History of Oceania

The History of Oceania includes the history of Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Fiji and other Pacific island nations.
Prehistory.
The prehistory of Oceania is divided into the prehistory of each of its major areas: Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Australasia, and these vary greatly as to when they were first inhabited by humans—from 70,000 years ago (Australasia) to 3,000 years ago (Polynesia).
Polynesia theories.
The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BCE speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China about 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia, although they are different from the Han Chinese who now form the majority of people in China and Taiwan. There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser "et al." (2000) and are as follows:
In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia. This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence "Out of Taiwan". They had given up rice production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area of New Guinea. In the end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far has been through work on the archaeology in Samoa. The site is at Mulifanua on Upolu. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a "true" age of c. 1000 BCE based on C14 dating. A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 BCE, the small differences in dates with Samoa being due to differences in radiocarbon dating technologies between 1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the Samoan site by some few decades in real time.
Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BCE, the Lapita archaeological culture spread 6,000 kilometres further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. The area of Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa served as a gateway into the rest of the Pacific region known as Polynesia. Ancient Tongan mythologies recorded by early European explorers report the islands of 'Ata and Tongatapu as the first islands being hauled to the surface from the deep ocean by Maui.
The "Tuʻi Tonga Empire" or "Tongan Empire" in Oceania are descriptions sometimes given to Tongan expansionism and projected hegemony dating back to 950 CE, but at its peak during the period 1200–1500. While modern researchers and cultural experts attest to widespread Tongan influence and evidences of transoceanic trade and exchange of material and non-material cultural artifacts, empirical evidence of a true political empire ruled for any length of time by successive rulers is lacking.
Modern archeology, anthropology and linguistic studies confirm widespread Tongan cultural influence ranging widely through East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, and while some academics prefer the term "maritime chiefdom", others argue that, while very different from examples elsewhere, "..."empire" is probably the most convenient term."
Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, although the question of Pacific migration still lingers. It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; they may have had some influence on the new culture, and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Tonga, Samoa and even Hawai'i.
The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country. Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. Across from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages. Fiji's history was one of settlement but also of mobility.
Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and cannibalism between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life. In later centuries, the ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name "Cannibal Isles"; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the rest of the world.
Early European visitors to Easter Island recorded the local oral traditions about the original settlers. In these traditions, Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matu'a arrived on the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. There is considerable uncertainty about the accuracy of this legend as well as the date of settlement. Published literature suggests the island was settled around 300–400 CE, or at about the time of the arrival of the earliest settlers in Hawaii.
Some scientists say that Easter Island was not inhabited until 700–800 CE. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.
Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was settled as recently as 1200 CE. This seems to be supported by a 2006 study of the island's deforestation, which could have started around the same time. A large now extinct palm, "Paschalococos disperta", related to the Chilean wine palm "(Jubaea chilensis)", was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence; this species, whose sole occurrence was Easter Island, became extinct due to deforestation by the early settlers.
Micronesia theories.
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis. The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before.
The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei. The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.
On Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: "Mwehin Kawa" or "Mwehin Aramas" (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); "Mwehin Sau Deleur" (Period of the Lord of Deleur, c. 1100 to c. 1628); and "Mwehin Nahnmwarki" (Period of the Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885). Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians. The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized "nahnmwarki" system in existence today. Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian "nahnmwarki" social system and the father of the Pompeian people.
Construction of Nan Madol, a megalithic complex made from basalt lava logs in Pohnpei began as early as 1200 CE. Nan Madol is offshore of Temwen Island near Pohnpei, consists of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, and is often called the "Venice of the Pacific". It is located near the island of Pohnpei and was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until its centralized system collapsed amid the invasion of Isokelekel. Isokelekel and his descendants initially occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it.
The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros, and spoke an Austronesian language called Chamorro. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch, or Carolinian, people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.
Melanesia theories.
The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago, when Neanderthals still roamed Europe. The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.
Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples. Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of the Polynesian people.
However, the theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008; based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples, it found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines. It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the Polynesian ancestors migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.
The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, and geography among the islands. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands. For instance, populations developed differently in coastal areas, as opposed to those in more isolated mountainous valleys.
Additional DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4–6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals; both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.
Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair.
Australasia theories.
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. Indigenous Australians migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago. The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The term "Aboriginal" is traditionally applied to only the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Australia and Tasmania, along with some of the adjacent islands, i.e.: the "first peoples". "Indigenous Australians" is an inclusive term used when referring to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders.
The earliest definite human remains found to date are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old, but the time of arrival of the ancestors of Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as 125,000 years ago. There is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and societies in Australia, each with its own unique mixture of cultures, customs and languages. In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities.
European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s).
Iberian pioneers.
Early Iberian exploration.
Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Moluccas (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519 a Castilian ('Spanish') expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands and other islands of Oceania.
Other large expeditions.
From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the discovery of the Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.
In 1565, Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta found a wind system that would allow ships to sail eastward from Asia, back to the Americas. From then until 1815 the annual Manila Galleons crossed the Pacific from Mexico to the Philippines and back, in the first transpacific trade route in history. Combined with the Spanish Atlantic or West Indies Fleet, the Manila Galleons formed one of the first global maritime exchange in human history, linking Seville in Spain with Manila in the Philippines, via Mexico.
Later, in the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorers in the 17th century discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. In 1668 the Spanish founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for west-bound galleons. For a long time this was the only non-coastal European settlement in the Pacific.
Oceania during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery.
Early Dutch exploration.
The Dutch were the first non-natives to undisputedly explore and chart coastlines of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, and Easter Island. Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (or VOC) was a major force behind the (c. 1590s–1720s) and Netherlandish cartography (c. 1570s–1670s). In the 17th century, the VOC's navigators and explorers charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline, except the east coast.
Abel Tasman's exploratory voyages.
Abel Tasman was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight the Fiji islands. His navigator François Visscher, and his merchant Isaack Gilsemans, mapped substantial portions of Australia, New Zealand, Tonga and the Fijian islands.
On 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour. He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land after Antonio van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. then claimed formal possession of the land on 3 December 1642.
After some exploration, Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. On 13 December they sighted land on the north-west coast of the South Island, New Zealand, becoming the first Europeans to do so. Tasman named it "Staten Landt" on the assumption that it was connected to an island (Staten Island, Argentina) at the south of the tip of South America. Proceeding north and then east, he stopped to gather water, but one of his boats was attacked by Māori in a double hulled waka (canoes) and four of his men were attacked and killed by mere. As Tasman sailed out of the bay he was again attacked, this time by 11 waka . The waka approached the Zeehan which fired and hit one Māori who fell down. Canister shot hit the side of a waka.
Archeological research has shown the Dutch had tried to land at a major agricultural area, which the Māori may have been trying to protect. Tasman named the bay "Murderers' Bay" (now known as Golden Bay) and sailed north, but mistook Cook Strait for a bight (naming it "Zeehaen's Bight"). Two names he gave to New Zealand landmarks still endure, Cape Maria van Diemen and Three Kings Islands, but "Kaap Pieter Boreels" was renamed by Cook 125 years later to Cape Egmont.
En route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on 20 January 1643. While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the north-eastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea. He eventually turned north-west to New Guinea, and arrived at Batavia on 15 June 1643. For over a century after Tasman's voyages, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans—mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.
British exploration and Captain James Cook's voyages.
First voyage (1768–71).
In 1766 the Royal Society engaged James Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the transit of Venus across the Sun. The expedition sailed from England on 26 August 1768, rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the Venus Transit were made. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of "Terra Australis".
With the help of a Tahitian named Tupaia, who had extensive knowledge of Pacific geography, Cook managed to reach New Zealand on 6 October 1769, leading only the second group of Europeans to do so (after Abel Tasman over a century earlier, in 1642). Cook mapped the complete New Zealand coastline, making only some minor errors (such as calling Banks Peninsula an island, and thinking Stewart Island/Rakiura was a peninsula of the South Island). He also identified Cook Strait, which separates the North Island from the South Island, and which Tasman had not seen.
Cook then voyaged west, reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline. On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: ""…and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not"." On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal.
After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards. After a grounding mishap on the Great Barrier Reef, the voyage continued, sailing through Torres Strait before returning to England via Batavia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Saint Helena.
Second voyage (1772–75).
In 1772 the Royal Society commissioned Cook to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis again. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed by the Royal Society to lie further south.
Cook commanded on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, . Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle (17 January 1773). In the Antarctic fog, "Resolution" and "Adventure" became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.
Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica, but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.
Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn. He then turned north to South Africa, and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.
Third voyage (1776–79).
On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS "Resolution", while Captain Charles Clerke commanded . The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander, Omai to Tahiti, or so the public were led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a North-West Passage around the American continent. After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands. After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.
From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California. Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.
Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay, on 'Hawaii Island', largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival coincided with the "Makahiki", a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS "Resolution", or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship. Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono. Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.
After a month's stay, Cook resumed his exploration of the Northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, the "Resolution" foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs. Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians. On 14 February 1779, at Kealakekua Bay, some Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. As thefts were quite common in Tahiti and the other islands, Cook would have taken hostages until the stolen articles were returned. He attempted to take as hostage the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu. The Hawaiians prevented this, and Cook's men had to retreat to the beach. As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf. Hawaiian tradition says that he was killed by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina. The Hawaiians dragged his body away. Four of Cook's men were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.
The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disembowelled, baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.
Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition. Following the death of Clerke, "Resolution" and "Discovery" returned home in October 1780 commanded by John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, and Captain James King. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.
Colonisation.
British colonization.
In 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire.
The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.
Among the last islands in Oceania to be colonised was Niue (1900). In 1887, King Fata-a-iki, who reigned Niue from 1887 to 1896, offered to cede sovereignty to the British Empire, fearing the consequences of annexation by a less benevolent colonial power. The offer was not accepted until 1900. Niue was a British protectorate, but the UK's direct involvement ended in 1901 when New Zealand annexed the island.
French colonization.
French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony.
On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years. New Caledonia became a penal colony, and from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia, among them many Communards, including Henri de Rochefort and Louise Michel. Between 1873 and 1876, 4,200 political prisoners were "relegated" in New Caledonia. Only forty of them settled in the colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880.
In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pōmare Dynasty, without formally annexing it. Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French. In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony. The islands of Rimatara and Rūrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France. Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892. The first official name for the colony was "Établissements de l'Océanie" (Settlements in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to "Établissements Français de l'Océanie" (French Settlements in Oceania).
Spanish colonization.
The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were later named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874.
In November 1770, Felipe González de Ahedo commanded an expedition from the Viceroyalty of Peru that searched for Davis Land and Madre de Dios Island and looked for foreign naval activities.
This expedition landed on "Isla de San Carlos" (Easter Island) and signed a treaty of annexion with the Rapa Nui chiefs.
Dutch colonization.
In 1606 Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of Papua including Orangerie Bay which he named "Bahía de San Lorenzo". His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island naming it "Tierra de San Buenaventura", which he claimed for Spain in July 1606. On 18 October his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.
A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as Netherlands New Guinea. In 1883, following a short-lived French annexation of New Ireland, the British colony of Queensland annexed south-eastern New Guinea. However, the Queensland government's superiors in the United Kingdom revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in 1884, when Germany claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the protectorate of German New Guinea (also called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland).
The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and Merauke in the south at the border with British New Guinea. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories.
In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became the Territory of New Guinea,
to be administered by Australia under a League of Nations mandate. The territories under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until February 1942).
German colonization.
Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900.
Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognized a German claim in 1885. Germany established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration.
American colonization.
The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.
Samoa aligned its interests with the United States in a Deed of Succession, signed by the "Tui Manúʻa" (supreme chief of Manúʻa) on 16 July 1904 at the Crown residence of the Tuimanuʻa called the "Faleula" in the place called Lalopua (from Official documents of the Tuimanuʻa government, 1893; Office of the Governor, 2004).
Cession followed the Tripartite Convention of 1899 that partitioned the eastern islands of Samoa (including Tutuila and the Manúʻa Group) from the western islands of Samoa (including ʻUpolu and Savaiʻi).
Japanese colonization.
At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the Marshall Islands. The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, Jaluit. On 31 January 1944, during World War II, American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on 3 February, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls. In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
During World War II, Japan colonized many Oceanic colonies by wresting control from western powers.
Samoan Crisis 1887–1889.
The Samoan Crisis was a confrontation standoff between the United States, Imperial Germany and Great Britain from 1887 to 1889 over control of the Samoan Islands during the Samoan Civil War.
The prime minister of the kingdom of Hawaii Walter M. Gibson had long aimed to establishing an empire in the Pacific.
In 1887 his government sent the "homemade battleship" Kaimiloa to Samoa looking for an alliance against colonial powers.
It ended in suspicions from the German Navy and embarrassment for the conduct of the crew.
The 1889 incident involved three American warships, , and and three German warships, SMS "Adler", SMS "Olga", and SMS "Eber", keeping each other at bay over several months in Apia harbor, which was monitored by the British warship .
The standoff ended on 15 and 16 March when a cyclone wrecked all six warships in the harbor. "Calliope" was able to escape the harbor and survived the storm. Robert Louis Stevenson witnessed the storm and its aftermath at Apia and later wrote about what he saw. The Samoan Civil War continued, involving Germany, United States and Britain, eventually resulting, via the Tripartite Convention of 1899, in the partition of the Samoan Islands into American Samoa and German Samoa.
World War I.
The Asian and Pacific Theatre of World War I was a conquest of German colonial possession in the Pacific Ocean and China. The most significant military action was the Siege of Tsingtao in what is now China, but smaller actions were also fought at Battle of Bita Paka and Siege of Toma in German New Guinea.
All other German and Austrian possessions in Asia and the Pacific fell without bloodshed. Naval warfare was common; all of the colonial powers had naval squadrons stationed in the Indian or Pacific Oceans. These fleets operated by supporting the invasions of German held territories and by destroying the East Asia Squadron.
One of the first land offensives in the Pacific theatre was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony, supported by an Australian and French naval squadron.
Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914: 500 Australians encountered 300 Germans and native policemen at the Battle of Bita Paka; the Allies won the day and the Germans retreated to Toma. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.
After the fall of Toma, only minor German forces were left in New Guinea and these generally capitulated once met by Australian forces. In December 1914, one German officer near Angorum attempted resist the occupation with thirty native police but his force deserted him after they fired on an Australian scouting party and he was subsequently captured.
German Micronesia, the Marianas, the Carolines and the Marshall Islands also fell to Allied forces during the war.
World War II.
The Pacific front saw major action during the Second World War, mainly between the belligerents Japan and the United States.
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941 (8 December in Japan). The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II.
The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in South-East Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. There were simultaneous Japanese attacks on the U.S.-held Philippines and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945.
Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign.
In 1940 the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II. Unknown at the time to French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions in the post-war world—though in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands.
Solomon Islands campaign.
Some of the most intense fighting of the Second World War occurred in the Solomons. The most significant of the Allied Forces' operations against the Japanese Imperial Forces was launched on 7 August 1942, with simultaneous naval bombardments and amphibious landings on the Florida Islands at Tulagi and Red Beach on Guadalcanal.
The Guadalcanal Campaign became an important and bloody campaign fought in the Pacific War as the Allies began to repulse Japanese expansion. Of strategic importance during the war were the coastwatchers operating in remote locations, often on Japanese held islands, providing early warning and intelligence of Japanese naval, army and aircraft movements during the campaign.
"The Slot" was a name for New Georgia Sound, when it was used by the Tokyo Express to supply the Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal. Of more than 36,000 Japanese on Guadalcanal, about 26,000 were killed or missing, 9,000 died of disease, and 1,000 were captured.
Kokoda Track campaign.
The Kokoda Track campaign was a campaign consisting of a series of battles fought between July and November 1942 between Japanese and Allied—primarily Australian—forces in what was then the Australian territory of Papua. Following a landing near Gona, on the north coast of New Guinea, Japanese forces attempted to advance south overland through the mountains of the Owen Stanley Range to seize Port Moresby as part of a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States. Initially only limited Australian forces were available to oppose them, and after making rapid progress the Japanese South Seas Force clashed with under strength Australian forces at Awala, forcing them back to Kokoda. A number of Japanese attacks were subsequently fought off by the Australian Militia, yet they began to withdraw over the Owen Stanley Range, down the Kokoda Track.
In sight of Port Moresby itself, the Japanese began to run out of momentum against the Australians who began to receive further reinforcements. Having outrun their supply lines and following the reverses suffered by the Japanese at Guadalcanal, the Japanese were now on the defensive, marking the limit of the Japanese advance southwards. The Japanese subsequently withdrew to establish a defensive position on the north coast, but they were followed by the Australians who recaptured Kokoda on 2 November. Further fighting continued into November and December as the Australian and United States forces assaulted the Japanese beachheads, in what later became known as the Battle of Buna–Gona.
Nuclear testing in Oceania.
Due to its low population, Oceania was a popular location for atmospheric and underground nuclear tests. Tests were conducted in various locations by the United Kingdom (Operation Grapple and Operation Antler), the United States (Bikini atoll and the Marshall Islands) and France (Moruroa), often with devastating consequences for the inhabitants.
From 1946 to 1958, the Marshall Islands served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States, and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls. The world's first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on 1 November (local date) in 1952, by the United States.
In 1954, fallout from the American Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test in the Marshall Islands was such that the inhabitants of the Rongelap Atoll were forced to abandon their island. Three years later the islanders were allowed to return, but suffered abnormally high levels of cancer. They were evacuated again in 1985 and in 1996 given $45 million in compensation.
A series of British tests were also conducted in the 1950s at Maralinga in South Australia, forcing the removal of the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara peoples from their ancestral homelands.
In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the atoll of Moruroa in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site. Moruroa atoll became notorious as a site of French nuclear testing, primarily because tests were carried out there after most Pacific testing had ceased. These tests were opposed by most other nations in Oceania. The last atmospheric test was conducted in 1974, and the last underground test in 1996.
French nuclear testing in the Pacific was controversial in the 1980s, in 1985 French agents caused the Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior in Auckland to prevent it from arriving at the test site in Moruroa. In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The last test was on 27 January 1996. On 29 January 1996, France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons.
Fijian coups.
Fiji has suffered several coups d'état: military in 1987 and 2006 and civilian in 2000. All were ultimately due to ethnic tension between indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, who originally came to the islands as indentured labour in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The 1987 coup followed the election of a multi-ethnic coalition, which Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka overthrew, claiming racial discrimination against ethnic Fijians. The coup was denounced by the United Nations and Fiji was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations.
The 2000 coup was essentially a repeat of the 1987 affair, although it was led by civilian George Speight, apparently with military support. Commodore Frank Bainimarama, who was opposed to Speight, then took over and appointed a new Prime Minister. Speight was later tried and convicted for treason. Many indigenous Fijians were unhappy at the treatment of Speight and his supporters, feeling that the coup had been legitimate. In 2006 the Fijian parliament attempted to introduce a series of bills which would have, amongst other things, pardoned those involved in the 2000 coup. Bainimarama, concerned that the legal and racial injustices of the previous coups would be perpetuated, staged his own coup. It was internationally condemned, and Fiji again suspended from the Commonwealth.
In 2006 the then Australia Defence Minister, Brendan Nelson, warned Fijian officials of an Australian Naval fleet within proximity of Fiji that would respond to any attacks against its citizens.
Bougainville Civil War.
The Australian government estimated that anywhere between 15,000 and 20,000 people could have died in the Bougainville Civil War. More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1–2,000.
From 1975, there were attempts by the Bougainville Province to secede from Papua New Guinea. These were resisted by Papua New Guinea primarily because of the presence in Bougainville of the Panguna mine, which was vital to Papua New Guinea's economy. The Bougainville Revolutionary Army began attacking the mine in 1988, forcing its closure the following year. Further BRA activity led to the declaration of a state of emergency and the conflict continued until about 2005, when successionist leader and self-proclaimed King of Bougainville Francis Ona died of malaria. Peacekeeping troops led by Australia have been in the region since the late 1990s, and a referendum on independence will be held in the 2010s.
Modern age.
In 1946, French Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia).
Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively, marking their legislative independence from the United Kingdom. Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.
Samoa became the first pacific nation to gain independence in 1962, Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970, with many other nations following in the 1970s and 1980s. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000. Bougainville Island, geographically part of the Solomon Islands archipelago but politically part of Papua New Guinea, tried unsuccessfully to become independent in 1975, and a civil war followed in the early 1990s, with it later being granted autonomy.
On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts.
In 1852, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended. French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2004.
Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre. Australia, New Zealand and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands from 2003 after a request for aid.


Constantine III, King of Armenia

Constantine III (also Constantine V; ; , Western Armenian transliteration: "Gosdantin" or "Kostantine"; April 17, 1313 – December 21, 1362) was the King of Armenian Cilicia from 1344 to 1362. He was the son of Baldwin, Lord of Neghir (a nephew of Hethum I of Armenia), and second cousin of Constantine II.
When Constantine II was killed in an uprising in 1344, Constantine III succeeded him. He attempted to wipe out all rival claimants to the throne; he gave orders to kill Constantine II's nephews, Bemon and Leo, but before the murder could be carried out they escaped to Cyprus. During his rule, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was reduced by Mamluk raids and conquests. They conquered Ajazzo in 1347, Tarsus and Adana in 1359.
Constantine was the first husband of Maria, daughter of Oshin of Corycos and Joan of Taranto. He was predeceased by his two sons. Upon his death from natural causes he was succeeded by his cousin Constantine IV.


Fall of Caesarea

The Crusader fortress of Caesarea fell to the Mamluks in 1265. In 1251, Louis IX had fortified the city, ordering the construction of high walls (parts of which are still standing) and a deep moat. However, strong walls could not keep out the Mamluk sultan Baybars, who ordered his troops to scale the walls in several places simultaneously, enabling them to penetrate the city.


Harun ibn Khumarawayh

Harun ibn Khumarawayh (; died 30 December 904) was the fourth Tulunid ruler of Egypt (896–904). He succeeded his elder brother Abu 'l-Asakir Jaysh, who had been murdered by army chiefs. He left state affairs to the vizier, Abu Ja'far ibn Ali, preferring to live a life of dissolute luxury. This led to a growing crisis in the country, since state finances could not be regulated and the army leaders gradually accrued more power to themselves
The Abbasid Caliphate took advantage of this state of affairs and invaded Tulunid-controlled Syria in 904. The Tulunid troops deserted, and the forces of the Caliphate were able to enter the Nile valley. Harun was killed in an army mutiny. His successor was the last of the Tulunids, his uncle Shayban (904–905).


Captain Thunderbolt

Frederick Wordsworth Ward (1835 – 25 May 1870), better known by the self-styled pseudonym of Captain Thunderbolt, was an Australian bushranger renowned for escaping from Cockatoo Island, and also for his reputation as the "gentleman bushranger" and his lengthy survival, being the longest roaming bushranger in Australian history.
Early years.
Frederick Ward was the son of convict Michael Ward, ("Indefatigable" 1815) and his wife Sophia, and was born in 1835, the youngest of ten around the time his parents moved from Wilberforce, New South Wales to nearby Windsor. Ward entered the paid workforce at an early age, and was employed at the age of eleven by the owners of "Aberbaldie Station" near Walcha, New South Wales as a "generally useful hand" although he remained with them for only a short time. He worked at many stations in northern NSW over the next 10 years, including the famed horse-stud Tocal, and his horsemanship skills soon became evident. Horsebreaking became one of his most important duties. Not much is known about Michael and Sophia's early married life, but they had ten children; William "Harry", Sophia Jane, Sarah Ann, Amelia "Emily", Edward B, Joshua, George E, Esther P, Selina Maria and Frederick Wordsworth (a.k.a. Thunderbolt).
In 1856 Ward's nephew John Garbutt became the ringleader of a large horse and cattle stealing operation, and enticed other members of the extended Ward family to join him. Fred Ward helped drive some four dozen of the stolen horses from the Lambs Valley property of his brother William to Windsor where they were sold at auction. Ward and his nephews John and James Garbutt were all convicted, the Garbutts of horse-stealing and Ward of receiving stolen horses knowing them to be stolen. They each received a sentence of ten years with hard labour and were sent to the Cockatoo Island penal establishment.
Released on tickets of leave after serving four years, Ward and his nephews settled in the Mudgee district where John Garbutt met and married a wealthy widow, Elizabeth Blackman, owner of Cooyal inn and station. They employed Fred to work for them at Cooyal. There Fred met Mary Ann Bugg, who was then living with ex-convict James McNally and her children at their Cooyal farm. Mary Ann fell pregnant with Fred's child a short time later. In breach of ticket-of-leave regulations, Ward left the Mudgee district to take Mary Ann back to her father's farm at Monkerai near Dungog for the baby's delivery. He returned late for his three-monthly muster and, consequently, the authorities revoked his ticket-of-leave. Ward compounded the problem by arriving in Mudgee on a "stolen" horse (although the owner admitted at Ward's trial that the horse had simply gone missing from his property, that he had "heard" that it had been seen near Cooyal but that he had not attempted to retrieve it). Ward was sent back to Cockatoo Island to serve the remaining six years of his original sentence plus an additional three years for being in possession of a stolen horse.
Escape from Cockatoo Island.
On 11 September 1863 Ward and a companion, Frederick Britten, slipped away from their Cockatoo Island workgang and hid for two days before swimming from the north side of the island, almost certainly to Woolwich. While most Thunderbolt books claim that Mary Ann Bugg assisted Ward in his escape, she in fact remained working in Dungog throughout Ward's second term on Cockatoo Island, and did not see him again until after his escape.
Bushranging years.
Ward and Britten headed to the New England district where they robbed a shepherd's hut at Gostwyck, near Uralla on 24 October. Three days later, while they were waiting to ambush the mail near the Big Rock or Split Rock (now Captain Thunderbolt's Rock), they were spotted by troopers. In the ensuing gunfight, Ward was shot in the back of the left knee, an injury that left a critical identifying mark that helped to identify his body after his death. The pair separated a few weeks later. Ward crowned himself with the nickname "Captain Thunderbolt" during the Rutherford toll-bar robbery on 21 December 1863.
Over the following six-and-a-half years, Ward robbed mailmen, travellers, inns, stores and stations across much of northern New South Wales - from the Hunter Region north to Queensland and from Tamworth nearly as far west as Bourke. He was accompanied by three other men, early in 1865, when he went on a crime spree in the north-western plains, but the gang disbanded after young John Thompson was shot and captured at Millie, near Moree. Later that same year, he joined forces with another two felons but his second gang disbanded soon after one of them, Jemmy the Whisperer, shot a policeman. Thereafter Ward employed only young malleable accomplices: Thomas Mason in 1867 and William Monckton in 1868. After Monckton left him, Ward remained largely in seclusion, surfacing only a handful of times in the next eighteen months to commit robberies.
Death and Speculation.
On 25 May 1870, after allegedly robbing travellers near the Big Rock, Ward was shot and killed by Constable Alexander Binney Walker at Kentucky Creek near Uralla. His capture and death followed a difficult pursuit of several miles through rough terrain.
The bushranger had spent his last few hours in and about the Royal Oak Inn, close by Split Rock, at Church Gully. There is much to support a contention that his judgement at that time was impaired by alcohol. Publican John Blanch, served the outlaw's last drinks at gun point. Thunderbolt ignored Eliza Blanch's warning to get away, the traps were in sight.
Ward's body was identified at a magisterial inquiry the next day by the gunshot wound on the back of his left knee, as well as by his height, hair and eye colouring, and moles and warts noted in the "Police Gazette" Reward Notice in the aftermath of his escape from Cockatoo Island. Additionally, three witnesses testified under oath that they could personally identify the body as that of Fred Ward: his former accomplice William Monckton, a fellow Mudgee employee named George William Pearson, and Senior Sergeant John George Balls who had worked on Cockatoo Island during Ward's incarceration there.
Hundreds flocked to see the body and a large sum was raised by the local community as a gesture of appreciation for Constable Walker. Walker, along with several others, was eventually awarded a silver medal for bravery.
It has been speculated Ward did not die at Kentucky Creek on 25 May 1870, with some people believing another man died instead. In March 2010, the NSW Legislative Council went so far as to demand the release of archival records relating to Ward's death, a motion introduced by Nationals upper house whip Rick Colless. These alternate theories surrounding Ward's death, however, are believed to lack credibility, with the 2010 parliamentary standing order described as frivolous by some historians.
Birth of Frederick Wordsworth Ward Jnr.
Ward's relationship with Mary Ann Bugg had ended late in 1867, so he was perhaps unaware that Mary Ann Bugg gave birth to his namesake in August 1868. Frederick Wordsworth Ward Jnr took the surname of his stepfather although by occupation he walked in the shoes of his birth-father. He became a groom and later a horse-trainer, and died unmarried as Frederick Wordsworth Burrows in 1937.
Legacy.
The legend of Thunderbolt is exhibited at McCrossin's Mill Museum in Uralla and includes the series of nine paintings by Phillip Pomroy of the events that led to Fred Ward's death.
Thunderbolts Way is a road that extends from Gloucester to Inverell, following much of his original route between the Hunter Valley and the North West slopes and plains. "Thunderbolt's Trail" is a 4WD fire trail located in the Barrington Tops State Forest which follows part of his original route.
A bullet hole in the wall of the Moonan Flat pub, made by the bushranger during a hold up, was on display near Scone, but has been painted over.
Cultural depictions.
Thunderbolt's story has been dramatised several times.


Taj al-Din ibn Qutb al-Din

Taj al-Din (died 1351) was the Mihrabanid malik of Sistan from 1346 until 1350. He was the son of Qutb al-Din Muhammad.
Under his father, Taj al-Din had served as the governor of the town of Uq. After Qutb al-Din's death in 1346 he gained control of Sistan despite the rival claims of his first cousin once removed, Muhammad ibn Nusrat al-Din Muhammad. He was a well-intentioned but weak ruler, according to the sources In 1350 he was forced out of Shahr-i Sistan by a conspiracy, which proceeded to enthrone Jalal al-Din Mahmud in his place.
Taj al-Din did not abandon hope of recovering his position. Fleeing first to Kerman, he made his way to Herat and convinced the Kartid malik Mu'izz al-Din Husayn to support his cause. An army was assembled to restore Taj al-Din, but before it could march Herat was attacked by a coalition of tribes from the Chagatai Khanate under the command of the amir Qazaghan in 1351. Taj al-Din fought in the Kartid army to defend Herat but was killed.


Timeline of Geelong history

This is a timeline of major events in the history of the city of Geelong, Australia.
21st century.
Timeline of tallest buildings in Geelong:
1. The Miramar – 71 m (2019)
2. The Mercer – 64 m (2019)
3. Worksafe Headquarters Geelong – 60 m (2018)
4. Mercure Hotel – 40 m (2008)
6. Shell Refinery – 40 m (1946)
7. Fyansford Cementworks – 30 m (1954)


USS Breese

USS "Breese" (DD-122) was a in the United States Navy during World War I, and later redesignated, DM-18 in World War II. She was the only ship named for Captain Kidder Breese.
Commissioned as a destroyer in 1919, she undertook a number of patrol and training duties along the East Coast of the United States until being decommissioned in 1922. Overhauled in 1931, she returned to service with the United States Pacific Fleet on training and patrol for the next 10 years. She was present during the attack on Pearl Harbor, and following this she supported several operations during the war, laying minefields and sweeping for mines in the Pacific. Following the end of the war, she was sold for scrap in 1946 and broken up.
Design and construction.
"Breese" was one of 111 s built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919. She, along with ten of her sisters, were constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding shipyards in Newport News, Virginia using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works.
She had a standard displacement of an overall length of , a beam of and a draft of . On trials, "Harding" reached a speed of . She was armed with four 4"/50 caliber guns, two 3"/23 caliber guns, and twelve 21-inch torpedo tubes. She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men. She was driven by two Parsons or Westinghouse turbines, and powered by four Normand boilers.
Specifics on "Breese"s performance are not known, but she was one of the group of "Wickes"-class destroyers known unofficially as the 'Liberty Type' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem, which used Curtis steam turbines and Yarrow boilers. The Bethlehem destroyers deteriorated badly in service, and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy. Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy, with most only able to make at instead of the design standard of at . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight. Ships such as "Breese", however, performed better than this.
"Breese" was the only U.S. Navy ship to be named for Kidder Breese, who had been a U.S. Navy officer during the Mexican–American War and later the Civil War.
Service history.
Interwar period.
"Breese" was launched on 11 May 1918 out of Newport News, Virginia. She was sponsored by Gilbert McIlvaine, daughter of Breese; and commissioned 23 October 1918 under the command of Lieutenant B. Smith. After her commissioning, she reported to the United States Atlantic Fleet and cruised for several days as an escort for convoys supporting World War I, before the end of the conflict on 11 November. Returning to Norfolk, Virginia at the end of the war, she was assigned to Destroyer Division 12 and served off the coast of Cuba on training exercises during the spring of 1919. In July 1919, Destroyer Division 12 was assigned to the United States Pacific Fleet, based at San Diego, California. For the next year, she served with Destroyer Squadron 4 and, from June 1920, began operating in Rotating Reserve. From October 1920 to June 1922, she participated in division maneuvers and fleet maneuvers with the Pacific Fleet's main battle force, and she was placed out of commission 17 June 1922.
On 5 January 1931, "Breese" was redesignated as a light minelayer, with the hull classification symbol of DM-18. Following an overhaul and conversion at Mare Island Navy Yard, she was recommissioned on 1 June 1931. She then returned to San Diego for sea trials and standardization tests in her new role. These completed, she departed for Pearl Harbor. She was assigned to Mine Division 1 of the Pacific Fleet, and operated out of Hawaiian waters. She conducted several training exercises, including with the submarine divisions where she served as a target ship. She also served as a station ship for aircraft. She returned to San Diego in June 1937, and placed out of commission and in reserve on 12 November 1937. On 25 September 1939, "Breese" was again recommissioned and assigned to Mine Division 5 of the Pacific Fleet. On 2 November 1939, she arrived at Puget Sound Navy Yard and began to conduct Neutrality Patrol off the Oregon and Washington coasts. Throughout 1940, she cruised to different bases along the coastline of Alaska with the commander of the Alaskan Sector aboard. Upon returning, she rejoined Mine Division 5 in San Francisco and steamed for Hawaii, returning there on 10 December 1940. Attached to Mine Division 2 in the Pacific Fleet, she took part in training exercises in the operating area and on the Maui range during much of 1941.
World War II.
On 7 December 1941, "Breese" was moored in the Middle Loch, northwest of Ford Island. She was moored to Buoy D-3 alongside a nest of three other minelayers which were also converted "Wickes" destroyers; , , and . At the outbreak of the attack, her crew was distracted by the initial assault on Ford Island and was buzzed by a flight of Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers. "Breese" quickly loaded her machine guns and began firing at 07:57. She and many of the other ships in the area were quickly able to mobilize a strong anti-aircraft defense which lasted throughout the morning. She was credited with hits on several Japanese aircraft and damaging at least one midget submarine. "Breese" was undamaged in the attack.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, she remained berthed in the harbor until leaving on 26 December, carrying mail and orders for other ships. She rendezvoused with at the mouth of the harbor to offload this, then steamed east on patrol.
On 6 May 1942, she took on 84 survivors of the carrier which had sunk in the aftermath of the Battle of Midway. During the summer of 1942, she operated out of the South Pacific On 3 August 1942, she, along with minesweepers "Gamble" and , were laying mines in Segond Channel, Espiritu Santo. Destroyer entered the strait on escort patrol, having not been notified of the minefield, when she struck one of the mines and sank. "Breese", which was moored in the channel, rendered aid. On 30 September 1942, she was on a nighttime exercise off Espiritu Santo when she was damaged in a collision with the cruiser . She carried out minesweeping duties during the consolidation of the Solomon Islands from 1–13 May 1943, where she was assigned to Task Group 36.5 alongside "Gamble", , and . They laid mined in Blackett Strait to guard the western approaches to Kula Gulf.
She supported Allied efforts around New Georgia-Rendova Vangunu from 29 June to 25 August. Assigned to Task Unit 36.2.2, she, "Preble" and "Gamble" laid mines off Shortland Harbor, Bougainville. She then supported the occupation and defense of Cape Torokina conducting minesweeping duties there from 1 to 8 November. She later supported the Leyte landings from 12 to 24 October 1944. She was subsequently among the ships to support the Lingayen Gulf landings from 4 to 18 January 1945. She supported the Battle of Iwo Jima from 7 February to 7 March. She undertook mine duties supporting the Battle of Okinawa between 25 March and 30 June. In her final act of the war, she steamed in support of the United States Third Fleet near mainland Japan between 5 and 31 July. In August and September 1945 "Breese" swept mines in the East China Sea and Kyūshū-Korean area following the end of the war.
On 7 November 1945, "Breese" steamed to the west coast arriving 26 November. She transited the Panama Canal and arrived at New York City on 13 December. She was decommissioned on 15 January 1946 and sold for scrap on 16 May 1946. She received ten battle stars for her service in World War II.


Ayelet Zurer

Ayelet Zurer (; born ) is an Israeli actress. She was nominated for awards at the Jerusalem Film Festival, the Israeli Academy Awards and the Israeli Television Academy Awards. She won Best Actress awards for her roles in the Israeli film "Nina's Tragedies" and "Betipul".
Early life.
Zurer was born and raised in Tel Aviv, Israel, to a secular Jewish family of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Her mother was born in Czechoslovakia and immigrated to Israel when she was 16 years old. Her mother was saved during The Holocaust by hiding in a convent in Slovakia. Her Israeli-born father was of Russian-Jewish descent. She has described her parents as "working-class people".
During her service in the Israel Defense Forces, Zurer was a soldier in the military band of the Northern Command.
After finishing her service, Zurer studied acting for three years in Yoram Levinstein Academy. She moved to the United States and studied with George Morison at the Actor's Workshop in New York City. She was invited to play the lead in "Florentine", one of Israel's iconic television shows. She returned to Israel, developed a career on stage, in films, and in television and became one of Israel's most acclaimed actresses. In 2004 when she was cast in Steven Spielberg's "Munich", she moved with her family to California where she resides today.
Career.
Television.
In 1991, after her studies in the US, Zurer moved back to Israel. In 1992, she starred in the television series "Inyan Shel Zman", and in 1993, she played Debbie in the Israeli comedy film "Nikmato shel Itzik Finkelstein" ("Revenge of Itzik Finkelstein"). During this time she also participated in the cable television show "Yetziat Hirum". In 1997, Zurer played the role of Shira Steinberg in the television show "Florentin" on Israeli "Channel 2". Several Israeli television series followed: in 2000, "Zinzana", and in 2002, "Shalva" and "Ha'Block".
In 2005, she starred in another Israeli television series, "Betipul", a drama about a psychologist and his patients' therapy process. She plays Na'ama Lerner, a patient who starts a romance with the doctor. The series won her a Best Actress award from the Israeli Television Academy and was remade as the HBO series "In Treatment". The following year Zurer participated in an Israeli sketch comedy television show called "Gomrot Holchot" that deals with the world of young women; relationships, marriage, sex, and career. The show is based on the British sketch comedy show "Smack the Pony".
In 2015, Zurer starred in "Daredevil" as Vanessa Marianna, an art gallery owner. The series was part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Zurer reprised her role in the third season (2018) of "Daredevil".
In November 2020, Zurer was cast in a recurring role on the third season of the Netflix psychological thriller series "You". She stars in the 2021 dramatic-thriller, "Losing Alice" on Apple TV+.
Film.
In 1998 she played the lead in the film "Ahava Asura" (a.k.a. "The Dybbuk of the Holy Apple Field"). In 2001, she starred in the movies "Laila Lelo Lola" and "Kikar Ha'Halomot". In 2003, she starred in "Nina's Tragedies", portraying the title character, Nina, a young woman who has to rebuild her life after the death of her husband. She won an Israeli Academy Award for Best Actress for this role.
Zurer appeared in "Munich" (2005), where she played Avner Kaufman's wife. She played a terrorist in the American thriller "Vantage Point". In 2007, she starred in "Fugitive Pieces", in which a troubled young Holocaust survivor falls in love with her character. She played a nurse who falls in love with the title character in "Adam Resurrected" (2008).
In April 2008, Zurer was cast as the female lead, Vittoria Vetra, in "The Da Vinci Code" sequel, "Angels & Demons". She played the lead role in the 2011 film "Hide Away" (a.k.a. "A Year in Mooring"), and played Superman's mother, Lara Lor-Van, in the reboot of the Superman franchise, "Man of Steel" (2013).
Personal life.
In 2003, she married her Israeli former surf instructor Gilad Londovski. They have a son. They are Los Angeles residents.


Pavnisi church

The Pavnisi church of Saint George () is a Georgian Orthodox church in the Kaspi Municipality in Georgia's east-central region of Shida Kartli. It is a hall church dated to the 9th–10th-century. The church is known for its frescoes dated to the latter half of the 12th century. The church is inscribed on the list of Georgia's Immovable Cultural Monuments of National Significance.
Layout.
The Pavnisi church is located at an old cemetery south of the modern village of Gariqula, in the territory that had historically been known as Pavnisi. Built of sandstone and tuff and measuring 12.4 × 10.8 m, it is a simple hall church with a semicircular apse on the east. The church is covered by a semi-cylindrical vault which is supported by arches on pilasters. The building can be accessed through a doorway in the south wall. A low chapel, an "eukterion"—now half-ruined—is annexed to the south façade of the church. The interior is frescoed. On the eastern façade, there are the sculpted ornamental crosses on either side of the window and a depiction of a serpent swallowing the sun on a large sandstone slab placed above the window.
Frescoes.
The plastered walls of the interior bear frescoes of high artistic value, executed between around 1170 and 1180 and painted over an earlier layer of the murals which can be traced on the northern and southern walls. The style of the paintings demonstrate that the painter was well-acquainted with Byzantine models. The frescoes—noted for the color harmony and the purity of line—have largely faded away or have been peeled off, but are in a relatively better state of preservation in the apse.
The conch of the sanctuary is adorned with the Deesis. In the middle register are bust figures of the twelve Apostles and the lower register depicts ten Church Fathers and two deacons in two rows which converge on the Holy Cross enclosed in a medallion and the image of the Mandylion just below it. The west wall is taken up with a Christological cycle, containing the Transfiguration, and below, Pentecost and Entry into Jerusalem.
There is also an extensive cycle of the life and martyrdom of Saint George, consisting of five scenes, including the one depicting George rescuing a youth from captivity, one of the oldest representations of the legend in Christian art. That the veneration of St. George was especially great in medieval Georgia is illustrated by a donor portrait in the north wall, where two imposing figures of noble laymen and a child between them are shown as praying, with George as the intercessory saint. Flanking the scene, the images of swords and shields are displayed. The donors are probably members of the Pavneli noble family, known from medieval records.


Frank E. Midkiff

Frank Elbert Midkiff (November 15, 1887 – August 7, 1983) was an American educator and civic leader. He served as High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from March 13, 1953 to September 1, 1954.
Life and career.
Midkiff was born in Anna, Illinois. He served as principal of Lewistown High School in Lewistown, Illinois from 1908 to 1910. He then worked at the Kimberly Gold Mines, Jardine, Montana before taking a position as instructor of English and coach for baseball and football at Peddie Institute, Hightstown, New Jersey. Midkiff graduated from Colgate University in 1912. He went on to teach English and head the athletics at Oahu College in 1913. He served in the United States Army during World War I from 1918 to 1919. After his honorable discharge, he joined the firm of Lewers & Cooke, Ltd. He served as President of Kamehameha Schools from 1923 to 1934.
He earned his Ph.D. in Education from Yale University in 1935. He served as Acting President, Honolulu Chamber of Commerce. He was appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to the position of High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Midkiff died in Honolulu, Hawai'i on August 7, 1983. The Frank E. Midkiff Learning Center at Kamehameha Schools was named in his honor in 1977.


USS Grebe (AM-43)

USS "Grebe" (AM-43) was a in the United States Navy.
"Grebe" was built by the Staten Island Steam Boat Co., was launched 17 December 1918; it was sponsored by Miss Emma Youmans and commissioned at the Brooklyn Navy Yard 1 May 1919; Lt. Niels Drustrup was in command. It served in many capacities until it was destroyed by a hurricane in 1943.
Post-World War I mine clearance.
From 9 July 1919 until 1 October, "Grebe", based at Kirkwall, Orkney, was part of a minesweeper flotilla clearing the North Sea of mines laid by the Allies during World War I. She returned to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 28 November 1919 via Devonport, Brest, Lisbon, the Azores, Bermuda, and New York. After extensive repairs, "Grebe" moved to the Boston Navy Yard 4 November 1920; from there she sailed the coast from Maine to New Jersey calibrating radio compass stations and doing miscellaneous towing and rescue work. On 29 April 1921 she rescued 139 passengers from the Portuguese steamer , which had run aground off the Massachusetts coast.
North Atlantic operations.
"Grebe's" next duty took her to Newport, Rhode Island, on 2 June; she depth-charged the target submarine off Taylor's Point, sinking her 23 June in of water. After participating in salvage operations, "Grebe" returned to Boston, Massachusetts, on 22 July to resume radio compass station calibration and other duties. From there she made a round trip to Norfolk, Virginia, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and the Panama Canal Zone which occupied her from 1 December 1921 until 18 March 1922, when she returned to Portsmouth. There she decommissioned 12 May 1922.
"Grebe" was recommissioned on 15 November 1922, Chief Boatswain Albert C. Fraenzel commanding. On 16 December she sailed for St. Thomas, capital of the Virgin Islands, where she served as station ship until 1931. "Grebe" made an average of a trip a week between St. Thomas, St. Croix, and San Juan carrying stores and passengers, both military and civilian; she also towed coal barges and dredges to San Juan, Fort de France, Martinique, and other Caribbean ports. While at St. Thomas, "Grebe" was invaluable in assisting disabled ships, mainly those grounded on coral reefs, and in searches for missing ships. This work was interrupted by a yearly five-week repair period at Charleston, South Carolina.
Hurricane rescue work.
"Grebe's" finest moment came in 1930. A hurricane laid waste large parts of the Dominican Republic and killed thousands in September. Carrying trained medical men and emergency supplies, "Grebe" was the first ship to reach devastated Santo Domingo. She remained there for two weeks, helping unload other ships and clear debris.
17 March 1931 "Grebe" brought Dr. Paul M. Pearson, Governor-appointee, and his staff from San Juan to St. Thomas; nucleus of the Virgin Island's first civilian government.
Towing the USS "Constitution".
"Grebe" then returned to Boston, Massachusetts. There on 12 July 1931 she took in tow historic sailing frigate . A long campaign had resulted in restoration of the famed ship to its original condition, and "Grebe" was to spend the next three years as her tender and towing ship as they visited every major American port, East and West Coast. Millions of Americans thrilled to their heritage touring "Old Ironsides" in New York City, Norfolk, Key West, Galveston, Guantanamo, Los Angeles, Seattle, Bellingham, Portland, and the Panama Canal Zone.
Transfer to the Pacific Ocean.
On 12 May 1934 "Grebe" relinquished her duties with "Constitution", entering the Philadelphia Navy Yard for overhaul. After a brief tour of duty at Norfolk, Virginia, 21 August to 14 September, she sailed for Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, towed for fleet gunnery practice until 12 October, then sailed to San Pedro, California, arriving 19 November. Operating there until mid-1940; she performed a variety of tasks, including towing for target practice, participating in fleet problems, minesweeping exercises, training squadron details, and harbor service. Her tour there was interrupted by two voyages, the first to Pearl Harbor 6–31 May 1935 for fleet problems and the second to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and Norfolk, Virginia, 26 December to 7 May 1939 for gunnery exercises.
Pearl Harbor assignment.
Sailing from San Pedro, California, 3 June 1940, "Grebe" arrived in Pearl Harbor on 17 June to tow for gunnery and bombing practice, and participate in minesweeping training. Two trips back to the mainland, 1 August to 9 September and 27 September to 13 October 1941, in company with on passenger and stores runs interrupted her Hawaiian duty.
Under attack at Pearl Harbor.
"Grebe" was in yard availability at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Her 3-inch guns had been dismantled for the overhaul so she could fight only with rifles and pistols. She was credited with shooting down one of three unidentified planes flying low over the Navy Yard. On 24 January "Grebe" departed for Palmyra Island with fuel oil barge "YO-43" in tow where she arrived five days later. She returned to Honolulu on 5 February and continued from there until autumn. Her classification was changed to Fleet Tug AT-134 on 1 June 1941.
On 30 September "Grebe" joined a convoy for Johnston Island and returned on 9 October. On 9 November 1942 "Grebe" was underway again with lighter "YC-737" and "YB-9" in tow and accompanying "YO-44", for Canton Island. Calling there on 25 November she proceeded to Pago Pago, Samoa arriving on 28 November.
Run aground and broken up by a hurricane.
On 6 December 1942, "Grebe" was grounded while attempting to float at Vuata Vatoa, Fiji Islands. Salvage operations were broken up by a hurricane that destroyed both ships on 1–2 January 1943. Her name was struck from the Navy List 28 July 1943.
Awards.
"Grebe" earned one battle star for World War II service.


Harold MacMichael

Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael (15 October 1882 – 19 September 1969) was a British colonial administrator.
Early service.
Educated at Bedford School, MacMichael graduated with a first from Magdalene College, Cambridge. After passing his civil service exam, he entered the Sudan Political Service in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. He then served in the Blue Nile province until 1915 when he became a senior inspector of Khartoum province, rising to the position of civil secretary in 1926. In 1933 he became Governor of Tanganyika until 1937.
The next year he became High Commissioner of the British Mandate of Palestine and was blamed for sending at least 768 Jewish refugees aboard MV "Struma" to their deaths. Seven unsuccessful attempts, mainly by Lehi, were undertaken to assassinate him during his sojourn in Palestine. In the last, both he and his wife narrowly escaped death in an ambush Lehi mounted on 8 August 1944 on the eve of his replacement as High Commissioner.
MacMichael also served a stint as High Commissioner of Malta.
Malayan Union.
The British Military Administration set to task of reviving pre-war plans for centralised control over the Malay states within days after British Allied forces landed in Singapore on 5 September 1945.
MacMichael, who had then completed his stint as High Commissioner of the British Mandate of Palestine was empowered to sign official treaties with the Malay rulers over the Malayan Union proposal scheme. MacMichael made several visits to the Malay rulers, beginning with Sultan Ibrahim of Johor in October 1945. The Sultan quickly consented to MacMichael's proposal scheme, which was motivated by his strong desire to visit England at the end of the year. MacMichael paid further visits to other Malay rulers over the proposal, and sought their consent over the proposal scheme. Many Malay rulers expressed strong reluctance in signing the treaties with MacMichael, partly because they feared losing their royal status and the prospect of their states falling into Thai political influence.
It has to be mentioned that the Sultans signed under duress. The British were intent on securing their agreement, and were willing to depose of any disagreeing Sultan, if necessary. The all of the Malay Sultans signed with so little resistance can be attributed to a rather simple ploy by the British. In a non public manner, privately told that should they resist, an inquiry would be held into their relations, conduct, or collaboration with the Japanese Occupation during the war. The sitting rulers, many concerned that both their offices and social positions would be destroyed, quickly complied. Later, their positions confirmed and secure, many would complain that the Malay Rulers were not given the opportunity to consult with their state councils nor with each other. In the words of the Sultan of Kedah, "...I was presented with a verbal ultimatum and a time limit, and in the event of my refusing to sign the new agreement, ..a successor who would sign would be appointed."
The treaties provided that United Kingdom had full administrative powers over the Malay states except in areas pertaining to Islamic customs. The Malays strongly protested against the treaties, as the treaties had the effect of circumscribing the spiritual and moral authority of the Malay rulers, which the Malays held high esteem over it. Communal tensions between the Malays and Chinese were high, and the prospect of granting citizenship to non-Malays was deemed unacceptable to the Malays.
Opposition to Malayan Union and MacMichael's perceived highhanded ways in getting the Malay rulers consent led to the birth of Malay nationalism in then British Malaya
Family.
MacMichael's daughter, Araminta, married the politician and business leader Toby Low, 1st Baron Aldington. His daughter Priscilla married James Raynes, a US Naval officer.


UFC 242

UFC 242: Khabib vs. Poirier was a mixed martial arts pay-per-view event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that was held on September 7, 2019 at The Arena, Yas Island in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
Background.
The event marked the promotion's third visit to Abu Dhabi and first since in April 2014.
A UFC Lightweight Championship title unification bout between current champion Khabib Nurmagomedov and interim champion Dustin Poirier served as the event's headliner.
A lightweight bout between Magomed Mustafaev and Don Madge was scheduled for the event. However, on August 18, it was reported that Mustafaev was removed from the bout for undisclosed reasons. Madge then faced promotional newcomer Fares Ziam.
Adam Yandiev was scheduled to face promotional newcomer Punahele Soriano at the event. However, Yandiev pulled out of the bout in mid-August citing a knee injury and the bout was scrapped.
A bantamweight bout between Khalid Taha and Bruno Gustavo Aparecido Da Silva was scheduled for the event. However, on August 21, it was reported that the bout was moved to UFC 243.
At the weigh-ins, Sarah Moras weighed in at 138 pounds, 2 pounds over the bantamweight non-title fight limit of 136. She was fined 20% of her purse and her bout with Liana Jojua proceeded at a catchweight.
Bonus awards.
The following fighters received $50,000 bonuses.
Viewership.
As of September 4, 2019 online promotional content related to UFC 242, uploaded to online streaming platforms including YouTube, Facebook and Instagram prior to the fight, has received a collective total of more than 112million views.
In Russia, where it was broadcast by the free TV station Channel One Russia, the fight drew approximately 26million viewers, equivalent to 24% of Russia's adult population.


William Sydney Marchant

William Sydney Marchant (10 December 1894 – 1 February 1953) was a British colonial administrator. He served as the Resident Commissioner of the Solomon Islands from 1939 to 1943.
Biography.
Marchant became an Assistant District Commissioner in East Africa Protectorate in 1919. In 1926 he was promoted to District Officer in Kenya, and then became Deputy Provincial Commissioner and Assistant Secretary in Zanzibar in 1935. In 1937 he moved to neighbouring Tanganyika to continue as a Deputy Provincial Commissioner.
As commissioner, he directed the evacuation of European settlers from the Solomon Islands prior to the Japanese occupation of the islands during World War II as well as leading the organisation of coastwatcher units throughout the islands. Marchant relocated from this headquarters at Tulagi to Malaita about two months before the Japanese occupied Tulagi in May, 1942. On Malaita he helped operate a coastwatcher radio relay station in support of the Allied Solomon Islands campaign until the end of his appointment in 1943.
Marchant was then appointed as Chief Native Commissioner for the Kenya Colony from 1943 until 1947. Marchant died in 1953.


Philip Chauncy

Philip Lamothe Snell Chauncy (1816-1880) was a colonial surveyor and amateur ethnographer.
Born 21 June 1816 at Datchet in Buckinghamshire, England, he travelled to the colonies in Australia, residing in Victoria after 1839 and at the Swan River Colony (Perth, WA) between 1841 and 1853. He was appointed to the position of assistant government surveyor at Swan River.
Chauncy interviewed the Indigenous inhabitants on his journeys, recording the names of places he was documenting and incidental remarks. His reports became a source of ethnographic material for contemporary works such as Robert Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria" (Melbourne 1878), supplying an appendix, 'Notes and Anecdotes of the Aborigines of Australia', along with his other remarks, and to later authors of texts regarding Indigenous Australians.
The site of Chauncy Spring in the Shire of Mundaring, which he surveyed in 1847 and recorded by the existing local name 'Jardemin', was gazetted in 1848 at Perth with his name.