Oregon missionaries

The Oregon missionaries were pioneers who settled in the Oregon Country of North America starting in the 1830s dedicated to bringing Christianity to local Native Americans. There had been missionary efforts prior to this, such as those sponsored by the Northwest Company with missionaries from the Church of England starting in 1819. The Foreign Mission movement was already 15 years underway by 1820, but it was difficult to find missionaries willing to go to Oregon, as many wanted to go to the east, to India or China. It was not until the 1830s, when a schoolmaster from Connecticut, Hall Jackson Kelley, created his "American Society for the Settlement of the Oregon Country," that more interest and support for Oregon missionaries grew. Around the same time, four Nez Perce arrived in St. Louis in the fall of 1831, with accounts differencing as to if these travelers were asking for “the book of life,” an idea used by Protestant missionaries, or if they asked for “Blackrobes,” meaning Jesuits, thus Catholic missionaries. Either way this inspired Christian missionaries to travel to the Oregon Territory. Oregon missionaries played a political role, as well as a religious one, as their missions established US political power in an area in which the Hudson’s Bay Company, operating under the British government, maintained a political interest in the Oregon country. Such missionaries had an influential impact on the early settlement of the region, establishing institutions that became the foundation of United States settlement of the Pacific Northwest.
Wyeth-Lee Party.
In 1834, New York Methodist minister Jason Lee came to the Oregon Country as the first of these missionaries, to establish the first American settlement and to convert the native population. The party was called the Wyeth-Lee Party as Lee had contracted with Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth, who was going on his second trading expedition, to accompany him. The party set out on April 28, 1834, traveling independently from the American Fur Company's caravan headed for the same destination. Lee built a mission school for Indians in the Willamette Valley at the site of present-day Salem, Oregon. The school evolved from a mission school to a secondary school called the Oregon Institute, eventually becoming Willamette University, the oldest university on the West Coast.
Whitman-Spalding Party.
In 1835, Dr. Marcus Whitman made his initial journey west from New York, past the Rocky Mountains and into California. 1836, Marcus Whitman made the same trip, this time with his new wife, Narcissa Whitman, and another missionary couple, Henry Harmon Spalding (who had been jilted by Narcissa) and his wife Eliza Spalding. Narcissa and Eliza were the first white women to cross the Rocky Mountains.
The Whitman’s reached Fort Walla Walla on October 26, 1838, and founded a mission at Waiilatpu, about 25 miles east of Fort Wallo Wallo in the Walla Walla Valley, then the territory of the Cayuse Indians, in the present-day state of Washington. The Spalding’s founded a mission among the Nez Perce Indians at Lapwai, at the foot of Thunder Mountain, in present-day Idaho. Henry Spalding is credited with the creation of the Protestant Ladder, used to teach natives history from Creation to ascent into Heaven. This style of teaching, using a long strip of paper or cloth, was based on the Catholic Ladder used by Catholic Missionaries in the region.
Catholic Missionaries.
Catholic missionaries in Oregon Territory followed two paths into the region, with missionaries, such as Father Francis Norbert Blanchet and Father Modeste Demers, coming from Quebec in 1837 and a later group of missionaries following a path similar to the Protestant missionaries coming from the Eastern America, such as Father Pierre-Jean De Smet in 1841.
Catholic missionary work in Oregon Territory officially began when Fr. Francis Norbert Blanchet was appointed Vicar-General of Oregon Country by Archbishop Joseph Signay of Quebec in April 1838. Fr. Blanchet and Fr. Modest Demers arrived in the region at Fort Vancouver on November 24 1838. Originally the missionaries used hymns and books which had been translated into the Chinook Jargon, a language used commonly among different native groups of the region for trade, in their conversion efforts. Realizing that the ideas and concepts within Catholicism were not coming across to their audiences, Fr. Blanchet began using carved shale sticks in his conversion efforts in April 1839, during a visit to the Cowlitz settlement. The shale stick, referred to as the Catholic Ladder, was carved with representations of Christian History. These shale sticks were then distributed to Native chiefs, starting in October 1839, to teach Catholicism. Soon after, the Catholic Ladder began to be produced in paper copies and later massed produced for distribution in the Pacific Northwest with Quebec church leaders arranging for the printing and shipping of 2,000 to the region. Later, Protestant missionaries began using their own version of the ladder, with Henry Spalding being credited with creating the Protestant Ladder using some images from the Catholic Ladder and adding his own. Both the Catholic and Protestant ladders would also represent the opposing domination as heathens.
In 1841, The Rocky Mountain Mission in the Pacific Northwest was started by Fr. Pierre-Jean De Smet and became the most sought-after mission post among Jesuits. The majority of Jesuit missionaries were Italian, owing to instability at home during the period, but missionaries from other nations came to region as well.
Blanchet was made Bishop in 1843, along with the region being made into an Apostolic Vicariate which reached from the Arctic in the North, the Rockies in the East, and the US-Mexican border in the South. Later, in 1846, the region was made into the Ecclesiastical Province of Oregon with Blanchet becoming the archbishop of the archiepiscopal see of Oregon City. This made Oregon the second Ecclesiastical Province created in the US.
Catholics in the region faced persecution by the majority Protestant white settlers, with Father Augustin Magliore Blanchet, Francis Blanchet’s brother, being blamed for the Whitman Massacre in 1847, despite only arriving in Walla Walla three months prior to the events.
Legacy of Early Oregon Missionaries.
Missionary work in the Oregon country continued into the 1850s, though in 1853, the Washington territory was established, separate from the Oregon territory to which it had previously belonged. The success in converting Native Americans to Christianity was varied. In some cases, the Indians were very suspicious of the missionaries, and this suspicion only increased when many of the Indians contracted diseases that were introduced by missionaries and white settlers.
As tensions between native tribes and white missionaries rose during the 1850s, resulting in small-scale wars between settlers and natives, like the Rogue River War, missionary work in Oregon was increasingly targeted at white immigrants from the eastern parts of the US, rather than native populations.


Highline Fire

The Highline Fire is a wildfire currently burning in Payette National Forest, 23 mile east of Warren in Idaho in the United States. The fire was reported on July 29, 2017. The cause of the fire was lightning. The fire has burned and is anticipated to be contained by October 15, 2017. The fire has closed access to many parts of Payette National Forest, including three airstrips. The Highline is accompanied by the nearby Goat Fire, which is burning in the same region, at a smaller acreage.
Events.
The Highline Fire was started by a lightning strike on July 28 around 7:00 PM in the Payette National Forest, specifically the Krassel Ranger District, within the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness.
By August 18, the fire had expanded to , burning mainly within old fire scars from a 2000 fire. Crews focused on letting the fire "play its natural ecological role...to the greatest extent possible while protecting the known values of risk." They took actions to suppress the fire regarding protecting property or life, including guard stations, Idaho Fish and Game structures. Historic structures under threat include Stonebraker Ranch and cabins, outbuildings and the Chamberlain USFS Airport at the Chamberlain Guard Station. At this time, the Chamberlain USFS Airport was closed.
As of August 20, fire crews had begun evaluating structure protection at Root Ranch. The fire had burned by the evening. By August 23, the Goat Fire had begun, burning alongside the Highline in the same area. Protection of the Cold Meadows Guard Station began. The first day of September brought additional protection for additional areas and structures, including those located along the Salmon River, including lodges, campgrounds, bridges, cabins and guard stations.
By September 5, the fire had grown to , with the accompanying Goat Fire growing to . Both fires remain at zero containment with the goal of letting them run their natural course. The Cold Meadows USFS Airport was closed due to poor runway conditions. As of September 10, the fire was burning and was at zero containment. The fire made its way to the Rock Rabbit Lookout, which survived.
Evacuations and closures.
As of September 14, the Chamberlain Airstrip was still closed.


Delano, Pennsylvania

Delano is a census-designated place (CDP) in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 377 at the 2000 census.
Geography.
Delano is located at (40.839633, -76.071032).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics.
At the 2000 census there were 377 people, 163 households, and 118 families living in the CDP. The population density was 609.2 people per square mile (234.8/km). There were 172 housing units at an average density of 277.9/sq mi (107.1/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 98.94% White and 1.06% Asian.
Of the 163 households 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.0% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. 24.5% of households were one person and 12.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.74.
The age distribution was 17.2% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% 65 or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.0 males.
The median household income was $32,344 and the median family income was $39,583. Males had a median income of $27,031 versus $17,417 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,460. About 5.0% of families and 3.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over.


First Battle of Terrenate

The First Battle of Terrenate on July 7, 1776 was a military engagement during the Spanish period of Arizona. It was fought between Spanish soldiers and Apache warriors, near the Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate in the present day southern Arizona.
Background.
The site for El Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate, near the middle of the San Pedro River, was chosen on August 22, 1775 by Colonel Hugo O'Conor (born in Ireland) who was in charge of relocating Spanish fortifications on the Sonoran frontier. The spot was on a bluff overlooking the San Pedro River, which provided natural fortifications on three sides.
The walls were built in the shape of a large square, with one triangular bastion at a corner to protect the presidio's two front walls and a main gate protected by a two-story guardhouse. Several adobe-walled structures and jacals were also constructed to house the families of the garrison soldiers, along with a small barracks, an officer's quarters, a chapel and a plaza. The area had pasturage, wood and water.
The garrison consisted of the commander, Captain Francisco Tovar and fifty-six soldados de cuera ("leather jackets"). Artillery had not yet arrived at the isolated post, which was still under construction at the time of battle. The fighting men were armed with pistols, muskets, bows, swords, adargas (leather shields), and lances.
Battle.
The Spaniards did not have long to wait before hostile Apaches began to harass the settlement, attacking anyone who ventured out for water or those who tried to plant crops in the nearby fields. Apaches were attracted by the large number of horses kept at the settlement and they ran off the herds whenever they were unguarded. The Apache also burned the fields of crops and the jacals.
Although not the first Apache-Spanish battle involving the Santa Cruz de Terreante soldiers, the battle on July 7, 1776 was said to have occurred at the fort, but it did not, according to archaeologists Deni Seymour and Mark Harlan who have reviewed the documentary evidence.(see http://www.seymourharlan.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page93.html) The battle took place along the San Pedro River, at some distance from the uncompleted fort, and it left the commander and 29 of his men dead after a long fight. According to this new information, the Spaniards saw the Apache fording the San Pedro a day and a half from the presidio, and although unprepared, they pursued the Apache. Armed with bows and arrows the Apache resisted the attack, pushing the Spanish back. The Spaniards eventually forded the river but were then overwhelmed. Some Apaches were also killed or wounded; exact numbers are unknown. A few Spaniards survived to tell the story.
Aftermath.
In August the fort finally received a shipment of weapons. Captain Francisco Ignacio de Trespalacios replaced the fallen commander and brought reinforcements to bring their number up to eighty-three men. In mid-November, 1776, Trespalacios led thirty of them to the mission of Magdalena, within modern day Mexico, on the San Ignacio River. When they arrived they found that forty Apaches had looted the settlement, murdered the inhabitants and burned the church. The incident became known as the Magdalena Massacre. Apache attacks on Fort Terrenate became so fierce that some 98 men perished while manning it, during only four years of its use; three of the dead were commanders.
On September 24, 1778, Captain Francisco Trespalacios and 27 of his soldiers were killed.
From November 1778 to February 1779, 39 soldiers were killed.
In May 1779, Captain Luis del Castille was killed.
Links.
For a different account of Santa Cruz de Terrenate's first battle see the following:
CAPTAIN TOVAR'S 1776 BATTLE OF LAS MESITAS—A REVISED PERSPECTIVE
http://www.seymourharlan.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page92.html
SANTA CRUZ DE TERRENATE PRESIDIO REVISITED, 2007-2008 FIELD SEASON
http://www.seymourharlan.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page41.html
SANTA CRUZ DE TERRENATE PRESIDIO, 2008-2009 FIELD SEASON
http://www.seymourharlan.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page72.html
SANTA CRUZ DE TERRENATE PRESIDIO, 2010 FIELD SEASON
http://www.seymourharlan.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page89.html


Jacob R. Van Rensselaer

Jacob Rutsen Van Rensselaer (September 27, 1767 – September 22, 1835) was an American lawyer and Federalist politician who served as Speaker of the New York State Assembly from 1812 to 1813, and Secretary of State of New York, from 1813 to 1815.
Early life.
Jacob Rutsen Van Rensselaer was born on September 27, 1767 in Claverack, Columbia County in what was then the Province of New York, a part of British America. He was the second son of Gen. Robert Van Rensselaer (1740–1802) and Cornelia (née Rutsen) Van Rensselaer (1746–1790), who had married in April 1765.
His maternal grandparents were Jacob Rutsen (1716–1753) and Alida (née Livingston) Rutsen (1716–1798). After his grandfather died, his grandmother remarried to Hendrick Van Rensselaer (1712–1793). His paternal grandparents were Johannes Van Rensselaer (1708–1793), a Brigadier General during the American Revolutionary War, a member of the New York Provincial Congress and the 1st New York State Assembly, and Engeltie "Angelica" (née Livingston) Van Rensselaer (1698–1746/47).
He attended Washington Seminary, graduated from Yale University in 1787, studied law and attained admission to the bar.
Career.
During the War of 1812, he commanded troops which were drafted in Columbia County, and were ordered to the defense of the city of New York.
Van Rensselaer was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1800, 1808, 1808–09, 1811, 1812, 1812–13, 1814, 1814–15 and 1819; and was Speaker in 1812–13. He was Secretary of State of New York from 1813 to 1815 and was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention of 1821. He was associated with Gov. DeWitt Clinton in building the Erie Canal.
Personal life.
He married Cornelia De Peyster (1774–1849), the daughter of Pierre Guillaume De Peyster (1745–1807). Her paternal uncle was Arent DePeyster (1736–1822), the British military officer, and her brother, William de Peyster, was married to Mary Roosevelt, niece of Nicholas Roosevelt. Their home, the Jacob Rutsen Van Rensselaer House and Mill Complex, built circa 1805 is today listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Together, they were the parents of:
After his death in New York City on September 22, 1835, he was buried in the cemetery at the Reformed Dutch Church of Claverack.


William V. Rinehart

William Vance Rinehart (28 December 1835 – 16 October 1918) was an American soldier who served as a Union Army officer in both the 1st Oregon Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and 1st Oregon Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the American Civil War. He was later appointed as Indian agent at the Malheur Indian Reservation in eastern Oregon. Rinehart then moved to Seattle, Washington where he engaged in business and was active in state and local politics. He was elected to Washington state's first legislature, serving as a state senator from 1889 through 1890.
Early life.
Rinehart was born on 28 December 1835 in Clarks Hill, Indiana. He was raised on farm and attended Farmer's Institute, a Quaker school near Lafayette, Indiana. Rinehart immigrated to California in 1854, driving an ox team across the North American plains. Once in California, he began gold mining near Downieville. He later moved north to the Crescent City area, where he continued to work as a miner.
In 1856, Rinehart moved to Josephine County, Oregon, where he began mining gold near Aulthouse Creek. When he arrived, the Rouge Indian War was on-going in southern Oregon. Rinehart joined the local militia and helped build Fort Briggs, a stockade used to protect Illinois Valley settlers from attack. In 1858, he ran for Josephine County clerk as a Republican, but was defeated. The following year, he took a job as a store clerk in Waldo, Oregon. As an active Republican, Rinehart supported Abraham Lincoln in 1860 presidential election.
Civil War and early post-war period.
A supporter of the Union cause, Rinehart joined the 1st Oregon Volunteer Cavalry Regiment in January 1862. He was commissioned as a first lieutenant and appointed regimental adjutant. He was promoted to Captain in December 1863. As a captain, Rinehart commanded the volunteer cavalry regiment's Company A which was assigned to Fort Walla Walla in the Washington Territory.
When his enlistment period with the 1st Oregon Cavalry expired, Rinehart joined the 1st Oregon Volunteer Infantry Regiment, under the command of Colonel George B. Currey. In that unit, he served in southeastern Oregon, protecting wagon trains from Indian raiders. In the summer of 1865, Rinehart was promoted to Major. Shortly after his promotion, he took command of Fort Klamath. He remained in command until after the end of the Civil War when regular Army troops returned to Oregon to replace the militia volunteers. He was mustered out of the Army in 1866.
During the war, Rinehart had married Amanda E. Gaines of Yamhill County, Oregon. Eventually, they had three children together. After the war, Rinehart moved his family to Grant County, Oregon where he became a partner in a mercantile business. He then moved to Canyon City in 1868 and opened a general store there. The following year, he was appointed Canyon City's post master, a position he held for the next five years. During this period, he continued to work for Republican candidates throughout Grant County. In addition, he ran for a seat in the state legislature, but was defeated in a close election. In 1874, he moved to Los Angeles, California, but returned to Oregon two years later.
Indian agent.
In 1876, Rinehart was appointed Indian agent at the Malheur Indian Reservation, a position he held until the reservation was closed in 1882. The reservation was located in a remote area of eastern Oregon, approximately fifty miles east of Fort Harney. It was occupied primarily by Northern Paiute people.
Rinehart replaced Samuel B. Parrish, who was well respected by the Native American people living on the reservation. In contrast to Parrish's administration, Rinehart was in continuous conflict with the Native Americans living on the reservation from the time he arrived. According to Sarah Winnemucca, he required the native residents to turn their crops over to the government and then issued government ration to them. This often left reservation farmers with less food than they produced. Two senior chiefs on the reservation, Egan and Oytes, also complained that Rinehart illegally sold liqueur to reservation residents. When white settlers began grazing their livestock on reservation lands, Rinehart made no effort to evict them. He even allowed one rancher to cut timber on the reservation without requiring any payment.
Rinehart's harsh policies may have contributed to the decision by local Paiutes to join the Bannock rebellion in 1878. When the uprising reached the Malheur reservation, Rinehart retreated to Canyon City where he helped organize the town's defenses.
After the conflict ended, some of the Paiute and Bannock prisoners were interned on the Malheur reservation under Rinehart's charge. Eventually, all of the Native American's at the Malheur site transferred or moved to other reservations. Rinehart lost his position when the Malheur reservation was closed in 1882.
Later life.
After the Malheur Indian Reservation closed, Rinehart moved to Seattle. In Seattle, he sold hardware and then opened a grocery store. He later established a successful real estate business in the city. He was also active in civic affairs, serving in several city and state positions over the years. This included a term on the Seattle city council in 1884 and 1885. In November 1888, he was elected to Washington's territorial legislature, but Washington became a state before he took office so the election was voided.
In Washington state's first election in 1889, Rinehart was chosen as a state senator from District 19, representing King County. This allowed him to serve in the state's first legislative session that lasted from 6 November 1889 through 28 March 1890. During this legislature session, Rinehart helped write Washington's first code of laws. He also served in a special session called by Washington's governor in September 1890. In that session, legislative districts were reapportioned and the state House of Representatives and the state senate were resized.
Rinehart did not seek re-election to the state senate when his term expired at the end of 1890. After leaving the state senate, Rinehart became Seattle's first commissioner of public works. Later, he returned to Seattle's city council, where he served for an additional ten years. This included several terms as president of the city council, a position that also served as acting mayor when the elected mayor was away from the city.
Rinehart was active in the "Washington Pioneer Association", serving as president of that organization in 1896. He was also a prominent Mason and active in several civil war veterans groups for many years.
Rinehart died of pneumonia in Seattle on 16 October 1918. After his death, the Washington State Senate passed a resolution honoring him. There was also a memorial service held for him in the chamber of the Washington state House of Representatives on 4 February 1919.


James H. Roosevelt

James Henry Roosevelt (November 10, 1800 – November 30, 1863) was an American philanthropist who, by bequest, founded Roosevelt Hospital in New York City.
Early life.
Roosevelt was born on November 10, 1800 in New York City on Warren Street near Broadway. He was the son of Catherine (née Byvanck) (d. 1854) and James Christopher Roosevelt (1770–1840).
A member of the Roosevelt family, his paternal grandfather was Christopher Roosevelt (b. 1739), the brother of Isaac Roosevelt, 2nd President of the Bank of New York. He was a third cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt's grandfather and second cousin of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's grandfather.
Education and life.
Roosevelt graduated from Columbia College in 1819 and studied law at Harvard University, but was unable to practice due to delicate health, possibly resulting from polio. Confined largely to his home he was forced to abandon the law and break off his engagement to Miss Julia Boardman, who was also from a good New York family. He lived off of a modest inheritance and expanded it through prudent investments and simple living.
Roosevelt died on November 30, 1863 in New York City. He was first buried at the New York City Marble Cemetery, and later, his remains were moved to the Roosevelt Hospital grounds in 1876. His body was again moved in 1994 and re-interred at the Marble Cemetery.
Legacy.
His will left most of his estate, including property worth nearly $1 million, to found Roosevelt Hospital, which was opened on November 2, 1871. Under the terms of his will, the hospital was to be a voluntary hospital that cared for individuals regardless of their ability to pay. On the tablet that is placed to his memory in Roosevelt Hospital is inscribed: "To the memory of James Henry Roosevelt, a true son of New York, the generous founder of this hospital, a man upright in his aims, simple in his life, and sublime in his benefaction."


Stephen Van Rensselaer

Stephen Van Rensselaer III (; November 1, 1764January 26, 1839) was a New York landowner, businessman, militia officer, and politician.
A graduate of Harvard College, at age 21, Van Rensselaer took control of Rensselaerswyck, his family's manor. He developed the land by encouraging tenants to settle it and granting them perpetual leases at moderate rates, which enabled the tenants to use more of their capital to make their farms and businesses productive.
Active in politics as a Federalist, Van Rensselaer served in the New York State Assembly and New York State Senate, and as Lieutenant Governor of New York. After the demise of the Federalist Party, Van Rensselaer was a John Quincy Adams supporter and served in the United States House of Representatives for one partial term and three full ones.
Van Rensselaer was a supporter of higher education; he served on the board of trustees for several schools and colleges and was the founder of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He was also a civic activist and philanthropist and was a founder of Albany's public library and the city's Institute of History & Arts.
Long active in the militia, Van Rensselaer attained the rank of major general; he commanded troops on the New York-Canada border during the War of 1812, but resigned his commission after defeat at the Battle of Queenston Heights.
After Van Rensselaer's 1839 death, efforts by his sons to collect past due lease payments led to the Anti-Rent War, and the break up and sale of the manor. As the heir to and then owner of one of the largest estates in New York, Van Rensselaer's holdings made him the tenth richest American of all time, based on the ratio of his fortune to contemporary GDP.
Early life.
Van Rensselaer was born in New York City, the eldest child of Stephen Van Rensselaer II, the ninth patroon of Rensselaerswyck, a large land grant in upstate New York awarded by the Dutch to his ancestor Kiliaen Van Rensselaer. His mother was Catharina Livingston, daughter of Philip Livingston, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His family was very wealthy, and the Van Rensselaer Manor House was a rich childhood environment for the young boy to grow up in. However, his father died in 1769 when Van Rensselaer was only five.
Van Rensselaer was raised by his mother and stepfather, the Rev. Eilardus Westerlo, whom his mother married in 1775, and his Livingston grandfather. His uncle, Abraham Ten Broeck, administered the Van Rensselaer estate after the untimely death of Van Rensselaer's father. From an early age, Van Rensselaer was raised to succeed his father as lord of the manor. Stephen's younger brother Philip S. Van Rensselaer (1767–1824), later served as Mayor of Albany from 1799 to 1816 and again from 1819 to 1820.
Van Rensselaer began attending the College of New Jersey (later Princeton); since it was near to battles of the ongoing American Revolution, he was later sent to Harvard College, from which he graduated Phi Beta Kappa with an A.B. degree in 1782.
Early career.
On his 21st birthday, Van Rensselaer took possession of Rensselaerswyck, his family's 1,200 square mile (3,072 km²) estate, and began a long tenure as lord of the manor. Van Rensselaer desired to profit from the land, but was extremely reluctant to sell it off. Instead, he developed the land by granting perpetual leases at moderate rates; Van Rensselaer derived a steady rental income from his property, while tenants were able to become successful farmers without having to pay a large purchase price up front. This meant that they could invest more in their operations, which led to increased productivity in the area. Over time, Van Rensselaer became landlord to more than 80,000 tenants. He generally proved to be a lenient landlord; he accepted produce such as grain and firewood in place of cash for rent payments, and when tenants found themselves in financial difficulty, he usually preferred to accept late or partial payments rather than evict them. One facet of the leases Van Rensselaer granted was the "quarter-sale"—tenants who sold their leases were required to pay Van Rensselaer one fourth of the sale price or one additional year's rent. Over time, this requirement became a point of contention between Van Rensselaer and the tenants, which in part led to the Anti-Rent War.
In the First Census of the United States in 1790, it was noted that he owned fifteen slaves. By the time of the 1830 Census, he had none, in keeping with New York's gradual emancipation law, under which all slaves in the state were freed by 1827. Van Rensselaer later became an advocate of enabling African Americans to emigrate to colonies in Africa, such as Liberia, and he served as a vice president of the Albany Auxiliary Society and the American Colonization Society.
In 1791, Van Rensselaer was one of the incorporators of the Albany Library, which evolved over time into the Albany Public Library, and he was chosen to serve on the board of trustees. In 1797, Van Rensselaer was an organizer of the Albany and Schenectady Turnpike Company, and served on its board of directors.
Political career.
A Federalist, Van Rensselaer was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1789 to 1791, and the New York State Senate from 1791 to 1796.
He was Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1795 to 1801, elected with Governor John Jay. Van Rensselaer, over his time in politics, acquired a reputation as something of a reformer, voting in favor of extending suffrage and going against much of New York's upper class in doing so. In 1801, Van Rensselaer presided over the state constitutional convention, was the Federalist nominee for Governor of New York, and lost to George Clinton, 24,808 votes to 20,843.
He was one of the first to advocate for a canal from the Hudson River to the Great Lakes and was appointed to a commission to investigate the route in 1810, reporting favorably to the Assembly in 1811. Van Rensselaer served on the Erie Canal Commission for 23 years (1816–1839), fourteen of which he served as its president. In 1821, he was a member of the New York State Constitutional Convention.
In 1822, he won the special election for the seat in the House of Representatives from which his cousin Solomon had resigned. He served from February 27, 1822 to March 3, 1829, during the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Congresses; during the last three sessions, he was the chairman of the Committee on Agriculture.
Role in deciding 1824 presidential election.
In 1825 Van Rensselaer cast the vote that likely decided the presidential election in favor of John Quincy Adams. Because none of the four candidates received a majority of electoral votes in the 1824 presidential election, the U.S. House had to choose from the top three finishers—Adams, Andrew Jackson, and William H. Crawford. House members voted first individually by state, and then each state cast one ballot for the candidate who received a majority of the state's House delegation; a candidate had to carry 13 state delegations to win the election. Van Rensselaer had intended to vote for Crawford, but changed his mind and voted for Adams. His vote gave Adams a majority of the New York delegation; winning New York gave Adams 13 states in the House vote, to seven for Jackson and four for Crawford.
Military career.
In 1786, Van Rensselaer was appointed a major in the Albany County Regiment of the New York Militia. He became commander of the regiment two years later as a lieutenant colonel, and was subsequently promoted to colonel. In 1801 he was promoted to major general as commander of the state militia's cavalry division.
War of 1812.
Van Rensselaer's militia experience led to an appointment to command troops during the War of 1812. When war was declared on Great Britain in June 1812, Van Rensselaer was a leading Federalist candidate for Governor of New York. Democratic-Republican Party leaders, including President James Madison and incumbent New York Governor Daniel D. Tompkins, devised a way to remove Van Rensselaer from the campaign by offering him command of the Army of the Centre—U.S. militia and regular Army troops massing in upstate New York for an invasion of Canada. If Van Rensselaer declined a military leadership role during a time of war, he would lose esteem in the eyes of the voters. If he accepted, he would likely be unable to run for governor.
Van Rensselaer accepted; despite having held high rank in the militia, he was largely inexperienced at leading large bodies of troops. As a condition of his acceptance, his cousin Solomon, who had more military experience, was appointed his aide-de-camp. But the Army of the Centre consisted largely of untrained, inexperienced militiamen; under the Constitution, which stressed that the role of the militia was to enforce laws, prevent insurrection, and repel invasion, they did not have to cross into Canada to fight.
The British were in the process of fortifying the Queenston Heights that Van Rensselaer would have to attack, and his officers were itching for action despite their general's desire to delay until his troops were better trained and organized. To make matters worse, Brigadier General Alexander Smyth, Van Rensselaer's subordinate, had a large force of regular Army troops that was theoretically under Van Rensselaer's command, but Smyth refused to subordinate himself to a militia officer. With some of his officers planning to try and force him from command, Van Rensselaer decided to act without Smyth.
On October 13, 1812, Van Rensselaer launched an attack on the British position that would evolve into the Battle of Queenston Heights. Though initially successful, Van Rensselaer's inadequate preparations and his plan of attack were clearly main reasons for what became a major defeat. He was unable to secure the element of surprise, he did not procure enough boats for his men to cross the Niagara River easily, and he was even unable to supply his soldiers with sufficient ammunition. Despite significantly outnumbering the British in the early stages of the battle, the American soldiers, untried and untrained, sometimes refused to cross to the Canadian side of the river. Once the tide of the battle turned, Van Rensselaer was not even able to coax the boatmen into going back over to rescue the doomed attack force. His forces were badly beaten by British troops under generals Isaac Brock and, after Brock's death, Roger Hale Sheaffe.
The defeat at Queenston Heights spelled the end to Van Rensselaer's active military career; after the battle, he resigned his post. He continued to serve in the militia and was the senior major general in the state at the time of his death. Despite his military setback, Van Rensselaer was still the Federalist candidate for governor in April 1813; he lost to Tompkins 43,324 votes to 39,713.
Later career.
After the war, Van Rensselaer continued his service on the Erie Canal Commission, and between 1820 and 1823 commissioned an agricultural and geological survey of the canal's surroundings, at his own expense. He also held many significant posts after the war. In 1820, he was elected president of the state Board of Agriculture. Also in 1820, he was an incorporator of the Albany Savings Bank, and was elected to serve as the bank's president.
In 1824, Van Rensselaer was one of the organizers of the Albany Institute, and was elected its president. This organization later merged with another to form the Albany Institute of History & Art. He was also active in the American Lyceum organization, and served as its president.
When the New York Life Insurance and Trust Company received its corporate charter from the State of New York in 1830, Van Rensselaer was an original incorporator, and he went on to serve as a member of the company's board of directors. New York Life Insurance and Trust operated until 1922, when it merged with the Bank of New York to become the Bank of New York & Trust Company.
Following the 1834 death in France of the Marquis de Lafayette, Van Rensselaer was appointed marshal for the Albany-area commemorations. He led the parade of militia members, fire fighters, Revolutionary War veterans and others, which culminated in speeches and a eulogy by William Buell Sprague.
Higher education advocate.
Van Rensselaer was elected one of the members of the Williams College Corporation in 1794.
In 1812, Van Rensselaer took part in the incorporation of the Lancaster School, an institution dedicated to providing an education for children whose parents could not afford to send them to school, and he served on the school's board of trustees. In 1813, Van Rensselaer was one of the organizers of The Albany Academy, and was chosen to serve as the first president of the school's board of trustees.
Van Rensselaer was a member of the University of the State of New York Board of Regents from 1819 to 1839, and from 1835 to 1839 he was the board's chancellor.
In 1824 Van Rensselaer and Amos Eaton established the Rensselaer School (now known as Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, or RPI) "for the purpose of instructing persons, who may choose to apply themselves, in the application of science to the common purposes of life". Since its founding, RPI has developed a reputation for academic excellence, particularly in the field of engineering.
From 1829 to 1839, Van Rensselaer served as a member of the Rutgers College board of trustees.
Religious activities.
Van Rensselaer was long active in the Dutch Reformed Church; he served several terms as a deacon and elder of the First Reformed Church in Albany, and attended numerous synod meetings and similar gatherings as a delegate. He was active in the American Home Missionary Society, and served as the organization's president in the 1820s. In 1834, he donated a lot at the corner of Green and South Ferry Streets in Albany for construction of the Third Reformed Church. For many years, Van Rensselaer was a member of the Albany Bible Society, and he served on its board of managers. He was also active on the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and served as vice president.
Masonic Grand Master.
Van Rensselaer was an active Mason beginning early in his adulthood; from 1825 to 1829 he served as the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of New York. His leadership of the statewide organization coincided with the rise of the Anti-Masonic Party in Western New York, and Van Rensselaer forged an alliance with the Democrats of the Albany Regency led by Martin Van Buren and Enos T. Throop as a way to blunt the political influence of the Anti-Masons.
Personal life.
Several members of Van Rensselaer's extended family served in Congress including Jeremiah Van Rensselaer (1741–1810), Killian K. Van Rensselaer (1763–1845), and Solomon Van Rensselaer (1774–1852).
In June 1783, Van Rensselaer married Margarita "Peggy" Schuyler (1758–1801), a distant cousin and the daughter of Revolutionary War general Philip Schuyler, and sister-in-law of Alexander Hamilton. Their marriage resulted in three children, all of whom were baptized at the First Dutch Reformed Church in Albany. Only one of their children survived to adulthood:
After Schuyler's death in 1801, in 1802 Van Rensselaer married Cornelia Bell Paterson, the daughter of William Paterson. Together, they had:
Van Rensselaer died in New York City on January 26, 1839. He was buried in a family cemetery at the Van Rensselaer Manor House, and was later reinterred at Albany Rural Cemetery, Section 14, Lot 1.
Descendants.
His granddaughter, Justine Van Rensselaer (1828–1912), married Dr. Howard Townsend, a noted physician at Albany Medical College. His grandson, Stephen Van Rensselaer Cruger married Julia Grinnell Storrow, a popular American novelist.
His great-grandson was John Eliot Thayer (1862–1933), an amateur ornithologist. His great-granddaughter, Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer (1849–1903) married J. Hampden Robb (1846–1911), a New York State Senator, in 1868. Their daughter—Van Rensselaer's 2x great-granddaughter, Cornelia Van Rensselaer Thayer (b. 1881)—married Danish Count Carl Moltke (1869–1935) in 1907.
Through his great-grandson, Stephen Van Rensselaer Crosby (1868–1959), he was the 2x great-grandfather of Henry Sturgis Crosby (1898–1929), a bon vivant, poet, and publisher who for some epitomized the Lost Generation in American literature, who was married to Mary Phelps Jacob (1891–1970).
Through his son Henry Bell Van Rensselaer and Henry's granddaughter Julia Floyd Delafield, Stephen Van Rensselaer was the great-great-grandfather of Floyd Crosby (1899–1985) and great-great-great grandfather of David Crosby and Jane Wyatt.
Legacy and honors.
With his net worth estimated at more than $100 billion in modern dollars, Van Rensselaer is counted in the top ten of the richest individuals in United States history.
The town of Stephentown, New York is named for Stephen Van Rensselaer.
In 1791, Van Rensselaer was elected as an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. In 1822, he received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Yale University. In 1998, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Alumni Hall of Fame inducted Van Rensselaer as a member.


Biltmore Village Cottages

Biltmore Village Cottages are two historic homes formerly located at Biltmore Village, Asheville, Buncombe County, North Carolina. They were designed by Richard Sharp Smith and built about 1900. The dwellings are pebbledash finished half-timbered cottages. They were moved outside the district in August 1983.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.


Department of California

The Department of California was an administrative department of the United States Army. The Department was created in 1858, replacing the original Department of the Pacific, and it was ended by the reorganizations of the Henry L. Stimson Plan implemented in February 1913. As with the preceding organization, headquarters were in San Francisco. Its creation was authorized by General Orders, No. 10, of the War Department, Adjutant-General's Office, September 13, 1858.
As first established, the department covered all territory within the latter-day state borders of Arizona, Nevada, California, and a sizable square of southwestern Oregon representing the Rogue River District and Umpqua District.
Commanders.
The Department of California was commanded first by Brevet Brigadier General Newman S. Clarke, Colonel U.S. 6th Infantry Regiment, until his death on October 17, 1860. It was next commanded by Lt. Colonel Benjamin L. Beall, U.S. 1st Dragoon Regiment, who had assumed command, by seniority of rank, on the death of General Clarke, on October 17, 1860. It was merged into the restored Department of the Pacific on January 15, 1861, as the District of California administering the same territories, commanded by Brevet Brigadier General Albert Sidney Johnston from January 15, 1861.
Reduction to District status 1861-1865.
When General Edwin Vose Sumner, relieved General Johnston during March 1861 he continued in command of the Department of California now renamed the District of California. His successor in October 1861, Brigadier General George Wright continued in command of the District even after losing command of the Department of the Pacific, on July 1, 1864, to Gen. Irvin McDowell.
Department again June 1865 - February 1913.
During June 1865, Col. Edward McGarry was ordered to succeed Brigadier General George Wright (who was relocating to his new command of the Department of the Columbia), in command of the District of California until General McDowell could take command of the District which was again raised to Department status once more under the Military Division of the Pacific, now commanded by Major General Henry W. Halleck. The territory encompassed by the new Department of California now consisted of the States of California and Nevada and the District of New Mexico and District of Arizona in the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona. Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell, U. S. Army, assigned to command the Department of California.
The Department of Arizona was established as part of the Division of the Pacific on April 15, 1870. It consisted of Arizona Territory and California south of a line from the northwest corner of Arizona to Point Conception so as to include most of Southern California.
From December 7, 1871, the one general officer at San Francisco commanded both the Division of the Pacific and the Department of California and the separate staffs were consolidated into one. On July 1, 1878, Division of the Pacific headquarters was relocated from San Francisco to the Presidio of San Francisco.
The Department of Arizona lost Southern California to the Department of California on February 14, 1883, but regained California south of the 35th parallel on December 15, 1886. The Department of California then consisted of California north of the 35th parallel and Nevada.
The Military Division of the Pacific was discontinued on July 3, 1891. Each of the three subordinate departments of Arizona, California, and the Columbia, then reported directly to the War Department. The Department of California, with its headquarters at San Francisco, consisted of California north of the 35th parallel and Nevada.
The Hawaiian Islands were added to the department July 12, 1898. It became the District of Hawaii in 1910 as part of the Department of California.
From 1904 to 1907, the Department of California, as well as the Department of the Columbia, were subordinate to a re-established Division of the Pacific known as Pacific Division. It became independent again after 1907 until they were subordinated to a new Western Division from 1911 to 1913.
On February 15, 1913 the Department of California, with all the mainland territorial departments, was disbanded for a new organization of the Army. The territory of the former departments of the Columbia and California were now controlled by the Western Department, except for the District of Hawaii that now became the independent Department of Hawaii.


Southport, Oregon

Southport is an unincorporated locale in Coos County, Oregon, United States. It was located along Southport Creek, near where the creek flows into Isthmus Slough, south of the city of Coos Bay, at an elevation of 30 feet (9 m). The former community is now a ghost town.
Location.
The Southport town site is located on Southport Lane, off of US Highway 101, south of the city of Coos Bay in Coos County.
History.
Sometime between 1875 and 1877 B. B. Jones opened a coal mine named the Southport Mine, and the village of Southport sprang up next to the mine. It was a company town of the Black Diamond Coal Mining Company, headquartered in San Francisco, California. (Nortonville, California and Black Diamond, Washington, were two of the company's other towns.)
In 1882 the town had a population of 100, with a general merchandise store, a variety store, and a hotel/saloon. A 2,000-foot-long makeshift railroad ran from the mine to the slough.
Southport never had a post office; instead it was served by the post office at Coos City (also now a ghost town), which was located on the other side of Isthmus Slough from Southport.
In 1885, the Black Diamond Coal Mining Company opened a new mine at Black Diamond, Washington, and many of the miners at Southport and Nortonville moved to the new mine.
In about 1885, the owners of a competing mine, the Newport Mine, leased the Southport Mine property but kept the mine closed. This led to a decline of the town, although it was still shown on an 1896 USGS topographic map.


William A. Slacum

William A. Slacum (1799 - November 1, 1839) was an American sailor and diplomat. He served as a purser in the United States Navy and received a Presidential commission to gather information on the Oregon Country. At that time the region was under the jurisdiction of both the United States and Great Britain. Previously, Slacum served as a diplomat to Mexico.
Early life.
Slacum was likely born and raised in Alexandria, Virginia. Slacum's family included sister Mary Louisa Slacum Benham and brother George Washington Slacum who served as a consul in the State Department.
On June 8, 1829, William Slacum joined the United States Navy. During his naval career in 1831, Slacum was the purser aboard the USS "Potomac" as that ship spent four years at sea circumnavigating the globe. Then from 1835 to 1836 Slacum served in Mexico as a Special Diplomatic Agent for the United States. During this time Slacum sent a letter to President Andrew Jackson praising California, then under control of Mexico. This letter is credited with raising Jackson's interest in acquiring that region.
Oregon.
In 1835 Lieutenant Slacum was selected by President Jackson to travel to Oregon Country to gather information on the affairs of the region. Dated November 11, 1835, Slacum was ordered to inquire about the inhabitants and prospects of those white inhabitants living along the Columbia River.
Slacum then sailed from Guaymas, Mexico on June 1, 1836, for the Sandwich Islands, arriving there on November 5, 1836. There he chartered the ship "Loriot" for the trip to the Columbia River sailing on November 24. On December 22, 1836, the Loriot sailed into the Columbia.
Slacum then spent time interviewing Hudson's Bay Company officials such as Dr. John McLoughlin and James Douglas at Fort Vancouver. After this he then spent four days on French Prairie with the missionary Jason Lee examining the settlements. Here Slacum helped to convince pioneer Ewing Young to give up his efforts to build a distillery and travel to California in order to purchase cattle that would then be driven overland back to Oregon. After this brief stay and information gathering, Lt. Slacum prepared to leave. On February 10, 1837, Slacum left the Columbia and sailed for California. By February 19, the "Loriot" with Slacum and some settlers in tow arrived at Fort Ross in California. Here the settlers and Slacum parted ways.
Willamette Cattle Company.
While in the Willamette Valley, Slacum noted the dependency of the pioneers on the Hudson's Bay Company. This was especially true when it came to cattle, as the HBC only leased cattle to the settlers. Any offspring were the property of the HBC. So the lieutenant offered to take any of the settlers to California to buy cattle, and even provided $500 for the venture.
Congress.
After returning to the United States, William Slacum prepared a report on the information he gathered on the Northwest Coast. In his report that was read in Congress on December 18, 1837, Slacum details the activities in the region and advocated that the United States extend jurisdiction over this area with a border of no further south than the 49th parallel. Amongst other things, one recommendation of his was to cut a channel through Cape Disappointment in order to improve accessibility to the Columbia River and avoid the dangerous bar of the river.
On November 1, 1839, Slacum died. After his death, Slacum's estate tried to receive funds from the United States government for Slacum's expenses from his trip to the Oregon Country.


Timeline of Kentucky in the American Civil War


Ashworth Archaeological Site

The Ashworth Archaeological Site is a significant archaeological site in the extreme southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Indiana. Located near the confluence of the Ohio and Wabash Rivers, it lies near several similar archaeological sites. It was first examined by archaeologists in the middle of the twentieth century and found to be the site of a relatively recent Native American village, and it has been designated a historic site because of its archaeological value.
Geography.
The Ashworth Archaeological Site is located in the southern portion of Section 1, Township 8S, Range 14W, in the northeastern portion of Point Township, the southwesternmost township in Posey County, the southwesternmost county in Indiana. Another archaeological site, designated 12PO11, is located farther south in the same section; both sites are approximately north of the northern end of Hovey Lake and an equal distance west of a bend of the Ohio River. It lies in a field on the eastern side of State Road 69 atop a bluff overlooking a slough.
Due to its location at the southern extremity of the state, Posey County experiences fewer frost days than most of the rest of Indiana. This favorable weather, combined with its place as the first portion of Indiana to be reached by one ascending the Ohio River, caused the land within the boundaries of the modern county to have one of Indiana's heaviest concentrations of Pre-Columbian populations. An archaeological field survey published in 1949 found evidence of fifteen different prehistoric villages in Point Township, which has yielded artifacts as old as a Folsom point, and as recent as the Mississippian period.
Excavation.
In 1945, the state legislature voted a substantial appropriation to the Indiana Historical Bureau. As the Corps of Engineers was considering the construction of a massive levee along Posey County's Ohio River shoreline for flood control purposes, Indiana archaeologists feared the destruction of many riverside sites, and the Historical Bureau accordingly funded an extensive field survey that investigated the county from April to December of the following year. Follow-up surveys continued into 1947, and the results were published in 1949.
In early 1947, the surveyors visited northeastern Point Township and obtained permission to investigate a field that had a reputation of producing a wide range of archaeological material. Because the owner had just disked the field in preparation for planting corn, many artifacts had recently been brought to the surface and were readily apparent to the surveyors, such as lithic flakes, bits of human bone, and sherds of pottery. By intensively examining the surface of the field, the surveyors collected forty-three pottery sherds (including thirty-six that were shell-tempered), a projectile point, seven scrapers, four other stone tools, and a phalanx bone originating from a bovine species, either "Bos taurus" or "Bison bison".
Having found this significant collection of artifacts, the surveyors sought and obtained the owner's permission to excavate any human burials they discovered. Having found a cluster of three skeletons during one day's research, they covered them as evening approached, planning to remove them and to continue their excavations on the following day. The three bodies were those of a child and two adults (one male and one female); they were found because the adult male's tibia and fibula had been unearthed when the owner had disked his field. They had been buried in a rectangular shallow grave dug into a slope; the bodies' heads pointed at a bearing of approximately 305°. Upon their return, the archaeologists learned that their excavations were completed: overnight, the owner's religious beliefs had led him to conclude that no more excavations should be permitted, so as soon as the surveyors had finished sketching the skeletons, they followed the owner's instructions by reburying them.
Conclusions.
Based on the evidence it uncovered, the 1940s survey concluded that Ashworth was the site of a prehistoric village. The artifacts found during this survey are useful for identifying the people who lived at Ashworth: shell-tempered pottery is a hallmark of the Mississippian culture, and the inhabitants are now believed to have been members of the Caborn-Welborn culture, a Mississippian subgroup. Very similar results were found at the nearby site 12PO11, the other former village site in Section 1; as a result of the sites' similar artifacts and the extremely small distance between them, 12PO11 was thought perhaps to be an outlying portion of Ashworth.
In 1985, approximately of the Ashworth Archaeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its archaeological value. It is one of five Posey County archaeological sites on the Register and one of three in Point Township, along with an archaeological district near Hovey Lake and the major Murphy Site very close to the mouth of the Wabash.


Luther Kelly

Luther Sage "Yellowstone" Kelly (July 27, 1849 – December 17, 1928) was an American soldier, hunter, scout, adventurer and administrator. He served briefly in the American Civil War and then in an 1898 expedition to Alaska. He commanded a U.S. Army company in the Philippine–American War and later served in the civilian administration of the Philippines. On June 26, 1929 Yellowstone Kelly was laid to rest with full military honors overlooking the Yellowstone Valley in Billings, Montana after an impressive funeral procession.
Early life.
Luther Sage Kelly was born July 27, 1849, in Geneva, New York. His father, also named Luther Kelly, owned a drug and grocery store in Geneva. His mother, Jeanette Eliza Sage, was the daughter of Colonel Hezekiah Sage of nearby Chittenango. Kelly's father died on February 14, 1857, leaving him the man of the family, but the family had enough money saved to live comfortably. In either late 1864 or early 1865, Kelly entered the Geneva Wesleyan Seminary, but his real interest was in joining the army and fighting in the Civil War; he would later write that he "deplored the fact" that his youth rendered him unfit for military service at that time.
Military service.
In the spring of 1865, with the Civil War winding down, Kelly secured permission from his mother to join the Army. He traveled to Rochester, New York, where he attempted to join the Fourth New York Cavalry but was turned down due his young age (15). Later he joined the 10th Infantry by lying about his age. He was unaware that the 10th Infantry was not a volunteer corps and that he would be obliged to continue serving after the war.
Kelly was sent to City Point, Virginia. After Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox his regiment was sent to Richmond and then marched towards Washington, D.C., encamping south of the Potomac River until after the Grand Review of the Armies. Because Kelly's unit had not participated in the Grand Review, it was selected for a parade through Washington on June 8, during which Kelly served as part of the guard detail for the reviewing officer, "his first official duty of any real consequence".
Kelly's unit was stationed in Washington over the summer. In November they were moved by train to St. Paul, Minnesota to be stationed at Fort Snelling for the winter. In May, his company moved among Fort Abercrombie, Fort Wadsworth and Fort Ransom, all in the Dakota Territory. During his free time at these forts, Kelly hunted game to provide fresh meat for his fellow soldiers. In April 1868, Kelly's enlistment in the Army ended, and he was discharged at Fort Ransom.
American Western Frontier, 1868–1885.
After leaving the army, Kelly embarked on what "The New York Times" later called "the most adventurous period of his life", establishing himself as "one of the greatest hunters, trappers, and Indian scouts" of the American West. He first traveled to Fort Garry, now Winnipeg in Canada, where he joined a group of miners, traveling with them to the Red River, where he spent the winter. He left the miners to cross the Assiniboine River, falling in with a group headed toward the Mouse River. After meeting Sitting Bull with this group, Kelly headed alone toward the Missouri River, eventually reaching Fort Buford in the winter.
Not long after his arrival at Fort Buford, Kelly volunteered to carry dispatches to Fort Stevenson, approximately fifty miles down the Missouri River. He left the fort on February 5, 1869. The route between the forts was considered so dangerous, due to the presence of Sioux warriors, that mail carriers were generally accompanied by a cavalry escort, but Kelly set out alone. He arrived safely at Fort Stevenson then set out on his return journey, spending the night at the camp of Bloody Knife, an Arickaree chieftain. The next morning, Kelly was ambushed by two Sioux warriors. The first wounded Kelly's horse with a rifle, while the second shot Kelly in the knee with an arrow. Kelly managed to shoot and kill the first attacker quickly, but the second took cover behind a tree. Kelly eventually shot and killed his second assailant, then returned to Bloody Knife's camp to tell the story. Kelly spent a few days at Bloody Knife's camp recovering from his wound, then rode back to Fort Buford, becoming "something of a hero and a local celebrity" for defeating his two assailants.
Alaska expedition, 1898.
Although the United States had purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867, Americans were not interested in it until gold was discovered there in 1896. In 1898 the U.S. Army deployed three separate units under the commands of Captains Bogardus Eldridge, William R. Abercrombie, and Edwin F. Glenn to map a route from the Yukon, scout the Copper River Valley, and conduct reconnaissance. They would begin near the Prince William Sound and work toward the interior. Kelly was assigned to Glenn's unit as an interpreter and guide.
Departing Seattle by ship on April 7, 1898, they arrived along the Alaskan coastline approximately five days later. While unloading and preparing for the expedition, they received news of the outbreak of the Spanish–American War on April 23. Eldridge's unit was ordered to return to its regiment, while Abercrombie and Glenn's parties were to continue their assigned missions. Although the other soldiers were eager to return to their regiments to join the war, they reasoned that it would be mostly a naval war with little role for the Army. Support for the expedition dwindled in light of the American public's enthusiasm for the war. In accordance with President William McKinley's request for additional men for the war, Kelly was offered a commission as a captain in the U.S. Volunteers. Kelly departed Alaska on October 9, and Glenn's unit continued its mission until November 10. By the time Kelly arrived back in Seattle the war had ended, and with it his captaincy.
The Army's expedition into Alaska was largely overshadowed by the war in the public eye and in contemporary historians' accounts. It made possible the completion in 1923 of the Alaska Railroad, which followed the route mapped by the 1898 expedition. A year later came the maritime Harriman Alaska Expedition.
Philippine–American War.
In August 1899 Kelly received another commission as a captain, this time with the Army's 40th Volunteers, following Congress's authorization of an increase in the Army by 35,000 men to put down the insurgency in the Philippines. This war, unlike the six-month war with Spain with 500 combat deaths, "would drag on for three long years" and cost the lives of over 4,000 U.S. servicemen.
The 40th Regiment departed from Fort Riley, Kansas, by train in November 1899 for California. After two weeks there, they shipped out from the Presidio, arriving in the Philippines in late December 1899. Kelly's company was under the command of Brigadier General James Bell, who had served with Kelly during the Nez Perce campaigns of the Indian Wars. Captain Kelly's company aboard the vessel "Venus" departed Manila along with four other transports headed for the shores of San Miguel Bay. From there the companies began their marches inland to clear the areas of insurgents.
Kelly's company met heavy resistance on the outskirts of the town of LaLud. Insurgents under the command of a Colonel Legaspi opened fire on Kelly's advancing infantrymen with two field guns, but Kelly's men managed to kill the enemy artillerymen and silence the guns. With heavy foliage flanking the enemy's position, Kelly led a frontal assault and routed them. In the process, Kelly captured Legaspi's ceremonial Spanish sword.
Kelly later served in the administration of the new civilian governor of the Philippines, future President William Howard Taft. By 1903, as Kelly wrote to a friend, "I have been in the Philippines so long now (3 years) ... this country is a wearing one. ... my health is excellent, but three years is the limit." On November 15, 1903, Kelly was relieved of his duties in the Philippines and ordered to report back to Washington, D.C., for his next assignment, as Indian Agent for the San Carlos Indian Reservation in Arizona.
Post-military life.
In 1915, after a few years gold mining in Nevada, Kelly settled permanently in Paradise, California, where, on 17 December 1928, he died. He was buried on a high bluff along the Yellowstone River just north of Billings Montana with the sword he captured from Legaspi at LaLud. "I feel my body will rest better in Montana, the scene of my earlier activities, than it would in the vastness of Arlington, where I purposed having it laid." The bluff, within the boundaries of Swords Rimrock Park (City of Billings Parks & Recreation), is now referred to as Kelly Mountain.
Legacy.
The Billings Chamber of Commerce is currently working to create the Yellowstone Kelly Interpretive Site in Billings, Montana. This is after numerous acts of vandalism at his grave site throughout the years. In 2018 the Gold Nugget Museum in Paradise, California dedicated a memorial walking trail as the "Yellowstone Kelly Heritage Trail". This trail honors Kelly and also the founding families of the Town of Paradise.


27th Parliament of British Columbia

The 27th Legislative Assembly of British Columbia sat from 1964 to 1966. The members were elected in the British Columbia general election held in September 1963. The Social Credit Party led by W. A. C. Bennett formed the government. The New Democratic Party (NDP) led by Robert Strachan formed the official opposition.
William Harvey Murray served as speaker for the assembly.
Members of the 27th General Assembly.
The following members were elected to the assembly in 1963:
Notes:
By-elections.
None.


Old Man House

Old Man House was the largest "bighouse" (a type of longhouse) in what is now the U.S. state of Washington, and once stood on the shore of Puget Sound. Lying at the center of the Suquamish winter village on Agate Pass, just south of the present-day town of Suquamish, it was home to Chief Sealth (Chief Seattle) and Chief Kitsap.
History.
The name of the site in Lushootseed was D'Suq'Wub (dxʷsuqʼʷabš), meaning "clear salt water," and is the source of the name of the Suquamish people. The name "Old Man House" comes from the Chinook Jargon word "oleman" meaning "old, worn out", but also meaning "from the old times". "House" in the Chinook Jargon referred to any kind of building, or even to individual rooms within them.
Archeological investigations have revealed that the village site was occupied for at least 2000 years. Accounts vary as to when the longhouse itself was constructed; many sources indicate it was built in the late 18th or early 19th century, but it might have been built earlier. Reports of the longhouse's size also vary, putting its length between 600 and 1000 feet (approximately 200–300 m).
The lands around Old Man House were retained by the Suquamish tribe after the Point Elliott Treaty was signed in 1855, becoming the Port Madison Indian Reservation. However, the longhouse was burned by the U.S. government in 1870, after Seattle's death. The destruction of the longhouse was intended to encourage the Suquamish to spread out across their reservation and take up farming. After it was burned, the Suquamish rebuilt their village at the site and continued to live there. In 1886 the federal government divided the reservation into allotments which were assigned to individual Suquamish families. In 1904 the U.S. War Department acquired land along Agate Pass, including the site of Old Man House, to build fortifications to protect the new naval shipyards at Bremerton. The village site had to be moved, and the tribe lost much of its water access. The fortifications were never built, and the land purchased by the military was eventually sold in 1937 to a private developer and subdivided for vacation homes. In 1950, the Washington Parks and Recreation Department purchased an acre of waterfront where Old Man House had been located and set it aside as a state park. The park was returned to the Suquamish Tribe on August 12, 2004.


Johan van Rensselaer

Johan van Rensselaer also Johannes van Rensselaer (Amsterdam, 4 September 1625 – Nijkerk , 6 May 1663), second patroon of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, was the eldest son of Kiliaen van Rensselaer, and his only son by his first wife, Hillegonda van Bylaer.
Life.
Being a minor of about nineteen years when his father died in 1643, the estates in Holland and at Rensselaerswyck were placed in charge of executors, Johan's first cousin Wouter van Twiller and Johan van Wely. The executors attempted to have Johannes confirmed as Patroon, but the partners prevented it. Van Twiller and Van Wely then appointed Brant Aertsz van Slichtenhorst as Director of Rensselaerwyck. Samuel Blommaert and Joannes de Laet tried to get more influence in the colony, as both owned one fifth and opened a legal case.
Patroon.
In 1650, when he was 25 years old, Johannes became head of the family. The States-General of the Netherlands decided in the same year that he was allowed to keep his title and call himself "patron" of Rensselaerswyck, and that the Patroon be more accountable to the shareholders. Among the papers of the New York Public Library is a letter from Johan Rensselaer, Patroon of Rensselaerwyck and his partners to the Burgomasters of Amsterdam seeking intervention to correct abuses by Governor Stuyvesant against the liberties of the colony, an apparent reference to the Governor's 1648 dispute with Van Slechtenhorst at Fort Orange.
Johannes never visited Rensselaerswyck. His brother Jan Baptist van Rensselaer and their 19-year-old brother Jeremias sailed from Amsterdam sometime after March 20, 1651 on the "Gelderse Blom" (Gelderland Flower) to organize the estate. With them travelled a dozen employees hired by the Patroon, recruited from places where the Van Rensselaers had other interests.
In 1656, the director general and council in New Amsterdam announced plans to begin collecting tithes, which heretofore had been collected by the patroonship for the support of the Dutch Reformed minister. Jan Baptist, as Director, submitted a remonstrance in which he pointed out that under the 1629 charter, Rensselaerwyck was exempt. The patron and his partners in Amsterdam lodged a protest, but the West India Company procrastinated until the English seized control in 1664.
Personal life.
In 1655 Johannes married his cousin Elizabeth van Twiller and they had two children:
Johan died on May 6, 1663 and his children went under the guardianship of their uncle Jan Baptist.


Return J. Meigs Sr.

Return Jonathan Meigs [born December 17 (old style) or 28th (new style), 1740; died January 28, 1823], a colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, was one of the settlers of the Northwest Territory in what is now the state of Ohio. He later served the federal government as an Indian agent working with the Cherokee in southeastern Tennessee.
Early life and service in American Revolution.
Meigs was born in Middletown, Connecticut, on December 17, 1740, to Jonathan Meigs and Elizabeth Hamlin Meigs. Their thirteen children included his brother Josiah Meigs. His father was a hatter. As a young man, Meigs entered a mercantile business. He married Joanna Winborn in 1764. Before her death in 1773, they had four children, including Return Jonathan Meigs, Jr.. In 1774, Meigs married Grace Starr, with whom he had three children, of whom two survived.
Meigs served in the local militia, achieving the rank of lieutenant in 1772 and promoted to captain in 1774. On April 19, 1775, after the Battle of Lexington, he led a company of light infantry to Boston. There he was appointed major in the 2nd Connecticut Regiment, a provincial regiment of the Continental Army. Later that year, serving as a division (battalion) commander under Colonel Benedict Arnold, he accompanied Arnold on his 1,100-man expedition through Maine to Canada. He kept a journal of the expedition, making the ink by mixing powder and water in the palm of his hand. Meigs was captured by the British in the assault on Quebec City and imprisoned, but was paroled on May 16, 1776, by British General Guy Carleton. He was acknowledged to have given decent treatment to a British prisoner, Captain Law, Carleton's chief engineer. Meigs returned to Connecticut by way of Halifax.
After Meigs was formally exchanged on January 10, 1777, he returned to active service as major of the 3rd Connecticut Regiment of the newly organized Connecticut Line. Meigs was appointed lieutenant colonel of Sherburne's Additional Continental Regiment on February 10, 1777. On May 12 of that year, he was sent to command the 6th Connecticut Regiment when its colonel, William Douglas, became incapacitated by ill health.
One of his most important achievements during the Revolutionary War was leading the Meigs Raid against the British forces in Sag Harbor, New York, in May 1777. With just 220 men in a fleet of 13 whaleboats, he crossed Long Island Sound from Connecticut to Long Island to attack the British fleet at night. The raid succeeded in burning twelve ships and taking ninety prisoners without losing a single man. The U.S. Congress awarded Meigs a presentation sword for his heroism. Colonel Douglas died on May 28, and Governor Trumbull of Connecticut appointed Meigs as the new colonel of the 6th Connecticut on September 10, 1777, with rank counted from May 12th.
When a Corps of Light Infantry was formed under General Anthony Wayne in July 1779, Meigs was given command of its 3rd Regiment, which he led at the Battle of Stony Point. Following its disbandment in December, he returned to the 6th Connecticut and became acting commander of the 1st Connecticut Brigade. In that capacity, he put down an incipient mutiny and received the written thanks of General George Washington. On January 1, 1781, the Continental Main Army was reorganized and many of its regiments were consolidated. As a result, the Connecticut Line was reduced from eight to five regiments and four colonels, including Meigs, were retired.
Ohio.
After the Revolution, Meigs was appointed surveyor of the Ohio Company of Associates. In April 1788, at age 47, he was one of a party of pioneers to the Northwest Territory from New England. They reached the confluence of the Muskingum and Ohio rivers, where he participated in the founding of Marietta, Ohio. Meigs drafted the code of regulations used for governance until the formal creation of the Northwest Territory the following year.
Subsequently, he entered political life, being appointed as a territorial judge, a justice of the peace, and clerk of the Court of Quarter Sessions. In 1795, he served the army under General Anthony Wayne, as a commissary of clothing in the western country. In 1799, Meigs was elected as a member of the Ohio territorial legislature, serving until 1801.
Tennessee.
In 1801, Meigs went to Tennessee to fill the combined position of US Indian agent to the Cherokee Nation and military agent for the United States War Department. Initially his office and the Cherokee Agency were at Fort Southwest Point, in what is now Kingston, Tennessee. In 1807 he relocated these operations to a new post further south, named Hiwassee Garrison. It was near the mouth of the Hiwassee River, at its confluence with the Tennessee River. Charles R. Hicks, a mixed-race (European and Cherokee) and bilingual Cherokee, worked as his interpreter for some time. Hicks later became a chief of the Cherokee.
Meigs' role as military agent ended in 1813 when the Federal soldiers stationed at Hiwassee Garrison were withdrawn. He continued as Cherokee agent on the Hiwassee River until his death on January 28, 1823. The government's trading or factory operations were linked with Indian relations in the War Department during these years. As Cherokee agent, Meigs promoted the well-being of the Cherokee, defended their rights in treaty negotiations, and encouraged Cherokee efforts to establish a republican form of government. His death was attributed to pneumonia contracted from sleeping outdoors in a tent while giving a visiting Indian chief his own living quarters.
Meigs is buried in the Garrison Cemetery in Rhea County, Tennessee, near the site of the former Hiwassee Garrison.
Legacy.
His son Return J. Meigs, Jr. was elected as Ohio governor and later, by the legislature, as U.S. Senator. A grandson, Return J. Meigs IV, married Jennie Ross, daughter of principal Cherokee chief John Ross. They emigrated with her father to Indian Territory in 1838, forced out on the Trail of Tears.
Two Tennessee place names honor Meigs: Meigs County, which was formed in 1836 from part of Rhea County, and Meigs Mountain in the Great Smoky Mountains.


Battle of Fort Niagara

The Battle of Fort Niagara was a siege late in the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. The British siege of Fort Niagara in July 1759 was part of a campaign to remove French control of the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley regions, making possible a western invasion of the French province of Canada in conjunction with General James Wolfe's invasion to the east.
Background.
British General Jeffery Amherst made plans for the 1759 military campaigns of the Seven Years' War that included an expedition to capture Fort Niagara, a major French military and supply point between the French province of Canada and their forts in the Ohio Valley. Amherst chose Brigadier General John Prideaux to lead the expedition, which also included Sir William Johnson, the British Indian agent who led the expedition's Iroquois forces.
Fort Niagara had been largely constructed under the direction of Captain Pierre Pouchot of the French Army. In early 1759, General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and New France's Governor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, sent him with about 2,500 men to fortify Niagara beyond the 500 men that had wintered there. Pouchot, under orders from Vaudreuil, sent many of those men south to Fort Machault in mid-June as part of a plan to reinforce the French forts of the Ohio Country and attack the British at Fort Pitt. The forces left to defend Niagara consisted of about 200 men from the regiments of Royal Roussillon, Languedoc, La Sarre, and Béarn, 20 artillerymen, and about 300 provincial troops and militia.
Prideaux's British Army troops consisted of the 44th and 46th Regiments, and two companies from the 60th, numbering about 2,200 men. He also commanded 2500 provincial militia from New York and 700 from Rhode Island. Delayed by high water on the Mohawk River and the late arrival of some of the provincial companies, the expedition did not begin leaving Schenectady until mid-May. On 27 June the army arrived at Fort Oswego, where they were joined by Johnson and about 600 Iroquois.
Leaving men behind to garrison Oswego, Prideaux departed on 1 July for Niagara with about 3,200 men. While the French had ships patrolling Lake Ontario for British movements, inattention on the part of one of the crews allowed the British flotilla to avoid discovery. They arrived at Fort Niagara on 6 July, landed near a marsh out of sight of the fort, and immediately began siege operations.
Siege.
The French had about one hundred Iroquois allies at the Fort who withdrew to meet with the fellow Iroquois who had accompanied the British. Captain Pouchot directed a vigorous defense.
Prideaux was killed when a shell fragment from one of his own guns hit him, and command of the British forces fell to Sir William Johnson. Johnson was a provincial officer and not in the regular army, and thus there was some question of his right to take command. But Sir William held a royal colonel's commission in his role as commander of the Iroquois auxiliaries, and so he insisted on remaining in command after a lower-ranking regular army officer, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Haldimand, arrived on the scene.
The French capitulated on 26 July after a French relief force was defeated at the Battle of La Belle-Famille two miles south of the fort.
Aftermath.
The capitulation of Fort Niagara occurred on the same day that French troops abandoned Fort Carillon to an overwhelming British army under General Amherst.
Following the surrender of Fort Niagara, the French abandoned other forts in the frontier, recalling garrisons to defend the populated areas of Canada. Forts abandoned by the French includes Fort St. Frédéric (in present day Crown Point) and Fort Rouillé (in present day Toronto). Fort St. Frédéric was destroyed as French troops abandoned Lake Champlain to protect the Canadian heartland. The garrison at Fort Rouillé was instructed to evacuate the area, and burn the fort should Fort Niagara fall. After the British captured Fort Niagara, the French garrison burned Fort Rouillé, and withdrew to Montreal. The remaining French forts in the Ohio and Illinois Country were eventually turned over to British forces.
In the same month, Montcalm led the defences against British General James Wolfe in the three-month siege of Quebec City. The colonial capital was taken in September 1759 at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. During the next year, attempts were made by the French to recapture Quebec City, although their attempts were rebuffed with the arrival of British reinforcements. A year later after a two month campaign, Montreal was conquered by the British in September 1760, the administration of New France signed the Articles of Capitulation surrendering the colony of Canada to the British. The signing of the Articles of Capitulation saw the end of major combat operations in the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.


John Rope

John Rope (circa 1855/1863 – 8 August 1944, born Tlodilhil (Black Rope) was a White Mountain Apache clan leader and Apache scout who received a medal of honor. Rope was born somewhere between Old Summit and Black River, Arizona, but says his earliest memories are from his time near Cedar Creek, which is just west of Fort Apache. Rope's father was Nayundiie, a White Mountain Apache clan leader. He was foster brother to Mickey Free.
Rope went to San Carlos in mid-1870 while in his early twenties to enlist along with his brother and Yavapais, Tonto Apaches, San Carlos Apaches, and other White Mountain Apaches. He and his brother shared a horse and rode double to reach their destination. Rope stated that he had joined the army "in order to help the whites against the Chiricahuas because they had killed a lot of people." Rope rode as a scout for General George Crook during the Apache wars.
During his time as a scout Rope attempted to arrest Casador (Casadora, Nànt'àntco - "great chief") a Western Apache, who was chief of the San Carlos Apaches. Casador had turned renegade after shooting and killing a woman and a man. He had dug in at Black Mesa and during the encounter with Rope one of the other Apache scouts was killed after Casador's warriors had opened fire upon them. Rope was with Crook during the capture of Chihuahua in the Sierra Madres and gave an account of the killing of Chihuahua's aunt by other scouts which resulted in the death of a young white captive boy by name of Charley McComas. Rope was extensively interviewed by Grenville Goodwin in later life. Rope was buried in Bylas, Arizona following his death and was given a full United States military honors burial, by the U.S. Army scouts based in Fort Huachuca. He was the first Apache scout to receive this honor.


Treaty of the Wabash

The Treaty of the Wabash was an agreement between the United States government and Native American Miami tribes in Indiana on November 28, 1840.
On November 28, 1840, the United States government entered negotiations with the Miami tribe of northwestern Indiana seeking to purchase their land for white settlement. The United States was represented by two commissioners, Samuel Milroy, and Allen Hamilton. The United States had already purchased the Miami claim to the region in the Treaty at the Forks of the Wabash, and the Pottawatomie were the only natives who still held a claim in the region. The land purchased was in the region of the headwaters of the Wabash in north central Indiana, and constituted no more than about 500,000 acres.
Art. 1. The Miami Tribe of Indians do hereby cede to the United States all that tract of land on the south side of the Wabash river, not heretofore ceded, and commonly known as "the residue of the Big Reserve." Being all of their remaining lands in Indiana.
In exchange, the government promised a payment of $550,000. The first $300,000 would be used immediately to pay the debts of the tribe as outlined in the treaties additional articles. The remaining $250,000 would be paid in annual installments over 20 years. The debts included the traditional debts in individual debts to local traders as well as its debts to tribal leaders; $25,000 John B. Richardville and $15,000 to the estate of Francis Godfroy.
The annual payments were to be paid at Fort Wayne until the tribe emigrate to lands west of the Mississippi. Additionally, the treaty confirmed land transfers that were granted in the treaty of 6 November 1838. An additional grant was made to Richardville of lands at the Forks of the Wabash.
The tribe agreed to accept designated lands in the Indian Territory, present day Oklahoma in as a final place of settlement.


Bolivarian countries

The Bolivarian countries are six Hispanic American countries (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Venezuela) whose republican origin is attributed to the ideals of Simón Bolívar and independence war led by the Venezuelan military in the viceroyalties of New Granada and Peru.
Although Bolivar had nothing to do with Independence of Panama from Spain, let alone the emergence of Panama as an autonomous and independent republic (1903), this country is considered Bolivarian as it proclaimed its independence in 1821. Panamanian patriots voluntarily joined the old provinces of Veraguas and Panama into Gran Colombia and once it dissolved in 1830, the territory remained part of Colombia until 1903. In addition, Bolívar chose Panama to host the Amphictyonic Congress. Meanwhile, in 1824 Bolívar consolidated, with the battles of Junín and Ayacucho, the Independence of Peru, which had been initiated by José de San Martín, who in 1821 had declared independence and established the Republic of Peru.
The links between these countries have come through economic alliances and international treaties such as the Andean Community, which since 1939 brought together those countries except Panama and to which belonged Chile and Venezuela. Similarly, there are cultural and sporting organizations such as Bolivarian Sports Organization, that since 1938, have organized the Bolivarian Games every four years.
History.
Faithful to his ideals of American unity, with much effort executed Bolívar integration into a single republic, of Colombia (known historiographically as Gran Colombia) with a unitary model, three former entities of Spanish rule, formed by the Viceroyalty of New Granada (currently Colombia and Panama), the Captaincy General of Venezuela (Venezuela) and the Quito (Ecuador), led by Colonel José de Fabrega to then,
On the other hand, the Independence of Panama from Spain was certainly an act of another movement of Simón Bolívar. The isthmus of Panama proclaimed its independence on November 28, 1821 and voluntarily joined the Gran Colombia, due to the sympathy of the Isthmian leadership to the ideals of Bolívar.
With respect to Peru, in 1824, Simón Bolívar achieved military victories in the battles of Junín (August 6) and Ayacucho (December 9) to the royalist troops who dominated the viceroyalty obtaining the signature of the Spanish capitulation recognized the Peruvian independence, emancipatory action initiated in 1821 by José de San Martín who declared independence and established the Republic of Peru.
As for Bolivia, from 1809, the secessionist struggle against Spain began, which lasted until 1825. Marshall Sucre sent Bolívar called a Congress which declared absolute independence of that country, gave the name "Bolívar Republic", named Simón Bolívar "Liberator" and gave the supreme political power (position rejected).
In 1830, the secession of the member nations of the Gran Colombia began, when the Bolivarian dream of the American union, declined as did his life. After Venezuela and Ecuador decided to secede, Panama made the same decision on September 26, 1830. This situation continued until December 11 of that year, when under a gesture of Bolivar, it rejoined the Gran Colombia. Simón Bolívar died on December 17. After the dissolution of the union, Panama was part of the Republic of Colombia until its final separation on November 3, 1903. This was caused by Colombia's rejection of Hay–Herrán Treaty, the crisis of Panama following the Thousand Days' War and strategic intervention United States on isthmus. Also in that country, Bolívar specified about the Amphictyonic Congress, which in 1826 he sought to create a confederation of American countries in defense of the continent against the League of the Holy Alliance, by forming an army of 60,000 soldiers with proportional quotas to defend themselves from Spain.


All Pines

All Pines was a village in the Stann Creek District of Belize. It functioned as a shipping port during the 19th and 20th centuries, supplying pine wood for builders in Belize and other locations along the coast. Cheaper pine wood from the United States led to the decline of All Pines during the mid-20th century, and the village was completely abandoned in the 1960s. In 1946, the population of All Pines, including the nearby village of Sittee River, was 538.


Battle of Santa Rita de Morelos

The Battle of Santa Rita de Morelos or Battle of Morelos (24-25 March1840) was between insurgents under the command of General Antonio Canales fighting for the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Centralists under the command of General Mariano Arista fighting for the First Mexican Republic. The result was a victory for the Centralists.
Battle.
The respective armies of the insurgents met at Morelos, Coahuila on the 24-25 March 1840. The Centralist Mexican forces defeated the insurgent forces. Included in this defeat was the trial and execution of 23 members of the insurgents' cavalry, including Colonel Jose Antonio de Zapata, the commander of the cavalry, on the 29 March.
Aftermath.
General Canales and the remaining insurgents that survived the Battle of Morelos sought refuge in San Antonio, Texas. Later that year Canales organized an expedition back into Mexico, but the vanguard under the command of Samuel Jordan met with defeat at the hands of a Centralist force under General Rafael Vasquez near Saltillo. Jordan and his command retreated back into Texas and soon afterwards Canales capitulated to the Centralists.


Whitmell P. Martin

Whitmell Pugh Martin (August 12, 1867 – April 6, 1929) was a U.S. Representative from Louisiana. Although he later served most of his congressional career as a Democrat, Martin was first elected as a "Bull Moose" Progressive in 1914. He is the only individual ever to represent Louisiana in Congress as a member of that party.
Born near Napoleonville, Assumption Parish, Louisiana, to Robert Campbell Martin and Margerite Chism (Littlejohn) Martin, Whitmell attended the public schools and was privately tutored. He graduated from the Louisiana State University in 1888. He was a professor of chemistry at Kentucky Military Institute in 1889 and 1890. He worked as a chemist for Imperial Sugar at Sugar Land, Texas, in 1890 and 1891.
Martin studied law at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1891 and 1892. He was admitted to the bar in 1892 and commenced practice in Napoleonville, Louisiana. He moved to Thibodaux, Louisiana, the same year and continued the practice of law. From 1894 to 1900, he was superintendent of schools for Lafourche Parish, Louisiana. On April 14, 1896 he married Amy Williamson. He served as district attorney for the 20th judicial district of Louisiana from 1900 to 1906 and judge of the same district from 1906 to 1914.
Elected in 1914 as a "Bull Moose" Progressive to the Sixty-fourth and Sixty-fifth Congresses, Martin was the last non-Democrat to represent Louisiana in Congress prior to the election of Republican David C. Treen, also from Louisiana's 3rd congressional district, in 1972. Martin was the only individual to represent Louisiana in Congress during the 20th century without being a member of either the Democratic Party or the Republican Party. In 1916 he narrowly won re-election against Sheriff Wade O. Martin, Sr. by 99 votes, less than a percent separating the two lead candidates.
In 1918, he sought re-election as a Democrat to the Sixty-sixth Congress, and continued as a Democrat through the ensuing five congressional elections, all of them uncontested. Martin thus served in Congress from March 4, 1915 until his death in Washington, D.C., on April 6, 1929. He was a delegate, representing his congressional district, to the 1920 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. Martin was an Episcopalian as well as a Freemason.
Martin was interred in St. John's Episcopal Cemetery, Thibodaux, Louisiana.


Timeline of Arizona history

This timeline is a chronology of significant events in the history of the U.S. State of Arizona and the historical area now occupied by the state.
References.
References are included in the linked articles.


Hamilton Fish Kean

Hamilton Fish Kean (February 27, 1862December 27, 1941) was a U.S. Senator from New Jersey.
Early life.
Kean was the son of Lucy (née Halstead) and John Kean. He was related to several prominent American politicians including his great-grandfather John Kean (1756–1795), his brother John Kean (1852–1914). He was named after his great-uncle Hamilton Fish.
Kean was born at "Ursino", his ancestral estate near Elizabeth, New Jersey. He attended the public schools of Elizabeth, graduated from St. Paul's School, Concord, New Hampshire.
Career.
Kean engaged in banking and agricultural pursuits. In 1893, along with Robert V. Van Cortlandt he formed the investment firm of Kean & Van Cortlandt, which later became Kean, Taylor & Co.
From 1919 to 1928, Kean was a member of the Republican National Committee. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Republican nomination for United States Senator in 1924 and was elected to the Senate in 1928, serving a single six-year term before a failed re-election bid, losing to former Governor A. Harry Moore.
After his political career, he worked in banking until his death in 1941. Kean was elected to the Board of Directors of the National Commercial Title and Mortgage Guarantee Company, the Associated Company, the Lawyers Title Guarantee Company of New Jersey, and the Plainfield-Union Water Company
Personal life.
On January 12, 1888, Kean was married to Katharine Taylor Winthrop (1866–1943). Katharine was the daughter of banker Robert Winthrop and Katherine (née Taylor) Winthrop and the sister of Beekman Winthrop, who served as Asst. Secretary of the Navy and Asst. Secretary of the Treasury. The Winthrops were descendantants of John Winthrop, the Puritan lawyer and one of the leading figures in the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Together, they were the parents of:
Kean died on December 27, 1941 at St. Luke's Hospital in New York City. After a funeral at Grace Church in New York, he was interred in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn.