Battle of Hattin

The Battle of Hattin () took place on 4 July 1187, between the Crusader states of the Levant and the forces of the Ayyubid sultan Saladin (Salah ad-Din). It is also known as the Battle of the Horns of Hattin, due to the shape of the nearby extinct volcano of Kurûn Hattîn.
The Muslim armies under Saladin captured or killed the vast majority of the Crusader forces, removing their capability to wage war. As a direct result of the battle, Muslims once again became the eminent military power in the Holy Land, re-conquering Jerusalem and many of the other Crusader-held cities. These Christian defeats prompted the Third Crusade, which began two years after the Battle of Hattin.
Location.
The battle took place near Tiberias in present-day Palestine. The battlefield, near the town of Hittin, had as its chief geographic feature a double hill (the "Horns of Hattin") beside a pass through the northern mountains between Tiberias and the road from Acre to the east. The Darb al-Hawarnah road, built by the Romans, served as the main east-west passage between the Jordan fords, the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean coast.
Background.
Guy of Lusignan became king of Jerusalem in 1186, in right of his wife, Sibylla, after the death of her son Baldwin V. The Kingdom of Jerusalem was divided between the "court faction" of Guy; Sibylla and relative newcomers to the kingdom such as Raynald of Châtillon, Gerard of Ridefort and the Knights Templar and the "nobles' faction", led by Raymond III of Tripoli, who had been a regent for the child-king Baldwin V and had opposed Guy's succession. Raymond III of Tripoli had supported the claim of Sibylla's half-sister Isabella and Isabella's husband, Humphrey IV of Toron, and led the rival faction to the court party. Open warfare was prevented only by Humphrey of Toron swearing allegiance to Guy, which ended the succession dispute. The Muslim chronicler Ali ibn al-Athir claimed that Raymond was in a "state of open rebellion" against Guy.
In the background of those divisions, Saladin had become vizier of Egypt in 1169 and had taken Damascus in 1174 and Aleppo in 1183. He controlled the entire southern and eastern flanks of the crusader states. He united his subjects under Sunni Islam and convinced them that he would wage holy war to push the Christian Franks from Jerusalem. Saladin often made strategic truces with the Franks when he needed to deal with political problems in the Muslim world, and one such truce was made in 1185.
It was rumoured by the Franks that Raymond III of Tripoli had made an agreement with Saladin under which Saladin would make him King of Jerusalem in return for peace. That rumour was echoed by Ibn al Athir, whether that was true is unclear. Raymond III was certainly reluctant to engage in battle with Saladin.
In 1187 Raynald of Châtillon raided a Muslim caravan while the truce with Saladin was still in place. Saladin swore that he would kill Raynald for violating the truce, and he sent his son Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din and Emir Gökböri to raid the Frankish lands surrounding Acre. Gerard de Ridefort and the Templars engaged Gökböri in the Battle of Cresson in May, where they were heavily defeated. The Templars lost around 150 knights and 300 foot-soldiers, who had made up a great part of the military of Jerusalem. Jonathan Phillips states that "the damage to Frankish morale and the scale of the losses should not be underestimated in contributing towards the defeat at Hattin".
In July Saladin laid siege to Tiberias, where Raymond III's wife, Eschiva, was trapped. In spite of that, Raymond argued that Guy should not engage Saladin in battle and that Saladin could not hold Tiberias because his troops would not stand to be away from their families for so long. The Knights Hospitaller also advised Guy not to provoke Saladin.
Gerard de Ridefort advised Guy to advance against Saladin, and Guy took his advice. Norman Housley suggests that that was because "the minds of both men had been so poisoned by the political conflict 1180-87 that they could only see Raymond's advice as designed to bring them personal ruin" and also because he had spent Henry II of England's donations in calling the army and was reluctant to disband it without a battle. That was a gamble on Guy's part, as he had left only a few knights to defend the city of Jerusalem.
Siege of Tiberias.
In late May Saladin assembled the largest army he had ever commanded on the Golan Heights, around 40,000 men including about 12,000 regular cavalry. He inspected his forces at Tell-Ashtara before crossing the River Jordan on June 30. Saladin had also unexpectedly gained the alliance of the Druze community based in Sarahmul led by Jamal ad-Din Hajji, whose father Karama was an age-old ally of Nur ad-Din Zangi. The city of Sarahmul had been sacked by the crusaders on various occasions and according to Jamal ad-Din Hajji the crusaders even manipulated the Assassins to kill his three elder brothers. Saladin's army was organised as a centre and two wings: Gökböri commanded the left of the army, Saladin himself commanded the centre and his nephew, Al-Muzaffar Umar (Taki ad-Din), the right.
The opposing Crusader army amassed at La Saphorie; it consisted of around 18,000–20,000 men, including 1,200 knights from Jerusalem and Tripoli and 50 from Antioch. Though the army was smaller than Saladin's it was still larger than those usually mustered by the Crusaders. The usual levy of those who owed feudal service was extended, on this occasion of extreme threat, to include a call to arms of all able-bodied men in the kingdom.
After reconciling, Raymond and Guy met at Acre with the bulk of the crusader army. According to some European sources, aside from the knights there were a greater number of lighter cavalry, and perhaps 10,000 foot soldiers, supplemented by crossbowmen from the Italian merchant fleet, and a large number of mercenaries (including Turcopoles) hired with money donated to the kingdom by Henry II, King of England. The army's standard was the relic of the True Cross, carried by the Bishop of Acre, who was sent on behalf of the ailing Patriarch Heraclius.
Saladin decided to lure Guy into moving his field army away from their secure fortified encampment, located by the springs at La Saphorie (an important local source of water). He calculated the Crusaders could be defeated more easily in a field battle than by besieging their fortifications. On 2 July Saladin personally led an assault on Raymond's fortress of Tiberias, while the main Muslim army remained at Kafr Sabt. The garrison at Tiberias tried to bribe Saladin to leave the castle undisturbed, but he refused, later stating that "when the people realized they had an opponent who could not be tricked and would not be contented with tribute, they were afraid lest war might eat them up and they asked for quarter...but the servant gave the sword dominion over them." Within a day, one of the fortress' towers was mined and collapsed. Saladin's troops stormed the breach, killing the opposing forces and taking prisoners. Raymond's wife Eschiva held out with the surviving Frankish troops in the citadel.
As the Muslim troops began to construct a second mine to attack the citadel on 3 July, Saladin received news that Guy was moving the Frankish army east. The Crusaders had taken the bait. Guy's decision to leave La Saphorie was the result of a Crusader war council held on the night of 2 July. Records of this meeting are biased due to personal feuds among the Franks, but it seems Raymond argued that a march from Acre to Tiberias was exactly what Saladin wanted while La Saphorie was a strong position for the Crusaders to defend. Raymond also claimed Guy shouldn't worry about Tiberias, which Raymond held personally and was willing to give up for the safety of the kingdom. In response to this argument, and despite their reconciliation (internal court politics remaining strong), Raymond was accused of cowardice by Gerard and Raynald. This led Guy to resolve on an immediate counter-attack against Saladin at Tiberias.
Battle.
On July 3 the Frankish army started out towards Tiberias, harassed constantly by Muslim archers. They passed the Springs of Turan, which were entirely insufficient to provide the army with water. At midday Raymond of Tripoli decided that the army would not reach Tiberias by nightfall, and he and Guy agreed to change the course of the march and veer to the left in the direction of the Springs of Kafr Hattin, only 6 miles (9.7 km away). From there they could march down to Tiberias the following day. The Muslims positioned themselves between the Frankish army and the water so that the Franks were forced to pitch camp overnight on the arid plateau near the village of Meskenah. The Muslims surrounded the camp so closely that "a cat could not have escaped". According to Ibn al Athir, the Franks were "despondent, tormented by thirst" whilst Saladin's men were jubilant in anticipation of their victory.
Throughout the night, the Muslims further demoralized the crusaders by praying, singing, beating drums, showing symbols, and chanting. They set fire to the dry grass, making the crusaders' throats even drier. The Crusaders were thirsty, demoralized and exhausted. The Muslim army, by contrast, had a caravan of camels bring goatskins of water up from Lake Tiberias (now known as the Sea of Galilee).
On the morning of July 4, the crusaders were blinded by smoke from the fires set by Saladin's forces. The Franks came under fire from Muslim mounted archers from the division commanded by Gökböri, who had been resupplied with 400 loads of arrows that had been brought up during the night. Gerard and Raynald advised Guy to form battle lines and attack, which was done by Guy's brother Amalric. Raymond led the first division with Raymond of Antioch, the son of Bohemund III of Antioch, while Balian and Joscelin III of Edessa formed the rearguard.
Thirsty and demoralized, the crusaders broke camp and changed direction for the springs of Hattin, but their ragged approach was attacked by Saladin's army, which blocked the route forward and any possible retreat. Count Raymond launched two charges in an attempt to break through to the water supply at Lake Tiberias. The second of these enabled him to reach the lake and make his way to Tyre.
After Raymond escaped, Guy's position was now even more desperate. Most of the Christian infantry had effectively deserted by fleeing en masse onto the Horns of Hattin, where they played no further part in the battle. Overwhelmed by thirst and wounds, many of Guy's soldiers were killed on the spot without resistance while the remainder were taken prisoner. Their plight was such that five of Raymond's knights went over to the Muslim leaders to beg that they be mercifully put to death. Guy attempted to pitch the tents again to block the Muslim cavalry. The Christian knights and mounted serjeants were disorganized, but still fought on.
Now the crusaders were surrounded and, despite three desperate charges on Saladin's position, were broken up and defeated. An eyewitness account of this is given by Saladin's 17-year-old son, al-Afdal. It is quoted by Muslim chronicler Ibn al-Athir:
When the king of the Franks [Guy] was on the hill with that band, they made a formidable charge against the Muslims facing them, so that they drove them back to my father [Saladin]. I looked towards him and he was overcome by grief and his complexion pale. He took hold of his beard and advanced, crying out "Give the lie to the Devil!" The Muslims rallied, returned to the fight and climbed the hill. When I saw that the Franks withdrew, pursued by the Muslims, I shouted for joy, "We have beaten them!" But the Franks rallied and charged again like the first time and drove the Muslims back to my father. He acted as he had done on the first occasion and the Muslims turned upon the Franks and drove them back to the hill. I again shouted, "We have beaten them!" but my father rounded on me and said, "Be quiet! We have not beaten them until that tent [Guy's] falls." As he was speaking to me, the tent fell. The sultan dismounted, prostrated himself in thanks to God Almighty and wept for joy.
Surrender of crusaders.
Prisoners after the battle included Guy, his brother Amalric II, Raynald de Chatillon, William V of Montferrat, Gerard de Ridefort, Humphrey IV of Toron, Hugh of Jabala, Plivain of Botron, Hugh of Gibelet, and other barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Guy of Lusignan and Raynald of Chatillon were brought to Saladin's tent. Saladin offered Guy a drink, which was a sign in Muslim culture that the prisoner would be spared, but Guy was unaware of that. Guy passed the goblet to Raynald, but Saladin struck it from his hands and said, "I did not ask this evil man to drink, and he would not save his life by doing so". He then charged Raynald with breaking the truce.
Some reports, such as that of Baha al-Din, claim that Saladin himself then executed Raynald with a single stroke of his sword. Others record that Saladin struck Raynald as a sign to his bodyguards to behead him. Guy assumed that he would also be beheaded, but Saladin assured him that "kings do not kill kings."
Aftermath.
Crusader battle losses.
The True Cross was supposedly fixed upside down on a lance and sent to Damascus.
The Crusader king, Guy of Lusignan, was taken to Damascus as a prisoner and granted release in 1188, while the other noble captives were eventually ransomed.
After executing Raynald of Chatillon, Saladin ordered that the other captive barons be spared and treated humanely. All 200 of the Templar and Hospitaller Knights taken prisoner were executed on Saladin's orders, with the exception of the Grand Master of the Temple. The executions were by decapitation. Saint Nicasius, a Knight Hospitaller later venerated as a Roman Catholic martyr, is said to have been one of the victims. Imad ed-Din, Saladin's secretary, wrote:
Saladin ordered that they should be beheaded, choosing to have them dead rather than in prison. With him was a whole band of scholars and sufis and a certain number of devout men and ascetics; each begged to be allowed to kill one of them, and drew his sword and rolled back his sleeve. Saladin, his face joyful, was sitting on his dais; the unbelievers showed black despair.
Captured turcopoles (locally recruited mounted archers employed by the crusader states) were also executed on Saladin's orders. While nominally Christian, these auxiliaries were regarded as renegades who had betrayed Islam.
The rest of the captured knights and soldiers were sold into slavery, and one was reportedly bought in Damascus in exchange for some sandals. The high-ranking Frankish barons captured were held in Damascus and treated well. Some of Saladin's men left the army after the battle, taking lower-ranking Frankish prisoners with them as slaves.
Crusader kingdom falls to Saladin.
On Sunday, July 5, Saladin marched the six miles (10 km) to Tiberias, and Countess Eschiva surrendered the citadel of the fortress. She was allowed to leave for Tripoli with all of her family, followers, and possessions. Raymond of Tripoli, having escaped the battle, died of pleurisy later in 1187.
In fielding an army of 20,000 men, the Crusaders states had reduced the garrisons of their castles and fortified settlements. The heavy defeat at Hattin meant there was little reserve with which to defend against Saladin's forces. Only some 200 knights escaped the battle. The importance of the defeat is demonstrated by the fact that in its aftermath, fifty-two towns and fortifications were captured by Saladin's forces. By mid-September, Saladin had taken Acre, Nablus, Jaffa, Toron, Sidon, Beirut, and Ascalon. Tyre was saved by the arrival of Conrad of Montferrat, resulting in Saladin's siege of Tyre being repulsed with heavy losses. Jerusalem was defended by Queen Sibylla, Latin Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem, and Balian, who subsequently negotiated its surrender to Saladin on October 2 (see Siege of Jerusalem).
Significance in crusading history.
According to the chronicler Ernoul, news of the defeat brought to Rome by Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre caused Pope Urban III to die of shock. Urban's successor, Pope Gregory VIII, issued the bull "Audita tremendi" calling for a new crusade within days of his election. In England and France, the Saladin tithe was enacted to raise funds for the new crusade. The subsequent Third Crusade did not get underway until 1189, but was a very successful military operation through which many Christian holdings were restored. Nonetheless, Christian control over territories in the Holy Land remained vulnerable for decades until the Battle of La Forbie of 1244, 57 years after the Battle of Hattin, which marked the genuine collapse of Crusader military power in Outremer.
See also.
This is a succession of related campaigns that led up to the Battle of Hattin, on July 3–4, 1187:


Nikortsminda Cathedral

Nikortsminda Cathedral () is a Georgian Orthodox Church, located in Nikortsminda, Racha region of Georgia.
Nikortsminda was built in 1010–1014 during the reign of Bagrat III of Georgia and was repaired in 1534 by the King Bagrat III of Imereti. Three-storied bell-tower next to the cathedral was built in the second half of the 19th century. Frescoes inside the Cathedral date from the 17th century.
The cathedral is on the Tentative List for status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Details.
Stylistically, Nikortsminda reflects the Georgian cross-dome style of architecture.
Dome.
Nikortsminda has a massive dome and has unbroken arcatures as its twelve windows, which are decorated with ornamented architraves.
Interior.
The cathedral has a form of five apses from inside and the massive dome rest of the on the half-pillar shaped apse projections. The transition to the dome circle is affected by means of pendentives. Altar apse bema and the western passage make the space greater inside. Interior is decorated with frescoes from the 17th century and the rich ornaments, reflecting the mastery of the late-Medieval Georgian ecclesiastic art.
Exterior.
From the outside the Cathedral shapes like a short-armed rectangular cross and has a short segment to the west. The facades of the Cathedral are covered with smoothly hewn stone. Decorations include unbroken arcatures and various rich ornaments including multiple-figured story-telling reliefs and episodes ("The Transfiguration", "The Judgment Day", "The Ascension of the Cross", figures of saint, real or imaginary animals, forming one premeditated program). Nikortsminda has one of the most beautiful decorations from all Georgian churches and cathedrals because several different styles can be seen among them, telling the richness of the selection of motifs and the manner of execution.


USS Dobbin (AD-3)

USS "Dobbin" (AD-3) is the name of a United States Navy destroyer tender of World War II, named after James Cochrane Dobbin, the Secretary of the Navy from 1853 to 1857.
"Dobbin" was launched on 5 May 1921 by the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was commissioned on 23 July 1924, and served for 22 years before being decommissioned on 27 September 1946, and transferred to the United States Maritime Commission for disposal.
Pre-World War II.
"Dobbin" (AD-3) was launched on 5 May 1921 at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, sponsored by Mrs. H. H. James, granddaughter of Secretary Dobbin. She was commissioned on 23 July 1924 with Commander D. C. Bingham in command.
On 3 January 1925 Dobbin sailed for Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, by way of Newport, Rhode Island, and Hampton Roads, Virginia, where she loaded equipment and supplies for her mission as tender to Destroyer Squadron 14 of the Scouting Fleet. She joined that squadron at Guantanamo Bay, and took part in gunnery practice with the destroyers. From this base, on 13 February 1925, Dobbin steamed to the Panama Canal and crossed to the Pacific Ocean. After maneuvers at sea with the Scouting Fleet she arrived at San Diego on 9 March 1925 for 4 months of tender service along the west coast and at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Dobbin returned to the east coast in July 1925 and operated in the Atlantic Ocean for the next 7 years. During this time she participated in radio experiments and continued her services to the destroyers of the Scouting Fleet. In 1932, Dobbin returned to San Diego, arriving 1 September, and operated out of that port until 5 October 1939. At that time she was transferred to Hawaii and based on Pearl Harbor.
Missing captain.
In July 1941 Commander Thomas C. Latimore, "Dobbin"s captain, disappeared while hiking the local Aiea Hills. His body was never found and was the subject of much local news coverage and rumor before being overshadowed by the Pearl Harbor attack. Commander Latimore was declared legally dead in July 1942.
My father Lt Commander Jess Knight Dodge was serving aboard the Dobbin at this time. He told us that the ship sent crew members to look for Latimore as he liked to hike around in the hills. He told us that the body was found with his throat cut wired to a fence with barbed wire, his face had been mutilated to make it appear as a huge ear to ear grin. He told us that the information was not released because of security concerns that it would alert spies that their presence was known. As he was serving aboard during the Pearl Harbor attack, he told us a lot about the events on board the ship and the rescue efforts of the many terribly burned and wounded that they saved. His own ship mates gave underwear. toiletries and clothing to these rescued men because the American Relief Agency there at the time required payment for these items. Since many of the men had been rescued stark naked and had nothing with which to pay the crew members did the humane thing. He would never in the rest of his life give to that agency which still exits today because of this treatment of survivors.
Attack on Pearl Harbor.
"Dobbin" was present during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. At the time of the attack she was moored northeast of Ford Island with five destroyers, , , , and .
"Dobbin"s crew watched as Japanese planes targeted Battleship Row, but as the battleships each took heavy damage the Japanese pilots looked for other targets. Seeing that the ship had admiral flags, the aircraft tried to bomb "Dobbin", but the ship only took shrapnel damage.
"Dobbin"s small craft spent the morning picking up survivors and taking the wounded to shore. The ship picked up hundreds of sailors from other ships, and when she left the harbor in search of the Japanese fleet, 200 men from alone were aboard.
World War II.
After the attack, "Dobbin" served in the Hawaiian area until May 1942 and then she was sent to Sydney, Australia. "Dobbin" was one of several Allied vessels located in Sydney Harbor during the Japanese midget submarine attack of 31 May 1942. On 25 June 1943 she was sent to Brisbane, Mackay, Townsville, and Cleveland Bay, Australia, before arriving at Milne Bay, New Guinea, 30 September 1943. She stayed near New Guinea until 14 February 1945, at which point she moved to Subic Bay in the Philippines. She served at Subic Bay from 24 February to 3 November 1945.
Fate.
"Dobbin" returned to San Diego on 7 December 1945 and was decommissioned on 27 September 1946. She was transferred to the Maritime Commission for disposal on 24 December 1946.


Secret Agent of Japan

Secret Agent of Japan is a 1942 film directed by Irving Pichel. It was the first American anti-Japanese war film produced by a major studio after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The film stars Preston Foster as a nightclub owner in Shanghai who becomes involved in espionage revolving around preparations for the attack.
Critical reception.
The film drew mixed reviews from critics. Theodore Strauss of "New York Times" panned the film, calling it "a very mild hate-brew" and "third-rate drama", and stating, "Nowadays, we doubt whether anybody, even Hirohito, will be much excited". "Variety" wrote that "the picture doesn't achieve more than moderately entertaining proportions for the adult ... Foster and Miss Bari show off excellently, though some of the supporting parts are pretty awful." "Film Daily" called it "a rousing melodrama" but found the twists and turns of the plot confusing. "Harrison's Reports" wrote: "An engrossing espionage melodrama that is timely. The story value is good, and competent direction and excellent performances help maintain the interest throughout."


USS Worden (DD-352)

The third USS "Worden" (DD-352) was a "Farragut"-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War II. She was named for John Lorimer Worden.
"Worden" was laid down on 29 December 1932 at the Puget Sound Navy Yard; launched on 27 October 1934; sponsored by Mrs. Katrina L. Halligan, the wife of Rear Admiral John Halligan, Jr., Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force; and commissioned on 15 January 1935, Commander Robert E. Kerr in command.
Pre-World War II.
After fitting out, "Worden" departed Puget Sound on 1 April 1935 for her shakedown cruise that took her first to San Diego, California, and thence along the coast of Lower California and Mexico to Puerto San José, Guatemala, and Puntarenas, Costa Rica. The new destroyer then transited the Panama Canal on 6 May and steamed north to Washington, D.C., where on 17 May she embarked Rear Admiral Joseph K. Taussig, Assistant Chief of Naval Operations, along with a congressional party, for a cruise down the Potomac River to Mount Vernon.
"Worden" subsequently returned to the Washington Navy Yard where her guns were disassembled for alterations. She then shifted south on 21 May to the Norfolk Navy Yard. In the ensuing weeks, the ship underwent voyage repairs at Norfolk. The yard work was broken once by trials and tests off Rockland, Maine, and completed in the early summer. She ultimately left the Norfolk Navy Yard on 1 July and spent the weekend of the 4th at New Bedford, Massachusetts, before setting her course for the west coast. After proceeding via Guantanamo Bay and the Panama Canal, she arrived back at the Puget Sound Navy Yard on 3 August.
After a post-shakedown refit at her builders' yard, "Worden" shifted south to San Diego, reaching that port on 19 September, and commenced four years of operations from there as a unit of Destroyer Squadrons, Scouting Force. She performed valuable duty as a training ship for the Fleet Sound School, San Diego, and conducted the usual tactics and type training evolutions in local waters and in maneuvers that took her from Seward, Alaska, to Callao, Peru. She also participated in regularly scheduled fleet problems and battle tactics with combined forces of the United States Fleet in the Caribbean Sea and in the Hawaiian Islands. One of the highlights of her operations during that time came in the autumn of 1937. In mid-September— "Worden", in company with "Hull" (DD-350) and escorting the aircraft carrier "Ranger" (CV-4)—voyaged to Callao, Peru, for a visit that coincided with the Inter-American Technical Aviation Conference at Lima. While "Ranger" proceeded independently homeward upon conclusion of her visit, the destroyers paused at Balboa, Panama Canal Zone, before returning to San Diego.
The coming of war in Europe on 1 September 1939 altered "Worden's" pattern of operations out of San Diego. Five days after hostilities began in Poland, the Navy commenced its Neutrality Patrol duties on 6 September. On 22 September, the Chief of Naval Operations directed the Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet to transfer, temporarily, to the Hawaiian area two heavy cruiser divisions, a destroyer flotilla flagship (a light cruiser), two destroyer squadrons, one destroyer tender, an aircraft carrier, and base force units necessary for servicing those ships; that dispatch marked the establishment of the Hawaiian Detachment—the forerunner of the ultimate basing of the Fleet at Pearl Harbor.
"Worden" was attached to this new force, commanded by Vice Admiral Adolphus Andrews, whose flag flew in the heavy cruiser "Indianapolis" (CA-35). On 5 October 1939, she sailed for Pearl Harbor.
"Worden" worked primarily in the Hawaiian Islands over the next two years, interspersing her time at Pearl Harbor and its environs with regular periods of upkeep on the west coast. Upon the conclusion of Fleet Problem XXI in the Spring of 1940, the entire Fleet was based in Hawaiian waters.
Pearl Harbor.
On the morning of 7 December 1941, during the attack on Pearl Harbor, "Worden" lay in a nest alongside destroyer tender "Dobbin" (AD-3), receiving upkeep. She suffered no damage in the Japanese attack, but one of her gunners, Quartermaster 3d Class Raymond H. Brubaker, shot down a bomber with a .50-caliber Browning machine gun. Within two hours of the commencement of the attack, "Worden" had gotten underway and was proceeding to the open sea.
Although, in the operational plans for the attack, Japanese submarines were supposed to attack American ships as they emerged from Pearl Harbor, their attempts to carry out the mission failed. The danger of enemy submarines, however, did exist; and purported submarine sightings proliferated.
"Worden" picked up a submarine contact at 1240— well over three hours after the attack by the enemy aircraft had been completed—and dropped seven depth charges. That afternoon, the destroyer joined a task force built around the light cruiser "Detroit" (CL-8), the flagship of Rear Admiral Milo Draemel. Searching the seas southwest of Oahu, "Worden" rendezvoused with the fleet oiler "Neosho" (AO-23) and escorted her to a fueling rendezvous with Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch's Task Force (TF) 11 built around the aircraft carrier "Lexington" (CV-2).
While "Neosho" fueled the ships of TF 11 on the morning of 11 December, "Worden" assumed a screening station on "Lexington's" bow and the next night escorted "Neosho" away from danger when "Dewey" (DD-349) discovered what looked like a surfaced enemy submarine and went on the offensive. After having seen "Neosho" to a safe haven at Pearl Harbor, "Worden" returned to the open sea on 14 December as part of the covering force moving toward Wake Island. The Wake Island Relief Expedition was recalled on the morning of 22 December; and the island fell two days before Christmas.
1942.
"Worden" returned to patrol and escort operations in the Hawaiian Islands; and, while thus engaged with the "Lexington" task force, twice dropped depth charges on suspected enemy submarine contacts off Oahu on 16 January 1942 and again six days later.
Detached from TF 11 on the last day of the month, "Worden" left Pearl Harbor on 5 February to escort the seaplane tender "Curtiss" (AV-4) and the fleet oiler "Platte" (AO-24), via Samoa and the Fiji Islands, to New Caledonia, and reached Noumea on 21 February. Three days later, when the merchantman SS "Snark" struck a mine in Bulari Passage, "Worden" went to her assistance, passing a tow line to the sinking ship and pulling her clear of the channel entrance. "Worden's" medical department tended six injured men, and the ship brought the crew safely to port.
Departing Nouméa on 7 March, "Worden"—in company with "Curtiss"—set course for Pearl Harbor and reached that port on the 19th. That day, the destroyer entered the navy yard there and, after her repairs had been finished, joined TF 11 on 14 April.
"Worden" headed out to sea on the 15th, in company with the "Lexington" task force, bound for a rendezvous area southwest of the New Hebrides Islands, where, on 1 May, they joined Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's TF 17, built around the carrier "Yorktown" (CV-5). On the 2d, after the two carrier task forces had fueled, "Worden" was detached to escort the fleet oiler "Tippecanoe" (AO-21) to Nouméa. In her absence, the American carriers engaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea.
On 12 May—two days after she reached Nouméa— "Worden" was joined in that port by the cruisers and destroyers of the former "Lexington" task force. "Lady Lex" had succumbed to massive internal explosions and fires started during the battle. As part of that group, "Worden" put to sea on the 13th and, the following day, rendezvoused with TF 16 off Efate in the New Hebrides. Formed around the carriers "Enterprise" (CV-6) and "Hornet" (CV-8), this force was commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey.
Battle of Midway.
TF 16 reached Pearl Harbor on the 26th. "Worden" sailed on 28 May with TF 16—the force now under the command of Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, who had replaced Halsey. Later, TF 17— formed around the hurriedly repaired and replenished "Yorktown"—rendezvoused with Spruance's force to the north of Midway Island.
"Worden" screened "Enterprise" and "Hornet" throughout the Battle of Midway from 4 to 6 June 1942. "Worden" returned to Pearl Harbor on the 13th and was soon assigned to the screen of a revitalized TF 11, built around the newly repaired "Saratoga" (CV-3). The destroyer escorted Saratoga as she sailed to Midway and flew off reinforcement groups of Army and Marine Corps aircraft before returning to the Hawaiian Islands for training.
On 9 July, "Worden" headed for the South Pacific with "Saratoga's" task force but was temporarily detached on the 21st to escort "Platte" to Nouméa, reaching that port four days later. While "Platte" took on her vital cargo to replenish ships of the carrier task force, "Worden" patrolled the harbor entrance. On the 28th, "Worden" and "Platte" got underway to rejoin "Saratoga".
En route on the first night out, "Worden" sighted signal lights in the darkness. She soon took on board 36 survivors of the sunken Army transport "Tjinegara" which had been torpedoed on the 25th by the Japanese submarine "I-169" and sunk about 75 miles southwest of Nouméa.
"Worden" returned to the "Saratoga" group to the south of the Fiji Islands on the following day, when the carrier forces joined marine-laden troop transports that had sailed from Wellington, New Zealand, for the invasion of the Solomon Islands. Her stay with the carrier was brief, for the destroyer was soon detached to escort the fleet oiler "Cimarron" (AO-22) to Nouméa, where she landed the "Tjinegara's" survivors on 1 August.
"Worden" caught up with TF 16 on 3 August and, shortly before daybreak on the 7th, was screening "Saratoga" as the carrier launched air strikes against Japanese positions on Guadalcanal and Tulagi preparatory to the landings.
Battle of the Eastern Solomons.
For the next two weeks, "Worden" operated with "Saratoga" south of the Solomons protecting supply and communication lines leading to Guadalcanal. During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, "Worden" screened the flattop as she launched air strikes in company with "Enterprise" to sink the Japanese carrier "Ryūjō" and damage the seaplane tender "Chitose". Less than a week later, however, Japanese submarine "I-26" torpedoed "Saratoga" and put her out of action, necessitating a trip to the mainland United States for repairs.
"Worden" screened "Saratoga's" retirement via Tongatapu in the Tonga Islands to Pearl Harbor, arriving there on 23 September. Five days later, she sailed with two other destroyers—screening the battleships "Idaho" (BB-42) and "Pennsylvania" (BB-38)—for the west coast of the United States. She reached San Francisco, California on 4 October but departed again a week later with "Gansevoort" (DD-608) to accompany "Idaho" to Puget Sound where they arrived on the 14th. "Worden" soon returned south to San Francisco and later joined Dewey in screening Nevada during her post-repair trials in the San Pedro-San Diego area.
Grounding.
"Main: Landing at Amchitka"
On 27 December 1942, "Worden" sailed from San Francisco to support the occupation of Amchitka Island in the Aleutian Islands. She reached Dutch Harbor, Alaska, on New Year's Day 1943 and, on 12 January, was guarding the transport "Arthur Middleton" (AP-55) as that transport put the preliminary Army security unit on the shores of Constantine Harbor, Amchitka Island. The destroyer maneuvered into the rock-edged harbor and stayed there until the last men had landed and then turned to the business of clearing the harbor.
A strong current, however, swept "Worden" onto a pinnacle that tore into her hull beneath her engine room and caused a complete loss of power. "Dewey" passed a towline to her stricken sister and attempted to tow her free, but the cable parted, and the heavy seas began moving "Worden"—totally without power— inexorably toward the rocky shore. The destroyer then broached and began breaking up in the surf; Comdr. William G. Pogue, the stricken destroyer's commanding officer, ordered abandon ship; and, as he was directing that effort, was swept overboard into the wintry seas by a heavy wave that broke over the ship.
Pogue was among the fortunate ones, however, because he was hauled, unconscious, out of the sea. Fourteen of his crew drowned. "Worden", herself, was a total loss. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 22 December 1944.
"Worden" earned four battle stars for her World War II service.


John Vane (bushranger)

John Vane (16 June 1842 - 30 January 1906) was an Australian bushranger who rode with the Frank Gardiner–Ben Hall gang during 1863. Vane was the only member of the gang of 1863 to survive. The other members all died by the bullet, either from the police or private citizens.
Early life.
John Vane (incorrectly baptised John Vein) was born at Jerrys Plains, near Singleton, in New South Wales on 16 June 1842 to William and Ann Vane. William Vane's father, Stephen, arrived in the NSW colony as a convict in 1803. William's mother, Elizabeth Mandeville, arrived as a convict in 1809. Ann Vane's father, Thomas Miller, was a Sergeant in the 73rd regiment. After arriving in the colony the Miller family took up grants near Bathurst where the Miller and Vane families were introduced.
Around 1840 William and Ann Vane took their young family to the rich farming region near Singleton. The family stayed for six years before relocating back to the Bathurst district.
John worked as a shepherd on various properties in the mountainous Abercrombie Ranges. He often helped his father who was primarily employed as a timber cutter and splitter. By 1854 the Vane family were living on land belonging to Thomas Radburn at Neville. The property would formally be transferred to the Vane family in 1866. Many significant events occurred at the family home, 'Wattle Grove':
There is now nothing left of 'Wattle Grove', as it had fallen into disrepair by the mid 20th century, and has since been demolished. Only a small stand of ornamental and fruit trees indicates the location of where the Vane family home once stood.
In 1856, at the age of fourteen, John began an apprenticeship with a Bathurst blacksmith. He left that job after two years and went gold prospecting, spending about eighteen months on the goldfields around Hill End. He then returned home and reacquainted himself with his good mate Mickey Burke and his cousin Jim Burke. The trio, being experienced horse and cattle men, soon found themselves supplying local and neighbouring communities with stolen horses and cattle, an occupation rewarded with handsome profits.
Bushranging.
In early 1863 Vane and Mickey Burke met John Gilbert and John O'Meally, members of Frank Gardiner–Ben Hall's gang, who had heard of their exploits. They joined the gang and took part in many robberies.
Vane left the gang after his best friend Mickey Burke was shot and fatally wounded during an ill-fated attack on a homestead at Dunn's Plains. Vane was persuaded by a local priest to surrender to police and turned himself in to Superintendent Morrisset at Bathurst. He was tried in April 1864 and received a sentence of 15 years for Robbery Under Arms and was released in February 1870.
He remained in Sydney for a few years before returning to the western districts and resuming his old criminal ways. He received five years gaol for sheep stealing at Bathurst in 1880 and was released in August 1884. Afterwards, he found work at a number of local properties in the Abercrombie Ranges.
Death.
Vane died from Illeo-colitis, or Crohn's disease, on 30 January 1906 at Cowra hospital and was buried the following day at Woodstock cemetery. A memorial plaque has been erected at the site believed to be where he was buried. However, newspaper articles suggested he was buried in the Church of England section of that cemetery. Vane's wife, Jane (née Parker), is also buried in an unmarked grave in the same cemetery.


MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98

The MS "al-Salam Boccaccio 98" was an Egyptian Ro/Ro passenger ferry, operated by El Salam Maritime Transport, that sank on 3 February 2006 in the Red Sea en route from Duba, Saudi Arabia, to Safaga in southern Egypt.
The ship was carrying about 1400 passengers and crew. The majority are thought to have been Egyptians working in Saudi Arabia, but they included pilgrims returning from the Hajj in Mecca. The ship was also carrying about 220 vehicles. No Mayday had been heard from the ship and poor weather conditions hampered the search and rescue operation. 388 people were rescued.
The immediate cause of the sinking appears to have been a build-up of sea-water in the hull, when the fire-fighters were trying to extinguish a fire in the engine-room. This was compounded by design faults inherent in Ro/Ro vessels, where minor flooding of the deck can gain rapid momentum due to the free surface effect. When the captain asked permission to return to port, the ship's owners ordered him to continue, despite knowing that there had been a fire. The owners were jailed in 2009 after their original acquittal was overturned.
Ship history.
The vessel was built by the Italian company Italcantieri in 1970 with IMO number 6921282 and named "Boccaccio" at Monfalcone, Italy for Tirrenia di Navigazione. She was originally intended for Italian domestic service. Her dimensions were length overall with beam and draft. The main engines were rated at 16,560 kW for a maximum speed of . The vessel had an original capacity of 200 automobiles and 1000 passengers. Five sister ships were built.
The vessel was rebuilt in 1991 by INMA at La Spezia, maintaining the same outer dimensions albeit with a higher superstructure, changing the draught to . At the same time her automobile capacity was increased to 320 and the passenger capacity was increased to 1,300. The most recent tonnage was 11,799 GT.
"Boccaccio" was purchased in 1999 by El Salam Maritime Transport, headquartered in Cairo, the largest private shipping company in Egypt and the Middle East, and renamed "al-Salam Boccaccio 98" (, Salam سلام means "peace"); the registered owner was Pacific Sunlight Marine of Panama. She was also referred to as "Salam 98".
The sinking.
Its last known position was from Duba, when it lost contact with the shore at about 22:00 EET (20:00 UTC).
First reports of statements by survivors indicated that smoke from the engine room was followed by a fire which continued for some time. There were also reports of the ship listing soon after leaving port and that, after continuing for some hours, the list became severe and the ship capsized within 10 minutes as the crew fought the fire. In a BBC radio news broadcast an Egyptian ministerial spokesman said the fire had started in a storage area, was controlled, but started again. The significance of the fire was supported by statements attributed to crew members, who were reported to have claimed that "the firefighters essentially sank the ship when sea water they used to battle the fire collected in the hull because drainage pumps were not working."
Weather conditions.
The Red Sea is known for its strong winds and tricky local currents. The region had been experiencing high winds and dust storms for several days at the time of the sinking. These winds may have contributed to the disaster and may have complicated rescue efforts.
The closest maritime weather report for 3 February 2006 00:00 UTC was from MV "Glasgow Maersk", call sign MZGK7. Reporting from 27.00°N 34.40°E, approximately north-north-west of the sinking, the container ship shows winds of 24.1 kt (13 ms−1) from 320 degrees, with a surface pressure of 1005 hPa. Sea temperature was and a significant wave height of only . Visibility was good (), with 7/8 cloud cover. There was also an active weather front overlying the area, clearly visible in METEOSAT imagery.
Numbers on board.
The ship was carrying 1,312 passengers and 96 crew members, according to Mamdouh Ismail, head of al-Salaam Maritime Transport Company. Earlier an Egyptian official had mentioned 1,310 passengers and 105 crew (however, the Egyptian presidential spokesman mentioned 98 crew, while the Transport Minister said 104).
Possible causes.
Several theories have been put forward about possible causes of the sinking.
Search and rescue.
At 23:58 UTC on 2 February 2006 the air-sea rescue control room at RAF Kinloss in Scotland detected an automatic distress signal relayed by satellite from the ship's position. The alert was passed on via France to the Egyptian authorities.
On 3 February 2006 some lifeboats and bodies were seen in the water. At least 314 survivors and around 185 dead bodies were recovered. Reuters reported that "dozens" of bodies were floating in the Red Sea.
Rescue boats and helicopters searched the area, including four Egyptian frigates. Italian Coastal Patrol Unit Ships patrolled for more than 90 hours in severe weather conditions, and eight survivors were rescued by MFO Esploratore-class vessels "Vedetta" and "Sentinella". The United Kingdom diverted the warship HMS "Bulwark" which would have arrived in a day-and-a-half, but reports conflict as to whether or not the ship was recalled. Israeli sources report that an offer of search and rescue assistance from the Israeli Navy was declined. Egyptian authorities accepted a United States offer of a P-3 Orion maritime naval patrol aircraft after initially having said that the help was not needed.
Many survivors reported seeing the captain of the vessel being the first to leave the ship in a lifeboat [AP 2-04-06].
Trial of owners.
In July 2008 the owner of "al-Salam Boccaccio 98", Mamdouh Ismail, along with his son Amr Ismail and two others were acquitted of wrongdoing in connection with the disaster by an Egyptian court. An earlier parliamentary inquiry blamed Ismail's company for the disaster, saying they had operated the ferry despite serious defects. Also, the recovered data recorder proved that the ferry's owner knew there had been a fire on board but gave orders to continue on instead of returning to port as the captain had requested. Family members of the victims felt the ruling was brought about by corruption as Ismail is a member of Egypt's upper house and is very well connected.
On 11 March 2009, after the initial acquittal was overturned in a hearing presided over by Judge Khaled Badereldin, Mamdouh Ismail was sentenced to seven years in prison. Two other employees of the company were sentenced to three years in prison each.
In May 2020, The Court of Justice of the European Union judged that "The victims of the sinking of a vessel, which sailed under the flag of Panama, may
bring an action for damages before the Italian courts against the Italian organisations which classified and certified that vessel", i.e. the Italian Classification Society RINA (Registro Italiano Navale


2005 ISSF World Cup

For the 2005 ISSF World Cup in the fifteen Olympic shooting events, the World Cup Final was held in August 2005 in Munich, Germany for the rifle and pistol events, and in November 2005 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates for the shotgun events.
Rifle and pistol.
The rifle and pistol World Cup Final in Munich, held from August 23 to August 28, was heavily dominated by Russia and China. Two world records were set during the competitions: Sergei Alifirenko's 589 in 25 m Rapid Fire Pistol was the best result of the year and hence also world record, as the rules were changed at the turn of the season, and Sergei Martynov achieved the maximum 600 in the qualification round of the Prone position event for a fourth time (although he was unable to retain his two-point lead through the final). The winners were:
Shotgun.
The shotgun competitions were held in Dubai from November 19 to November 25. Haley Dunn beat her own junior world record in the Skeet qualification round and went on to equal the final world record. In the men's Skeet competitions, two Cypriots equalled the qualification record, one of them proceeding with a perfect final and equalling the final record as well. The winners were:


Canterbury Province

The Canterbury Province was a province of New Zealand from 1853 until the abolition of provincial government in 1876. Its capital was Christchurch.
History.
Canterbury was founded in December 1850 by the Canterbury Association of influential Englishmen associated with the Church of England. (An attempt was initially made to restrict residence in the province to members of the church but this was abandoned.) The "Charlotte Jane" and the "Randolph"—the first two of the First Four Ships—arrived in the area on 16 December 1850, later celebrated as the province's Anniversary Day.
In 1852, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which amongst other things established provincial councils. The Constitution contained specific provisions for the Canterbury Association; the first being that the new General Assembly (New Zealand Parliament) could not amend the legislation establishing the Canterbury Association, the second being that the Canterbury Association could hand its powers to a newly-established provincial government (the Canterbury Province).
Elections were held in 1853 for Superintendent and, later that year, for the 12-member council. These elections predated any elected national assembly. The franchise was extended to men over the age of 21 who owned property in the province. As a result, affairs of the Canterbury Association were wound up in 1855 and outstanding settlement lands handed over to the Canterbury Province. The first meeting place was the former office of the "Guardian and Advertiser", Canterbury's second newspaper, on Chester Street near the Avon River. In 1866, the council moved to Guise Brittan's house, which later became part of the Clarendon Hotel. One session in 1858 was held in the town hall on what is now High Street; the town hall was in the section north of Lichfield Street. On 28 September 1859, the council first met in what became known as the Timber Chamber of the Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings. The Stone Chamber of the Provincial Council Buildings was used from November 1865.
Following the West Coast Gold Rush, the portion of the province west of the Southern Alps was split off as Westland in 1867. Upon the establishment of the University of New Zealand in 1870, its Christchurch campus housed the system's headquarters.
Geography.
On the east coast the province was bounded by the Hurunui River in the north and the Waitaki River in the south. The boundary on the west coast was largely undefined before the West Coast became its own province.
In 1868 the West Coast was separated from the Province with the formation of the County of Westland on the West Coast with the boundary line defined as the crest of the Southern Alps. In 1873 the County formed its own Province, the short-lived Westland Province.
In the south the course of the Waitaki River was not known and disputes arose with the Province of Otago over pastoral leases in the inland high country.
In the 1860s South Canterbury made two bids to become separate province but this was rejected by the national government. Instead in 1867 the General Assembly created the Timaru and Gladstone Board of Works which received a proportion of the Canterbury provincial land revenues and was authorised to maintain and build the Timaru harbour and local roads and bridges.
When the province was abolished, the area was distributed across eight counties.
Railways.
The Ferrymead Railway was the first railway to be opened (1863) and closed (1868) in New Zealand. It was made obsolete by the opening of a new line through a tunnel giving Christchurch access to the better port of Lyttelton. The mainlines of the Canterbury Provincial Railways were Irish gauge () with some branch lines in Colonial gauge (). These lines were all eventually absorbed into the New Zealand Railways Department in 1876.
Superintendents.
Charles Simeon was the returning officer for the first election of a Superintendent. The nomination meeting was held at the Christchurch Land Office (the site now occupied by Our City), and there were three polling stations: in Christchurch at the Resident Magistrate's Court, in Lyttelton at the Resident Magistrate's Court, and in Akaroa.
Canterbury had four Superintendents:
Executive Council.
The Executive Council is comparable to a cabinet. The following 26 Executive Councils existed:
Anniversary Day.
Each New Zealand province celebrates an anniversary day. Canterbury Province's was originally 16 December, the day of the 1850 arrival of the "Charlotte Jane" and the "Randolph". Since 1862, an A&P (Agricultural and Pastoral) show has been held annually. Its Friday Show Day was set for many years on the People's Day and, sometime in the late 1950s, the Christchurch City Council moved the province's Anniversary Day to coincide with the show and encourage greater crowds. The holiday is presently defined as the "second Friday after the first Tuesday in November", ensuring that it will follow the Melbourne Cup Racing Carnival. This adjustment is observed in northern and middle Canterbury; southern Canterbury instead observes its Anniversary Day on Dominion Day (the 4th Monday in September).


Journey Among Women

Journey Among Women is a 1977 Australian film directed by Tom Cowan.
Plot.
In colonial Australia, refined Elizabeth Harrington, daughter of the judge advocate and engaged to Captain McEwan, decides to help female convicts who are living in appalling conditions. The women manage to escape and Elizabeth goes with them. An aboriginal girl, Kameragul, shows them how to survive in the bush but Elizabeth almost dies of malnutrition. A convict, Emily, nurses her back to health.
Months pass, and Emily is raped and killed by two men. Elizabeth leads the other convicts in a revenge attack against the men. Captain McEwan leads an attack on the women, in which he is killed. Elizabeth returns to her old life.
Production.
The film was an original idea of Cowan's:
I was living in the bush, in Berowra Waters, and it was so powerful. I happened to read this French science-fiction story called "Les Guerrieres" about a future society of women - like an Amazon society - who were at war with the rest of society. Somehow in the combination of the wildness and strangeness and beauty of the bush and this story of wild women, I saw a parallel in how we perceived the bush and how the British first saw the bush as ugly. Well, we now see it as beautiful. And how the sort of excesses of radical feminism, when it began, were seen as ugly - ranting and raving and being abusive and so on. But, in fact, behind it were very beautiful things - not just the women, but the humanist ideas.
Cowan wrote the screenplay with producer John Wiley and playwright Dorothy Hewett. Funding came from private investment, the Australian Film Commission and a $25,000 grant from the Experimental Film Fund.
The film was shot over six weeks in 1976 near Berowra, north of Sydney, on 16mm. Shooting was a turbulent experience, in part because everyone was living together on location and there were fierce arguments between Cowan and the cast over the direction the film was taking.
Post-production took eighteen months and the film was blown up from 16mm to 35mm. Four minutes were taking out of the film after its premiere at the Cannes Film Festival.
Release.
The film was a success at the box office, in part because of its nudity and lesbian scenes.
Tom Cowan won a special award for "creativity" at the 1977 AFI awards.


Battle of Sardarabad

The Battle of Sardarabad (, "Sardarapati č̣akatamart"; ) was a battle of the Caucasus campaign of World War I that took place near Sardarabad, Armenia from 21 to 29 May 1918, between the regular Armenian military units and militia on one side and the Ottoman army that had invaded Eastern Armenia on the other. As Sardarabad is approximately west of the capital of Yerevan, the battle not only halted the Ottoman advance into the rest of Armenia, but also prevented the complete destruction of the Armenian nation. In the words of Christopher J. Walker, had the Armenians lost this battle, "[I]t is perfectly possible that the word Armenia would have henceforth denoted only an antique geographical term."
Background.
Ottoman invasion of Eastern Armenia.
After the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia and the ceasefire signed between the Third Army of the Ottoman Empire and the Transcaucasian Commissariat in Erzincan, newly forming Armenian detachments came to replace Russian forces retreating from the Caucasian Front, particularly from the territory of Western Armenia. Taking advantage of the military-political situation of the time, the Ottoman government set its mind on regaining control of territories occupied by the Russian Army during World War I and invading Eastern Armenia and the South Caucasus afterwards. The German government, the Ottoman Empire's ally, objected to this attack and refused to help the Ottoman Army in the operation. The Ottoman Army intended to crush Armenia and seize Russian Transcaucasia and the oil wells of Baku.
Launching an assault in February 1918, the Third Army of the Ottoman Empire occupied Western Armenian settlements one after another. Following the failure of Trabzon peace talks in April, Third Army commander Mehmed Wehib Pasha moved his forces towards Transcaucasia. Taking advantage of the conciliatory policy of the leadership of the newly-proclaimed Transcaucasian Federative Republic, the Turkish military units captured the heavily fortified Castle of Kars on 25 April, thus creating a direct threat to Alexandrapol. Following the siege of Kars, the Ottoman Forces Command put forward new conditions to the Transcaucasian authorities, demanding the surrender of Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe and Alexandrapol, as well as of Alexandropol–Julfa railway, which the Turkish troops could use to reach Tabriz and get their hands on all the Transcaucasian railroads before the end of the war against the British. Unwilling to wait for the end of negotiations with the Transcaucasian delegation in Batumi, the Turkish forces took Alexandropol with a quick offensive on 15 May, creating a threat of conquest for all of Eastern Armenia.
In order to break into Eastern Armenia, the Turkish Military Command made a regrouping of its troops. A special detachment commanded by Yakub Shevki Pasha was formed in Kars from subdivisions of the 1st Caucasian Army Corps (under the command of Major-General Kazim Karabekir Pasha) and the 2nd Caucasian Army Corps of the Third Army (under the command of Major-General Yakub Shevki Pasha). Within the newly-formed detachment, the 36th Division (under the command of Colonel Pirselimoğlu Hamdi Bey) and the 9th Division (under the command of Colonel Rüştü Paşa) of the 1st Caucasian Army Corps, as well as the 11th Division (under the command of Colonel Cavit Erdel) and the 5th Division (under the command of Colonel Mürsel Pasha) of the 2nd Caucasian Army Corps were to operate against the Armenian forces. Besides the detachment in question, also participating in combat operations in the course of the invasion of Eastern Armenia was the 12th Division of the 4th Army Corps of the Second Army, which supervised Surmali mountain passes on the eve of the Battle of Sardarapat and had a mission to invade Igdir Province.
To be able to resist the attack, commander of the Armenian Corps, commander-in-chief of the Armenian Armed Forces Tovmas Nazarbekian decided to safeguard the strategic roads to Yerevan and Tiflis.
A part of the Armenian troops that had left Alexandropol, including some units of the 1st Division of the Armenian Corps, as well as several units within the Special Armenian Detachment, retreated towards the Ararat Plain. Here under the general command of Movses Silikyan, the Detachment of Yerevan of the Armenian Armed Forces was created with a task to thwart the Turkish attack on Yerevan.
Yerevan on the eve of the battle.
The invasion of the Turkish army put the Armenian political leadership in both Tiflis and Yerevan into a difficult situation. On 19 May, after invading Surmali, Turkish General Halil Kut (the uncle of Enver Pasha) declared in Batumi that "the Armenians have been defeated and must be obeyed." On the other hand, the Armenian delegation represented in the negotiations of Batumi (Alexander Khatisian, Hovhannes Kajaznuni) in a cable sent to Khachatur Karchikyan, the Armenian member in the Transcaucasian Commissariat, recommended "against showing resistance to Turks."
Amid a widespread panic in the Aleksandropolsky Uyezd, the Ararat Plain and Yerevan following the attack of the Turkish troops, the Yerevan city council at a session on 18 May approved mayor Tadevos Tosyan's proposal to hand over the city to the Turks with no resistance, evacuate the population and lead them to the mountains. But the decision to surrender Yerevan yielded no practical results, as the Executive Body of the Armenian National Council of Tbilisi – the Special Committee – headed by Yerevan National Council chairman Aram Manukian sharply opposed such a development and overthrew the decision (supreme power in Yerevan and the province of Yerevan was given to the Special Committee). By the order of Aram Manukian and with the help of as many as 1500 residents, Yerevan's defenses, especially the area near Yerablur, were fortified.
On 18 May, Aram Manukian accompanied by Yerevan's commandant Arshavir Shahkhatuni, visited Etchmiadzin to urge Catholicos George V to leave the town for security reasons. But he not only rejected the proposal, but also encouraged the military to resist the Ottoman advance. Later legend claimed that church bells pealed for six days calling on Armenians from all walks of life – peasants, poets, blacksmiths, and even the clergymen – to rally to form organized military units. Civilians, including children, aided in the effort as well, as "Carts drawn by oxen, water buffalo, and cows jammed the roads bringing food, provisions, ammunition, and volunteers from the vicinity" of Yerevan.
In the days that followed, Manukian played a vital role in stabilizing the situation in Yerevan and the adjacent areas and tipping the scale in the Armenians' favor. In the morning of 19 May, he ordered the Commander of the 1st Division, Major-General Movses Silikyan' to stop the retreat of Armenian forces and avert the Turkish attack on Yerevan at any cost. To this end, Manukian promised to carry out organizational work in a short period of time, collect manpower and ammunition. In the subsequent days, recruitment was organized on Astafyan street, in the English park, in front of the Teachers' Seminary and elsewhere for volunteers to join the army at the start of the Battle.
Battle.
Units involved on both sides.
Turkish side.
Forming part of the 36th Turkish Division moving towards Alexandropol-Yerevan were the 106th, 107th and 108th Infantry Regiments, one rifle battalion, two artillery divisions. The Turkish army was further supported by a separate cavalry regiment and another one of 1,500 Kurdish fighters. The Turkish forces were a total of 7,500 – 10,000 soldiers and officers, including the Kurds. The Turks had 40 cannons at their disposal.
Armenian side.
During the Battle of Sardarapat, the forces of the Armenian side formed part of the Yerevan detachment, whose other units took part in the Battle of Bash-Aparan against the 9th Turkish Division. Major-General Movses Silikyan was the Commander of the detachment, while Colonel Alexander Vekilyan served as the Chief of Staff based in the building of the Gevorgian Seminary of Etchmiadzin in Vagharshapat. The Commander-in-Chief of the forces fighting in the Battle of Sardarapat was the Deputy Commander of the Yerevan detachment, Colonel Daniel Bek-Pirumyan, while Alexander Chneour was the Chief of Staff. Included in these forces were the 2nd Division of the Armenian Corps and several squads of the Special Armenian Detachment. Forming part of the 2nd Division (under the command of Movses Silikyan) were the 5th (3rd battalion, under the command of Poghos Bek-Pirumyan) and 6th (12 companies, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Abraham Dolukhanyan) regiments, the 2nd Cavalry Regiment with four cavalry battalions (Colonel Zalinyan), a partisan infantry regiment made up of eight battalions (Colonel Aleksei Perekrestov), a partisan cavalry regiment of three battalions (Colonel Korolkov), the Border Battalion (Lieutenant Colonel Silin), the Patrol Battalion of the 2nd Division. One battalion from the Fourth Regiment of the 1st Division was stationed in Davalu to defend the southern direction.
Included in the Yerevan unit from the Special Armenian Detachment were the 1st (Colonel Yuzbashev) and 2nd (Colonel Chakhmakhchev) Infantry Regiments of Van from the 3rd Special Brigade, the 2nd Special Cavalry Regiment of Zeytun (four cavalry battalions, Colonel Salibekyan), the infantry regiments of Khnus and Karakilisa (Colonel Kazimirsi) which formed part of the military units of the 2nd Special Brigade, the Regiment of Erzincan (6 battalions, Karapet Hassan-Pashaian) of the 1st Special Brigade, as well as the 1st Special Cavalry Regiment (military starshina Pavel Zolotarev).
Five infantry batteries under Colonel Christophor Araratyan's command were included in the Yerevan detachment, which also involved several squads composed of Western Armenian intellectuals, a Yezidi cavalry battalion (under the command of Usub Bek and Jangir Agha), as well as a great number of militia troops. The Armenian forces were composed of a total of 9,000–10,000 soldiers and officers, and amounted to 6,000–6,500 after some part of them were dispatched to the Bash-Aparan Front. The Armenians had 28 cannons at their disposal but only 16–20 were used in the course of combat operations.
Manoeuvres prior to the battle.
On the eve of the occupation of Alexandropol, one of the tasks of the Armenian troops was the defense of railways and roads connecting Alexandropol to Yerevan and Tiflis. Following the fall of Alexandropol, those groups had to retire to Hamalu-Karakilisa and the Ararat Plain due to progressing Ottoman forces. On 19 May, the 26th Turkish Division took the Gharaghula (Getap) train depot near the Akhuryan River and started to advance towards Yerevan. Some subdivisions from the 2nd Special Brigade composed of the infantry regiments of Khnus and Karakilisa, as well as a part of the 1st Special Brigade (the Infantry regiment of Erzincan and other units) gradually withdrew from Ani and Aragats railway stations on the left bank of Akhuryan River towards Sardarapat from 16 to 19 May. During the retreat, even before clashing with the main Ottoman forces, they would come under fire from the vanguard Kurdish cavalry of the 36th Division. The retreat of those subdivisions via the Alexandropol-Yerevan route played an essential role for the Yerevan detachment in terms of buying time and regrouping forces. On 16–17 May, some of the squads of the Yerevan detachment based in Sardarapat were urgently sent to Araks and Karaburun stations to resist the Ottoman advancing towards the Ararat Plain, while some others were sent to Yerevan to get ready for the battle and receive enhancement by volunteers and armaments.
Under these circumstances, by the order of Armenian Corps commander Tovmas Nazarbekian and Chief of Staff of the Corps Evgeny Vyshinsky, the Armenian forces were regrouped and rearranged in order to stop Ottoman attacks in separate areas, particularly in Alexandropol-Sardarapat and Karakilisa. According to an instruction received from the General Staff on 19 May, Major-General Movses Silikyan decided to concentrate the troops he had at his disposal in Etchmiadzin and avert the Turks' attack on Yerevan through a counter-attack. On 20 May, the vanguard Armenian troops were forced to abandon Araks and Karaburun stations, retire from the foothills of Mastara, Talin and Ashnak, basing themselves in Sardarapat. In the evening of 20 May, the retreating troops of the 1st Special Brigade – the Regiment of Erzincan and half a battalion from the Regiment of Khnus (under the command of Karapet Hassan-Pashaian) – moved deeper from Sardarapat to the village of Khznauz.
As a result of the Turkish invasion in Alexandropol-Yerevan direction, the groups defending Surmali were in danger of being cut off from the main forces of the Yerevan detachment and surrounded by the Ottomans. On 18 May, the enemy forces attacked the Armenian unit in Koghb, which, by Silikyan's order, withdrew towards the Karakala bridge. On 19 May, the military units of the 4th Turkish Corps invaded Surmali from Bayazet, seeking to cross the Araks River and reach the rear of the Yerevan detachment. After showing some resistance in mountain passes and high grounds near Igdir, the Armenian units (1st and 2nd regiments of Van) had to retreat to Igdir on 20 May, where they received an order from Yerevan to cross to the left bank of Araks across the bridge of Margara, burning down the aforementioned bridges afterwards. After capturing Surmali, the Ottoman forces were thus cut off from the Sardarapat theater. The Armenian volunteers arranged the defense of the bridges, thwarting any attempt by the Turks to cross the river and attack the Armenians from the rear.
By the order of Silikyan, some of the 3rd Special Brigade subdivisions (4th regiment of Van, under the command of Colonel Tigran Baghdasaryan) were stationed in those areas to defend the rear from the south and prevent the Ottomans from crossing the river.
Course of the battle.
Armenian counter-offensive.
On 21 May, the 108th Turkish Infantry Regiment, including cavalry and infantry subdivisions, went on with their offensive from an area adjacent to Araks railway station. The Sardarapat detachment, conducting defensive artillery operations, started to retreat and withdrew to the Kurakanlu-Kyorpalu-Zeyva Hayi initial positions. The Turks came close to Kyorpalu (7 km west of Etchmiadzin). Advancing along the railroad, on 21 May, the detachment of Zihni Bey overtook an Armenian unit composed of 600 infantry and 250 cavalry, and then took Sardarabad. (now in the territory of the city of Armavir) that evening and the village of the same name 2 km south of the station, as well as the village of Gechrlu. Keeping up with their attack, the Turkish forces took the Verin Kolibeklu settlement (now in the territory of the village of Aknalich) and proceeded to Ghamishlu train depot (now in the territory of the village of Zartonk), 20 km far from Yerevan.
The Turkish forces moving along the railroad sought to advance towards Zangibasar, which would put the Armenian troops south of the railroad, the locals and as many as 100,000 Western Armenian refugees at risk of being cut off from Yerevan and destroyed. But Captain Khoren Igitkhanyan's artillery battery stationed in the village of Artashar managed to pin the enemy to the spot.
Despite the retreat, the defense of bridges on the left bank of the Araks River was significantly enhanced. At the same time, more Armenian units were sent to the battleground from Yerevan.
Commander of the Yerevan detachment Movses Silikyan and his Chief of Staff, Colonel A. Vekilyan drew up a tactical plan designed to throw the counter-attacking Turkish forces out of Sardarapat. In the evening of 21 May, all the detachments of the Sardarapat Front were given relevant instructions for the next day with an order to coordinate military action. Included in the Armenian forces fighting in the Sardarapat Front were the 5th and 6th regiments, the Infantry Regiment of Karakilisa (Lieutenant-Colonel Areshyan) of the 2nd Special Brigade, the Partisan Infantry Regiment, the Yezidi Cavalry Battalion, the Western Armenian volunteer groups, four artillery batteries.
On the night of 21–22 May, an exchange of fire between the Armenian militia and the Yezidi Cavalry Unit commanded by Jahangir Agha and the Turkish troops near the village of Molla Bayazet prevented the enemy from attacking the Armenian forces from the rear. The shooting gave Dolukhanyan and Perekrestov the opportunity to array the troops for the battle, at the same time enabling Captains Sergo Atanesyan and Vladimir Sakkilari to marshal their artillery units.
Deputy commander of the Yerevan detachment, commander of the forces of the Sardarapat Front Colonel Daniel Bek-Pirumyan came to lead the crucial counter-attack of the Armenian forces. In the early hours of 22 May, the Armenian side launched an offensive along the entire front-line of the villages of Kurakanlu-Kyorpalu-Zeyva Hayi-Ghurdughuli. The attack was carried out by the 5th and 6th Regiments in the center, which managed to destroy the vanguard Turkish troops with support from artillery and machine guns near the Ghamishlu depot. In particular, military batteries under the command of Kh. Igitkhanyan, V. Sakkilari, Nikolay Klich and S. Atanesyan, positioned on the hills close to the battleground, as well as machine gun subdivisions of other military units, managed to suppress the enemy's artillery fire and inflict casualties on their infantry and cavalry ranks, which enabled the Armenian infantry and militia to launch a counter-offensive in full force. Perekrestov's volunteer regiment, the squads of Igdir, Zeytun and Khnus, 1st Special Cavalry Regiment struck the enemy from the sides and the rear. The Turkish forces attempted to resist, which at some points involved bayonet fighting, but were forced to flee after suffering major losses.
The Armenian units continued their advance and took back Gechrlu, Molla Bayazet, the village of Sardarapat and the station of the same name, as well as the field lying to the right of it. One battalion of the 5th Armenian Regiment attacked in the direction of Kosh-Talish and liberated the villages of Ujan and Kosh by the evening. The vanguard Turkish forces were entirely destroyed in the fighting, with more than 500 casualties registered on their side overall. The Armenians, meanwhile moved forward 15–20 km.
After suffering defeat on 22 May, the Turkish forces took advantage of the fact that the Armenians stopped pursuing them to avoid diverging from their initial objectives, and retreated towards Araks station, basing themselves on the hills nearby. In the days that followed, the 449 (Tulki-tapa) and 440 (Cimni Gir) high grounds north of the station had a great tactical significance for both sides.
On 23 May, no combat operations were carried along the main front of Sardarapat, with only one military unit from Igdir clashing with the enemy near Dzhafarabat. After winning the battle, the Igdir detachment joined the Sardarapat detachment under Daniel Bek-Pirumyan's command, while the subdivisions of the 2nd Special Regiment of Zeytun were entrusted with the defense of the bridges on Araks River. Repeated Turkish attempts to cross the river were met with fierce resistance by the 5th Armenian Regiment. On the other parts of the front, the two sides were chiefly engaged in exploration of enemy positions and arraying of troops for the battle. On 22 and 23 May, a group of clergy representatives led by Bishop Garegin Hovsepyan and Archbishop Zaven visited the front to encourage the soldiers. Ahead of the crucial battle of 22 May, Bishop Karekin met the soldiers of the 5th Regiment and addressed them.
First days of the battle.
After the battles of 22 May, Major-General Movses Silikyan moved a part of detachments he had at his disposal – the 6th Regiment, the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, the Partisan Cavalry Regiment and other units – to the Bash-Aparan Front to block the advancement of the Turkish troops proceeding towards Yerevan. Movses Silikyan ordered elements of the 5th Armenian Regiment under Poghos Bek-Pirumyan, a reserve guerrilla unit, and a special cavalry regiment to check the advance of the Ottoman army. The Armenians' first victory in the Sardarapat Front was of crucial importance not only in terms of boosting combat readiness of the army and ensuring further victories, but also overcoming the panic among the Armenian population of the province of Yerevan and the Western Armenian refugees. On 24 May, Major-General Silikyan urged the nation to join the battle:Armenians, hurry up to free the homeland… There’s no time to lose. All the men under the age of 50 are obliged to take up arms: I demand that everyone come with their weapons and ammunition for the defense of the homeland … – "Movses Silikyan (22 May 1918)"Residents of Yerevan and the surrounding villages would send water and food, other essentials for those fighting in the battle.
After the first defeat in the Sardarapat Front, the Turkish command staff, seeking to succeed and make progress, adopted the tactics of weakening the rear of the Armenian troops by means of riots in villages populated by Turkic-speaking peoples. Such unrest was observed in the Davalu-Ghamarlu region on 22 May, the first day of the counter-offensive. When the Armenian population of Davalu was transferred by train to Garamlu for security reasons that day, the 4th Regiment of Van overseeing the transfer was attacked by a mob of 5,000 from Turkish and Kurdish villages nearby. The five-hour confrontation was especially fierce in the vicinity of the villages of Avshar and Shirazlu which the Armenian troops ultimately captured. Later in the day, however, the Regiment came in the village of Yuva. The Armenian side suffered 37 casualties overall, while Turkish casualties exceeded 100.
Till the end of the Battle of Sardarapat and the departure to Dilijan at the beginning of June, the 4th Regiment of Van overseeing Ghamarlu protected the rear of the Yerevan detachment from Sharur, as well as foiling the Turks' attempt to cross the Araks River.
Further fighting.
On 24 May, the Turkish side launched an offensive but was thrown back sustaining heavy losses from Armenian artillery fire. The initial positions of both sides remained unchanged. In order to conceal defeats and major losses, the Turkish command staff made up a fake story about the sinking of Turkish echelon in the Akhuryan River and disseminated it through the press.
By the order of Major-General Movses Silikyan, a regrouping of the Armenian forces was carried out. As a result, the main Armenian strike forces – the companies of the 5th Rifle Regiment, as well as one cavalry company from the 1st Special Cavalry Regiment, the Patrol Department of the Yerevan detachment – were stationed in the direction of Sardarapat-Araks railway station. In the left wing, the Partisan Infantry Regiment, the remaining subdivisions of the 1st Special Cavalry Regiment, four cannons from the 2nd Battery were dispatched to the villages of Sardarapat and Molla Bayazet. The detachment of Igdir (1st and 2nd Regiments of Van) based themselves in the village of Kyarimarkh, while the 2nd Cavalry Regiment (Zeytun), the Regiment of Karakilisa, as well as several volunteer groups were sent to the Araks River. The right wing, meanwhile, was protected by forces designed for quick military manoeuvres, including the Regiment of Erzincan in Khznauz and half a company from the Squad of Khnus, as well as the Battalion of Maku in Kosh and one company from the Regiment of Karakilisa.
The Partisan Cavalry Squad under the command of Captain Pandukht (Mikayel Seryan) was stationed in the front-line positions of the right wing, while some subdivisions of the 5th Regiment of the Sardarapat military unit went to the villages of Upper Kulibeklu (near the village of Aknalich) and Turkish Zeyva.
On 25 May, the vanguard subdivisions of the 5th Regiment, supported by four artillery batteries and Captain Tachat Hovakimyan's machine gun squad, attacked the 440th and 449th hills, but met persistent resistance from the Turkish side and were forced to retreat to their initial positions. Another Armenian military column attacked along the railway towards the Araks station and stopped about 3 km away, encountering persistent resistance from Turkish frontline units. A very strong grouping of enemy troops turned out to have been dispatched to Araks station, whereas the Armenian intelligence had reported that the main forces of the Turks were based at Karaburun station and in Nerkin Talin.
In the early hours of 26 May, the reserve companies of the 5th Regiment were brought forward from the rear. According to a roadmap drawn by Commander Movses Silikyan, the right, central and left columns were set to capture Araks and Karaburun stations with a simultaneous attack and throw the rival back to Alexandropol by attacking along the entire area from the slopes of Mount Aragats to the banks of Akhurian River.
Later in the morning of that same day, the 1st Battalion of the 5th Regiment, by the arbitrary order of Stabs-kapitan Vardan Jaghinyan, launched an unsuccessful offensive on the Cimni Gir (440) high ground and was forced to retreat to its initial positions, suffering major losses, including Jaghinyan himself. No actions were taken on the other part of the front, with only Colonel A. Perekrestov's Partisan Machine Gun Regiment striking the Turkish troops near Araks station.
After the unsuccessful assaults of 25–26 May, Silikyan came up with a new plan which sought to perform a quick manoeuvre of detachments in Khznauz and Kosh and support the frontal attack on Turkish-held hills with strikes from the rear. At the same time, the central and left wings of the main front were reinforced by the Igdir Regiment and the Patrol forces of the Partisan Regiment, brought forward from the rear.
At dawn of 27 May, the Khznauz detachment initiated manoeuvres and successfully bypassed the left wing of the Turkish vanguard forces. At the same time, the detachment of Kosh to the right of that of Khznauz was unable to overcome the resistance of Turks near the village of Nerkin Kalakut and had to stop, with Erzincan Regiment Commander K. Hassan-Pashaian sending two companies for help. At 9 a.m. on the same day, the Armenian artillery units in the main front of Sardarapat carried out powerful strikes on the rival's positions for half an hour, suppressing fire from artillery and machine gun subdivisions from the other part of the battleground. The central detachments then launched an offensive on the enemy positions, waiting for an attack from the rear for a decisive blow.
To encourage his soldiers, Colonel Daniel Bek-Pirumyan wore his military uniform inside out to reveal the red lining and led his army into battle. After bypassing the left wing of the Turkish troops at noon, the detachment of Khznauz turned sharply to the south, reaching the rear of the 440 and 449 hills. Following this brilliant tactical maneuver, the main forces of the central front of Sardarapat attacked and, with support from the Erzincan Regiment, managed to capture the high grounds nearby at 2:00 pm.Our entrenched lines got up and with shouts of "hurrah" pursued them. A group of Turks was successfully surrounded, but the main part fled, running head over heels, because the detachment of Captain Hassan Pashaian with the Erzincan regiment, already operated in their rear. A few moments later the Turks started to flee abandoning everything including their munitions, supplies, their wounded and dead. The battle was won. Armenia was saved. "– Alexander Chneour"
On the same day Perekrestov's left column launched an assault along the railway and captured Araks station, as well as Mastara depot in the evening. Captain Pandukht's cavalry unit, meanwhile, started an offensive south of Nerkin Kalakut, overturned the resistance of Turkish forces with the help of companies from Kosh and Khznauz, then cut through the Turkish troops to the north-west of the battleground. On 27–28 May, Pandukht's squad weighed heavily upon smaller Turkish units, passed through Talin, Gyuzlu and Kirmizlu to rapidly penetrate into Sogyutlu, where Pandukht was joined by a local 1000-member squad. A cannon was seized from Turks, and a large number of troops were taken captive as a result.
During the decisive battles on 27 May, the Turks were completely defeated, forced to retire to Karaburun Station-Mount Karaburun line in a panic. Exhausted after winning the battle, the Sardarapat detachment was ordered to stop and base themselves on the heights of Mastara depot. During that day, a 100-member Kurdish unit was thrown back while attempting to cross the Araks River near Margara.
On the night of 27–28 May, the Armenian forces moved forward and reached the Karaburun station-Mount Karmrasar line. Unable to resist the Armenian side's attacks after a brief engagement in Karaburun-Ashnak, the Turks began to withdraw towards the Aragats station-Kirmizlu-Verin Agdzhakala on 28 May, where they were once again thrown back to the north. As a result of that day's fighting, the Armenian side seized Karaburun and Aragats stations, as well as Nerkin Talin, Verin Talin and Mastara, while Armenian intelligence units reached Ani station and found out that there were no Turkish troops on their way to Ani and Aghin stations. The next day on 29 May, however, the Turkish forces were significantly reinforced, which enabled them to initiate a counter-offensive on Aragats station. Heavily pressed by the Turkish units and under threat of encirclement by them, the vanguard Armenian forces retreated and based themselves at the Karaburun station. In the right wing of the battleground, meanwhile, the Armenians fought heavy battles near the village of Shirvandzhug. It was on that same day that Major-General Movses Silikyan, the commander of the Yerevan detachment, addressed the people and the army for the second time urging them to continue the triumphant battles to take Alexandropol too.Armenians! The heroic activity of our brave troops is going on, and the Turkish forces are retreating. We must take Alexandropol back from the Turks who seized the city so treacherously. They require Akhalkalak, Alexandropol and Etchmiadzin along with the Holy See, most of the Yerevan province, Nakhijevan. Can we tolerate such an insult? Armenians, assemble hurriedly, kick the enemy out of our native bleeding soil. To arms, everybody. To Alexandropol. "Ashkhatank No 5 (205), June 5 (23) 1918. – Movses Silikyan"But after the Armenian delegation accepted a three-day ( 26–29 May) Turkish ultimatum in Batumi, a ceasefire was signed that same day (29 May). By the order of General Tovmas Nazarbekian all the Armenian forces ceased attacks. This marked the end of the Battle of Sardarapat. The soldiers of the Sardarapat Front and the command staff were extremely dissatisfied with the news of the ceasefire and cessation of attacks. According to the commander of the Armenian artillery unit, Colonel Christophor Araratyan, although the Yerevan detachment was in a favorable situation when the ceasefire was being signed, they were forced to stop the assault because Yerevan would been open for the enemy's attack from the northeast. According to some analyses, the cessation of attacks in the Battle of Sardarapat was also influenced by the fact that the Armenian military warehouses were almost empty, as well as by the danger of Turkish troops launching another counter-attack after receiving fresh supplies.
Once the truce was established in Batumi, clashes continued in some sections of the Sardarapat Front but no significant changes were made. Following the signing of the Treaty of Batum on 14 June, all the Armenian units withdrew from their posts to the borderline prescribed by the agreement.
In the Battle of Sardarapat, Turkish casualties amounted to 3,500, while the Armenian side's losses were far less, although no accurate data is available.
Aftermath.
With the Ottoman forces in a full rout, General Silikyan wished to press on his advantage with the hope of dislodging the Ottomans from Alexandropol and Kars. But, almost immediately, he was informed of the ongoing negotiations between the Ottoman leadership and the Armenian National Council in Tiflis and was told by Corps Commander Tovmas Nazarbekian to cease military operations in the region. Though members of the National Council were widely criticized for issuing this order at the time, this decision was carried out because the ammunition stores had been all but been depleted and Ottoman commanders had received fresh reinforcements.
The nine-day Battle of Sardarapat ended with Armenia's full victory, as a result of which the rival was thrown back 50–65 km and the immediate threat to Yerevan was eliminated. The victory played an important role in the partial failure of the Turkish invasion of Eastern Armenia, as well as in securing a victorious counter-offensive in Bash-Aparan and the heroic resistance in Karakilisa. The Battle of Sardarapat saved the locals and Western Armenian refugees from imminent massacre. The victory secured at a great cost also contributed to the enhancement of the role of Yerevan-based political and social organizations, as well as of local authorities and leading figures. In fact, this triumph laid the foundation for the establishment of a newly independent Armenia.
The Ottoman defeats at Sardarabad, Bash Abaran, and Karakilisa staved off the annihilation of the Armenian nation, and the victories here were instrumental in allowing the Armenian National Council to declare the independence of the First Republic of Armenia on 30 May (retroactive to 28 May). Though the terms that Armenia agreed to in the Treaty of Batum (4 June 1918) were excessively harsh, the little republic was able to hold out until the Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the region with the end of World War I in late 1918.
Legacy.
The battle of Sardarabad holds a special place in Armenian historical memory and is often compared to the 451 A.D. battle of Avarayr. Leaders of the First Republic frequently invoked the name of the battle, exhorting their people to aspire to the example of those who had fought and participated in it. The battle was seldom mentioned or given little significance in Soviet historiography until after the death of Joseph Stalin. In the mid-1960s, a number of Soviet historians began to highlight its importance, as well as that of Bash Abaran and Karakilisa. The Soviet military historian Evgenii F. Ludshuvet, for example, emphasized that these battles, fought by the "Armenian Dashnak forces", helped slow down the Turkish advance on Baku and helped relieve some pressure against that city. Notable Soviet Armenian literary figures such as Hovhannes Shiraz and Paruyr Sevak, whose work "Sardarapat" was turned into a popular song, composed songs and wrote poems that lionized the Armenian fighters. Ivan Bagramyan, a Marshal of the Soviet Union and himself a participant of the battle, described its importance in the following manner:
After the commemoration of the Armenian Genocide's fiftieth anniversary in 1965, Soviet authorities agreed to the construction of a monument and park dedicated to the Armenian victory near the site of the battle. Architect Rafayel Israyelian was commissioned to design the monument, which was completed in 1968.
The battles of Sardarabad, Bash Abaran and Karakilisa are collectively known as the "Heroic battles of May" in Armenian historiography (Մայիսյան հերոսամարտեր "Mayisyan herosamarter").
Each year, the President of Armenia, visits the memorial on 28 May. During that day, many cultural and military events and parades take place.


Ephraim Jubilee

Ephraim Jubilee (died 24 October 1979) was a Papua New Guinean educator, magistrate and politician. He was a member of the Legislative Council from 1961 until 1964.
Biography.
A Tolai from Ratavul village, Jubilee attended Nodup school and subsequently trained to be a teacher at Kerevat Education Centre. He started work as a teacher in 1941 and remained in the profession for 27 years. He was appointed to the Legislative Council following the 1961 elections, serving until 1964. Shortly after his election, he was made a member of the Australian delegation to the United Nations Trusteeship Council.
In 1968 Jubilee was appointed a magistrate in Rabaul. Following independence, he contested the Rabaul Open seat in the 1977 elections, but finished third behind John Kaputin and Albert Burua. In January 1978 he was appointed a District Supervising Magistrate of the village courts in East Britain.
Married with seven children, he died in Rabaul in October 1979 following a long illness.


SS Umbria

SS "Umbria (formerly SS "Bahia Blanca) was maritime transport build in 1912 in Hamburg, Germany which plied the routes between Europe and Argentina. In 1918 the ship was acquired by the Argentinean Government and transported various goods (notably coal and agriculture products) across the Atlantic until 1934. In 1935 she was purchased by the Italian Government and renamed to "Umbria". On 3 June 1940 she arrived at Port Said, Egypt controlled by British. She was secretly carrying 6000 tons of bombs, 600 cases of detonators, 100 tons of various weapons, over 2000 tons of cement and three Fiat 1100 cars. Although expected to enter the war, Italy was still technically neutral, so on June 6th she was allowed to continue her way. On June 9th British warships HMS Grimsby and HMS Leander forced Umbria to anchor at Wingate reef near Port Sudan, Sudan on the pretext for searching for contraband. Shortly after that Umbria's captain, "Muiesan Lorenzo", heard on the radio that Italy had joined the war with Nazi Germany. He asked the British guards for permission to do a muster drill and with the help of the crew scuttled the ship. SS Umbria lies on her port side at maximum depth of . She's often visited by scuba divers and considered one of the best wrecks in the world.