state, serving two terms. He was elected again in 1815 for one term.
Mitchell moved to Georgia at the age of 24. He had earlier been elected as mayor of Savannah and was appointed as state attorney general. He also served three terms in the Georgia General Assembly, two in the House of Representatives, and one in the Senate.
Mitchell resigned from the governorship in 1817 to accept an appointment by President James Monroe as United States Indian Agent to the Creek Nation in their lands in present-day Georgia and Alabama. He followed the more than two-decade tenure of Benjamin Hawkins. In 1820 he was prosecuted for being involved in smuggling of American slaves from Spanish Florida. He was replaced in 1821 by President Monroe, who appointed John Crowell.
Early life.
Mitchell was born in Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, on October 22, 1766. As a young man, he inherited land in Georgia from his late uncle.
He moved to Georgia in 1782 after the American Revolutionary War to Savannah, Georgia to claim it. Enthusiastic about the new country, Mitchell read the law with established attorneys and passed the bar. He was elected as mayor of Savannah (1801–1802) and made connections statewide.
Mitchell married Jane Mills in 1792, and according to family records the couple had six children: William, John, Sara, Edward, Mary, and David II.
Political career.
Mitchell was appointed as Attorney General of Georgia (1796–1806). He moved to Mount Nebo Plantation, near the state capital of Milledgeville. He served three terms in the Georgia General Assembly, two as a representative and one in the Senate.
Mitchell was elected to two consecutive two-year terms as the 27th Governor of Georgia (1809–1813) and a third non-consecutive term from 1815 to 1817.
He resigned from his third term as governor to accept appointment by President James Monroe as the U.S. agent to the Creek Indians. One of Mitchell's responsibilities was the negotiation of the Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818), by which the Creek ceded land to the United States. He was accused in the American Importation Case of 1820 of smuggling slaves into Creek and US territory, in violation of the 1808 law against the American slave trade. While his direct responsibility remains controversial, Mitchell allowed those engaged in this illegal activity to seek refuge for their captives at the agency he supervised along the Flint River. The incident resulted in a major inquiry and his dismissal by President James Monroe in 1821.
Beginning in 1828, Mitchell was appointed to serve as the inferior court judge of Baldwin County, Georgia. He was later elected as Baldwin County's State Senator in 1836.
Death and legacy.
Mitchell died at Mount Nebo Plantation, his home in Milledgeville, on April 22, 1837. He is buried at Memory Hill Cemetery of the same city.


American immigration to Canada

American immigration to Canada was a notable part of the social history of Canada. Over Canada's history various refugees and economic migrants from the United States would immigrate to Canada for a variety of reasons. Exiled Loyalists from the United States first came, followed by African-American refugees (fugitive slaves), economic migrants, and later draft evaders from the Vietnam War.
History.
Expulsion of the Loyalists.
During and after the American Revolution various loyalists became exiles from the newly forming United States. Its been estimated that a total of 60,000 white settlers left the new United States. The majority, about 33,000 went to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, another 6,600 went to Quebec, and 2,000 to Prince Edward Island. Others went to Florida and Great Britain. A recent study increases the estimate to the traditional figure of 100,000.
Canadian authorities believed that English loyalists and French Canadians could not co-exist. Governor Haldimand (at the suggestion of Carleton) brought Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the northern shore of Lake Ontario to anyone who would swear allegiance to George III. The Loyalists were thus given land grants of per person. This was done with the intent of keeping French and English as far apart as possible. Soon after the separation of the Province of Quebec, Lower Canada and Upper Canada were formed, each with its own government.
"Black Refugees".
After the War of 1812 a total of about 4000 Africans had escaped to the British through the Royal Navy. This would be the largest emancipation of African Americans prior to the American Civil War. Of those that escaped to Canada, about 2000 settled in Nova Scotia and about 400 settled in New Brunswick. Together they were the largest single source of African-American immigrants, whose descendants formed the core of African Canadians.
Underground Railroad.
Within the underground railroad, many escaped slaves desired to go to British North America (today's Canada), since its long border made it easy to flee to, it was further from slave catchers, and not under the rule of the U.S. Fugitive Slave Acts. Most escaped slaves, reaching Canada by boat across Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, settled in Ontario. More than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U.S. Census figures account for only 6,000.
Klondike Gold Rush.
During the Klondike Gold Rush an estimated 100,000 people tried to reach the Klondike goldfields, of whom only around 30,000 to 40,000 eventually did. The prospectors came from many nations, although an estimated majority of 60 to 80 percent were Americans or recent immigrants to America.
Immigration to West Canada.
After the settling of the American West a lot of land in Western Canada remained for sale. Between 1905 and 1923 around 330,000 came from the United States to Saskatchewan. These immigrants included native-born Americans and immigrants to America who first tried to settle in America. Between 1908 and 1911 over 1000 African Americans in Oklahoma would decide to come to west Canada, motivated by a distaste for American Jim Crow laws and the economic prospects of land in west Canada.
Vietnam War resisters.
Canadian historian Jessica Squires states that draft evaders coming to Canada were "only a fraction" of those who resisted the Vietnam War. According to a 1978 book by former members of President Gerald Ford's Clemency Board, 210,000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30,000 left the country. More recently, peace studies researcher David Cortright estimated that 60,000 to 100,000 left the U.S., mainly for Canada or Sweden.


Aleut

The Aleuts (; ), who are usually known in the Aleut language by the endonyms Unangan (eastern dialect), Unangas (western dialect), Унаӈан (lit. "people", singular is Unangax̂), are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands.
Both the Aleut people and the islands are divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai.
Language.
Aleut people speak Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language, as well as English and Russian in the United States and Russia respectively. An estimated 150 people in the United States and five people in Russia speak Aleut. The language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut language family and includes three dialects: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof Islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect.
The Pribilof Islands boast the highest number of active speakers of Unangam Tunuu. Most of the Native elders speak Aleut, but it is very rare for an everyday person to speak the language fluently.
Beginning in 1829, Aleut was written in the Cyrillic script. From 1870, the language has been written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut.
Tribes.
The Aleut (Unangan) dialects and tribes:
Population and distribution.
The Aleut people historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula, with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact. In the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands (within the Aleutsky District of the Kamchatka Krai in Russia) and to the Pribilof Islands (in Alaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities.
According to the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago. The Encyclopædia Britannica Online says more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century. The Aleut suffered high fatalities in the 19th and early 20th centuries from Eurasian infectious diseases to which they had no immunity. In addition, the population suffered as their customary lifestyles were disrupted. Russian traders and later Europeans married Aleut women and had families with them.
History.
After Russian contact.
After the arrival of Russian Orthodox missionaries in the late 18th century, many Aleuts became Christian. Of the numerous Russian Orthodox congregations in Alaska, most are majority Alaska Native in ethnicity. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut.
Recorded Uprising against the Russians.
In the 18th century, Russia "promyshlenniki" traders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleut provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleuts revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to what Aleut people said, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleuts less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleuts felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov (ステッパノ "Suteppano") and Kazhimov (カジモフ "Kazimofu") to kill his mistress Oniishin (オニイシン "Oniishin"), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods.
After the four leaders had been killed, the Aleuts began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials. (According to , written by Katsuragawa Hoshū after interviewing Daikokuya Kōdayū.)
Aleut genocide against Nicoleño Tribe in California.
According to Russian American Company (RAC) records translated and published in the Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, Vol. 34, No. 1 (2014), a 200-ton otter hunting ship named "Il’mena" with a mixed-nationality crew, including a majority Aleut contingent, was involved in conflict resulting in a massacre of the indigenous natives of San Nicolas Island.
In 1811, to obtain more of the commercially valuable otter pelts, a party of Aleut hunters traveled to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally resident Nicoleño nation sought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; in the ensuing battle, the Aleut killed nearly all the Nicoleño men. Together with high fatalities from European diseases, the Nicoleños suffered so much from the loss of their men that by 1853, only one Nicoleñan remained alive. (See Juana Maria, "The Lone Woman of San Nicolas", also known as Karana.)
Internment during World War II.
In June 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Kiska and Attu Islands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaidō, where they were held as prisoners of war in harsh conditions. Fearing a Japanese attack on other Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska, the U.S. government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died of measles, influenza and other infectious diseases which spread quickly in the overcrowded dormitories. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 19 as a result of Japanese occupation. The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the U.S. Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps.
The World War II campaign by the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in the American and Pacific theaters.
Population decline.
Before major influence from outside, there were approximately 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of aboriginal society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors.
Culture.
Housing.
The Aleut constructed partially underground houses called "barabara". According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, "barabaras" keep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area". Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, then covered with earth for insulation. Inside trenches were dug along the sides, with mats placed on top to keep them clean. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance. Several families would stay in one house, with their own designated areas. Rather than fireplaces or bonfires in the middle, lanterns were hung in the house.
Subsistence.
The Aleut survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as hunting sea mammals such as seal, walrus, and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted. Caribou, muskoxen, deer, moose, whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed as "alutiqqutigaq", a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus.
Today, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also buy processed foods from Outside, which is expensive in Alaska.
Ethnobotany.
A full list of their ethnobotany can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/5/ (65 documented plant uses).
Visual arts.
Customary arts of the Aleut include weapon-making, building of "baidarkas" (special hunting boats), weaving, figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. 19th-century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and walrus ivory. Andrew Gronholdt of the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building the "chagudax" or bentwood hunting visors.
Aleut women sewed finely stitched, waterproof parkas from seal gut and wove fine baskets from sea-lyme grass ("Elymus mollis"). Some Aleut women continue to weave ryegrass baskets. Aleut arts are practiced and taught throughout the state of Alaska. As many Aleut have moved out of the islands to other parts of the state, they have taken with them the knowledge of their arts. They have also adopted new materials and methods for their art, including serigraphy, video art, and installation art.
Aleut carving, distinct in each region, has attracted traders for centuries, including early Europeans and other Alaska Natives. Historically, carving was a male art and leadership attribute whereas today it is done by both genders. Most commonly the carvings of walrus ivory and driftwood originated as part of making hunting weapons. Sculptural carvings depict local animals, such as seals and whales. Aleut sculptors also have carved human figures.
The Aleut also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Each clan would have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads.
The main Aleut method of basketry was false embroidery (overlay). Strands of grasses or reeds were overlaid upon the basic weaving surface, to obtain a plastic effect. Basketry was an art reserved for women. Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality, using only their thumbnail, grown long and then sharpened, as a tool. Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven grass pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. Birch bark, puffin feathers, and baleen are also commonly used by the Aleut in basketry. The Aleut term for grass basket is "qiigam aygaaxsii". One Aleut leader recognized by the State of Alaska for her work in teaching and reviving Aleut basketry was Anfesia Shapsnikoff. Her life and accomplishments are portrayed in the book "Moments Rightly Placed" (1998).
Masks were created to portray figures of their myths and oral history. The Atka people believed that another people lived in their land before them. They portrayed such ancients in their masks, which show anthropomorphic creatures named in their language. Knut Bergsland says their word means "like those found in caves." Masks were generally carved from wood and were decorated with paints made from berries or other natural products. Feathers were inserted into holes carved out for extra decoration. These masks were used in ceremonies ranging from dances to praises, each with its own meaning and purpose.
Tattoos and piercings.
The tattoos and piercings of the Aleut people demonstrated accomplishments as well as their religious views. They believed their body art would please the spirits of the animals and make any evil go away. The body orifices were believed to be pathways for the entry of evil entities. By piercing their orifices: the nose, the mouth, and ears, they would stop evil entities, "khoughkh", from entering their bodies. Body art also enhanced their beauty, social status, and spiritual authority.
Before the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among the Aleut people, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle's feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins.
Piercing ears was also very common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect.
Tattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, after menstruation, at about age 20. Historically, men received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, an important rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a wealthy, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose.
Aleut clothing.
The Aleut people developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps. They called these parkas "kameikas," meaning raingear in the English language.
Sea-lions, harbor seals, and the sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing. Preparation of the gut for clothing involved several steps. The prepared intestines were turned inside out. A bone knife was used to remove the muscle tissue and fat from the walls of the intestine. The gut was cut and stretched, and fastened to stakes to dry. It was then cut and sewn to make waterproof parkas, bags, and other receptacles. On some hunting trips, the men would take several women with them. They would catch birds and prepare the carcasses and feathers for future use. They caught puffins ("Lunda cirrhata", "Fratercula corniculata"), guillemots, and murres.
It took 40 skins of tufted puffin and 60 skins of horned puffin to make one parka. A woman would need a year for all the labor to make one parka. Each lasted two years with proper care. All parkas were decorated with bird feathers, beard bristles of seal and sea-lion, beaks of sea parrots, bird claws, sea otter fur, dyed leather, and caribou hair sewn in the seams.
Women made needles from the wingbones of seabirds. They made thread from the sinews of different animals and fish guts. A thin strip of seal intestine could also be used, twisted to form a thread. The women grew their thumbnail extra long and sharpened it. They could split threads to make them as fine as a hair. They used vermilion paint, hematite, the ink bag of the octopus, and the root of a kind of grass or vine to color the threads.
Gender.
Russian travelers making early contact with the Aleut mention traditional tales of two-spirits or third and fourth gender people, known as "ayagigux̂" (male-bodied, "man transformed into a woman") and "tayagigux̂" (female-bodied, "woman transformed into a man"), but it is unclear whether these tales are about historical individuals or spirits.
Hunting technologies.
Boats.
The interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs.
To hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft called "baidarkas." For regular travel, they used their large baidaras.
The baidara was a large, open, walrus-skin-covered boat. Aleut families used it when traveling among the islands. It was also used to transport goods for trade, and warriors took them to battle.
The baidarka (small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. The Aleut baidarka resembles that of a Yup'ik kayak, but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made the baidarka for one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-man baidarkas were about long and wide, whereas a two-man was on average about long and wide. It was from the baidarka that Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea.
Weapons.
The Aleuts hunted small sea mammals with barbed darts and harpoons slung from throwing boards. These boards gave precision as well as some extra distance to these weapons.
Harpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleuts used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals.
The simple Aleut harpoon consisted of four main parts: the wooden shaft, the bone foreshaft, and the bonehead (tip) with barbs pointed backward. The barbed head was loosely fitted into the socket of the foreshaft so that when the animal was stabbed, it pulled the head away from the rest of the harpoon. The sharp barbs penetrated with ease, but could not be pulled out. The bone tip is fastened to a length of braided twine meanwhile; the hunter held the other end of the twine in his hand.
The compound harpoon was the most prevalent weapon of the Aleut people. Also known as the toggle-head spear, it was about the same size as the simple harpoon and used to hunt the same animals, however, this harpoon provided a more efficient and lethal weapon. This harpoon separated into four parts. The longest part was the shaft with the thicker stalk closer to the tip of the harpoon. The shaft was fitted into the socket of the fore shaft and a bone ring was then placed over the joint to hold the two pieces together, as well as, protecting the wooden shaft from splitting. Connected to the fore shaft of the harpoon is the toggle head spear tip. This tip was made of two sub shafts that break apart on impact with an animal. The upper sub shaft held the razor stone head and attached to the lower sub shaft with a small braided twine loop. Once the tip penetrates the animal the upper sub head broke off from the rest of the shaft, however, since it was still connected with the braided loop it rotated the head into a horizontal position inside the animal's body so that it could not get away from the hunter.
The throwing lance may be distinguished from a harpoon because of the fact that all its pieces are fixed and immovable. A lance was a weapon of war and it was also used to kill large marine animals after it has already been harpooned. The throwing lance usually consisted of three parts: a wooden shaft, a bone ring or belt, and the compound head that was made with a barbed bonehead and a stone tip. The length of the compound head was equivalent to the distance between the planes of a man's chest to his back. The lance would penetrate the chest and pass through the chest cavity and exit from the back. The bone ring was designed to break after impact so that the shaft could be used again for another kill.
Burial practices.
They buried their dead ancestors near the village.
Archeologists have found many different types of burials, dating from a variety of periods, in the Aleutian Islands. The Aleut developed a style of burials that were accommodated to local conditions, and honored the dead. They have had four main types of burials: "umqan", cave, above-ground sarcophagi, and burials connected to communal houses.
Umqan burials are the most widely known type of mortuary practice found in the Aleutian Islands. The people created burial mounds, that tend to be located on the edge of a bluff. They placed stone and earth over the mound to protect and mark it. Such mounds were first excavated by archeologists in 1972 on Southwestern Unmak Island, and dated to the early contact period. Researchers have found a prevalence of these umqan burials, and concluded it is a regional mortuary practice. It may be considered a pan-Aleutian mortuary practice.
Cave burials have been found throughout the Eastern Aleutian Islands. The human remains are buried in shallow graves at the rear of the cave. These caves tend to be located next to middens and near villages. Some grave goods have been found in the caves associated with such burials. For example, a deconstructed boat was found in a burial cave on Kanaga Island. There were no other major finds of grave goods in the vicinity.
Throughout the Aleutian Islands, gravesites have been found that are above-ground sarcophagi. These sarcophagi are left exposed, with no attempt to bury the dead in the ground. These burials tend to be isolated and limited to the remains of adult males, which may indicate a specific ritual practice. In the Near Islands, isolated graves have also been found with the remains, and not just the sarcophagus, left exposed on the surface. This way of erecting sarcophagi above ground is not as common as umqan and cave burials, but it is still widespread.
Another type of practice has been to bury remains in areas next to the communal houses of the settlement. Human remains are abundant in such sites. They indicate a pattern of burying the dead within the main activity areas of the settlement. These burials consist of small pits adjacent to the houses and scattered around them. In these instances, mass graves are common for women and children. This type of mortuary practice has been mainly found in the Near Islands.
In addition to these four main types, other kinds of burials have been found in the Aleutian Islands. These more isolated examples in include mummification, private burial houses, abandoned houses, etc. To date, such examples are not considered to be part of a larger, unifying cultural practice. The findings discussed represent only the sites that have been excavated.
The variety of mortuary practices mostly did not include the ritual of including extensive grave goods, as has been found in other cultures. The remains so far have been mainly found with other human and faunal remains. The addition of objects to "accompany" the dead is rare. Archaeologists have been trying to dissect the absence of grave goods, but their findings have been ambiguous and do not really help the academic community to understand these practices more.
Not much information is known about the ritual parts of burying the dead. Archeologists and anthropologists have not found much evidence related to burial rituals. This lack of ritual evidence could hint at either no ritualized ceremony, or one that has not yet been revealed in the archaeological record. As a result, archaeologists cannot decipher the context to understand exactly why a certain type of burial was used in particular cases.
In popular culture.
In "Snow Crash", a science fiction novel by American writer Neal Stephenson, a central character named Raven is portrayed as an Aleut with incredible toughness and hunting skill. The story is about revenge due in part to perceived mistreatment of the Aleut.
"Alaska" by James A. Michener.


Last Spike (Grand Trunk Pacific Railway)

The Last Spike of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway was driven one mile east of Fort Fraser, British Columbia, Canada on April 7, 1914.
History.
The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway commenced construction in British Columbia in 1908. This was one of the most difficult sections of track ever to be laid in North America and would cost approximately $112,000 per mile. There were two ends of construction, one being built from Prince Rupert, east and one from Winnipeg, Manitoba, west. In British Columbia, the railway had to cope with incredibly difficult terrain, extreme weather conditions and a shortage of workers. For example, the section of track from Prince Rupert to Hazelton took four years to complete (1908–1912), in part because the construction of the section from Prince Rupert to the Kitselas Canyon required of explosives that were used in the creation of three tunnels that had to be blasted through solid rock.
The costs of building the railway through the Northern Interior of British Columbia were much higher than the company had projected and disputes with rival town-site holders, especially at Hazelton and Fort George cut even deeper into the company's profits.
Then, in 1912, the Grand Trunk Pacific was dealt another blow when its general manager Charles Melville Hays died in the sinking of the "Titanic". Despite these obstacles and tragedies, the railway was completed and the vision of Charles Hays was finally realized.
Ceremony.
On April 7, 1914, the Grand Trunk Pacific Last Spike ceremony was held 1.5 kilometres east of Fort Fraser, BC, approximately 135 kilometres west of what is now Prince George.
The president of the Grand Trunk Pacific, Edson J. Chamberlain and Alfred Waldron Smithers, chairman of the board of directors, and other officers of the company all arrived by train from Winnipeg and Montreal, while from Prince Rupert, more dignitaries came for the ceremony, among these, General Superintendent W.C.C. Mehan, Superintendent G.A. McNichol, Division Engineer C.C. Vanarsdol and Assistant Engineer W.H. Tobey.
The ceremony began with a race between the track-layers and crews from the eastern and western ends of construction. The last mile had been left unfinished and each crew was timed to see who could complete their last half mile the fastest. The eastern crew won by a margin of only a few minutes and then the western crew placed the last rail.
Edson Chamberlain drove the last spike, (not a golden one but a standard black iron one), and once he completed that task, he gave gold watches to the men in charge of each crew. Painted on the last tie was "Point of Completion April 7th, 1914". After the ceremony, that last section of rail was removed and sliced into sections and then polished and engraved. The pieces were given to railway officials as paper-weights. One of these is in the possession of the Prince George Railway and Forestry Museum.


Cattaraugus Reservation, Erie County, New York

Cattaraugus Reservation is an Indian reservation located partly in Erie County, New York, United States. The population was 1,833 at the 2010 census.
The largest part of the reservation is in Erie County; smaller portions are located in Cattaraugus County and Chautauqua County. This is one of the reservations of the Seneca Nation of New York. The Seneca maintain most of their administrative and public service facilities for the Cattaraugus Reservation in the Erie County portion.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of 25.7 mi2 (66.5 km2). 25.3 mi2 (65.6 km2) of it is land and 0.3 mi2 (0.9 km2) of it (1.36%) is water.
Cattaraugus Creek runs along the southern portion of the census division, and Lake Erie helps form the western boundary.
New York State Route 438 is the primary route through the reservation. It is a state route in name only; the Seneca Nation maintains the route.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,001 people, 703 households, and 480 families living in the Indian reservation. The population density was 79.0/mi2 (30.5/km2). There were 753 housing units at an average density of 29.7/mi2 (11.5/km2). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 86.81% Native American, 11.74% White, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 1.20% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.90% of the population.
There were 703 households, out of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.6% were married couples living together, 29.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.6% were non-families. 26.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.40.
In the Indian reservation the population was spread out, with 35.3% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 17.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females there were 91.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.3 males.
The median income for a household in the Indian reservation was $28,713, and the median income for a family was $27,933. Males had a median income of $25,735 versus $23,438 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $12,382. About 27.8% of families and 30.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.9% of those under age 18 and 16.2% of those age 65 or over.


York (explorer)

York (1770sbefore 1832) was the only African American on the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the first African American to have crossed North America to reach the Pacific.
York was born enslaved, the son of Old York and Rose who were the slaves of John Clark III, William Clark's father. York was William Clark's slave, willed to him by his father on July 24, 1799. York was a few years younger than Clark but very large and naturally strong.
After experiencing an unprecedented amount of freedom on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, York had trouble adjusting back to the life of a slave. After requesting William Clark for his freedom upon the completion of the expedition, William Clark declined multiple times which led him to become agitated with York and eventually hired him out for work in Louisville, Kentucky. According to Washington Irving, William Clark told Irving he had freed York and given him six horses and a large wagon to start a drayage business driving between Nashville and Richmond.
There are conflicting reports on York's death but most historians believe he died from cholera on his way back to William Clark in St. Louis.
Early life.
York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. He and several members of his family were owned by the Clark family. The will of John Clark III (father of George Rogers and William Clark) states:I give and bequeath to my son Edmund... three negroes, to wit Peter (Vegas child), and Scipio and Darathy (Rose's children)...
I give and bequeath to my son William... one negro man named York, also old York and his wife Rose, and their two children, Nancy and Juba; also three old negroes, Tame, Cupid and Harry.The most plausible family tree based on this description and others is that York was the son of Old York, not by Rose, that Scipio (also spelled Sippo, Seppo, Sep, and Pipo, likely named the same as the Roman general Scipio Africanus) and Daphny (also spelled Dafney, Daphney, and Daphne) were Rose's children not by Old York, and that Nancy and Juba were Old York and Rose's biological children. This would make Scipio, Daphney, Juba, and Nancy the half-siblings of York.
William Clark called York his "playmate". York was left to William in his father's will. He had a fiancée whom he rarely saw and likely lost contact with her after 1811 when she was sold/sent to Mississippi. It is not known if York fathered any children.
Lewis and Clark Expedition.
During the expedition William Clark only mentioned York three times in journal he kept. York is first mentioned in Clark's journal on December 26, 1803, Clark mentions that York and corporal White House had been working with the whipsaws indicating that he was already working with the other men on the expedition. Clark mentions York again in his journal on June 5, 1804, noting that York had swum to a sand bar from the keelboat in order to collect some greens for dinner. The majority of the men on the expedition could not swim. Clark and another man said that, on June 20, York almost lost his eye during a playful altercation when he had sand thrown at him. York was mentioned again in Clark's journal after a small party including York descended the Spirit Mound Historic Prairie. Clark said that "York was nearly exhausted by the heat, thirst and fatigue". Clark said this was because York was too fat and unaccustomed to walking quickly. On September 19 it was noted that while on a hunting party York had killed an elk. There is no record of York having trained to use a firearm, which was not generally allowed for slaves.
Once the party reached the Arikara villages they were fascinated with York since they had never seen a black man before. The natives called him "Big Medicine," which translates to something that cannot be explained. York would play with the children of the villages and tell them that he was previously a wild animal that was tamed by Captain Clark and that he thought children were very good to eat. While playing these games with the children, he would show them how strong he was and roar at them. The men and women of the villages adored York as well. On October 12, 1804, it is noted that an Arikara welcomed York to his lodge, where the native man's wife was waiting. The Arikara man stood guard outside for some time in order to permit no interruption of their business. "Their women are very fond of caressing our men, and are much pleased with York. He had fun terrifying the children who constantly follow him," October 15, 1804. York was not pleased with all the attention he received though. During a meeting with a Hidatsa chief named Le Borge, York became very angry and pulled a knife on the chief after he had tried to rub York's skin, thinking it was paint.
On November 18, 1805, York accompanied Clark to a tree at Cape Disappointment State Park, Washington where Clark added his name to Lewis's and carved in the tree "By Land from the U. States in 1804 & 1805". York became the first black man to reach the Pacific Ocean when he walked nineteen miles (30km) from their camp with Clark. In late November, York voted on a decision pertaining to the expedition, making him the first black man known to have voted west of the Mississippi. All the men of the expedition were paid according to rank $5 to $30 per month and granted 320 acres for each enlisted men, except for York.
Historian Robert Betts said the freedom York had during the Lewis and Clark expedition made resuming enslavement unbearable. After the expedition returned to the United States, every other member received money and land for their services. York asked Clark for his freedom based upon his good services during the expedition. According to one account discussed below, Clark eventually gave him his freedom.
"It is shown that York had gained a little freedom while on the expedition with Lewis and Clark. It is mentioned in journals that York went on scouting trips and going to trade with villages, experiencing freedom while doing that. Clark named two geographic discoveries after him; York's Eight Islands and York's Dry Creek, indicating that Clark may have respected him. When a poll was taken to decide where the group should stay over one winter, York's vote was recorded. He was also able to swim, unlike some of the men who were with them on their expedition.
Later years.
As to York's later life and death, Washington Irving was told by Clark in 1832 that Clark had freed York, but that York regretted being free because he was a failure at business, and died trying to get back to serve his master as a slave again in St. Louis. Some modern historians doubt the credibility of Clark's story because it reflects pro-slavery arguments that Africans were happy to be slaves, and could not lead successful lives as free people. Others contend that, as Clark's childhood playmate and long-time companion, the two men had a friendship and mutual respect that was unusual for the time. However, manumission laws and practices of the era often required freed slaves to leave the area, and their family and friends.
Another account led to speculation that York returned west and lived among the Indians. This speculation seems to be based on the account by Zenas Leonard who reported meeting with an African man living among the Crows in north-central Wyoming in 1834, writing:
In this village we found a negro man, who informed us that he first came to this country with Lewis & Clark—with whom he also returned to the State of Missouri, and in a few years returned again with a Mr. Mackinney, a trader on the Missouri river, and has remained here ever since—which is about ten or twelve years. He has acquired a correct knowledge of their manner of living, and speaks their language fluently. He has rose [sic] to be quite a considerable character, or chief, in their village; at least he assumes all the dignities of a chief, for he has four wives, with whom he lives alternately.
However, the black man who lived among the Crow was most likely a well-known African American mountain man, Edward Rose (c.1780-c.1833). Leonard's account of this unnamed man came after the reported deaths of both Rose and York.
York had experienced freedom on his adventures with Lewis and Clark. He was part of the team, and he contributed just like the rest with hunting, fishing, putting up tents etc. He had crossed rivers and mountains on the expedition and had a taste of what true freedom is like. On the expedition he felt like a free man, but when he returned east he was a slave again. Relations between Clark and York deteriorated and in 1809 was removed from the position of body servant and hired out to a farm owner named Young. It is unclear if this was a punishment, Young being notorious for abusing his slaves, or so that York could be closer to his wife, who lived in the region.
In the PBS series "", director Ken Burns states that York continued to work for Clark as a slave after the expedition. York asked for his freedom and at first Clark refused but did send him to Kentucky so he could be closer to his wife. Ten years after the expedition Clark granted York his freedom and York worked in the freighting business in Tennessee and Kentucky. In 1832, York died from cholera.
Legacy.
There is no doubt that York played a vital role while reading through the journals written during the expedition. Not only did he fulfill his duties as a laborer along the expedition, the journals also suggest that the color of York's skin intrigued the Native tribes so much they seemingly gave the expedition a pass through the land as well as commencing with trade. The journals also suggest that York had gained the respect of many of the men who were part of the expedition as well.
Popular culture.
In 1999 Kentucky actor and writer Hasan Davis evoked York through the Kentucky Humanities Council's Chautauqua Living History program. As the Bicentennial Commemoration of the Lewis and Clark Expedition neared, Davis was invited to share York's story along the trail and across the nation as part of the national retelling of the expedition and its impact on the nation, native communities, and future generations.
In 2019 Davis' book "The Journey of York: Unsung Hero of the Lewis and Clark Expedition" was released by Capstone Publishing.
Kentucky poet Frank X Walker has written two books of poetry about York: "Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York" (2004), and "When Winter Come: the Ascension of York" (2008). Both books were published by the University of Kentucky Press.
In his novel "Little Big Man", Thomas Berger mentions York as having likely been the father of some dark-skinned Indians.
The opera "York" (composer Bruce Trinkley and librettist Jason Charnesky), based on York's life, was composed for the first international conference on the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial and performed at Penn State Opera Theatre.
The play "York" was created by actor and African drummer David Casteal and playwright Bryan Harnetiaux, and premiered at Spokane Civic theatre on April 29, 2005, as directed by Susan Hardie and performed by David Casteal, (with performances in New York City i July 2006). In commemoration of Black History Month, the play was again presented on February 27–28, 2016 with David Casteal returning in the lead role as York in a one-man performance.
Honors.
A statue of York, by sculptor Ed Hamilton, with plaques commemorating the Lewis and Clark Expedition and his participation in it, stands at Louisville's Riverfront Plaza/Belvedere, next to the wharf on the Ohio River. Another stands on the campus of Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Oregon. Dedicated on May 8, 2010, it does not focus on York's face, since no images of York are known to exist. Instead, it features fragments of William Clark's maps "scarred" on the statue's back. NW York Street in Portland also commemorates the explorer.
In July 1989, a statue group by sculptor Bob Scriver, "Explorers at the Portage" was erected in Overlook Park in Great Falls, Montana. It depicts Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, York, and the expedition's dog, Seaman, surveying the junction of the Missouri and Sun rivers. Scriver donated a copy of the work to the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Interpretive Center, located near the city on the Crooked Falls of the Great Falls of the Missouri River.
Yorks Islands are an archipelago of islands in the Missouri River near Broadwater County, Montana, which were named for York by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The islands were originally named "York's 8 Islands", but have since become known as "Yorks Islands" or simply "York Island".
In 2001, President Bill Clinton posthumously granted York the rank of honorary sergeant in the United States Army.
A four-foot bust of York on a pedestal was secretly installed in Mount Tabor Park, Portland, Oregon, in 2021. On the pedestal is a plaque describing York's role in the Lewis and Clark expedition. The artist is unknown.


Eleanor Lytle McKillip Kinzie

Eleanor Lytle McKillip Kinzie (fl. 1800) was the great-grandmother of Juliette Gordon Low, wife of John Kinzie, and mother of John H. Kinzie. At the age of nine, Eleanor was captured by Native Americans. She was a captive of a Seneca tribe for four years and was adopted into the family of Chief Cornplanter. He released her and her family moved to Detroit. At the age of 14, she was married to Captain McKillip, a British officer. They had a daughter named Margaret and he was later killed in 1794 by friendly fire at the future location of Fort Defiance at the Miami Rapids.


Port Discovery, Washington

Port Discovery, Washington is the historical name of what is now called Discovery Bay, a bay in the U.S. state of Washington on the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, on Washington's Olympic Peninsula. It was also called Port Discovery Bay for some time, a name that can be found on maps from the 1940s and earlier. Port Discovery is also the name of a historically significant community that was located on the bay for roughly a hundred years; it disappeared in the late 20th century, with the collapse of the local timber industry.
The bay.
The bay was first visited by Europeans in 1790, during the expedition of Manuel Quimper in the "Princesa Real", with Juan Carrasco as pilot. They gave it the name "Puerto de Quadra", after Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, their commander at San Blas. In 1791 Francisco de Eliza used Port Discovery as his base of operations for further explorations.
The name Port Discovery was given by George Vancouver in his 1792 visit to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and honors his ship the Discovery. Vancouver's landing place was apparently at what was later called Carr Point (also Contractors Point).
Port Discovery was a regular port of call for ships traversing the Pacific until the mid 20th century, and in particular for many U.S. ships involved in World War II, such as , , and . The wreck of "War Hawk", a clipper ship which burned and sank in 1883, is a popular dive site in the bay, near Mill Point.
The community.
In the 19th century, Port Discovery became an important coastal community, centered on a large sawmill that was established in 1858. The settlement called Port Discovery was located at what now is called Mill Point, on the west shore of the bay, to the east of U.S. Highway 101 at what is now Broders Road. This spot is several miles north of the current settlements at the foot of Discovery Bay.
The town at Mill Point dwindled after the closing of the sawmill, and vanished after the later collapse of the local timber industry. Only a couple of houses and an old pier remain at the site, which is private property.
Until around 2008, the prominent remains of another famous sawmill were visible further down the shore from Mill Point, near what was Maynard, Washington at the foot of the bay. The romantic, derelict building was adjacent to Highway 101, and was thus seen by every passing motorist; it was one of the most-photographed sites in the area for decades. Many such photos are mislabeled as the Port Discovery mill, although the Maynard mill was built later. By 2010, the building's vestiges were removed, in efforts to restore Discovery Bay salmon and shellfish habitat.