Battle of Lauro

The Battle of Lauro (45 BC) was the last stand of Gnaeus Pompeius the Younger, son of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, against the followers of Julius Caesar during the civil war of 49–45 BC. After being defeated during the Battle of Munda, the younger Pompeius unsuccessfully attempted to flee Hispania Ulterior by sea, but was eventually forced to land. Pursued by Caesarian forces under Lucius Caesennius Lento, the Pompeians were cornered at a wooded hill near the town of Lauro, where most of them, including Pompeius the Younger, were killed in battle.
Background.
After the Battle of Munda, the badly wounded Pompeius fled to Carteia. The town was already embroiled in factional strife between local Pompeians and Caesarians, however, with the latter eventually launching a revolt, during which Gnaeus Pompeius was again wounded. The situation quickly turned against the Pompeians, whereupon they decided to board their remaining navy of twenty ships and escape to the sea. The Caesarian naval commander Gaius Didius, who was stationed at Gades, heard of the Pompeians' escape, and promptly set off in pursuit. Having left Carteia in great haste, Pompeius' men had not brought enough drinking water and thus were soon forced to land, allowing Didius to catch up with them after four days of sailing. The Caesarians attacked the Pompeian fleet at anchor, capturing some vessels and burning the rest, consequently trapping Pompeius and his followers in southern Spain.
The battle.
The Pompeians then attempted to flee over land, constantly pursued and harassed by Caesarian forces. In course of the flight, Pompeius the Younger was once more wounded, this time in the shoulder and left leg, so that his men had to carry him on a litter. The Pompeians eventually took refuge at a well defendable wooded hill near the town of Lauro, but they were discovered by a local, who reported them to the Caesarians. As result, Pompeius and his men were surrounded. The Caesarians, under command of Lucius Caesennius Lento, began to attack the Pompeian positions, but thanks to the natural conditions, the defenders were able to repulse multiple assaults. Thus thwarted, Lento's forces settled down to besiege and starve out the Pompeians. Recognizing this, the defenders resolved to try to break through the siege.
When the Pompeians began their breakout attempt, heavy and brutal fighting ensued, with the escaping defenders suffering heavy casualties. Several Pompeians, many of them Lusitanians, actually managed to escape, but not Gnaeus Pompeius himself. Unable to walk due to his wounds and not transportable by horse or litter because of the local terrains' inaccessibility, he could not flee quickly enough and together with several of his followers remained behind. With many Pompeians either gone or killed, the Caesarians then launched a renewed assault against the Pompeian position and overran the remaining defenders. Gnaeus Pompeius fled into a cave, but was discovered after some captives betrayed his hiding place, and, despite his wounds, fought to the death.
Aftermath.
Pompeius the Younger's head was then cut off and brought to Hispalis, where it was displayed to the local populace. Meanwhile, the Lusitanians who had escaped the battle rallied many of their tribal members and attacked the forces of Gaius Didius, who had set up a camp near the coast. Provoking Didius to sally out from his camp by setting fire to his landed ships, the Lusitanians ambushed and killed him and many of his men. Those who survived fled to their remaining ships and escaped to the sea. After Munda and Gnaeus Pompeius' death, Julius Caesar believed the Pompeians to be completely defeated in Spain, and consequently left only few forces there to mop up the remaining resistance when returning to Rome. Unlike his older brother, however, Sextus Pompey successfully evaded the Caesarian pursuers and actually rebuilt the Pompeian armies. By the time Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, he had reconquered most of southern Spain for the Pompeian cause.


Neapolitan lira

The lira was the currency of the mainland part of the Kingdom of the Sicily, known as the Kingdom of Naples, between 1812 and 1813. The currency was issued by Joachim Murat, who claimed the title of "King of the Two Sicilies" but only controlled the mainland part of the kingdom. Consequently, the currency is referred to as the "Neapolitan lira". It was subdivided into 100 "centesimi" (singular: "centesimo") and was equal to the Italian lira and French franc. It replaced the piastra, which circulated again following the restoration of Bourbon rule.
Coins.
Coins were issued in denominations of 3, 5 and 10 centesimi, ½, 1, 2, 5, 20 and 40 lire. The centesimi denominations were struck in bronze, the lire coins up to 5 lire were in silver and the higher denominations were in gold. All the coins bore the head of name Joachim Murat and his adopted Italian name, "Gioacchino Napoleone".


Siege of Crema

The Siege of Crema was a siege of the town of Crema, Lombardy by the Holy Roman Empire from 2 July 1159 to 25 January 1160. The Cremaschi attempted to defend their city from the Germans, but were eventually defeated by Frederick Barbarossa's men. Frederick seized Milan in 1162, shortly after he took Crema. These events started the wars of Guelphs and Ghibellines, leading to the formation of the Lombard League, a league of northern Italian communes allied against the emperor, supported by the Pope.
Background.
In 1158, Frederick Barbarossa led an army into northern Italy to reduce the autonomy of its communes. The main imperial ally, Cremona, was at the time quarreling with the nearby Crema about rights and privileges namely owed to the bishops of Cremona. Crema was also allied to Milan, and this was seen as a menace of extension of the Milanese power towards Cremona and the Po River. In a meeting held at Casale Monferrato, the Cremonesi convinced Frederick to attack Crema, an act that would also imply a menace against the rebellious Milan. The Cremonese also paid 15,000 silver "corone" to Frederick in exchange of his help.
The siege.
After an ultimatum sent by Frederick on 2 February 1159, asking the destruction of their walls, was refused, the Cremaschi settled into their city to hold against a siege. Barbarossa killed his prisoners, so the Cremese hacked their prisoners to pieces in front of their comrades.
The besieging troops were formed mostly by Barbarossa's imperial contingents, part of which led by his brother, Conrad, and by the latter's son Frederick; by Bavarian troops under duke Henry the Lion; and by communal troops, mostly belonging to the main imperial allies, Cremona (under bishop Oberto of Dovara) and Pavia. The city was on a marshy plain and was protected by several moats and a tall double wall. The defenders had nine mangonels as defensive artillery. Milan attempted to save Crema by assaulting a nearby town, but Barbarossa drove back the Milanese.
The besiegers set in their final positions in the October 1159; starting from the following December, they used a "cat" (a mobile roof), followed by a siege tower, to cover their siege engineers who were mining under the walls. This led to the Cremaschi also digging tunnels to start underground warfare. After the cat had eroded the walls, a ram was used to create a breach in the walls; the tower was further neared to the walls starting from 6 January. The final assault was launched on January 21 using a mobile bridge measuring some 24 x 3.5 meters, while a smaller one was launched from the siege tower.
The defenders and civilians, some of whom had died of hunger and disease, surrendered on January 25 after the imperial troops had taken control of the outer walls. Some 20,000 survivors were allowed to leave with whatever they could carry before Crema was looted and burnt to the ground. An edict issued by Frederick in 1162 at Lodi officially forbade its reconstruction.
Milan was also taken and destroyed two years later, ending the first phase of the war. Crema could be rebuilt by its citizens after the signature of the Peace of Constance in 1183.


2008 in Albania

The following lists events that happened during 2008 in Republic of Albania.


The Trundle

The Trundle (Old English: Tryndel, meaning is an Iron Age hill fort on Saint Roche's Hill about north of Chichester, Sussex, England. The fort was built around a Neolithic causewayed enclosure, of which very little can be seen on the ground.
History.
St Roche's Hill (elevation ) has been used for several purposes, dating back to the Palaeolithic era. The hill fort was a Neolithic causewayed enclosure before the Iron Age hill fort was built around the pre-existing structure.
In 1645 the site was used by the Clubmen as a military base and subsequently as a beacon site to warn against attack by the French. This beacon was lit in 1745, causing much alarm in the surrounding countryside.
The hill was also the site of a small (around ) chapel, until it was left to ruin. It is thought the chapel was built at some point in the 15th century and destroyed during the Reformation. A windmill was also present on the site of the hill-fort. It is not known when it was built, but in 1773, the windmill burnt down in a storm, along with a windmill on Portsdown Hill.
In World War II, it was the site for a radar early warning system. The summit of St Roche's Hill is now the site of two large radio masts.
The Trundle's northeast slope is a viewing area for Goodwood Racecourse and the top of the hill offers panoramic views of parts of Sussex, Hampshire and the English Channel beyond. On a clear day it is possible to see the Seven Sisters cliffs including Beachy Head over 45 miles away. In June/July 2010, The Trundle was temporary host to 'Artemis', a 30 ft tall bronze sculpture of a horse designed by sculptor Nic Fiddian-Green. The sculpture was taken to Australia in 2011.
Archaeological excavations.
During archaeological excavations (1928–1930, 1975, 1980, 1987, 1989 and 1994–95) of the hill fort, numerous objects have been discovered: Middle Iron-Age pottery, potboilers, human bones (an arm bone and a skull), animal bones (ox, horse, pig, dog, cat and sheep), charcoal, various iron objects (including a knife, a spearhead, an adze blade, a sickle, large iron rings and iron slag) and several quern-stone fragments.


Elections in Albania

Regular elections in Albania are mandated by the Constitution and legislation enacted by Parliament. The Parliament ("Kuvendi") has 140 members elected for four-year terms. The electoral system is closed list proportional representation. There are 12 multi-member constituencies corresponding to the country's 12 administrative regions. Within any constituency, parties must meet a threshold of 3 percent of votes, and pre-election coalitions must meet a threshold of 5 percent of votes.
This electoral system replaced a mixed-member system in November 2008. Under the old system, 100 members were elected directly in single member constituencies with approximately equal numbers of voters. 40 were elected from multi-name lists of parties or party coalitions according to their ranking. The total number of deputies of a party or a party coalition was to be, to the closest possible extent, proportional to the valid votes won by that party or coalition on the national scale in the first round of elections. Parties that received less than 2.5% and coalitions that received less than 4% of the valid votes on the national scale in the first round of elections did not benefit from the respective multi-name list.
The change was criticised by the smaller parties, but supported by the two main parties. It was considered an important step towards Albania's European integration. Other changes included limiting the prosecutor general's term to five years, forcing an early election in case of a no-confidence vote and reducing the majority required to elect the president from three-fifths to half the MPs.
The president is elected by parliament.
Albania has a multi-party system, with two or three strong parties and several other parties that are electorally successful.


Suessula

Suessula (Greek: ) was an ancient city of Campania, southern Italy, situated in the interior of the peninsula, near the frontier with Samnium, between Capua and Nola, and about 7 km northeast of Acerrae, Suessula is now a vanished city and the archeological site belongs to the city of Acerra, and not to San Felice a Cancello as reported in some sources.
History.
Ancient.
Suessula is repeatedly mentioned during the wars between Romans and Samnites, as well as in the Second Punic War against Hannibal. Thus in the First Samnite War (343 BC) it was the scene of a decisive victory by Marcus Valerius Corvus over the Samnites, who had gathered together the remains of their army which had been previously defeated at Mount Gaurus (Livy vii. 37). In the following Campanian War the Suessulani followed the fortunes of the citizens of Capua, and shared the same fate, so that at the close of the contest, in 338 BC, they must have obtained the status of "civitas", but without the right of suffrage ("Id." viii. 14).
In the Second Punic War the city played a considerable part, though apparently more from its position than its own importance. Suessula was on the line of the Via Popillia, which was here intersected by a road which ran from Neapolis through Acerrae, and on to the Via Appia, which it reached just west of the Caudine pass. The line of hills which rises from the level plain of Campania immediately above Suessula, and forms a kind of prolongation of the ridge of Mount Tifata, was a station almost as convenient as that mountain itself, and in 216 BCE, it was occupied by M. Claudius Marcellus with the view of protecting Nola, and watching the operations of Hannibal against that city (Liv. xxiii. 14, 17). From this time the Romans seem to have kept up a permanent camp there for some years, which was known as the Castra Claudiana, from the name of Marcellus who had first established it, and which is continually alluded to during the operations of the subsequent campaigns (Liv. xxiil. 31, xxiv. 46, 47, xxv. 7, 22, xxvi. 9).
After this period, Suessula fades into obscurity. It continued to be a municipal town of Campania, though apparently one of a secondary class; and inscriptions attest its municipal rank under the Roman Empire. It had received a body of veterans as colonists under Sulla, but did not attain the colonial rank (Strabo v. p. 249; Plin. iii. 5. s. 9; Orell. "Inscr." 129, 130, 2333; "Lib. Col." p. 237). The Tabula Peutingeriana places it on a line of road from Capua to Nola, at the distance of 9 miles from each of those cities (Tab. Peut).
Middle Ages and modern.
Suessula was an episcopal see in the first ages of Christianity, until at least the 10th century. It was for a time the chief town of a small Lombard League principality. It was several times plundered by the Saracens, and at last abandoned by the inhabitants in consequence of malaria. The ruins of the town lie within the Bosco d'Acerra, a picturesque forest, about 7 km south of Maddaloni, and an adjacent castle is still called "Torre di Sessola". They were more conspicuous in the 19th century than they now are, but traces of the theater may still be seen, and debris of other buildings. Oscan tombs were excavated there between 1878 and 1886, and important finds of vases and bronzes have been made. The dead were generally buried within slabs of tuff arranged to form a kind of sarcophagus. Inscriptions, as well as capitals of columns and other architectural fragments, have been found there (Francesco Maria Pratilli, "Via Appia", iii. 3. p. 347; Romanelli, vol. iii. p. 590).


List of years in Romania

This is a list of years in Romania. See also the timeline of Romanian history. For only articles about years in Romania that have been written, see .
1989–present.
Years since the December 1989 Romanian Revolution.
1947–1989.
Years between the abdication of King Michael of Romania and the December 1989 Romanian Revolution.
1881–1947.
Years of the Kingdom of Romania and the short-lived National Legionary State (1940–1941).
1859–1881.
Years of the United Principalities.


John Cushing (actor)

John Cushing (1719-1790) was a British stage actor.
He appeared at a variety of London fairs during the early 1740s, before joining the company at Goodman's Fields Theatre in 1744 along with his wife. He then spent many years as part of the company at the Covent Garden Theatre. His final appearance there came in 1782 and died in Liverpool in 1790.


Bardili (Turduli)

The Bardili were a small, pre-Roman tribe of the Iberian Peninsula, and an off-shot of the widespread Turduli people, who lived in what is now southwestern Portugal in the 5th-1st centuries BC.
Location.
Migrating in conjunction with the Celtici, they settled the present Setúbal peninsula along the Tagus river mouth and the lower "Sardum" (Sado; "Kallipos" in the Greek sources) river valley around the 5th Century BC, where they founded several coastal towns. The exact location of the Bardili capital "Bardo" remains uncertain, though the towns of "Equabona"/"Aquabona" (Coina-a-Velha), "Caetobriga"/"Cetobriga" (Monte da Rotura, near Setúbal) and "Salacia" (Alcácer do Sal; Iberian-type mint: "Ketuvion") have been identified.
History.
In the mid-3rd century BC the Bardili were forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of Carthage at the latter part of the century. However, their history after the Second Punic War is unclear; they seem to have played no role in the Lusitanian Wars and subsequent conflicts during the 2nd-1st Centuries BC. It is almost certain that the Bardili recovered their independence, which they enjoyed for nearly a century before being included into Hispania Ulterior province by the "praetor" Publius Licinius Crassus in the wake of his campaign against the Lusitani and Celtici in 93 BC.
Romanization.
Increasingly Romanized after the Ulterior "Propraetor" Julius Caesar campaigns against the Lusitani, Turduli Oppidani, and Turduli Veteres in 61-60 BC, they were aggregated to the new Lusitania province by Emperor Augustus in 27-13 BC.


Sten Sture the Elder

Sten Sture the Elder (Swedish: "Sten Sture den äldre"; 1440 – 14 December 1503) was a Swedish statesman and regent of Sweden 1470–1497 and 1501–1503. As the leader of the victorious Swedish separatist forces against the royal unionist forces during the Battle of Brunkeberg in 1471, he weakened the Kalmar Union considerably and became the effective ruler of Sweden as Lord Regent for most of his remaining life.
Background.
In contemporary sources he is alternatively referred to as "Sten Gustavsson" or "Herr Sten" "(Lord Sten)"; the practice of using noble family names as part of a personal name was not yet in use in Sweden at the time. He was born around 1440, the son of Gustav Anundsson of the Sture family and Birgitta Stensdotter Bielke, half-sister of the future Charles VIII. The Sture family was one of the high-ranking noble families of the time, though only distantly related to the royal house; his closest royal ancestor was King Sverker II of Sweden (both through family of Vinga and through family of Aspenäs). Sture's father, Gustav Anundsson, was Castellan of Kalmar Castle and a Privy Councillor, but died when the son was four. Birgitta Stensdotter remarried Gustav Karlsson of the Gumsehuvud family, and the son was most likely raised in their home, first at Kalmar Castle and later at Ekholmen Castle.
The 15th century in Sweden was largely defined by the political struggles and civil wars between the unionists of the Kalmar Union, seeking to unite Sweden with Denmark and Norway under the rule of the Danish monarchs, with Danish support, and the separatists seeking to re-establish Sweden as an independent kingdom under a rival Swedish monarch. Due to his close family ties to the Swedish King Charles, the young Sten Sture became part of the Swedish separatist political movement from an early age, and visited Charles during his exile in Danzig. He is mentioned as a knight in 1462 and as a privy councillor in 1466, and took up residence on the family estate at Räfsnäs north of Mariefred. Sture fought with Bishop and Regent Kettil Karlsson Vasa during the uprising against the Danish King Christian I in 1464, taking part in the decisive victory at Haraker. He served as a military commander under King Charles VIII, defeating Erik Karlsson Vasa's uprising at Uppbo in 1470 and later in the same year successfully beating back Christian I's forces at Öresten.
He married Ingeborg Tott, niece by marriage of Magdalen of Sweden, in 1467; she was a renaissance personality interested in theology and science and seems to have had some importance in the intellectual development during his reign. The marriage was childless.
First regency.
Sture's uncle, King Charles VIII named Sture heir to Charles' personal domains before his death in 1470, and left Sture in charge of the crown lands, including the city of Stockholm and Stockholm Castle. On the death of King Charles on 15 May 1470, Sture immediately became the most powerful noble and political force in the country and was elected Lord Protector and Regent of Sweden "(riksföreståndare)" by the Riksmöte in Arboga on 1 May 1471. Sture consolidated his position through the victory of Brunkeberg.
At the Battle of Brunkeberg on 10 October 1471, which was fought around Brunkebergsåsen outside the northern gates of Stockholm, his Swedish separatist army triumphed against Danish King Christian I's Swedish unionist and Danish forces, injuring Christian and routing the unionist army. This victory elevated Sture to the position of a national savior. The sculpture "Saint George and the Dragon" in Storkyrkan in Stockholm, commonly attributed to the German sculptor Bernt Notke, was raised to commemorate the battle.
For a quarter of a century he ruled Sweden making the regency almost an office in its own right. He was supported by the peasantry, the commercial interests of the mining district of Bergslagen and the lower nobility, playing them out against the unionist high-ranked nobility and clergy and managing a difficult act of balance towards the Danish demands of reunion. In a meeting in Kalmar in 1483, the high nobility confirmed the new Danish king Hans as the true king of Sweden on condition of extensive privileges and guarantees granted to the high nobility, clergy and Privy Council, but Sture nevertheless managed to hold on to the political power for the time being, refusing to give up his office as Regent.
Sture's reign saw the foundation of the first Swedish university, Uppsala University, founded by Archbishop Jakob Ulvsson in 1477 with support from Sture.
In 1493, the Danish and Norwegian king, Hans (also called John I), formed an alliance with Ivan III of Russia against Sten Sture. From 1495 to 1497, Sten successfully repelled a Russian invasion of Finland. However, he subsequently fell out with the majority of the Swedish nobility, most prominently Svante Nilsson, and the Swedish Privy Council declared him to be deposed as regent on 8 March 1497.
Second regency.
In the ensuing war, Sten was supported by peasant forces, but they were defeated at the Battle of Rotebro by Hans of Denmark (also known as King John I of Denmark and Norway), who invaded Sweden in July the same year. On 6 October, Sten surrendered to King Hans in Stockholm and was reconciled with him. Hans was crowned King of Sweden, and Sten was given the highest position of authority in Sweden below the King. However, during the next rebellion against the Danes in 1501, he again took office as regent, leading the Swedish struggle for independence until his death. In May 1502, the unionist garrison in Stockholm, led by Queen Christina, capitulated due to severe starvation after a drawn-out siege. In early 1503 his forces were in control of Sweden apart from Kalmar and the island of Öland.
Sture used the capture of the Queen for propaganda purposes, personally accompanying the Queen to Halmstad in Denmark after a cease-fire had been negotiated by the Hanseatic League, in October 1503.
Death and aftermath.
On his way back from Denmark, Sture fell ill and died on 14 December 1503. Bishop Hemming Gadh, who accompanied Sture on the journey, alerted Svante Nilsson at Stegeborg Castle. Sture's widow, Ingeborg Tott, who at the time was in control of the Stockholm garrison, was only presented with the news of her husband's death once Svante Nilsson had reached Stockholm. She was persuaded to turn over Stockholm Castle and received Häme Castle in Finland as compensation.
Sture had no legitimate children from his marriage with Ingeborg Tott, only a daughter born out of wedlock, Birgitta, who became a nun in Vadstena Abbey. The male line of the old Sture family, the Tre Sjöblad family, died out with Sten Sture. His closest relatives and heirs were his deceased sister's, the house of Vasa, and his nephew Erik Johansson Vasa, a knight and member of the Privy Council, inherited Sture's extensive personal domains in Södermanland and Uppland. Erik Johansson's son, the future King Gustav I of Sweden had been born a few years before Sten's death. However, Erik Johansson was described by his contemporaries as a simpleminded and brutal man, prone to violent outbursts and on more than one occasion charged with manslaughter, and lacked the political skill of his uncle Sten Sture.
Regent Sten was succeeded by his colleague from the Privy Council and former enemy Svante Nilsson, of the Natt och Dag family, as regent. Svante Nilsson's son and successor, Sten Sture the Younger, later chose to adapt the Sture name for political purposes, despite only being distantly related.
Burial and monuments.
To commemorate the victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture ordered a wooden monument for Storkyrkan in Stockholm, "Saint George and the Dragon", built in the late 1480s. Saint George's horse carries the coat of arms of the Tre Sjöblad family, Sten Sture's coat of arms, and the monument is therefore interpreted as a symbol of his victory over Denmark, the dragon. A bronze copy of the monument was placed on Köpmantorget in Stockholm in 1912.
Sten Sture was buried in the church of Mariefred Charterhouse, which he had helped establish and made significant contributions to during his reign. His remains were moved to Strängnäs Cathedral during the reign of Gustav I, after the short-lived monastery was closed in 1526, during the protestant reformation. A memorial outside the town church of Mariefred marks the former site of the monastery. The present burial monument in the choir of Strängnäs Cathedral was ordered in 1774 by King Gustav III.
Sture became a prominent symbolic figure in the 19th century nationalist movement in Sweden, together with the early 15th century rebel leader Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson and King Gustav I who ended the Kalmar Union. A large stone monument to Sten Sture, by the sculptor Carl Milles (1875–1955), was inaugurated in Uppsala in 1925. There are several places and buildings named after Sten Sture in the town of Arboga in central Sweden, where Sten Sture was elected in 1471, due to the efforts of the local Sture society in the late 19th century. "Stureparken" was created for the 400th anniversary in 1871, and an obelisk dedicated to the memory of the election of Sten Sture was erected in the park in 1890.


Fenland Survey

The Fenland Survey was an intense archaeological survey of the Fenlands of England that took place between 1982 and 1989. During the survey, approximately 250,000 hectares (615,000 acres) of land was fieldwalked by four archaeologists in the interest of creating a comprehensive overview of the sites within the area.
More than two thousand sites and potential sites were found, including more than 300 Roman and Iron Age salt production locations.
The area of study included:

Cambridgeshire: 142,000 ha (351,000 acres)

Lincolnshire: 71,000 ha (175,000 acres)

Norfolk: 36,000 ha (89,000 acres)
The results of the survey were published in 1994.


Royiska Sotnia

The Royiska Sotnia (Company) () was one of the sixteen territorial-administrative and military unit of the Chernihiv Regiment of the Cossack Hetmanate. The sotnia's center was the village of Royishche, now in the Chernihiv Oblast of north-east Ukraine.
The sotnia was created in 1659 and occupied area almost 593,7 km² (1730) on banks Stryzhen River, right tributary Desna River. On the territory of the sotnia were 32 settlers, as military unit it numbered from 100 to 707 registered Cossacks. The territory of the sotnia bodered by the Horodnyanska Sotnia to the east, Bilouska Sotnia by the south, and Lyubetska Sotnia to the west.
In 1782 the sotnia was abolished by the order Empress Catherine the Great as territorial-administrative district. All of the sotnia's territories were included into Chernihiv namestnichestvo. In 1784 it was disbanded as military unit.
Commanders.
Chief in the sotnia was sotnyk (sotnia's commander, captain.
List of sotnyks:


List of years in Andorra

This is a list of years in Andorra.


Raymond I, Count of Pallars and Ribagorza

Raymond I (, ) (fl. 884–920) was the first independent Count of Pallars and Ribagorza from 872 until his death. Early speculation made him a scion of the Counts of Toulouse, but he is certainly the "Count Raymond, son of Count Lupus ... in the country of Pallars" ("Regimundo comite, filio Luponi comiti ... in pago Paliarensi") of a 920 document. His father may have been the Basque count Lupus I of Bigorre. During his lifetime Pallars represented the easternmost extent of the Basque language.
Rise to power.
Raymond was a local nobleman who in the aftermath of the assassination of Bernard II of Toulouse by partisans of Bernard Plantapilosa (872) seized authority for himself in Pallars and Ribagorza. The exact circumstances surrounding his rise are obscure, but he had probably held lands south of the Pyrenees from the County of Toulouse prior to gaining independence. Neither is it clear what part the leading men of the regions played in his elevation, but after the fact Pallars and Ribagorza were not even nominally attached to Francia.
Rule.
Raymond immediately made overtures of peace and alliance with the Banu Qasi governors of Huesca and Zaragoza, in 884 even purchasing Zaragoza, only to have it immediately reconquered by the Caliphate. In the end, a policy of Reconquista had to be adopted. Consequentially, his reign saw the encastellation of Pallars of Ribagorza and the proliferation of "turres" (defensive towers). Castles were built at Leovalles, Castellous, and Lemignano. Raymond also consolidated his "de facto" independence from any superior authority by creating a new diocese of Pallars, enabling himself to control the local church. Raymond also established an alliance with the Jiménez dynasty of Navarre. He married his sister Dadildis to García Jiménez of Pamplona, and in 905 he collaborated with Alfonso III of Asturias and Abd Allah ibn Lubb ibn Qasi in a coup that unseated Fortún Garcés of Pamplona in favor of Raymond's nephew, Sancho Garcés I.
Later years.
In 904 he was attacked by Lubb ibn Muhammad ibn Qasi, who took 700 prisoners, including Raymond's son and heir Isarn. He lost much of Ribagorza, including Roda and Montpedrós, to Muhammad al-Tawil of Huesca in 907 and thereafter ruled mainly just Pallars, which had always been his political base. His wife may be the Giniguentes, daughter of Aznar Dat, mentioned in the "Códice de Roda", but the text is ambiguous and probably refers to the wife of his son, Isarn. Pallars was inherited by his two youngest sons, Isarn and Llop, while mostly-overrun Ribagorza went to his two eldest, Miro and Bernard Unifred. Another son of Raymond was Ato, Bishop of Pallars, who appears as brother of both Bernard and Isarn in contemporary documents.


Dropion

Dropion (Greek: Δροπίων), (250 BC – 230 BC) was an ancient Paeonian king, son of Leon of Paionia.


Golubac Fortress

The Golubac Fortress ( or "Golubački grad", , , , ) was a medieval fortified town on the south side of the Danube River, downstream from the modern-day town of Golubac, Serbia. According to recent discoveries, the fortress, which was built during the 14th century by Medieval Serbian state, is split into three compounds which were built in stages. It has ten towers, most of which started square, and several of which received many-sided reinforcements with the advent of firearms. Towers were not connected for easier defense. Also inside the fortress were found Serbian Medieval frescos.
Golubac Fortress has had a tumultuous history. Prior to its construction it was the site of a Roman settlement. During the Middle Ages, it became the object of many battles, especially between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. It changed hands repeatedly, passing between Turks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Serbs, and Austrians, until 1867, when it was turned over to the Serbian Knez, Mihailo Obrenović III. Now, it is a popular tourist attraction in the region and a sightseeing point on Danube boat tours.
The fortress has a distinction of successfully repelling over 120 conquering attacks during history.
Location.
Golubac, in the Braničevo District of north-eastern Serbia and on the modern-day border with Romania, marks the entrance to the Đerdap national park. It is strategically located on the embankment of the Danube River where it narrows to form the Iron Gate gorge, allowing for the regulation and taxation of traffic across and along the river. At the fortress location, the Danube is wide. In the Middle Ages, this was done with the aid of a strong chain connected to Babakaj, a rock on the far side of the river.
Name.
The name of the fortress and the modern town in its vicinity can be translated as the "Pigeon city" or the "Dove city" ("golub", "pigeon"). It is not uncommon name source in the Serbian toponymy, but the exact reason for the fortress' name is not known and only the myths of the origin of the name exist. Some sources use the descriptive method, as the "towers, like pigeons aim for the skies". The most popular, but obviously also much later myth, is that of a beautiful Serbian girl named Golubana. A local Turkish pasha fell in love with her, but she loved a young Serbian man and rejected all the proposals and expensive gifts from the pasha. Angered, he took her down in a boat and either imprisoned her in the only cone-roofed tower, or tied her to the rock above the river and left her there until she died.
History.
The remains uncovered during the 2010s reconstruction, points to the Roman and Byzantine settlement which predated the fortress. The evidence was found in the typical brick-stone combination of construction, especially in the building which the Ottomans later used as a hammam. Remains of the waterworks system were also discovered.
Golubac's early history is uncertain. From 803 to 1018, the area belonged to the First Bulgarian Empire, to the Byzantine Empire from then until 1193, and the Second Bulgarian Empire until 1257. The area remained in Serbian hands from then until the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century, with control of the region changing many times between Hungarians, Bulgarians and Serbs before then. It is also unclear whether the medieval fortress was built by Bulgarians, Serbs or Hungarians, or how many towers it had originally. However, an Orthodox chapel built as part of one tower shows that it, at least, was built by a local noble. There is also uncertainty about when construction started, although it is generally agreed that the majority of the fortress was built early in the 14th century. The chapel probably originated from the period of Despot Stefan Lazarević in the first half of the 15th century.
Some of the proposed theories are those that Serbian king Stefan Dragutin built it in 1286 or that Hungarians built it soon after they conquered this part of the Braničevo region from the Serbs a bit after this date. None can be confirmed by the historiography, but the discovery of the aforementioned Orthodox chapel might tentatively point to the Serbian origin of the fortress.
The first known record of Golubac is in Hungarian sources from 1335, when it was occupied by Hungarian military. It was described as the "watcher made of stone, guarding the gorge". Sometime between 1345 and 1355, Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan toured the Braničevo region, which was part of Serbia along the boundary between Serbia and Hungary. He also visited Golubac, which was under the command of Castellan Toma, Voivode of Transylvania, under Hungarian control. After Dušan's death, the House of Rastislalić gained influence in Braničevo, later winning independence. According to Serbian chroniclers, Knez (title) (Count) Lazar of Serbia evicted the last Rastislalić feudal lord, Radič Branković, in 1379, and then presented outlying villages to monasteries in Wallachia.
By the time of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Golubac was held by Serbia. It is unclear when or how it changed hands, though one source puts it later than 1382. After the battle, the fortress was lost to Sultan Bayezid I, marking the first possession by the Ottoman Empire. In 1391, Golubac switched hands twice. Hungarian Timișoaran "Comes" Péter Perényi won it, but shortly afterwards lost it again to the Turks. Later, it returned once again to the Kingdom of Hungary.
The first extended Serbian possession of Golubac began in 1403 when Sigismund, King of Hungary, ceded it as a personal fiefdom to Despot (court title) Stefan Lazarević, jointly with Belgrade, after he became a highest rank member of the Hungarian chivalry Order of the Dragon. In May 1426, Stefan and Sigismund met in Tata to discuss who Stefan's successor would be. A contract was written stating that Sigismund would accept Đurađ Branković, on the condition that Golubac, Belgrade, and Mačva were returned to Hungary when Stefan died. After Stefan's death in 1427, Sigismund hurried to have the clauses of the Tata contract fulfilled, and Belgrade and Mačva were handed over without a problem. However, Golubac's commander, Voivode Jeremija, demanded a compensation of 12,000 ducats. When Sigismund refused to pay, Jeremija handed Golubac to the Turks, who turned it into the pasha's residence.
Despite gaining Golubac, Sultan Murad II was not pleased with the increased Hungarian influence elsewhere in Serbia, so he sent his army to attack. One squad came from Golubac and targeted nearby Serbian and Hungarian settlements in the Braničevo region. In response, Đurađ personally travelled to Golubac, promising forgiveness to Jeremija and urging him to return the fortress by any means possible. The Voivode refused, and attacked the Despot when he and his escort attempted to enter the walls. These betrayals were followed in 1428 by the Battle of Golubac.
Around April 1428, Sigismund amassed an army of 25,000 infantry, 6,000 Wallachian archers led by Prince Dan II, 200 Italian artillery, and a number of Polish cavalry on the far side of the Danube, then attacked Golubac and the Turks. He also had ships attacking from the river, one of which was commanded by Cecília Rozgonyi, the wife of "Comes" István Rozgonyi of Timișoara. Murad rushed to help the besieged Turks, arriving in late May. Sigismund, who did not wish to fight the bigger army, finalised a treaty by early June. Once part of the Hungarian army had withdrawn to the far side of the river, however, the Turkish commander Sinan Bey attacked their rear, capturing and killing those who remained, among them the Polish knight Zawisza Czarny. Sigismund was nearly caught with the rest of his army; however, Cecília Rozgonyi intervened, and she was solely responsible for his rescue. Sigismund then granted a hereditary right to Golubac to Cecilia and her brothers.
During this and other fights resulting from Stefan's death, southern and eastern Serbia, including the Monastery of Daljša near Golubac, suffered heavily. It was after this fighting, however, that Sigismund was first referred to as "our Emperor", in the memoir of a Daljšan monk, in contrast to the Turkish "pagan emperor".
The Ottoman Empire retained control of Golubac throughout its occupation of the Serbian Despotate. After years of fighting, which resulted in the Hungarian army expelling the Ottomans from Serbia, the Peace of Szeged restored the Despotate late in the summer of 1444. Included in the redefined territory, after much discussion, was Golubac Fortress. However, the Turks once again conquered it after the death of Đurađ Branković in 1456. In 1458, Matthias Corvinus of Hungary regained the fortress, but lost it to Mehmed II that same year.
The years 1481–82 led to more fighting between the Hungarians and Turks. During the fall of 1481, while Golubac was held by the Ottoman Empire, Timișoaran Comes Pál Kinizsi undertook an expedition against the Turks in the Temes area. On November 2, 1481, he turned his army of 32,000 men south towards the Danube, pushing to Kruševac. At Golubac, a thousand Turkish cavalry were killed or taken prisoner, 24 ships were sunk, and Mihaloğlu İskender Bey, pasha of Ottoman-held Smederevo and leader of the Turkish army, was beheaded at the gate by Jakšić, one of Kinizsi's men. The Turks were forced to retreat and leave the fortress behind. Kinizsi's foray was only a raid, however, and shortly after he returned to Temes. The Turks, who had suffered heavily but did not lose any land, retook Golubac and quickly improved its fortifications.
Golubac was held by the Habsburg Monarchy between 1688 and 1690 and 1718 and 1739. Serb rebels controlled it during Kočina Krajina in 1788–91, and again from 1804–13, during the First Serbian Uprising. Afterwards, it fell back under Ottoman control until 1867 when it, along with Kalemegdan and other towns in Serbia, was given to Knez Mihailo of Serbia.
In recent years.
From the late 19th century into the early mid-20th century, bloodsucking flies sometimes referred to as "Golubac mosquitoes" thrived in the area. They were particularly dangerous to livestock, some years killing off entire herds of cattle. After World War I, a road was constructed that went through both of the fort's portcullises. This road is the shortest link between Serbia and eastern parts of the Balkan peninsula. Between 1964–72, a hydroelectric dam was built in the Iron Gate gorge, significantly elevating the river's water level. As a result, the lower edge of the slope and corresponding parts of the fortress are now flooded.
From the beginning of the 21st century, much of the fort has been overgrown, making most of the sections higher on the hill inaccessible. During the spring of 2005, a public project to restore the fort was started. Most of the plants were removed and certain parts, like the fountain in the moat raised in honour of knight Zawisza Czarny, were repaired. The walls, towers and stone stairs are in good condition, but the wooden floors and steps have rotted out, making most of the upper floors impassable. Golubac has also gained popularity as a tourist attraction. Two key reasons are the major road that passes through it, and its proximity to Lepenski Vir, making the two locales a touristic whole.
Architecture.
Golubac consists of three main compounds guarded by 9 towers, 2 portcullises and a palace, all connected by fortress walls thick. In front of the fortress, the forward wall (I) doubled as the outer wall of the moat, which connected to the Danube and was likely filled with water. A settlement for common people was situated in front of the wall.
As is the case with many fortresses, Golubac's structure was modified over time. For years, there were only five towers. Later, four more were added. The towers were all built as squares, a sign of the fortress' age, showing that battles were still fought with cold steel. Once firearms came into use, the Turks fortified the western towers with cannon ports and polygonal or cylindrical reinforcements up to thick. After the Hungarian raid in 1481, they added the final tower, complete with cannon embrasures and galleries.
Upper compound.
The upper compound (A) is the oldest part of the fortress. It includes the citadel (tower 1) and the Serbian Orthodox chapel (tower 4). Although it remains uncertain, the chapel has led many to believe that this section was built by a Serbian noble.
Later, during either Serbian or Hungarian rule, the fortress was expanded to include the rear and forward compounds.
Rear compound.
The rear compound (D) is separated from the upper compound by both a wall connecting towers 2 and 4, and a steep rock high. Next to tower 5 is a building (VII) which was probably used as a military barracks and for ammunition storage.
Forward compound.
The forward compound was split into lower (C) and upper (B) parts by a wall linking towers 4 and 7. The entrance (II) is in the lower part, guarded by towers 8 and 9. Tower 8 has, in turn, been fortified with a cannon port. Opposing the entrance was a second portcullis that led to the rear compound. Along the path was a ditch wide and deep which then became a steep decline. At the outer end of the lower part, and connected to the 9th tower with a low wall, is tower 10, which the Turks added to act as a lower artillery tower. It controlled passage along the Danube and guarded the entrance to the harbour, which was probably situated between towers 5 and 10. There are remains connected to tower 8 which probably formed a larger whole with it, but the lower part did not otherwise contain buildings.
In the wall that separated the upper and lower parts was a gate that led to the upper part. The upper part did not have buildings, but there remains a pathway to the stairs up to gate IV, which is off the ground, right next to tower 3.
Towers.
The first nine towers are high. In all ten towers, the floors and stairs inside were made of wood, while external stairs were made of stone. Half of the towers (1, 2, 4, 5, 10) have all four sides and are completely made of stone, while the other half (3, 6, 7, 8, 9) lack the side facing the interior of the fort.
Tower 1, nicknamed "Hat Tower" ("Šešir-kula") by Austro-Hungarian traveler Felix Kanitz in the 19th century, is one of the oldest towers, and doubles as citadel and the keep tower ("donžon"). It has an eight-sided base with a circular spire rising from it and a square interior. The next tower to the west, tower 2, is completely circular in shape. The third tower has a square base, with the open side facing the dungeon tower to the north. On the top floor is a terrace that overlooks the Danube and the entrance to the Iron Gate gorge. Down the slope from tower 3 is tower 4, which also has a square base. The ground floor has a Serbian Orthodox chapel that was built into the tower, rather than being added later. The last tower along this wall, tower 5, is the only tower to remain completely square. All towers were originally rectangular, but the Ottomans upgraded them and additionally fortified them against the artillery.
The top tower along the front wall of the forward compound, tower 6, has a square base which was reinforced with a six-sided foundation. Working west, the square base of tower 7 was reinforced with a circular foundation. Tower 8, on the upper side of the front portcullis, has an irregular, but generally square, base. It is also the shortest of the first nine towers. Guarding the other side is tower 9, which has a square base reinforced by an eight-sided foundation.
The last tower is the cannon tower. It has only one floor and is the shortest of all ten towers. It was built with an eight-sided base and cannon ports to help control traffic on the Danube. Tower 10 is almost identical to the three artillery towers added to Smederevo fortress. The cannon tower is also the youngest. It used to be on dry land, but with the formation of the artificial Lake Đerdap in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the water level rose so today it protrudes into the Danube. It is also called the White Tower.
2014-2019 reconstruction.
The area surrounding the fortress was declared a touristic area by the government in 2011, covering , within the Đerdap national park. The Government of the Republic of Serbia has applied to the reconstruction project fortress Blace with IPA funds of the European Union in the framework of the international project "Cultural Route - Fortresses on the Danube". The funds were provided through these funds in the amount of €6.5 million in 2011 and €2.1 million in 2016. Preliminary reconstruction project is work of architect Marina Jovin, professional consultants on the project were Siniša Temerinski and archaeologist Dr Miomir Korać.
Because of decades of neglect, harsh working conditions, discrepancy between the projected solutions and the existing situation and a fact that heavy traffic was passing right through the fortress, the works dragged on. Projected to last three years, the rebuilding which began in the summer of 2014 is, as of February 2018, still ongoing. In July 2017, a tunnel was open which redirected the traffic, which passed through since the 1930s, out of the fortress and the reconstruction area. The long tunnel and were constructed for 2 years, using the specifically controlled explosion in order not to damage the fortress.
Traditional materials (stone) and techniques (manual treatment) are used. The deadline is now set at 30 September 2018. The fully reconstructed fortress was open in April 2019, which is when the entire 2014 reconstructed project was finished.
Significance.
Considering the age and location of the Golubac Fortress, it is both large and well-preserved. Its placement at the head of the Iron Gate gorge allowed for easy control of river traffic. It was the last military outpost on that stretch of the Danube river, which caused it to frequently be part of the final line of defense between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, especially during the periods when Serbia was Ottoman-held. The importance of the fortress is further indicated by the attention it received from Sigismund and Murad II, rather than just fighting between locals and commanders of nearby cities. The Golubac Fortress was declared a Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1979, and it is protected by the Republic of Serbia.
With the Belgrade fortress, it is today the only cultural monument in Serbia which has its own administration - a state company founded specifically for handling the fortress.
Tourism.
The partially renovated fortress was officially open for tourists in the autumn of 2016 and had 63,000 visitors in 2017 despite there is nothing more to see in the fortress except from the view and the small exhibition "Panorama through the centuries", so the administration expected no more than 10,000 visitors. Almost one third, 20,000, were foreign tourists. Two piers, one larger and other smaller, are placed in the Danube, but the touristic boats were not allowed to dock until the fortress was officially declared a port area in April 2018, when the international cruise ships began to dock. Also, there are plans for bringing the model cannons into the cannon tower.
In April 2018, four towers were planned to be open for public, 6, 7, 8 and 10, or the cannon tower, but the deadline was extended to the end of the year. The tower 8 will host a three-floor exhibition dedicated to the knights, with a section devoted to the Polish knight Zawisza Czarny. Plans include the joining of the attractions in the vicinity, like Đerdap national park and prehistoric site Lepenski Vir, in one tourist arrangement.
As number of visitors grew significantly since the full re-opening of the fortress, various works are planned in the surrounding area to the west, in the direction of the modern town of Golubac. They include new restaurants, pension-type facilities, new roads, bicycle and pedestrian paths and arrangement of the touristic settlement Dedinski Raj ("Golubac's Dedinje"), between the town and the fortress. Also, the beach will be adapted along the Danube's bank.


Franz Albert Seyn

Franz Albert Seyn (, Frants Albert Alexandrovich Zeyn; July 27, 1862 – summer of 1918) was a Russian general who was Governor-General of Finland between November 24, 1909 and March 16, 1917.
Before he became Governor-General Seyn had been a staff officer in the military district of Finland and an aide to the Governor-General. Seyn contributed in the Russification of Finland as he followed in the foot-steps of his assassinated (1904) predecessor, Governor-General Nikolai Ivanovich Bobrikov. Finnish autonomy was further limited and in laws passed in 1908 and 1910 the Duma, instead of the Finnish Diet, was given rights to make laws concerning the Grand Duchy of Finland.
After the February Revolution the Russian Provisional Government arrested Seyn on March 16, 1917 and brought him to Petrograd where he apparently was killed the next year.


George Whitmore (British Army officer)

Sir George Whitmore, K.C.H. (12 May 1775, Lower Slaughter – 19 November 1862, Amiens) was a British Army officer.
Life.
He was the son of George Whitmore (1739–1794) and Mary Walls (1744 – 11 March 1808). He entered Woolwich Academy at the age of 14, and had an army commission at age 18.
Whitmore headed the Royal Engineers detachment on Malta as its Colonel Commandant between 1811 and 1829. There he became a great friend of the governor Sir Thomas Maitland and designed the military hospital at the Villa Bighi in conjunction with Vice Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm. When Sir Thomas Maitland was high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, he designed the Palace of St. Michael and St. George in Corfu City. He later became a major general.
Family.
Whitmore married Cordelia Ainslie (1780 – 19 December 1857) on 16 January 1798. Their second daughter Cordelia Winifreda married Captain Montagu Stopford, RN, on 25 August 1827. Their grandson, Sir George Stoddart Whitmore (1829–1903), was born on Malta to Lieutenant (later Major) George St Vincent Whitmore RE and to the chief justice of Malta, Sir John Stoddart's, daughter. He later became an army officer and police officer in New Zealand.


Rimella (gastropod)

Rimella is a genus of fossil sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Rostellariidae within the Stromboidea, the true conchs and their allies.
Species in this genus are extinct and were found from the Paleocene to the Oligocene of Europe.
Species.
Species within the genus "Rimella" include:


Sully Hospital

Sully Hospital () was a psychiatric hospital in Sully, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. It has since been converted into luxury apartments and remains a Grade II* listed building.
History.
The classical and elegant Art Deco structure was designed by the firm of William Pite, Son and Fairweathers who had won an open competition to design the new building in 1931. Established by the King Edward VII Welsh National Memorial Association "for the intensive investigation of observation cases and for the treatment by modern methods of chronic and advanced pulmonary disease", it was built between 1932 and 1936 and officially opened by Prince George, Duke of Kent as a specialist tuberculosis facility in 1936. It was described in the Glamorgan section of Nikolaus Pevsner's 'The Buildings of Wales' as "An outstanding example of inter-war architecture, which has survived almost unaltered" and is considered to be the finest representation of Modernist sanatoriums in Britain and one of the last great Modernist landmarks remaining in the whole of Wales. The design is similar to Alvar Aalto's Paimio Sanatorium in Finland, which was completed only three years earlier. As at Paimio, the use of a concrete structural frame enabled the use of wide windows, proving the patients with sunlight, fresh air and views.
During the Second World War it began to admit patients without tuberculosis, and it afterwards served as a general chest and heart treatment facility. During the war, it had general surgery wards and its own maternity unit. In 1943 there was a Battalion of American Seabees, the US Construction Corps, living on a merchant vessel tied up in Penarth docks, while they built a large number of Quonset huts for a rapid temporary expansions of Sully Hospital needed for the extra wartime pressure of additional patients, both military and civilian. Many of the Quonset huts remained in use as overflow accommodation until the mid-1960s. In 1993 the hospital switched to a speciality in residential psychiatric care until its final closure as a hospital in 2001.
While standing vacant the hospital building was briefly considered as a potential location for the temporary housing of up to 750 Eastern European asylum seekers, but those plans were eventually shelved after a campaign and objections by local residents. In the early 21st century the building was converted into individual luxury apartments by the investment property company Galliard Homes.


Oleksy tapes

The Oleksy tapes are tapes secretly recorded during a 2006 conversation between Józef Oleksy and Aleksander Gudzowaty. In the recordings, former Left Democratic Alliance (SLD) Prime Minister of Poland Józef Oleksy denounces his colleagues, and reveals shady aspects of Polish political life. The recordings were published by Polish media in 2007.
The tapes are considered one of the factors responsible for the decline in popularity of Polish post-communist parties (esp. SLD).


Operation Diadem

Operation Diadem, also referred to as the Fourth Battle of Monte Cassino or, in Canada, the Battle of the Liri Valley, was an offensive operation undertaken by the Allies of World War II (U.S. Fifth Army and British Eighth Army) in May 1944, as part of the Italian Campaign of World War II. "Diadem" was supported by air attacks called Operation Strangle. The opposing force was the German 10th Army.
The object of "Diadem" was to break the German defenses on the Gustav Line (the western half of the Winter Line) and open up the Liri Valley, the main route to Rome. General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies in Italy, planned "Diadem" to coordinate roughly with the invasion of Normandy, so that German forces would be tied down in Italy, and could not be redeployed to France.
Four corps were employed in the attack. From right to left these were the Polish II Corps and the British XIII Corps, of the Eighth Army, and the Free French Corps (including Moroccan "Goumiers") and the U.S. II Corps, of the Fifth Army. The Fifth Army also controlled the U.S. VI Corps in the Anzio beachhead, some 60 miles northwest.
"Diadem" was launched at 23:00 pm on 11 May 1944 by elements of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division, with supporting fire from the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade. They made a successful strongly opposed night crossing of the Garigliano and Rapido rivers. This broke into the heart of the German defenses in the Liri valley against strong opposition and drew in German theater reserves, reducing pressure on the Anzio beachhead. The Free French Corps pushed through the mountains to the left on 14 May, supported by U.S. II Corps along the coast. On 17 May, Polish II Corps on the right attacked Monte Cassino.
When their position collapsed, the Germans fell back from the Gustav Line to the Hitler Line some 10 miles to their rear.
On 23 May, the four corps attacked the Hitler Line. On the same day, the U.S. VI Corps attacked out of the Anzio beachhead.
The Hitler Line was breached by the 1st Canadian Infantry Division's 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards at Pontecorvo on 23 May. The German Tenth Army was forced to retire northwestward. The U.S. VI Corps, moving northeast from Anzio, was at the point of cutting off the German line of retreat when Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the Fifth Army, inexplicably ordered them to turn northwest and advance on Rome instead. There is much speculation that he did this so that his Fifth Army would capture Rome ahead of the Eighth Army advancing up the Liri Valley. The German Tenth Army thus avoided being surrounded.
The Germans fought a series of delaying actions, retired to the Trasimene Line, and then to the Gothic Line (identified on German maps as the "Green" Line), north of the Arno River.
Gustav line.
In his autobiography, General Mark W. Clark describes how the French Expeditionary Corps (FEC) broke through the Gustav Line in May 1944. Meantime, the French forces had crossed the Garigliano (River) and moved forward into the mountainous terrain lying south of the Liri River. It was not easy. As always, the German veterans reacted strongly and there was bitter fighting. The French surprised the enemy and quickly seized key terrain including Mounts Faito Cerasola and high ground near Castelforte. The 1st Motorized Division helped the 2nd Moroccan division take key Mount Girofano and then advanced rapidly north to S. Apollinare and S. Ambrogio In spite of the stiffening enemy resistance, the 2nd Moroccan Division penetrated the Gustav Line in less than two day’s fighting. The next 48 hours on the French front were decisive. The knife-wielding Goumiers swarmed over the hills, particularly at night, and General Juin’s entire force showed an aggressiveness hour after hour that the Germans could not withstand. Cerasola, San Giogrio, Mt. D’Oro, Ausonia and Esperia were seized in one of the most brilliant and daring advances of the war in Italy, and by May 16 the French Expeditionary Corps had thrust forward some ten miles on their left flank to Mount Revole, with the remainder of their front slanting back somewhat to keep contact with the British 8th Army. For this performance, which was to be a key to the success of the entire drive on Rome, I shall always be a grateful admirer of General Juin and his magnificent FEC... The 8th Army’s delay made Juin’s task more difficult because he was moving forward so rapidly that his right flank---adjacent to the British---constantly was exposed to counter-attacks.
In a letter to future Marshal Juin, General Mark Clark paid tribute to the Tirailleur units and Goumiers of the CEF in particular:For me, it has been a deep source of satisfaction to see how the vital part played by the French troops of the Fifth Army throughout our Italian campaign against the common enemy has been universally acknowledged. During these long months, I have had the real privilege of seeing for myself the evidence of the outstanding calibre of the French soldiers, heirs of the noblest traditions of the French Army. Nevertheless, not satisfied with this, you and all your people have added a new epic chapter to the history of France; you have gladdened the hearts of your compatriots, giving them comfort and hope as they languish under the heavy and humiliating yoke of a hated invader. . . . With my deepest gratitude for the tremendous contribution that you have made to our joint victories, my dear General.


John Fenn (pirate)

John Fenn (died May 1723) was an early 18th-century English pirate who sailed with Captain Bartholomew Roberts and later had a brief partnership with Thomas Anstis.
Biography.
Although much of his early career is unrecorded, he was a member of Captain Roberts's fleet in June 1719 to April 1720, until leaving with fellow member Thomas Anstis, who was awarded command of the 21-gun "Morning Star" shortly before leaving the West Indies for the West African coast during the night of 21 April 1721. Remaining with Anstis in the Caribbean, Fenn participated in the capture of three or four merchant ships near Hispaniola, Jamaica and Martinique during the month of June before being given command of the 21-gun "Morning Star".
After quarrelling for some time, Anstis and Fenn decided to end their piratical careers and petitioned King George I for a royal pardon claiming they had been forced into piracy by Roberts. After nine months camped in an uninhabited island off the coast of Cuba, having received no response from the British government, they decided to resume their piracy in August 1722.
However, running into a violent storm shortly after their departure, Fenn's ship was wrecked on Grand Cayman Island (it may have been during this storm and wreck that Fenn lost his right hand). Anstis, in the process of rescuing Fenn and his crew, many pirates were still ashore when two British warships hove into sight.
Chased by the Royal Navy men-of-war, the pirates were able to escape after the winds died down to a dead calm, rowing the "Good Fortune" to safety. After their flight to the Bay of Honduras, a frigate was captured to replace the lost "Morning Star" and the two met with success capturing several ships in the Bahamas during the next several months. However, while careening their ships at Tobago in April 1723, they were surprised by the British warship during which Fenn's ship was lost. Forced to run into the wooded interior of Tobago, he was captured a day later and brought back to Antigua where he was found guilty of piracy and hanged with six of his crew the following month.


Chernihiv Voivodeship

Czernihów (Chernihiv) Voivodeship () was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland (part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) from 1635 until Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 (technically it existed up until 1654). Also it was used as a fictitious title in the Commonwealth until the Partitions of Poland in 1772/1795. In 1635, Marcin Kalinowski was the first voivode (governor) of the Chernihiv Voivodeship.
The voivodeship was part of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown, and was divided into two counties: Czernihow and Nowogrod Siewierski. Local sejmiks took place at Czernihow, and it had two senators in the Polish–Lithuanian Senate. Together with Kijow Voivodeship (Kyiv) and Bracław Voivodeship (Bratslav) it made the territory that came to be known as Ukraine.
History.
The history of Czernihow Voivodeship dates back to 1618, when after the Truce of Deulino, the Commonwealth gained control of the towns of Smolensk, Czernihow and Nowogrod Siewierski. Since the truce was set to expire in 14.5 years, new acquisitions were not organized in official way. Smolensk was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, while both Czernihow and Nowogrod became part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland forming the Duchy of Siveria. In 1633, during the Smolensk War, Polish Parliament (Sejm) introduced a bill in which both land court and starosta office were established at Czernihow. In 1634 the Treaty of Polyanovka confirmed that Czernihow remained part of Poland, so finally in 1635 the Sejm created the voivodeship, with two senators - the Voivode and the Castellan of Czernihow. Both county elected two deputies to the Sejm, and one deputy to the Lesser Poland Tribunal at Lublin. In 1637, construction of a fortress at Konotop began, whose purpose was to protect the newly acquired province. The fortress was completed in 1642.
The Commonwealth lost control of the province as early as 1648, during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. In the Treaty of Hadiach (1658), the Duchy of Ruthenia was created out of Czernihow Voivodship, Kiev Voivodeship and Bracław Voivodeship. The idea however was quickly abandoned, and after the Truce of Andrusovo (1667), Czernihow Voivodeship was annexed by the Tsardom of Russia.
The history of Czernihow Voivodeship does not end in 1667. Following the example of other provinces lost by the Commonwealth in the mid-17th century (e.g. Smolensk Voivodeship), the government in Warsaw continued to claim it as a titular voivodeship, with fictitious titles of voivode, senators, deputies and starostas named by the King, and remaining in use until the Partitions of Poland. The nobility of former Czernihow Voivodeship had its sejmiks at Wlodzimierz Wolynski. Last voivode of Czernihow was a man named Ludwik Wilga, nominated in 1783. In 1785, Stanisław August Poniatowski gave fictitious title of starosta of Nowogrod Siewierski to Tadeusz Czacki.
Zygmunt Gloger in his monumental book "Historical Geography of the Lands of Old Poland" gives a detailed description of Czernihow Voivodeship:
Voivodeship Governor (Wojewoda) seat:
Administrative divisions:


Sakala County

Sakala County (Estonian: "Sakala", Latin: "Saccalia") was an ancient Estonian county that was first mentioned in print by Henry of Latvia in the early 13th century.
Geography.
Sakala County is in northwestern Livonia, covering approximately the present counties of Viljandi, the southern half of Pärnu and the western third of Valga County. It was the southernmost of the ancient Estonian counties.
History.
According to one hypothesis, the tribe of "Sosols" mentioned in Old East Slavic chronicles implies the people of Sakala. The chronicles say that Kievan Rus organized military campaign against Sosols in 1060 and taxed them. A year later, Sosols rose, destroyed Kievan Rus Fort in Tartu and tried to attack Pskov.
After the Livonian Crusade, the county became a part of the Livonian Confederation.
In Sackalian folklore, the neighbouring Ugaunians ("ugalased") were enemy warriors and robbers.
For instance, a folk song from Viljandi, the capital of Sackalia, calls for speeding up the harvest work because the Ugaunians might attack.


Thales Fielding

Thales Fielding (1793–1837) was an English watercolour painter.
Life.
Fielding was the third son of Nathan Theodore Fielding, and like his brothers is mainly known as a painter in watercolours. He was an associate exhibitor of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-colours, and for some years teacher of drawing at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. In 1818 he appears as settled at 26 Newman Street, London, where he resided until his death, which occurred after a few hours' illness on 20 December 1837, at the age of forty-four.
Works.
He seems to have first exhibited at the British Institution in 1816, sending ‘A View of Saddleback, Cumberland,’ but there is some difficulty at first in distinguishing his works from those of his elder brother, Theodore H. A. Fielding. He exhibited numerous landscapes and cattle-pieces, mostly compositions, at the Royal Academy and at the British Institution. His last picture, in 1837, was ‘A View of Caerphilly Castle, Glamorganshire.’ He also painted portraits.
In 1827 he exhibited a portrait of Eugène Delacroix at the Royal Academy, one of a pair the artists made of each other, and a portrait by him of Peter Barlow was published in lithography by Graf & Soret.


Khanasor Expedition

The Khanasor Expedition (, "Khanasori arshavankë") was a punitive raid launched by Armenian fedayees against the Kurdish Mazrik tribe on July 25, 1897. In 1896, in the aftermath of the Defense of Van, the Mazrik tribe had ambushed and slaughtered many of the Armenian defenders of Van as they were retreating into Persia. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation decided to retaliate for that atrocity, resulting in the Khanasor Expedition.
Event.
About a year after the events in Van, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation decided to retaliate and "punish" the Kurdish Mazrik tribe for its role in the Hamidian massacres and its ambush of the defenders of Van. The Mazrik tribe were camped in the fields of Khanasor, near Avarayr. The ARF, with the support of the Hunchakians and the Armenakans, organized an attack on the tribe. The operation was planned by Nikol Duman alongside "Khanasora" Vartan Mehrpanian and Ishkhan Arghoutian, all of whom participated as commanders of the operation. Among the Armenian soldiers also there were disagreements. For their settlement the party sent in Tavriz Harutiun Shahrigian and as a result they come to conclusion of holding an action. On 25 July 1897, at dawn, the 250 Armenian fedayees attacked and killed the fighting men of Mazrik tribe, sparing the women and the children, among whom the Mazrik chief, Sharaf Bey, learned Armenians were coming earlier and managed to escape by wearing women's clothing, leaving the women and children behind. The attack ended on 27 July 1897.
Results.
Although ARF founder Rosdom's brother Garo and 25 other fedayees were among the casualties, the Khanasor expedition was a small triumph for the Armenians, both militarily and morally. As a result, Armenians built up their self-confidence; their belief in their ability to defend themselves was now reinforced. To this day, the ARF remembers the event in commemorative ceremonies honouring the expedition as an important event in the history of the Armenian struggle for freedom.
Gurgen Mahari, as part of a critique of the effectiveness of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, had a character in his novel "The Burning Orchards" question whether the high moral and strategic significance the Dashnaktsutyun gave to the Khanasor Expedition's results was justified, or whether the expedition, and other acts like the Ottoman Bank siege, were just isolated incidents whose sum total did not relieve the oppression of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.


Mound of the Hostages

The Mound of the Hostages () is an ancient passage tomb located in the Tara-Skryne Valley in County Meath, Leinster, Ireland.
The mound is a Neolithic structure, built between 3350 and 2800 BCE. It is circular in form, roughly fifteen metres in diameter and three metres high. It is built in the same style as the Newgrange tomb. The structure is dome-shaped with an inset for the entrance and a small doorway, set almost one metre into the side of the monument. The doorway is framed with undecorated standing stones. As is common in passage tombs, this alignment allows for the rising sun to shine down the passageway at only two times of the year, illuminating the chamber within. At this mound, the passage is illuminated on the mornings of Samhain and Imbolc, at the beginning of November and February, respectively. Inside, the passage into the Mound of the Hostages stretches for four metres in length, one metre in width, and is 1.8 metres high. It contains decorated siltstones with images of swirls, circles, and x-patterns—designs associated with Mesolithic passage tomb art. Three compartments once housed buried remains.
The mound was used for burials from the early Neolithic up to 1600 - 1700 BCE. There are an estimated 250 - 500 bodies buried in the mound, organised into layers under the passage. The dead were most often cremated, and their ashes and grave goods spread on the floor of the tomb. These grave goods include decorative pottery and urns, stone beads, and bone pins. The remains were then covered with stone slabs. With this method, layers of ashes and stone built up over time and successive burials. More burials occurred at this site in the Bronze Age, and space in the passage eventually became unavailable, so the bodies were then placed in the mound itself. Over 40 remains have been removed from the mound. They had been buried in the Bronze Age style, with inverted cinerary urns placed over the cremation ashes. The full body of a Bronze Age adolescent was also discovered in the mound. The body was placed in a crouched position in a simple pit dug in the mound. Grave goods found with the body include a decorated bead necklace, a bronze knife, and a bronze awl—a suggestion that he was a person of some importance.
Unlike some similar structures, there is no evidence of a ditch dug around the mound. The Mound is situated north of the King's seat and Cormac's house (teach Cormaic) and slightly south of the Rath of the Synods. The top of the mound is the highest point on the hill and offers panoramic views of the surrounding countryside.
The excavation of the site started back in 1952 with Seán P. Ó Ríordáin -Celtic Archaeology Professor at University College, Dublin- as its director. After Ríordáin's death, he was replaced by Ruaidhrí de Valera who finished the excavation in 1959. However, the excavation was only published in 2005 by Dr Muiris O’Sullivan.


Jerwen County

Jerwen County (, , , , , ) was one of the four counties of the Russian Empire located in the Governorate of Estonia. It was situated in the central part of the governorate (in present-day northern Estonia). Its capital was Paide ("Weissenstein"). The territory of Kreis Jerwen corresponds to most of the present-day Järva County and small parts of Lääne-Viru and Rapla counties.
Demographics.
At the time of the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Kreis Jerwen had a population of 52,673. Of these, 96.7% spoke Estonian, 2.2% German, 0.8% Russian, 0.1% Yiddish and 0.1% Latvian as their native language.


Eugenio Soncini

Eugenio Soncini (21 July 1906 – 27 February 1993) was an Italian architect.
Biography.
Education.
Eugenio Soncini graduated in engineering. from the then Regio Istituto Tecnico Superiore (now Politecnico di Milano) in 1929. His career and work may be divided into two distinct phases: before and after the Second World War.
The thirties and forties.
As a recent graduate he was involved in significant collaborations, first with Emilio Lancia and later with Gio Ponti, who at that time collaborated with Lancia. The latter collaboration was so productive that Ponti decided to abandon Lancia and create a new studio with the young Eugenio, as a fully-fledged partner: the "Ponti-Fornaroli-Soncini Studio". From 1933 to 1947, Eugenio worked actively with Ponti on the architectural design and construction of numerous buildings, among the most significant on the Milanese architectural scene at that time: such as the "Palazzo Montecatini" (1939) and the "Clinica Columbus" (1938-40). These are the years of his practical and professional growth and maturing, which prompted him towards his own design and creative autonomy.
In 1940 he married Mariele Sessa and had three children.
The fifties and sixties.
An exuberant and strong-willed personality, towards the end of the war, Eugenio began to find the partnership with Ponti restrictive. So, when in 1947 his brother Ermenegildo graduated in architecture, he took the opportunity to leave Ponti and open an independent studio: the "Studio Eugenio and Ermenegildo Soncini" in the Palazzina Sessa in via Ariosto 1 in Milano. After World War II, he followed his own interests, concentrating on the office and hospital building sectors. His architectural production mainly concerned the Milanese area, with a significant amount of office buildings, clinics and educational institutions. Among the most significant ones: the "Torre Breda" (originally known as "Grattacielo di Milano"), the "La Madonnina" and "Capitanio Clinics", the office buildings of "Michelin", "Galbani" and "Milano Assicurazioni", the "Torre Tirrena" and the "Palazzo La Serenissima/Campari". Besides working with his brother Ermenegildo, he collaborated with Luigi Mattioni, Pier Luigi Nervi and Giuseppe Pestalozza.
Due to this long activity, he was described as an "exponent of Rationalism, in a version that was first classicist and then rigorously technological.". The professional activity of Eugenio and his studio concluded in 1973. He died in 1993
Its archive was donated by the heirs to CASVA (Centro Alti Studi sulle Arti Visive, Milan) in 2017, in order to preserve it and make it freely available to the public.
Works.
1932 "Fabbrica Cioccolato Cima", in Via Legnone, Milan
1935 "Albergo in Val Martello", Paradiso del Cevedale, Merano
1935 "Casa Buffa", in Viale Regina Margherita, Milan
1935 "Ville De Bartolomei", in Bratto, Val Presolana
1935 "Primo Palazzo Montecatini", in Via Moscova, Milan
1935 "Casa", in Via Ceradini, Milan
1935 "Case Signorili", in Via G. Modena, Via Cicognare, Via De Togni, Milan
1935 "Facoltà di matematica", Rome University
1936 "Progetto per Villa Marzotto", a Valdagno, Vicenza
1936 "Casa Laporte", in Via Brin, Milan
1936"/"37 "Casa a Torre Rasini", in Corso Venezia, Milan
1937 "Casa", in Via Goldoni, Milan
1938 Il "Liviano", Padua University, sede del Rettorato
1939 "Casa d'Italia", in Wien
1939 "Palazzo Ferrania" (now FIAT), in Corso Matteotti, Milan
1939 "Palazzo Eiar" (now RAI), in Corso Sempione, Milan
1939 "Palazzo Donini", in Piazza S. Babila, Milan
1939 Progetto per il "Palazzo Marzotto", Milan
1940 "Clinica Columbus", in Via Buonarroti, Milan
1940 "Palazzo per uffici Ledoga-Lepetit", in Via C. Tenca, Milan
1940 "Palazzina Salvatelli", in Piazza delle Muse, Rome
1940 "Casa", in Via Appiani, Milan
1940 "Villa Marmont", Cervignano d’Adda
1940 Progetto per "Casa INA", in Via Manin, Milan
1943 Progetto per lo "Stabilimento Mondadori", Rho (Milan)
1944 "Casa Garzanti", in Via della Spiga, Milano (progettato come Studi Tecnici di Architettura Riuniti: Ponti, Bosisio, Gho, Soncini)
1945 "Palazzo e Albergo delle Ferrovie Nord", Milan
1946 "Stadio con tribuna", Lomazzo
1946"/"47 "Palazzo per uffici e magazzini di vendita Michelin," in Corso Sempione, Milan
1946/48 "Palazzo del Marchese Casati Stampa di Soncino", in Via Torino, Milan
1946/48 "Case signorili", Via De Amicis, Milan
1948/50 "Palazzo della S.K.F"., in Via Turati, Milan
1948/50 "Sede della Società Condor", Rho (Milan)
1949 "Hotel du Lac", on Lake Lugano, Porto Ceresio
1949/50 "Casa di cura Capitanio," in Via Mercalli, Milan
1950/51 "Raffineria di petrolio e prodotti chimici" (for Condor), Pantenedo di Rho (Milan)
1952/54 "Grattacielo di Milano" (now known as "Torre Breda"), in Piazza della Repubblica, Milan (in collaboration with L. Mattioni)
1953/55 "Palazzi per la Riunione Adriatica di Sicurtà" (RAS), in Via Turati, Milan
1954 "Padiglione per la Breda", Sesto S. Giovanni (Milan)
1954/55 "Opera Sociale Femminile", in Via Ippocrate, Milan
1954/55 "Palazzo Galbani" , in Via F. Filzi, Milano (in collaboration with G. Pestalozza e L. Nervi)
1954/55 "Palazzetto", in Via Unione, Milan
1954/55 "Ospedale di Circolo di Saronno", Varese
1955/56 "Albergo Ambrosiano e Opera della Cardinal Ferrari", in Via S. Sofia, Milan
1956/59 "Torre Tirrena", in Piazza Liberty, Milan
1956/64 "Palazzo per l'Istituto Romano Beni Stabili" (I.R.B.S.), in Via Meravigli, Milan
1957/58 "Scuole elementari", Rovello Porro, Saronno (Varese)
1957/59 "Casa di cura Madonnina", in Via Quadronno, Milan
1958 "Hotel del Centro", in Via Broletto, Milan
1958/60 "Chiesa", Chak Chumbra, Pakistan
1958/60 "Chiesa", Caquetà, Columbia
1958/65 "Sede della Compagnia di Assicurazioni di Milano", in Via del Lauro, Milan
1958/65 "Ente Opere Sociali Don Bosco", a Sesto S. Giovanni (Milan)
1959 "Fabbrica di aeroplani", in Argentina
1959 Design of "Scuole convitto Istituto di Assistenza per Minorenni", for Ente Comunale Assistenza (ECA), Milan
1960/62 "Casa di abitazione con negozi ed uffici", in Viale Gian Galeazzo, Milan
1960/63 "Gruppi di fabbricati" in Via Chiusa, Via Disciplini (for I.R.B.S.), Milan
1960/64 "Clinica" for prof. De Luca, Castelnuovo Daunia (Foggia)
1961/62 "Palazzina Crosti", in Via Buonarroti, Milan
1961/63 "Palazzo per uffici" I.R.B.S., in Via Bordoni, Milan
1961/63 "Sede della Società Malinverno", in Via Custodi, Milan
1963 "Gruppi di fabbricati residenziali", in Via De Amicis, Milan
1963/64 "Palazzo per uffici della Società Cagisa", in Piazza IV Novembre, Milan
1963/65 "Serie di case di abitazione", in Via Correggio, Milan
1963/65 "Casa di Cura Sant'Anna", Imperia
1963/66 "Istituto S. Ambrogio", in Via Melchiorre Gioia, Milan
1965 "Clinica privata", in Istambul
1965 "Casa," in Via Roentgen, Milan
1965/66 "Serie di case", in Viale Bligny, Via S. Croce, Milan
1966/68 "Palazzo per uffici La Serenissima/Campari," in Via Turati, Milan
1968/70 "Serie di case", in Via Gian Galeazzo, Milan
1968/70 "Due Palazzi ad uffici" (for Lloyd International of Rome), in Corso Europa and Corsia dei Servi, Milan
1969/71 "Hotel Principe & Savoia Residence", in Piazza della Repubblica, Milan
1970 "Casa", in Corso Vercelli, Milan
1970/71 Seat of "La Pace", Insurance Company, in Piazza Cavour, Milan
1970/72 "Opera Pro Giovani Operai (Maria Belloni)", in Viale Fulvio Testi, Milan
1970/73 "Aerhotel", at Porta Garibaldi Ralway Station, Milan
1972 Design of "Convitto IDAM", for ECA, Milan
1973 "Municipio" of Rovello Porro, Saronno (Varese)
Bibliography.
Albergo (hotel) "in Val Martello", Alto Adige, 1935
P. Masera, "Un albergo di montagna esemplare", in "Edilizia Moderna", n. 27-28, 1938
First Palazzo Montecatini, in Via Moscova, Milan, 1935
G. Ponti, (a cura di), "Il Palazzo per uffici Montecatini", Milan 1938
AA.VV., "Il palazzo per uffici Montecatini inaugurato a Milano il 28 ottobre XVI. Montecatini società generale per l'industria mineraria e chimica", Tipografia Pizzi e Pizio, Milan 1938
P. Masera, "La nuova sede della Montecatini in Milano," in "Edilizia Moderna", Jan.-June, 1939
G. Pagano, "Alcune note sul palazzo della Montecatini," in "Casabella Continuità", n. 138-139-140, 1939
G. Ponti, "Un palazzo del lavoro", in "Domus", n. 135, pagg. 36-47, 1939,
G. Ponti, "Superfici," in "Stile", n. 2, 1941
G. Ponti, "Genesi di un perfezionamento", in "Stile", n. 25, pagg. 16-19, 1941
G. Ponti, "I materiali dello stile di domani", in "Domus", n. 229, 1948
G. Ponti, "L'alluminio e l'architettura," in "Domus", n. 230, 1948
G. Ponti, "Alcune considerazioni sugli edifici per uffici", in "Edilizia Moderna", n. 49, pagg. 11-19, 1952
P. Bottoni, "Antologia di edifici moderni in Milano: guida," Editoriale Domus, Milan 1954
G. Ponti, "Ingegneria e architettura," in "Domus", n. 313, 1955
P. Bottoni, "Milano oggi", Edizioni Milano Moderna, Milan 1957
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Casa Laporte, in Via Brin, Milan, 1936
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G. Arditi - C. Serrato, "Giò Ponti: venti cristalli di architettura", Il Cardo, Venice 1994
Palazzo Ferrania (ora FIAT), in Corso Matteotti, Milan 1939
A.C.R., "Palazzo "Fiat" per uffici in Milano", in "Edilizia Moderna", n. 30, 1939
Palazzo Donini, in Piazza San Babila, Milan 1939
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Clinica Columbus, in Via Buonarroti, Milan 1940
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G. Arditi e C. Serrato, "Giò Ponti: venti cristalli di architettura", Il Cardo, Venice 1994
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"Capitanio Clinic," in Via Mercalli, Milan 1949/50
B.F. Moretti, "Ospedali", Hoepli, Milan, 1951
red., "Clinique Santa Capitanio, Milano", in "L'Architecture d'Aujourd'Hui, pagg. 26-27, 1953
P. Nestler, "Neues Bauen in Italien", Callwey Ed., Munich, 1954
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P. Bottoni, "Milano oggi", Edizioni Milano Moderna, Milan 1957
A. Kordalis, Clinica Capitanio, in "Sapienza tecnica e Architettura, Milano-Pavia 1950-1980", (a cura di A. Bugatti e L. Crespi), Alinea Editore, Milan, 1997
Grattacielo di Milano (now Breda Tower), in Piazza della Repubblica, Milan, 1952/54
C. Bassi - F. Berlanda e G. Boschetti, "Nuclei di scale nel Grattacielo di Milano", in "Documenti di Architettura, Composizione e Tecnica Moderna", pagg. 794-5, 1954
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P. Peters, "Wohnhochhäuser", Callwey Ed., Munich 1959
R. Aloi, "Nuove architetture a Milano," Hoepli, Milan 1959
G. Alfonsi e G. Zucconi, "Luigi Mattioni. Architetto della ricostruzione", Electa, Milan 1985
F. Ogliari, "Una cittá tra le nuvole: Milano di sopra," Silvana Editoriale, Milan 1986
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Nuova Sede Galbani, in Via F. Filzi, Milan 1954/55
R. Aloi, "Nuove architetture a Milano," pagg. 223-228, Hoepli, Milan,1959
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Ospedale di Circolo di Saronno, Varese 1954/55
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R. Aloi, "Nuove architetture a Milano," Hoepli, Milan 1959
Torre Tirrena, in Piazza Liberty, Milan 1956/59
C. De Carli, "La torre Tirrena a Milano," in "L'Architettura", n. 35, pagg. 308-313, 1958
R. Aloi, "Nuove architetture a Milano," Hoepli, Milan 1959
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Palazzo per l'Istituto Romano Beni Stabili "(I.R.B.S.)", in Via Meravigli, Milan 1956/64
C. Conti, "Palazzo per uffici e abitazioni," in "Edilizia Moderna", n. 67, pagg. 105-110, 1959
Clinica La Madonnina, in Via Quadronno, Milan 1957/59
"Relazione descrittiva della Casa di Cura La Madonnina in Via Quadronno a Milano", Sept. 1961
R. Pedio, "Casa di cura La Madonnina," in "L'Architettura cronache e storia", n. 9, pagg. 582-591, 1962
Sede della Milano Assicurazioni, in Via del Lauro, Milan 1958/65
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red., "Parsol verde nella vecchia Milano", in "Trasparenze", n. 1, 1970
Fabbrica di aeroplani, in Argentina, 1959
R. G. Angeli, "Fabbrica di aeroplani in Sudamerica," in "Documenti di Architettura, Composizione e Tecnica Moderna", pagg. 5-12, 1949
"Palazzo per uffici ‘La Serenissima’," in Via Turati angolo Cavalieri, Milan 1966/68
E. & E. Soncini, "Relazione tecnica sull’edificio della Serenissima", Milan, 14 Aprile 1969
red., "La Serenissima a Milano", in "Trasparenze", n. 3, 1970
"Opera Pro Giovani Operai (Maria Belloni)", in Viale Fulvio Testi, Milan 1970/72
red., "Casa del Giovane Lavoratore," in "Vitrum", n. 65, pag. 6, 1955
"Aerhotel", stazione di Porta Garibaldi, Milan 1970/73
red., "Aerhotel Executive a Milano, in "Trasparenze"," n. 15-16, 1973
Albergo (hotel) "sul lago di Varese", Varese, s.d.C. Pagani, "Architettura italiana oggi," pag. 208-209, Hoepli, Milan 1955
Overall work
A. Kordalis, N. Tommasi, "Eugenio ed Ermenegildo Soncini tra sperimentalismo e rigore tecnologico negli anni della Ricostruzione", Master thesis (supervisors L. Crespi and E. Triunveri), School of Architecture, Politecnico di Milano, Milano 1995


Nuno Mendes (count)

Nuno Mendes or Nuño Menéndez (died February 1071) was the last Count of Portugal from the family of Vímara Peres. The son of Count Mendo Nunes (Menendo Núñez), his desires for greater autonomy for Portugal led him to face King Garcia II of Galicia. On 18 February 1071 he fought in the Battle of Pedroso, near the Monastery of São Martinho de Tibães, and his defeat and death led the winning Garcia II to call himself King of Galicia and Portugal. The County of Portugal was then subsumed into the crowns of Galicia and León until regranted by King Alfonso VI of León and Castile a quarter-century later.
A patron of the Monastery of Guimarães, he first appears in the curia regis of King Ferdinand I of León in 1059, and with the title of count for the first time in 1070 when he appears confirming a donation made by King Garcia II. He married Goncina with whom he appears on 17 February 1071 making a donation to the Monastery of Santo Antonino de Barbudo of some properties in Luivão, not far from Cávado, confirming as "Ego comes Nunus Menendiz et uxor mea comitissa domna Goncina" ("I, Count Nuno Menéndez and my wife Countess dona Goncina"). He owned properties in Nogueira, Santa Tecla, Dadim, Cerqueda, Gualtar, and Barros, which were probably confiscated after his defeat and given later by King Alfonso VI of León to his son-in-law Sisnando. Although the battle of Pedroso has been mistakenly dated in January of that year, as mentioned in the "Chronica Gothorum", this donation proves that the battle took place in February rather than in January.
With his wife Goncina, he had at least one daughter, Loba "Aurevelido" Nunes, who married Sisnando Davides, the parents of Elvira Sisnandes whose husband, Count Martim Moniz, son of Munio Fromarigues, succeeded Sisnando as the governor of the county. He could also have been the father of Count Gómez Núñez and his brother Count Fernando.


Estonioceras

Estonioceras is an extinct genus of tarphyceridan nautiloids from the Ordovician of Europe.


Prehistoric Switzerland


Horreum Margi


Hotin County

Hotin County was a county (ținut is Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, județ after) in the Principality of Moldavia (1359-1812), the Governorate of Bessarabia (1812–1917), the Moldavian Democratic Republic (1917–1918), and the Kingdom of Romania (1918–1940, 1941-1944).
Its capital was in the city of Hotin (today Khotyn). The territory of the county is currently divided between Ukraine (northern half) and Moldova (southern half).
Geography.
Between the two world wars, Hotin County covered 3,782 km2 and was located in the northeastern part of Greater Romania, being the northernmost County of Bessarabia. It was located on the border with the Soviet Union. In the interwar period, its borders were as follows: the Vinnytsia Oblast in the Ukrainian SSR of the Soviet Union to the north and north-east, the Stanislawow Voivodship of Poland to the north-west, Soroca County to the south-east, Bălți County to south, Dorohoi County to the south and south-west, and Cernăuți County to the west.
Administrative organization.
Administratively, Hotin County was divided administratively into the city of Hotin and four (later six) districts ("plăşi", singular "plasă"):
Subsequently, two more districts were created:
At the autumn 1941 census, the county was administrative divided as follows:
Population.
According to the Romanian census of 1930 the population of Hotin County was 392,430, of which 41.6% were ethnic Ukrainians, 35.0% ethnic Romanians, 13.6% ethnic Russians, 9.2% Jews, 0.3% ethnic Poles. Classified by mother tongue: 45.1% spoke Ukrainian, 33.4% spoke Romanian, 12.0% spoke Russian, 9.2% spoke Yiddish. Classified by religion: 87.0% were Orthodox Christian, 9.2% Jewish, 1.9% Baptist, 1.0% Old Believers, and 0.3% Roman Catholic.
According to Russian census of 1897, Ukrainians (Little Russians) represented the majority of population of Khotin Uyezd. There were 160,000 Ukrainians (55%) in rural areas, or 164,000 (53%) including urban areas.
Urban population.
In 1930 the urban population of Hotin County was 15,334, which included 37.7% Jews, 36.6% Russians, 14.8% Ukrainians, 8.8% Romanians, and 1.5% Poles by ethnicity. The major mother tongues among the urban population were: Yiddish (37.6%), Russian (37.5%), Ukrainian (14.7%), Romanian (8.6%), and Polish (1.2%) The religious mix of the urban population was 57.6% Eastern Orthodox, 37.7% Jewish, 2.1% Old Believers, and 1.6% Roman Catholic.
History.
After the Union of Bessarabia with Romania in 1918, the county was part of Romania, which set up the county formally in 1925.
The area county of the county was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and became part of the Moldavian SSR and the Ukrainian SSR. The area returned to Romanian administration following the Axis Powers' invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1941. A military administration was established and the region's Jewish population was either executed on the spot or deported to Transnistria, where further numbers were killed. As the Soviet Union's offensive pushed the Axis powers back, the area again was under Soviet control. On September 12, 1944, Romania signed the Moscow Armistice with the Allies. The Armistice, as well as the subsequent peace treaty of 1947, confirmed the Soviet-Romanian border as it was on January 1, 1941. The areas of the county, along with the rest of the Moldavian SSR and the Ukrainian SSR, became part of the independent countries of Moldova and Ukraine, respectively.