Ars grammatica

An ars grammatica () is a generic or proper title for surveys of Latin grammar. The first "ars grammatica" seems to have been composed by Remmius Palaemon (first century CE), but is now lost. The most famous "ars grammatica" since late antiquity has been that composed by Donatus.
Extant works known as "Ars grammatica" have been written by
Donatus' "Ars Grammatica".
Two "artes grammaticae" circulate under the name Donatus. The first, the "Ars Minor", is a brief overview of the eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, and interjection ("nomen, pronomen, verbum, adverbium, participium, conjunctio, praepositio, interjectio"). The text is presented entirely in a question-and-answer format (e.g. "How many numbers does a noun have?" "Two: singular and plural.").
Donatus' "Ars Major" is only a little longer, but on a much more elevated plane. It consists of a list of stylistic faults and graces, including tropes such as metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, and sarcasm. Donatus also includes schemes such as zeugma and anaphora.
Diomedes' "Ars Grammatica".
The "Ars Grammatica" or "De Oratione et Partibus Orationis et Vario Genere Metrorum libri III" by Diomedes Grammaticus is a Latin grammatical treatise. Diomedes probably wrote in the late 4th century AD. The treatise is dedicated to a certain Athanasius.
The third book on poetry is particularly valuable, containing extracts from Suetonius' "De poetica". This book contains one of the most complete lists of types of dactylic hexameters in antiquity, including the "teres versus", which may be the so-called golden line.
The "Ars" of Diomedes still exists in a complete form (although probably abridged). It was first published in a collection of Latin Grammarians printed at Venice by Nicolas Jenson in about 1476. The best edition of Diomedes's "Ars Grammatica" is in "Grammatici Latini" vol. I by Heinrich Keil.
Alcuin's "Ars Grammatica".
In around the 790s, Alcuin of York composed an "Ars grammatica" as the first of a group of four "opera didascalica" ('educational works') in question-and-answer form rooted in Donatus's "Ars grammatica". The other three texts were "De orthographia", "Ars rhetorica", and "De dialectica". Alcuin's "Ars grammatica" begins with a section "Disputatio de vera philosophia" ('dialogue on true philosophy'). In the assessment of Rita Copeland and Ineke Sluiter, 'the content of these works is highly derivative, but the pedagogy is innovative, and the way in which the work of compilation has been executed gives a new ideological twist to traditional material'.


List of Pennsylvania state historical markers in Schuylkill County

This is a list of the Pennsylvania state historical markers in Schuylkill County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission (PHMC). The locations of the historical markers, as well as the latitude and longitude coordinates as provided by the PHMC's database, are included below when available. There are 25 historical markers located in Schuylkill County.


Herbert Windt

Herbert Windt (15 September 1894, Senftenberg, Brandenburg – 2 November 1965, Deisenhofen, now a part of Oberhaching, Bavaria) was a German composer who became one of the most significant film score composers of the Third Reich. He was best known for his collaborations with the director Leni Riefenstahl on films "Triumph of the Will" and "Olympia".
Biography.
Windt studied at the Sternsches Konservatorium in Berlin but left to enlist in the army at the start of World War I. Severely wounded, he spent two years in hospital, during which he began composing chamber music.
In 1920 Windt received a grant to study with the renowned Franz Schreker in the composer's master class at the Berlin Academy of Music. Windt joined the NSDAP in 1931. A grant by the government of the Weimar Republic led to his opera "Andromache", which was first performed in 1932. An UFA film producer in the audience took notice of Windt's music. Windt was offered a commission to write the music for UFA's 1933 film "Morgenrot" (Red Morning), a story about a gallant World War I U-boat crew.
Windt became one of the most significant film score composers of the Third Reich along with Wolfgang Zeller, Michael Jary, Franz Grothe, and Georg Haentzschel. He composed music for several Nazi public events and radio programs. He was best known for his collaborations with Leni Riefenstahl, the director of "Triumph of the Will" (1934/35), "Olympia" (1938), and "Tiefland" (1945/54), but he also worked with directors like Wolfgang Liebeneiner ("Die Entlassung"), Georg Wilhelm Pabst ("Paracelsus"), Frank Wisbar ("The Unknown", "Fährmann Maria", ""), and Gustav Ucicky ("Morgenrot").
Windt's film scores for propaganda films drew the attention of the sociologist Siegfried Kracauer, who analysed the composer's works in the tracts ' and '.
Despite the warm reception for his music in Nazi party circles, Windt himself fell into disfavor with the rulers of Germany in that period. He was completely cleared in the post-war de-Nazification trials.


David Bader (writer)

David M. Bader is the author of such works as "The Book of Murray: The Life, Teachings, and Kvetching of the Lost Prophet" (Harmony Books, 2010)," "Haiku U.: From Aristotle to Zola, Great Books in 17 Syllables" (Gotham Books, 2004) "Haikus for Jews: For You a Little Wisdom" (Harmony Books, 1999), "" (Harmony Books, 2002) and "Haiku U.: From Aristotle to Zola, Great Books in 17 Syllables" (Gotham Books, 2004). He also wrote "How to Be an Extremely Reform Jew" (Avon Books, 1994) and has contributed to the Mirth of a Nation humor anthologies. A graduate of Harvard College and Harvard Law School and a former attorney, David M. Bader lives and writes in New York City.
Tom Magliozzi read selections from two of Bader's books, Haikus for Jews and Zen Judaism, on NPR's Car Talk.
Excerpts from Bader's books have been widely circulated on the web and in e-mail, in most cases without permission. As William Novak notes in , "David M. Bader has written several clever little books, including Haikus for Jews. We want to mention his name because for years, his work has been all over the Internet without attribution. (From Bader’s Zen Judaism, we offer you this gem: 'If there is no self, whose arthritis is this?')


Top Gear (video game)

Top Gear is a racing video game for the Super NES, published by Kemco and developed by Gremlin Graphics in 1992. The objective of the game is to become the fastest driver in the world by racing other drivers across several nations. The franchise is unrelated to the TV series of the same name.
It marks the first game in the "Top Gear" racing game franchise, and it is one of the first racing games to be released on the Super NES. This game and its next two sequels were created by the same developers as the similar "Lotus" series of games released earlier on the Commodore Amiga and Sega Mega Drive systems.
Gameplay.
When players first start the game, they are given several options to choose from, including entering their name, a choice of four different controller layouts, a choice between automatic or manual transmission, and their choice of four unique cars. During the race, the player will have to steer and shift gears (if they chose a manual transmission). The player is also given control over three "nitros", which allow the player to increase their speed for a short period of time. The game features a password save system, made up of automotive terms such as "gear box" and "oilcloth". Each password grants access to another country to race in. During the race, there are pits in which players must stop in order to refuel. If their car runs out of fuel and coasts to a stop before the race is finished, the player will be disqualified.
Development and release.
The music in "Top Gear" mostly consists of remixed tracks from the "Lotus series" of racing games on the Amiga produced by Barry Leitch. For example, the title music of "Top Gear" is taken from the ending of "Lotus Turbo Challenge 2", and the third race of each country uses a remixed version of the "Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge" title theme.
The game, along with several other retro titles, was released by Piko Interactive on a multi-cart for the Evercade handheld gaming system in 2020.
Reception.
"Top Gear" was met with positive reception from critics and reviewers alike since its release.
Legacy.
The game became very popular in Brazil. It inspired Brazilian company Aquiris Game Studio to create the arcade racing game "Horizon Chase - World Tour", which features an original soundtrack scored by "Top Gear" composer Barry Leitch, who also contributes an unlockable remix of the "Top Gear" main title theme.


Christ Church Cathedral (Montreal)

Christ Church Cathedral is an Anglican Gothic Revival cathedral in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, the seat of the Anglican Diocese of Montreal. It is located at 635 Saint Catherine Street West, between Avenue Union and Boulevard Robert-Bourassa. It is situated on top of the Promenades Cathédrale underground shopping mall, and south of Tour KPMG. It was classified as by the government of Quebec on May 12, 1988. In 1999, it was designated a National Historic Site of Canada.
History.
An Anglican ministry first began in Montreal in 1760. Services were held in chapels of the Roman Catholic Church for the first half-century. In 1789, the Anglican congregation of Montreal received a former Jesuit church, renaming it as Christ Church. The building was used by the congregation until 1803, when it was destroyed in a fire. The clergyman was appointed by Dorchester as garrison chaplain of Montreal in 1766, with inaugural service in Christ Church was pronounced by him on 20 December 1789. The first Christ Church was in fact the repaired and re-dedicated Jesuit church. So it was the second church building that was constructed in 1814.
In 1850, the second Christ Church was designated as the cathedral for the new Anglican Diocese of Montreal upon its separation from the Anglican Diocese of Quebec. The cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1856.
The present cathedral, a Neo-gothic structure, was designed by architect Frank Wills (1822–1856), who also designed Christ Church Cathedral in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Before construction began, Willis died, and Montreal architect, Thomas Seaton Scott (1826–1895) was commissioned to carry out his design. The structure was completed in 1859 and consecrated in 1867.
Andrew Taylor oversaw alterations and other restoration of the Cathedral from 1890 to 1891 and installed a memorial window for Mrs. A.C. Hooper in 1902-03.
Modeled after the 14th century Gothic-style churches of the English countryside, the cathedral features a square crossing tower.
Unfortunately, the design, though acclaimed for its architecture, suffered from important engineering flaws. The soft ground could not support the heavy central stone tower and steeple, which began to subside and lean. By 1920, the tower leaned to the south. This defect formed the basis of an important lawsuit ("Wardle v. Bethune") often cited as precedent relating to Article 1688 of Quebec's Civil Code.
George Allan Ross designed alterations in 1923 and reconstructed the tower from 1939 to 1940. In 1927, the stone steeple, weighing was removed. New foundations were poured in 1939, and in 1940, an anonymous donation permitted the construction of a much lighter steeple made of aluminum, molded to simulate the former stone spire. It is high, attaining a height of from the ground.
Recent additions to the church include a choir gallery, built in 1980, and the church's third organ, installed in 1981. Notable musicians to have served as the church's organist include Alfred Whitehead (1922–1947), S. Drummond Wolff (1952–1956) and Patrick Wedd ( 1996-2018).
The organ is opus 77 of Karl Wilhelm, Inc. of Mont-Saint-Hilaire, Quebec. It is a mechanical key and stop instrument with four-manuals, 42 stops and 63 ranks. In 1992, the pedal division was expanded with a 32' Bombarde.
The organ replaced the earlier instrument that served the congregation from 1859. The earlier instrument was constructed by William Hill and Son in London to duplicate an organ given to the congregation by King George III and destroyed in the fire of 1856. The Hill instrument was remodeled and enlarged several on at least five occasions during the tenure of its service. In 1979, the congregation commissioned the mechanical organ and the earlier instrument was sold for parts.
Promenades Cathédrale.
In the 1980s, a vast real estate project was undertaken below the cathedral. The project consisted of a 34-floor skyscraper, Tour KPMG, built north of the cathedral, underground parking, and two levels of retail stores situated beneath the cathedral. For a period in 1987, the cathedral was supported on stilts while footings for the underground mall, Promenades Cathédrale, were excavated. This project allowed for the linkage of the eastern and western branches of Montreal's underground city, connecting the Eaton's store (subsequently Complexe Les Ailes) and The Bay's Henry Morgan Building.
Canadian Grenadier Guards.
Christ Church Cathedral is the regimental church of the Canadian Grenadier Guards. The guards maintain their traditional ties with the church, as well as to McGill University, by marching from the Arts Building on campus, to the cathedral, annually in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The cathedral also houses the guards' retired regimental colours.
L'Oasis musicale.
Every Saturday at 4pm throughout the year the cathedral hosts a series of free weekly concerts, "L'Oasis musicale," which supports and promotes young aspiring musicians, many of whom are studying at music colleges in Montreal and starting out on their career. The concerts are open to all. The concerts feature a range of musicians, from solo instrumentalists and singers to ensembles, small orchestras, and choirs. The repertoire is mainly classical music, but occasionally, popular, folk, religious, or traditional music is played.


Christian van den Queborn

Christian van den Queborn (1515, Antwerp – 1578, Antwerp), was a Flemish Renaissance painter.
Biography.
According to the RKD he became master of the Antwerp Guild of St. Luke in 1545. He was the father of the portrait painter Daniël van den Queborn, and grandfather of the painters Crispijn van den Queborn (1604-1652) and Louis van den Queborn (died 1658).
His portrait was engraved by Simon Frisius for Hendrik Hondius I's "Pictorum aliquot celebrium praecipue Germaniae inferioris Effigies".


Zawyet Umm El Rakham

Zawyet Umm El Rakham ( lit. "the resthouse of the mother of vultures") is an archaeological site located on the North coast of Egypt 20 km to the west of Marsa Matruh, and about 300 km to the west of Alexandria
During the reign of Ramesses II, it was the location of a major fortress-town which probably marked the western extent of direct Egyptian influence.
It was discovered in 1948 and in the subsequent years was sporadically examined by Alan Rowe and Labib Habachi. Since 1994 extensive excavations have been undertaken at the site by a team from the University of Liverpool under the direction of Steven Snape.


Institution Saint-Michel

Institution Saint Michel: Collège and Lycée is a Catholic secondary school with boarding facilities located in Solesmes (Picard: "Solinmes"), France. Founded in 1924 by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cambrai constituted in 580, it is now also contractually regulated by the Academy of Lille, a ramification of the French Ministry of National Education, Higher Education and Research. As of 2018, it welcomes within centuries-old châteauesque edifices around a thousand students from nearly a hundred municipalities within a radius extending twenty kilometers.
History.
The Institution was first established on 13 May 1924 by Archbishop Jean-Arthur Chollet (21 November 1913 – 2 December 1952) as a ramification of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cambrai itself erected in the late 6th century and placed under its aegis. It was formerly known as the Little Religious Seminary . In the early Middle Ages, the Diocese of Cambrai (Lotharingia) was first ruled by West Frankish sovereign Charles the Bald in accordance with the implementation of the Treaty of Meerssen (870). Throughout History, it has been governed and regimented by such figures as the German king Henry the Fowler (925) or the Duke Gilbert of Lorraine (939). All immunities that had so far been granted to the Bishops of Cambrai were ratified by King Otto the Great (23 November 912 – 7 May 973). In the early 1000s, this Bishopric was elevated to Imperial State by Emperor Henry II, to protectorate by Maximilian I of Habsburg in the late 15th century, was united to the Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle in 1512 and integrated into the See of Mechelen in 1559 by Philip II of Spain. It was finally declared French under the Roi Soleil under the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678) following the Siege of Cambrai the preceding year. It was affiliated to the Nord through the Napoleonic Concordat of 1801. Among, the plethora of Diocese of Cambrai’ most conspicuous individuals are found Charles the Good (1084–1127); poet and author François de la Mothe-Fénelon (1651–1715); French Academy philosopher Gratry (1805–1872) and composer Guillaume Dufay (1397–1474). The Institution remained called the Little Religious Seminary up until 1965 when the boarding school opened its doors to external boys and subsequently to girls in 1968. The institution's eponymous Patron is Saint Michael known in the Old Testament as chief opponent of Satan and commander of the Army of God who is alone mentioned in the Litany of the Saints which omitted Saint Gabriel and Saint Raphael.
Declamations.
From the 1940s to the 1970s, students were alternately required to chant or read aloud from the official academic corpora unanimously agreed upon by the institution's on-site officiating abbots and priests. They were standing in front of a lectern in the small refectory and the dining hall on which books were placed following liturgical traditions. Being designated cantor or precentor was also used as punishment for misbehaving pupils. Main works were:
Bombing of May 1944.
Each year, Saint-Michel’s students commemorate the Armistice of May 8, 1945 but also the bombing of Solesmes on May 9, 1944 which greatly impacted the institution. From February to June 1944, the Allies intensified their destructive efforts on roads and rails to isolate the Normandy landings and to dupe the Germans into believing that this landing would take place in the nearer Pas-de-Calais. General Eisenhower encapsulated those successful bombings ""as the greatest contribution to the success of Overlord”" (June 6, 44). On May 9, 1944; the 416th Bomb Group successfully destroyed the Aarschot railway station between Brussels and Antwerp with several Douglas Boston III Havocs each carrying four 250-kg bombs and the 409th Bomb Group caused death and destruction in Solesmes with the same equipment. On May 9, at around 8:15 am, the air alert loud sirens prompted all children who went to school to go back home and around 10:15, two explosions were heard as four bombs were accidentally detached from the freight deck of an aircraft and landed on the Chemin de of the Institution Saint-Michel causing the first victims. A fifth bomb will not explode and will be destroyed a few days later by the Germans, near Chant des Oiseaux. Seventy bombs exploded in the city-center killing fifty-eight people including twenty-two children and the destruction of ninety-seven buildings while the wounded were transferred to the hospital of Le Cateau. The town of Solesmes received the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France). Historians revealed that it was the train station that was targeted with its ramifications to the sugar refinery and the electro-tubes. The American airmen had orders; when they were not carrying out their mission; to drop their bombs on secondary targets. Moreover, at 3500 m altitude the accuracy of a shot was 1 km but there was barely 500 meters between the station and the city-center.""
International.
Twinning Arrangements.
The Institution Saint-Michel has long established exchange partnerships with education centers from across the Western world including with the:


Kuwaiti Arabic

Kuwaiti (in Kuwaiti , ) is a Gulf Arabic dialect spoken in Kuwait. Kuwaiti Arabic shares many phonetic features unique to Gulf dialects spoken in the Arabian Peninsula. Due to Kuwait's soap opera industry, knowledge of Kuwaiti Arabic has spread throughout the Arabic-speaking world and become recognizable even to people in countries such as Tunisia and Jordan.
History and Development.
Kuwaiti Arabic speakers exhibit features not found in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), due in part to natural linguistic change over time, influence from nearby dialects in Iraq and Saudi Arabia, as well as influence from English, Italian, Persian, Turkish, and Urdu., as well as Hindi-Urdu and Swahili. Three groups make up the Kuwaiti population: the descendants of people from the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, and Iran.
Kuwaiti Arabic is rapidly changing due to many factors, in particular contact with speakers of other languages and other Arabic varieties.
Phonology.
Kuwaiti Arabic has three short vowels and five long vowels . Short and appear in some words, typically as allophones (such as word-final , which raises to ), though their phonemicity is marginal and many of the words they appear in are loans from other languages.
Consonants in parentheses are marginal, found exclusively in formal, educated speech or from loanwords. Similarly, the glottal stop is rare, occurring in borrowings from Modern Standard Arabic.
 and are the Kuwaiti Arabic reflexes of Classical Arabic *q ( in MSA) and *k ( in MSA), respectively. may also be fronted to in the context of front vowels.12
 appears exclusively in loanwords from English; speakers may have difficulty with this sound and replace it with .
Emphatic consonants are pronounced with simultaneous velarization or pharyngealization; like MSA and other Arabic dialects, Kuwaiti Arabic makes phonemic contrasts between emphatic and non-emphatic consonants, though identifies allophonic emphaticization of , which become when they come before a long or when they are in close proximity to an emphatic consonant or back vowel.
Varieties.
Kuwaiti Arabic is divided into two varieties: Urban and Bedouin; the latter is considered to be more linguistically conservative, while the former, associated largely with sedentary urban speakers, has novel features not shared by surrounding dialects and is considered to be more prestigious. The urban dialect originates from the spoken dialect of Arabian Peninsular Arabic speakers who migrated to the area in the 18th century, being strongly influenced by contact with and immigration from the outside world.
The Urban speech is divided into four sub-dialects, while the Bedouin dialect is divided into two. The four sedentary dialects are:
While the two Bedouin varieties are:
Historians and researchers usually demonstrate differences between the dialects using , the Kuwaiti word for "sugar", which has three different pronunciations depending on the speaker's dialect. It is pronounced () in Sharg dialect, Shakar () in Fintaas dialect, and Shakir () in Jibla dialect.
Status.
Dashti identifies four varieties of Arabic in Kuwait. Classical Arabic (CA), the language of the Quran, the liturgical language of Islam, the religion of the vast majority of Kuwaitis, and old Arabic literature, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is the medium of formal communication and school education. This variety is considered the second language of Kuwaitis as they are only introduced to when they start school. Kuwaiti Arabic (KA), the language of everyday's life and the symbol of the Kuwaiti identity. It is a symbol of prestige in the Kuwaiti society. The last variety is Educated Standard Arabic (ESA), in which the speaker mixes between MSA and KA. This language is used in Radio, TV, and academics' informal discussions. Kuwait is diglossic, like the rest of the Arab world, with the Arabic language being seen as the high variety, while Kuwaiti is seen more like a patois or a low-variety colloquial dialect of Arabic.
Kuwaiti is the "normal" way of speaking in everyday's life and is acquired naturally at home and not taught at schools (as it is considered a mere dialect of the Arabic language by the public).
After conducting several interviews with speakers of Kuwaiti, Akbar states that for many, speaking Kuwaiti is the most important criterion of being considered Kuwaiti.
Features and characteristics.
Kuwaiti Arabic is a variant of Gulf Arabic, sharing similarities with the dialects of neighboring coastal areas in Eastern Arabia. Due to immigration during its early history as well as trade, Kuwaiti was influenced by many languages such as Persian, English, Italian, Urdu, Turkish, and others.
A characteristic in Kuwait is the use of words and phrases by women exclusively, for example "يَا حَافِظ", roughly translated to "Oh Saver [God]", is rarely or never used by men. It also differs from other Arabic variants in the way phonological assimilation occurs to a multitude of words, but not to all of them. The only case of full assimilation is /dˤ/ changing to /ðˤ/ in all words.
Differences between Standard Arabic and Kuwaiti.
Each colloquial variety of Arabic has evolved and developed over time from earlier Arabic dialects. In addition to the phonological differences mentioned above, some of the grammatical differences between the Standard Arabic (MSA) and Kuwaiti Arabic are:
"Note:" Copulas are used before verbs only, not adjectives. For example: I am drinking, not I am drunk. Many linguists define copulas as expressing identity and "is-a" relations. Since the following "copulas" are only use before verbs, they may be classified as aspectual particles.
The past tenses are formed by adding كَانْ before each copula.
Lexicon.
Kuwaiti has borrowed many words from other languages due to immigration and trade. Below are few examples with the corresponding Arabic words. As noticed, many words come from Turkish. This is due to the historical influence of Ottomans that ruled over neighboring regions.
"Note:" A green box indicates that the MSA word is used in Kuwaiti (most of the times interchangeably), while a red box means it is not.
Old-fashioned or obsolete words.
some words were replaced by native Arabic words over time. A few examples of such words include:
Dr. Ya'goob al-Ghaneem points at the increasing numbers of Arab expatriate and exposure to media in different Arabics as the reasons behind this change. Fatima Mahasin hypothesises that the words being replaced are not of English, French or Italian origins, and tend originate from "less-prestigious" languages.


National Treasure (Vietnam)

A National Treasure () or a national precious object is a tangible cultural heritage or object handed down from the past with historical, cultural or scientific value of exceptional significance to the country of Vietnam. National treasures are deemed to be protected and preserved according to a special scheme by the Vietnamese Government. The government also earmark an adequate proportion of the State budget to purchase national treasure as well as investment in activities of protecting and promoting the values of these objects. The title national treasure is recognised by a decision from the Vietnamese Prime Minister after obtaining evaluation opinions of the "National Council for Cultural Heritages".
History.
The term national treasure was first mentioned in various articles of the first "Law on Cultural Heritage" passed by the National Assembly of Vietnam on 29 June 2001. However, there was not a clear definition or a set of criteria for determining a national treasure. In 2009, the Amendment of Law on Cultural Heritage Act presented a separate article specifically for the subject "national treasure". According to the Law, a national treasure of Vietnam have to meet all these requirements:
The Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism specified the order of and procedures for recognising a national treasure, then the decision of granting the title "national treasure" comes from the Prime Minister of Vietnam with the consultation of National Council for Cultural Heritages. The first set of national treasure is officially designated in October 2012. Up until 2020, eight sets of national treasures (191 artifacts) had been designated in a series of decrees signed by the Deputy Prime Minister of Vietnam on behalf of Prime Minister. The different combination of treasures into sets only depends on the chronological order of nominations submitted by owners of the treasures, not related to the category or value of the treasures themselves. The quantities and designation dates of Vietnamese national treasures are:
Regulations.
There are strict regulations related to obligation of the Vietnamese State and owners of national treasure regarding ownership, protection and exhibition abroad. National treasures shall be registered with competent state agencies in charge of culture. Government agencies which have information on registered national treasures must kept confidential at owner's request, provide with professional guidance on, and create conditions for protecting and promoting the values of treasures. When transferring the ownership of national treasures, their owners shall notify competent government agencies of new owners of these objects within 15 days after the transfer.
In 2016, under Decision No. 23/2016/QD-TTg, issued by the Prime Minister of Vietnam, items formally designated as national treasures can only be transported abroad under one of these circumstances:
Transport of the treasures abroad for display, exhibition, research or preservation must adhere to article 44 of the Law on Cultural Heritage, which requires the following conditions:


PressPlay

PressPlay (stylised press"play") was the name of an online music store that operated from December 2001 until March 2003. It was created as a joint venture between Universal Music Group and Sony Music Entertainment in response to the popularity of Napster.
Universal and Sony created PressPlay rather than joining RealNetworks' online service MusicNet, which had signed BMG, EMI and AOL Time Warner. It was originally announced under the name Duet in May 2001 and launched as PressPlay in December 2001.
Apart from Universal and Sony, the service carried some music from BMG, EMI and Warner, as well as various independent labels. It was branded for multiple services, most notably Yahoo.com.
The service allowed users 500 low-quality audio streams in DRMed Windows Media Audio, 50 song downloads and 10 songs burnt to CD, for $15 a month. It could also build and store users' playlists. Not every song could be downloaded, and users could not burn more than two tracks from the same artist to CD. Downloads expired after 30 days. Songs could not be transferred to a portable player.
Artists were paid around $0.0023 (0.23 of a cent) per song. Many artists, outraged at this rate and stating their songs were being used without proper permission, sought to have their music removed from the service unless they were paid a licensing fee rather than a CD-style royalty.
Even before it was launched, the restrictions meant the service was not attractive to consumers. PressPlay and rival MusicNet were given the shared 9th place in PC World's 2006 list of the "25 Worst Tech Products of All Time", which stated that "the services' stunningly brain-dead features showed that the record companies still didn't get it".
Universal and Sony had also licensed at least a portion of their catalog to other, more successful online music stores such as
Streamwaves' Christian music service HigherWaves, FullAudio and Streamwaves' full product.
Roxio acquired the service on May 19, 2003 and used it as a base to launch their paid music service under the brand name Napster.
The disastrous history of Pressplay was later detailed in "How Music Got Free" by Stephen Witt, from the viewpoint of Universal Music CEO Doug Morris.


Big City Children

Big City Children () is a 1929 German silent film directed by Arthur Haase and starring Grete Reinwald, Gustl Gstettenbaur and Carl Auen.
The film's sets were designed by Robert A. Dietrich.


Architecture of Scotland

The architecture of Scotland includes all human building within the modern borders of Scotland, from the Neolithic era to the present day. The earliest surviving houses go back around 9500 years, and the first villages 6000 years: Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney being the earliest preserved example in Europe. Crannogs, roundhouses, each built on an artificial island, date from the Bronze Age and stone buildings called Atlantic roundhouses and larger earthwork hill forts from the Iron Age. The arrival of the Romans from about 71 AD led to the creation of forts like that at Trimontium, and a continuous fortification between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde known as the Antonine Wall, built in the second century AD. Beyond Roman influence, there is evidence of wheelhouses and underground souterrains. After the departure of the Romans there were a series of nucleated hill forts, often utilising major geographical features, as at Dunadd and Dunbarton.
Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of feudalism in the twelfth century. Initially these were wooden motte-and-bailey constructions, but many were replaced by stone castles with a high curtain wall. In the late Middle Ages new castles were built, some on a grander scale, and others, particularly in the borders, simpler tower houses. Gunpowder weaponry led to the use of gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls adapted to resist bombardment. Medieval parish church architecture was typically simpler than in England, but there were grander ecclesiastical buildings in the Gothic style. From the early fifteenth century the introduction of Renaissance styles included the selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture, as in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral, followed more directly influenced Renaissance palace building from the late fifteenth century, beginning at Linlithgow. The private houses of aristocrats adopted some of these features and incorporated features of Medieval castles and tower houses into plans based on the French Château to produce the Scots Baronial style. From about 1560, the Reformation led to the widespread destruction of church furnishings, ornaments and decoration and in post-Reformation period a unique form of church emerged based on the "T"-shaped plan.
After the Restoration in 1660, there was a fashion for grand private houses influenced by the Palladian style and associated with the architects Sir William Bruce and James Smith. Scotland produced some of the most significant British architects of the eighteenth century, including: Colen Campbell, James Gibbs, William Chambers and particularly Robert Adam. They looked to classical models and Edinburgh's New Town was the focus of a classical building boom. The Industrial Revolution transformed Scottish towns, leading to urban sprawl, exemplified by tenements like those of the Gorbals in Glasgow. New towns, of designed communities like New Lanark, developed from 1800 by Robert Owen, were one solution. Sociologist Patrick Geddes (1854–1932) preferred "conservative surgery": retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst. There was a revival of the baronial style, particularly after the rebuilding of Abbotsford House for Walter Scott from 1816, and a parallel revival of the Gothic in church architecture. Neoclassicism was pursued by William Henry Playfair, Alexander "Greek" Thomson and David Rhind. The late nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including the Forth Bridge, a cantilever bridge and one of the first major all steel constructions in the world.
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, developed a unique and internationally influential "Glasgow style". Architects who continued to employ styles informed by the past included James Robert Rhind and James Miller. From the mid-twentieth century, architecture in Scotland became increasingly utilitarian and influenced by modernism. Key Scottish architects in this movement included Thomas S. Tait, James Stirling and James Gowan. The introduction of brutalism led to urban clearances and extensive use of the tower block. The style was also used in new towns like Glenrothes and Cumbernauld, but has received considerable criticism. More recent major architectural projects include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, Glasgow, the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde and the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh.
Prehistoric era.
Groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on what is now Scottish soil around 9500 years ago, and the first villages around 6000 years ago. The stone building at Knap of Howar at Papa Westray, Orkney is one of the oldest surviving houses in north-west Europe, making use of locally gathered rubble in a dry-stone construction. Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney also dates from this period and is Europe's most complete Neolithic village. Neolithic habitation, burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well-preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles, where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone. From the Early and Middle Bronze Age we have evidence of the occupation of crannogs, roundhouses partially or entirely built on an artificial island, usually in lakes, rivers and estuarine waters. The peoples of early Iron Age Scotland, particularly in the north and west, lived in substantial stone buildings called Atlantic roundhouses. The remains of hundreds of these houses exist throughout the country, some merely piles of rubble, others with impressive towers and outbuildings. They date from about 800 BC to AD 300 with the most imposing structures having been created circa 200–100 BC. In the south and east larger earthwork hill forts survive. There is evidence for about 1,000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland, most located below the Clyde-Forth line. They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period, but some seem to have been reoccupied after their departure. Most are circular, with a single palisade around an enclosure.
Roman and post-Roman constructions.
The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 AD. In the summer of AD 78 Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of expeditions to Scotland. Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose. He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil. Agricola's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge were abandoned within the space of a few years. By AD 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth. Elginhaugh fort, in Midlothian, dates to about this period as may Castle Greg in West Lothian. The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England, building the fortification known as Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast. Around 141 A.D. the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland, moving up to construct a new "limes" between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. The Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland. It is a sward-covered wall made of turf circa 7 metres (20 ft) high, with nineteen forts. It extended for . Having taken twelve years to build, the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after AD 160. The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian's Wall, with occasional expeditions that involved the building and reoccupation of forts, until their departure in the fifth century.
Beyond the area of Roman occupation, wheelhouses, a round house with a characteristic outer wall within which a circle of stone piers (bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel) were constructed, with over sixty sites identified in the west and north. Over 400 souterrains, small underground constructions, have been discovered in Scotland, many of them in the south-east, and although few have been dated those that have suggest a construction date in the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD. They are usually found close to settlements (whose timber frames are much less well-preserved) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products. After the departure of the Romans we have evidence of a series of forts, often smaller "nucleated" constructions compared with Iron Age constructions, sometimes utilising major geographical features, as at Dunadd and Dumbarton.
Middle Ages.
Medieval vernacular architecture made use of local materials and styles. As in England, cruck construction was used, employing pairs of curved timbers to support the roof, however they were usually hidden from view. In rural areas there was extensive use of turf to fill in the walls, sometimes on a stone base, but they were not long lasting and had to be rebuilt perhaps as often as every two or three years. In some regions, including the south-west and around Dundee, solid clay walls were used, or combinations of clay, turf and stray, rendered with clay or lime to make them weatherproof. With a lack of long span structural timber, the most common building material was stone, employed in both mortared and dry stone construction. Different regions used broom, heather, straw, turfs or reeds for roofing.
The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland, from the sixth century, led to the construction of basic masonry-built churches beginning on the west coast and islands. Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England, with many churches remaining simple oblongs, without transepts and aisles, and often without towers. In the Highlands they were often even simpler, many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings. However, from the eighth century, more sophisticated buildings emerged. Early Romanesque ashlar masonry produced block-built stone buildings, like the eleventh century round tower at Brechin Cathedral and the square towers of Dunblane Cathedral and The Church of St Rule. After the eleventh century, as masonry techniques advanced, ashlar blocks became more rectangular, resulting in structurally more stable walls that could incorporate more refined architectural moulding and detailing that can be seen in corbelling, buttressing, lintels and arching. At the same time there was increasing influences from English and continental European designs, such as the Romanesque chevron pattern detailing on the piers in the nave of Dunfermline Abbey (1130–40), which were modelled on details from Durham Cathedral, and the thirteenth century East-end of Elgin Cathedral, which incorporated typical European Gothic mouldings and tracery. In the fifteenth century continental builders are known to have been working in Scotland. French master-mason John Morrow was employed at the building of Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey, both considered fine examples of Gothic architecture. The interiors of churches were often elaborate before the Reformation, with highly decorated sacrament houses, like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell. The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel, created in the mid-fifteenth century, elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins, are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style. Late Medieval Scottish churches also often contained elaborate burial monuments, like the Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas. The early sixteenth century saw crown steeples built on churches with royal connections, symbolising imperial monarchy, as at St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh.
Scotland is known for its dramatically placed castles, many of which date from the late medieval era. Castles, in the sense of a fortified residence of a lord or noble, arrived in Scotland as part of David I's encouragement of Norman and French nobles to settle with feudal tenures, particularly in the south and east, and were a way of controlling the contested lowlands. These were primarily wooden motte-and-bailey constructions, of a raised mount or motte, surmounted by a wooden tower and a larger adjacent enclosure or bailey, both usually surrounded by a fosse (a ditch) and palisade, and connected by a wooden bridge. They varied in size from the very large such as the Bass of Inverurie, to more modest designs like Balmaclellan. In England many of these constructions were converted into stone "keep-and-bailey" castles in the twelfth century, but in Scotland most of those that were in continued occupation became stone castles of "enceinte", with a high embattled curtain wall. The need for thick and high walls for defence forced the use of economic building methods, often continuing the tradition of dry-stone rubble building, which were then covered with a lime render, or harled for weatherproofing and a uniform appearance. In addition to the baronial castles there were royal castles, often larger and providing defence, lodging for the itinerant Scottish court and a local administrative centre. By 1200 these included fortifications at Ayr and Berwick. In the wars of Scottish Independence Robert I adopted a policy of castle destruction, rather than allow fortresses to be easily retaken and then held by the English, beginning with his own castles at Ayr and Dumfries, and including Roxburgh and Edinburgh.
After the Wars of Independence, new castles began to be built, often on a grander scale as "livery and maintenance" castles, to house retained troops, like Tantallon, Lothian and Doune near Stirling, rebuilt for Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany in the fourteenth century. The largest number of late medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles, about 800, were of the tower house design. Smaller versions of tower houses in southern Scotland were known as peel towers, or pele houses. The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault, leading historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as "defensible rather than defensive". They were typically a tall, square, stone-built, crenelated building; often also surrounded by a barmkin or bawn, a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely, but not necessarily intended for serious defence. They were built extensively on both sides of the border with England and James IV's forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an immediate burst of castle building across the region. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture, with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of "keyhole" gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment. Ravenscraig, Kirkcaldy, begun about 1460, is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an Artillery fort, incorporating "D-shape" bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted.
Early modern.
Renaissance.
The impact of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture has been seen as occurring in two distinct phases. First, from the early fifteenth century the selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture, to be followed by a second phase of more directly influenced Renaissance palace building from the late fifteenth century. The re-adoption of low-massive church building with round arches and pillars, in contrast to the Gothic perpendicular style that was particularly dominant in England in the late Medieval era, may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands, and may have been a conscious reaction to English forms in favour of continental ones. It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral, begun in 1406, the facade of St Mary's, Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone's Kings College, Aberdeen (1500–9). About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Many, like Trinity College, Edinburgh, showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles.
The extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under James III, accelerated under James IV, reaching its peak under James V. These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles. Linlithgow was first constructed under James I, under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace, apparently the first use of this term in the country, from 1429. This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular, corner-towered Italian signorial palace of a "palatium ad moden castri" (a castle-style palace), combining classical symmetry with neo-chivalric imagery. There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV, in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions. James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences. Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style adopted in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European, beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow. This was followed by re-buildings at Holyrood, Falkland, Stirling and Edinburgh, described as "some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain". Rather than slavishly copying continental forms, most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns, adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials (particularly stone and harl). New military architecture in the "trace Italienne" style was brought by Italian military engineers during the war of the Rough Wooing and the regency of Mary of Guise including Migliorino Ubaldini who worked at Edinburgh Castle, Camillo Marini who designed forts, and Lorenzo Pomarelli who worked for Mary of Guise during the rebuilding of forts at Inchkeith and Eyemouth. Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences, with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow, built in 1618, using classical pediments. Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats, as in Mar's Wark, Stirling (c. 1570) and Crichton Castle, built for the Earl of Bothwell in 1580s.
Reformation.
From about 1560, the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland. Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship, with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual, resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments and decoration. There was a need to adapt and build new churches suitable for reformed services, particularly putting the pulpit and preaching at the centre of worship. Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles, a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century, as at Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s, Greenock (1591) and Durness (1619), but often with windows on the south wall (and none on the north), which became a unique feature of Reformation kirks. There were continuities with pre-Reformation materials, with some churches using rubble, as at Kemback in Fife (1582). Others employed stone and a few added wooden steeples, as at Burntisland (1592). The church of Greyfriars, Edinburgh, built between 1602 and 1620, used a rectangular layout with a largely Gothic form, but that at Dirleton (1612), had a more sophisticated classical style. A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post-Reformation Scotland was the "T"-shaped plan, often used when adapting existing churches, which allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit. They can be seen at Kemback and Prestonpans after 1595. It continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem (1600), Anstruther Easter, Fife (1634–44) and New Cumnock (1657). In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor (1619) and Fenwick (1643). In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird's aisle, meaning that they were in effect "T"-plan churches.
The unique style of great private house in Scotland, later known as Scots baronial, has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s. It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been largely made obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces. It drew on the tower houses and peel towers, retaining many of their external features, but with a larger ground plan, classically a stone built "Z-plan" of a rectangular block with towers, as at Colliston Castle (1583) and Claypotts Castle (1569–88). Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace, the king's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631. He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618, Winton House for George Seton, 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh. He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d'Ancy-le-Franc. This style can be seen in lords houses built at Caerlaverlock (1620), Moray House, Edinburgh (1628) and Drumlanrig Castle (1675–89), and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century.
Restoration.
During the turbulent era of Civil Wars and the English occupation of Scotland, significant building in Scotland was largely confined to military architecture, with polygonal fortresses with triangular bastions at Ayr, Inverness and Leith in the style of the trace italienne. After the Restoration in 1660, large scale building began again, often incorporating more comprehensive ideas of reviving classicism. Sir William Bruce (1630–1710), considered "the effective founder of classical architecture in Scotland", was the key figure in introducing the Palladian style into Scotland, following the principles of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–80). Palladio's ideas were strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and associated in England with the designs of Inigo Jones. Bruce popularised a style of country house amongst the nobility that encouraging the move towards a more continental, leisure-oriented architecture. He built and remodelled country houses, including Thirlestane Castle and Prestonfield House. Among his most significant work was his own Palladian mansion at Kinross, built on the Loch Leven estate which he had purchased in 1675. As the Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works he undertook the rebuilding of the Royal Palace of Holyroodhouse in the 1670s, which gave the palace its present appearance. After the death of Charles II, Bruce lost political favour, and later, following the Glorious Revolution, he was imprisoned more than once as a suspected Jacobite. These houses were predominantly built using well-cut ashlar masonry on the façades, while rubble stonework was used only for internal walls.
James Smith worked as a mason on the Bruce's rebuilding of Holyrood Palace. In 1683 he was appointed to be Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works, and was responsible for maintenance of Holyrood Palace, and refurbished the former Holyrood Abbey as a chapel royal for King James VII. With his father-in-law, the master mason Robert Mylne, Smith worked on Caroline Park in Edinburgh (1685), and Drumlanrig Castle (1680s). Smith's country houses followed the pattern established by William Bruce, with hipped roofs and pedimented fronts, in a plain but handsome Palladian style. His Canongate Kirk (1688–90) is a basilica-plan, with a baroque facade. In 1691 Smith designed the mausoleum of Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, in Greyfriars Kirkyard, a circular structure modelled on the Tempietto di San Pietro, designed by Donato Bramante (1444–1514). Hamilton Palace (1695) was fronted by giant Corinthian columns, and a pedimented entrance, although was otherwise restrained. Dalkeith Palace (1702–10) was modelled after William of Orange's palace at Het Loo in the Netherlands.
Industrial revolution.
Eighteenth century.
After the Act of Union, growing prosperity in Scotland led to a spate of new building, both public and private. The threat of Jacobite insurrection or invasion meant that Scotland also saw more military building than England in this period, relying on the strength of inclined and angled engineered masonry work combined
with the ability of earthen toppings that could deflect and absorb artillery fire. This culminated in the construction of Fort George, near Inverness (1748–69), with its projecting bastions and redoubts. Scotland produced some of the most significant architects of this era, including: Colen Campbell (1676–1729), James Gibbs (1682–1754), James (1732–94), John (1721–92) and Robert Adam (1728–92) and William Chambers (1723–96), who all created work that to some degree looked to classical models. Edinburgh's New Town was the focus of this classical building boom in Scotland. From the mid-eighteenth century it was laid out according to a plan of rectangular blocks with open squares, drawn up by James Craig and built in strong Craigleith sandstone which could be precisely cut by masons. Most residences were built as tenement flats, where, in contrast to contemporary building in England where buildings were divided vertically into different houses, they were divided horizontally, with different occupants sharing a common staircase. The smallest might have only one room, the largest several bedrooms and drawing rooms. This classicism, together with its reputation as a major centre of the Enlightenment, resulted in the city being nicknamed "The Athens of the North". The gridiron plan, building forms and the architectural detailing would be copied by many smaller towns, although rendered in locally quarried materials. Despite this building boom, the centralisation of much of the government administration, including the king's works, in London, meant that a number of Scottish architects spent most of all of their careers in England, where they had a major impact on Georgian architecture.
Colen Campbell was influenced by the Palladian style and has been credited with founding Georgian architecture. Architectural historian Howard Colvin has speculated that he was associated with James Smith and that Campbell may even have been his pupil. He spent most of his career in Italy and England and developed a rivalry with fellow Scot James Gibbs. Gibbs trained in Rome and also practised mainly in England. His architectural style did incorporate Palladian elements, as well as forms from Italian baroque and Inigo Jones, but was most strongly influenced by the interpretation of the Baroque by Sir Christopher Wren.
William Adam, was the foremost architect of his time in Scotland, designing and building numerous country houses and public buildings. Among his best known works are Hopetoun House near Edinburgh, and Duff House in Banff. His individual, exuberant, style was built on the Palladian style, but with Baroque details inspired by Vanbrugh and Continental architecture. After his death, his sons Robert and John took on the family business, which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance. Robert emerged as leader of the first phase of the neo-classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death. He rejected the Palladian style as "ponderous" and "disgustful". However, he continued their tradition of drawing inspiration directly from classical antiquity, influenced by his four-year stay in Europe. An interior designer as well as an architect, with his brothers developing the Adam style, he influenced the development of architecture, not just in Britain, but in Western Europe, North America and in Russia, where his patterns were taken by Scottish architect Charles Cameron. Adam's main rival was William Chambers, another Scot, but born in Sweden. He did most of his work in London, with a small number of houses in Scotland. He was appointed architectural tutor to the Prince of Wales, later George III, and in 1766, with Robert Adam, as Architect to the King. More international in outlook than Adam, he combined Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions and his influence was mediated through his large number of pupils.
Nineteenth century.
Urban growth and planning.
Vernacular architecture of this period continued to depend on local materials and styles, increasing making use of locally mined stone. While Edinburgh made extensive use of yellow sandstone, the commercial centre and tenements of Glasgow were built in distinctive red sandstone. After a major fire in the largely wooden Aberdeen in the 1740s, the city fathers decreed that major buildings should be in the locally abundant granite, beginning a new phase in large scale mining and leading to the "granite city", as a port, becoming a centre of a major industry in the nineteenth century, which supplied Scotland and England with faced stone, pavement slabs and pillars.
Often built by groups of friends and family, the homes of the poor were usually of very simple construction. Contemporaries noted that cottages in the Highlands and Islands tended to be cruder, with single rooms, slit windows and earthen floors, often shared by a large family. In contrast many Lowland cottages had distinct rooms and chambers, were clad with plaster or paint and even had glazed windows. Urban settings also included traditional thatched houses, beside the larger, stone and slate roofed town houses of merchants and urban gentry. The Industrial Revolution transformed the scale of Scottish towns, making Glasgow the "second city of the Empire". The other side of growing wealth and planned architecture for the aristocracy and middle classes was the growth of urban sprawl, exemplified by sub-urban tenements like those of the Gorbals in Glasgow, where overcrowding, lack of sanitation and general poverty contributed to disease, crime, and very low life expediency.
The sometimes utopian concept of the new town, aimed at improving society through the foundation of architecturally designed communities, was an important part of Scottish thinking from the mid-eighteenth to the twentieth century. In addition to the New Town of Edinburgh these included the complete rebuilding of Inverary for John Campbell, 5th Duke of Argyll by John Adam and Robert Mylne, between 1772 and 1800. From 1800, Robert Owen's New Lanark, designed as a self-contained community, combining industry with ordered and improved living conditions, was an important milestone in the historical development of urban planning. Scotland also produced one of the major figures in urban planning in sociologist Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), who developed the concept of conurbation, and discarded the idea of "sweeping clearances" to remove existing housing and the imposition of the gridiron plan, in favour of "conservative surgery": retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst. He put this into practice, purchasing and improving slum tenements in James Court, and in new developments at Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh.
Gothic Revival.
The Gothic Revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of Romanticism and according to Alvin Jackson, the Scots baronial style was "a Caledonian reading of the gothic". Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland. Inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some external features of the Scots baronial style. Robert Adam's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian, but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777.
Important for the adoption of the style in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House, the residence the novelist and poet, Sir Walter Scott. Re-built for him from 1816, it became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style. Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth-century houses included battlemented gateways, crow-stepped gables, pointed turrets and machicolations. The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn (1789–1870), David Bryce (1803–76), Edward Blore (1787–1879), Edward Calvert (c. 1847–1914) and Robert Stodart Lorimer (1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling (1859–69). The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855–8 confirmed the popularity of the style.
In ecclesiastical architecture, a style with more in common to that in England was adopted. Important figures included Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–98), who developed a new style of church building which accorded with the fashionable High Gothic, but which adapted it for the worship needs of the Free Church of Scotland, as at Barclay Viewforth Church, Edinburgh (1862–64). Robert Rowand Anderson (1834–1921), who trained in the office of George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh, worked mainly on small churches in the 'First Pointed' (or Early English) style that is characteristic of Scott's former assistants. By 1880 his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public and private buildings in Scotland, such as the Scottish National Portrait Gallery; the Dome of Old College, Medical Faculty and McEwan Hall, Edinburgh University; the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central station, the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh and Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute.
Neoclassicism.
Neoclassicism continued to be a major style into the nineteenth century. William Henry Playfair (1790–1857) was the designer of many of Edinburgh's neoclassical landmarks in the New Town. Two of his finest works are the National Gallery of Scotland and the Royal Scottish Academy, which are situated in the centre of Edinburgh. However, the figure most associated with the classical style was Alexander "Greek" Thomson (1817–75). Working mainly in Glasgow, he turned away from the Gothic style toward that of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians, as can be seen in the temple and columns that were part of the Caledonia Road Church (1856).
David Rhind (1808–83) employed both neoclassical and Baronial styles and his work included many branches of the Commercial Bank of Scotland, including their headquarters in Edinburgh. He also designed a number of churches, local government buildings, and houses. One of his grandest schemes was Daniel Stewart's Hospital, now Stewart's Melville College, Edinburgh. In 1849, he was commissioned to design the lay-out of the Pollokshields area of Glasgow, in what until then had been farmland south of the city centre. Rhind formed a partnership with Robert Hamilton Paterson (1843–1911) who executed major works for brewers, malters and warehouse-men (for which Edinburgh was a centre), including design of the Abbey, James Calder & Co., Castle, Holyrood, Drybrough's, Caledonian and Clydesdale Breweries; and also work for McVitie and Price. The partnership was to execute important projects such as the Queen Victoria Memorial at Liverpool and the Royal Scots War Memorial in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh.
New engineering.
The nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including Thomas Telford's stone Dean Bridge and iron Craigellachie Bridge. The most important was the Forth Bridge, a cantilever railway bridge over the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland, 14 kilometres (9 mi) west of central Edinburgh. Construction of a suspension bridge designed by Thomas Bouch, was stopped after the collapse of another of his works, the Tay Bridge. The project was taken over by John Fowler and Benjamin Baker, who designed a structure that was built by Glasgow-based company Sir William Arrol & Co. from 1883. It was opened on 4 March 1890, and spans a total length of . It was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel; its contemporary, the Eiffel Tower was built of wrought iron.
Twentieth century to the present.
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century, having a considerable influence on European architecture, was Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928). He mixed elements of the Scots baronial, Arts and Crafts Movement and the Art Nouveau to produce elegant modern buildings. His major work included The Willow Tearooms in Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow (1903), Glasgow School of Art (1897–1909) and Hill House, Helensburgh (1902–04). The influence of Mackintosh's Glasgow style can be seen in the work of architects like James Salmon (1873–1924), whose designs included the heavily glass-fronted, Art Nouveau "Hatrack" (1899–1902) on Vincent Street and the Lion Chambers, Hope Street (1904–05), an early example of reinforced concrete construction.
In the twentieth century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as Portland cement, concrete, and mass-production brick. Stone would however be retained as a material for some housing stock in Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dumfries, and would undergo revivals. In the twentieth century private architecture was increasingly client driven. James Robert Rhind (1854–1918), the son of David Rhind, was successful in the competition for new libraries to be constructed in Glasgow following Andrew Carnegie's gift of £100,000 to the city in 1901. His designs were selected for seven libraries, allowing him to demonstrate his individual interpretation of Edwardian Baroque architecture. Rhind's libraries were all built with locally quarried sandstone, which blended in with the existing tenement neighbourhoods. His landmark buildings were greatly enhanced by his liberal use of columns, domes and sculpted features. James Miller (1860–1947) is noted for his Scottish railway stations, such as his 1901–05 extensions to Glasgow Central railway station, and the spectacular Wemyss Bay railway station on the Firth of Clyde.
After the First World War, Miller and his chief designer Richard Gunn (1889–1933) along with others, adapted to the growing needs of the office block. In Glasgow, with its central gridiron plan, this followed the practice in the United States of filling up entire blocks and building steel framed buildings as high as the fire marshal would allow, as in the heavily American-influenced Union Bank building (1924) at St Vincent Street. From the mid-twentieth century, public architecture became more utilitarian, as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive welfare state. Thomas S. Tait (1882–1954) was among the most important modernist architects of the era, using pyramidal stepped designs for buildings like the St Andrew's House, Edinburgh (1935–39) built for the Scottish Office, and the 1939 "Tower of Empire" for the Empire Exhibition, Scotland 1938, held in Bellahouston Park.
During World War I the government became increasingly aware of Scotland's housing problems, particularly after the Glasgow rent strike of 1915. A royal commission of 1917 reported on the "unspeakably filthy privy-middens in many of the mining areas, badly constructed incurably damp labourers' cottages on farms, whole townships unfit for human occupation in the crofting counties and islands ... groups of lightless and unventilated houses in the older burghs, clotted masses of slums in the great cities". The result was a massive programme of council house building. Many early council houses were built on greenfield sites away from the pollution of the city, often constructed of semi-detached homes or terraced cottages. Knightswood, north-west of Glasgow, was built as a show piece from 1923–9, with a library, social centre and seven shopping "parades". In the 1930s schemes tended to be more cheaply built, like Blackhill, Glasgow, with a thousand houses built as two and three-story tenements. These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance, by which thousands of tenements were demolished. However, often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks, they soon became notorious. A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland's houses were still inadequate.
In the post-war period Scotland continued to produce important architects, including James Stirling (1926–92), who with James Gowan (1923–) designed the Flats at Ham Common, London (1955–58), considered a landmark in the development of modernist, brutalist residential planning, which would have a profound impact in Scotland. Their later work, almost all of it outside Scotland, would be highly influential on an international scale. The post-war desire for urban regeneration would focus on the tower block, championed in Glasgow by David Gibson, convener of the city housing committee. Projects like the brutalist Red Road Flats originally offered hope of a new beginning and an escape from the overcrowded nineteenth-century tenements of the city, but lacked a sufficient infrastructure and soon deteriorated. Robert Matthew (1906–75) and Basil Spence (1907–76) were responsible for redeveloping the Gorbals in Glasgow, for demolitions at the University of Edinburgh and the stark rebuilding typified by the David Hume Tower (1960–63, now named 40 George Square). Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like Glenrothes (1948) and Cumbernauld (1956), designed to take excess population from the cities. Cumbernauld was praised for its architecture when first built, but the uncompleted centre and the layout of the town in general, were receiving heavy criticism by the twenty-first century: its modernist architecture described by one resident as "the lego fantasy of an unhappy child".
From the 1980s Scottish architecture began to recover its reputation with works such as the building to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow (1981). Recent major public buildings include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, Glasgow (1997), designed by Norman Foster (1935–) and known for its segmented, curving roof as "the Armadillo", and the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde, including the Glasgow Science Centre, IMAX Cinema and Glasgow Tower (2001), which is the highest in Scotland. The most important building of the early twenty-first century is the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh, designed by Enric Miralles (1955–2000) and opened in 2004, with a design that recalls upturned fishing boats. There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland's architectural heritage, including the great buildings and monuments, but also the classically influenced houses of towns like Edinburgh and Glasgow and the surviving tenements, many of which have been renovated, restored to their original pink and honeyed sandstone from the black fronts created by pollution and brought up to modern standards of accommodation. Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post-industrial decline, like the Merchant City in Glasgow, which was returned to housing from the 1980s, with warehouse loft conversions and more recently the waterfront in Edinburgh, resulting in a return of populations to major urban centres.


Spintharus of Corinth

Spintharus of Corinth () was an ancient Greek architect. Pausanias reported in his "Descriptions of Greece" that the Alcmaeonids hired him to build a temple at Delphi. This is the only record of Spintharus. The temple to Apollo at Delphi had to be rebuilt after a fire in 548 BC and again after an earthquake in 373 BC. Historians have offered competing claims as to which temple Spintharus constructed.
Debate on chronology.
J. B. Bury argued he built the 6th century temple because of accounts saying the fourth century temple was built by Xenodorus. John Henry Middleton dated Spintharus's construction to the latter half of the sixth century, BC. Karl Julius Sillig wrote Spintharus lived around the time of the 60th Olympiad, i.e., 540 BC.
However, James George Frazer argued he built the fourth century temple. He notes that Xenodorus is inscribed as the fourth century architect, but suggests Spintharus planned and began construction and Xenodorus continued construction after his death. Janina K. Darling reports Spintharus began construction in 346 BC and after his death the project was completed by the architects Xenodorus and Agathon. Hélène Perdicoyianni-Paléologou also lists all three architects as working on the rebuilding of the temple, which was completed in 320 BC. William Bell Dinsmoor notes that expense reports suggest that Xenodorus and Agathon continued Spintharus' construction on the fourth century temple.
Other possible works.
Middleton also suggested Spintharus also built the temple at Corinth due to similarities in some of the details such as the hypotrachelia.


Women Make Film

Women Make Film is a documentary film by the British-Irish filmmaker and film critic Mark Cousins. The film premiered on 1 September 2018 at the Venice Film Festival, and was released on the BFI Player in May 2020.
The film is divided into 40 chapters over 14 hours and features the work of 183 directors.
In the 1990s, Cousins curated a season of documentary films and realised later he had only included a single film made by a woman. This got him interested in finding and highlighting women filmmakers from around the world and throughout film history, eventually leading to the creation of this documentary. The premise of the film is that it is not about women filmmakers or institutional sexism; rather it is a documentary about film itself, and it explores 40 different aspects of filmmaking, drawing from a wide range of films as examples, all of which are made by women.
The academic Laura Mulvey curated the inaugural Women's Film Event at the Edinburgh film festival in 1972, the blurb for their event stated that "A festival of men's films would be simply absurd. It's because so few women have been able to make films that this festival exists". Mulvey said of "Women Make Film" that "The amazing extent of the work, with over a thousand clips, has the potential to bring women directors out of gender categorisation and into film history as such. But it also offers an unprecedented opportunity to enjoy women's cinematic vision and reflect on the way women have seen and indeed made the world through film – a source of wonder and of speculation!"
The documentary is narrated by Adjoa Andoh, Jane Fonda, Kerry Fox, Thandiwe Newton, Tilda Swinton, Sharmila Tagore and Debra Winger.
The Birds' Eye View charity will host weekly viewing parties and Facebook Live responses and debates on the documentary from women filmmakers for audiences at home during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns.


Aadloun

Aadloun, Adloun or Adlun () is a coastal town in South Lebanon, south of Sidon famous for its cultivation of watermelons. It is also the site of a Phoenician necropolis and prehistoric caves where four archaeological sites have been discovered and dated to the Stone Age. The evidence of human occupation of Abri Zumoffen (or Aadloun I) has been dated as far back as 71,000 BCE with occupation of Bezez Cave (Aadloun II) dating back even further into the earlier Middle Paleolithic.
Historic sites.
Aadloun I.
Aadloun I or Abri Zumoffen is a low cave and terrace at the foot of a cliff near a beach. It was discovered and sounded by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1898, 1900 and 1908 who found material thought to be either Acheulean or Mousterian. Dorothy Garrod suggested similarities existed to a final Acheulean (or Yarbrudian) industry of Tabun E. Along with Diana Kirkbride, she re-opened excavations in 1958 with another season in 1963 and found a pre-Aurignacian (Garrod's Amudian) blade industry in the deposits. D. A. Hooijer discussed the fauna of the site suggesting it included game animals and rhino. Materials from the site are now in collections of the Saint Joseph University, Beirut and the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. The site is now owned by the Directorate General of Antiquities but the previous land owner carried out private digging that has spread deposits from the Aadloun II cave site over the area creating a false layer.
Aadloun II.
Aadloun II, Bezez Cave or Mugharet el Bzaz is a cave on the east of the road heading to Tyre set into a cliff at an altitude of approximately above sea level. It was first sounded with little result in 1898 by Godefroy Zumoffen. A major excavation was undertaken in 1963 by Diana Kirkbride and Dorothy Garrod who determined a sequence stretching through the Yarbrudian, Levalloiso-Mousterian, Upper Paleolithic and on into the Heavy Neolithic. Materials from the excavations were to be held by Saint Joseph University and the American University of Beirut. The site is owned by the Directorate General of Antiquities and a gate was fixed over the mouth of the cave for protection. Three distinct levels were determined. Level C was called Acheuleo-Yarbrudian with materials found that resembled level E at Tabun Cave. Level B was called Levalloiso-Mousterian and compared with level D of Tabun. Level C encompassed the Upper Paleolithic and onwards.
Aadloun III.
Aadloun III is a site approximately south of Aadloun with a Chalcolithic (Enéolithique) industry that was found by P. E. Gigues.
Aadloun IV.
Aadloun IV was found by P. E. Gigues on the terraces below the village near the caves that have been damaged by quarrying. Local farmers have recovered several fine Neolithic and Chalcolithic tools from this area that are held by Saint Joseph University. Dr. Gigues collection was held in Beirut by a relative who charged a fee for showing it after his retirement to Morocco.
Materials recovered.
Lorraine Copeland made a collection of mostly Heavy Neolithic flints from the site in 1966. Amongst the finds were massive trapezoidal axes, chisels, a chopper, points, a pick, rough scrapers, blades, cores and hammerstones. The finds led Andrew Moore to suggest that Bezez cave was a factory site for such tools.


List of Jewish musicians

Jewish musicians by country:


Trent Reznor discography

This is a comprehensive discography of Trent Reznor, an American musician, singer, producer, and multi-instrumentalist most famous as the frontman and primary creative force behind the industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails. Reznor has also been associated with the bands Option 30, Exotic Birds, and Tapeworm, among others.
Though the majority of material released from Reznor has been under the Nine Inch Nails moniker, some material has been credited to Reznor himself, including writing, production, instrumental performances, and vocal contributions. Reznor has also remixed songs for a number of artists, including David Bowie, Queen, N*E*R*D, and Megadeth.
Trent has released three singles with his band, How to Destroy Angels. This band features the vocals of Mariqueen Maandig, Reznor's wife and former West Indian Girl frontwoman. Their first album was released as a free download via the band's website on June 1, 2010; with the single "A Drowning". This was Trent Reznor's first new material since his initial hiatus from Nine Inch Nails, which he later returned to.
Soundtrack work.
Films.
All music composed together with Atticus Ross, unless otherwise noted.
Television.
All music composed together with Atticus Ross.


Gethsemane Lutheran Church

Gethsemane Lutheran Church is a historic Lutheran church in downtown Austin, Texas. Designated as a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places (together with neighboring Luther Hall), the building currently holds offices of the Texas Historical Commission.
History.
The first Swedish Lutheran Church in Austin began meeting in 1868. In late 1882 the Swedish Lutherans decided to build a new meeting place near the Texas State Capitol grounds. Construction was completed the following year, after which the congregation occupied the building. A second structure, named Luther Hall, was built adjacent to the main building in 1940 to provide additional meeting and activity space. The congregation relocated to a new space in 1961, after which the facility was purchased by the State of Texas and became part of the State Capitol Complex.
After the Lutheran congregation left the church in 1961, community members began arguing for historical preservation of the structure. The church was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1962, and the sanctuary was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 25, 1970. The NRHP listing was later expanded to include neighboring Luther Hall on December 23, 2004.
The facility was renovated and restored between 1970 and 1971 to serve as office, library and museum space for the Texas Historical Commission, together with the nearby Carrington–Covert House. Since 1998 the sanctuary has held the THC's library, while Luther Hall currently provides office space for the commission's History Programs Division.
Architecture.
The Gethsemane Lutheran Church sanctuary building is a rectangular two-story hall of tan bricks atop a limestone foundation and basement with a gray pressed tin roof, featuring a square bell tower and steeple rising another story higher from the center front. The building is designed in a Gothic revival style, with brick buttresses and cornices and tall lancet windows with brick hood moulds. The church's designing architect was August Swenson, and its builder was Fredric Reichow, with S. A. Carlson as contractor.
The sanctuary building has a rectangular plan oriented east-to-west, with the main facade and tower on the east and an apse on the west. The main entrance is in the base of the projecting steeple, in the form of a Gothic arch with a stained-glass transom window above paneled wood double doors. The second level of the tower features a stained-glass lancet window and is topped by a cornice. Above the cornice, a hipped roof narrows the tower to an octagonal Carpenter Gothic cupola and belfry, topped by a conical roof terminating in a cross-shaped finial.
The north and south faces of the building each display five parallel stained-glass lancet windows separated by brick buttresses. The entrance arch and all the windows include brick hood moulds. The exterior bricks for the building were salvaged from the ruins of the second (1852) Texas State Capitol, which burned in 1881, and the main doors were taken from the University of Texas at Austin's Old Main building in the 1930s when it was demolished to make way for the current Main Building.
Luther Hall.
Luther Hall is a two-story rectangular hall of brick and limestone on a concrete foundation, situated immediately to the west of the sanctuary. The hall was designed in a Modern Movement style, with simple symmetrical lines. The main facade features a recessed entry with double doors and a transom (recalling the sanctuary's main entry) beneath a stepped parapet bearing a medallion representing the coat of arms of Martin Luther.


Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown

The Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown () was an order of merit of the Kingdom of Bavaria established by King Maximilian Joseph I on 19 March 1808. The motto of the order is Virtus et Honos ('Courage and Honour'). The order was awarded in several grades: Grand Commander, Grand Cross, Commander, Knight, and medals in gold and silver.
History.
King Maximilian I Joseph, founded the order to reward civil servants of the state of all classes and other foreigners who were deserving of recognition of the Kingdom of Bavaria. It was created as a civil counterpart to the Military Order of Max Joseph. Both the orders brought non-noble recipients in the collection of personal nobility with the title "Ritter von".
The Order of Merit of the Bavarian crown was initially founded with three grades Grand Cross, Commander, and Knight. King Maximilian II added the grade of Grand Commander in 1855. For each grade there was a fixed number of members. Initially membership in the order was limited to 12 Grand Crosses, 24 Commanders and 100 Knights. Statutes of the order from October 1817 list the limits at 24, 40 and 160. Adjustments to the statutes were also made on 16 February 1824, on 12 October 1834, and on 12 January 1835 Oktober 1838. The statutes were further modified in 1855 for the addition of the Grand Commander grade.


Zetland pipes

The Zetland pipes were a type of bagpipe designed and crafted by Pipe Major Royce Lerwick in the 1990s.
Historical impetus.
Lerwick believed that the bagpipes had been introduced to the British Isles by the Vikings. His "Zetland pipes" were intended to resemble single-drone, single-reeded pipes such as might have been brought to the Shetland Islands by the Vikings. The term "Zetland" is an antiquated variant of "Shetland".
The original impetus for the design, according to Lerwick, was the Lady Maket pipes, or Silver Pipes of Ur. This was an archaeological find, resembling bagpipes, dating back to 2500 BCE.
Practical impetus.
Lerwick's Zetland pipes were also intended to be a type of smallpipe that would be easy to learn and maintain, and applicable to popular folk and Celtic music. The handbook supplied with the pipes offered options for adapting different types of open or closed fingerings for the pipe, for maximum versatility, and also methods to change the modal scale of the pipe for playing different types of music.
Design.
The pipes consisted of a mouth-blown blowpipe, a single bass drone, and a single-reeded chanter in the key of D. This key was chosen as it was ideally suited for much of the Celtic repertoire. The single-reed gave the chanter a mellow sound, akin to the Swedish sackpipa.
Marketing.
The Zetland pipes were sold online, offered in either "American green ebony" or striped ebony. Natural drone reeds were included, with synthetic Highland drone reeds an option for both drone and chanter. Lerwick ceased production of the pipes around the year 2000.


X-Ray Cafe

The X-Ray Cafe was a small music venue in Portland, Oregon, United States from 1990 to 1994. An all-ages and community-oriented club, the X-Ray played a "heavyweight role in shaping Portland's underground culture," fostering such musical acts as Elliott Smith, Team Dresch, and Quasi, and hosted national acts like Bikini Kill and Green Day and was described by "Details" as one of the best rock and roll clubs in the country. Located at 214 W. Burnside St., it was characterized by a surreal environment and performers; owners Tres Shannon and Benjamin Arthur Ellis, who took over the U.F.O Cafe to establish the X-Ray and were in the band The Kurtz Project, encouraged acts that featured instruments that aren't typically associated with rock music, like Big Daddy Meatstraw, who performed on stage in clown costumes. As grunge and alternative music were emerging in Portland and Seattle under a national spotlight, the X-Ray served as an important stage for smaller acts in the genre, and along with nearby Satyricon nightclub, established Portland as an important regional performing destination for touring bands.
The X-Ray was in operation from 1990 to 1994.
The club is the subject of a 2000 documentary, "X-Ray Visions," directed by former owner Ellis.
Owner Richard "Tres" Shannon III has remained a prominent figure in Portland. He booked music for neighboring club Berbati's Pan, and later opened Voodoo Doughnut. He has also run for Mayor of Portland and City Council, and founded the innovative karaoke band Karaoke from Hell.
The X-Ray Cafe was the site of a small but controversial riot in 1993.


Phantom Films

Phantom Films was an Indian film production and distribution company established by Anurag Kashyap, director Vikramaditya Motwane, producer Madhu Mantena and the former head of UTV Spotboy Vikas Bahl. It was founded in 2011 by all four of them, and is cited as the "director's company". In March 2015, Reliance Entertainment picked up 50% stake in the company.
The company’s first production was the period romance Lootera (2013), directed by Motwane and starring Ranveer Singh and Sonakshi Sinha. the film was co-produced by Balaji Motion Pictures. Next year, the company co-produced the romantic-comedy "Hasee Toh Phasee" and "Queen", starring Kangana Ranaut. The film was a critical and commercial success, it also won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi. It was followed by the thrillers "Ugly" and "NH10" (2015). The latter marked the production debut of Anushka Sharma. "Hunterrr" (2015), "Bombay Velvet" (2015) and "Masaan" (2015) were the company's next releases. The company was dissolved in October, 2018.
Establishment.
Phantom Films was founded in 2011 by Anurag Kashyap, Vikramaditya Motwane, Vikas Bahl and Madhu Mantena, and is cited as the "directors' company". The idea to start their own production house came in mind of because of "their failure in convincing every time to someone to believe in the kind of cinema they make". In March 2015, Reliance Entertainment picked up 50% stake in the company.
Films.
The company's first film was the period romance "Lootera" (2013), starring Ranveer Singh and Sonakshi Sinha. Based O. Henry's short story, "The Last Leaf", the film was critically acclaimed.
Phantom film's then went on to collaborate with Karan Johar's Dharma Productions to produce the romantic comedy "Hasee Toh Phasee" (2014). The film starring Parineeti Chopra and Sidharth Malhotra was directed by the debutant Vinil Mathew. It was followed by Vikas Bahl-directed comedy drama "Queen", starring Kangana Ranaut. The film was a critical and commercial success, it also won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi. "Ugly" (2014), a drama thriller was the next production venture of Phantom.
In 2015, the company produced Anushka Sharma's production debut film "NH10", and the sex comedy "Hunterrr". Both films proved to be a success. "Bombay Velvet", a period film set in Bombay in the 1960s, based on Princeton University Historian Gyan Prakash's book "Mumbai Fables", was its next release. It stars Ranbir Kapoor, Anushka Sharma and Karan Johar. The film was a major box-office failure. "Masaan", was phantom's fourth release of the year. The film won the FIPRESCI Award and the Promising Future award at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival. The string of box-office failures for Phantom Films continued with "Shaandaar" (2015), starring Alia Bhatt and Shahid Kapoor.
In February 2016, Phantom Films announced that they will co-produce three Gujarati films with CineMan Productions, a Gujarat-based film production company co-founded by Abhishek Jain.
Phantom's first release of the year was "Udta Punjab" (2016), a crime drama from the director Abhishek Chaubey that documents the substance abuse endemic in the Indian state of Punjab. The film generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Certification demanded extensive censorship before its theatrical release, citing that the portrayal of Punjab in it was negative. After the producers of the film filed lawsuit against the board, the Bombay High Court cleared the film for exhibition with a single scene cut. It was followed by "Raman Raghav 2.0", a thriller directed by Anurag Kashyap based on the notorious serial killer Raman Raghav, starring Nawazuddin Siddiqui in the title character. The film premiered at the 2016 Sydney Film Festival and the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, in the Director's Fortnight section to positive response. The company's final release of the year was the Gujarati film "Wrong Side Raju".
Dissolution.
The company announced its dissolution on 5 October 2018, largely in response to the sexual assault allegation on Bahl by a former Phantom employee, which was reported in 2015. The other three founders, Kashyap, Motwane, and Mantena, all issued statements on Twitter confirming the company's disbanding and moving on to independent projects.