Eurovision Song Contest 2005

The Eurovision Song Contest 2005 was the 50th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Kyiv, Ukraine, following Ruslana's win at the 2004 contest in Istanbul, Turkey with the song "Wild Dances". It was the first time Ukraine had hosted the contest - only 2 years after the country made its debut. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster National Television Company of Ukraine (NTU), the contest was held at the Palace of Sports, and consisted of a semi-final on 19 May, and the final on 21 May 2005. The two live shows were hosted by Maria Efrosinina and Pavlo Shylko.
Thirty-nine countries participated in the contest, three more than the previous record of thirty-six, that took part the year before. Bulgaria and Moldova made their first participation this year, while Hungary returned to the contest after their six-year absence, having last taken part in .
The winner was with the song "My Number One", performed by Helena Paparizou and written by Manos Psaltakis, Christos Dantis and Natalia Germanou. This was Greece's first victory in the contest, in 31 years of participation. Malta, Romania, Israel and Latvia rounded out the top five. Malta equalled their best result from , while Romania achieved their best result in their Eurovision history. Unusually, all "Big Four" countries (France, Germany, Spain and United Kingdom) ended up as the "Last Four", all placing in the bottom four positions in the final.
Location.
Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper. The Palace of Sports, a multi-purpose indoor arena, was confirmed by officials as the host venue in September 2004. However, in order to host the contest, the facilities had been brought up to the standard required by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU).
At the end of December 2004, work began on the renovation
of the hall, for which approximately 4 million francs were allocated. Renovation works were to be finished by 20 April, however, they were completed at the beginning of May. The arena could accommodate over 5,000 seated spectators. Additionally 2,000 press delegates were catered for.
Hotel rooms were scarce as the contest organisers asked the Ukrainian government to put a block on bookings they did not control themselves through official delegation allocations or tour packages: this led to many people's hotel bookings being cancelled.
Organizers hoped that by hosting Eurovision, it would boost Ukraine's image abroad and increase tourism, while the country's new government hoped that it would also give a modest boost to the long-term goal of acquiring European Union membership.
Format.
Visual design.
The official logo of the contest remained the same from the 2004 contest with the country's flag in the heart being changed. Following Istanbul's 'Under The Same Sky', the slogan for the 2005 show was 'Awakening', which symbolised the awakening of the country and city ready to present itself to Europe. The postcards (short clips shown between performances) for the 2005 show illustrated Ukraine's culture and heritage along with a more modern and industrial side to the country.
This was the first edition to be broadcast in widescreen format.
Presenters.
The hosts of the Eurovision Song Contest in Kyiv were television presenter Maria "Masha" Efrosinina and DJ Pavlo "Pasha" Shylko. Previous winner Ruslana returned to the stage in Kyiv to perform in the interval act and to interview the contestants backstage in the 'green room'. The famous Ukrainian boxers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko opened the televoting, while a special trophy was presented to the winner by Ukraine's president, Viktor Yushchenko.
Publicity.
An official CD and DVD was released and a new introduction was an official pin set, which contains heart-shaped pins with the flags of all thirty-nine participating countries. The EBU also commissioned a book "The Eurovision Song Contest – The Official History" by British/American author John Kennedy O'Connor to celebrate the contest's fiftieth anniversary. The book was presented on screen during the break between songs 12 and 13 (Serbia and Montenegro, Denmark). The book was published in English, German, French, Dutch, Swedish, Danish and Finnish.
During the semi final, there were a few sound faults, most notably during the Norwegian song, shortly after the intro and also during the Irish song. These were not fixed for the DVD release.
Incidents.
2005 was no exception for scandals regarding the representatives from the countries participating. Germany's entrant in the Eurovision Song Contest rejected calls to quit after her producer admitted manipulating the country's pop charts with mass purchases of her single.
Gracia Baur defended her producer David Brandes, also behind Swiss entry Vanilla Ninja, and said she would go to the finals in Kyiv despite complaints from other German singers. Bulgaria's debut was overshadowed by a scandal. The song "Lorraine" by Kaffe was accused of plagiarism. The song sounded too similar to another one released by Ruslan Mainov in 2001. There were also problems in Malta with the electricity supply during the contest, so TV viewers were unable to watch their national selection from the very beginning. There was a controversy regarding the Turkish entry: TRT got a false jury which led to the victory of the song Gülseren, which the 2003 winner Sertab Erener said was not the best choice. There were similar controversies in Macedonia which led to an eventual victory for Martin Vučić. The Ukrainian song had to be changed because it would bring a political message to the people, and EBU stated that no politics could be involved in the contest. The entry for Serbia and Montenegro was also overshadowed by a scandal and an accusation of plagiarism. Portugal's entry, "Amar", had very poor sound quality, with the female singer's microphone failing many times on stage.
It is also notable that the programme lasted just short of 3.5 hours. This was mainly due to the extremely long voting procedure, where 39 countries voted, reading out every single score. Many people, including United Kingdom commentator Terry Wogan, noticed this and commented about the marathon-like voting procedure, when Russia voted he stated "How many more [countries] have we got to go? What time is it?". Because the show overran so badly, the EBU changed the way the votes were announced in 2006 into a much shorter method, where only the top 3 scores were read out (the rest appeared on the scoreboard automatically).
Ruslana was also intended to be a presenter for the show, but was pulled out before the contest for numerous reasons, including her poor English skills. She opened the contest, and did do a few brief interviews in the green room at a few different stages in the event.
In the semifinal, the first qualifier was Hungary as shown on the card, but instead of showing Hungary's flag, it showed the Bulgarian flag accidentally.
Participating countries.
Thirty-nine countries participated in the 2005 Contest. Hungary returned to the contest after a six-year absence, last competing in 1998. Bulgaria and Moldova competed in the contest for the first time.
Results.
Semi-final.
The semi-final was held on 19 May 2005 at 21:00 (CET). 25 countries performed and all 39 participants voted.
Final.
The finalists were:
The final was held on 21 May 2005 at 21:00 (CET) and was won by .
Scoreboard.
The EBU introduced an undisclosed threshold number of televotes that would have to be registered in each voting country in order to make that country's votes valid. If that number was not reached, the country's backup jury would vote instead. This affected Monaco, Andorra and Albania in the semi-final, and Andorra, Monaco and Moldova in the final.
Semi-final.
12 points.
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the semi-final:
Final.
12 points.
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the final:
Other Awards.
In addition to the main winner's trophy, the Marcel Bezençon Awards and the Barbara Dex Award were contested during the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest.
Marcel Bezençon Awards.
The Marcel Bezençon Awards honour the best competing songs in the final. Named after the founder of the contest, the awards were created and first handed at the 2002 contest by Christer Björkman (Sweden's representative in the 1992 contest and the country's current Head of Delegation), and Richard Herrey (a member of the Herreys who won the 1984 contest for Sweden). The awards are divided into three categories: Artistic Award which was voted by previous winners of the contest, Composer Award and Press Award.
Barbara Dex Award.
The Barbara Dex Award is a humorous fan award given to the worst dressed artist each year. Named after Belgium's representative who came last in the 1993 contest, wearing her self-designed dress, the award was handed by the fansite House of Eurovision from 1997 to 2016 and is being carried out by the fansite songfestival.be since 2017.
International broadcasts and voting.
Voting and spokespersons.
The order in which each country announced their votes was compiled by placing the countries that failed to qualify from the semi-final first in the running order they performed in during the semi-final, followed by the finalists which voted in the order they performed in during the final. The spokespersons are shown alongside each country.
Official album.
Eurovision Song Contest: Kyiv 2005 was the official compilation album of the 2005 Contest, put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by EMI Records and CMC International on 2 May 2005. The album featured all 39 songs that entered in the 2005 contest, including the semi-finalists that failed to qualify into the grand final.
The original cover designed for the album was changed after 's withdrawal from the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 after announcing they would show advertisements over the Israeli entry. Had they entered, they would have been on track 4, disc 2 with the song "Quand tout s'enfuit" by Aline Lahoud.
It was reported that sales of the 2005 Eurovision merchandise reached record-breaking levels.


Kristjan Seaver

Kristjan Seaver (1898 – 28 August 1941) was an Estonian Communist politician who was the chairman of the Executive Committee of Tallinn from 17 January to 24 August 1941. He initially was a member of the Ravila branch of the Bolsheviks. He later was involved in the October Revolution in Estonia. He later was a planner of the failed 1924 uprising in Estonia. For his part, he was arrested in September 1925 and was sentenced to life in prison. He was later granted amnesty in 1940 and later participated in the Soviet takeover of Estonia. Seaver later became the chairman of the Executive Committee of Tallinn from 17 January to 24 August 1941. He disbanded all representational authority. After he resigned on 24 August, on 28 August, he evacuated Tallinn with a number of representatives of other Soviet authorities due to the Nazi German invasion of Tallinn. He was killed when the Baltic Fleet ship he was in, the destroyer "Yakov Sverdlov", hit a naval mine in the Gulf of Finland and sank. He was succeeded as mayor (during the Nazi occupation of Estonia) by Artur Terras.


Society of Prosperity

The Society for encouraging prosperity, especially among rural people ("Maatschappij tot bevordering van Welstand, voornamelijk onder landlieden"), later shortened to Society of Prosperity ("Maatschappij van Welstand"), was a Dutch organisation set up in 1822 by Jacob van Heusden, from Hilvarenbeek.


30th European Film Awards

The 30th European Film Awards were presented on 9 December 2017 in Berlin, Germany. The nominations and winners are selected by more than 2,500 members of the European Film Academy.
Awards voted by EFA Members.
Best Film.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017 in Seville, Spain at the Seville Festival of European Cinema. Three films nominated for Best Film were premiered at the Cannes Film Festival, including the Palme d’Or winner "The Square", and Grand Prix winner "BPM (Beats per Minute)". Four films ("BPM (Beats per Minute)", "Loveless", "On Body and Soul", "The Square") had been submitted for Best Foreign Language Film at the 90th Academy Awards. Two films ("Loveless", "The Square") received nominations at the 19th British Independent Film Awards.
Best Comedy.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017.
Best Director.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017
Best Screenwriter.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017
Best Actress.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017
Best Actor.
The nominees were announced on 4 November 2017.
Technical awards.
A special seven-member jury convened in Berlin and decided on the winners in seven tech categories. The members of the jury are:
Best Composer.
The winners were announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Cinematographer.
The winner was announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Editor.
The winner was announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Production Designer.
The winner was announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Costume Designer.
The winners were announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Sound Designer.
The winner was announced on 14 November 2017.
Best Makeup and Hairstyling.
The winner was announced on 14 November 2017.
Critics Award.
European Discovery.
The nominees were announced on 19 October 2017. Award given by International Federation of Film Critics - Prix FIPRESCI.
Best Animated Feature Film.
The nominees were announced on 24 October 2017. One film (Zombillenium) nominated for Best Animated Feature Film were premiered at the Cannes Film Festival.
Audience awards.
People's Choice Award.
The nominees were announced on 1 September 2017.
University Award.
The announcement of the five European University Film Award nominations took place during Filmfest Hamburg on 10 October 2017. Films were selected by: Fabian Gasmia (producer / Germany), Juho Kuosmanen (director / Finland), Elli Mastorou (journalist / Belgium/Greece) and Dagmar Brunow (Linnaeus University / Sweden). Five nominated films were screened and discussed in the respective classes and each university voted its favorite film.


Homagnostus

Homagnostus is a genus of trilobite in the order Agnostida, which existed in what is now north Wales. It was described by Howell in 1935. The genus was originally considered to be "Agnostus pisiformis var. obesus" (Belt, 1867).


Sanjak of Sjenica


Aleksander Maaker

Aleksander Maaker ( in Muda, Hiiumaa – 28 January 1968), nicknamed "Torupilli-Sass" was a folk musician, a player of the traditional "torupill", the Estonian bagpipe. Maaker was from the Estonian island of Hiiumaa. At the time of his death, the only other torupill player was the revivalist Olev Roomet, at the time a choir member, though other revivalist such as Ants Taul took up the instrument and its construction beginning in the 1970s.
Aleksander Maaker learned bagpipe playing from his uncle Juhan Maaker (1845–1930) ("Torupilli-Juss") one of the most popular folk musicians in Estonia called the "king of bagpipe players" at the time.


Zbrojewsko

Zbrojewsko is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lipie, within Kłobuck County, Silesian Voivodeship, in southern Poland. It lies approximately west of Lipie, north-west of Kłobuck, and north of the regional capital Katowice.
The village has a population of 254.
References.
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Treaty of Bagnolo


Iudila

" 'Iudila' " Was a noble Visigoth who proclaimed himself king between the years 631? and 633 ?.
Known only by two tremís with the inscription «" Iudila Rex "», minted in Augusta Emerita (Mérida) and Ilíberis (Granada), so its power must have been reduced to south of the kingdom.
On December 5 of 633, Iudila was excommunicated and deprived of his properties (IV Council of Toledo).
He must have starred in one of the various rebellions that occurred after the dethronement of Suintila. In opposition to and contemporaneously with the beginning of the reign of Sisenando. His affiliation is unknown, although it could be related to Suintila. The lists of Visigoth kings do not usually collect or number it, giving as king from 631 to Sisenando.


Battle of Roccasecca


Sligo

Sligo ( ; , meaning 'abounding in shells') is a coastal seaport and the county town of County Sligo, Ireland, within the western province of Connacht. With a population of approximately 20,000 in 2016, it is the largest urban centre in the county, with Sligo Borough District constituting 61% (38,581) of the county's population of 63,000.
Sligo is a historic, cultural, commercial, industrial, retail and service centre of regional importance in the West of Ireland, and is served by rail, port and road links. Sligo is also a tourist destination, being situated on the Wild Atlantic Way, with many literary and cultural associations.
History.
Etymology.
Sligo is the anglicisation of the Irish name "Sligeach", meaning "abounding in shells" or "shelly place". It refers to the abundance of shellfish found in the river and its estuary, and from the extensive shell middens in the vicinity. The river now known as the Garavogue (), perhaps meaning "little torrent" was originally called the Sligeach. It is listed as one of the seven "royal rivers" of Ireland in the 9th century AD tale "The Destruction of Da Dergas Hostel". The river "Slicech" is also referenced in the Annals of Ulster in 1188.
The Ordnance Survey letters of 1836 state that "cart loads of shells were found underground in many places within the town where houses now stand". The whole area, from the river estuary at Sligo, around the coast to the river at Ballysadare Bay, is rich in marine resources which were utilised as far back as the Mesolithic period.
Early history.
The importance of Sligo's location in prehistory is demonstrated by the abundance of ancient sites close by and even within the town. For example, Sligo town's first roundabout was constructed around a megalithic passage tomb at Abbeyquarter North in Garavogue Villas. This is an outlier of the large group of monuments at Carrowmore on the Cúil Irra Peninsula on the western outskirts of the town. The area around Sligo town has one of the highest densities of prehistoric archaeological sites in Ireland, and is the only place in which all classes of Irish megalithic monuments are to be found together. Knocknarea mountain, capped by the great cairn of Miosgan Maeve, dominates the skyline to the west of the town. Cairns Hill on the southern edge of the town also has two very large stone cairns.
Excavations for the NRA for the N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road in 2002 revealed an early Neolithic causewayed enclosure (c. 4000 B.C.) at Maugheraboy on high ground overlooking the town from the south. This is the oldest causewayed enclosure so far discovered in Britain or Ireland. It consists of a large area enclosed by a segmented ditch and palisade, and was perhaps an area of commerce and ritual. These monuments are associated with the coming of agriculture and hence the first farmers in Ireland. According to archaeologist Edward Danagher, who excavated the site, "Magheraboy indicates a stable and successful population during the final centuries of the fifth millennium and the first centuries of the fourth millennium BC".
Danagher's work also documented a Bronze Age Henge at Tonafortes (beside the Carraroe roundabout) on the southern outskirts of Sligo town.
Sligo Bay is an ancient natural harbour, being known to Greek, Phoenician and Roman traders as the area is thought to be the location marked as the city of Nagnata on Claudius Ptolemy's 2nd century AD co-ordinate map of the world. During the early medieval period, the site of Sligo was eclipsed by the importance of the great monastery founded by Columcille 5 miles to the north at Drumcliff. By the 12th century, there was a bridge and small settlement in existence at the site of the present town.
Medieval history.
The Norman knight Maurice Fitzgerald, the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland, is generally credited with the establishment of the medieval European-style town and port of Sligo, building Sligo Castle in 1245. The annalists refer to the town as a "sraidbhaile" ('street settlement') which seems to have consisted of the castle and an attached defensive bawn in the vicinity of Quay street. A Dominican Friary (Blackfriars) was also founded by Maurice Fitzgerald and the King of Connacht Felim mac Cathal Crobderg Ua Conchobair in 1253. This was accidentally destroyed by fire in 1414, and was subsequently rebuilt in its present form by Tighernan O’Rourke. Norman hegemony was, however, not destined to last long in Sligo. The Norman advance was halted in Sligo after the battle of Credran Cille in 1257 at Ros Ceite (Rosses Point) between , Lord of Tirconnell, and Maurice Fitzgerald. Both commanders were mortally wounded in single combat. The Norman invasion of Tír Chonaill was abandoned after this. In 1289 a survey indicates there were 180 burgesses in the town. The Normans had laid a foundation that was to last.
The town is unique in Ireland in that it is the only Norman-founded Irish town to have been under almost continuous native Irish control throughout the Medieval period. Despite Anglo-Norman attempts to retake it, it became the administrative centre of the O' Conor Sligo (O'Conchobar Sligigh) confederation of Iochtar Connacht (Lower Connacht) by 1315 AD. Also called Clan Aindrias, the O 'Conors were a branch of the O' Conchobar dynasty of Kings of Connacht. It continued to develop within the túath (Irish territory) of Cairbre Drom Cliabh becoming the effective centre of the confederation of túatha. The other Irish túatha subject to here were Tír Fhíacrach Múaidhe, Luighne Connacht, Tir Olliol and Corann. Throughout this time Sligo was under the system of Fénechus (Brehon) law and was ruled by the Gaelic system of an elected Rí túath (territory king/lord), and an assembly known as an oireacht.
Through competition between Gaelic dynasties for the lucrative port duties of Sligo, the town was burned, sacked or besieged approximately 49 times during the medieval period, according to the annals of Ireland. These raids seem to have had little effect on the development of the town, as by the mid 15th century the town and port had grown in importance. It traded with Galway, Bristol, France and Spain. Amongst the earliest preserved specimens of written English in Connacht is a receipt for 20 marks, dated August 1430, paid by Saunder Lynche and Davy Botyller, to Henry Blake and Walter Blake, customers of "ye King and John Rede, controller of ye porte of Galvy and of Slego".
Sligo continued under Gaelic control until the late 16th century when, during the Elizabethan conquest, it was selected as the county town for the newly shired County of Sligo. An order was sent by the Elizabethan Government to Sir Nicholas Malby, Knight, wanting him to establish "apt and safe" places for the keeping of the Assizes & Sessions, with walls of lime & stone, in each county of Connacht, "judging that the aptest place be in Sligo, for the County of Sligo…" The walls were never built.
17th and 18th centuries.
Sligo Abbey, actually a Dominican Friary, although a ruin, is the only medieval building left standing in the town. Much of the structure, including the choir, carved altar (the only one in situ in Ireland) and cloisters remains. When Sir Frederick Hamilton's Parliamentarian soldiers partially sacked Sligo in 1642, the Friary was burned and many friars killed.
During the Williamite War (1689–91) the town was fought over between the Jacobite Irish Army loyal to James II and Williamite forces. Patrick Sarsfield was able to capture the town and repulsed a Williamite attack to retake it.
In 1798 a mixed force of the Limerick Militia, Essex Fencibles and local yeomanry under a Colonel Vereker were defeated at the battle of Carricknagat at Collooney by the combined Irish and French forces under General Humbert. A street in the town is named after the hero of this battle Bartholomew Teeling. The "Lady Erin" monument at Market Cross was erected in 1899 to mark the centenary of the 1798 Rebellion.
19th century.
The town suffered badly from a cholera outbreak in 1832. Scholars speculate that Bram Stoker, whose mother Charlotte Blake Thornley was probably (there are no records and the family lived in both Sligo and Ballyshannon) born in Sligo in 1818 and experienced the epidemic first hand, was influenced by her stories when he wrote his famous novel, "Dracula". The family lived on Correction Street in the town. After fleeing to Ballyshannon, Charlotte wrote
The Great Famine between 1847 and 1851 caused over 30,000 people to emigrate through the port of Sligo. On the Quays, overlooking the Garavogue River, is a cast bronze memorial to the emigrants. This is one of a suite of three sculptures commissioned by the Sligo Famine Commemoration Committee to honour the victims of the Great Famine.
A plaque in the background tells one family's sad story:
20th century.
The early years of the century saw much industrial unrest as workers in Sligo port fought for better pay and conditions. This resulted in two major strikes, in 1912 and, in 1913 the prolonged Sligo dock strike. Both ended in victory for the workers.
Sligo town was heavily garrisoned by the British Army during the War of Independence. For this reason IRA activity was limited to actions such as harassment, sabotage and jailbreaks. At various times during the war prominent Republicans were held at the Sligo Gaol. The commander of IRA forces in Sligo was Liam Pilkington.
Arthur Griffith spoke in April 1922 on the corner of O' Connell St. and Grattan St. To this day it is known as Griffiths corner.
During the Civil war, Sligo railway station was blown up by Anti-Treaty forces on 10 January 1923.
In 1961 St. John the Baptist's Church became a cathedral of the Diocese of Kilmore, Elphin and Ardagh after St. Mary's Cathedral in Elphin was abandoned, being destroyed by a storm four years previously.
Geography.
Situated on a coastal plain facing the Atlantic Ocean, Sligo is located on low gravel hills on the banks of the Garavogue River between Lough Gill and the estuary of the Garavogue river leading to Sligo Bay. The town is surrounded on three sides by an arc of mountains, with the Ox Mountain ridges of Slieve Daeane and Killery Mountain to the southeast bordering Lough Gill. The flat topped limestone plateaux of Cope's, Keelogyboy and Castlegal Mountains to the north and northeast and the singular hill of Knocknarea with its Neolithic cairn to the west and the distinctive high plateau of Benbulben to the north.
Sligo is an important bridging point on the main north/south route between Ulster and Connacht. It is the county town of County Sligo and is in the Barony of Carbury (formerly the Gaelic tuath of Cairbre Drom Cliabh). Sligo is the diocesan seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Elphin. It is in the Church of Ireland Diocese of Kilmore, Elphin and Ardagh.
County Sligo is one of the counties of the province of Connacht. It is part of the Border Region, a region of over 500,000 people which also comprises the counties of Cavan, Donegal, Leitrim, Louth and Monaghan.
Architecture.
The town consists of a medieval core street layout, but with mainly 19th century buildings, many of which are of architectural merit. The town has a High Street which descends from the south of the town and terminates in a market flare at the Market Cross, a pattern typical of Norman street layouts. Here it meets the east west road leading from the Abbeyquarter on the east side to St. Johns Cathedral to the west. This seems to have been the first street laid out in the town. Burgage plots of Norman origin are also evident in the long narrow property boundaries typical of the centre of the town.
The only surviving medieval building is Sligo Holy Cross Dominican Friary built in 1252. An arched tower and three sided cloister of the Abbey Church still survive. The next oldest extant building is the Cathedral of St Mary the Virgin and St. John the Baptist on John Street. The current building dates from 1730 when it was designed by the German architect Richard Cassels who was visiting to design Hazelwood House. The cathedral contains four memorials to the Pollexfen family, maternal relatives of W. B. Yeats.
In the nineteenth century, Sligo experienced rapid economic growth and therefore architectural change was rapid. This was marked by the erection of many public buildings. These include Sligo Town Hall, designed by William Hague in a Lombardo-Romanesque style. Sligo Courthouse on Teeling street is an asymmetrical Neo-Gothic building designed by Rawson Carroll and built in 1878. The Gilooly Memorial Hall is an austere building on Temple Street built as a memorial to the Temperance campaigner Bishop Gillooly. His statue above the door bears the inscription "Ireland sober, is Ireland free". The Model School, now the Model Arts & Niland Gallery, was built by James Owen of the Board of Works to provide education to all denominations between 1857 and 1863, it was to serve as a model for other schools throughout the country.
Sligo has three buildings in the Art and Crafts architectural style, the Masonic Lodge on the Mall designed by Belfast architect Henry Seaver, the Yeats Memorial Building designed by Vincent Craig, also from Belfast, on Lower Knox Street and Weston House on Union Street.
The former Batchelors factory on Deep Water Quay is an industrial building which was built in 1905 as a maize mill and grain silo, and used an innovative construction method invented by François Hennebique in 1892. It is one of the earliest examples of its type in Ireland.
Climate.
Sligo's climate is classified, like all of Ireland, as temperate oceanic. It is characterised by high levels of precipitation and a narrow annual temperature range. The mean yearly temperature is 9.4 degrees Celsius (49 degrees Fahrenheit). The mean January temperature is , while the mean July temperature is . On average, the driest months are April to June while the wettest months are October to January.
Rainfall averages 1131 mm (44.5 in) per year. The high rainfall means Sligo is in the temperate rainforest biome, examples of which exist around Lough Gill. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was −19.1 °C (−2.4 °F) at Markree Castle, County Sligo, on 16 January 1881.
Demographics.
, Sligo had a population of 19,199 made up of 9238 males and 9961 females. Irish citizens made up 85.1% of the population with Polish (886 persons or 5.5%) as the next largest minority, followed by people from countries outside the EU (753 persons or 4.1%).
6,299 persons could speak the Irish language and of these 1,639 spoke the language daily but only within the education system. 3,117 persons spoke a language other than Irish or English at home and of these 438 could not speak English well or at all. Polish was the most common foreign language spoken at home, with 980 speakers.
Religion.
In the 2016 Census, there were 14,428 Roman Catholics in the area. A further 2,102 were adherents of other stated religions, 1,959 persons indicated that they had no religion.
Sligo is located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Elphin. The main church of the diocese is the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception which is located on Temple Street. Other Catholic churches in the town are St. Anne's Church, Cranmore and St. Joseph's Church, Ballytivnan.
The town is also part of the Church of Ireland United Diocese of Kilmore, Elphin and Ardagh. The primary church in the diocese is the St John the Baptist Cathedral, Sligo which is located on John Street.
Sligo Presbyterian Church is located at Church Street and Sligo Methodist Church is located at Wine Street. The Sligo-Leitrim Islamic Cultural Centre (SLICC) is located on Mail Coach Road.
Economy.
Sligo is in the BMW (Border, Midlands and West) region, an area classified as an underdeveloped "region in transition" by the EU Commission. This is an area where GDP is from 75& to 90% of the EU average. It is entitled to funding from European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) Operational Programmes, which are administered by the Northern & Western Regional Assembly. Sligo is also part of the Border region, a historically disadvantaged area within Ireland, created after the 1922 partition of Ireland. A study by the European Committee of the Regions found that Ireland's border counties were the most exposed in Europe to the economic effects of Brexit.
Sligo is a major services and shopping centre within this region. As of 2016 the service sector is the primary employment sector in the county, employing 18,760 (71.7%) of workforce. Industry and construction makes up 17%(4427) of employment, and agriculture, forestry and fishing 7.2%(1,868). The total number employed is 26,002. 3,843 people are employed in agency assisted (IDA) companies. Sligo borough labour catchment as of 2016 is 21,824.92% of enterprises in Sligo are micro-enterprises of 10 or fewer employees.
Sligo has traditionally been a centre for the tool-making industry.
The pharmaceutical industry is significant with several companies producing goods for this sector, including Abbott (Ireland) Ltd, which is among the largest employers in Sligo.
Development has occurred along the River Garavogue with the regeneration of J.F.K. Parade (2000), Rockwood Parade (1993–1997), and The Riverside (1997–2006), as well as two new footbridges over the river, one on Rockwood Parade (1996) and one on The Riverside (1999). Sligo has a variety of independent shops and shopping malls. There is a retail park in Carraroe, on the outskirts of Sligo.
Culture.
Sligo culture was an inspiration on both poet and Nobel laureate W. B. Yeats and his brother the artist and illustrator Jack Butler Yeats. A collection of Jack B Yeats art is held in the Niland Gallery on the Mall in Sligo. The Yeats Summer School takes place every year in the town.
Sligo town has connections with "Goon Show" star and writer Spike Milligan, whose father was from Sligo, and a plaque was unveiled at the former Milligan family home on Sligo's Holborn Street.
Traditional Irish music.
Traditional Irish music sessions are held in several venues in the town.
In the early 13th century, the poet and crusader Muireadhach Albanach Ó Dálaigh kept a school of poetry at Lissadell north of Sligo town. He was "Ollamh Fileadh" (High Poet) to the Ó Domhnaill kings of Tír Chonaill. The school appears to have been dissolved after the Norman invasion. In the 16th century, the poet Tadhg Dall Ó hÚigínn wrote many praise poems in strict "Dán Díreach" metre for local chiefs and patrons such as the O'Conor Sligo. He was killed for a satire he wrote on the O'Haras. The annals record the death in 1561 of Naisse mac Cithruadh, the "most eminent musician that was in Éireann", by drowning on Lough Gill.
In the 17th century, two brothers from County Sligo, Thomas and William Connellan from Cloonamahon, were among the last of the great Irish bards and harpists. Thomas is the author of the tune "Molly MacAlpin", now known as "Carolan's Dream", and William may have written "Love is a Tormenting Pain" and "Killiecrankie".
Traditional musicians from Sligo, active in the earlu 20th century, include Michael Coleman, James Morrison and Paddy Killoran.
Festivals.
Sligo hosts several festivals throughout the year including Sligo Live occurring every October, The Sligo Summer Festival which celebrated the 400th anniversary of Sligo town and the Fleadh Cheoil which the town hosted in three consecutive years (1989, 1990 & 1991) and again in 2014 and 2015. Approximately 400,000 people attended the 2014 and 2015 festivals. During the festival, much of the music was played by musicians on the streets of Sligo.
The Sligo Jazz Project is held every July. Another annual festival, the Sligo Festival of Baroque Music, was started in 1995 and takes place on the last weekend of September.
Theatre.
Sligo also has a tradition of theatre, both professional and amateur. Sligo has had a theatre at least as far back as 1750, according to Wood-Martins’ History of Sligo, and often "her Majesty's servants from the Theatre Royal, Crow Street …. visited Sligo, even during the Dublin season, showing that in those days the townsfolk appreciated the Drama, for in some instances the company remained during several months".
There are now two full-time theatres in the town, including the Blue Raincoat Theatre Company, was founded in 1990 and based in Quay street. Sligo is also home to Hawk's Well Theatre, a 340-seat theatre founded in 1982.
In media.
Sligo is the setting for author Declan Burke's series of hard boiled detective novels, featuring detective Harry Rigby.
Sebastian Barry's novels "The Secret Scripture" and "The Whereabouts of Eneas McNulty" are also set in Sligo town.
Sligo is the setting for John Michael McDonagh's 2014 darkly comedic drama film "Calvary", in which a priest continues to serve his parishioners despite their increased hostility towards him and the Catholic Church.
Together with Dublin, County Sligo is one of the two main settings for Sally Rooney's 2018 novel, "Normal People". A 2020 adaptation made by BBC Three and Hulu was partially filmed in Sligo.
Sport.
Football.
The town is home to League of Ireland Premier Division champions Sligo Rovers, who have played home matches at The Showgrounds since they were founded in 1928.
There are also a number of junior association football (soccer) clubs who play in the Sligo/Leitrim & District league from the town. These include Calry Bohemians, Cartron United, City United & St. John's FC who play in the Super League and Glenview Stars, MCR FC, Merville United & Swagman Wanderers who play in the Premier League.
Gaelic games.
There are three GAA clubs located in and around the town, including Calry/St. Joseph's of Hazelwood, St John's of Cuilbeg and St Mary's of Ballydoogan with Coolera/Strandhill of Ransboro and Drumcliffe/Rosses Point GAA also being close by. St John's and St Mary's compete in the Sligo Senior Football Championship while Calry/St Joseph's compete in the Sligo Intermediate Football Championship and the Sligo Senior Hurling Championship. These clubs also field Junior, Ladies, Minor and Underage teams. Many of the major Gaelic football and hurling matches, such as the inter-county home games of Sligo or a club championship finals, take place at Markievicz Park.
Rugby.
Sligo RFC is situated at Hamilton Park, Strandhill, 8 km west of the town. This club participates in the Ulster Bank All-Ireland League Division 2B.
Other sports.
Sligo (in particular Strandhill) is a location for surfing, and there are several surf schools in the area.
There are two nearby golf courses, Co. Sligo (Rosses Point) Golf Club and Strandhill Golf Club. Also just north of the borough boundary at Lisnalurg, there is Pitch and Putt called Bertie's. Rosses Point hosted the West of Ireland Championship in which future golfing star Rory McIlroy won in consecutive years (2005 and 2006).
Two basketball clubs are based in the town. These are Sligo All-Stars (located at the Mercy College Gymnasium) and Sligo Giant Warriors (whose venue is the Sligo Grammar Gymnasium).
Sligo Racecourse at Cleveragh hosts race days at least 8 times per year.
Government.
Sligo was administered by its own local oireachtas and the kings of Cáirbre Drom Cliab until the English conquest in the early 17th century. This territory corresponds closely to the newly created Sligo Borough District.
Sligo town then became an incorporated municipal borough with a Royal charter issued by the British King James I between 1613 and 1614. It had the right to elect 12 burgesses to the corporation.
On 1 June 2014 the old Borough Council was dissolved and administration of the town was amalgamated with the County Council. Sligo is now part of an expanded municipal borough district extending from Collooney to the border with County Leitrim at Tullaghan and containing a population of around 40,000. It elects 10 councillors of 18 in total to Sligo County Council.
Sligo has had a mayor since incorporation in 1613. With the re-organisation of local government in 2014 the title has been restyled as Mayor of the Municipal District and is elected by the ten councillors elected for the Sligo Municipal District.
Law enforcement.
From its foundation in the 13th century Sligo was administered under local Fénechus (Brehon law) until the establishment of English Common law in the early 17th century after the battle of Kinsale. Courts were held regularly throughout the tuath at various buildings and on hilltops reserved for the purpose. Law enforcement was a function of the nobility and freemen of the area as no police force existed. No records survive from these early courts, but a case is recorded of a Dublin merchant being reimbursed by the local courts after he was fraudulently sold an out of date poem in the 1540s. Sligo then came under English martial law and eventually the common law as administered from Dublin and from which descends the present system.
The modern Sligo Courthouse was built in 1878. It hosts regular District and Circuit Court sittings throughout the year, and occasionally the High Court.
After 1922 the establishment of Garda Síochána.
Sligo-Leitrim divisional headquarters of the Garda Síochána is on Teeling street in the town on the site of the old RIC barracks.
Health services.
Sligo provides hospital services to much of the North Western region. The two main hospitals are Sligo University Hospital (formerly General and Regional) and St. John's Hospital. There is also a private hospital at Garden Hill.
Education.
As of 2016, 14.2 per cent of adults were educated to at most primary level only; a further 45.1 per cent attained second level while 40.7 per cent were educated to third level.
There are four main secondary schools in Sligo. These are two all-girls schools (Mercy College and Ursuline College, the all-boys Summerhill College and the mixed (Church of Ireland) Sligo Grammar School on The Mall.
Sligo's main third level institution is the Institute of Technology, Sligo, which offers a range of courses in the disciplines of business, engineering, humanities and science.
St. Angela's College (outside the town proper) is a constituent college of the National University of Ireland, Galway, and offers courses in nursing and health studies, home economics and education.
Transportation.
Road.
The main roads to Sligo are the N4 to Dublin, the N17 to Galway, the N15 to Lifford, County Donegal; and the N16 to Blacklion, County Cavan. The section of the N4 road between Sligo and Collooney is a dual carriageway. The first phase of this road was completed in January 1998, bypassing the towns of Collooney and Ballysadare. An extension to this road was completed in September 2005, and is known as the Sligo Inner Relief Road.
O'Connell Street – the main street in the town – was pedestrianised on 15 August 2006. Plans for the proposed redevelopment and paving of this street were publicly unveiled on 23 July 2008 in "The Sligo Champion". The newspaper later revealed that people were not in favour of the pedestrianisation of the street. The street was reopened to traffic in December 2009.
Sligo has a certain amount of cycleways in proximity to the town and various road traffic calming measures have been installed helping to improve safety for pedestrians and cyclists. The "Urban Cycle Sligo" initiative, for example, created six cycle route.
Rail.
Sligo acquired a rail link to Dublin on 3 December 1862, with the opening of Sligo railway station. Connections to Enniskillen and the north followed in 1881 and Limerick and the south in 1895. The line to Enniskillen closed in 1957 and passenger services to Galway-Ennis-Limerick closed in 1963. For many years Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ) kept the latter line open for freight traffic, before its full closure. The proposed Western Rail Corridor redevelopment project seeks to reopen it. In 1966 Sligo railway station was renamed Sligo Mac Diarmada Station after Irish rebel Seán Mac Diarmada from County Leitrim. Irish Rail, the Republic of Ireland's state railway operator, runs inter-city rail services on the Dublin-Sligo railway line. There are currently up to eight trains daily each way between Sligo and Dublin Connolly, with a frequency of every two hours.
Air.
Sligo and County Sligo are served by Sligo Airport, from Sligo town and near Strandhill, though no scheduled flights operate out of the airport. The nearest airport with scheduled flights is Ireland West Airport Knock near to Charlestown, County Mayo, away.
The Irish Coast Guard Helicopter Search & Rescue has been based at Sligo Airport since 2004, callsign Rescue 118. CHC Ireland provide 24 Hour search and rescue using a Sikorsky S-92 helicopter.
The helicopter is operated by a crew of four, maintained and supported year round. The most northerly base in the Republic of Ireland, it deals with the stern challenges posed by the Atlantic Ocean and the clifftop environment along the north-west coast.
Bus.
Bus Éireann operates four bus routes in the town: one serves the town centre and another the west of the town. The other two routes run from the town to Strandhill and Rosses Point respectively. Bus Éireann also provides inter-city services to: Enniskillen, via Manorhamilton; to Derry; to Galway, via Ireland West Airport Knock; and to Dublin, via Dublin Airport and towns along the N4 road.
Bus Feda operates a route from Gweedore, County Donegal, via Sligo to Galway.
Sligo Port.
Sligo is one of just two operating ports on Ireland's northwest coast between Galway and Derry, the other being Killybegs. The harbour can accommodate ships with a maximum draft of 5.2 metres and length of 100 metres, The Port of Sligo extends from the Timber Jetty for a distance of 1.3 km.
The Harbour Commissioners of Sligo adminstered the port from 1877 until Sligo County Council took over responsibility for the Harbour from Sligo Harbour Commissioners in June 2006.
Records show the development of Sligo's port, exporting agricultural goods to Britain and Europe, in the 13th century with the arrival of the Normans. In 1420 port dues were levied for the first time. Later, as a port under Gaelic lords the harbour continued to flourish. Control of the taxes or "cocket" of Sligo port became a sought after prize of local dynasties. Native merchant families, like the O'Creans wine importers being the most well known. Sligo traded with France, Spain and Portugal throughout the Middle Ages.
After incorporation into the British Empire from 1607 onward Sligo was the most important port in the northwest. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the port was used for the transit of significant quantities of cattle, hides, butter, barley, oats, and oatmeal being exported and with the city's linen exports well established. Imports included wood, iron, maize and coal. The town prospered due to the trade with wealthy merchants setting up homes along the then fashionable Castle Street and Radcliffe Street (later renamed Grattan Street).
During the time of the Great Famine 1847–1850, it is estimated that more than 30,000 people emigrated through Sligo Port, mainly to Canada and the United States.
The most notable ship companies to operate out of Sligo included Sligo Steam Navigation Company who introduced the first steamer in 1857, Messrs Middleton & Pollexfen, Harper Cambell Ltd and the former Sligo Harbour Commissioners who owned a number of dredgers used for maintenance of the Channel (McTernan, 1992).
Linen was a major export also through Sligo port, with Pernmill road memorialising the linen textile mills.
The Sligo docks played an important role in the history of the labour movement in Ireland. The 1913 Sligo Dock strike lasted for 56 days and was a precursor to the Dublin Lockout that occurred 6 months later. Unlike the Dublin Lockout, the Sligo Dock strike resulted in victory to the workers.
The port of Sligo declined during the 20th century with the decline of sail and steamships and the increasing size of cargo vessels. In modern times, the port handles cargoes of coal, timber, fish meal and scrap metal and around 25 ships per year dock in the harbour. In 2012 a feasibility study was undertaken into the dredging of the shipping channel.
Media.
There are three local newspapers in Sligo: The "Sligo Weekender" – out every Thursday (formerly Tuesday), The Free "Northwest Express" – out the first Thursday of each month and "The Sligo Champion" – out every Tuesday (formerly Wednesday). "Sligo Now" is a monthly entertainment guide for the town – this is out on the first Friday of each month, whilst Sligo Sport is the towns sports specific monthly newspaper.
The town has two local/regional radio stations: Ocean FM, broadcasting to Counties Leitrim and Sligo and to parts of County Fermanagh and the south of County Donegal, and West youth radio station i102-104FM, which merged with its sister station i105-107FM in 2011 to create iRadio.
Notable people.
See List of Sligo people
Twinning.
Sligo is twinned with the following places:


2020 in Luxembourg


Oso Kuka

Osman Bejtullah agë Kuka also known as Oso Kuka (c. 1812/1820–1862) was a border guard in the Ottoman-Montenegrin border. Surrounded by Montenegrin soldiers in a tower on the island of Vranjina, he blew it up killing himself and many of the Montenegrin soldiers. In the following decades, he became a rallying figure of the Albanian independence movement and a much-celebrated character of important works in Albanian literature.
Background.
2 decades earlier, several battles had been fought over the possession of the island, primarily between Ottoman forces, joined by Albanians, and Montenegrins. Between 1835-1844, various rebellions among Albanian highlanders against the Porte led to the enforcement of local Albanian interests. On October 16, 1843, Ottman forces numbering 12,000, led by the Governor of Shkodër, seized the island. The Ottomans arrived on the lake with 50-60 canons and opened fire with on the Montenegrin troops in the tower. The Ottomans blew up the tower killing 7 and wounded 18 who were captured. The Ottomans also seized the tower Lesendra, with 10-12 000 troops, and the Montenegrins, numbering 200, fled and were met with harsh criticism by their countrymen. The Montenegrins tried under Petar II Petrovic Njegos to reclaim the island several times but failed. In 1844, Albanian highlanders from Shkodër sailed with 4 ships to the island of Vranjina to built barracks in order to resist Montenegrin forces.
Life.
Born around 1812 or 1820 in Shkodër, in a timariot family with early origins from the area of Kukës. His family also held several other positions in the Sanjak of Scutari, his grandfather and other relatives were kethüda of the castle. His father, Bejtullah agë Kuka, was standard-bearer of the Albanian Pasha and Vezir, Mustafa Pasha of Shkodra of the powerful Bushati dynasty.
At 1859 due to the proposition of the Albanian Ottoman commander Hodo Sokoli, Oso Kuka was promoted "yüzbaşı" of the border guards on the Ottoman-Montenegrin border.
Oso Kuka himself had formed a 24-man band (çetë) that was active in the city. At the head of a small group, Oso Kuka arrived on the battlefields where 8,000 Montenegrin soldiers had been besieging the fort of Vranjina. Kuka and his groups were defending a secondary tower in front of the main tower. When it was surrounded, instead of surrendering, Kuka planted explosives in the tower, which he activated when the Montenegrins stormed the tower and killed hundreds of Montenegrin soldiers along with his group. His bravery made possible that Vranina continued to be under Albanian control up to 1879, when the Congress of Berlin ceded it to Montenegro.
Legacy.
Oso Kuka over the decades became a major rallying figure of the Albanian national awakening. One of the most important representations of Oso Kuka in literature is that in Gjergj Fishta's epic "Lahuta e Malcis". Oso Kuka's involvement in the war and his death comprise the first five cantos also known as the "cycle of Oso Kuka". Ndre Zadeja also wrote a melodrama titled "Oso Kuka", based on his life.
His residence in Shkodër houses the city's historical museum, while Slavic speaking population of the small village in Vranjina (modern-day Montenegro) show to visitors so-called "house of Oso Kuka".


List of years in Portugal

This is a list of years in Portugal.


Kovin Fortress

Kovin fortress is a strategic fortification in south-western Serbia, 9 km north from the present day town of Prijepolje, between the villages of Džurovo, Kučin, and Izbičanj. The remains are located on a steep rock overlooking the Lim gorge from the left bank, on 698 meters of altitude.
History.
According to Evliya Çelebi, the fortification dates back to era of Nemanjić dynasty. The first mention of the fortification were in documents from 1448 and 1454, where it is mentioned as a border fortification of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who seized control of Polimlje area in those years.
The role of Kovin was overlooking the passage through the gorge of river Lim, between Prijepolje and Bistrica. Today, the best kept part of the fortification is a section of donjon tower, located on a highest terrace of the rock on which it was built. In its immediate vicinity, there are remains of other buildings, cisterns, and terrace-plateaus connected by the carved-in staircases, that go down all the way to the river. Around 500m south of the fortification there is a necropolis dating back to antic and medieval ages, while north-west of it, there is a locality that belongs to the Vinča culture.
References.


Anthony Lorinthia Geriasarch

Anthony Lorinthia von Geriasarch (1493–1582) was a Prussian general who served under the courts of the Polish king Sigismund I the Old from 1514 until the establishment of the Polish fief of Duchy of Prussia in 1525. When the Duchy was established, he joined the army of Albert, Duke of Prussia until his death on 1582.
As a member of the army of Albert, he was converted to Protestantism in 1531.


Hannah Dagoe

Hannah Dagoe was an Irish basket-woman, sentenced to death for burglary. On the day of her execution, 4 May 1763, in what "The Newgate Calendar" described as an "extraordinary and unprecedented scene" she struggled violently with the executioner, and with the noose about her neck, flung herself from the cart before the signal was given, dying instantly.
Life and death.
Hannah Dagoe was born in Ireland, and was of that numerous class of women who plied at Covent Garden Market as "basket-women", or porters.
Dagoe had previously been incarcerated for debt in Whitechapel Jail, where she married a fellow prisoner, a Spanish seaman, "Diego" or "Dago", from whom she took her surname. After he either left the country or died, she took up with the keeper of the prisoner, one William Connor. She was a strong, masculine woman and the terror of her fellow-prisoners, one of whom she stabbed in a quarrel. For this she was sent to Newgate prison for six months, where she stabbed another man, for no personal provocation, but because he had turned evidence against his accomplices. She was also imprisoned at the Poultry Compter several times.
She became acquainted with a poor and industrious woman of the name of Eleanor Hussey, who lived by herself in a small apartment, in which was some creditable household furniture, the remains of the worldly goods of her deceased husband. Seizing an opportunity, when the owner was from home, this daring woman broke into Hussey's room and stripped it of every article which it contained.
For this burglary and robbery she was brought to trial at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death.
The day before she was due to die, James Boswell saw Dagoe in the courtyard of Newgate prison, remarking in his diary that she was a "big unconcerned thing". Although present at the execution, Boswell curiously did not record the unusual manner of her death.
On the road to Tyburn she showed little concern at her miserable state, and paid no attention to the exhortations of the Romish priest who attended her. When the cart, in which she was bound, was drawn under the gallows, she got her hands and arms loose, seized the executioner, struggled with him, and gave him so violent a blow on the breast that she nearly knocked him down. She dared him to hang her; and in order to revenge herself upon him, and cheat him of his dues, she took off her hat, cloak and other parts of her dress, and disposed of them among the crowd. After much resistance he got the rope about her neck, which she had no sooner found accomplished than, pulling out a hand kerchief, she bound it round her head and over her face, and threw herself out of the cart, before the signal was given, with such violence that she broke her neck and died instantly.


Subvestinautilus

Subvestinautilus is a genus of evolute koninckioceratids, in the order Nautilida, with a depressed, trapezoidal whorl section. The venter is broadly rounded, ventrolateral shoulders sharply rounded, flanks flattened and converging toward a narrow rounded dorsum. In early growth stages a keel forms on the umbilical shoulder which becomes rounded or marked by a longitudal rib at maturity . The suture has a broadly rounded ventral lobe and a deeper lateral lobe.
"Subvestinautilus", named by Turner, 1954, has been found in the Lower Carboniferous of Ireland and the Isle of Man.


Goniophyllum

Goniophyllum is an Silurian genus of rugose coral known from Sweden, Norway, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States. It is easily identified by its "lids" and distinct square shape. The genus was described by Milne-Edwards et Haime in 1851.
Description.
The coralite is simple and square shaped. Growth segments are clearly visible. The calyx is deep with weak septa, but some are thicker and more distinguished than others. Four "lids" called opercula create a pyramid over the calyx that could be opened in life. These lids are triangular with distinct lingual and labial ornamentation. Muscle scars and a stolon tube is found on the inside of each operculum. One of the lids is slightly larger than the others and it’s the only one that is pressant in related genera such as Rhizophyllum. The corals internal Tabulae is very well developed much like other members of Cystiphyllida.


Ants Oras

Ants Oras (8 December 1900 – 21 December 1982) was an Estonian translator and writer.
Oras was born in Tallinn and studied at Tartu University, graduating with a Master of Philosophy degree in 1923. He also obtained a Bachelor of Literature degree from Oxford University.
From 1928 through 1934, he was a lecturer at both Tartu and Helsinki University. Between 1934 and 1943 he was a Professor at Tartu. Oras fled to Sweden in 1943 during World War II and the Soviet occupation and annexation of Estonia, then to England in 1949, then on to the United States where he settled in Gainesville, Florida. From 1957 to 1958 he was a visiting professor at Helsinki University, and in 1965 he became a US State Department visiting lecturer in Sweden. In 1972 he became professor of English at the University of Florida in Gainesville and received an honorary doctorate from that university in 1975. He died in Gainesville, Florida, aged 82.
Ants Oras was the author of several books, including one on the works of John Milton, as well as an account of the Occupation of the Baltic states titled "The Baltic Eclipse". He also translated Shakespeare, Goethe (including Faust), Pushkin, Virgil, Alexander Pope and Molière into Estonian, as well as many Estonian works into English, German, Swedish, French and Spanish.
Oras' pause test.
Oras investigated pause patterns in English Renaissance dramatic blank verse, based on the hypothesis that a pause in iambic pentameter fell on one of nine possible positions (after the first syllable, after the second syllable, etc.) in unconscious patterns unique to each playwright, and that the patterns would change over time. He counted three types of pauses: those indicated by commas in the first extant printed edition; pauses indicated by punctuation other than commas; and the breaks caused by splitting a line between two speakers. These pause patterns, when used to put the works of Early Modern dramatists in chronological order, correlate well with other indicators and are generally accepted as valid and reliable by most textual scholars.


Lady Caroline Lamb

Lady Caroline Lamb (née Ponsonby; 13 November 1785 – 25 January 1828) was an Anglo-Irish aristocrat and novelist, best known for "Glenarvon", a Gothic novel. She had an affair with Lord Byron in 1812, for whom she coined the phrase "mad, bad, and dangerous to know". Her husband was The Hon. William Lamb, who after her death became Prime Minister.
Family background.
She was the only daughter of Frederick Ponsonby, 3rd Earl of Bessborough, an Anglo-Irish peer, and Henrietta, Countess of Bessborough. She was known as the Honourable Caroline Ponsonby until her father succeeded to the earldom in 1793. She was related to other leading society ladies, being the niece of Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, and cousin (by marriage) of Annabella, Lady Byron. She was related to Sarah Ponsonby, one half of the Ladies of Llangollen, and Diana, Princess of Wales.
She was never the Viscountess Melbourne because she died before Melbourne succeeded to the peerage.
Youth and education.
As a small child she was considered delicate and for her health spent much time in the country. She travelled with her mother and other family to Italy, where she made an agonizing recovery from an illness caused by worms that nearly ended her life. After returning with her mother to England, she rejoined a lively menage of children who lived at Devonshire House and Roehampton, her cousins, the children of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire: by his first marriage, to Lady Georgiana Spencer, three children, Lady Georgiana ("Little G"), Lady Harriet Cavendish ("Hary-o"), and Lord Hartington ("Hart", later the 6th Duke of Devonshire); and by his mistress and second wife, Lady Elizabeth Foster, two children, Augustus Clifford and Caroline St Jules, later wife of George Lamb (politician and writer). During childhood she became particularly close to Lady Harriet, who was only three months older. Her behaviour grew increasingly troublesome to her family, she experimented with sedatives like laudanum and had a special governess to control her.
Lady Morgan reported in her memoirs that Lady Caroline told her that she had grown up as a tomboy, and quite unable to read or write until adolescence.
As a child Lady Caroline considered being able to wash a dog one of her most satisfying accomplishments.
While many scholars have accepted this (and other melodramatic claims made by Lady Morgan) at face value, published works of correspondence about her family members make it extremely unlikely. The grandmother she shared with her Cavendish cousins, the formidable Dowager Lady Spencer, was zealously dedicated to promoting education, and later employed their governess as her own companion. This governess was Miss Selina Trimmer, the daughter of Mrs Sarah Trimmer, a well-known and respected author of moral tales for children. She taught them an extensive curriculum, considerably beyond mere literacy. There is a published letter Lady Caroline wrote on 31 October 1796 (just before her eleventh birthday) that not only demonstrates her literacy, but shows a merciless wit and talent for mimicry.
Lady Caroline was exceptionally well educated at home. She also attended a school in Hans Place, Knightsbridge, London, the successor to Reading Abbey Girls' School, where she was taught by Frances Arabella Rowden. Rowden was not only a published poet, but, according to another pupil, Mary Russell Mitford, "she had a knack of making poetesses of her pupils".
In her early adult years, Lady Caroline not only wrote prose and poetry, but also took to sketching portraiture. These courtly skills stood her in good stead. She spoke French and Italian fluently, was skilled at Greek and Latin, and also enjoyed music and drama.
Marriage and family.
In June 1805, at the age of nineteen, Lady Caroline Ponsonby married the Hon. William Lamb, an up-and-coming politician, and heir to the 1st Viscount Melbourne. Although their meeting had been shrewdly orchestrated by William Lamb's mother, theirs was a love match. The couple had become "mutually captivated" during a visit to Brocket Hall in 1802 and for many years the pair enjoyed a happy marriage. In 1809 his brother George married her namesake cousin Caroline St Jules.
Caroline and William produced a son, George Augustus Frederick, born on 11 August 1807, and a premature daughter, born in 1809 who died within 24 hours. Lady Caroline was physically ill-suited to childbirth and suffered long recovery periods after each one.
Her son was born with severe mental problems. Although most aristocratic families sent mentally challenged relatives to institutions, the Lambs cared for their son at home until his eventual death in 1836, eight years after Lady Caroline's own death. The stress of their son's ill health, combined with William Lamb's consuming career ambitions, drove a wedge between the couple. A further difficulty was that William's brothers and sister, a very close-knit clan, all detested Caroline, whom they called "the little beast", while she and her mother-in-law hated each other from the start, and their lifelong enmity was to be a great cause of unhappiness to Caroline.
Lord Byron.
From March to August 1812, Lady Caroline embarked on a well-publicized affair with Lord Byron. He was 24, she 26. She spurned his attention on their first meeting, which was at a society event at Holland House. According to the memoirs of her friend Sydney, Lady Morgan, Lady Caroline claimed she coined the phrase "mad, bad, and dangerous to know" soon after meeting the poet. It became his lasting epitaph, but there is no contemporary evidence to prove that she coined the famous phrase at the time. She wrote him a fan letter; his response was to visit her because of her high social status, and then to pursue her passionately.
Lady Caroline and Lord Byron publicly decried each other as they privately pledged their love over the following months. Byron referred to Lamb as "Caro", which she adopted as her public nickname. After Byron broke things off, her husband took the disgraced and desolated Lady Caroline to Ireland. The distance did not cool Lady Caroline's interest in the poet; she and Byron corresponded constantly during her exile. When Lady Caroline returned to London in 1813, however, Byron made it clear he had no intention of restarting their relationship. This spurred increasingly public attempts to reunite with her former lover. Matters came to a head at Lady Heathcote's ball in early July 1813, when Byron publicly insulted Lady Caroline, who responded by breaking a wine glass and trying to slash her wrists. She did not seriously injure herself, due largely to the prompt intervention of her mother-in-law, and it is most unlikely that she had any suicidal intentions; but polite society was scandalised, and her mental stability was called into question. Byron himself referred to it as a theatrical performance: "Lady Caroline performed the dagger scene" (a reference to "Macbeth").
Lady Caroline's obsession with Byron would define much of her later life, as well as influencing both her and Byron's works. They would write poems in the style of each other, about each other, and even embed overt messages to one another in their verse. After a thwarted visit to Byron's home, Lady Caroline wrote "Remember Me!" into the flyleaf of one of Byron's books. He responded with the hate poem; "Remember thee! Remember thee!; Till Lethe quench life's burning stream; Remorse and shame shall cling to thee, And haunt thee like a feverish dream! Remember thee! Ay, doubt it not. Thy husband too shall think of thee! By neither shalt thou be forgot, Thou false to him, thou fiend to me!"
Her cousin Harriet (by then Lady Granville), with whom Lady Caroline's relationship had deteriorated after childhood, visited her in December 1816 and was so incredulous at her unrepentant behaviour that she ended her description of the visit in a letter to her sister with: "I mean my visits to be annual."
Literary career.
Lady Caroline Lamb was noted to have been involved in a few different literary circles that met in the Holland House, Lady Charleville's, Lord Ward's, Lord Lansdowne's, and others of similar repute.
Lady Caroline's most famous work is "Glenarvon", a Gothic novel that was released in 1816 just weeks after Byron's departure from England. Although published anonymously, Lady Caroline's authorship was an open secret. It featured a thinly disguised pen-picture of herself and her former lover, who was painted as a war hero who turns traitor against . The book was notable for featuring the first version of the Byronic hero outside of Byron's own work as well as a detailed scrutiny of the Romantic Period and, more specifically, the Ton. Lady Caroline included scathing caricatures of several of those prominent society members. One of them, the Countess of Jersey, cancelled Lady Caroline's vouchers to Almack's in retribution for her characterisations. This was the opening salvo in a backlash that found Lady Caroline blackballed from fashionable society: although her sister-in-law, Emily Lamb, Countess Cowper, got Lady Caroline readmitted to Almack's in 1819, her reputation never fully recovered.
Byron responded to the novel; "I read Glenarvon too by Caro Lamb….God damn!" The book was a financial success that sold out several editions but was dismissed by critics as pulp fiction. However, Goethe deemed it worthy of serious literary consideration.
In 1819, Lady Caroline put her ability to mimic Byron to use in the narrative poem "A New Canto." Years before, Lady Caroline had impersonated Byron in a letter to his publishers to have them send her a portrait of Byron. It worked; the tone and substance of her request fooled them into sending the painting. She used that skill to respond to Byron's "Don Juan I and II". Lady Caroline was most concerned with those allusions Byron had made about her; for example, the line "Some play the devil—and then write a novel" from "Don Juan II". In "A New Canto", Lady Caroline wrote – as Byron – "I'm sick of fame; I'm gorged with it; so full I almost could regret the happier hour; When northern oracles proclaimed me dull." Byron never publicly responded to the poem. A reviewer of the time opined, in part; "The writer of this lively nonsense has evidently intended it as an imitation of Lord Byron. It is a rhapsody from beginning to end."
Lady Caroline published three additional novels during her lifetime: "Graham Hamilton" (1822), "Ada Reis" (1823), and "Penruddock" (1823).
Later life and death.
Byron's confidante and close friend was his wife’s maternal aunt, William Lamb's own mother, the colourful Elizabeth Lamb, Viscountess Melbourne. Lady Melbourne had been instrumental in bringing about the politically advantageous marriage of her son to Lady Caroline, despite disliking both her and her mother.
However, once Lady Caroline began her affair with Byron, her mother-in-law began a long and blatant campaign to rid her son of his wife; as Lord David Cecil remarks, she had long since concluded that Caroline deserved all her misfortunes. William Lamb refused to submit and regretted that his mother had conspired against his wife with Byron. Calling Byron treacherous, William Lamb was supportive of his wife to her death.
Ultimately, it was Lady Caroline who prevailed on her husband to agree to a formal separation in 1825. Both parties had had numerous extramarital affairs by that time and Lamb had long been known to eschew duplicity. She took up permanent residence at Brocket Hall. Her struggle with mental instability became more pronounced in her last years, complicated by her abuse of alcohol and laudanum. By 1827, she was under the care of a full-time physician as her body, which had always been frail, began to shut down and she retained fluids (a condition then known as dropsy, and now known as oedema). William Lamb was Chief Secretary for Ireland by that time and made a perilous crossing to be by her side when Lady Caroline died on 25 January 1828.
Lady Caroline was buried in the graveyard of St Etheldreda's church in Hatfield; her husband was later buried within the church.
Popular culture.
In 1972, the film "Lady Caroline Lamb" was released to predominantly critical reviews with Sarah Miles in the lead role. In 2003, the BBC broadcast "Byron" with Jonny Lee Miller in the title role and Camilla Power as Lady Caroline Lamb.
The 1905 novel "The Marriage of William Ashe" by Mary Augusta Ward was based on Lady Caroline and her husband.
In the 1971 novel "Flash for Freedom" by George MacDonald Fraser, the lead character Harry Flashman names an African woman, taken as a slave, "Caroline Lamb."
The New York City band Glenarvon took their name from Lamb's novel of the same name.


Acastoides

Acastoides is an extinct genus of trilobite that lived during the Silurian and Devonian. It has been found in Bolivia, France, Morocco, Poland, Turkey and the United Kingdom.


Ichnia

Ichnia (, ) is a town in Pryluky Raion, Chernihiv Oblast of Ukraine, located on the Ichenka River. It hosts the administration of Ichnia urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Population is
History.
The city got its name from the river named Ichena (or Ichen'), which was in time renamed into Ichen’ka.
The first information about Ichnia dates back to the 14th century. From the 14th to 16th centuries, it was ruled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In the middle of the 16th century, Ichnia was granted with the status of a market town. In 1666, a town hall was built. Probably at this time, the Ichnia's castle was built. Residents of the city participated in the struggle against the Swedish army of Charles XII of Sweden during the Great Northern War.
In 1748, Ichnia's 20 households belonged to Knyaz N. Saakadze, and 119 households - Colonel from Pryluky G. Galagan. The town had a distillery, 6 water mills, and a brickyard.
As of 1788, three annual fairs were held in Ichnia, in which residents traded bread, cattle, victuals, and wooden utensils.
There were four schools in Ichnia in the 18th century.
In 1812, the Cossacks of Ichnia fought in the Chernigov Regiment during French invasion of Russia.
At the beginning of the 19th century, landowner G. Galagan founded a cloth factory in the town, as well as a sugar factory, 2 distilleries, brick factories, and saltpeter factories.
In 1894, the town was included into a local railroad connection. In 1897, there were four stone churches. The town operated a post office, hospital, rural and ministerial school, and library.
In 1957, Ichnia received the status of a town.
Nowadays, the leading industry in Ichnia is the food industry (alcohol, tobacco, feed mill, canning, and cheese-milk powder).
In October 2018, Ichnya became an epicenter of massive fire following an explosion at the munitions depot of the 6th Arsenal (military unit A-1479). More than 12,500 people were evacuated and a no-fly zone was established. The fire lasted for 23 days. According to the Ukrainian authorities sabotage was the cause of the explosions.
Until 18 July 2020, Ichnia was the administrative center of Ichnia Raion. The raion was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Chernihiv Oblast to five. The area of Ichnia Raion was merged into Pryluky Raion.
Notable natives.
Sonia Greene (16 March 1883 - 26 December 1972) - a one-time pulp fiction writer and amateur publisher, a single mother, business woman, and successful milliner, who bankrolled several fanzines in the early 20th century.
Ivan Martos (1754 — 5 April 1835) - a Russian sculptor and art teacher of Ukrainian origin, who helped awaken Russian interest in Neoclassical sculpture.
External links.
[[Category:Cities in Chernihiv Oblast]]
[[Category:Chernigov Governorate]]
[[Category:Cossack Hetmanate]]
[[Category:Cities of district significance in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Holocaust locations in Ukraine]]


Eretmosaurus

Eretmosaurus is an extinct genus of plesiosaur.
Taxonomic history.
"Eretmosaurus" was coined by Harry Govier Seeley for "Plesiosaurus rugosus" Owen, 1840. Richard Owen had coined the name "P. rugosus" for numerous vertebrae from the Early Jurassic Blue Lias of Gloucestershire and other unspecified locations in the UK. Later, Owen described a headless skeleton (NHMUK 14435) that he assigned to "P. rugosus", and Seeley used NHMUK 14435 as the basis for coining a new genus for this species.


Sandsfoot Grit

The Sandsfoot Grit is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.


Eparchy of Ras


2000 in Iceland

The following lists events that happened in 2000 in Iceland.


Konstantinos Photiadis

Konstantinos Photiadis (; died 1897) was the Ottoman-appointed Prince of Samos from 1874 to 1879.
Johann Strauss, author of "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the "Kanun-ı Esasi" and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages," stated that he held the highest positions a Christian could in the empire and described him as one of several "Eminent figures of the Greek community", in which he participated. He held a teaching position at the "Great National School" (Megalē tou Genous scholē), with the literature in the Turkish language being his subject of instruction.
He served as a counsellor in the local council of the island of Crete, and from 29 May 1873 to 26 May 1874, the Principal of Galatasaray High School, prior to being appointed Prince of Samos. He also constructed the Princely Palace and the harbour in Vathi. He started the construction of Karlovaso harbour and he completed the saltpit there. He also founded Samos hospital, the Seminary in Malagari and boarding schools in Vathi and Karlovaso. He also was the primary editor of the Greek language newspaper "Anatolikos Astēr" ("Eastern Star").
He knew Ottoman Turkish well, and he co-wrote a Greek-Turkish dictionary that was released in 1860, the first of its kind in the Ottoman Empire. He also was one of two translators of the "Mecelle" to its Greek version, "Nomikoi kanones ētoi Astykos Kōdēx" (Νομικοί κανόνες ήτοι Αστυκός Κώδηξ), the other being Ioannis Vithynos.
He also cofounded the Greek Literary Society (Syllogos).


2020 in Belgium

Events of the year 2020 in Belgium.


History of Sligo

The town of Sligo was founded in 1243 AD by the Norman knight Maurice Fitzgerald and Fedlim O'Conchobar the Rí Coiced (Provincial King) of Connacht. Norman influence appears to have lasted for about 60 years. From around 1310, after the Gaelic resurgence, the town existed well within the Gaelic cultural zone and developed on the Sligeach (Garavogue) river under the O’Conchobhar Sligigh dynasty and within the Irish túath of Cairbre Droma Cliabh as part of the Gaelic confederation of Iochtar Connacht (Lower Connacht) until the creation of County Sligo by the English Lord Deputy Henry Sidney in 1561.
Origins.
Name.
The name Sligo is a corruption of the Irish name "Sligeach", meaning "abounding in shells." It refers to the abundance of shellfish found in the estuary, and from the extensive shell middens along the shores of Sligo bay. The name initially referred only to the river, then was applied to the town and eventually, also the county created in 1561.
Prehistory.
see Archaeology of County Sligo
Ancient settlement has centred on the bay of Sligo since the first human presence in the area roughly 10,000 years ago as shown by extensive shell middens dating back to the Mesolithic era. The location was also strategic being placed in the narrow gap between Lough Gill and the sea, and also on the narrow coastal corridor that forms the main western route between the provinces of Ulster and Connacht. It is a crossing point of several routes and is a natural meeting-place. Sligo is on several fords across the Garavogue river. The town follows a ridge of higher ground paralleling the river on the south side, and the High street appears to follow the course of a stream leading to the river.
The area saw intense activity in the late 5th and early 4th millennium BC. The town is surrounded by Neolithic archaeological remains, some of which are within the urban area. An outlier of the extensive early Neolithic cemetery at Carrowmore is on the south bank of the Garavogue river above a fording point. The oldest currently known causewayed enclosure in Britain and Ireland is situated on the high ground southwest edge of the town at Magheraboy.
The area was densely enough settled to be known to Greek and Roman trading vessels being marked on Ptolemy's co-ordinate map of the 2nd century AD, where it is entered as the town of Nagnata. This is the only settlement marked on the west coast of Ireland by Ptolemy. It is possible traders were attracted by the silver and lead mines on the coast at Ballysadare. So where the exact site of Nagnata was remains unknown.
Early Christian.
List of monastic houses in County Sligo
The present site of the town may have been wooded during the 5th century. ""That there were woods along the Sligo river"," which is mentioned in Tírecháns "Life of Patrick", wherein the saint prophesied that in later times the sea would force people to move from the early church site of Killaspugbrone near Strandhill to the present location of the town further upriver.
The local Irish tuath, or territory, was called Cairbre Drom Cliabh or Críoch Cairbre. Another, older name, according to Acallamh na Sénorach was Críoch an Cosnámha (The District of Contention). Its age is unknown, but it appears to have acquired the name Cairbre in the 5th or 6th century AD.
Gaelic Ireland was not an urban society, but a form of proto-urbanisation was introduced at this time with the development of large monastic centres. Many religious establishments were created in the area during the early Christian period. The Columban monastery at Drumcliff was the largest centre of population from its foundation in 561 AD. The remains now consist of a High Cross and the only round tower in county Sligo. Another early church was at Kilmacowen.
By the early 12th century AD there was a bridge and a settlement in existence at the site of the present town.
A rath, or ringfort, called Rath na Bhritóg (Fort of the Britons) existed on what is now Holborn hill on the north side of the town, which is in the townland of Rathquarter. Rathedmond also has the remains of a large rath.
Norman Era.
With the Norman invasion of Connacht in 1236 AD by the French speaking Cambro-Norman knights, known as Galls (Gauls) to the Irish came a new type of settlement. The Normans brought the European urban model based on trade and a money economy.
Sligo, accessible by sea, and a sheltered port was ideal for Norman military strategy as they, descendants of Vikings, relied on amphibious operations to supply and reinforce their armies.
The Normans took advantage of political divisions inherent in Cairbres position on the frontier between the ancient provinces of Ulster and Connacht. After the arrival of the justiciar (representative) of the King of England, Maurice Fitzgerald land was granted to the clergyman Clarus MacMailenn of Lough Cé intended for the construction of a hospital. The building materials were gathered, but the order was then switched to a castle by Fitzgerald, who having the upper hand, ordered the building of a castle to secure the position. Fedlim O'Conchobar, King of Connacht was ordered to build a castle by Maurice Fitzgerald, the Norman baron and warrior. Maurice used the castle as a base to invade Tir Conaill (Donegal).
Warfare for control of Sligo castle was to become a constant feature from the building of the first castle in 1245, until the destruction of it which was still standing in 1691. (see Sligo Castle) The exact location and layout of Sligo castle remains unknown, as no trace now exists above ground. It is thought to have stood in Quay street, in the vicinity, or on the site of the present city hall. This area became known as Castlequarter.
The foundation of Sligo abbey, (actually a Dominican friary) in 1253 was followed by the clustering outside the abbey gates of houses of those providing services, or selling goods to the monks. The east side of the town surrounding the abbey became known as Abbeyquarter after The Holy Cross Dominican Friary. The Dominicans were a mendicant order, reliant on alms, and who preached to the poor of the towns. A monastery was built and a cemetery consecrated for the Preaching-friars in Sligo. This is the founding of the Abbey on Abbey street, Sligo town. The Preaching-friars marked out the site of another monastery at Ath Lethan.
In 1257 Maurice Fitzgerald was mortally wounded at the battle of Credran Cille to the north of the town near Ballincar. The Berminghams seized control of Tir FhiacrachUltimately, the Normans failed to retain control of the area despite numerous efforts, and were permanently expelled by about 1315. They had nonetheless, succeeded in laying the foundations for the modern town of Sligo which retains certain Norman characteristics to this day. The High street with a flare and market cross is typical of Norman urban layouts, as are the narrow burgage plots running at right angles to many streets are typical of Norman architecture and planning. They also brought their extensive merchant contacts with England, France and Spain which enhanced the wine trade and led to the development of the medieval Sligo port.
Gaelic Era.
Sligo is unique in Ireland as the only Norman medieval town to have been under Gaelic Irish control throughout the Medieval period, from around 1300 to 1600 AD. With the Europe wide slow down in urbanisation in the mid 14th century, and the Gaelic cultural resurgence, the town functioned as the centre of the Gaelic confederation of Íochtar Connacht.
Sligo town flourished during the Gaelic revival in the 14th and 15th centuries, trading with Galway and with French, Spanish and English merchants. Herring seems to have been an important commodity as it is mentioned in a Bristol sailors song of the early 15th century. At this time, Sligo was a prosperous trading port, exporting fish, wool, cow hide, and timber, while importing wine, salt and iron. Saffron was imported as well, for its use as a dye as well as indigo which is mentioned as a common colour for clothing in the Sligo area. The cocket of the port was a coveted income, much fought over between rival local dynasties.
Several merchants tower houses were built near the abbey and along Castle street. The Gaelic merchant family the O’ Creans operated from Sligo.
The castle and the variegated door. Horse races were held in the town in front of the castle at this time.
On Castle Point on the east side of Half Moon Bay at Annagh (Eanach) now known as Hazelwood is the site of a castle of O' Conchobar Sligigh. This area was the lucht tighe, household or demesne land of the chiefs of Cairbre Drom Cliabh. Sligo castle was in the hands of O Conor Sligo and was the “greatest i have seen in the hands of any Irishman” according to Henry Sidney.
The Leabhar na hUidhre, or Book of the Dun Cow, was kept in Sligo for 170 years after being taken from Tírconaill as ransom for the capture of the members of the clan who had been taken prisoner by Cathal Óg O'Connor.
The poet Tadg Dall O’hUiginn flourished at this time.
Elizabethan Conquest.
During the latter half of the 16th century, Sligo was targeted by the Elizabethan administration in Dublin as a strategic location for anyone attempting to control the northwest. The town now became caught between three different power blocs, the Earls of Clanricard to the west, the O'Donnell confederation Tírconaill to the north, and the Dublin government under the English Crown in the east. The town was destroyed during the Nine Years' War.
Under pressure from the O'Donnell's to the north, and the Clanricard Burkes to the south, in 1567, under the policy of surrender and regrant Domhnall O' Conchobar signed an agreement with Henry Sidney, agreeing to pay a set rent in exchange for protection. It was at this time that Sidney "shired" the area creating the English district known as County Sligo. As part of this agreement, O 'Connor had to allow a sheriff to operate in the county and the circuit court to administer according to English common law. Several sheriffs were killed trying to implement this.
In 1577 Sir Nicholas Malby, the English President of Connacht, reported that merchants based in Sligo had requested the building of town walls.
In 1588 three ships of the Spanish Armada's Levant squadron were lost off the coast of Streedagh beach in the north of the present county Sligo. The wreck-site was rediscovered in 1985. An account of the incident was written by the survivor Captain Francisco de Cuellar-
17th century.
The town was granted a charter in 1613 under James I. it became the principal town of the newly created County of Sligo. This marked a new phase as a borough and colonial administrative centre of English rule. Initially, using the abbey because its stone walls were defensible, the new High Sheriff Sir Roger Jones, established the new county administration along what is now Teeling St. Later, a new fortified tower was built nearby, known as Jones castle. The present courthouse and Garda station are in the same location.
English gradually became the majority language in the town, but Irish remained the majority language of the county until the late nineteenth century.
1641 Rebellion.
Unhappy with the changed power structure, the local Gaelic nobility rose up during the 1641 rebellion, reestablishing the Irish tuath system. This was to be the last time that Gaelic culture held sway over the region.
According to later depositions, a number of Protestant settlers within the town, were committed to the local gaol for their own safety, but were later allegedly massacred by a drunken mob.
Fighting with Frederick Hamilton who raided the town and burnt the abbey and executed the monks.
The Parliamentary government built a new stone fort, on or near the site of the old castle, and an earthen star fort, known as the Green fort on the hill north of the town, fortifications were also built at the entrance to Sligo shipping channel on Oyster island, and guarding the route inland through Lough Gill on Church island.
Williamite Wars.
Sligo changed hands five times during the 1688-1691 Jacobite/Williamite wars. The town was fortified by the infamous soldier Henry Luttrell.
The eccentric soldier, Sir Teague O'Regan, was the garrison commander for the Jacobite forces at Sligo.
Patrick Sarsfield retook the town.
Notably, the last recorded use of a siege tower, known as a sow, in Britain or Ireland, was at the siege of the stone fort in Sligo during this war. It was used to assault the stone fort on Quay St. It was not a success as the hides used to cover the sides were not musket proof.
Despite the wars, Gaelic culture remained strong in the area, the poem book Leabhar Cloinne Aodha Buidhe was written in Sligo in 1680 for Cormac O’ Neill by the poet Rúairí Ó hUigínn.
18th century.
The politics were dominated by the big landlords, mostly of military background, such as the Wynnes, who bought a 15,000 acre estate which included the town. The Wynnes seat at Hazelwood house was built in 1722 by Lieutenant General Owen Wynne after a design by Richard Cassels. Other large landowners were the Coopers of Markree, and the Gore Booths of Lissadell
Bliain an Áir (The Year of Destruction) struck in 1740, a famine caused by an unusual severe cold snap, devastating the population.
Maynooth Irish MS B 8, by
Gaelic learning continued with Henry MacCarrick, a merchant and scholar of Sligo town, who lived on High street and copied the Cuimre na nGeneleach.
The town was heavily garrisoned in the 18th century, having four barracks, two horse and two foot.
In 1794, Sligo was in turmoil with a campaign of agrarian violence by the Defenders
The forces of General Humbert, marched through Sligo county, during the 1798 Rebellion. They fought a battle at Collooney, in which the combined Irish and French force was victorious. Sligo town did not fall to the rebels, however, as Humbert overestimated the size of the garrison present and failed to march on it. The garrison was in fact preparing to abandon it. The Sligo Militia fought at Vinegar hill.
19th century.
Sligo port began to expand rapidly in the early 19th century.
An example of the type of trade is shown in this shipwreck 4 November 1807 the Portuguese brigantine Harmonia on voyage from Oporto to Sligo with cork, wine and oranges was driven ashore at Portreath Cornwall.
Emigration was already a feature of the west of Ireland and Sligo port was a busy embarkation point. A shipping advertisement of 1834 for passage to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, Quebec, Montreal and New York, declared
The first steamship arrived in Sligo harbour in 1831 belonging to the Glasgow and Liverpool Steam Shipping Company. Messrs Middleton Pollexfen ran sailing ships to Glasgow and Liverpool from 1840 to 1856 when they replaced them with steamers. In 1865 they created the Sligo Steam Navigation Company which lasted until 1936.
Sligo gaol was constructed in 1818 based on the panopticon design of Jeremy Bentham.
Disease and famine.
Sligo was badly affected by the 1832 Sligo cholera outbreak losing up to 2, 000 of its population. The fear and panic were vividly described by eyewitness Charlotte Blake-Thornley Stoker.
Prior to the famine, the population of county Sligo was 187,000 people, making it one of the densest populated areas in Ireland. Sligo was a major transit port for emigration, during An Gorta Mór (The Great Famine). In 1846, 11,000 emigrated through the port. Some of the worst coffin ships on record left from Sligo port. On the 9th of August 1847 the vessel "Bark Larch" arrived at the quarantine station at Grosse Isle, Canada from Sligo with 440 on board, of these, 150 were sick and 108 were dead, this was by far the worst ship at the port that day. Lord Palmerston, who held large estates in the county, achieved notoriety with his Assisted Emigrants scheme.
In 1871 between 25% to 50% of the county still spoke Irish as a first language, the county remained rural in character with over 70% involved in agriculture.
Landlords controlled almost all aspects of life. The town was on the lands of the Wynne estate based at Hazelwood house.
Sligo experienced rapid industrialisation during the 19th century, with many public buildings erected during this era including the town hall, Ulster bank, courthouse.
The Local Government Act of 1898 extended the franchise, resulting in the election of a nationalist council.
However, business and government posts remained almost exclusively in the hands of Protestants, and the struggle for equality of opportunity was to become a feature of the next century.
North Sligo MP P A McHugh was a nationalist and champion of workers rights until his death in 1909.
20th century.
Labour movement and strikes.
The rapid industrialisation of Sligo, unusual for the west coast, meant that conditions for the working poor were very bad. Houses and businesses were without sanitation facilities. In 1915 the death rate from tuberculosis was 3.4 per 1,000, almost double that of the rest of the country. Indicative of conditions at the time are the reports of a 1901 Local Government Inspector who noted for Corkrans Mall a
Trade unions were successful in the early 1900s and flourished between the years 1910 to 1914. In 1911 the ITGWU began organising workers in the town into a unified bloc after the Sligo Trades Council invited Walter Carpenter to speak. So successful was this that Sligo workers won a major strike in 1912, and won again in 1913 when employers tried to break the unions, resulting in the 1913 Sligo Dock strike. Other achievements of the Trades Council included a 50% pay rise for Corporation workers, victory in a cabinetmakers strike, better conditions for women workers, bakers and tailors. By 1914 it was acknowledged by the county Inspector that the “ITGWU was in complete control of the docks”. Sligo Corporation was also almost entirely made up of Labour candidates in 1913 and 1914 and an ITGWU councillor was elected mayor. Sligo Traded Council had been active since 1895.
Revolution and war.
War of Independence
Civil War
1919 PR-STV election, Sligo became the first municipality in Britain, or Ireland to use this voting system.
Free State and Republic.
Partition cut the town off from an extensive part of its hinterland in west Fermanagh and south Tyrone and trading contacts with Enniskillen and Belfast.
Sligo, whilst not directly on the border, was affected indirectly by the Troubles in Northern Ireland.