British occupation of the Jordan Valley

The occupation of the Jordan Valley by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) began in February 1918 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. After the Capture of Jericho in February the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment began patrolling an area of the Jordan Valley near Jericho at the base of the road from Jerusalem. Towards the end of March the First Transjordan attack on Amman and the First Battle of Amman were launched from the Jordan Valley followed a few weeks later by the equally unsuccessful Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt at the end of April. During this time the occupation of the Jordan was fully established and continued through the summer of 1918. The occupation ended in September with the Battle of Megiddo which consisted of the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Nablus. The Third Transjordan attack and Second Battle of Amman were fought as part of the Battle of Nablus.
Despite the difficult climate and the unhealthy environment of the Jordan Valley, General Edmund Allenby decided that, to ensure the strength of the EEF's front line it was necessary to extend the line which stretched from the Mediterranean, across the Judean Hills to the Dead Sea to protect his right flank. This line was held until September, providing a strong position from which to launch the attacks on Amman to the east and northwards to Damascus.
During the period from March to September the Ottoman Army held the hills of Moab on the eastern side of the valley and the northern section of valley. Their well placed artillery periodically shelled the occupying force and, particularly in May, German aircraft bombed and strafed bivouacs and horse lines. As a consequence of the major victory at Megiddo the occupied area was consolidated with other former Ottoman Empire territories won during the battle.
Background.
After the capture of Jerusalem at the end of 1917 the Jordan River was crossed by infantry and mounted riflemen and bridgeheads established at the beginning of the unsuccessful first Transjordan attack on Amman in March. The defeat of the second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt and the withdrawal to the Jordan Valley on 3 to 5 May, marked the end of major operations until September 1918.
The focus shifted to the German spring offensive launched by Ludendorff on the Western Front, which began the same day as the First Transjordan attack on Amman, completely eclipsing its failure. The British front in Picardy held by 300,000 soldiers collapsed when powerful assaults were launched on both sides of the Somme by a force of 750,000, forcing Gough's Fifth Army back almost to Amiens. On one day; 23 March German forces advanced and captured 600 guns; in total 1,000 guns and 160,000 suffered the worst defeat of the war. The British War Cabinet recognised at once that the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire must be at least postponed. The effect of this offensive on the Palestine Campaign was described by Allenby on 1 April 1918: "Here, I have raided the Hedjaz railway 40 miles East of Jordan & have done much damage but my little show dwindles now into a very insufficient [insignificant] affair in comparison with events in Europe." Overnight Palestine went from being the British government's first priority to a "side show."
Decision to occupy the valley.
Reasons for garrisoning the Jordan Valley include –
The road from the Hedjaz railway station at Amman to Shunet Nimrin opposite the Ghoraniyeh crossing of the Jordan River, remained a serious strategic threat to the British right flank as a large German and Ottoman force could very quickly be moved from Amman to Shunet Nimrin and a major attack mounted into the valley.
It therefore was decided to defend the eastern flank from the Jordan valley with a strong garrison until September and to occupy a place many considered to be an unpleasant and unhealthy place and virtually uninhabitable during the hot summer months due to the heat, high humidity and malaria.
So important was the support of Prince Feisal's Sherifial Hedjaz Arab force to the defence of the EEF's right flank, that they were substantially subsidised by the War Office. After a delay in receipt of a payment, the High Commissioner in Egypt Reginald Wingate wrote to Allenby on 5 July 1918, "I think we shall manage the subsidy required as well as the extra £50,000 you require for Northern Operations." At the time £400,000 was on its way from Australia, while Wingate was asking the War Office for an additional £500,000, emphasising the importance of the regular "payment of our Arab subsidy."
The Ottoman defenders maintained an observation post on El Haud hill which dominates the whole Jordan Valley.
At this time the strength was estimated at 68,000 rifles and sabres and morale of the Ottoman defenders very strong, the harvest coming in and food abundant. While the EEF was defending its line with every available unit. As Allenby wrote in a letter to the War Office on 15 June 1918, "all my goods are in the shop window." The EEF line stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River was strong, supported by roads and communications behind. However the line was wide in comparison with the size of the EEF it. Allenby saying, "It is the best line I can hold. Any retirement would weaken it. My right flank is covered by the Jordan; my left by the Mediterranean Sea. The Jordan Valley must be held by me; it is vital. If the Turks regained control of the Jordan, I should lose control of the Dead Sea. This would cut me off from the Arabs on the Hedjaz railway; with the result that, shortly, the Turks would regain their power in the Hedjaz. The Arabs would make terms with them, and our prestige would be gone. My right flank would be turned, and my position in Palestine would be untenable. I might hold Rafa or El Arish; but you can imagine what effect such a withdrawal would have on the population of Egypt, and on the watching tribes of the Western Desert. You see, therefore, that I cannot modify my present dispositions. I must give up nothing of what I now hold. Anyhow, I must hold the Jordan Valley."
Garrison.
Chauvel was given the task of defending the Jordan Valley, but his Desert Mounted Corps had lost the 5th Mounted Brigade and the Yeomanry Mounted Division, both of which, along with most of the British infantry were sent to the Western Front to be replaced by Indian Army infantry and cavalry. This resultant reorganisation required time to work through.
The Jordan Valley was garrisoned in 1918 by the 20th Indian Brigade, the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division, until 17 May when the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions arrived. They took over the outposts in the sector outside the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead while the 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigade held the bridgehead. In August these troops were joined at the beginning of the month by the newly formed 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment, in the middle of the month by the 38th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (the 39th would follow later), both part of the Jewish Legion and towards the end of August by British Indian Army cavalry units. This force included a section of the Light Armoured Motor Brigade commanded by Captain McIntyre; the armoured cars had two machine guns mounted on the rear of each car and were camouflaged with bushes while making sorties to attack Ottoman patrols. Allenby had decided to hold the valley with this mainly mounted force because the mobility of mounted troops would enable them to keep the greater proportion of their strength in reserve on the higher ground.
Chauvel's headquarters were at Talaat ed Dumm from 25 April until 16 September and he divided the Jordan Valley into two sectors, each patrolled by three brigades while a reserve of three brigades was maintained.
In the garrisoned area of the valley there were two villages; Jericho and Rujm El Bahr on the edge of the Dead Sea; other human habitations included the Bedouin shelters and several monasteries. Arabs chose to evacuate Jericho during the summer months, leaving only the heterogeneous local tribes. In the vicinity of the Dead Sea, the Taamara, a 7,000 strong semi-settled Arab tribe cultivated selected areas of the slopes of the Dead Sea about Wady Muallak and Wady Nur. They husbanded 3,000 sheep, 2,000 donkeys and a few large cattle or camels and travelled to the Madeba district to work as hired carriers.
Conditions in the valley.
At below sea level and below the mountains on either side of the scorching Jordan Valley, here for weeks at a time, the shade temperature rarely dropped below and occasionally reached ; at the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead was recorded. Coupled with the heat, the tremendous evaporation of the Dead Sea which keeps the still, heavy atmosphere moist, adds to the discomfort and produces a feeling of lassitude which is most depressing and difficult to overcome. In addition to these unpleasant conditions the valley swarms with snakes, scorpions, mosquitoes, great black spiders, and men and animals were tormented by day and night by swarms of every sort of fly. Trooper R. W. Gregson 2663, described the Jordan Valley to his family, "...it's a terrible place. I will never tell anyone to go to hell again; I will tell him to go to Jericho, and I think that will be bad enough!"
From Jericho the Jordan River was invisible, about across the almost open plain; being very good going for movement across the valley. Big vultures perch on the chalky bluffs overlooking the river, and storks are seen flying overhead, while wild pigs were seen in the bush. The river contained many fish, and its marshy borders were crowded with frogs and other small animals.
In the spring the land in the Jordan Valley supports a little thin grass, but the fierce sun of early summer quickly scorches this leaving only a layer of white chalky marl impregnated with salt, several feet deep. This surface was soon broken up by the movement of mounted troops into a fine white powder resembling flour, and covering everything with a thick blanket of dust. Roads and tracks were often covered with as much as of white powder and traffic stirred this up into a dense, limey cloud which penetrated everywhere, and stuck grittily to sweat-soaked clothes. A white coating of dust would enshroud men returning from watering their horses; their clothes, wet with perspiration which sometimes dripped from the knees of their riding-breeches, and their faces only revealed by sweaty rivulets.
During the summer the nights are breathless, but in the early morning a strong hot wind, blowing from the north, sweeps the white dust down the valley in dense choking clouds. By about 11:00 the wind dies down, and a period of deathlike stillness follows, accompanied by intense heat. Shortly afterwards a wind sometimes arises from the south, or violent air currents sweep the valley, carrying "dust devils" to great heights; these continue till about 22:00 after which sleep is possible for a few brief hours.
The troops' general careworn appearance was very noticeable; they were not actually ill but lacked proper sleep and the effects of this deprivation were intensified by the heat, dust, humidity, pressure effect, stillness of the air, and mosquitoes which together with the cumulative effects of the hardships of the two previous years of campaigning caused a general depression. These extremely depressing effects of the region in turn contributed to the debility of troops after a period in the valley. Their shelter was most often just bivouac sheets which barely allowed the men room to sit up; there were a few bell tents in which temperatures reached . However, although they worked long hours in the hot sun patrolling, digging, wiring, caring for the horses and carrying out anti-mosquito work, heat exhaustion was never a problem (as it had in the Sinai desert; in particular on the second day of the Battle of Romani) as there was easy access to large supplies of pure, cool water for drinking and washing. Springs supplied drinking water and supplies of rations and forage were transported to the valley from Jerusalem. But thirst was constant and very large quantities of fluid; more than were consumed, while meat rations (in the absence of refrigeration) consisted mainly of tins of "bully beef", which was often stewed by the hot conditions while still in the cans, and bread was always dry and there were few fresh vegetables.
Vegetation.
The bush ranged from to the height of a horse; there were numerous Ber trees which have enormous thorns (the traditional "crown of thorns" tree) and big prickly bushes which made it quite easy to rig up shelter from the sun, and near Jericho a woody scrub high, with broad leaves which are woolly on the underside, has fruit similar to apples. There was dense jhow jungle on either side of the Jordan River for some , and the banks were sheer about above water-level which made it impossible to swim horses in the river.
Swimming in the Dead Sea.
While in bivouac in the Jordan Valley, it was a common practice when things were quiet, for soldiers to ride the few miles to Rujm El Bahr, at the northern end of the Dead Sea where the Jordan River runs in, to bathe themselves and their horses. This inland sea is about long and about wide with steep mountain country sloping down to the water on each side. The surface of the sea lies below the sea-level of the Mediterranean and the water is extremely salty, containing about 25% mineral salts and is extremely buoyant; many of the horses were obviously perplexed at floating so high out of the water. It has been calculated that 6,500,000 tons of water fall into the Dead Sea daily from various streams, and as the sea has no outlet all of this water evaporates creating the humid heat of the atmosphere in the valley. There were also opportunities to swim in the Jordan River.
Water supply and mosquitoes.
The one generous feature of the valley was its water supply; the slightly muddy Jordan River flowed strongly throughout the year in a trough about below the valley floor, fed by numerous clear springs and wadis running into it on either side. Most New Zealanders enjoyed the physical benefits of bathing in the Jordan at one time or another during the campaign in which a good bath was such a luxury.
In the left sector where the Australian Mounted Division was stationed there were several sources of water; the Jordan River, the Wadi el Auja, and the Wadi Nueiameh, which flowed from Ain el Duk, and into the Jordan at El Ghoraniyeh. The latter wadi was used by the Headquarters of the Valley Defences. The section of the valley patrolled by the Anzac Mounted Division was crossed by the wadis Auja, Mellahah, Nueiameh and the Kelt as well as the Jordan River with several extensive marshes in the jungle on its banks. The nullahs were astonishingly deep, usually with dense vegetation and quite big trees. The area was notorious for subtertian or malignant malaria and in particular the whole valley of the Wadi el Mellahah was swarming with anopheles larvae, the worst kind of mosquitoes.
A thousand men cut down the jungle, drained the marshes and swamps, the streams were cleared of reeds which were burnt, canals created so there was no opportunity for standing water, holes were filled in, stagnant pools were oiled and hard standings for the horses were constructed. Even a cultivated area at the source of the Ain es Sultan (Jericho's water supply) was treated by 600 members of the Egyptian Labour Corps over a period of two months. No breeding of the larvae could be demonstrated three days after the work was complete but the areas had to be continually maintained by special malarial squads of the Sanitary Section and the Indian Infantry Brigade. These measures were successful as during the six months to September the incidence of malaria in Chauvel's force was just over five per cent with most cases occurring on the front line or in No Man's Land; while incidence of malaria in the reserve areas was very low.
However, despite all efforts, cases of malaria were reported during May and reports of fever steadily developed as the heat and dust increased and the men became less physically fit which lowered their ability to resist sickness. In addition to malaria, minor maladies became very common; thousands of men suffered from blood diseases known as "sand-fly fever" and "five-day fever", which manifested in excessive temperatures, followed by temporary prostration, and few escaped severe stomach disorders.
Conditions for the horses.
The climate did not affect the horses in a marked way but their rations, although plentiful, contained only a small proportion of pure grain with insufficient nutritional value and was too bulky and unpalatable. While others thought the forage was "all that could be desired" and water was plentiful and good. During mid summer when iron was too hot to handle and a hand placed on the back of a horse was positively painful, yet in the dust, the heat and the many diseases, in particular Surra fever which carried by the Surra fly which, in 1917 decimated the Ottoman transport killing as many as 42,000 camels in the Jordan Valley, the horses survived.
They did not thrive, however, and they came out of the valley in poor condition, due mainly due to insufficient number of men to water, feed and groom them and the conditions were unfavourable for exercise, which is essential for keeping horses in good health and condition. There was on average one man to look after six or seven horses, and at times in some regiments there was only one man for every 15 horses after the daily sick had been evacuated and men for outposts, patrols and anti-malarial work had been found.
Operations.
German and Ottoman attacks in Jordan Valley, 11 April.
The 60th (London) Division moved back into the Judean Hills after the Amman operations while the Anzac Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade remained to garrison the Jordan Valley under the command of Chaytor, the commander of the Anzac Mounted Division. When Chaytor took over command on 3 April Major he divided his force in two; one group to defend the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead from the east and the other to defend the Wadi el Auja bridgehead from the north. The group defending Ghoraniyeh comprised the 1st Light Horse Brigade, one regiment of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and three field batteries; the group defending the Auja position including Mussallabeh hill comprised the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (less one regiment and a field artillery brigade), while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in reserve near Jericho. Some defensive work was carried out including wire.
Shortly after the withdrawal from Amman a force of seven Ottoman aircraft bombed the Jordan Valley garrison and on 11 April 1918 a series of Ottoman attacks were made on Ghoraniyeh bridgehead, on El Mussallabeh hill and on the Auja position. This attack is referred to by the British as the 'Turkish Attack on the Jordan Bridgeheads'.
Ghoraniyeh bridgehead.
This defensive position covered the bridge and consisted of trenching and barbed wire and was covered by guns from the western bank. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was heavily attacked at 04:00 by the Ottoman 48th Division. They pushed forward to within of the line but were heavily shelled by covering artillery and at 12:30 a regiment of light horse rode out and attacked their flank. Several attempts by the Ottoman Army to send forward reinforcements were defeated by the British gunners. During the night the Ottoman soldiers withdrew.
The British section guns were on the Pimple and the other to the left with the old road to the Ghoraniyeh crossing leading straight to our gun on the Pimple. At dawn a fairly large and close formation of Ottoman soldiers advanced straight at the Pimple gun which opened fire supported by light horse Hotchkiss light machine guns on the right. Although the action did not end for some hours the first 10 minutes decided it.
Auja position.
German and Ottoman guns heavily shelled the lines on the Wadi Auja to the north of Jericho and the Ottoman attacks were beaten off.
Mussallabeh hill.
Here the Ottoman Army launched an infantry assault by a composite force of four battalions and several batteries after an hour's bombardment. At one or two places they gained a footing, but after a day of close fighting they withdrew back to the foot of the hills of Moab, to Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan.
The casualties were between 500 and 2,500 Ottoman dead and 100 prisoners with Anzac Mounted Division suffering 26 killed, 65 wounded and 28 horses killed, 62 horses wounded.
EEF attack Shunet Nimrin.
Chetwode (commander XX Corps) was ordered to demonstrate in force against the Shunet Nimrin position on the road from Ghoranyeh to Amman, with a view to encouraging the idea of further operations against Amman and attracting more Ottoman reinforcements to Shunet Nimrin rather than sending them against the Hedjaz Arabs at Maan.
By late April the Shunet Nimrin the garrison was about 8,000 strong and Allenby decided to attack this force to either capture it or compel it to retire. Chaytor (commander Anzac Mounted Division) was given command of the 180th Brigade, 10th Heavy Battery, 383rd Siege Battery with the 20th Indian Brigade (less two battalions) holding the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and the Anzac Mounted Division to complete the operation. Chetwode ordered Chaytor not to commit to a general engagement but if the Ottoman Army retired to follow them up.
But on 18 April the Ottoman garrison at Shunet Nimrin produced such heavy fire that the mounted troops, including the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were unable to even approach the foothills. As a result of this operation the Ottoman Army further strengthened their position at Shunet Nimrin. On 20 April Allenby ordered Chauvel (commander Desert Mounted Corps) to take over the Jordan section of the line from Chetwode, to destroy Ottoman forces around Shunet Nimrin and to capture Es Salt.
German and Ottoman attack.
On 14 July two attacks were made by German and Ottoman forces; in the hills on a salient held by Australian Light Horse which protected front line positions in the valley, where the mainly German force was routed, and a second operation to the east of the Jordan River on the plain, where an Ottoman cavalry brigade, had deployed six regiments to attack the El Hinu and Makhadet Hijla bridgeheads; they were attacked by Indian Lancers and routed.
Tour of duty.
Troops paraded at regimental headquarters mounted carrying ammunition and rations in preparation for a 24-hour tour of duty. After the troop leader received his orders the troop often marched in single file about , across the deep gullies which cut the valley floor, to the Jordan River. If it was possible they would water the horses before continuing to their post, where they relieved the other troops at about 18:00 or on dusk. After any information regarding opposition movements, patrols, or posts, and new ranges to particular points, was handed over, the relieved troops returned to their regimental camp. The deployment of the troop was decided by the officer or sergeant in charge of the troop, after assessing the layout of the ground. He would decide where the horses would be located and the deployment of the troop including the Hotchkiss automatic rifle, which would be placed where it could "do the most damage." A man was detailed to lie near this automatic rifle all night, "with the first strip inserted in the breach, ready at a moment's notice." In addition a listening post was established, which would be occupied during the night, in front of the general position, while sentries were posted, and horse-pickets allocated to guard the horses, linked together by their head-ropes, in case of emergency. Billies could then be boiled (if the smoke could be screened), rations eaten and although the horses remained saddled overnight, they could be fed.
It could be a quiet night or rifle fire with ricocheting bullets, might make for an anxious night waiting for information from the listening post. Quiet might follow, "except for the occasional restless movements of the horses, the rolling of a dislodged clod down a hillside, or the weird baying of jackals." Or after a "sinister stillness" and "a crash of rifle fire" the listening post would frantically return, reporting the direction of the opposition's attack. If it was a large scale attack, "each man would know a stern fight was before him", because if the position was to be held, it would be some hours before they could hope for reinforcements. If there had only been "a few stray shots, and perhaps the sounds of an enemy patrol moving somewhere in front" during the night, dawn would find the tired listening post creep back to their troop before the day began. If the day was quiet the saddles could be taken off, and the men and horses, relax and perhaps sleep, because with daylight only one sentry, with glasses, could keep effective watch.
It might be during the day there were opportunities to shoot at opponents if they came into range, or hostile aircraft might fly over the area, "running the gauntlet as the white puffs of shrapnel or black splotches of high explosive anti-aircraft shells burst around them thousands of feet up in the air." However, the troop could be in danger from "shrapnel, shell fragments, and nose-caps", which could "fall, with a whirring noise, from the sky" after the shells had exploded in the air. Or it might be that the opponents know about this particular post, shelling it as soon as it was light. Then "there will be a muffled roar in the distance, a whine that quickly grows to a hissing shriek, and with a shocking crash in the stillness a shell bursts near at hand." While everyone dives for cover an eye is kept on the horses without which they will have a long weary trek back to the regiment. If the shells go increasingly wide the guns will stop as the target could not be found. Later they may get a visit from an artillery officer wanting to know about any new targets, or a member of the high command may visit to familiarise "himself with all the features of the front he is responsible for." Later when a dust cloud indicates the arrival of the relieving troop, the horses are saddled, and then the order, "Get Ready to Move!"
German and Ottoman aerial bombing raids.
Bivouacs were bombed during the first few days in the Jordan Valley, but the Indian Army cavalry horse lines in the bridgehead were not attacked, either by bomb-dropping or machine-gunning. Both bivouacs and horse lines of the light horse and mounted rifle brigades were attacked. At dawn on Tuesday 7 May a big bombing raid by nine German aircraft were attacked by heavy rifle and machine gun fire. One bomb fell in the bivvies of the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance where only two were wounded, but metal fragments riddled the tents and blankets. Stretcher bearers brought in 13 wounded in a matter of minutes and what remained of the Field Ambulance horses after the attack on 1 May at Jisr ed Damieh (see Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt) were only away and 12 were wounded and had to be destroyed.
Another raid the next morning resulted in only one casualty although more horses were hit. These bombing raids were a regular performance every morning for the first week or so; enemy aircraft flying over were attacked by anti-aircraft artillery, but they ceased after Allied aircraft bombed their aerodrome.
Relief of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade.
On 10 May the 4th Light Horse Brigade received orders to relieve the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade.
Long-range German and Ottoman guns.
Spasmodic bursts of long-range shells fired from a German naval pattern gun, occurred throughout the British Empire occupation of the Jordan Valley. Some 30 shells were fired at various camps and horse lines in the neighbourhood during the first week. During June they steadily increased artillery fire on the occupied positions, freely shelled the horse lines of the reserve regiment along the Auja, and at times inflicting severe casualties.
The gun was deployed north-west of the British Empire line in the valley and shelled Ghoraniyeh, Jericho, and other back areas at a range of some . This long-range gun was also reported firing from well disguised positions in the hills east of the Jordan River on British Empire camps and horse lines, with the benefit of reports from German Taube aircraft, with a black iron cross under each wing. The gun could fire at targets over away; on one occasion shelling Jericho, after which the gun was called "Jericho Jane." At the end of the war when this gun was captured, it was found to have been about long and the pointed high explosive shells and their charge-cases were nearly long. In July two more guns of a similar calibre were deployed in about the same position; north-west of the British Empire line in the valley.
Ottoman artillery – July reinforcements.
The Ottoman forces in the hills overlooking the Jordan Valley received considerable artillery reinforcement early in July, and pushed a number of field guns and heavy howitzers southwards, east of the Jordan, and commenced a systematic shelling of the troops. Camps and horse lines had to be moved and scattered about in sections in most inconvenient situations along the bottoms of small wadis running down from the ridge into the plain. The whole of the Wadis el Auja and Nueiameh was under the enemy's observation either from Red Hill and other high ground east of the Jordan or from the foothills west and north-west of Abu Tellul, and took full advantage of this to shell watering places almost every day even though the drinking places were frequently changed. Every effort was made to distract their attention by shelling their foothills positions vigorously, during the hours when horses were being watered. But the dense clouds of dust raised by even the smallest parties of horses on the move, generally gave the game away, and the men and horses were constantly troubled by enemy artillery and numerous times severe casualties were suffered by these watering units.
Air support.
April and May.
No 1 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps moved forward in the last week of April from Mejdel to a new aerodrome outside Ramleh to focus on the Nablus area. Reconnaissance on 7 May over the "horse-shoe" road, reported the state of all camps and discovered seven more hangars on the western of the two aerodromes at Jenin. During the return trip, two Albatros scouts over Tul Keram were force down.
Two days later on 9 May, nine British aircraft dropped nearly a ton of bombs at Jenin, destroying the surface of the landing strip and set fire to several aircraft hangars. The German No. 305 Squadron suffered damage to a number of their aircraft, but a Rumpler fought a British aircraft over Jenin aerodrome. The British also bombed the railway station at Jenin.
On 13 May nearly 200 photographs were taken by four aircraft which systematically covered the Jisr ed Damieh region, enabling a new map to be drawn. Aerial photographs were also used for new maps of Es Salt and the Samaria–Nablus region and on 8 June the first British reconnaissance of Haifa, examined the whole coast up to that place. Regular reconnaissances took place over Tul Keram, Nablus and Messudie railway stations and the Lubban–road camps on 11 and 12 June when numerous aerial engagements took place; the Bristol Fighter proving superior to the German Rumpler.
June.
German aircraft often flew over the British Empire lines at the first light and were particularly interested in the Jericho and lower Jordan area where on 9 June a highflying Rumpler, was forced to land near Jisr ed Damieh, after fighting and striving during five minutes of close combat at 16,000 feet to get the advantage of the Australian pilots. These dawn patrols also visited the Lubban–road sector of the front (north of Jerusalem on the Nablus road) and the coast sector.
Increasingly the air supremacy won in May and June was used to the full with British squadrons flying straight at enemy formations whenever they were sighted while the opposition often fought only if escape seemed impracticable. The close scouting of the Australian pilots which had become a daily duty was, on the other side, utterly impossible for these German airmen who often flew so high that it is likely their reconnaissances lacked detail; owing to the heat haze over the Jordan Valley, Australian airmen found reconnaissance even at 10,000 feet difficult.
This new found British and Australian confidence led to successful machine gun attacks on Ottoman ground–troops which were first successfully carried out during the two Transjordan operations in March and April. They inflicted demoralising damage on infantry, cavalry, and transport alike as at the same time as German airmen became more and more disinclined to fly. British and Australian pilots in bombing formations first sought out other enemy to fight; they were quickly followed by ordinary reconnaissance missions when rest camps and road transport in the rear became targets for bombs and machine guns.
In mid-June British squadrons, escorted by Bristol Fighters, made three bomb raids on the El Kutrani fields dropping incendiary bombs as well as high explosives bombs, causing panic among Bedouin reapers and Ottoman cavalry which scattered, while the escorting Australians lashed with machine-gun fire the unusually busy El Kutrani railway station and a nearby train. While British squadrons were disrupted the Moabite harvest gangs, bombing raids from No. 1 Squadron were directed against the grain fields in the Mediterranean sector. On the same day of the El Kutrani raid; 16 June the squadron sent three raids, each of two machines, with incendiary bombs against the crops about Kakon, Anebta, and Mukhalid. One of the most successful dropped sixteen fire-bombs in fields and among haystacks, set them alight, and machine gunned the workers.
July.
Daily observations of the regions around Nablus (headquarters of the Ottoman 7th Army) and Amman (on the Hedjaz railway) were required at this time to keep a close watch on the German and Ottoman forces' troop movements. There were several indications of increased defensive preparations on the coastal sector; improvements were made to the Afule to Haifa railway and there was increased road traffic all over this district while the trench system near Kakon was not being maintained. The smallest details of roads and tracks immediately opposite the British front and crossings of the important Nahr Iskanderun were all carefully observed.
Flights were made down the Hedjaz railway on 1 July to El Kutrani where the camp and aerodrome were strafed with machine gun fire by Australians and on 6 July at Jauf ed Derwish they found the garrison working to repair their defences and railway culverts, after the destruction of the bridges over the Wady es Sultane to the south by the Hedjaz Arabs, which cut their railway communications. When Jauf ed Derwish station north of Maan was reconnoitred, the old German aerodrome at Beersheba was used as an advance landing-ground. Also on 6 July aerial photographs were taken of the Et Tire area near the sea for the map makers. Two days later Jauf ed Derwish was bombed by a British formation which flew over Maan and found it strongly garrisoned. No. 1 Squadron's patrols watched the whole length of the railway during the first fortnight of July; on 13 July a convoy of 2,000 camels south of Amman escorted by 500 cavalry, moving south towards Kissir was machine gunned scattering the horses and camels, while three more Bristol Fighters attacked a caravan near Kissir on the same day; Amman was attacked several days later.
Several aerial combats occurred over Tul Keram, Bireh, Nablus and Jenin on 16 July and attacked a transport column of camels near Arrabe, a train north of Ramin and three Albatros scouts aircraft on the ground at Balata aerodrome. Near Amman 200 cavalry and 2,000 camels which had been attacked a few days previously, were again attacked, and two Albatros scouts were destroyed during aerial combat over the Wady el Auja.
On 22 July Australian pilots destroyed a Rumpler during a dawn patrol south west of Lubban after aerial combat and on 28 July two Bristol Fighters piloted by Australians fought two Rumpler aircraft from over the outskirts of Jerusalem to the upper Wady Fara; another Rumpler was forced down two days later.
On 31 July a reconnaissance was made from Nablus over the Wady Fara to Beisan where they machine gunned a train and a transport park near the station. Then they flew north to Semakh machine gunning troops near the railway station and aerodrome before flying back over Jenin aerodrome. During the period of almost daily patrols almost 1,000 aerial photographs were taken from Nablus and Wady Fara up to Beisan and from Tul Keram north covering nearly . Enemy troops, roads and traffic were regularly attacked even by photography patrols when flying low to avoid enemy anti-aircraft fire.
August.
On 5 August the camps along the Wady Fara were counted and small cavalry movements over Ain es Sir were noted, chased down an Albatros scout and returning over the Wady Fara machine gunned a column of infantry and some camels; these camps were harassed a few days later. A formation of six new Pfalz scouts was first encountered over Jenin aerodrome on 14 August when it was found they were inferior to the Bristol aircraft in climbing ability and all six were forced after aerial combat to land. Rumpler aircraft were successfully attacked on 16 and 21 August and on 24 August a determined attack by eight German aircraft on two Bristol Fighters defending the British air screen between Tul Keram and Kalkilieh was defeated and four of the enemy aircraft were destroyed.
Medical support.
In May the Anzac Field Laboratory was established north west of Jericho in the foothills. Shortly after, on 10 May the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance relieved the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade Field Ambulance when daily shade temperatures in the ambulance tents were recorded between going as high as . On Friday 31 May 1918 it was in the operating tent and outside in the shade. That night was close, hot and still until a wind blew clouds of dust between 02:00 and 08:00 smothered everything.
In the five weeks between 2 May and 8 June 616 sick men (one third of the 4th Light Horse Brigade) were evacuated from the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance. During the same period, the field ambulance treated almost an equal number of patients needing dressings and for minor ailments. Some were kept in hospital for a few days. In five weeks, the field ambulance cared for the equivalent of two regiments or two-thirds of the total brigade. According to Falls, "in general, however, the Force's standard of health was very high." These minor ailments included very painful boils which were inevitable in the dust, heat and sweat of the Jordan Valley. They often started where shirt collars rubbed the backs of necks, then spread to the top of the head and possibly the arm pits and buttocks. These boils were treated by lancing or hot foments sometimes applied hourly and requiring a day or two in hospital. Foments were made from a wad of lint wrapped in a towel heated in boiling water, wrung as dry as possible then quickly slapped straight on the boil. Other maladies suffered during the occupation included dysentery, a few cases of enteric, relapsing fever, typhus, and smallpox along with sand-fly fever.
Malaria.
Malaria struck during the week of 24 to 30 May and although a small percentage of men seemed to have an inbuilt resistance, many did not and the field ambulances had their busiest time ever when a very high percentage of troops got malaria; one field ambulance treated about 1,000 patients at this time.
From May onwards an increasing numbers of soldiers were struck down by malaria. Both Plasmodium vivar (benign tertian) and Plasmodium fakiparum (malignant tertian), along with a few quartan forms of the infection were reported in spite of "determined, well-organised, and scientifically controlled measures of prevention."
Minor cases of malaria are kept at the field ambulance for two or three days in the hospital tents, and then sent back to their units. More serious cases, including all the malignant ones, were evacuated as soon as possible, after immediate treatment. All cases got one or more injections of quinine. Between 15 May and 24 August, the 9th and 11th Light Horse Regiments, participated in a quinine trial. Every man in one squadron of each of the two regiments was given five grains of quinine daily by mouth and the remainder none. During the trial 10 cases of malaria occurred in the treated squadrons while 80 occurred in the untreated men giving a ratio of 1:2.3 cases.
Ice began to be delivered daily by motor lorry from Jerusalem to treat the bad cases of malignant malaria; it travelled in sacks filled with sawdust, and with care lasted for 12 hours or more. Patients in the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance were as a result, given iced drinks which to them, appeared incredible. When a serious case arrived with a temperature of ice wrapped in lint was packed all round his body to practically freeze him; his temperature was taken every minute or so and, in about 20 minutes, when his temperature may have dropped to normal he was wrapped, shivering in a blanket, when the tent temperature was well over , and evacuated by motor ambulance to hospital in Jerusalem, before the next attack.
One such evacuee was 42-year-old trooper A. E. Illingworth, who had landed at Suez in January 1917. He joined the 4th Light Horse Regiment at Ferry Post on 3 March 1917 from Moascar training camp, and was in the field until 8 June 1918, when he became ill from pyrexia and was admitted to the 31st General Hospital, Abbassia on 15 June. After treatment he rejoined his regiment on 20 July at Jericho and remained in the field until returning to Australia on the "Essex" on 15 June 1919. He died five years later.
Evacuation from Jordan Valley to Cairo hospital.
For the wounded and sick the trip to base hospital in Cairo away was a long and difficult one during which it was necessary for them to negotiate many stages.
Rest camp.
During the advance from southern Palestine the system of leave to the Australian Mounted Division's Rest Camp at Port Said was stopped. It started again in January 1918, and throughout the occupation of the Jordan Valley quotas averaging about 350 men were sent there every ten days. This gave the men seven days clear rest, in very good conditions.
As a result of the benefits of the Rest Camp on the beach at Tel el Marakeb demonstrated before the Third Battle of Gaza, Desert Mounted Corps established an Ambulance Rest Station in the grounds of a monastery at Jerusalem. This was staffed by personnel from the immobile sections of Corps ambulances. Tents and mattresses and food extras were provided along with games, amusements, and comforts supplied by the Australian Red Cross. The men sent to this rest camp, included those run down or debilitated after minor illnesses. The troops were housed in conditions which were as different as possible from the ordinary regimental life.
Return trip from rest camp to the Jordan.
The return journey was very different from coming down in a hospital train as a draft usually travelled at night, in practically open trucks with about 35 men packed into each truck including all their kits, rifles, 48 hours' rations, and a loaded bandolier. They would arrive at Ludd in the morning after a sleepless night in a bumping, clanking train where they would have time for a wash and a scratch meal before moving on by train to Jerusalem where the draft would be accommodated for perhaps a night or two at the Desert Mounted Corps rest camp, or so from the station. From there they would be despatched in motor lorries down the hill to Jericho, where led horses would be sent in some miles, from the brigade bivouac, to meet them and carry them back to their units.
Reliefs.
Relief of the Anzac Mounted Division.
On 16 May two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were relieved of their duties in the Jordan Valley and ordered two weeks rest in the hills near Bethlehem. The division trekked up the winding white road, which ran between Jericho and Jerusalem, stopping at Talaat Ed Dum, a dry, dusty bivouac near the Good Samaritan's Inn where, Lieutenant General Chauvel, commander of the Jordan Valley sector, had his headquarters beside the Jericho road about to the east. The brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division remained there until 29 May the following morning moved through Bethany, skirted the walls of the Holy City, and through modern Jerusalem and out along the Hebron road to a bivouac site in the cool mountain air at Solomon's Pools about halfway between Jerusalem and Hebron. Only the 1st Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade left the Jordan Valley at this time; the 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained; they left the valley for Solomon's Pools on 5 June and returned on 22 June.
Jerusalem tourists.
Even when nominally 'resting' a trooper's time was never his own. Horse-pickets still had to do their turn every night, guards, pumping parties for watering the horses and endless other working parties had to be supplied. The horses were watered twice a day at the "Pools of Solomon", great oblong cisterns of stone, some hundreds of feet long, which were still in good condition. The pumps were worked by the pumping parties on a ledge in one of the cisterns pushing the water up into the canvas troughs above, where the horses were brought in groups. The hand-pumps and canvas troughs were carried everywhere, and where water was available were quickly erected.
During their stay at Solomon's Pools the men attended a celebration of the King's Birthday on 3 June, when a parade was held in Bethlehem and the inhabitants of Bethlehem were invited to attend. They erected a triumphal arch decorated with flowers and flags and inscribed: "Bethlehem Municipality Greeting on the Occasion of the Birthday of His Majesty King George V" at the entrance to the square, in front of the Church of the Nativity.
While at Solomon's Pools, most of the men got the opportunity of seeing Jerusalem where many photographs of historical spots were taken and sent home. Some gained the impression that the light horsemen and mounted riflemen were having some sort of a "Cook's tour". Naturally most of the photos were taken during these short rest periods as the long months of unending work and discomfort gave rare opportunities or inclinations for taking photos.
Return of the Anzac Mounted Division.
On 13 June the two brigades moved out to return via Talaat ed Dumm to Jericho, reaching their bivouac area in the vicinity of the Ain es Duk on 16 June. Here a spring gushes out a mass of stones in an arid valley and within a few yards became a full flowing stream of cool and clear water, giving a flow of some per day. Part of this stream ran across a small valley along a beautiful, perfectly preserved, Roman arched aqueduct of three tiers.
For the rest of June, while the Australian Mounted Division was at Solomon's Pools, the Anzac Mounted Division held the left sector of the defences, digging trenches and regularly patrolling the area including occasional encounters with enemy patrols.
Relief of the Australian Mounted Division.
The relief of the Australian Mounted Division by the Anzac Mounted Division was ordered on 14 June and by 20 June the command of the left sector of the Jordan Valley passed to the commander of the Anzac Mounted Division from the commander of the Australian Mounted Division who took over command of all troops at Solomon's Pools. Over several days the 3rd Light Horse, 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades were relieved of their duties and sent to Bethlehem for a well earned rest.
The 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance moved out at 17:00 on Sunday 9 June in a terrific storm and three hours later arrived at Talaat ed Dumm halfway to Jerusalem where they spent a couple of days; it was exactly six weeks since the brigade had first gone to the Jordan Valley.
On Thursday 13 June the Field Ambulance packed up and moved onto the Jerusalem road at about 18:00 travelling on the very steep up-hill road till 23:00; on the way picking up four patients. They rested till 01.30 on Friday, before going on to arrive at Jerusalem, about 06:00, then on to Bethlehem, and two miles beyond, reached Solomon's Pools by 09:00. Here the three huge rock-lined reservoirs, built by King Solomon about 970 BC to supply water by aqueducts to Jerusalem, were still in reasonable repair as were the aqueducts which were still supplying about 40,000 gallons of water a day to Jerusalem.
Here in the uplands near Solomon's Pools, the sunny days were cool, and at night men who had suffered sleepless nights on the Jordan enjoyed the mountain mists and the comfort of blankets. The Australian Mounted Division Train accompanied the division Bethlehem to repair the effects of the Jordan Valley on men, animals and wagons.
Return of the Australian Mounted Division.
Desert Mounted Corps informed the Australian Mounted Division at 10:00 on Friday 28 June that an attempt was to be made by the enemy to force a crossing over the Jordan in the area south of the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead. The division packed up quickly and began its return journey the same day at 17:30; the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance arriving at Talaat ed Dumm or the Samaritan's Inn at 15:00 on Saturday 29 June 1918. And at dusk on Sunday 30 June the division moved out and travelled till midnight then bivouacked back in the Jordan Valley, just three weeks after leaving.
On Monday 1 July 4 Light Horse Brigade "stood to" all day near Jericho until 20:00, when in the dark, they moved northwards about to a position in a gully between two hills, just behind the front line. The horses were picqueted and the men turned in about 23:00. Next morning the whole camp was pitched, the field ambulance erecting their hospital and operating tents, and horse lines were put down and everything was straightened up. The weather was still very hot but the daily early morning parade continued, followed by all the horses being taken to water. It was necessary to go about , to water and back, through terrible dust, which naturally the horses churned up so that it was difficult to see the horse in front. The men wore goggles and handkerchiefs over their mouths to keep out some of the dust, but it was a long, dusty, hot trip.
Each day during the middle of summer in July, the dust grew deeper and finer, the heat more intense and the stagnant air heavier and sickness and sheer exhaustion became more pronounced, and it was noticed that the older men were better able to resist the distressing conditions. Shell-fire and snipers caused casualties which were, if not heavy, a steady drain on the Australian and New Zealand forces, and when men were invalided, the shortage of reinforcements necessitated bringing them back to the valley before their recovery was complete.
Daily mounted patrols were undertaken during which skirmishes and minor actions often occurred, while the bridgeheads remained contested ground. A small fleet of armed launches patrolled the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, also providing a link with the Prince Feisal's Sherifial force. Many men were wounded while on patrol during tours of duty.
During the height of summer in the heat, the still atmosphere, and the dense clouds of dust, there was constant work associated with the occupation; getting supplies, maintaining sanitation as well as front line duties which was usually active. The occupation force was persistently shelled in advanced positions on both sides of the river, as well as at headquarters in the rear.
From mid July, after the action of Abu Tellul, both sides confined themselves to artillery activity, and to patrol work, in which the Indian Cavalry, excelled.
Relief and return of the Anzac Mounted Division.
The Anzac Mounted Division was in the process of returning to the Jordan Valley during 16–25 August after its second rest camp at Solomon's Pools which began at the end of July – beginning of August.
Australian Mounted Division move out of the valley.
On 9 August the division was ordered to leave the Jordan Valley exactly six weeks after returning from Solomon's Pools in July and 12 weeks since they first entered the valley. They moved across Palestine in three easy stages of about each, via Talaat ed Dumm, Jerusalem and Enab to Ludd, about from Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast; each stage beginning about 20:00 in the evening and completed before dawn to avoid being seen by enemy reconnaissance aircraft. They arrived at Ludd about midnight on 14/15 August; pitched their tents in an olive orchard and put down horse lines. The following day camps were established; paths were made and gear in transport wagons unloaded and stored.
Final days of occupation.
From the departure of the Australian Mounted Division steps were taken to make it appear that the valley was still fully garrisoned. These included building a bridge in the valley and infantry were marched into the Jordan Valley by day, driven out by motor lorry at night, and marched back in daylight over and over again and 15,000 dummy horses were made of canvas and stuffed with straw and every day mules dragged branches up and down the valley (or the same horses were ridden backwards and forwards all day, as if watering) to keep the dust in thick clouds. Tents were left standing and 142 fires were lit each night.
On 11 September, the 10th Cavalry Brigade including the Scinde Horse, left the Jordan Valley. They marched via Jericho, to Talaat de Dumm, then a further to Enab and the following day reached Ramleh on 17 September.
Although the maintenance of so large a mounted force in the Jordan Valley had been expensive as regards the level of fitness and numbers of sick soldiers of the garrison, it was less costly than having to re-take the valley prior to the Battle of Megiddo and the force which continued to garrison the valley played an important part in that battle's strategy.
While considerable numbers of the occupation force suffered from malaria and the heat and dust were terrible, the occupation paved the way for Allenby's successful Battle of Megiddo in September 1918.


Battle honours of South Africa

South Africa follows the British system of awarding battle honours to military units, to recognise the battles, theatres and campaigns in which they have fought with distinction.
History.
Before the unification of Union of South Africa in 1910, units were largely left to invent their own battle honours. Exceptions were the honours for the Anglo-Zulu War (1879) and the Natal Rebellion (1906), which were authorised by the Natal colonial government in 1909 and 1908 respectively, and the honours for the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), which were authorised by the British authorities.
Many of these units were embodied in the Union Defence Force in 1913. The UDF did not acknowledge their self-assumed battle honours in official publications, e.g. the annual "Officers List", but did not prevent the units from displaying the honours on their Colours. Only in the 1960s were these honours reviewed: many were then approved, but some were disallowed.
Battle honours for World War I (1914–18) were authorised for the UDF and South African Overseas Expeditionary Force units in 1926 and 1927. By then, the SAOEF units had all been disbanded, so they were unable to display them.
In 1937–38, the UDF authorised commando units to bear battle honours for campaigns and operations in which their 19th-century predecessors had fought. As many were later found to be inaccurate, the defence force ruled in 1971 that commandos were no longer to display them.
Battle honours for World War II (1939–45) were authorised for the army, air force, and navy in 1957. Honours for the Korean War (1950–53) were authorised at the same time.
Honours for the Border War (1966–89) and the 1975–76 and 1987–88 Angola campaigns were announced in 1993, but in view of the political transition that followed soon afterwards, it is unclear how many units actually received these honours.
Customs of the services.
SA Army.
In the army, battle honours are granted to mounted, infantry and armoured regiments, which display them on their Regimental Colours. Traditionally, the artillery are not granted honours, but an exception was made for them for World War I. Some infantry regiments which were converted to artillery after World War II were not allowed to display their honours, or to receive World War II honours, until after they had been converted back to infantry (or armour) in the 1960s.
The battle honours of a regiment which has been disbanded become dormant until such time – if ever – as it is re-formed, or another regiment is officially recognised as its successor. An example is the South African Cape Corps, formed in 1973, which was allowed the honours won by the 1st Battalion, Cape Corps in World War I.
The honours of a regiment which is divided into two or more battalions are transferred to the new battalions, which can thereafter earn their own individual honours. In this way, Regiment Vrystaat, formed in 1975 as a second battalion of Regiment President Steyn, and later a regiment in its own right, bears the battle honours which RPS won in World War II. Conversely, if a multi-battalion regiment is later reduced to a single battalion, the honours of all the former battalions are combined and transferred to the surviving unit.
SA Air Force.
In the air force, battle honours are granted only to flying squadrons, which display them on their Squadron Colours. If a squadron is disbanded, its honours become dormant, but if it is re-formed (i.e. a new squadron is given the same number as the disbanded unit), the honours are revived and granted to the successor squadron.
SA Navy.
In the navy, battle honours are granted only to seagoing vessels, which display them on plaques. The honours are linked to the ships' names, so that if a ship is taken out of commission, and a later ship is given the same name, she inherits the honours earned by her predecessor(s). As none of the World War II ship names are currently in use, the navy's battle honours are effectively dormant.
SA Military Health Service.
Medical units do not usually receive battle honours, but an exception was made for them in World War I.
On 20 February 2014 7 Medical Battalion Group was awarded battle honours to be displayed on the unit colours for the first time for its participation in the Battle of Bangui in the Central African Republic during March 2013.
SA Police.
The former South African Police (1913–95) had a strong military tradition, which included fielding active service contingents in World Wars I and II, and conducting counter-insurgency operations in southern Africa in the 1960s and 1970s. Police units earned several battle honours, which were displayed on the Colour of the police force from 1971 until 1994. As the SAP as such no longer exists, its honours are presumably now dormant.
See also.
List of South African Battle Honours


Gertrude (code name)

The Gertrude or Gertrud was the code name of the joint invasion plan for Turkey by Nazi Germany and Kingdom of Bulgaria, the idea began forming in the beginning of the summer of 1942. This code name was eventually changed.
The project was abandoned because of the rapid advance of the Red Army in the Caucasus region, and the Allied invasion of Sicily.


Pedro Antonio de Cevallos

Pedro Antonio de Cevallos Cortés y Calderón, also spelled Ceballos (29 June 1715 – 26 December 1778), was a Spanish military Governor of Buenos Aires between 1757 and 1766, and the first Viceroy of the Río de la Plata in 1776.
Biography.
Pedro Antonio de Cevallos was born in Cádiz, and came from a renowned Cantabrian family.
He is best remembered for conquering the Colonia de Sacramento twice : in his first expedition in 1762–1763 during and in the aftermath of the defeated Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762), and in his second expedition in 1776–1777 during the Spanish–Portuguese War, 1776–1777.
On 12 October 1776 he sailed with an army from Cadiz, and spent the Southern Hemisphere summer in Buenos Aires, where he had been appointed Viceroy. On 22 April 1777 he landed in Montevideo with a force of 9316 men. He then marched to Colonia del Sacramento, a disputed Portuguese city in present-day Uruguay, which surrendered almost immediately. He then marched towards Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, conquered Santa Catarina island, but received word from a treaty having been signed between Spain and Portugal and turned back.
He then returned to Buenos Aires where he reassumed the post of Viceroy on 15 October 1777. He introduced the Law of free Commerce of 1778, which allowed Buenos Aires to trade directly with Spain, instead of being forced to trade by way of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He also forbid to move silver out of the limits of the Viceroyalty. This law gave a boost to the development of Buenos Aires. He promoted agriculture and the commerce of slaves.
He died on 26 December 1778 in the Capuchin Convent of Córdoba (Spain), where he was staying on his way to the Spanish Court. He was buried in the Cordoba Cathedral in a sumptuous ceremony, a memorable event in the city's history.
He was married to María Luisa Pinto y Ortega. His son Pedro Antonio de Ceballos Pinto was Agriculture Minister of Argentine general Martín Miguel de Güemes when he was governor of Salta. His sister "Antonia de Cevallos Cortés Hoyos y Calderón" received from King Charles III after his death the title of "Marchioness de la Colonia".


South African Light Horse

The South African Light Horse regiment of the British Army were raised in Cape Colony in 1899 and disbanded in 1907.
The commanding officer tasked with raising the regiment was Major (locally a Lieutenant Colonel) the Honourable Julian Byng (10th Hussars) who would go on to rise to the rank of Field Marshal).
The future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill served as a lieutenant in the SALH from January to July 1900.
Relief of Ladysmith.
The regiment was formed in November 1899, just one month after the start of the Second Boer War, and by December of that year 8 squadrons had been raised from Uitlanders. They were largely financed by Wernher-Beit & co. and together with the Imperial Light Horse they effectively formed a Uitlander army. A small portion were used to protect the railway line to De Aar but they mostly served as a part of the Mounted Brigade of the Natal Field Force under Lieutenant-General Douglas Cochrane the 12th Earl of Dundonald, taking part in the relief of the besieged town of Ladysmith.
The Boers had encircled Ladysmith trapping a force of 13,000 British troops under the command of Lieutenant General Sir George White inside (along with separate sieges in Mafeking and Kimberley). The relief effort was dispatched from Cape Town under the command of General Sir Redvers Buller and by early December 1899 this 20,000 strong relieving army was arriving just south of the river Tugela.
Battle of Colenso.
Buller launched his first major offensive against the Boer lines across the Tugela river on 15 December 1899 and the 3 squadrons of the SALH along with the rest of Dundonald's Mounted Brigade were aligned to cover the right flank of the battle formation. Their orders were to "endeavour to take up a position on Hlangwane Hill", a task in which they made good progress but eventually they were pinned down and lacking any chance of infantry reinforcement they were ordered by the General to withdraw.
Battle of Spion Kop.
The attack on Colenso having failed Buller moved the focus of his army, now swollen to 30,000 men with the addition of Sir Charles Warren's division, to the west in January 1900. The target was to break through on the enemy's right flank for which they would discover they would need to capture and hold a 430 meter high hill called Spion Kop. A portion of the SALH remained at Chieveley with Major General Geoffrey Barton whose orders were to entrench there and protect the head of the communications line, but 4 squadrons moved westward with Dundonald.
On 11 January the Earl of Dundonald's Mounted Division which comprised approximately 3000 Cavalry marched to Pretorius's Farm, the South African Light Horse were tasked with protecting the baggage column but they reached their objective by noon. With the exception of the Royal Dragoons the cavalry now advanced to seize a bridge across the Little Tugela River at Springfield, which when they arrived they found unoccupied and none of the patrols found any Boers in the area. With some encouragement from his subordinates Dundonald decided to exceed his orders and push on towards the heights above Potgieter's Ferry which they reached around 6 pm to find an already fortified position left unguarded and unoccupied. They named their new position Spearman's Hill and sent back a request for urgent reinforcements. Next day six volunteers of the SALH led by Lieutenant Carlisle swam across the river to capture the ferry and brought the punt back to their side. Churchill described this as a "dashing exploit of which the regiment... are immensely proud" in his book "London to Ladysmith via Pretoria". On the 13th their position was strengthened by the arrival of two battalions of Lyttelton's 4th brigade and Sir Redvers Buller established his headquarters in this camp.
It took almost another week for the rest of the army to get into position and all the while the Boers were preparing their defence. During this period Colonel Byng took 2 squadrons to the top of a high hill overlooking a road from Colenso to Potgieter's and there attacked five Boer Ox wagons laden with supplies but they escaped. The SALH also went to support a patrol of Bethune's Mounted Infantry that needed to be extricated.
On 17 January Dundonald's Mounted Division with the exception of Bethune's crossed Waggon drift where a Trooper of the 13th Hussars was accidentally drowned. The next day the cavalry set out to discover the western flank of the Boer lines with the Composite Regiment at the head of the column who just after midday were able to ambush a column of about 200 Boers near Acton Homes and successfully trapped about 40 of them. A squadron of the SALH joined in reinforcing the attack and by dusk the Boers surrendered.
Warren's main attack started on 20 January and Lord Dundonald ordered Colonel Byng to seize a hill which they subsequently named Bastion Hill. Byng sent two squadrons of the SALH unmounted to ascend the hill while the remaining squads gave covering fire with rifles and 3 machine guns but they had no artillery support. Major Childe successfully lead the attack as the Boers fled from the summit however, just like at Spion Kop the crest of the hill was exposed to the enemy artillery and Childe was killed by a fragment from an exploding shell. They were relieved that night by 2 companies of the Queen's Royal (West Surrey) Regiment.
Spion Kop was attacked and held between the 23–24 but ultimately the whole force retreated back across the Tugela River.
Battle of Vaal Krantz.
In the battle of Vaal Krantz (5 to 7 February) Lyttelton's brigade successfully captured and occupied the Vaal Krantz ridge but it was deemed unsuitable for the British artillery and further progress without artillery support would be difficult and therefore, another withdrawal was ordered. The regular Cavalry led by Colonel John Burn-Murdoch (1st The Royal Dragoons), were to cover the left flank while the irregulars (including the SALH) were to cover the right flank and rear.
Battle of Tugela Heights.
Even as they withdrew from the Vaal Krantz attack, moving the army back to Chievely, plans were being made for the next attempt and on 12 February Dundonald's brigade were sent to thoroughly reconnoitre a feature called Hussar Hill (so called because a small post of the 13th Hussars had been surprised on it 6 weeks earlier and had 2 men killed). The mounted irregulars took with them a Colt Battery, the 1st Battalion Royal Welch Fusiliers and a battery of Field Artillery, and they successfully occupied the hill giving Sir Redvers Buller the opportunity to reconnaissance the ground until they were ordered to withdraw at 1 pm. As they were making their way back to Chieveley they were forced to engage in a fierce rear guard action in which a young Lieutenant John Spencer-Churchill of the SALH was shot through the leg. Two days later the SALH were back as the advanced party to occupy the hill permanently, once again being backed up by the Welch Fusiliers and eventually by 3 whole infantry brigades and artillery.
The next two days were fought out by the artillery of both sides but on the 17th the general attack began on Cingolo Ridge and Monte Cristo Ridge. Dundonald's mounted brigade left at day break to ride 10 miles east of Hussar Hill through rough and broken terrain eventually turning to ascend the eastern slope of Cingolo hill and thus coming up on the far right flank of the Boer's defences. As two squadrons began to clear the hill they were supported by the Queen's Royal Regiment of Hildyard's infantry brigade and the rest of the cavalry descended into the plain of the far side of the ridge to chase the retreating enemy. The following day Hildyard's brigade seized Monte Cristo Ridge and the irregular cavalry rushed forward to occupy its eastern spur. Green hill and Hlangwani hill would fall next.
The cavalry now had to wait as the infantry and guns fought a hard action across the Tugela firstly against the Boer's Pieters position then later by a flanking manoeuvre along the Hlangwani plateau.
Orange River Colony.
In the second phase of the war the regiment were mostly employed in the Orange River Colony.


Virginia War Memorial

The Virginia War Memorial is a 1955 memorial in Richmond, Virginia, originally dedicated to Virginians killed in World War II and the Korean War. In 1980, the Shrine was enlarged to honor those Virginians killed in action in the Vietnam War. In 1996, the names of Virginians killed in action during Desert Storm/Desert Shield were added. Today, there are nearly 12,000 Virginians whose names are engraved on the Shrine of Memory's glass and stone walls. Reflecting the different character of war today, Virginia has created a special Memorial Shrine to honor the over 250 Virginians killed in the Global War on Terrorism.
The "Virginians at War" documentary video series, combined with other efforts, significantly increased the War Memorial's public image in the local region and throughout the Commonwealth, and highlighted the message of the "Price of Freedom". The Memorial added staff and volunteers to meet the increasing demand for its educational offerings and to assist with increased visitors to the Memorial.
With over 21,000 people from 45 states and 21 countries visiting the War Memorial in 2008, the facilities were stretched to the breaking point. Some groups would be turned away and individual visitors could not be provided educational support because the single auditorium could not support multiple groups for education and meetings. The Memorial is also used by active military personnel for events such as homecomings, re-enlistments, and promotions.
To alleviate the increasing demand on the facilities, an education center was planned to expand the educational opportunities and outreach for students and visitors, and to provide adequate visitor services. A bold design was created to add an 18,000 square foot education center that would provide the needed space to accommodate multiple groups for educational and patriotic programs as well as the casual tourist who is exploring one of Virginia's treasures.
Mission.
The Virginia War Memorial is the Commonwealth of Virginia's monument to honor the memory of Virginia's men and women who demonstrated a willingness to serve and fight to defend our way of life from World War II to the present; and through its Education Center, serves as the Center of Excellence for the Commonwealth in education of Virginian's experience of war from the birth of our nation to the present. In its educational mission, the Virginia War Memorial will project a variety of internal and outreach programs, artifacts, research materials, Virginians at War documentaries, exhibitions, seminars, and ceremonies will be used to instill a living memorial to all citizens and citizen-warriors of the nation's commitment to freedom.
"Honoring our Veterans, Preserving our History, Educating our Youth, and Inspiring Patriotism in All."
Paul and Phyllis Galanti Education Center.
In October 2007, the Memorial Trustees and Directors announced the Center would be named for two American heroes, Paul and Phyllis Galanti. Each has served the United States beyond the call of duty during and since the Vietnam War.
By educating this and future generations, the Commonwealth and its citizens have created a lasting tribute to the state's sons and daughters who have served our great country. The Paul and Phyllis Galanti Education Center intends that their sacrifice and service protecting ours and others freedoms will never be forgotten.
Visiting Virginia War Memorial.
Visiting Virginia War Memorial can be breathtaking. As you walked through the front doors you see a display cabinet full of battle coins in the memory of Claiborne G. Thomasson for his dedication and leadership in United States Air Force 1963-1969. As you are looking around you will see a room with displays from all the wars. There is display information for the American Revolution War, Mexican War, American Civil War, Spanish American War, World War I, and World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam War. Each one had a time line from when it started and major events in between, and when it ended.
The set-up is very beautiful and very informative. There are also words hanging from the ceiling, which read: Sacrifice, Integrity, Discipline, Patriotism, Duty, Courage, and Loyalty. Those are all the qualities that you need to be a part of the army. Each word had the definition behind it. There are also small displays of each war with uniforms and weapons and information talking about the war. There is a bulletin that was letters from the battlefield; soldiers from every conflict feel a mixture of emotions while far away from their loved ones.
Reading one of the letters and it said; his name was Mike and he was writing a letter to his mom, dad and Erin. He basically was saying how God was protecting him and his unit. They didn’t have major injuries, and he also said he prays that the war comes to an end soon so he can get out of that miserable place and come back home to his family. It was very heart felt. There were many more letters on the wall. You can also go outside to see the Veterans Impact Project, which was a sculpture of various items that were symbolic to veterans and community members.
The objects were cast into rubber, creating a wall of clay. The sculpture was molded into three sections and in front of them were honored veterans panels, with their names, rank, branch and years they served. There is a huge wall with writing on it. It was names of soldiers that gave their lives in World War II, Persian Gulf, Vietnam and Korea. Then is also a huge statue of a lady name Memory. There is also a theater called the Reynolds Theater where you can watch information about the wars. They had a conference room, which was called Darrell J. Schumann.
They had a Research Library, a display of guns and uniforms from the National Guard in World War I. They also had a piece of the West Wall of the Pentagon. On September 11, 2001, five terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 and intentionally crashed the plan into the west wall of the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, at 9:37 a.m. All sixty-four persons on the flight and 125 persons at the Pentagon were killed. The artifact is a section of the wall from the crash site. The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt and restored in 2002.
The exhibit honors and remembers those Americans. The next room which was the Freedom Hall, which has the Wall of Honor; Virginia’s Heroes of the Global War on Terrorism. It had their pictures, rank, where they are from, where they served. The room is filled with a lot of pictures. It also has a display of Women in Naval Aviation, there were pictures and uniforms and helmets. They were talking about Kathy Purdy Owens and Marti Bissell. So, there is one more thing that is very interesting. It was called Russell’s Flight, which they had and Airplane on display in the ceiling with a little man on the back of it.
Russell served in the Army Air Forces April 17, 1943. He was flying when he received a direct hit from ant-aircraft fire. The pilot ordered all the crewmen to bail out of the damaged Wabbits Twacks. Russell found that his escape door jammed and returned to the tail of the plane to release the tail gun dome. He climbed on the rear wing and held tight, and then he let go. Tumbling through space and releasing his chute. He fell backward and the impact broke his back. He was captured by the German soldiers and spent 11 months in the German Prisoner of War camp. On his 95th birthday the Virginia War Memorial saluted Russell Scott for his service, and years of being a volunteer at the Memorial. Still to this day, he comes every Wednesday and volunteer at the Virginia War Memorial.


East of Suez

East of Suez is used in British military and political discussions in reference to interests beyond the European theatre, and east of the Suez Canal — most notably the former military base in Singapore — and may or may not include the Middle East. The phrase was popularized by Rudyard Kipling in his 1890 poem "Mandalay". It later became a popular song when a tune was added by Oley Speaks in 1907.
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19th century.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided the shortest ocean link from Britain to the Far East by making the long journey around the Cape of Good Hope unnecessary. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as joint control along with the French over the Suez Canal – which had been described as the “jugular vein of the Empire”.
The canal and the imperial outposts east of the canal were of genuine strategic value to the British Empire and its military infrastructure drew on sea lanes of communication through the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal, alternatively round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and on to East Asia (Brunei, Burma, Malaya, Hong Kong, North Borneo, Sarawak) and Australia.
20th century.
The fall of Singapore to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 damaged the empire as it lost a strategic imperial outpost and laid the seeds of the collapse of British imperial power, post World War II. Then, with Indian independence in 1947, there was a gradual draw-down of the military presence “East of Suez”, marking the collapse of the empire.
The Suez Crisis — a diplomatic and military confrontation in November 1956, caused by the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser — ended in Egypt taking full control of the canal. The economic and military influence of Britain over the region was marginalized, limiting its control over the bases in the Middle East and South East Asia.
In January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary, Denis Healey, announced that British troops would be withdrawn in 1971 from major military bases in South East Asia, "east of Aden", primarily in Malaysia and Singapore as well as the Persian Gulf and the Maldives (both of which are sited in the Indian Ocean), which is when the phrase "East of Suez" entered the vernacular. In June 1970, Edward Heath's government came to power and retained a small political and military commitment to South East Asia through the Five Power Defence Arrangements. Prior to the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China, Britain based several units in Hong Kong.
21st century.
In April 2013, the British think tank the Royal United Services Institute published a report which stated that Britain is in the process of a strategic shift back to an east of Suez position. The report stated that a permanent military presence was being established at Al-Minhad in the United Arab Emirates, by the Royal Air Force, as well as the continuing build of British troops in the Persian Gulf states as Britain begins to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan. Furthermore, the report argued that as Britain begins to relocate its troops from Germany by 2020, the British base in the UAE could become their permanent home.
The think tank went on to explain that as the United States begins to concentrate more on the Asia-Pacific region in its attempt to balance China's rise as a world power, a strategic vacuum would emerge in the Persian Gulf region which was incrementally being filled by Britain. This shift of troops to the UAE coincided with establishment of the Royal Navy's UK Maritime Component Command (UKMCC) in Bahrain. In December, the UK's Chief of Defence Staff Gen Sir David Richards said: "After Afghanistan, the [Persian] Gulf will become our main military effort". Overall this would signal a reversal of Britain's East of Suez withdrawal.
In 2014, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office announced that the UK would expand its naval facilities in Bahrain to support larger Royal Navy ships deployed to the Persian Gulf. HMS "Jufair" is the UK's first permanent military base located East of Suez since it withdrew from the region in 1971. The base will reportedly be large enough to accommodate Type 45 destroyers and Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 stated new British Defence Staffs will be established in the Middle East, Asia Pacific and Africa in 2016. In 2017, the UK Joint Logistics Support Base was established in Oman, followed by a new Omani-British Joint Training Area in 2019.
Britain maintains a Jungle Warfare Training School in Brunei, and a battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles in addition to some aircraft of the Army Air Corps as part of the British Military Garrison Brunei. There is also a small British military presence remaining on Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory, and a refuelling station (manned by Royal Navy personnel) in Sembawang, Singapore, as part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements.


List of conflicts in the United States

This is a list of conflicts in the United States. Conflicts are arranged chronologically from the late modern period to contemporary history. This list includes (but is not limited to) the following: Indian wars, skirmishes, wars of independence, liberation wars, colonial wars, undeclared wars, proxy wars, territorial disputes, and world wars. Also listed might be any battle that was itself only part of an operation of a campaign of a theater of a war. There may also be periods of violent civil unrest listed, such as: riots, shootouts, spree killings, massacres, terrorist attacks, and civil wars. The list might also contain episodes of: human sacrifice, mass suicide, genocides, and other related items that have occurred within the geographical area (including overseas territories) of what is today known as, the "United States of America".
Contemporary history.
20th Century.
This covers conflicts and terrorist attacks in the 1900s that occurred within the modern territory of the United States of America. This also includes attacks upon the United States from Eurasian powers.
21st century.
This includes domestic conflicts and terrorist attacks that took place within the United States. Note that actions of terrorism and domestic conflict are distinguished from one another.


Anthem Veterans Memorial

The Anthem Veterans Memorial is a monument located in Anthem, Arizona which was dedicated in 2011 to honor the sacrifice and service made by members of the United States Armed Forces.
The memorial's five white pillars represent the nation's military branches and are arranged in Department of Defense order of precedence: Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard. Each pillar has an elliptical opening that slants downward toward The Great Seal of the United States. On Veterans Day – November 11 – the design allows the sun's rays to spotlight the Great Seal at 11:11 AM Mountain Standard Time. The design goal was 11:11:11 AM, but the variations each year cause the precise alignment over the next 100 years to be between 11:10:58 and 11:11:22.
Due to the leap years discrepancy between the official and astronomical calendar the effect can be observed at least one day before or after Veterans Day as well.
The award-winning monument is surrounded by 2200 red paving stones engraved with the names of veterans. The red stones, the white pillars and the blue Arizona sky represent the colors in the flag of the United States.
Renee Palmer-Jones created the design for the memorial. The engineer for the memorial was James Martin.
Awards.
Awards include:


Puerto Rican Volunteers Corps

The Puerto Rican Volunteers Corps ("Instituto de Voluntarios de Puerto Rico" in Spanish) was a militia composed of private citizens, principally instituted for the defense of Puerto Rico's periphery from pirate incursions and foreign invasion. In principle, the volunteers were characterized by their unwavering loyalty to the Spanish Crown and Empire, and as such were subject to compulsory membership in the "Partido Incondicionalmente Español" (The Spanish Unconditional Party). However, upon its creation in 1812 the "Partido Incondicional" was exclusive to all but peninsular-born Spaniards (peninsulares), and it was only towards the second half of the century that its rolls were opened to insular-born subjects of European descent (criollos).
Spanish–American War of 1898.
The Volunteer Corps did not fight as a group during the Spanish–American War of 1898, nor did the majority of its approx. 8,000 members assist the regular Spanish Army in its "pro forma" defense of the island. The Corps's conduct during the war was not due to rank rebellion but rather to recalcitrance: a low "esprit de corps" followed the Governor General of Puerto Rico's order to have all Volunteers integrated into the Regular Army without regard to any official rank or distinction they might have held in the Corps. Volunteers, by then consisting largely of the island's mercantile and hacendado elite (e.g., Manuel Egozcue Cintrón, Rafael Janer y Soler, Francisco J. Marxuach, Pompeyo Oliu y Marxuach, Narciso Vall-Llovera Feliu), recoiled at the perceived "injustice" and "indignity" of having to fight alongside men recruited from the lowest rungs of Spanish colonial society. Other—though perhaps less quantifiable—factors contributing to Volunteer inaction were the signal winds of change sweeping over the remnants of Spain's once vast imperial possessions; the Cortes's belated attempts at establishing an autonomist insular government in 1897; Spain's bloody and ineffectual efforts at ending the Ten Years' War; and the U.S.'s undisguised expansionist aims, combined with the contagion of assimilationist and insurrectionist groups operating from within the island and outwards from the U.S.
Additionally, by the time of the US invasion of the island on July 25, 1898, the Voluntarios and indeed most everyone else in Puerto Rico, was well aware that Spain's land and naval forces had surrendered in Cuba and that Admiral Montijo's fleet in the Philippines had been virtually destroyed. Moreover, it was quite evident that Spain's regular army was not putting up much of a fight for Puerto Rico. Accordingly, the Voluntarios (with few exceptions) were not willing to risk injury or death in a war that was in effect, lost. New York's Seventh Volunteer Infantry Regiment also refused to enter the fray. Reportedly, they did not want to serve under regular army officers, particularly those who had graduated from West Point.
Battalions.
In 1898 they were up by a Commanding Officer and staff consists of a commander, three captains, two first lieutenants, four deputies, a doctor and a pharmacist. His active force was formed by 14 infantry battalions and the company on the island of Vieques.
List of battalions in 1897:


Georg Baring

Konrad Ludwig Georg Baring (8 March 1773, Hannover - 27 February 1848, Wiesbaden, during a spa treatment) was an officer in the army of the Electorate of Hanover and the British army's King's German Legion. Some sources also give his name as Baron Georg(e) von Baring.
Life.
To 1815.
Baring's military career began with his joining the Hanoverian army in 1787. In November 1803 (dating the commission to 17 November) he became a brevet major in the "King's Germans" (renamed the King's German Legion on 19 December 1803), a force of which he had been one of the first members. He fought in the campaigns in Hannover (1805, Third Coalition), the Baltic (1807–08, Gunboat War / English Wars), the Pyrenees (1808–13, Peninsular War), the Walcheren Campaign (1809, Fifth Coalition), southern France (1813–14, Sixth Coalition) and the Netherlands (1814, Sixth Coalition). On 16 May 1811 he was slightly wounded at the battle of Albuera. On 18 January 1815 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel.
Waterloo.
At the head of the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion of the Legion, Baring was put in charge of the defence of the farmhouse of La Haye Sainte during the battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. He wrote about the events of the day in a detailed report, which ended with the words:
After Waterloo.
The King's German Legion was dissolved after Waterloo and Baring joined the newly formed army of the Kingdom of Hanover, in which he became oberst in the Garde-Grenadier-Regiment (26 December 1828) and from 1830 as "Flügel-Adjutant" in the general staff. In 1831, the year in which his "Erzählung der Teilnahme des 2. Leichten Bataillons der Kgl. Deutschen Legion an der Schlacht von Waterloo" ("History of the Participation of the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion of the King's German Legion at the Battle of Waterloo") was published in a Hanoverian military journal, he held the rank of "Brigade-Kommandeur". On 18 June 1832, the seventeenth anniversary of Waterloo, he and his descendants were made Freiherrs by William IV (then still king of Hanover) in recognition of his war service and made Hanover's city commander. In 1834 he rose to Generalmajor then in 1846 to Generalleutnant.
Memorials.
A street in Hanover city-centre is named after him and a small memorial stone is dedicated in front of the Hauptstaatsarchiv Hannover near the present-day regional parliament and the former royal palace.