German commerce raiders in World War I

The German commerce raiders of World War I were those surface vessels used by the Imperial German Navy to pursue its war on Allied commerce, (the "Handelskrieg").
These comprised regular warships, principally cruisers, stationed in Germany's colonial empire, express liners commissioned as auxiliary cruisers and, later, freighters outfitted as merchant raiders.
These vessels had a number of successes, and a significant impact on Allied naval strategy, particularly in the early months of the war.
The cruisers.
At the outbreak of World War I Germany had six light and two heavy cruisers, and four gunboats, stationed overseas. These ships were stationed at various ports in Germany's colonial empire, or at neutral ports protecting German interests.
In the west, she had "Karlsruhe" in the Caribbean and "Dresden" on the east coast of Mexico.
In West Africa she had the gunboat "Eber"; in East Africa the cruiser "Konigsberg" and the gunboat "Geier". The largest force was in the Pacific, with the Far East Squadron under V Adm. Graf von Spee; two heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and two gunboats, all at Tsingtau, and cruisers "Leipzig" and "Nurnberg" deployed at sea.
With the commencement of hostilities these ships were ordered to attack Allied trade wherever they found it.
At the outbreak of war, von Spee was at sea and set out across the Pacific to harass and disrupt British and Allied shipping. He had with him "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau" and "Emden" and was quickly joined by "Nurnberg" and two auxiliary cruisers. "Emden" was dispatched on a solo raiding voyage in the Indian Ocean, which was highly successful, while von Spee headed for Chile to secure supplies of coal. At Easter Island in October he was joined by "Leipzig" and "Dresden", and at Coronel in November he defeated a British squadron which was searching for him. In December however he was surprised in the act of attacking Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands, and his entire force, save one, was destroyed.
Despite von Spee's skill and courage, his mission, to destroy Allied commerce where he found it, was a failure. Two British warships were sunk, and one sailing ship, by his squadron in the five months he remained at large, while his light cruisers on detachment, with one exception, also achieved little.
"Nurnberg" which had been on detached service, sent to relieve "Leipzig" had rejoined von Spee on the outbreak of war. She had encountered no Allied shipping and made no captures. After that her fate was linked with von Spee's and she was sunk at the Falklands.
"Leipzig" had been at Acapulco in Mexico. She originally headed north along the US coast, causing British commerce to come to a standstill. She was able to coal at San Francisco before heading south-west to join von Spee. In this time she took two ships, and in the South Pacific two more. Thereafter "Leipzig's" fate was also joined with von Spee's and she also was sunk at Falklands.
Another cruiser, "Dresden", also achieved little. On the east coast of Mexico at the outbreak of war, she moved down the coast of South America, looking for Allied shipping, but made just 2 captures before receiving orders to enter the Pacific and join von Spee's squadron. She did this in October 1914, making rendezvous at Easter island. In the Pacific "Dresden" took two more ships before von Spee's squadron was destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914. "Dresden" escaped, but was run to ground in March 1915 at Mas a Tierra island.
The exception was "Emden", which made one of the most successful raiding cruises of any German warship.
After leaving von Spee at Pagan in August, "Emden", under FK Karl von Mueller, captured and disposed of sixteen Allied ships and two warships in a four-month career that ranged over the eastern Indian Ocean. "Emden" was finally brought to battle and destroyed on 9 November at Keeling Island by the Australia cruiser "Sydney".
On the other side of the Indian Ocean, in German East Africa, the IGN had the cruiser "Konigsberg" and the gunboat "Geier".
"Konigsberg" set out one raiding voyage, to the Gulf of Aden, and sank one ship. In September she surprised the British cruiser "Pegasus" in Zanzibar harbour and sank her. But lack of coal limited her operations and fear of being herself caught in harbour made her captain opt for taking refuge in the river delta of the Rufiji. This hiding place was discovered in October and the channel successfully blocked in November. Thereafter, although "Konigsberg" remained a potential threat, and although the RN took another six months before she could be destroyed, from this point her raiding career was over.
"Geier" set out from East Africa in August, and crossed both the Indian and the Pacific oceans in search of Allied ships, but in three months was unsuccessful, capturing just one ship before interning herself at Honolulu.
In the west the most successful cruiser was "Karlsruhe", under FK Erich Kohler. After meeting and equipping the liner "Kronprinz Wilhelm", "Karlsruhe" set out on a raiding voyage along the South American trade routes. Using her attendant supply ships, and later, prizes, to scout for her, "Karlsruhe" moved through the ocean, her net cast wide, able to steam quickly to any target or to evade conflict. After two months she had captured and disposed of 16 ships, including one neutral Dutch freighter, and taken 500 prisoners.
At the end of October these were dispatched to neutral Tenerife in one of the prizes, and "Karlsruhe" steamed north to open a new hunting ground in the Caribbean.
However, on 4 November 1914, 300 miles east of Barbados, "Karlsruhe" suffered a calamitous internal explosion, sinking her and killing her captain and 260 crew.
The survivors were rescued by the supply ship "Rio Negro", which had been in attendance, and returned to Germany.
The Germans were able to keep the secret of her loss until March 1915; until that time "Karlsruhe" exerted an influence as a ghost ship on British naval strategy, forcing the Allies to guard against possible attacks.
The liners.
At the outbreak of war the Imperial German Navy had listed thirteen fast passenger liners for conversion into auxiliary cruisers, and another seven ships, express mail steamers, to serve as supply vessels.
However the immediate imposition by the Royal Navy of a blockade of German ports caught the IGN unprepared; the ships in home ports were trapped there, while those ships that were at sea or in neutral ports, away from their outfits of stored armaments with neutral nations wary of allowing such conversion to take place in their facilities.
Of the six ships that were in home ports, the IGN converted three, though two ("Cap Polonio", as "Vineta", and "Victoria Louise") were deemed unsuitable and returned to their owners. Only "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" carried out a raiding voyage. Three others ("Cap Finisterre", "Prinz Ludwig" and "Kaiserin August Victoria") were not taken up for conversion and remained in civilian hands.
Of the seven at sea, three were able to avoid British patrols and take up armaments from German warships. "Kronprinz Wilhelm" met "Karlsruhe" in the Atlantic, "Cap Trafalgar" met "Eber" from German West Africa off Brazil, and "Prinz Eitel Friedrich" sailed to Tsingtau where she was armed from "Luchs" and "Tiger". Four others, ("Kronprinzessin Cecilie", "Kaiser Wilhelm II", "George Washington", and "Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm") were unable to return to Germany or meet any German warship and were interned in neutral ports.
Two other ships, not originally foreseen but becoming available, were also converted to be auxiliaries. The liner "Berlin", which was at Bremerhaven undergoing repairs, was taken up as a minelayer and raider. In August "Emden" captured the Russian liner "Ryazan", earmarked by the Imperial Russian navy as an auxiliary, and sent her to Tsingtau for conversion. She served under the name "Cormoran".
These vessels, too, had mixed success. "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" broke through the blockade to raid down the West African coast. After sinking three ships she was caught and sunk by the British cruiser . "Cap Trafalgar" was similarly caught and sunk by the AMC "Carmania", before making any captures. "Berlin" made one voyage, laying mines off Ireland which sank the British dreadnought "Audacious", before herself being interned in Norway. "Cormoran" was able to operate for three months in the Pacific and around the coast of Australia, but without a single success; she was forced into internment in Guam.
More successful was "Prinz Eitel Friedrich", which operated with "Cormoran" and v Spee's squadron before being detached after Coronel in November 1914. She then made a three-month voyage into the Atlantic, making eleven captures before being interned in March 1915 at Newport News in the United States.
The most successful of these auxiliaries was "Kronprinz Wilhelm", remaining at large for eight months and taking thirteen prizes before she too was interned in April 1915 at Newport News.
The freighters.
Following the collapse of the first phases of Germany's commerce war, the Imperial German Navy turned to the U-boat Arm as an alternative. Despite some successes, the inadequacies of the U-boat as a commerce raider quickly became apparent. Lacking the cruiser's speed and gun armament to overawe its victims, the U-boats were increasingly faced with ships that would resist capture by running, or, as more and more became defensively armed, by shooting back.
Rather than accept defeat however, in February 1915 the IGN opted for a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, a policy which inevitably led to deaths and destruction of civilians, neutrals and other non-combatants and created considerable political difficulties.
Another approach proposed was the outfitting of ordinary freighters as commerce raiders and, initially, minelayers. In contrast to the first auxiliaries these ships would be chosen for their endurance and range, relying on disguise rather than speed to escape destruction.
The first assay into this approach was "Meteor", which laid mines and attacked shipping in the White Sea during May and June 1915. A second voyage in August saw her involved in a gun-battle with a blockade ship, and she was later scuttled to avoid capture.
In November 1915 the most successful of these raiders, the "Moewe", set out on her first voyage. In four months she accounted for 15 ships, totalling 50,000 GRT, and successfully returned to Germany unscathed.
Two other attempts to emulate this failed however; In February 1916 "Wolf" was wrecked while setting out from Kiel, and the same month "Greif" was sunk when she was intercepted by the RN blockade.
In August 1916 "Moewe" was out again, this time masquerading as "Vineta" in an attempt to confuse Allied intelligence, and taking a prize off Norway: In November she made a longer voyage to the South Atlantic which captured 25 ships. "Moewe" was able to extend her range by taking fuel and supplies from her prizes; she also outfitted one of them (commissioned as "Geier") to act as an auxiliary herself, and sent another back to Germany for conversion into a raider.
Also in November 1916 another raider, also called "Wolf", started a voyage of 15 months, to South Africa, the Indian Ocean and Australia, sinking 14 ships and laying mines that destroyed 15 more. "Wolf" was also able to extend her range with goods from her prizes, prolonging her voyage to a record-breaking 15 months. She too outfitted a prize (commissioned as "Iltis") to assist as an auxiliary minelayer.
In December 1916 the most unusual raider, "Seeadler", set out; a fully rigged sailing ship (though equipped with auxiliary motors) "Seeadler" sailed all the way to the South Pacific and sank 13 ships before being wrecked on a reef after eight months of operations
The last raider, "Leopard", (the prize sent in by "Moewe") set out in March 1917, but she too was intercepted by the RN blockade and in a fierce gun-battle was sunk with all hands.
With the return of "Moewe" that month, Germany's experiment with surface raiders was virtually ended, though "Wolf" remained at large for another year.
In Feb 1917 Germany started another campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare, which, despite huge damage to Allied shipping, failed to defeat the Allies, but led to angry neutrals (most prominently the USA) joining the war against her.


Bala Hissar, Kabul

Bala Hissar ("High Fort") is an ancient fortress located in the south of the old city of Kabul, Afghanistan. The estimated date of construction is around the 5th century AD. Bala Hissar sits to the south of the modern city centre at the tail end of the Kuh-e-Sherdarwaza Mountain. The Walls of Kabul, which are high and thick, start at the fortress and follow the mountain ridge in a sweeping curve down to the river. It sports a set of gates for access to the fortress. The Kōh-e Shēr Darwāzah (lion door) mountain is behind the fort.
Bala Hissar was originally divided into two parts: The lower fortress, containing the stables, barracks and three royal palaces, and the upper fortress (the actual fort with the name Bala Hissar) housing the armory and the dungeon of Kabul, known as the "Black Pit" (the Siyah Chal).
History.

The Second Battle of Panipat was fought in 1556 between the forces of Akbar and Hemu, a Hindu king. Hemu had the larger army, and initially his forces were winning, but during the Elephant charge he was wounded leading his forces by an arrow and taken prisoner. When he was brought before the Mughal commanders, Bairam Khan killed him. Hemu's head was sent to Kabul where it was hung outside the Delhi Darwaza of Bala Hissar, Kabul while his body was placed in a gibbet outside Purana Quila in Delhi to terrorise his remaining supporters.
As Kabul's principal fortress, Bala Hissar was an important site both in the First (1838–1842) and Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880).
The British envoy to Kabul, Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari was murdered inside the fort in September 1879 triggering a general uprising and the second phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
It was damaged during the Second Anglo-Afghan War when the British Residency was burned down, then later when the armoury exploded. General Frederick Roberts had wanted to level the fortress completely, but in the end it was strengthened and fortified in the Spring of 1880, a few months before the British left Afghanistan.
20th century.
On August 5, 1979, the Bala Hissar uprising was organized by anti-government groups, but it was suppressed and tens of people were arrested and executed by the regime.
Bala Hissar once again became the focal point of conflict between factions during the Afghan civil war in 1994, between Massoud's and Hekmatyar's forces. Much of the fortress was damaged as a result.
These days it is manned by the 55th Division of the Afghan National Army and one can see the remnants of tanks and heavy weapons positioned on the fortress remains overlooking Kabul.
Bala Hissar today.
When looking at the outer wall of the main fortress, it is possible to see layers of building materials from years of destruction and re-fortification. The tanks and other war wreckage from the last 30 years are strewn about the top of the hillside. Much of the hillside is built up on tunnels and underground storage. Evidence of trenches from previous trench warfare encircles the upper most level of the hilltop, which is adorned with a rickety, stalwart Afghan flag. Wild dogs roam all over the hillside and a company from the Afghan Army is posted at the site. U.S. military and civilians occupied a site below the fortress during Operation Enduring Freedom. The occupants were warned when going up to the castle, to stay on the heavily used paths to avoid mines laid during the Soviet occupation.
On 2 February 2021, the Afghan Acting Minister of Information and Culture, Mohammad Tahir Zuhair, signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (an agency of the Aga Khan Development Network) on the reconstructing and consolidation of the walls and the structure, as well as to establish an archeological park at the site. India has pledged approximately $1 million to the project.


World War II Memorial

The World War II Memorial is a memorial of national significance dedicated to Americans who served in the armed forces and as civilians during World War II.
Consisting of 56 pillars, representing U.S. states and territories, and a pair of small triumphal arches for the Atlantic and Pacific theaters, surrounding an oval plaza and fountain, it sits on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on the former site of the Rainbow Pool at the eastern end of the Reflecting Pool, between the Lincoln Memorial and the Washington Monument. Its initial design was submitted by Austrian-American architect Friedrich St. Florian.
Opened on April 29, 2004, it was dedicated by President George W. Bush on May 29, 2004. The memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall and Memorial Parks group. More than 4.6 million people visited the memorial in 2018.
Design.
The memorial consists of 56 granite pillars, each tall, arranged in a semicircle around a plaza with two triumphal arches on opposite sides. Two-thirds of the site is landscaping and water. Each pillar is inscribed with the name of one of the 48 U.S. states of 1945, as well as the District of Columbia, the Alaska Territory and Territory of Hawaii, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The northern arch is inscribed with "Atlantic"; the southern one, "Pacific." The plaza is long and wide, is sunk below grade, and contains a pool that is .
The memorial includes two inconspicuously located "Kilroy was here" engravings. Their inclusion in the memorial acknowledges the significance of the symbol to American soldiers during World War II and how it represented their presence and protection wherever it was inscribed.
On approaching the semicircle from the east, a visitor walks along one of two walls (right side wall and left side wall) picturing scenes of the war experience in bas relief. As one approaches on the left (toward the Pacific arch), the scenes begin with soon-to-be servicemen getting physical exams, taking the oath, and being issued military gear. The reliefs progress through several iconic scenes, including combat and burying the dead, ending in a homecoming scene. On the right-side wall (toward the Atlantic arch) there is a similar progression, but with scenes generally more typical of the European theatre. Some scenes take place in England, depicting the preparations for air and sea assaults. The last scene is of a handshake between the American and Russian armies when the western and eastern fronts met in Germany.
Freedom Wall.
The Freedom Wall is on the west side of the plaza, with a view of the Reflecting Pool and Lincoln Memorial behind it. The wall has 4,048 gold stars, each representing 100 Americans who died in the war. In front of the wall lies the message "Here we mark the price of freedom".
History.
In 1987, World War II veteran Roger Durbin approached Representative Marcy Kaptur, a Democrat from Ohio, to ask if a World War II memorial could be constructed. Kaptur introduced the World War II Memorial Act to the House of Representatives as HR 3742 on December 10. The resolution authorized the American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC) to establish a World War II memorial in "Washington, D.C., or its environs", but the bill was not voted on before the end of the session. In 1989 and 1991, Rep. Kaptur introduced similar legislation, but these bills suffered the same fate as the first and did not become law.
Kaptur reintroduced legislation in the House a fourth time as HR 682 on January 27, 1993, one day after Senator Strom Thurmond (a Republican from South Carolina) introduced companion Senate legislation. On March 17, 1993, the Senate approved the act, and the House approved an amended version of the bill on May 4. On May 12, the Senate also approved the amended bill, and the World War II Memorial Act was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on May 25 of that year, becoming .
Fundraising.
On September 30, 1994, President Bill Clinton appointed a 12-member Memorial Advisory Board (MAB) to advise the ABMC in picking the site, designing the memorial, and raising money to build it. A direct mail fundraising effort brought in millions of dollars from individual Americans. Additional large donations were made by veterans' groups, including the American Legion, the Veterans of Foreign Wars, and Veterans of the Battle of the Bulge. The majority of the corporate fundraising effort was led by two co-chairs: Senator Bob Dole, a decorated World War II veteran and 1996 Republican nominee for president; and Frederick W. Smith, the president and chief executive officer of FedEx Corporation and a former U.S. Marine Corps officer. The U.S. federal government provided about $16 million. A total of $197 million was raised.
Picking the site.
On January 20, 1995, Colonel Kevin C. Kelley, project manager for the ABMC, organized the first meeting of the ABMC and the MAB, at which the project was discussed and initial plans made. The meeting was chaired by Commissioner F. Haydn Williams, chairman of ABMC's World War II Memorial Site and Design Committee, who would go on to guide the project through the site selection and approval process and the selection and approval of the Memorial's design. Representatives from the United States Commission of Fine Arts, the National Capital Planning Commission, the National Capital Memorial Commission, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the National Park Service attended the meeting. The selection of an appropriate site was taken on as the first action.
Over the next months, several sites were considered. Three quickly gained favor:
Other sites considered but quickly rejected were:
The selection of the Rainbow Pool site was announced on October 5, 1995. The design would incorporate the Rainbow Pool fountain, located across 17th Street from the Washington Monument and near the Constitution Gardens site.
The location, between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial, is the most prominent spot for a monument on the National Mall since the Lincoln Memorial opened in 1922. It is the first addition in more than 70 years to the grand corridor of open space that stretches from the Capitol west to the Potomac River.
Designing the memorial.
A nationwide design competition drew 400 submissions from architects from around the country. Friedrich St. Florian's initial design was selected in 1997. St. Florian's design evokes a classical monument. Under each of the two memorial arches, the Pacific and Atlantic baldacchinos, four eagles carry an oak laurel wreath. Each of the 56 pillars bear wreaths of oak symbolizing military and industrial strength, and of wheat, symbolizing agricultural production.
Over the next four years, St. Florian's design was altered during the review and approval process required of proposed memorials in Washington, D.C. Ambassador Haydn Williams guided the design development for ABMC.
Construction.
Ground was broken in September 2001. The construction was managed by the General Services Administration.
The triumphal arches were crafted by Rock of Ages Corporation. Sculptor Raymond Kaskey created the bronze eagles and two wreaths that were installed under the arches, as well as 24 bronze bas-relief panels that depict wartime scenes of combat and the home front. The bronzes were cast over the course of two and a half years at Laran Bronze in Chester, Pennsylvania. The stainless-steel armature that holds up the eagles and wreaths was designed at Laran, in part by sculptor James Peniston, and fabricated by Apex Piping of Newport, Delaware. The twin bronze wreathes decorating the 56 granite pillars around the perimeter of the memorial — as well as the 4,048 gold-plated silver stars representing American military deaths in the war — were cast at Valley Bronze in Joseph, Oregon. "I'd see buckets full of the stars going through the foundry, and think that each stood for 100 men. The magnitude was overwhelming," Dave Jackman, former president of Valley Bronze, recalled in 2004.
The John Stevens Shop designed the lettering for the memorial and most of the inscriptions were hand-carved in situ.
The memorial opened to the public on April 29, 2004, and was dedicated in a May 29 ceremony attended by thousands of people. The memorial became a unit of the national park system on November 1, when authority over it was transferred to the National Park Service.
Controversy.
Criticism of the location.
Critics such as the National Coalition to Save Our Mall opposed the location of the memorial. A major criticism of the location was that it would interrupt what had been an unbroken view between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial. The memorial was also criticized for taking up open space that had been historically used for major demonstrations and protests.
Critics were particularly bothered by the expedited approval process, which is considerably lengthy most of the time. The United States Congress, worried that World War II veterans were dying before an appropriate memorial could be built, passed legislation exempting the World War II Memorial from further site and design review. Congress also dismissed pending legal challenges to the memorial.
Criticism of the design and style.
There were also aesthetic objections to the design. A critic from the "Boston Herald" described the monument as "vainglorious, demanding of attention and full of trite imagery."
"The Philadelphia Inquirer" argued that "this pompous style was also favored by Hitler and Mussolini" The "Washington Post" described it as "overbearing", "bombastic", and a "hodgepodge of cliche and Soviet-style pomposity" with "the emotional impact of a slab of granite".
Some supporters said that the design evoked federal architecture during the New Deal period, influenced by an austere interpretation of Art Deco/Beaux Arts styles. This view, and the monument, were dismissed by one prominent architecture critic as "knee-jerk historicism".
The design originally unveiled by President Bill Clinton included only 50 columns honoring the 48 states of the Union during World War II and only two of the eight non-state jurisdictions at the time of the war, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii that subsequently were admitted into the Union. On June 2, 1997, the Puerto Rico Legislative Assembly approved a Concurrent Resolution requesting that a column honoring the territory of Puerto Rico's participation in the war effort be incorporated in the final design. Its author Sen. Kenneth McClintock began a lobbying campaign that preceded the expansion of the number of columns to 56, honoring the 48 existing states in 1945, the District of Columbia and the seven existing territories of Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Philippines and the United States Virgin Islands.
FDR's D-Day prayer.
On May 23, 2013, Senator Rob Portman introduced the World War II Memorial Prayer Act of 2013 (), which would direct the Secretary of the Interior to install at the World War II memorial a suitable plaque or an inscription with the words that President Franklin D. Roosevelt prayed with the United States on June 6, 1944, the morning of D-Day. The bill was opposed by the American Civil Liberties Union, the American Jewish Committee, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, the Hindu American Foundation, and the Interfaith Alliance. Together the organizations argued that the bill "endorses the false notion that all veterans will be honored by a war memorial that includes a prayer proponents characterize as reflecting our country's 'Judeo-Christian heritage and values.'" The organizations argued that "the memorial, as it currently stands, appropriately honors those who served and encompasses the entirety of the war" and was carefully created, so no additional elements, such as FDR's prayer, need to be added. But, they said, "the effect of this bill, however, is to co-opt religion for political purposes, which harms the beliefs of everyone." The bill was signed into law on June 30, 2014, and the Commission of Fine Arts preferred a design at the Circle of Remembrance to the northwest of the memorial. With funding secured, it is intended to be dedicated on June 6, 2022.


List of commandants superior of the Strategic Base of Bizerte

This is a listing of commandants superior of the French Strategic Base of Bizerte, in Tunisia.


Odessa Bolshevik uprising

The Odessa Bolshevik uprising () was a Bolshevik-led uprising of workers and sailors allied with approaching Red Guards forces of Soviet Russia.
In December 1917, the 2nd Congress of Rumcherod elected the Bolshevik Executive Committee and adopted a decision on transferring all power to the Soviets. On January 17, 1918 the conference of city factory committees elected the city's military revolutionary committee (the Committee of 15th) which consisted of the Bolsheviks (chair), P.Starostin, G.Achkanov, and others. The next day, a conference of representatives of 49 enterprises, soldiers and sailors took place in Odessa, expressing support for the establishment of the Soviet regime.
The uprising started on January 27, 1918 and involved formations of local Red Guards, Okhtyrka Hussars Regiment, 40th and 49th reserve regiments, and other units. The insurgents were supported by the battleships "Sinop", "Rhostislav" and the cruiser "Almaz" aboard which was the headquarters of the uprising and military tribunal. The Black Sea Fleet ships along with the armored train "Zaamurets" were part of the approaching expeditionary force of Muravyov which joined the uprising later. On the first day Red Guards secured the headquarters of the Odessa Military District, rail station, post office, banks and other institutions. The next day on January 28, 1918, the local haidamakas freed the district's headquarters, rail station and post office from the Bolsheviks, but on January 29, the Red Guards and revolutionary soldiers and sailors were able to defeat forces of the Ukrainian People's Republic which completely surrendered on January 30, after which the Soviet regime was established in the city. But after signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty all Bolshevik forces were driven out by 13 March 1918 by the combined armed forces of the Austro-Hungarian Army, providing support to the Ukrainian People's Republic.


2nd Infantry Division (South Africa)

The South African 2nd Infantry Division was an infantry division of the army of the Union of South Africa during World War II. The division was formed on 23 October 1940 and served in the Western Desert Campaign and was captured (save for one brigade) by German and Italian forces at Tobruk on 21 June 1942. The remaining brigade was re-allocated to the South African 1st Infantry Division.
History.
The division was formed on 23 October 1940 with its divisional HQ at Voortrekkerhoogte, South Africa. On 21 June 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division as well as most of the supporting units were captured at the fall of Tobruk.
Bardia and the Western Desert.
The division capture of Bardia was part of the Libyan campaign against Rommel's Afrika Korps from November 1941 to January 1942. They defeated a numerically superior Axis force in a strongly fortified position with a combined infantry and tank force.
Order of battle.
21 September 1941
Surrender.
After the capture of the rest of the division, 3rd South African Infantry Brigade and the 1st Field Regiment of the Cape Field Artillery became part of the South African 1st Infantry Division.
Order of battle.
Initial operational deployment: 2 December 1941.
On 18 September 1941 the division was re-allocated from X Corps command to falling under General HQ command and were responsible for protecting the railway and water supply lines between Alexandria and Mersa Matruh. On 11 October, the Kaffrarian Rifles were detached from the division and deployed to protect the landing fields in the Daba-Fuka-Bagush area. On taking over responsibility for the Frontier area on 2 December 1941 the divisional order of battle, as part of the 8th Army was:
Order of battle: The Fall of Tobruk.
Order of Battle as at 20 June 1942
Theatres of operation.
The theatres that the division served in were as follows:
Battles, actions and engagements.
The division took part in the following battles, actions and engagements:


Noel Beresford-Peirse

Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Monson de la Poer Beresford-Peirse KBE, CB, DSO (22 December 1887 – 14 January 1953) was a British Army officer.
Family background.
Beresford-Peirse was the son of Colonel William John de la Poer Beresford-Peirse and Mary, daughter of Thomas Chambers of Aberfoyle, County Londonderry. He was educated at Wellington College, Berkshire and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and commissioned into the Royal Artillery.
He was married three times. The first marriage (in 1912) was to Hazel Marjorie, daughter of J.A. Cochrane, Riverina, Australia. The marriage ended in divorce in 1924. The second marriage (in 1925) was to Jean, only child of Surgeon-Captain R.D. Jameson, CMG, RN. Jean died in 1926. In 1929 he married Katharine Camilla, daughter of Colonel James Morris Colquhoun Colvin, VC. All three marriages were childless.
Military career.
Beresford-Peirse was commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1907. He served in the First World War in, briefly, Egypt in 1914 then Mesopotamia back to Egypt and finally France and Belgium. He was Mentioned in Dispatches and awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1918. After the First World War and after attendance at the Staff College, Camberley from 1924 to 1925, until 1929, he performed a number of roles in the Royal Artillery in France and Britain. There were then staff and administrative posts in the UK until 1935. In 1937, Beresford-Peirse was posted to India for "special duties" and subsequently he served two years as an instructor at the Senior Officers' School, Belgaum in India. He was Brigadier in the Royal Artillery, Southern India Command during 1939 and 1940 and Aide-de-Camp to King George VI in 1939 and 1940.
At the beginning of the Second World War Beresford-Peirse was the Commander of Artillery for the Indian 4th Infantry Division, which at the time was based in Egypt. He was promoted to command the division in August 1940 and led it in North Africa (Operation "Compass") and Sudan (the East African Campaign).
In March 1941 he was knighted via Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) and on 14 April 1941 he was given command of the Western Desert Force (later redesignated XIII Corps). He commanded the British forces in Sudan from October 1941 to April 1942 when he was put in command of the Indian XV Corps and then, from June 1942, the Southern Army in India until 31 March 1945.
Beresford-Peirse was Welfare General of the India Command between April 1945 and 1946. He retired on 13 June 1947, joining the Regular Army Reserve of Officers, and died in 1953.
External links.


Conquest of Melilla

The Conquest of Melilla occurred in September 1497, when a fleet sent by the Duke of Medina Sidonia (the precise involvement of the Catholic Monarchs in the operation is a moot point in historiography) seized the north African city of Melilla.
During the 15th century the mediterranean cities of the Sultanate of Fez (Melilla among them) fell in decadence in opposition to cities located in the Atlantic facade, which concentrated most of the economic activity. By the end of the 15th century, the port of Melilla, that had been often disputed between the rulers of Fez and Tlemcen, was nearly abandoned.
Plans for the conquest occurred as soon as the Fall of Granada in 1492. Spanish captains Lezcano and Lorenzo Zafra visited the coast of Northern Africa to identify possible locations for the Spanish to overtake, and Melilla was identified as a prime candidate. Melilla was, however, in the Portuguese zone of influence under the terms of the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas. At Tordesillas in 1494, King John II of Portugal, the Portuguese ruler agreed to make an exception and permitted the Spanish to attempt the conquest of Melilla.
The duke sent who conquered the city virtually without a fight in 1497, as internal conflicts had depleted it of troops, and its defenses were weakened. The Wattasid ruler Muhammad al-Shaykh sent a detachment of cavalrymen to retake control of the city, but they were repulsed by the guns of the Spanish ships.


Jayuya Uprising

The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt or El Grito de Jayuya, was a Nationalist revolt that took place on October 30, 1950, in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The revolt, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the multiple revolts that occurred throughout Puerto Rico on that day against the Puerto Rican government supported by the United States. The Nationalists were opposed to US sovereignty over Puerto Rico.
Events leading to the revolt.
The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was formed in 1922 to work for Puerto Rican Independence. By 1930 Pedro Albizu Campos, a lawyer who was the first Puerto Rican graduate from Harvard Law School, was elected president of the party.
On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the archipelago. The Senate, controlled by the "Partido Popular Democrático" (PPD) and presided by Luis Muñoz Marín, approved the bill that day. This bill, which resembled the anti-communist Smith Act passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, signed it into law on June 10, 1948.
Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the Flag of Puerto Rico, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (), or both.
According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the "Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño" (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who was not a member of the PPD, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution guaranteeing Freedom of Speech. As such, the Law was seen as an assault on the civil rights of every Puerto Rican.
On June 21, 1948, Albizu Campos gave a speech in the town of Manatí that explained how this Gag Law violated the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Nationalists from all over the island had gathered to hear Albizu Campos's speech and to prevent the police from arresting him.
Uprising.
From 1949 to 1950, the Nationalists in the island planned and prepared an armed revolution. The revolution was to take place in 1952, on the date the United States Congress was to officially approve the "Estado Libre Associado" ("Free Associated State") political status for Puerto Rico.
Albizu Campos called for an armed revolution because he considered the "new political status" to be a colonial farce. Albizu Campos picked the town of Jayuya as the headquarters of the revolution because of its location and because weapons were stored in the home of Blanca Canales.
On October 26, 1950, Albizu Campos was holding a meeting in Fajardo, when he received word that his house in San Juan was surrounded by police waiting to arrest him. He was told that the police had already arrested other Nationalist leaders. He escaped from Fajardo and ordered the revolution to start. On October 27, the police in the town of Peñuelas intercepted and fired upon a caravan of Nationalists, killing four.
On October 30, the Nationalists staged uprisings in the towns of Ponce, Mayagüez, Naranjito, Arecibo, Utuado (Utuado Uprising), San Juan (San Juan Nationalist revolt), and Jayuya.
In the pre-dawn hours of October 29, the Insular Police surrounded the house of the mother of Melitón Muñiz Santos, president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party, in Barrio Macaná, where they were storing weapons for the Nationalist revolt. Without warning, the police fired on the house and a gunfight ensued. Two Nationalists were killed and six police officers were wounded. Nationalists Melitón Muñoz Santos, Roberto Jaume Rodríguez, Estanislao Lugo Santiago, Marcelino Turell, William Gutierrez and Marcelino Berríos were arrested and accused of participating in an ambush against the local Insular Police.
Members of the Nationalist Party had stored weapons in Canales's house in Jayuya. Canales and the other leaders, including her cousin Elio Torresola and Carlos Irizarry, led the armed Nationalists into the town and invaded the police station. Shots were fired, one officer was killed, three were wounded, and the other officers surrendered. The Nationalists cut the telephone lines and burned the U.S. post office. Canales led the group into the town square where, in defiance of the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law), they raised the Flag of Puerto Rico. In the town square, Canales declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. Torresola had a brother, Griselio Torresola, living in New York City, who was outraged by the attacks.
The governor, Luis Muñoz Marín, declared martial law. The Puerto Rico National Guard, under the command of the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, Major General Luis R. Esteves, used P-47 Thunderbolt attack aircraft, land-based artillery, mortar fire, and grenades to counterattack the Nationalists. The planes machine-gunned nearly every rooftop in the town. After the Nationalists were forced to surrender, the Puerto Rican government made mass arrests.
Although an extensive part of Jayuya was destroyed, news of the military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico. Instead, the American media reported President Truman saying it was "an incident between Puerto Ricans."
Nationalists in New York City as well as Puerto Rico were outraged by the counterattack. Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, among other Nationalists in the city, made a quick plan to assassinate the U.S. President, Harry S. Truman. He was reported as staying at Blair House while the living quarters of the White House were under renovation. After traveling south by train, on November 1, 1950, they attacked guards at the Blair House, seeking to gain entry. Torresola and White House police officer Leslie Coffelt were killed in the attempt; Collazo and two American officers were wounded.
Aftermath.
The top leaders of the Nationalist party were arrested, including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales, and sent to jail to serve long prison terms. Oscar Collazo was convicted of murder in the US and sentenced to death. U.S. President Truman commuted his sentence to life. In 1979 President Carter commuted Collazo's sentence to time served and he returned to Puerto Rico. The city of Jayuya converted the Blanca Canales home into a historical museum.
The last major attempt by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to draw world attention to Puerto Rico's colonial situation occurred on March 1, 1954, when nationalist leader Lolita Lebrón, together with fellow nationalists Rafael Cancel Miranda, Irvin Flores and Andres Figueroa Cordero, attacked members of the United States House of Representatives, shooting from the gallery and wounding several members. Lebrón and her comrades were charged with attempted murder and other crimes.


General Government of Belgium

The Imperial German General Government of Belgium () was a German Army occupation administration which administered one of the three separate occupation zones established in German-occupied Belgium during the First World War.
Government and administration.
The General Government was set up on 26 August 1914, when Field Marshal Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz was appointed as military governor of Belgium. He was succeeded by General Moritz von Bissing on 27 November 1914.
Soon after Bissing's appointment, the German High Command divided Belgium into three distinct administrative zones. The largest of the zones was the General Government, which included Brussels, the capital, and most of central and eastern Belgium. The second zone, under the control of the German Fourth Army, included the cities of Ghent and Antwerp and was known as the "Etappengebiet" ("Staging Area"). The third zone, under the auspices of the German Navy, included all Belgian coastal zones under German occupation and the areas closest to the front-line was called the "Operationsgebiet" ("Operational Area").
The German occupation tried to keep the pre-war Belgian administrative system as intact as possible and guide it using a small group of German officers and officials with adequate linguistic and administrative skills.
The occupation pushed to the breaking point what few constraints international law then imposed on an occupying power. A heavy-handed German military administration sought to regulate every detail of daily life, both on a personal level with travel restraints and collective punishment as on the economical level by harnessing the Belgian industry to the German advantage and by levying repetitive massive indemnities on the Belgian provinces. Among the measures of the German administration was to shift Belgium from Greenwich Mean Time to Central European Time. Before the war, Belgium was the sixth largest economy in the world; but the Germans destroyed the Belgian economy so thoroughly by dismantling industries and transporting the equipment and machinery to Germany that it never regained its pre-war level. More than 100,000 Belgian workers were forcibly deported to Germany to work in the war industry and to Northern France to build roads and other military facilities to the German military's benefit.
The German High Command hoped to exploit the ethnic tension between the Flemings and Walloons, and envisioned a post-war German protectorate in Flanders, while Wallonia was to be used for industrial materials and labour along with much of northeastern France.
In April 1917 Von Bissing died and he was succeeded by Ludwig von Falkenhausen.


Battle of Verchen

The Battle of Verchen () was a battle between Saxons and West Slavic Obotrites on 6 July 1164.
The Obotrites were attacked by Saxons and Danes in 1160, resulting in the death of the Obotrite prince, Niklot, and the partition of the Obotrite lands. Niklot's son Pribislav rose in revolt in 1163, capturing the castles of Malchow and Quetzin.
The army of Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony was concentrated at Verchen near Demmin and consisted of troops from Saxony, Holstein, Dithmarschen, and Frisia. The Christian army was also assisted by a fleet from King Valdemar the Great of Denmark. They were opposed by a force of Slavs led by Pribislav and the Pomeranian dukes Bogislaw I and Casimir I.
The outcome of the resulting bloody battle with the Slavs was in doubt, although the Christian lords were eventually victorious. Slavic casualties amounted to 2,500, while the Saxon Count of Holstein, Adolf II, fell in battle.
The land of the Obotrites was ravaged by the campaign and many inhabitants, including Pribislav, fled to Pomerania.


Battle of Ratan

The Battle of Ratan was the last battle fought on Swedish soil during the Russian-Swedish War of 1808 - 1809. It took place a day apart from the Battle of Sävar, on 20 August 1809. Having conquered Finland from Sweden, the Russians had a small force in the northern areas of Sweden. The Swedes sought to eliminate this through a combined assault from land and sea, but the Russians moved more rapidly, defeating the Swedish force landed at Ratan at Sävar on 19 August. The next day, on 20 August, the Swedish force was attacked when evacuating from Ratan, but the artillery fire from Swedish warships kept the Russians at bay. Peace negotiations followed the heavy fighting.
Prelude to the battle.
The Russians had successfully captured the city of Umeå and driven the Swedish army commanded by Sandels south, to Härnösand. Tsar Alexander I of Russia demanded that Sweden cede all of Finland. To achieve a better negotiating position, the Swedish army command planned to land troops north of the Russian positions in Umeå to attack the Russian army from the rear, while the mainland army of 3,400 men under Fabian Wrede attacked them from the front.
Chosen to lead the sea-borne task force was Lieutenant-General Gustav Wachtmeister. Battle proven in the Prussian army, in the Russo-Swedish War 1789-1790, and in the Pomeranian War just two years earlier. There was talk on giving the command to von Döbeln, but Wachtmeister was chosen.
There was no threat from the Russians possible on the waters, as the combined force of the Swedish Örloggsflottan and the British Navy had the Russian fleet at bay. The task force left Stockholm on 8 August and sailed north towards Ratan 45 km north from Umeå. To avoid detection by the Russian army in Umeå, the task force sailed east of Holmön. It arrived at Ratan 16 August. The attack was planned for 19 August.
The Swedish task force sent was composed of:
Description of the battle.
On 17 August the Swedish army disembarked from their ships in Ratan. Later the same day, they destroyed a small Russian detachment in Djäkneboda.
The Russian commander, Lieutenant-General Nikolay Mikhailovich Kamensky, was marching south when he learned of the Swedish task force. He quickly wheeled around and marched north to face Wachtmeister's army before Wrede's arrived.
The Swedish force under Wachtmeister was delayed at Sävar 20 km north of Umeå. The Russians attacked Wachtmeister's force in Sävar at 07:30 on 19 August. The Russian force took possession of high ground immediately and the Swedes counterattacked the Russians uphill. A fierce battle broke out and despite Swedish success in the fighting, Wachtmeister ordered his forces to retreat back to Ratan. The Battle of Sävar was over at 15:00. Although the Battle of Sävar turned out as a Russian victory, the Russian army was too damaged to dare face Wrede advancing from the south.
In Sävar, Sweden suffered casualties of 396 men dead and around 450 wounded, the Russians suffered around 600 men dead and around 1000 wounded.
After the Battle of Sävar, the Swedish force fell back to the village of Ratan, in which they immediately prepared for another battle. On 20 August Kamensky ordered his army to attack the Swedes in a delaying battle to secure the Russian supply wagons retreat north. This time Sweden had support from their artillery, not only the ground-based, but also the cannons loaded on the Swedish fleet. Altogether, around 100 cannons were available for the Swedish army. The artillery barrage destroyed large parts of the village and its surroundings.
During the Battle of Ratan, Wachtmeister managed to hold off Kamensky, who afterwards retreated north towards Piteå. Shortly after, Swedish troops entered Umeå.
Casualties at Ratan numbered 150 Swedes (26 dead, 2 prisoners) and 150 Russians (dead and wounded).
Aftermath.
Although the battle was a Russian victory, it was a pyrrhic one. The Russian army could not stay with the enemy advancing from the south having just suffered so many casualties. Instead it retreated north after the battle, easing the situation for the Swedish army. It has also been argued that the outcomes of the battles helped Sweden to achieve a better position in the peace negotiations with Russia. Czar Alexander of Russia had demanded all of Österland, Åland, the parts of Norrland in present-day Finland and parts of Norrland in present-day Sweden. The Czar's demand was for the border to be drawn at the Kalix River. The engagements in Sävar and Ratan have been argued to have helped move the border north to the Tornio and Muonio rivers in the peace talks.
Having the border further north than demanded by the Russians in the initial talks turned out to be fortunate for Sweden in the long run as major findings of iron ore were discovered in these areas later.


Battle of Paso Severino

The Battle of Paso Severino was the first battle of the Revolution of the Lances, an attempt by the Blancos, under Timoteo Aparicio, to overthrow the Colorado-led Government of Uruguay.


Nomad Shadow

Operation Nomad Shadow is the name of a classified United States military operation that may have begun in November 2007 to share intelligence information between the U.S. and the Republic of Turkey. The operation may involve only a few dozen U.S. servicemembers at any one time plus an unknown number of Turkish officials. A U.S. military-affiliated newspaper claimed the operation "reportedly provided Turkey with intelligence on Kurdish separatists ahead of Turkey’s incursion into northern Iraq in December 2007."
U.S. servicemembers who deployed in support of Operation Nomad Shadow may have also had been concurrently attached to support Operation Iraqi Freedom.
In 2013 the PKK claimed to have shot down a U.S. drone patrolling the Iraq-Turkey border as part of the program.


Memorial Hall (University of Kentucky)

Memorial Hall (UK building number 0049) located at 610 South Limestone Street is a prominent building on the campus of the University of Kentucky. The building's construction was funded by donations and individual contributions over a ten-year period through a subscription to the university, beginning in 1919. Completed in 1929 as a memorial to those who died in World War I, it is used for lectures and performances, and also serves as a site for graduation ceremonies of some colleges within the university. It is located on central campus at the end of Funkhouser Drive.
The building is a symbol of the University of Kentucky, often used in promotions and advertising. Its clock tower is known for being featured in the UK logo, between the U and the K. Memorial Hall features cases within its traverse central hall that hold the names of students that served in the World Wars from all the Kentucky counties.
On May 4, 2004 the University of Kentucky Board of Trustees approved the naming of the main auditorium in Memorial Hall in honor of Edward T. (Ned) Breathitt, a former Kentucky governor and former chair of the UK Board of Trustees. Room 102 in Memorial Hall is now known as the Edward T. (Ned) Breathitt Auditorium.
Fresco controversy.
The lobby of Memorial Hall features a forty-foot fresco completed in 1934 by Lexington artist Ann Rice O'Hanlon. The fresco, which is one of the few of its size and scale in the United States, depicts the history of Lexington and central Kentucky from settler times through the 19th century. O'Hanlon received a grant through the Works Progress Administration for the completion of its project, and worked on it for months. The fresco has been the recipient of controversy over its racial depictions. In a 1964 interview, found in the Archives of American Art's New Deal and the Arts project, O'Hanlon addressed her depictions of African Americans in the mural, but did not elaborate on her decision to place images of slaves in the center of the painting. She claimed that the painting was completed before there was much racism in Kentucky and that the state was not as segregated as other southern states (https://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-ann-rice-ohanlon-12570). The fresco in the foyer has been criticized for its romanticized depiction of African American slaves. Students have tried to get the mural removed since at least 2006 and it has been shrouded more than once. Due to these protests, UK commissioned Karyn Olivier to create a new painting in Memorial Hall to add context to the already existing mural. This piece was named "Witness" and it re-contextualized many of the slave figures featured in the original fresco. In the wake of the George Floyd protests, UK President Eli Capilouto announced on June 5, 2020 that the mural would be removed, becoming one of several memorials and depictions so removed. In his announcement, Eli Capilouto said, "We have not been immune from racial prejudice and hate, but I believe deeply that there is a commitment to doing better tomorrow than we are doing today. It’s against that imperfect and human backdrop that I am directing our facilities team to immediately begin the process of removing the mural in Memorial Hall." As of February 2021, the mural has still not been taken down.
On July 6, 2020, a lawsuit was filed against Eli Capilouto and UK. Wendell Berry filed a lawsuit to halt the removal of the mural because it was publicly funded, which means that it was publicly owned, along with many other reasons such as the difficulty of removing the mural because it is a fresco. A fresco is created by applying paint to a wall while the plaster is still wet, so the fresco is essentially baked into the wall, making it extremely difficult to remove. Berry originally filed for injunctive relief for the mural, but it was denied.
Witness.
On August 15, 2018 Karyn Olivier was chosen by the Memorial Hall Committee to create a mural in the Memorial Hall building. Olivier notes that it wasn't her place to simply paint something that equates to the O'Hanlon mural. In fact, she even admits that she doesn't want the mural to be taken down because she'd "rather see an acknowledgement of slavery than no slavery at all." O'Hanlon's mural depicts that Kentucky was built on the backs of slaves, and Olivier wanted to honor black and brown Kentuckians by creating "Witness". She hoped that using colors like gold would help to elevate oppressed figures and give a sense of "rebirth". Her painting can be found on the dome ceiling inside the building where the, "work would create a new context and new lens through which to view, critique and wrestle with O'Hanlon's mural."


Battle of Pozoblanco

The Battle of Pozoblanco took place between 6 March and 16 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War. The battle saw Republican troops defeat Nationalist attempts to take the town.


65th Infantry Regiment

The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers" during the Korean War for the original Taíno Indian name for Puerto Rico (Borinquen), is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The regiment's motto is "Honor et Fidelitas", Latin for "Honor and Fidelity". The Army Appropriation Bill created by an act of Congress on 2 March 1899, authorized the creation of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico. On 30 June 1901, the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry" was organized. On 1 July 1908, Congress incorporated the regiment into the Regular Army as the Puerto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army. On 14 May 1917, the regiment was activated and additional men were assigned, with the unit being sent to serve at Panama. On 4 June 1920, the regiment was renamed 65th Infantry. During World War II, the regiment saw action throughout Europe, especially France and Germany, participating in Naples-Foggia, Rome-Arno and Rhin. Several Purple Hearts were awarded posthumously to members of the 65th Regiment.
The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and in what is known by the United States Department of Defense as the Global War on Terrorism. On 10 June 2014, the 65th Infantry was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.
Early history.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the American Revolutionary War, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico enlisted in the Spanish Army in 1779 and fought under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746–1786), and have continued to participate up to the present-day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Puerto Rico became a U.S. Territory after the 1898 Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish–American War. The United States appointed a military governor and soon the United States Army established itself in San Juan.
On 2 March 1899, the Army received an assignation of funds and authorization meant to formally organize troops in Puerto Rico. On 24 March 1899, the General Commander of the Puerto Rico Department, Mayor General Guy V. Henry ordered the creation of the Porto Rico Battalion of Volunteer Infantry. Formed by four companies named A through D and assigned to San Juan, Mayagüez and Ponce, the unit was activated on 20 May 1899, led by Major Lorenzo Davinson. Shortly afterwards, each company received additional men for a total of 112. Major Ebon Swift replaced Davison as commander. The formalization of this move was notified in General Order 65, issued by the new General Commander Gen. George Davis. On 12 February 1900, the Mounted Battalion was organized and both were later designated Porto Rico Regiment, U.S. Volunteers. The following year, the units were renamed Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry. The Band and First Battalion were sent to Washington on 4 March 1901, to participate in the inauguration of McKinley.
On 1 July 1901, the United States Senate passed a bill which would require a strict mental and physical examination for those who wanted to join the regiment. It also approved the recruitment of native Puerto Rican civilians to be appointed the grade of second lieutenants for a term of four years if they passed the required tests. On 23 April 1904, Congress authorized the recruitment of the local population as second lieutenants, leading to the recognition of Jaime Nadal, Henry Rexach, Pedro Parra, Eduardo Iriarte, Teofilo Marxuach, Eugenio de Hostos, Luis Emmanuelli and Pascual López. In 1905, one of its battalions was sent to March along the First a Brigade of the First Division of the Regular Army during Roosevelt's inauguration. An act of Congress, approved on 27 May 1908, reorganized the regiment as part of the "regular" Army and the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry" was renamed "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry". Since the native Puerto Rican officers were Puerto Rican citizens and not citizens of the United States, they were required to undergo a new physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the Regular Army and to take an oath of U.S. citizenship with their new officers oath. By 30 January 1917, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was training in Camp Las Casas which was located in Santurce, a section of San Juan in what is now Residencial Las Casas.
World War I.
Different units of the regiment were stationed at other forts throughout the island under the command of William P. Burnham. Lieutenant Teófilo Marxuach, the officer of the day, was stationed at El Morro Castle at San Juan Bay on 21 March 1915. The "Odenwald", built in 1903 (not to be confused with the German World War II war ship which carried the same name), was an armed German supply ship which tried to force its way out of the San Juan Bay and deliver supplies to the German submarines waiting in the Atlantic Ocean. Marxuach gave the order to open fire on the ship from the walls of the fort. Sergeant Encarnación Correa then manned a machine gun and fired warning shots with little effect.
Marxuach fired a warning shot from a cannon located at the Santa Rosa battery of "El Morro" fort, in what is considered to be the first shot of World War I fired by the regular armed forces of the United States against a ship flying the colors of the Central Powers, forcing the "Odenwald" to stop and to return to port where its supplies were confiscated.
The Odenwald was confiscated by the United States and renamed "SS Newport News". It was assigned to the U.S. Shipping Board, where it served until 1924 when it was retired.
Puerto Ricans were unaccustomed to the racial segregation policies of the United States which were also implemented in Puerto Rico, and often refused to designate themselves as "white" or "black". Puerto Ricans of African descent were assigned to all-black units. In 1916, the Third Battalion and the companies of service and machine-guns were integrated into the regiment.
When the United States declared war against Germany, the regiment was transferred to the regular Army and on 3 May 1917, recruited 1,969 men, considered at that time as war strength.
On 14 May 1917, the regiment was sent to Panama in defense of the Panama Canal Zone.
The regiment returned to Puerto Rico in March 1919 and was renamed "The 65th Infantry Regiment" by the Reorganization Act of 4 June 1920. During this period a young Puerto Rican officer of the Regular Army, Major Luis R. Esteves, was sent to Camp Las Casas to serve as an instructor in the preparation of Puerto Rican officers. In the future, Esteves would become known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican National Guard". In 1923, the 65th provided personnel to the newly created 42nd Infantry Regiment.
World War II.
In 1942 the 65th Infantry underwent an extensive training program and in 1943, it was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus. On 25 November 1943, Colonel Antulio Segarra, succeeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as commander of the 65th Infantry, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment. In January 1944, the regiment was embarked for Jackson Barracks in New Orleans and later sent to Fort Eustis in Newport News, Virginia in preparation for overseas deployment to North Africa.
They also served in Casablanca after the Naval Battle of Casablanca, where the regiment underwent amphibious training. This enabled the 3rd Battalion to move on to Corsica, where it was attached to the 12th Air Force and tasked with guarding airfields. Between March and April 1944, the 65th was reassigned to North Africa. On 3 May 1944, the Third Battalion arrived at Napoles. The battalion was then moved to Corsica and then to France. Salvador Roid commanded the 65th during this period in Europe, which earned him the Combat Infantryman Badge.
During this time, rumors swirled that the regiment would be sent to live combat, while officers had already been moved to act as observers. On 22 September 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France. The regiment was then moved to Peira Cava in the Maritime Alps, where it entered in action on 13 December 1944, the first time a Puerto Rican unit saw action in Europe. The first offensive attack came the following day in response to enemy fire, with Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila allowing Capt. Efraín Sánchez and Company L to return fire.
In November 1944, Company C provided security to the headquarters of the Seventh United States Army. The rest of the First Battalion was assigned other tasks, such as defending the Command Center of the Sixth United States Army Group. The Second and Third Battalions were assigned to defend communications. In 1948, seven members received the Bronze Star for their service in World War II. On 13 December 1944, the 65th Infantry, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Cordero Dávila, relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment, a regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller, a native of San Germán, Puerto Rico and former member of the 65th Infantry Regiment.
In December 1944, the 3rd Battalion faced the German 34th Infantry Division's 107th Grenadier Regiment. They suffered a total of forty seven battle casualties. The first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in action from the 65th Infantry were Pvt. Sergio Sánchez-Sánchez and Sgt. Ángel Martínez, from the town of Sabana Grande. Upon arriving in the freezing and isolated outposts in the Maritime Alps, the unit's morale dropped severely. In an apparent effort to boost the unit's morale, its new commander, West Pointer Colonel George A. Ford, personally led a patrol towards the German lines on 4 January 1945. Upon reaching the forward German outposts, Colonel Ford was immediately shot and killed. In the firefight that followed, one of the enlisted man already mentioned was killed and several other were wounded, forcing the patrol to abandon the colonel's body.
On 18 March 1945, the regiment was sent to the district of Mannheim, Germany and assigned to military government activities, anti-sabotage and security missions. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the campaigns of Rome-Arno, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, and Central Europe. On 27 October 1945, the regiment sailed from France arriving at Puerto Rico on 9 November 1945.
Operation "PORTREX".
The 65th Infantry Regiment distinguished itself when the United States conducted a military exercise on the island of Vieques, on the eve of the Korean War. This exercise was code named "Operation PORTREX," an acronym for "Puerto Rico Exercise." The objective was to see how the combined forces of the Army, Marines, Navy, and Air Force would do as "liberators" of an enemy captured territory (Vieques) against the "aggressors." The core of the aggressor ground forces were made up of Puerto Rican soldiers, most of whom belonged to the 65th Infantry Regiment.
The liberators consisted of 32,600 combat troops from the 82nd Airborne Division's 504th Airborne Infantry Regiment and the Marine Corps, who received support from the Navy and Air Force. Despite the large number of troops deployed, the 65th Infantry (the aggressor) was able to halt the offensive forces on the beaches of the island. Colonel William W. Harris, the commanding officer of the 65th, stated:
The successful military maneuvers during PORTREX prompted the Army's leadership to deploy the 65th Infantry to Korea.
Korean War.
On 27 August 1950, the 65th Infantry, with 3,920 officers and men organized into three infantry battalions, one artillery battalion and a tank company departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan, South Korea on 23 September 1950. It was during the long sea voyage that the men nicknamed the 65th Infantry as the "Borinqueneers." "That was the name of the more peaceful of the two original Indian tribes that inhabited the island of Puerto Rico "Borinquen", and many of the men were direct descendants of that industrious race of people."
The men of the 65th, now attached to the Army's 3rd Infantry Division, were among the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battlefields of Korea. After November 1950, they fought daily against units of the Chinese People's Liberation Army after the Chinese entered the war on the North Korean side. The 296th Regiment took its place at Puerto Rico. In Korea, the regiment covered the retreat of the 1st Marine Division during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.
One of the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold, harsh winters. "Born in a semitropical climate- most of them had never seen snow- they had lived and fought through it all without complaint."
The enemy made many attempts to encircle the regiment, but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th. Because the 65th held their positions, that enabled the U.S. Marines to withdraw from the Chosin Reservoir in December 1950.
When the Marines were surrounded by the Chinese Communist troops close to the Manchurian border, they were ordered to retreat and work their way back to Hungnam. The men of the 65th rushed to their defense and were ordered to stay behind and fight the enemy. As a result, the Marines were able to withdraw to their ships with the 65th holding the rearguard. The 65th, attached to the 1st Marine Division, was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation for their defense and were among the last units to embark from Hungnam. Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was Operation Killer in January 1951, becoming the first regiment to cross the Han River in South Korea during the operation.
In April 1951, the regiment participated in the Uijonbu Corridor drives and in June 1951, the 65th was the third regiment to cross the Han Ton River. The 65th took and held Chorwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the Iron Triangle of Hill 717 in July 1951. In November 1951, the regiment fought off an attack by two regimental size enemy units. Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila of the 296th Regiment requested a transfer to active service in Korea. In December 1951, Chief of Staff J. Lawton Collins visited Puerto Rico and granted the request, reassigning him to the 65th, replacing him with Lt. Col. Sepúlveda. Col. Cordero was formally named commander of the 65th Infantry on 8 February 1952, thus becoming one of the highest ranking ethnic officers in the Army. Brigadier William Warner Harris (USMA 1930) published a book that captured the distinguished history of the 65th while under his command. When asked if the Puerto Ricans would fight when the time came, then Colonel William Warner Harris' answer was just as direct: "My Puerto Ricans will fight anyone, anywhere."
Battles of Outpost Kelly and Jackson Heights.
On 3 July 1952, the regiment defended the main line of resistance (MLR) for 47 days and saw action at Cognac, King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions. In September 1952, the 65th Infantry defended a hill known as Outpost Kelly. Chinese Communist forces overran the hill in what became known as the Battle of Outpost Kelly. On two occasions, the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off.
In October 1952, the regiment also saw action in the Chorwon Sector and on Iron Horse, Hill 391, whose lower part was called "Jackson Heights" in honor of Capt. George Jackson (see: Col. Carlos Betances Ramírez). Company G of the 65th fought a desperate battle to hold on to Hill 391. After enduring days of artillery bombardment with limited artillery support of their own, Company G withdrew to avoid being overrun by a numerically superior foe.
In June 1953, the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids about two and a half miles southeast of Jackson Heights and in November the regiment successfully counter-attacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the was reached.
Many non-Puerto Rican Hispanics served in the 65th Infantry during the war. Among those who distinguished themselves in combat and who served in the conflict as a member of the 65th Infantry was a young first lieutenant of Mexican American descent whose name is Richard Edward Cavazos. Cavazos entered the military in Texas and served as company commander of Company E of the 2d Battalion. Cavazos, who in 1982, became the first Hispanic to become a four-star general in the United States Army, was the recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star Medal, and the Bronze Star Medal.
Mass court martial.
Col. Cordero Dávila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre, a West Point graduate and a "Continental," an officer from the mainland United States, and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non-Hispanic officers. DeGavre, upset over the fact that "G" company did not hold on to Hill 391, ordered that the unit stop calling itself the "Borinqueneers," cut their special rations of rice and beans, ordered the men to shave off their mustaches, and had one of them wear a sign that read: "I am a coward." The language barrier, an NCO shortage, and poor leadership were factors that influenced some of the men of Company L in their refusal to continue to fight.
One hundred and sixty-two Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested. Between 23 November – 26 December 1952, ninety-five soldiers were tried by General Court-Martial in fifteen separate trials. Ninety-one were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from one to 18 years of hard labor. It was the largest mass court-martial of the Korean War. According to cultural historian Silvia Álvarez Curbelo, the government of Puerto Rico, caught in the middle of a potentially damaging affair that could jeopardize its political agenda, kept silent for nearly two months. Finally, the incidents were made known by a local newspaper alerted by letters written by the imprisoned soldiers to their families. Secret negotiations between the U.S. and Puerto Rican governments took place and the Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and grant clemency and pardons to all those involved.
The breakdown of the 65th resulted from a number of factors: a shortage of officers and non-commissioned officers, a rotation policy that removed combat-experienced leaders and soldiers, tactical doctrine that led to high casualties, a shortage of artillery ammunition, communication problems between largely white, English-speaking officers and Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men, and declining morale. The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans, citing instances of Continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances, before and after Jackson Heights. Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned, a campaign for a formal exoneration was launched.
Awards in the Korean War.
Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his courageous actions while serving as a member of Company L, 65th Infantry Regiment, 3d Infantry Division during combat operations against an armed enemy in Kalma-Eri, Korea 28 April 1951. His award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor on 18 March 2014.
Negrón's Medal of Honor citation
A total of 61,000 Puerto Ricans served in the military during the Korean War. And around 90% of the Puerto Ricans that saw action in Korea were volunteers. The 65th Infantry was awarded battle participation credits for the following nine campaigns: UN Defense-1950, UN Offense-1950, CCF Intervention-1950, First UN Counterattack Offensive-1951, UN and CCF Spring Offensive-1951, UN Summer-Fall Offensive-1951, 2nd Korean Winter 1951–52, Korean Summer-Fall-1952 and 3rd Korean Winter-1952-53. They are credited with the last battalion-sized bayonet charge in U.S. Army history.
Ten Distinguished Service Crosses, 256 Silver Stars and 606 Bronze Stars for valor were awarded to the men of the 65th Infantry. Of the ten Distinguished Service Crosses that were awarded to the members of the 65th Infantry, five were awarded to Puerto Ricans:
According to "El Nuevo Día" newspaper, 30 May 2004, a total of 756 Puerto Ricans were killed in Korea, from all four branches of the U.S. armed forces. However, according to "All POW-MIA Korean War Casualties", the total amount of Puerto Rican casualties in the Korean War was 732. However this total may vary slightly since some non-Puerto Ricans such as Captain James W. Conner were mistakenly included. Out of the 700 plus casualties suffered in the war a total of 121 men were listed as missing in action. The Battle of Outpost Kelly accounted for 73 of the men missing in action from the total of 121. Out of the 73 MIAs suffered by the regiment in September 1952, 50 of them occurred on the same day, 18 September. For a list of names of those who were declared MIA, see: List of Puerto Ricans missing in action in the Korean War. According to the TAGOKOR Korean War Casualty File and the American Battle Commission site the members of the 65th who fought in Korea were awarded a total of 2,771 Purple Heart Medals. On 12 February 1951, General Douglas MacArthur, wrote in Tokyo:
Post Korean War.
The 65th Infantry was relieved from assignment to the 3d Infantry Division on 3 November 1954, and, returning to Puerto Rico, it was assigned on 2 December 1954, to the 23rd Infantry Division, which encompassed geographically-separated units in the Caribbean region. On 10 April 1956, it was inactivated at Losey Field, Puerto Rico, and relieved from assignment to the 23d, which itself was inactivated.
On 6 February 1959, the regiment was deactivated from the Regular Army but the Puerto Rican Army National Guard soon adopted "65" as the identifying number for their existing 296th Regimental Combat Team at Losey Field, mainly composed of reserve component personnel.
On 15 February 1959, it was organized to consist of the 1st Battle Group, 65th Infantry, an element of the 92nd Infantry Brigade. On 21 February 1960, commemorated as National Guard Day, the 65th Infantry Regiment was formally transferred from the Regular Army to the PRNG, in an activity where Gen. Cesár Cordero handed the units colors to Col. Rafael Rodríguez. That same year, Company B of the 65th Regiment created Employer's Day ("Día del Patrono" in Spanish) where the employers of the volunteers that serve in the PRNG are instructed about the job that their employees do with the entity and participate in training of their own. The idea behind the initiative was facilitating the processing of the request of leave-of-absence to train for two weeks during the summer. On 1 May 1964, it was reorganized to consist of the 1st Battalion, 65th Infantry, and remained assigned to the 92nd. It was reorganized again on 1 April 1971, to consist of the 1st Battalion and the separate Company E. This was followed by another reorganization on 1 September 1978, to consist of the 1st and 2nd Battalions within the 92nd, as well as the separate Company E. Less than two years later another reorganization on 29 February 1980, eliminated the separate Company E while retaining the 1st and 2nd Battalions.
On 27 October 1987, the regiment was withdrawn from CARS and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System with headquarters at Cayey. It was reorganized on 1 September 1992, to consist of the 1st Battalion, 65th Infantry, and remained assigned to the 92nd Infantry Brigade.
On 14 February 2003, it was ordered into active federal service at home stations and released on 12 February 2005, reverting to territorial control. On 1 October, of that year it was reorganized as the 65th Infantry Regiment in which only the 1st Battalion was active.
The separate Company E was a Ranger unit given federal recognition effective 1 April 1971, and had a total authorized strength of 198 personnel. It was added to the PR ARNG on that date while the 755th Transportation Company (Medium Truck, Cargo) was deleted. Co E (Ranger), 65th Infantry relocated from Vega Baja to San Juan on 2 February 1976, and was inactivated as federal recognition was withdrawn effective 29 February 1980. This resulted in the allocation of an ARNG ranger company being transferred from the PR ARNG to the Texas ARNG, in which Company G (Ranger), 143rd Infantry was activated in Houston from elements of the 2d Battalion (Airborne), 143rd Infantry, 36th Airborne Brigade, which was being inactivated effective 1 April 1980.
Twenty-first century.
The 65th Infantry Regiment's 1st Battalion, along with its sister battalion, the 1–296th Infantry, was transferred to the 92nd Infantry Brigade, PRARNG (now the 92nd Maneuver Enhancement Brigade). Both battalions have served in what the United States Department of Defense calls the Global War on Terrorism, as well as the Iraq War.
In 2009, Company C, 1st Battalion, 65th Infantry Regiment was deployed to the Horn of Africa and stationed at Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti, after completing a 14-month deployment at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Company C carried the crew-served weapons to protect the camp. It also operated the entry control checkpoints, protected U.S. and allied ships at the massive Djibouti Port, and guarded the U.S. Embassy there. By mid-2009, the rest of the battalion deployed there in case a larger combat maneuver element was needed to operate from the base. The area is considered to be the most unstable part of Africa, and the Somali border is less than 10 miles from Camp Lemonnier.
Legacy.
During the Korean War, the Borinqueneers were awarded 10 Distinguished Service Crosses (Juan Negrons was upgraded to the Medal of Honor), 256 Silver Stars, 606 Bronze Stars, and 2,771 Purple Hearts.
Puerto Rico honored the unit by naming one of its principal avenues "Avenida 65 de Infantería" in San Juan. The names of those killed in combat are inscribed in "El Monumento de la Recordación" (Monument of Remembrance), which was unveiled on 19 May 1996 and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
In November 1999, Governor Pedro Rosselló, along with the Senate of Puerto Rico, chartered the 65th Infantry Honor Task Force and appointed Anthony Mele as chairman to work with Major General Nels Running, director, Committee of the 50th Anniversary of the Korean War to commemorate the 65th Infantry Regiment. The 65th Infantry Honor Task Force is a coalition of individuals, veterans organizations, and groups dedicated to advocate and preserve the legacy of the 65th Infantry Regiment. The group organized tree planting and plaque commemoration ceremonies around the US, to include Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia; Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan, Puerto Rico; and Fort Logan National Cemetery in Denver.
On 20 May 2001, the government of Puerto Rico unveiled a monument honoring the 65th Infantry Regiment. The monument was made by artist Sonny Rodríguez, and is called "Mission Accomplished". It contains a statue of a soldier wearing a poncho with his rifle in one hand and the regiment's flag in the other hand.
On 7 June 2007, PBS aired "The Borinqueneers", a documentary about the 65th Infantry written and directed by Noemí Figueroa Soulet with Raquel Ortiz as co-director. The narrators were Héctor Elizondo (English) and David Ortiz-Anglero (Spanish).
On 30 November 2012, an entire stretch of Southern Boulevard in the South Bronx, New York was co-named "La 65 de Infantería Boulevard".
On 1 October 2013, the 65th Infantry Honor Task Force organized veterans from the 65th and their families to attend a salute to the regiment by the 3rd U.S. Infantry "The Old Guard" at Fort Myer, Virginia, a tour of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldiers, and wreath laying ceremony at the Korean War Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C.
22–23 March 2014, the 65th Infantry Honor Task Force organized the salute of the first Medal of Honor awarded to a Borinqueneer; MSG Juan E. Negron in New York with Iris Negron, daughter of MSG Negron, and BG Jose Burgos. In attendance were New York State Senators William E. Larkin, a Korean War combat veteran, and David Carlucci who presented a proclamation from the New York State Senate.
In 2014 the National Puerto Rican Day Parade, which is attended by nearly two million people and broadcast live on Fox TV, was dedicated to the Borinqueneers.
On May 25, 2018, the city of the city of Springfield, Massachusetts unveiled “65th Infantry Way”.
On December 13, 2019, US President Donald Trump signed into law the H.R.2325 legislation to designate the facility of the United States Postal Service located at 100 Calle Alondra in San Juan, Puerto Rico, as the “65th Infantry Regiment Post Office Building”.
On January 27, 2020, an entry gate Fort Buchanan in Puerto Rico was officially renamed “The Borinqueneers Gate” in honor the 65th Infantry Regiment.
In early 2021, a law was signed to make April 13 National Day of Borinqueneers so that veterans could commemorate the service of Borinqueneers. April 13 was chosen because it was the day when members of the unit received a Congressional Gold Medal in 2016.
There is a monument to the Borinqueneers in Korea.
65th Infantry Regiment Association.
The 65th Infantry Regiment Association, led by Victor Labarca, works with all matters related to the 65th Infantry Regiment and its service members.
Congressional Gold Medal.
A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress and is, along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. It is awarded to persons "who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient's field long after the achievement."
While a civilian award, generally recognizing single individuals (politicians, scientists, actors, military leaders, civilian heroes and others) or small groups (people who took a stand for civil rights and others), Congressional Gold Medals have also been awarded to a few military units, such as the Native American code talkers, and the Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Infantry Regiment, the Tuskegee Airmen, and others.
In 2013, S. 1726, a bill to confer the Congressional Gold Medal on the 65th Infantry Regiment, was introduced in Congress. It was signed by President Barack Obama at a ceremony on 10 June 2014, becoming Public Law 113–120. A decision on the design for the medal was awarded in 2015, after the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee agreed on a choice from submitted designs on 16 June 2015. The 65th Infantry Borinqueneers Congressional Gold Medal has, for the obverse, a design depicting a close-up portrait of a unit staff sergeant, with three soldiers traversing rocky ground in the background. The reverse features an historic sentry box in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, an olive branch, the 65th Infantry insignia patch and unit's motto, HONOR ET FIDELITAS (Honor and Fidelity) and a short list showing "1899–1956" "World War I" "World War II" "Korean War".
On 13 April 2016, leaders of the United States House and Senate officially awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 65th Infantry Regiment. Beginning in 2021, National Borinqueneers Day is celebrated on April 13.
Notable Puerto Rican members.
Amongst the notable Puerto Ricans who served in the "65th Infantry Regiment" and/or its predecessor the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry":
Unit citations.
The 65th Infantry has been awarded the following citations:
See also.
Other military articles related to Puerto Rico:
References.
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading


Battle of Werben

The Battle of Werben was a battle of the Thirty Years' War, fought on July 22 (O.S.) or August 1, 1631 (N.S.), between the Swedish Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. The Swedes had 16,000 soldiers and were led by Gustavus Adolphus, while the Imperialists had 23,000 soldiers and were led by Field-Marshal Count Tilly. Tilly's troops attacked Gustavus' entrenchments in front of Werben (Elbe), but Swedish batteries and the cavalry under Wolf Heinrich von Baudissin forced them to retreat. The attack was renewed a few days later with a similar result, and Tilly then drew off his forces, having suffered a loss of 6,000 men.


Fortress of Ulm

The fortress of Ulm ("Bundesfestung Ulm") was one of five federal fortresses of the German Confederation around the cities of Ulm and Neu-Ulm. With its 9 km polygonal main circumvallation Ulm had the biggest fortress in Germany in the 19th century and it is still one of the biggest in Europe.
After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the victorious powers agreed to defend the states from the inside. The fortresses were one of the few realised projects of the confederation. The fortress Ulm was planned by the Prussian construction manager Moritz Karl Ernst von Prittwitz und Gaffron and built under his supervision between 1842 and 1859.
In peacetimes the fortress should hold 5,000 men of the federal army, in wartimes up to 20,000 soldiers. A plan to expand the fortress to hold 100,000 men was never realised. The building costs were valued at 16,5 mio. guilders.
The fortress is a closed, polygonal wall system around the cities of Ulm in the Kingdom of Württemberg and Neu-Ulm in the Kingdom of Bavaria. In some distance detached works were added. The at this time first stone bridge across the Danube laid between both cities inside of the fortress. The next stone bridge was in Regensburg.
For the first time the bastion system was given up and replaced by a polygonal system with detached works, which is called Neupreußische Manier "(New Prussian Fortress System)" or Neudeutsche Manier "(New German Fortress System)". The later constructed works at the upper Eselsberg were built as so-called "Biehler-Forts".
List of works.
Ulm.
Forts.
1) The Fort Oberer Kuhberg was also an early concentration camp between 1933 and 1935. One well-known prisoner was the SPD politician Kurt Schumacher.
2) That work no. was planned to be a turret in the Ruhe valley, which was not built for financial reasons.
3) The work no. was passed to Fort Oberer Eselsberg Hauptwerk in 1881.
Neu-Ulm.
Forts.
The fort 10 (near Offenhausen) and the gun turret 11 on the railroad Ulm – Munich were not built for cost reasons. The plans for work XLI Friedrichsau had to be changed for this. Work 14 was to be work 15, between 13 and 15 a small fort was planned and later also canceled. The fort Illerkanal was nameless until the completion of the Iller channel in 1906. An additional fort near Pfuhl was planned in the mid-1860s, but cancelled due to the dissolution of the German Confederation. Instead of the fort the infantry base Kapellenberg was built in the 1900s (see below).
Expansion of fortification between 1881 and 1914.
As the weapons were improved, the fortress had to be improved too. On Fort Oberer Kuhberg, the front wall and side towers were reduced in height, and around many forts, infantry fences were installed. Two new forts were built on the Eselsberg (see #Forts).
1901–1910.
Between 1901 and 1910 several new buildings were constructed to support the fortress. These buildings were (beginning with Böfingen and moving counterclockwise around Ulm):
1914–1916.
The last major expansion of the front line took place in the first years of World War I. 93 works were to be built or improved, the majority of them were never actually constructed or completed. The numbering began with the trench 1 between Obertalfingen and Böfingen, went counterclockwise around Ulm and Neu-Ulm and ended with trench 78 on the other side of the Danube. Between the bases 21 and 22 was the trench 21a. In the south an own front line was to be installed, consisting of the bases 3c near Ludwigsfeld and 2b south of Wiblingen, and the trenches 2a, 3a, 3a II, 4a, 4a II, 1b, 1b II, 3b, 4b, 1c and 2c.
74 of these works were to be trenches. The works 3, 8, 14, 18, 21, 37, 45, 54, 58, 63, 76, 2b and 3c were to be infantry bases. Only the bases 45 in the Maienwäldle and 58 south of Neu-Ulm are completely preserved. The bases Spitzäcker, Lehr, Weinberge and Kapellenberg and the forts Oberer Eselsberg Hauptwerk and Oberer Eselsberg Nebenwerk were improved and integrated in the numbering system as works 22, 26, 32, 70, 29 and 30 respectively.
Furthermore 20 artillery rooms, 10 munition rooms, 4 pump stations and 9 so-called "Zwischenraumstreichen", which could cover long gaps between some works, were built behind the front lines. Of them only the pump station Buchbrunnen and the Zwischenraumstreiche 6 exist still today.
Infrastructure buildings.
In Ulm and Neu-Ulm were several buildings bought or built for the garrisons.
Furthermore several officer's messes, powder magazines, artillery depots and the like were erected. Some of the buildings still stand today, but are used differently with exceptions: The civilian prison is still in use today as a place of detention and the churches were opened for the citizens as Pauluskirche (Protestant) and St. Georg (catholic).