Daegu Democracy Movement

The Daegu Democracy Movement (also known as the 2.28 Daegu Democracy Movement) broke out February 28, 1960, ahead of the March 1960 South Korean presidential election during the period of Syngman Rhee's government, in resistance against his Liberal Party's dictatorship. After this movement, the 3.15 Masan democracy movement broke out, and the Daegu Democracy Movement became the main cause of the April Revolution.
Beginning.
Sunday, February 28, 1960 was the opposition Democratic Party's president and vice presidential candidate Chang Myon's campaign assembly in Daegu. On that day, the authorities commanded students to go to school so as to prevent their attendance at the Democratic Party's campaign rally, an action that became the source of the Daegu Democracy Movement.
Summary.
Kyeongbuk High School ordered students to go to school on Sunday, February 28, 1960 on the grounds of advancing the midterm date in March. Seven other public high schools also ordered students to go to school, even offering unusual pretexts such as hare hunting or watching movies. February 27, 1960, at his home in Dongin-dong, Daegu, the chairman of the student government of Kyeongbuk High School, Dae-Woo Lee, along with 8 students from Kyeongbuk High School, Daegu High School and Kyungpook National University High School made a resolution to organize a demonstration in protest of the unfairness of the action ordering students to go to school on a Sunday. While on February 28 at 1:00 pm, 800 students marched to the provincial government building via Daegu's Banwoldang station, and more students from other schools began joining the demonstration. When they met Chang Myon on the way to his campaign rally, they cried "hurrah."
The governor said of the students, "They are all Communists," but most citizens stopped police who were beating students, cheered for them, and there were ladies who hid students by concealing their hats under the hem of their skirts.
One thousand two hundred students joined this movement, and 120 students were arrested by the police, but police were worried about spreading demonstrations and so released most of the students excepting some of the leaders.
Resolution.
At 12:55 pm, the chairman of student government of Kyeongbuk High School, Dae-Woo Lee and company ascended the podium and read this resolution, after which students shouted and clapped:
"These million students, if you have a blood, then hesitate not but stand up for our sacred rights. Now at this very moment, the students' red blood is racing, and our spirit is to fight until our last breath to destroy the injustice that betrays justice itself, and our appeal is for reason based in righteousness."
So it is said that the fight against the dictatorship began in Daegu.
Main Agent of the Movement.
The main agent of the Daegu Democracy Movement was high school students, and it was the student movement and their planned demonstration that prepared Korea for the national movement.
The movement was followed by the 6.10 Movement, Gwangju Student Independence Movement, and it became the first of the student movements that broke out in Korea's postwar period. It was notably the main cause of the April Revolution, which provided the crucial opportunity to destroy the dictatorship and had an effect on the opposition movement for establishing diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan.
Daegu soon turned into a scene of excitement filled with calls for democratization. At this period, people were enraged with the Liberal Party's maladministration during incidents like Busan Government Crisis in 1952, the Constitutional Amendment rounding off to the nearest integer incident in 1954, The Accident of the Progressive Party, 1958, and concluded with the March 1960 South Korean presidential election.


Bhuvanaikabahu V of Gampola

Bhuvanaikabahu V was King of Gampola who ruled from 1372/3 to 1391/2. He succeeded his uncle Vikramabahu III as King of Gampola and was succeeded by Vira Bahu II.


Nishtar Park bombing

On 11 April 2006, a bombing at Nishtar Park in Karachi, Pakistan resulted in the deaths of at least 49 people and injured around a hundred others. At the time of the blast, a mawlid ceremony to mark the birthday of the Prophet Mohammed organised by the Barelvi Jamaat Ahle Sunnat was taking place, in which tens of thousands of followers were gathered.
Among the dead were several Barelvi religious figures, including the senior leadership of the Jamaat Ahle Sunnat and the Sunni Tehreek. The notable leaders included Chief of Sunni Tehreek, Maulana Muhammad Abbas Qadri, central leaders Maulana Akram Qadri, Maulana Iftikhar Ahmad Bhatti, Dr. Qadeer Ahmad and Haji Haneef Billo, Hafiz Muhammad Taqi of other parties. Three men said to belong to the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi were indicted for the crime.


First Bone War

The First Bone War was a series of punitive expeditions of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army against the Bone state in South Sulawesi in 1824–25.
Bone had been an ally of the Dutch East India Company since the Treaty of Bungaya of 1667, but considered itself released from its obligations by the Dutch surrender to the British in 1811. In 1814 and again in 1816, Bone fought against the British. In 1816, the Dutch were restored to their former colonies per the outcome of the Congress of Vienna. When the Governor-General Godert van der Capellen visited South Sulawesi in 1824 to renew the Treaty of Bungaya, Bone was the only native state to refuse. When van der Capellen left, the queen of Bone attacked the Dutch positions, annihilating two garrisons.
In 1825, the Dutch and their allies from Gowa counter-attacked. The outbreak of the Java War later that year necessitated the withdrawal of most Dutch soldiers. Thus, the war ended without Bone having renewed the Treaty of Bungaya. The stalemate persisted until 1838, when Bone finally renewed the treaty.
As a result of the Dutch attacks, the port of Bajoe was abandoned by the Sama people, who fled to Luwu.


Phraya Phichai

Phraya Pichai (th: พระยาพิชัย), or popularly known as Phraya Pichai Daap Hak (th: พระยาพิชัยดาบหัก; lit: Phraya Pichai of the shattered sword) (1741 – 1782) was a historic Mon hero of Thonburi period who fought with a sword in each hand until one was broken.
Background.
Phraya Pichai was a Siamese general serving under King Taksin. After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, Phraya Pichai and Chao Phraya Chakri (who later become the first King of Chakri Dynasty) followed Phraya Taksin in repelling the Burmese and reuniting Siam. They were considered Phraya Taksin's left and right hands.
In 1782, King Taksin showed signs of mental illness. At that time, the nation still lacked stability and was in need of a strong ruler. King Taksin was deposed and later executed following a coup, after which Chao Phraya Chakri took the throne . Phraya Pichai, a devout follower of King Taksin, was not spared, and by most account, requested for his own execution to follow King Taksin to his death. He was executed soon after.
He gained the name Phraya Phichai Daabhak or Phraya Pichai Broken Sword in a battle in which he kept fighting (and won) even after one of his blades (daab) was broken in half.
Early life.
Birth.
Phraya Pichai was born in 1741 at Ban Huai Kha, Phichai, Uttaradit Province, having four brothers and sisters but three of them died before Phichai"s birth. His parents were unknown. His birthname was Choi (th: จ้อย; means: the little one).
Childhood.
When Choi was a young boy, he loved to practice Thai boxing and would always be running away without his parents knowing, to train in the art. He trained with many teachers of that time.
One day, Choi left home northernwards and met with a boxing instructor named "Thiang" (th: เที่ยง) at Wat Ban Kaeng (th: วัดบ้านแก่ง). Choi then became a beloved student of Instructor Thiang and renamed as Thong Di (th: ทองดี), his instructor called him as "Master Thong Di Fan Khao" (th: ทองดีฟันขาว; means: Thong Di whose teeth are white) as he did not chew betel nut. The Thai people loved chewing betel nut, which made their teeth black, since the ancient time until the Government under the premiership of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram issued a ban on chewing the nut in 1942.
Career.
Serving the Crown.
One day, Phraya Tak (later to become King Taksin the great of Thonburi kingdom) was holding a boxing contest in the city of Tak during a traditional festival. Now a young man of twenty years, Thong Di asked the ring master to find him a match. The towns people having never seen the boxer before suggested that he take an opponent who had little experience so that it would make an exciting fight, but Thong Di insisted that he would fight the most skillful boxer in the town.
A famous boxing master of Tak, "Nai Hao", who nobody dared to challenge, gladly agreed to take the fight. A huge crowd gathered to see the young boxer Thong Di fight the invincible Nai Hao. Throughout the bout Thong Di showed brilliant Thai boxing style.
Seeing a resounding victory over Nai Hao after witnessing such a formidable display, Phraya Tak showed no hesitation in asking Thong Di to join his army. Thong Di were very pleasing to Phraya Tak who appointed him to be his personal bodyguard.
Commander-in-Chief.
The Emperor of China Qianlong, was alarmed by the military might of the Burmese. From 1765–1769, the Emperor sent his armies four times to subdue the Burmese, but all four invasions failed. Siam was under the control of the Burmese since the sacking of Ayutthaya in 1767, but the Burmese had to withdraw the bulk of garrison army from Siam to ward of the Chinese invasions, leaving behind only a small contingent. Phraya Tak taking advantage of the situation, organized his men into an army and drove back the Burmese force.
Phraya Tak started off as a guerrilla leader with only five hundred followers. But within a decade the Siamese Kingdom was reborn and grew into an empire that subdued both Laos and Cambodia under its dominion. During the independence war, Phraya Taks managed to escape to Rayong on the East coast of Siam. Here with the help of Thong Di, now his Commander-in-Chief, raised an army and declared all out war on Burma. The action was to eventually regain freedom for the Siamese people.
Thong Di, under the guidance of Phraya Tak and using guerrilla tactics, won back many small towns and villages from the Burmese. It was during one of the many battles, that Thong Di was to become famous. In 1773 an army under celebrated Burmese General Bo Supia was sent to capture the City of Pichai. Thong Di led the Siamese army and fought him at Wat Aka and Chao Phya Surasi helped him battle the Burmese. The Burmese general was driven into retreat while sustaining great losses to his troops.
The One with Broken Sword.
In the heat of the battle which Thong Di fought with "daab song mue" (two handed swords) and after many fierce engagements he slipped and used one of his swords to control himself by pointing it into the ground, as he leaned on the sword it broke in half. Thong Di used his Thai boxing techniques. One dap and one broken one, he led his army to victory forcing the Burmese back across the border.
As a result of this battle he was known as "Phraya Pichai Daap Hak". Eventually after fifteen years of war the Siamese under king Taksin had forced the Burmese army back and Siam regained all of its original frontiers.
Death and legacy.
When King Taksin died in 1782, the new King Rama I of the Chakri Dynasty (the present day rulers), declared his new capital Bangkok. As a reward for his loyalty and service to his country King Rama asked Phraya Pichai if he would continue his good work as the king’s guard. (In these times the law of the land stated that once a King died, his bodyguards and loyal servants should die with him, but King Rama offered to take an exception for Phraya Pichai.)
However, Phraya Pichai was so saddened by the death of his beloved King Taksin that he ordered the executioner to do away with him, despite King Rama's kindness. Such was the loyalty that Phraya Pichai had for King Taksin. Instead he asked King Rama to raise his son and in time that son could become King's personal bodyguard in his father's place.
Phraya Pichai was executed on his own order when he was 41 years old. A monument built to the memory of Phraya Pichai in 1969. The bronze image of the great warrior stand proudly in front of the Parliament Building in Uttaradit and serves to remind each generation of the amazing man's courage and loyalty to his King and the Thai nation. The epitaph reads "In memory and loving honor for the pride of our nation".


Nukha Uyezd

Nukha Uyezd (), also transliterated as Nukhinsky Uyezd, sometimes called Shakinsky Uyezd, was one of the "uyezds" (administrative units) of Elisabethpol Governorate of the Russian Empire and then of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic with its center in Nukha from 1868 until its formal abolition in 1921 by Soviet authorities.
Geography.
Elisabethpol Governorate consisted of Yelizavetpolsky, Nukhinsky, Shushinsky, Zangezursky, Kazakhsky, Areshsky, Dzhebrailsky, and Dzhevanshirsky Uyezds. Nukha uyezd was located in the far northeastern part of Elisabethpol Governorate, bordering Dagestan Oblast on the north, Baku Governorate on the east, Georgian Governorate on the west and Areshsky Uyezd on the south. The uyezd center was the city of Nukha. The northern part of the uyezd was mountainous and lied along the Greater Caucasus mountain range, where the altitude reaches as high as 14-15 thousand ft. Among the notable peaks are Mount Bazardüzü (14,722 ft) and Tkhfan Dag (13,764 ft) enriched with many rivers. The lower part of the region has the best conditions for gardening, harvesting rice and sericulture. Main rivers are Shin-chay, Kish-chay, Ajighan-chay, Turyanchay, Goychay which were used for irrigation purposes.
History.
After establishment of Russian rule over the khanates in the South Caucasus and institution of administrative reforms, the territories of Shaki Khanate were incorporated into Shamakhi Governorate of the empire, later renamed to Baku Governorate. Upon establishment of Elisabethpol Governorate in 1868, Nukha Uyezd was transferred from Baku to Elisabethpol Governorate. In 1874, the southern section of Nukha Uyezd was separated to form the new Aresh Uyezd within the same governorate. On August 30, 1918 Elisabethpol Governorate was renamed to Ganja Governorate, as per administrative division of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.
Population.
According to census held in 1897, the population of uyezd was 120,555, of which 83,578 were Turko-Tatars (now Azerbaijanis), 18,899 were Armenians, 8,506 - Kyuris, 7,030 - Udis, 1,752 - Tats, 230 - Russians, and other minorities. The population was engaged primarily in agricultural farming, gardening, sericulture, tobacco growing. At the end of the 19th century, Nukha Uyezd was making up about 95% of tobacco production of Elisabethpol Governorate.


Siberian Tatars

Siberian Tatars (), the indigenous Turkic-speaking population of the forests and steppes of South Siberia, originate in areas stretching from somewhat east of the Ural Mountains to the Yenisei River in Russia. The Siberian Tatars call themselves "Yerle Qalıq" ("older inhabitants"), to distinguish themselves from more recent Volga Tatar immigrants to the region.
The word "Tatar" or "Tadar" is also used as a self-designation by some closely related Siberian ethnic groups, namely the Chulym, Shor, Teleut and Khakas peoples.
The 2010 census counted more than 500,000 people in Siberia defining their ethnicity as "Tatar". About 200,000 of them are considered indigenous Siberian Tatars. However, only 6779 of them called themselves "Siberian Tatars". It is not completely clear which part of those who called themselves "Siberian Tatars" consider themselves to be a separate ethnos and which part as a group into the Tatar people, because the census took into account the Siberian Tatars as a subgroup of the Tatar ethnos.
, the Siberian Tatars do not yet have public education available in their own language. Lessons in the local schools are taught only in the Russian and Volga Tatar languages; neither language is indigenous to Siberia – ethnic Russian and Volga Tatar immigrants introduced both over two centuries ago.
Population.
Siberian Tatars historically lived in the vast territory stretching from around the Yenisei river all the way to the area lying somewhat east of the Ural mountains.
According to the ambassadors of the Siberian Khanate ruler Yediger Khan, who visited Moscow in 1555, the population of "the black people," not counting the aristocracy, was 30,700. In a decree concerning tribute issued by Ivan the Terrible, the population was given as 40,000.
According to the results of the 1897 All-Russia Census, there were 56,957 Siberian Tatars in Tobolsk guberniya. This was the last accurate information about this population. In later censuses, Tatar immigrants from the other regions of Russia were also recorded under the classification of Tatar. The Siberian Tatars tried to avoid the census as much as possible, as they believed that it was an attempt to force them to pay the Yasak (tribute).
Their population in the territory of the current Tyumen Oblast in 1926 was recorded as 70,000; in 1959 as 72,306; in 1970 as 102,859; 136,749 in 1979; 227,423 in 1989; and 242,325 in 2002. According to the results of the 2002 Russian Census, there were 385,949 Tatars living in the oblasts discussed above. (Their territory roughly corresponds to the historical territory of the Siberian Khanate). Of these Tatars only 9,289 identified as Siberian Tatars.
2002 Russian Census recorded a total of 9,611 Siberian Tatars in Russia. Some publications estimated their number in the range of 190,000-210,000. Such significant discrepancy is explained by the fact that the immigrants from the other ethnic groups who are also called Tatar by the Russians were also included in the figure, though most were Volga Tatars.
Origin and ethnogenesis.
The term Siberian Tatar covers three autochthonous groups, all Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi madhab, found in southern Siberia. They are remnants of the Khanate of Sibir, which was conquered by Russia in 1582. Geographically, the Siberian Tatars are divided into three main groups, each speaking their own dialect. Although the Siberian Tatar language has been sometimes considered a dialect of Tatar, detailed linguistic study demonstrates that Siberian Tatar idioms are quite remote from Volga Tatar by origin. Siberian Tatars' ancestry was partly from Turkic and Mongol peoples, but their main ancestors are Samoyedic, Yeniseian and Ugrian tribes.
Siberian Tatar language.
Siberian Tatar language is, due to the Kipchakization processes during the Middle Ages, many times classified as belonging to the Kipchak–Nogay group of the Kipchak languages. There are approximately as many elements that could be classified in the language group.
Beginning in the 12th century, the Siberian Tatar language received some Karluk influences. Those Siberian Tatars who are living in ethnically mixed villages where, in the periods after Russian colonization, more numerous Volga Tatars settled, have also been influenced by the Kipchak-Bulgar language.
Siberian Tatar language has different dialects. Since the penetration of Islam until the 1920s after the Russian Revolution, Siberian Tatars, like all Muslim nations, were using an alphabet that had been based on Arabic script. In 1928 they adopted an alphabet based on Latin script, and in 1939 one based on the Cyrillic script. Until 2014, the written language for Siberian Tatars was Tatar, a version based on the grammar rules of Volga Tatars.
In the 21st century, work began on the rationalizing of the Siberian Tatar language. Teams have conducted scientific research in the field of literary language norms of the indigenous population of Siberia. They have published the "Русско-сибирскотатарский словарь = Урысца-сыбырца сүслек" (2010) ("Russian-Siberian Tatar Dictionary"), and "Грамматика современного сибирскотатарского языка" (2014)("The Grammar of Modern Siberian Tatar Language"). International Organization for Standardization ISO 639-3 PA with its headquarters in Washington, awarded in 2013, the Siberian Tatar language classification code 'sty' in New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3.
The first person who seriously researched Siberian Tatar language was Gabdulkhay Akhatov, a Soviet Volga Tatar linguist and an organizer of science.
Groups.
Tobol-Irtysh Tatars.
The Tobol-Irtysh Tatars group is the most numerous out of all 3 groups of Siberian Tatars. They live in the Tyumen, Kurgan and Omsk Oblasts.
The sub-groups are: Zabolotnie (Yaskolbinsk), Tobol, Kurdak-Sargat, Tara, Tyumen-Turin.
Baraba Tatars.
Their self-designation is Baraba, and they are found mainly in the steppe of Baraba, in the Novosibirsk Oblast. Their population is around 8,000.
The sub-groups are: Baraba-Turazh, Lyubey-Tunus, Terenin-Choy.
Tom Tatars.
The Tom Tatars are indigenous population of Tomsk, Kemerovo and to some extent Novosibirsk Oblasts.
The sub-groups are: Kalmak, Chat, Eushta.
Siberian Bukharans.
The Bukhalyks, literally "those from the city of Bukhara" are descendants of 15th- and 16th-century fur merchant colonies from the Caucasus and Central Asia. These settlers have now merged entirely with Siberian Tatars.


Rewari metal work

Rewari metalwork refers to the metallurgy practiced by the native peoples of the city of Rewari, India. The items produced were commonly made of brass, and often possessed cultural and utilitarian value. The practice is known to have been in place as early as the 16th century.
History and origin.
The Rewari metal craft industry is about 450 years old, with origins around the Mughal period. This place was known to have a nursery of soldiers since Vedic times, which still exists till date. Hemu, of Rewari who has been proved to be a great warrior in history, belonged to this place. Hemu fought and won 22 wars, without losing any against Afghan rebels and the Mughals to prevent them from capturing Delhi can be described as the Father of Brass Industry in Rewari.
Babur had invaded India in 1526 and used brass cannons in the First Battle of Panipat, for the first time in this part of the world. This was the time when Hemu, who was dealing in food items till then, set up brass foundries to manufacture cannons in Rewari, to make supplies to the then Indian ruler Sher Shah Suri with whom he had close contacts. Hemu took technological help from Portuguese in manufacturing brass cannons and production of saltpetre used to make gunpowder. With the help of these supplies of brass cannons and saltpetre, that Sher Shah Suri could defeat Babur's son Humanyun in 1539, and force him to retreat to Kabul. Brass cannons had become an all-important war tool by that time.
Slowly as demand for brass utensils, especially for water carrying and storage, developed in this area and was supplied throughout the country from Rewari. The whole region lying at the border of Rajasthan and Haryana had scarcity of potable sweet water. There is no river and the underground water available in the region was brackish and Rewari was the only region nearby which had sweet drinkable water due to the presence of four huge lakes or "bawadis" there. Rain water was the only source of drinkable water. It was collected in the lakes and wells were dug around the lakes to get clean water. People from the nearby places used to come to take water. Clay pitchers were replaced by metal containers as copper ore was available in nearby Khetri in Rajasthan.
Rewari became regional centre of sheet metalwork and craftsmen skilled in this work flourished in Rewari. The basic purpose that led to the initiation of the craft was storage of water hence big and small utensils "bartans" were made like kund or "tamdi," metal pitchers or "tokani," "parati," "patili" and "bhagonas."
Customs associated with the craft.
Some local customs developed with the brass craft in which, during a marriage a boy used to gift the girl’s family a kund (sicsic) and the girl’s family used to give 11, 21, or 51 brass utensils as dowry. Till date every marriage that takes place within 50 km of the city these ceremonies are performed and the brass utensils are supplied from the Rewari Mandi only.
As the demand was not much in early times, the brass raw material needed for the craft was supplied by the local scrap melting factories. But gradually as the demand for utensils and industrial sheets increased, large industries were set up in the region which supplied sheet brass to the craftsmen. Today there are big setups in the region providing the raw material among which Aggarwal Metal Works Pvt Ltd., Gupta Metal Works Pvt. Ltd., Bharat Metal Works, Everest Metals are the most important ones.
Nature of the products.
The entire product range made in Rewari is utility based rather than being aesthetically gratifying. Since the origin of the craft is need-based, hence the products also are purely utilitarian with very little emphasis on aesthetics. Going back to the history where the need of storage and transportation erupted the products made cater to the function of storing, cooking, and transporting. Initially the products made were restricted to keeping water but since time cooking pots and plates have also started to be made.
Product range.
The product range of the Rewari metalcraft is as follows:
1. Tokni: Tokni is a metal pitcher most significant to the craft. It is supposedly one of the first things that started the metal craft.
2. Patili or Dekchi: It is another container which resembles a Tokni but the height is less than half of a Tokni. It is quite broad compared to the height of the utensil. It is mainly used for cooking vegetables, preparation of tea, etc.
3. Parati or Parat: parat or parati, as it is called in the local term, is a huge plate with raised peripheral walls.
4. Kund or Nand: This is a huge cylindrical tank used to store water. The kund is often kept in a pit dug in the ground to keep the water more cool.
Raw materials.
The basic raw materials used in the practicing of the craft are brass and copper sheets. Other than this to join the shaped pieces of various utensils soldering materials "suhaga" (it is a mixture of borax and water used to join metal pieces), brass, copper and zinc are used. Industries mainly copper & brass rolling mills are continuously producing best quality coils, strips, sheets, plates, and circles by the hot rolling and cold rolling methods.
There are many manufacturers associated with copper and brass.
Another process that involves washing of the utensil requires sulphuric acid, followed by washing in tamarind. Other than this coke or coal is required to heat up the utensils during shaping to make it soft.
Sourcing and recycling.
Some shopkeepers in the area act as a channel between the craftsmen and the brass factories and supply them with brass and copper sheets. The thickness of the sheet is approx 36–40 gauge.
Also during working with the sheet, circular patterns are cut on the rectangular sheet. The waste edges are collected, melted in a furnace "bhatti", converted in the form of bricks and sold back to the factory at the same rate of purchase.
The furnace used in this case is an open furnace and uses coal as the ignition material.
There are about 10 furnaces in the region "kayastwada" where all the local craftsmen bring their waste metal and process it into bricks.
Process.
The steps followed on the round cut brass sheet are almost the same for making tokni, patili and parati. The only difference lies in the dies used and the welding of the pieces.
The basic steps can be summed up as under:
1. Hammering on the die: Different dies made of iron are used for giving the brass sheets, the basic shape of the product. Two dies are used for making the three basic pieces of tokni and dekchi; and one for making the only piece for parati. Heavy wood hammers are used in the initial stage and later on detailed finish is given by smaller metal hammers. Craftsmen wear hand and toe leather caps for protection.
2. Joining the joints: Borax powder, commonly known as suhaaga mixed in lukewarm water, for making a thick paste. The pieces to be joined are then placed edge to edge touching each other and this paste is applied on the joints. Its then kept in the sun and allowed to dry.
3. Brazing / Welding: Gas welding is then done on the joint, above the dried paste, using brass welding wires.
4. Acid wash: The prepared product is now washed with Gandhak ki tezab so as to remove all the dust and other dirt particles from the surface of the metal.
5. Washing in water: The acid washed utensil is now washed thoroughly with water to remove the acid which can corrode the metal on prolonged exposure.
6. Neutralization: after water washing acid is not completely removed. So to neutralize the surface of the metal it is dipped into Kishta or Khatai i.e. tamarind solution.acid present on the meta surface darken the color of brass due to corrosion.
7. Polishing: Polishing the metal surface is done mainly by hand. The metal surface is smoothed by rubbing it with 24 number, coarse Regmar and sand-Balu ki ret. The surface now gets the golden yellow colour of brass.
8. Decoration by hammering: Final finish is done by using a metal hammer. Metal surface is stroked from one side and the impressions come even on the other side, too. This is done mainly for serving two purposes. First is to strengthen the metal surface by increasing the density and second is for decoration, so as to make the product more visually appealing.
Craft and craftsmen.
All the craftsmen who are working on brass belong to the "Thatera" or "Khasera" community and if they employ work under them they are also take from the same community. Their roots originally lie in Kishangarh, Rajasthan. The work is generally inherited from father to son and does not require any training. The process of manufacturing is not complicated and there in no division of labor involved. The whole process of making a utensil excluding its finishing and hammering is completed by one craftsman. Even for the other process like washing, sanding and hammering the family members are enough to help the craftsman complete the product. In Rewari the metal craft is concentrated in the "thateragaon" or "kayastwada." They are generally not well-off financially.
Workspace and setup.
The setup of the craft requires no special work setup. The craftsmen in the region sit in front of their houses and also one or two rooms in the house are kept for working purposes. In front of many houses dies are permanently fixed in the ground.
Peak and off season.
The peak seasons for the selling of the utensils are near Diwali, Navratra and Teej festivals.
June to mid October is supposed to be the time of the year when the business is very slow. It is this time when the selling of the utensils is rather a retarded affair and the craftsmen who are a little well off than the others generally keep making the utensils and stocking them so as to release the bulk in the selling season.


Narendraditya Khinkhila

Narendraditya Khinkhila (r.c. 597-633 CE), also called Naranda or Narenda or Deva Shahi Khingila from his coin legends, was one of the last rulers of the Alchon Huns in the area of Gandhara and Kashmir in northwestern India, following their retreat from northern India, during the 6th century CE. According to Kalhana's 12th century text "Rajatarangini", where his full name Narendraditya Khinkhila is used, he was the son of a king named Gokarna, a follower of Shiva. Narendraditya is also known to have consecrated a shrine to Shiva, named "Bhutesvara".
The son of Narendraditya was Yudhishthira, who succeeded him as king, and was the last known kings of the Alchon Huns. Yudhishthira ruled 40 years until circa 670 CE, but he was dethroned by Pratapaditya, son of the founder of the Karkoṭa Empire, Durlabhvardhana.


List of rulers of Pegu

This is a list of rulers of Pegu (Bago), one of the three main Mon-speaking provinces, located on the south-central coast of modern Myanmar. This is not a list of monarchs of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom, who ruled Lower Burma from Pegu during three separate periods (1369–1539, 1550–1552, 1740–1757).
Backgrounder.
Various Mon language chronicles state different foundation dates of Pegu (Bago), ranging from 573 CE to 1152 CE. The "Zabu Kuncha", an early 15th century Ava (Upper Burmese) administrative treatise, states that Pegu was founded in 1276/77.
However, the earliest extant evidence of Pegu as a place dates only to the late Pagan period: 1212 and 1266. A purported copy of a 1086 inscription does mention Pegu. At any rate, the "Slapat Rajawan" chronicle itself states that Pegu emerged from "desolate wilderness" only in the late Pagan period, and the first Pagan-appointed official at Pegu was Akhamaman in 1273/74.
Pagan period.
In the late Pagan period, Pegu was not even the provincial capital of what would become known as the Pegu province in the 14th century. The provincial capital was Dala-Twante, the seat of Prince Kyawswa's fiefdom down to 1287.
Martaban Period.
It is unclear if Pegu remained the provincial capital after Tarabya's death. According to the reporting in the "Razadarit Ayedawbon", except for a brief period in the mid-1320s when King Saw Zein made it his temporary wartime capital, the other so-called governors of Pegu may have been just mayors. For example, in the early reign of King Hkun Law, the provincial capital seems to have been at Sittaung, where Law's deputy Nyi Maw-La-Mun resided.


Srivasa Thakura

Śrīvāsa Thakura was a close associate of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and a member of the Pancha Tattva.
Srivasa Thakura is understood as tatastha-shakti, a marginal energy of Bhagavan, Krisna in person. Devotees who are headed by Srivasa Thakura are described as 'parts' of transcendental body of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu (his eyes, ears, hands, disc/cakra, etc.). They all participated in His transcendental pastimes. They all helped to spread Krsna consciousness, sankirtana-yajna. On the other hand, Srivasa is also Narada - an eternal transcendental associate of Lord Krsna. Srivasa was studying Srimad-Bhagavatam with Advaita Acarya, who was at that time in Navadvipa. They worshiped Krsna, who as an answer to their prayers, appeared as Caitanya Mahaprabhu and converted many atheists - Buddhists and others who were opposed to pure devotional service - making them all His loving devotees.
The home of Srivasa, Srivasangam, was a place where Sri Caitanya perform sankirtana-yajna, congregational chanting of Krsna's Holy Names, and it was a place where Kazi, a noted Muslim leader, ruled. However, Kazi had a dream where Sri Caitanya said that he should allow devotional service, so since that time Kazi promised that he would never oppose sankirtana-yajna, and also that no one from his family would ever be against Krsna. Kazi was Kamsa in some previous life, but Sri Caitanya showed him mercy by making him devotee. This is inconceivable - Kamsa was enemy of Krsna, Kamsa was an Asura or demon who wanted to kill Krsna, but Caitanya came and mercifully gave even such a demon as Kazi devotional service to Krsna. There is a story that Kazi was serious about converting devotees of Caitanya Mahaprabhu into Muslims, but this happened just the opposite – so many Muslims later changed their chanting from names of Allah into chanting Holy names of Hari, Krsna. So impersonlists, Buddhists, Muslims - all became devotees by mercy of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. Srivasa laughed at the religious fanaticism of Kazi.
In the house of Srivasa, Chaitanya showed His transcendental form to all His eternal associates. So Srivasa is also a place from which Krishna consciousness movement around five hundred years ago was started.
Srivasa Thakura had previously lived in Sri Hatta, but because he wanted the association of devotees he went to live on the banks of the Ganges in Nabadwip. Srivasa Thakura had three brothers: Sripati, Srirama and Srinidhi. He also had one son, but at a young age his son died.
Pancha Tattva mantra.
Srivasa is mentioned in the Pancha Tattva (Vaishnavism) mantra as representative of a pure devotee.
Life and pastimes of Srivasa Pandita.
Pastimes at his house in Mayapur
More pastimes - Pastimes with Chand Kazi


Lion Throne of Burma

The Lion Throne (also known as Sihasana or Thihathana Palin; ) is one of the eight historic thrones used by the Burmese monarchs. Seven of them were destroyed by fire during the allied bombing of World War II, but the Lion Throne was saved, because the throne was transported to India in 1885 after the Third Anglo-Burmese War, and later returned.
Decorative elements of the throne.
As small lion figurines are placed inside the niches of the throne, it is called the "Thihathana Throne" or "Royal Lion Throne". It is made out of yamane wood ("Gmelina arborea"). The upper portion of the throne is called "U-gin". There are eleven Chakra and Devas at the both sides of U-gin floral carvings. There are the peacock figurines, which represent the sun, and the hare figurine, which represents the moon, depicted on the proper left and right sides of the door jambs.
It was believed that Burmese kings descended from Solar and Lunar dynasties. There are two guardian gods of the world (Lokanat) figures on each side of the door. By representing the Trāyastriṃśa ( the abode of gods), 33 figures of Nats (Devas) are installed at the U-gin, the door and door jamb of the throne. At the left and right sides of the throne, there is each a Lokanat figure, together with a flying lion and a flying elephant, as symbols of peace.
History and safeguarding of the last Lion Throne.
In total, there were nine thrones of only eight different kinds in the time of the monarchs of Burma. The Lion Throne was used for judicial affairs at the Supreme Court (Hluttaw) of the Myanansankyaw Golden Palace in Yadanabon period (1800s). All of the thrones were constructed during the time of King Bodawpaya (1816) by Shwetaung Nawrahta, the minister of that king, who was in charge of building the palace, including the thrones. There were two Lion Thrones, the original one located at the audience hall and a replica of it, located at the Supreme Court.
After King Thibaw was dethroned in 1885, the Lion Throne was taken by the British to India in 1902, where it was displayed at the Indian Museum, Kolkata. After Burma (now Myanmar) regained independence in 1948, it was returned by Lord Mountbatten and housed at the presidential residence on Ahlone Road in Rangoon. On 12 September 1959, the throne was moved to the National Museum for public display, where it remains today.
Use and protocol.
The throne was only used three times a year. At the beginning of the Burmese New Year, the beginning and the end of the Buddhist Lent. Whenever a member of the royal court or the royal family wished to hand the king a present, they had to ask permission from the Chief Eunuch and then from the king. When allowed, the giver had to touch the throne with his/her right hand only, as the left hand is thought to be inferior, and the present was given.


Tannet of Pagan

Tannet (, ; 859–904) was king of Pagan dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from c. 876 to c. 904. A son of King Pyinbya, the founder of Pagan (Bagan), Tannet was the paternal grandfather of King Anawrahta, the founder of Pagan Empire. The king loved horses and was a master of horsemanship. He was assassinated by Sale Ngahkwe, his stable groom, who succeeded him as king.
Various Burmese chronicles do not agree on the dates regarding his life and reign. The oldest chronicle "Zatadawbon Yazawin" is considered to be the most accurate for the Pagan period. The table below lists the dates given by four main chronicles, as well as Hmannan's dates when anchored by the Anawrahta's inscriptionally verified accession date of 1044.


Sinhalese monarchy

The Sinhalese monarchy has its origins in the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. The Landing of Vijay as described in the traditional chronicles of the island, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa, and later chronicles, recount the date of the establishment of the first Sinhala Kingdom in 543 BC when Prince Vijaya (543–505 BC), an Indian Prince, and 700 of his followers landed on the island of Sri Lanka and established the Kingdom of Tambapanni. In Sinhalese mythology, Prince Vijaya and followers are told to be the progenitors of the Sinhalese people. However according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands.
The Sinhalese monarch was the head of state of the Sinhala Kingdom (Sri Lanka). Anachronistically referred to as the Kings of Sri Lanka, the monarch held absolute power and succession was hereditary. The monarchy comprised the reigning monarch, his or her family, and the royal household which supports and facilitates the monarch in the exercise of his royal duties and prerogatives. The monarchy existed for over 2300 years. Tambapanni and its successive kingdoms were situated in what is presently Sri Lanka. The monarchy ended with Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy in 1815 after generations of European influences and upheaval in the royal court.
Origin.
The origins of the early Sinhalese kings are the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan historian Senarath Paranavithana suggests, and according to the story in the Divyavadana, the immigrants were probably not led by a scion of a royal house in India, as told in the romantic legend, but rather may have been groups of adventurous and pioneering merchants exploring new lands. These immigrants would have been of all ages and probably originated from multiple regions, arriving in more than one stream, each with its own leader. We know from early Pali writings that Indian merchants of the time travelled to the island in search of the pearls on its North Western coast and precious stones in the island's interior. In the course of time some of the settlers would have settled down in order to supply valued merchandise to their compatriots who would periodically visit the island.
As these settlements grew, the necessity for some form of government would so too. Paranavithana puts forward that the most natural form of government would have been to elect one of them as a magistrate of each settlement. It is probable that some of the immigrants came from areas of India under a republican form of government. The descendants of these leaders of each settlement would have been called "Parumaka", according to early Brahmi inscriptions. These various settlements would have over time felt the need for a common leader, a commander in times of war and chief magistrate in times of peace. This chief would have been known as "Gamani" (leader). However, there was probably more than one such gamani on the island. It is possible this common leader also had the title of "Mahaparumaka".
Paranavithana hypothesised that the earliest Sinhalese kings may have actually been these elected common leaders called "Gamani". This theory is supported through statements in the Mahavamsa-Tika. As each were elected, there were nothing to stop from the gamani's son to succeed his father, should he be good enough. Thus the principle of hereditary leadership would gradually be established and the position would soon possess powers equal to that of a king. However the pomp and paraphernalia of kinship was probably absent.
As according to Indian belief, at the time, to be acknowledged as a sovereign it was necessary to have an abhiṣeka ceremony, a consecration rite which the settlers could not do on their own. It has become clear that before Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, the Sinhalese monarchs did not have an abhiṣeka ceremony performed on them, leaving the reasonable conclusion that the monarchs before Devanampiya Tissa were instead popular sanctioned leaders. This is also supported by the fact that the writer of the Mahavamsa lived in a time where the main form of government was a monarchy, and so it was natural to assume that whenever a ruler was mentioned, it was a king with the paraphernalia of royalty attributed to him.
Paranavithana argues that Maurayan Emperor Ashoka introduced the institution of kingship to the Sinhalese people. The title Devanampiya ("Beloved of The Gods"), a Maurayan royal title assumed by Tissa, who later became Devanampiya Tissa, and his successors for two hundred years after him.
History.
Pre Anuradhapura period.
According to the Mahavamsa, the great chronicles of the island the Kingdom of Tambapanni was founded by Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers after landing on the island, in a district near modern-day Mannar which is believed to be the district of Chilaw, after leaving Suppāraka. It is recorded that Vijaya made his landing on the day of Buddha's death. Vijaya claimed Tambapanni his capital. Tambapanni was originally inhabited and governed by Yakkhas, having their capital at Sirīsavatthu and their queen Kuveni. According to the Samyutta Commentary, Tambapanni was one hundred leagues in extent.
During the end of his reign Vijaya, who was having trouble choosing a successor, sent a letter to the city of his ancestors, Sinhapura, in order to invite his brother Sumitta to take over the throne. However Vijaya had died before the letter had reached its destination so the elected minister of the people Upatissa, the Chief government minister or Prime minister and leading chief among the new settlers became regent and acted for a year. In his regency, Upatissa established the new capital Upatissa Nuwara, named after himself, in which the kingdom was moved from Tambapanni. It was seven or eight miles north of the previous capital. When Vijaya's letter arrived Sumitta had already succeeded his father as king, and so he sent his son Panduvasdeva to rule Upatissa Nuwara.
Anuradhapura period.
The reign of Tissa marks not only important religious historical developments but also important political history of the island and to the Sinhalese people. It marked the introduction of Buddhism to the island and with it came the formal establishment of kingship and monarchy. Though it saw productive advances in the areas of economics, technology and culture, during the Early Anuradhapura period (137 BC – 684 AD) the political system was at its most brittle. The stresses of dynastic rivalries and succession disputes sparked many political crises. This period was dominated by the rivalry between the House of Lambakanna and the House of Moriya. Both powerful clans whose origins trace back to the time of Tissa. With the end of the House of Vijaya the Lambakannas were established as their successors, the Moriyas however challenged this claim and struggles for the throne ensued. The Moriyan claims to the throne diminished by the end of the seventh century leaving the Lambakannas a monopoly of power. New laws of succession would further consolidate this. Political instability can be seen as the rule rather that the exception during this period.
Polonnaruwa period.
With the fall of Polonnaruwa the monarchy saw a decline in the 13th century, this is characterised by the succession of capitals that followed.
Transitional period.
This period saw the arrival of Europeans to the island and their influence.
Kandyan period.
In 1796 the British first entered the island and gained control of the coastal areas from the Dutch. After the Kandyan Wars and the signing of the Kandyan Convention in 1815 the island recognized the British monarch as Sovereign. This ended 2357 years of indigenous Sinhalese monarchy.
Role.
Political role.
As absolute monarch the king was head of state, however he would be aided with high level officials and a board of ministers. The monarch was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it. They sought to establish control over the whole island, though in reality this was more of an aspiration. However periods of effective control over the whole island did exist from time to time.
During the Anuradhapura period royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the "Purohita", the advisor to the king. The king also had a board of ministers called "Amati paheja". In central administration, "Senapati" (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a position second only to the king, and held by a member of the nobility. This position, and also the positions of "Yuvaraja" (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of the monarch.
The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Over time these administrative units within the island increased. By the reign of Silakala (518–31) there were already three provinces, two of which he handed over to his sons to administer, while retaining the province of "Rajarata", the area around the capital, directly under his administration. "Ruhuna" (southern part of the country) and the "Malaya Rata" (hill country) were governed by officials called "Apa" and "Mapa". These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called "rata". Officials called "Ratiya" or "Ratika" were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit was the "gama" (village), under a village chief known as "gamika" or "gamladda".
Judicial role.
As well as holding political powers the Sinhalese monarch also held judicial power and influence. Judicial customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. The laws and legal measures were proclaimed by the king, and were to be followed by justice administration. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations.
The judiciary consisted of the chief judicial officer known as the "Viniccayamacca" and there were several judicial officers under him, known as "Vinicchayaka". Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. Initially, the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as "dasagam", was responsible for upholding justice in that area. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Siri Sangha Bodhi I (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death.
The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions.
Religious role.
A close link existed between the ruler and the "Sangha" (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was effected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopa Tissa I (639–650) and Kassapa II (650–659).
Succession.
The kingdom was under the rule of a king or queen. The succession of the throne was patrilineal, or if that cannot be the case, inherited by the eldest brother of the previous king. However few queens have also reigned. During the early centuries of the Anuradhapura Kingdom laws of succession to the throne was not clearly recognised. The ruling monarch would choose a member of the royal family to succeed him or her, usually a son or brother, and these wishes went generally unchallenged. It was with the second establishment of the House of Lambakanna that succession became to depend on more established rules and practises. During this period brother succeeded brother and then on to the next generation. Political stability also gave way for smoother transitions of power, the spread of Mahayanaist ideas that kingship was akin to divinity increased the sanctity of the monarch. This development meant that pretenders and rivals to the throne had a much harder time claiming succession even during the reigns of relatively weak monarchs. Disputed successions were the root cause to the political instability of the kingdom before these developments.
Accession & End of reign.
The king or queen would ascend the throne through the ceremony of an abhiṣeka, a consecration rite similar to that of a coronation. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, under the influence of Ashoka of India. However, in the Mahavamsa it is portrayed that an abhiṣeka ceremonies began with Vijaya.
This included a right spiralled chank, that was produced in the sea, filled with water from the lake Anotatta.
Regency & Interregnums.
Four interregnums existed during the kingdom.
Monarchs.
There have been 184 monarchs that have reigned over nine successive kingdoms. Of these, five, Anula of Anuradhapura, Sivali of Anuradhapura, Chattagahaka Jantu of Anuradhapura, Lilavati of Polonnaruwa and Kalyanavati of Polonnaruwa have been Queens. Each monarch belongs to one of nine royal houses (Vijaya, Lambakanna I, Moriya, Lambakanna II, Vijayabahu, Kalinga, Siri Sanga Bo, Dinajara and Nayaks). The Sinhalese Monarchy has also been reigned over by foreigners from Southern India which has occurred several times throughout the course of the monarchy. This is usually occurred through the usurpation of the throne.
During the early kingdoms all monarchs belonged to the House of Vijaya or the Vijayan dynasty. Named for Prince Vijaya, who is seen as the progenitor of the Sinhalese people, the dynasty continued into the Anuradhapura Kingdom until Subharaja (60–67).
During the Anuradhapura period four dynasties ruled the kingdom from its founding to its end. Pandukabhaya, who was the last ruler of Upatissa Nuwara and the first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was a Vijayan. The Vijayan dynasty existed until Vasabha of the Lambakanna clan seized power in 66 AD. His ascension to the throne saw the start of the first Lambakanna dynasty, which ruled the country for more than three centuries. A new dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455. Named the Moriya dynasty, the origins of this line are uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka. The last dynasty of the Anuradhapura period, the second Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V.
Styles, titles, and symbols.
The Sinhalese monarchs have over time had many royal titles, both common to the Buddhist and ancient world as well as unique titles to the island. The monarch's title is "King" (male) or "Queen" (female), known as "Raja" in Sinhalese. Some early ancient royal titles were adopted from pre monarchy era.
Before the institution of monarchy, the gamani would wield authority by possession of 3 yatthi, yatthi being a staff or Sceptre. These sceptres were a symbol of authority to the rulers of the island before Devanampiya Tissa and the introduction of kingship, after which it would assume regal honours. According to the Mahavamsa each sceptre contained magical qualities, although the Mahavamsa-Tika only speaks of one yatthi existing. Paranavithana suggests that the three sceptres might have signified the overlordship of the divisions on the island, Rajarata, Ruhuna and Malayarata. However, there is no evidence to show these divisions existed from such an early time. But the Mahabodhivamsa mentions three royal parasols of Devanampiya Tissa, named respectively Andha, Cola, and Sihala. It is said these sceptres and other treasures miraculously appeared when Devanampiya Tissa was anointed to become king.
During the reign of Devanampiya Tissa (307–267 BC) saw the introduction of Buddhism to the country through Ashoka of India. By the time of Sirimeghavanna (301–328), Sudatta, the sub king of Kalinga, and Hemamala brought the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in the country. Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named "Datadhatughara". He ordered this procession to be held annually, and this is still done as a tradition in the country. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha after some centuries became one of the most sacred objects in the country, and a symbol of kingship. The person who was in possession of the Tooth Relic thereafter would be the rightful ruler of the country.
With the development of the monarchy also came the royal regalia of the time. Emperor Asoka sent the necessary things for Devanampiya Tissa to be consecrated as king. This included "three chanks, including a chank produced in the sea, water from the Ganges, ruddy coloured mud, eight each of Khattiya, Brahmana, and Gahapati virgins, eight each of gold, silver, bronze, and earthen pots, eight Khattiya families, eight families of ministers-thus eight of everything (necessary for consecration)"


Mohammad Hatta

Mohammad Hatta (;12 August 1902 – 14 March 1980) was an Indonesian statesman who served as the country's first vice president. Known as "The Proclamator", he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, fought for the independence of Indonesia from the Dutch. Hatta was born in Fort de Kock, Dutch East Indies (now Bukittinggi, Indonesia). After his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in the Dutch East Indies and studied in the Netherlands from 1921 until 1932.
Hatta is often remembered as "Bung Hatta" (according to author Pramoedya Ananta Toer, "bung" is an affectionate title meaning "friend", used to be a way of addressing a person in a familiar way, as an alternative to the old-form "tuan", "mas" or "bang").
Early life.
Hatta was born in Fort De Kock (now known as Bukittinggi) on 12 August 1902 into a prominent and strongly Islamic family. His grandfather was a respected ulema in Batuhampar, near Payakumbuh. His father, Haji Mohammad Djamil, died when he was eight months old and he was left with his six sisters and his mother. As in the matrilineal society of Minangkabau tradition, he was then raised in his mother's family. His mother's family was wealthy, and Hatta was able to study Dutch as well as finishing Qur'an after school.
He went to the Dutch language elementary school (ELS or "Europeesche Lagere School") in Padang from 1913 to 1916 after he had finished "Sekolah Melayu" ('Malay School') in Bukittinggi. When he was thirteen, he passed an exam that entitled him to enroll in the Dutch secondary school (HBS or "Hogere burgerschool") in Batavia (now Jakarta). However his mother asked him to stay in Padang because he was still too young to go to the capital alone. Hatta then entered junior secondary school or MULO ("Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs").
During his spare time, he worked part-time in a post office. Normally, MULO students were not allowed to work, but he was able to work there because of the HBS exam qualification. Hatta was interested in football; he joined his school's football team and was made its chairman. He broadened his sphere of contacts by using his position.
Hatta used to visit the office of the "Sarikat Usaha" (United Endeavor), led by Taher Marah Soetan. In the office, he read Dutch newspapers, particularly about political debates in the "Volksraad" (parliament) of the Dutch East Indies. It was at the age of sixteen that Hatta began to be interested in politics and national movements. He was chosen the treasurer of the branch of the "Jong Sumatranen Bond" (or youth association of Sumatra), which was first established in Padang in 1918.
Time in the Netherlands.
In 1919, Hatta finally went to the HBS in Batavia. He completed his study with distinction in 1921, and was allowed to continue to study at the Rotterdam School of Commerce (currently Erasmus University Rotterdam) in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. He took economics as his major and earned a "doctorandus" degree in 1932. The degree entitled him to follow a doctorate program. He then continued to pursue the doctorate degree, and completed all requirements to be awarded it, but he never finished his thesis. Politics had taken over Hatta's life.
In the Netherlands, Hatta joined the "Indische Vereeniging" (or the Indies' Association). In 1922, the organization changed its name to "Indonesische Vereeniging" and later to its Indonesian translation: the "Perhimpoenan Indonesia". Hatta was the treasurer (1922–1925), and then the chairman (1926–1930). On his inauguration, Hatta delivered a speech with the title of "The Economic World Structure and the Conflict of Power", in which he supported the idea of Indonesian non-cooperation with the Dutch colonial government in order to gain its independence. The "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" then changed from being a student organization into a political organization and had an unequivocal demand for Indonesia's independence. It expressed its voice through the magazine called "Indonesia Merdeka" (or Free Indonesia) of which Hatta was the editor.
To gain more support from other nations, Hatta attended congresses all over Europe, always as the chairman of the Indonesian delegation. In 1926, Hatta and "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" joined the (sixth) International Democratic Congress for Peace in Marc Sangnier's domaine de Bierville (Boissy-la-Rivière), France. In February 1927, Hatta went to Brussels to attend a congress held by the League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression. He met many other prominent nationalists there, including Jawaharlal Nehru from India, Mohammad Hafiz Ramadan Bey from Egypt and Lamine Senghor from Senegal. Later in the year, Hatta attended another congress held by the International Women's League for Peace and Freedom in Switzerland. On that occasion, Hatta delivered a speech with the title of "Indonesia and her Independence Problem".
By the middle of 1927, "Perhimpoenan Indonesia"s activities had alarmed the Dutch authorities. In June 1927, Dutch authorities raided the residence of the organization's leaders, searching through their rooms and putting Hatta and other four other Indonesian activists behind bars. After spending nearly six months in prison, they were taken to trial in the Hague. They were permitted to explain themselves during the hearing, and Hatta took to the opportunity to explain Indonesia's nationalist cause. He made a speech to the court explaining that Indonesia's interests were in conflict with those of the Dutch, and that was why they could not cooperate. Hatta advocated cooperation between Indonesia and the Netherlands, but only if Indonesia was independent and treated as an equal partner, not unequally because of its status as a colony. The speech became famous and it is known as the "Indonesia Vrij" (Indonesia Merdeka) or Free Indonesia speech.
In 1929, Hatta and other "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" activists were released. In July 1932, Hatta made his way home to Indonesia.
Independence struggle.
Struggle against Dutch colonial rule.
Hatta returned home to an Indonesia whose nationalist momentum had been slowed down by the arrest and imprisonment of Sukarno. By the time Hatta had returned, most of the members of Sukarno's PNI had joined the Indonesia Party (Partindo) and more radical PNI members, together with the Dutch-educated Sutan Sjahrir had banded together to form the New PNI. Although the initials were the same, the PNI in this case stood for the Indonesian National Education, indicating that it would focus on cadre training. In August 1932, after returning from the Netherlands, Hatta became the chairman of the New PNI.
In December 1932, Sukarno was finally released from prison and the attention now turned to which party Sukarno would choose. Sukarno, who had wanted one united front to gain Indonesia's independence was uncertain, thinking that in choosing one over the other, he would encourage division. In this, he was criticized by Hatta, who was more pragmatic about differences, in this case the conflict between Partindo's radical and mass party approach versus the New PNI's moderate and cadre party approach. Sukarno insisted on negotiations to unify Partindo and New PNI but after failing, chose to join Partindo.
Between 1932 and 1933, Hatta wrote articles on politics and economics for the New PNI's newspaper "Daulat Rakyat" (The People's Authority). These articles were aimed at training new cadres for Indonesia's leadership.
Hatta seemed to be extremely critical of Sukarno at this point in time. In August 1933, with Sukarno once again arrested and facing trial, he wrote an article called "Sukarno Is Arrested". This was followed by articles entitled "The Tragedy of Sukarno" (November 1933) and "The Stance of a Leader" (December 1933).
The Dutch Colonial Government gave Sukarno a harsh punishment, exiling him to Ende on the island of Flores in December 1933. With Sukarno in exile, the Dutch Colonial Government now turned their eyes to the New PNI and its leadership. In February 1934, they made their move and arrested its leaders from its Jakarta branch (which included Hatta) and its Bandung branch. For a year they were jailed at prisons in Cipinang and Glodok, with Hatta spending his time in Glodok. During his time in prison, Hatta wrote a book entitled "The Economical Crisis and Capitalism".
In January 1935, it was decided that Hatta and his fellow New PNI leaders (including Syahrir) would be exiled to Boven Digoel in Papua. When Hatta arrived there, he was told by the local authorities that he had two options. The first option was to work for the Dutch Colonial Government as a civil servant for 40 cents a day with the hope of returning from exile, and the second option was being an exile, receiving food but having no hope of returning from exile. Hatta commented if he had decided to take a job as a civil servant in Jakarta, he would have earned a lot of money and knowing that, there was no need to go to Boven Digoel to be paid cheaply. In saying this, Hatta chose the second option.
During his exile, Hatta continued to write articles, this time for the Newspaper "Pemandangan" (The View). He earned enough money from that to make ends meet at Boven Digoel and to support his colleagues who had financial troubles. Hatta also used his books (which filled 16 chests when they were packed to leave Jakarta) to give his colleagues lessons on economics, history, and philosophy. Later on these lessons would be made into books entitled "An Introduction on the Way to Knowledge" and "The Nature of Greek Thought" (four volumes).
In January 1936, Hatta and Syahrir were transferred to Bandaneira in Maluku. There they joined more nationalists such as Iwa Kusumasumantri and Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo. Hatta and Syahrir were given more freedom and were able to interact with the locals. Hatta and Syahrir also gave lessons to the local children, teaching them about politics and history. Hatta adopted a local boy, Des Alwi, as his son while living in Bandaneira. Alwi would become a prominent Indonesian historian and diplomat.
In February 1942, Hatta and Syahrir were transferred to Sukabumi in West Java.
Japanese occupation.
By 1942, World War II was well under way and the Empire of Japan was fulfilling its imperial ambitions in East Asia and South East Asia. In March 1942, they began landing in Indonesia. Like their counterpart in Europe, the Dutch Colonial Government crumbled in the face of the invaders and by 9 March 1942, surrendered. On 22 March 1942, Hatta and Syahrir were again transferred to Jakarta.
In Jakarta, Hatta met with Major General , the Interim Head of Government. Harada asked Hatta to become an advisor for the occupational Government. Hatta accepted the job and then asked Harada if Japan was here to colonize Indonesia. Harada assured Hatta that Japan would not do. In Hatta's eyes, an acknowledgement of an Indonesian Independence by Japan was extremely important. If Japan, with its ultra-nationalistic ideology was able to recognize Indonesia's independence, it would put more pressure on the Allies (especially the United States and the United Kingdom) as representatives of democracy to do the same thing.
In July 1942, Hatta was reunited with Sukarno who after Flores had been transferred to Sumatra before the Japanese arrived, and had also been asked for his services. Although they had left off on a bad note, Sukarno wanted to speak with Hatta before speaking with anyone else. In a secret meeting at Hatta's Jakarta home Sukarno, Hatta and Sjahrir agreed that Sjahrir would go underground to organise the revolutionary resistance while the other two would commence their cooperation with the Japanese occupier.
Hatta and Sukarno now had the common goal of working with the Japanese and then trying to achieve independence from them. Together with Ki Hadjar Dewantoro and Muhammadiyah chairman, Kiai Haji Mas Mansur, Hatta and Sukarno formed a quattuorvirate of leaders tasked by the Japanese occupational Government as their intermediary with the Indonesian people.
Hatta together with the other members of the quattuorvirate worked with much fervor under the Japanese Government. They echoed Japanese propaganda and presented the Japanese Empire as the protector, leader, and the light of Asia. At the same time however, Hatta continued to promote Indonesia's desire for independence. In a speech in December 1942, Hatta said that Indonesia had been freed from the Dutch Colonial Government, but if they were freed only to be colonized by another power, he would rather see Indonesia drown to the bottom of the ocean.
On 9 March 1943, the Japanese Occupational Government approved the formation of the Centre of People's Power (Putera) with Hatta and the other quattuorvirate as the co-chairmen of the association. Sukarno thought that this would be a way from which they could gain support for independence, instead the Japanese used this to their own cause and to start their "romusha" (forced labour) regime in Indonesia.
In November 1943, Hatta and Sukarno's efforts in cooperating with the Japanese Occupational Government was recognized by Emperor Hirohito who decorated them with awards in Tokyo.
As the tide of the war began to turn against the Japanese, the Japanese Occupational Government in Indonesia became desperate to maintain control. Putera was disbanded and replaced with Djawa Hokokai in March 1944. Although still chaired by Sukarno, the Indonesians had less freedom of movement than they had had in Putera. When defeat began looming on the horizon, Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso announced in September 1944 that Japan would grant Indonesia its independence in the near future.
From then on, momentum began to gather for the independence of Indonesia, fuelled by the nationalist sentiments of Indonesians and supported by sympathizers from Japan such as Rear Admiral Tadashi Maeda. In Maeda's case, he even set up a discussion forum called the Free Indonesia Centre and invited Hatta and Sukarno along to deliver lectures on nationalism. This was followed in April 1945, by the formation of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK), which would meet over the next three months and would decide on things such as the constitution and which territories would be part of Indonesia.
Proclamation of Independence.
By August 1945, as Japan was on the eve of defeat, the administration finally approved Indonesian Independence and formed the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) to supervise it. On 8 August 1945, Hatta and Sukarno were summoned to Saigon, to meet with Marshal Terauchi, the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese forces in South East Asia. Terauchi told Hatta and Sukarno that the PPKI would be formed on 18 August and that Indonesia would be independent with Japanese supervision.
Hatta and Sukarno returned to Indonesia on 14 August. In Hatta's case, Syahrir was waiting for him with news of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Syahrir told Hatta that they would have to encourage Sukarno to proclaim Indonesia's independence immediately, because in a couple of days the Japanese might not be there to provide supervision. Syahrir told Hatta not to worry about the Japanese authorities because the people would be on their side.
Syahrir and Hatta then went to see Sukarno, with Syahrir repeating his argument in front of Sukarno. Hatta then spoke out, saying that he was worried the Allies would see them as Japanese collaborators. Sukarno shared this sentiment and Syahrir left the meeting out of frustration.
The next day, on 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. In Indonesia, the news was only a rumor and had not been confirmed. Hatta and Sukarno went to the office of the Japanese Occupational Government in Jakarta, only to find it empty. Hatta and Sukarno then went to Maeda who confirmed that Japan had surrendered to the Allies. Hatta and Sukarno seemed shocked that Japan had surrendered. During the afternoon, Hatta and Sukarno were confronted by Indonesian youths who wanted independence to be proclaimed as soon as possible. A heated exchange followed, with Sukarno telling the youths to have more patience. Hatta, who was aware of this and Sukarno's superiority in the exchange, sarcastically commented on the youths' inability to proclaim independence without Sukarno.
On the morning of 16 August 1945, Indonesian youths kidnapped both Hatta and Sukarno and took them to the town of Rengasdengklok where they continued trying to force Hatta and Sukarno to declare independence, but without success. In Jakarta, there was panic as the PPKI was due to start meeting that day and had planned to elect Sukarno as chairman and Hatta as vice-chairman. When knowledge of Hatta and Sukarno's whereabouts became available and the Japanese surrender was confirmed, Achmad Subardjo, a PPKI representative, went to Rengasdengklok to break the news to Hatta and Sukarno. That night, Hatta and Sukarno returned to Jakarta where, at Maeda's house, they worked on the Proclamation of Independence.
Finally, on 17 August 1945, at Sukarno's residence, Indonesia's Independence was finally proclaimed in a short statement on paper signed by both Sukarno and Hatta.
Vice Presidency.
Election and first months in office.
On 18 August 1945, Hatta was selected as Indonesia's first vice president by the PPKI to accompany Sukarno, who had been elected as the nation's first president.
Hatta would make three important decisions in the republic's early days. On 16 October, an edict issued by Hatta gave the Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) legislative powers in addition to its advisory role to the president. In the same month, Hatta also authorized the formation of political parties in Indonesia. The next month, in November, Hatta also made the decision which took away the president's role as Head of Government and transferred it to a prime minister. Hatta was able to make these crucial decisions because Sukarno was unable to attend the meetings in question, leaving Hatta in charge. For his part, Sukarno did not seem to have a problem with Hatta's decisions, at least not during the War of Independence.
National revolution.
When the Dutch began sending their troops back to Indonesia, Hatta, together with Syahrir and Sukarno, all agreed that a diplomatic solution should be worked out. This caused tensions with more radical elements within the government such as youth leaders Chairul Saleh and Adam Malik.
In January 1946, Hatta and Sukarno moved to Yogyakarta, leaving Syahrir (who was by then prime minister) to head negotiations in Jakarta.
By the end of 1946, the diplomatic solution which Hatta and Sukarno had been looking for seemed to have been found. The Linggadjati Agreement, signed in November 1946 called for Dutch recognition of the Republic of Indonesia. However, territorial recognition would only be over Java, Sumatra, and Madura. In addition, this republic would be part of a United States of Indonesia with the Queen of the Netherlands acting as the Head of State. However, before the agreement was finally ratified by the Dutch House of Representatives, some compromises were made without the consent of the republic. In turn, Indonesia refused to implement its part of the deal, resulting in the first "Police Action" in July 1947.
During this time, Hatta was sent out of the country to look for support for Indonesia. One country that he went to was India, the homeland of his old friend, Nehru. Disguised as an airplane co-pilot, Hatta sneaked out of the country to ask for assistance. There he asked Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi for help. Nehru assured him that India would support Indonesia and would make the support known at international forums such as the United Nations (UN).
In December 1947, negotiations were held aboard and an agreement was signed in January 1948. This agreement was more favorable towards the Dutch and called for the republic to recognize the territories which the Dutch had taken during the first "Police Action". The agreement caused outrage and caused Amir Sjarifuddin to resign from his position as prime minister.
To replace Syarifuddin, Sukarno appointed Hatta as prime minister and declared that the cabinet would be an emergency one and would be answerable to the President instead of the KNIP. Hatta also took on the position of minister of defense.
As prime minister, Hatta had to make an unpopular decision. In August 1948, with the republic struggling to pay its troops, Hatta was forced to demobilize some soldiers.
In December 1948, the Dutch launched their second "Police Action" and focused their attack on Yogyakarta. Hatta and Sukarno, instead of running away to fight guerrilla warfare chose to remain in the city and were arrested. Sukarno transferred authority to the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI), before going into exile with all the other Republican leaders. Hatta was sent to Bangka.
Resistance continued under General Sudirman and TNI troops who fought a guerrilla war against the Dutch. In March, Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX organized 1 March General Offensive, in which the city of Yogyakarta was held by Indonesian forces for six hours. This played an important role in causing international pressure to be put on the Netherlands. In May 1949, the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement was signed and the Netherlands promised to return the leaders of the Republican Government. In July 1949, Hatta and Sukarno made their return to Yogyakarta.
In August 1949, Hatta headed a delegation to the Hague for a Round Table conference. In November 1949, the formation of the United States of Indonesia was finally agreed. It was to be a federation consisting of the Republic and 15 States which the Dutch had created during the National Revolution. The Queen of the Netherlands would continue to become the symbolic head of state while Sukarno and Hatta would continue as president and vice president. On 27 December 1949, the Dutch authorities finally recognized Indonesian sovereignty.
Hatta continued on as the Prime Minister of the United States of Indonesia and presided over the transition of the federal state to the unitary state, which was made official on 17 August 1950.
Intellectual pursuits and cooperatives.
Indonesia soon adopted a constitution which advocated parliamentary democracy and reduced the president to the role of a ceremonial head of state. That left Hatta with little to do as vice president, especially since his term as prime minister was not renewed.
For his remaining time as vice president, Hatta was regularly invited to deliver lectures in universities. He also engaged in intellectual pursuits, writing essays and books about topics such as the economy and cooperatives. The idea of cooperatives being an integral part of economy would become a pet project for Hatta and he would become an enthusiastic promoter of the idea. In July 1951, on the occasion of Cooperatives Day, Hatta went on the radio to deliver a speech on cooperatives. In 1953, Hatta's contribution towards promoting cooperatives was recognized and he was given the title "Father of Indonesian Cooperatives" at the Indonesian Cooperative Congress.
Setting Indonesia's foreign policy doctrine.
Aside from cooperatives, Hatta's other main contribution to Indonesia governance was the setting of the nation's foreign policy doctrine.
In 1948, Hatta delivered a speech called "Rowing Between Two Rocks". In it, he referred to the Cold War and the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. Hatta said that Indonesian foreign policy has to look after its own interest first, not that of the US and the USSR. In saying this, Hatta wanted Indonesia to be independent in deciding its stance during the Cold War. Hatta also added that Indonesia should be an active participant in world politics so that once again it would be Indonesia's interests that came first.
This doctrine, which would become known as the "Independent and Active" doctrine, continues to be the basis of Indonesian foreign policy.
Retirement from the vice presidency.
In 1955, Hatta announced that when the new People's Representative Council (DPR) as well as the Constitutional Assembly, a body commissioned to create a new constitution, were formed as a result of the year's legislative and assembly elections, he would retire from the vice presidency. He announced this intention in a letter to Sukarno.
On the surface, it seemed as if Hatta was retiring for practical reasons. Because the presidency was a ceremonial role, this made the office of vice president pointless, and Hatta thought that the country was wasting a lot of money paying his wages. There were also personal reasons, however. As a man who believed in democracy, Hatta was beginning to feel disillusioned with Sukarno's increasing autocracy and authoritarianism. Hatta had continued to advise Sukarno against taking this road but he was ignored. Hatta finally gave up and thought that he could no longer work with Sukarno.
On 1 December 1956, Hatta resigned from the vice presidency.
Post vice presidency.
Impact of retirement.
Hatta's retirement caused shockwaves all around Indonesia, especially for those of non-Javanese ethnicity. In the eyes of non-Javanese people, Hatta was their main representative in a Javanese-dominated Government.
The impact of Hatta's retirement was evident in the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) rebellion which wanted to break free from Indonesia, and the Universal Struggle (Permesta) movement, which asked for decentralization. In negotiations with the central government, both PRRI and Permesta listed the reunification of the Sukarno/Hatta leadership as one of the concessions that they wanted from the central government.
Government critic.
Now outside the government, Hatta began to openly criticize Sukarno. One of his criticisms was Sukarno's lack of commitment towards national development. Hatta said that the revolution ended with the Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty and that the government's focus should be on development. Sukarno rejected this idea outright and responded to it during his 1959 Independence Day speech by saying that the revolution was not over.
In 1960, Hatta wrote a book called "Our Democracy". In it, he criticized Sukarno's Guided Democracy as another form of dictatorship. Sukarno immediately banned the book. The same year Sjahrir's political party, the Socialist Party of Indonesia was banned and two years later he was imprisoned on conspiracy charges. Hatta wrote a personal letter to Sukarno calling the arrest 'colonial' and 'non-rational', but to no avail. The old revolutionary trinity had definitively broken down.
Transition from old order to new order.
During the tumultuous time which saw the presidency changed hands from Sukarno to General Suharto, Hatta remained in the background. However, he would break his silence in June 1970, just a week before Sukarno died. In a letter to Suharto, Hatta said that he was disappointed that Sukarno was put under house arrest instead of being put on trial. Hatta's reason for this was not malicious: he just wanted matters relating to 30 September Movement coup attempt of 1965 to be cleared up and for Sukarno to be given a chance to defend his actions, as many believed that he was not guilty.
New order.
Hatta's involvement with Suharto's government came at the beginning of 1970 when protests were made about corruption within it. In January 1970, Suharto appointed Hatta, along with three others as members of a commission to investigate corruption within the government. The results of the commission's investigation was never revealed to public until they leaked in July 1970. It then became apparent that the suspicions of the protesters were correct: there was widespread corruption within the government. Controversially, however, in August 1970, Suharto disbanded the commission and allowed for only two cases of corruption to be looked at by the Government.
In July 1978, together with Abdul Haris Nasution, Hatta set up the Institute for Constitutional Awareness Foundation (YLKB), set up to act as a forum for critics of Suharto's regime. Suharto's government moved quickly and did not allow YLKB to conduct its first meeting in January 1979. The YLKB did not give up. In August 1979, it managed to hold a meeting which DPR members attended. Perhaps significantly, members of the Indonesian Military also attended. During the meeting, Nasution criticized the New Order for not fully implementing the Pancasila state ideology and the 1945 Constitution.
Death.
Hatta died on 14 March 1980 in Jakarta and buried in Tanah Kusir Public Cemetery in South Jakarta. He was declared a "Proclamation Hero" by the Suharto government in 1986.


Dalem Di Made

Dalem Di Made was a king of Bali who may have reigned in the period 1623–1642. He belonged to a dynasty that claimed descent from the Majapahit Empire of Java, and kept residence in Gelgel, close to Bali's south coast.
Reign.
Dalem Di Made was one of the fourteen sons of the ruler Dalem Seganing. After the death of the former, dated 1623 in one source, he succeeded to the throne of Gelgel. The main source for his reign, the Babad Dalem, is a work from the 18th century, and the account of his reign is not entirely coherent. The "Babad Dalem" praises the royal splendour of his court in glowing terms, and provides a wealth of details about the noblemen tied to his court. Another historical text, "Babad Ratu Tabanan", provides details about a military expedition to Java in his reign. The Balinese army, led by the vassal lord Gusti Wayahan Pamedekan, was met by Sultan Agung of Mataram (r. 1613–1646) and was decisively defeated.
Loss of power.
The last section of the "Babad Dalem" relates that the powers of the king eventually declined, and that various noblemen left Gelgel. The chief minister of the king, Anglurah Agung (d. 1686), usurped power, and the old ruler was forced to flee to the highland village Guliang in the modern Bangli regency, where he finally died. Loyal aristocrats were later on able to support his two sons and defeat Anglurah Agung. A new royal palace was built in Klungkung (Semarapura), four kilometers north of the old Gelgel residence. The eldest son of the deceased king, Dewa Agung Jambe I, was established as ruler, but unlike his predecessors he was unable to wield power over entire Bali. The island was in effect split up in nine autonomous kingdoms, a situation that would endure until the 19th century.
External accounts of reign.
From non-Balinese sources it is known that the Gelgel kingdom still made claims over Blambangan in East Java, Lombok, and Sumbawa (including its eastern part, Bima), in the 1630s. The Dutch East Indies Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) tried to gain Gelgel as a political ally against the Muslim Mataram kingdom in 1633, which failed. Later, Bali fought a series of wars on its own with Mataram over the possession of Blambangan, in 1635-1647. In the end, the Balinese influence over Blambangan prevailed. According to VOC sources, the death of a Gelgel ruler in 1651 led to internal conflicts on Bali. Later on, from 1665, the Dutch entertained contacts with a new lord of Gelgel, Anglurah Agung of the Balinese accounts. This Anglurah Agung is mentioned by both Balinese and Dutch texts as having been killed in battle in 1686. The actual date of death of Dalem Di Made is in doubt. A number of Balinese sources give the date 1642. It has also been suggested that he was the ruler who died in 1651, or that his reign ended as late as c. 1665. He is the first Gelgel ruler who is mentioned by name in a Dutch source, since the Balinese prince Raja Sangsit, who settled in Batavia in 1687, claimed to be his nephew.
Family.
Dalem Di Made had seven consorts: 1-2. Ni Gusti Peling (being two twin sisters); 3. Ni Gusti Pacekan, daughter of Kiyayi di Ler; 4. Ni Gusti Tangkeban, daughter of Gusti Agung; 5. Ni Gusti Selat, daughter of Gusti Kamasan; 6. a daughter of Ki Dukuh Suladri; and 7. a daughter of Gusti Jambe Pule of Badung. He sired nine sons; eight of these are enumerated in the "Babad Dalem". Later sources mention still another son, Dewa Agung Jambe, who later became the first ruler of Klungkung in 1686.


Sri Jayarajacudamani

Sri Jayarajacudamani (12th-century), was a princess and queen consort of the Khmer Empire, married to Dharanindravarman II of the Khmer Empire (r. 1150-1160).
She was the daughter of Harshavarman III.
She married before 1125. She best known for being the mother of Jayavarman VII, who was born in circa 1125.
Her spouse became king in 1150, and she became queen.
An inscription described Queen Jayarajadevi after her husband went into exile:


Sengge

Sengge (; died 1671) was a Choros-Oirat prince and the successor to his father Erdeni Batur as ruler of the Dzungar Khanate. Sengge ruled the Dzungar state from 1653 until his murder in 1671 by his two older half-brothers Tsetsen Taishi and Tsodba Batur. Sengge is best known for defeating Erincin Lobsang Tayishi, the third Altan Khan, in 1667 and eliminating the Altan Khanate as a potential future threat to the Dzungar Khanate. While being "Khong Tayiji" of the Oirats, during one of his raids against Kirgizs, Sengge was captured by his enemies and said to have spent two to three years as a war prisoner.
Before his death in 1653 Erdeni Batur named his third son Sengge as his successor to the consternation and disbelief of Tseten and Tsobda Batur. Erdeni Batur's decision to name Sengge as the next ruler of the Dzungar Khanate was based on solely on his belief that Sengge was the ablest of his eight sons. For being the ablest Sengge was given the southern half of the Khanate. The northern half would be split among Erdeni Batur's remaining seven sons. The fourth son, Galdan, transferred his rights to Sengge.
Sengge's brothers were not content with their small land inheritance and were also jealous that Sengge was Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate. To gain a larger share for themselves both Tseten and Tsobda Batur made several attempts to assassinate Sengge. Though they did not succeed until 1671, 18 years after Sengge was enthroned, the continuous internecine warfare generated by their jealousy and hatred for their brother resulted in Sengge neglecting the legacy of his father and grandfather Khara Khula in building the Dzungar Khanate into a powerful Central Asian nation-state.
Since Sengge was not able to immediately exert control of the northern half of the Dzungar Khanate the commercial trading agreements between Russia and the Dzungar Khanate were no longer honored by the Oirat tribes roaming the northern border. Instead these tribes returned to the traditional nomadic practice of banditry crossing into Russian territory in southern Siberia to raid nearby Russian outposts and steal the items they previously had to acquire by trade.
Sengge was powerless to enforce the agreement his father, Erdeni Batur, had signed with Russia years earlier and honored throughout his reign. As a result, Russia was compelled to engage in dialogue with numerous chiefs of small Oirat clans to no avail. Yet Sengge demanded from Russia that it stop claiming tribute from the small Siberian tribes that he deemed to be the vassals of only the Dzungar Khanate. This issue would cause several skirmishes between the Cossacks and the Dzungar forces during Sengge's reign and would remain unresolved at the time of his death.


Alauddin Mansur Syah

Sultan Alauddin Mansur Syah (died 1585 or 1586) was the eighth Sultan of Aceh in northern Sumatra. He ruled Aceh from 1579 to 1585 or 1586 and was known as a pious Muslim ruler with cultural interests. His reign also saw some military expansion on the Malay Peninsula. With his death ended a 65-years long period of warfare between Aceh and the Portuguese.
Background.
The Acehnese sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah I attacked and defeated the tin-producing Malay kingdom Perak in 1575. The widow and children of the slain Sultan Ahmad were brought along to Aceh. One of the captive princes, Mansur, married Abdul Khana who was either the widow of a previous sultan or a relative of the sultan's family. After the death of Ali Ri'ayat Syah in 1579 three sultans sat on the shaky throne in the course of four months. When the last, Zainul Abidin was killed, there were probably no more adult descendants of Ali Mughayat Syah. As a descendant of the old Melaka sultans and of Iskandar Zulkarnain (Alexander the Great), Prince Mansur was considered eligible. He was placed on the throne under the name Sultan Alauddin Mansur Syah, in about October 1579.
Reign.
Sultan Alauddin Mansur is praised by the chronicles for his pious demeanour. He ordered his uleëbalangs (chiefs) to grow a beard and wear jubba and turban - in other words to dress Arabic. During his reign many ulemas from other parts of the Islamic world visited Aceh. The sources mention Shaykh Abd al-Khair from Mecca who taught about dogma and mysticism, Shaykh Muhammad Yamani who taught about fiqh, and Shaykh Muhammad Jailani from Ranir in Gujarat, uncle of the more famous scholar Nuruddin ar-Raniri who taught logic, rhetoric, etc. In 1582 the sultan dispatched a fleet against Johor on the Malay Peninsula. On its way thither it attacked Portuguese Melaka without success. However, Johor was successfully sacked. Although it was a Muslim power, Johor was seen as a dangerous rival in the region. The enterprise was a stage in the triangular fight between Aceh, Johore and the Portuguese which enabled the last-mentioned to hold out.
Assassination.
New plans to attack the Portuguese were drawn up, but never came to fruition. In 1585 or 1586 he was murdered under unclear circumstances. According to the Portuguese chronicler Diogo do Couto a general and former slave, Mora Ratissa, killed him. According to a French account the murderer was a fisherman who had risen in the ranks of the kingdom through his military courage; this person later became sultan of Aceh under the name Alauddin Ri'ayat Syah Sayyid al-Mukammal. The murdered ruler left a young grandson, Raja Asyem, born from his daughter and the Johor sultan Ali Jalla Abdul Jalil Shah II. However, the successor of Sultan Alauddin Mansur Syah was another non-Acehnese, Sultan Buyung from Indrapura.