Kaniv

Kaniv (, ) is a city located in Cherkasy Raion, Cherkasy Oblast (province) in central Ukraine. The city rests on the Dnieper River, and is also one of the main inland river ports on the Dnieper. It hosts the administration of Kaniv urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Population:
Kaniv is a historical town that was founded in the 11th century by Kievan Prince Yaroslav the Wise. This pleasant city is known today mostly for the burial site of Taras Shevchenko, the great Ukrainian poet and artist.
Picturesque and ancient, Kaniv was once one of the largest cities of Kievan Rus'. At that time, it was an outpost used for diplomatic meetings between Ruthenian princes and ambassadors of militant tribes. Later, in the 18th century, it became a popular destination for elderly Cossacks, who wanted to live out their days on the banks of the great Dnieper River, and on the Chernecha Mountain, where, according to legend, a monastery stood in the past. The mountain remains one of Kaniv's most important places, attracting thousands of tourists to the city. Today it is most famous as a burial place of the celebrated Ukrainian poet and painter Taras Shevchenko, who is considered a founder of modern Ukrainian literature, which is located on Taras Hill overlooking the Dnieper. The Kaniv reserve is the oldest historical and cultural reserve in Ukraine. Spring is the best time to visit the Tarasova Hill. At this time, the territory is well-groomed and full of flowers.
Industry in the city includes Kaniv hydroelectric power plant located on the Kaniv Reservoir on the Dnieper, fruit and vegetable, condiments factory, large milk and cheese factory, poultry processing.
History.
The city's date of establishment is unknown. It was first mentioned in the Paterikon of Caves Monastery in Kyiv of the 11th century where it is mentioned about relocation of icon painters from Constantinople during rule of Vsevolod of Kyiv. The first mentioning of Kaniv in chronicles is dated 9 June 1144 when the Grand Prince of Kyiv Vsevolod II founded here the Church of St.George (Dormition Cathedral). In chronicles it is also mentioned that in 1149 the Grand Prince of Kyiv George the Long-Armed after conquering Kyiv appointed his son Gleb as a prince in Kaniv. The city was also mentioned later in chronicles often in relation to raids onto Cumans. Among the killed Ruthenian princes at the 1223 battle at Kalka River, there was mentioned Prince Svyatoslav of Kaniv.
Archaeological excavations indicated that before the 10th century near Kaniv already existed earlier Slavic settlement. Also, some documents indicate about existence of Holy Dormition Kaniv monastery in 11th century.
There is no definite information on the source and meaning of the city's name; supposedly its name is derived from the personal nickname Kanya ('buzzard'). M.P.Yanko in his Toponymic dictionary of Ukraine says that the name is derived from Turkish word meaning the place of khan. There are also number of other hypotheses on the city's name.
From mid 12th century Kaniv became a big city and played prominent role in the Kievan Rus' (Ruthenian state) where it was a center of an apanage principality within the principality of Kyiv. Until the 13th century, the central part of Kaniv was so called "Hellenic town" located at the Moskovka Mountain.
According to popular historic sources, in 1239 the city was conquered and razed by the Mongols.
Kaniv has been mentioned in report of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine after his 1245 travel to the Mongol Empire. In the report the city is mentioned as a Tatars post.
In the Middle Ages it was located on the Road from Varangians to Greeks. Initially part of Kievan Rus', in the 1362 it was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 14th century Grand Prince of Lithuania Vitautas built in Kaniv a castle that existed until 1768.
In 1431, it became part of the Lithuanian Kyiv Voivodeship. It was sacked by the Ottoman Turks in 1458. In 1569, Kaniv came under the rule of Poland, and it was also one of the centers of Cossack culture and military life. In 1600, it received the Magdeburg Rights, but the city's prosperity was halted by successive plagues, fires, and Cossack unrest. Kaniów was a royal city of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown. During The Deluge the town was captured by the forces of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1648.
In 1648-78 the city was center of the Kaniv regiment, Cossack formation of which was established long before the Khmelnytsky Uprising as part of the Polish registered Cossacks formations. In 1662, the Right-Bank forces of Yuri Khmelnytsky, supported by Polish and Crimean Tatar troops, were defeated in the battle of Kaniv by the Russian forces of Grigory Romodanovsky and the Left-Bank Cossacks of Yakym Somko. In 1678 the Kaniv regiment was overran by Turks and its administration was transferred to Bohuslav. In 1768, it was captured by one of the leaders of the Koliyivschyna, Maksym Zalizniak. As an effect of a pogrom, most of the local szlachta and Jews were killed.
In 1775 Kaniv became a personal property of the King of Poland Stanisław August Poniatowski who in 1777 gave it away to his nephew S.Poniatowski. In 1787, Kaniv was visited by Catherine II. She met there with Polish king Stanisław August Poniatowski.
Following the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 the town with large parts of other territories came under the control of the Russian Empire. In 1800 Poniatowski sold bigger portion of the city to archimandrite of the Kaniv Monastery of Saint Basil the Great B.Fizikiewicz who in his turn bequeathed his property to the local school of the Order of Saint Basil the Great.
During the later stages of the Great War, on May 11, 1918, the town was the seat of the Battle of Kaniów, in which the forces of the 2nd Polish Corps and the Polish Legions under Józef Haller de Hallenburg failed to break through the Austro-German lines to the Russian side. During the Second World War, Kaniv was a site of a tragically unsuccessful drop of Soviet paratroopers.
In 1978, Oleksa Hirnyk burned himself to death, on a hill near Shevchenko's tomb in protest of Russification. In 2007, he was honored as a Hero of Ukraine.
Rebuilt in 1966–70, since 1972 the Dormition Cathedral building was housing the newly established Kaniv folk art museum. After dissolution of the Soviet Union, the church was passed to the Easter Orthodox community of Moscow Patriarchate, while the museum was relocated to another former religious building that used to belong to the Ukrainian Order of Saint Basil the Great.
Until 18 July 2020, Kaniv was designated as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to Kaniv Raion even though it was the center of the raion. As part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Cherkasy Oblast to four, the city was merged into Cherkasy Raion.
Administrative status.
Kaniv is the administrative center of the Kaniv Raion (district). However, the city is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed within the city itself.
International relations.
Twin towns — Sister cities.
Kaniv is twinned with:


Antequera

Antequera () is a city and municipality in the Comarca de Antequera, province of Málaga, part of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia. It is known as "the heart of Andalusia" ("el corazón de Andalucía") because of its central location among Málaga, Granada, Córdoba, and Seville. The Antequera Dolmens Site is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
In 2011, Antequera had a population of 41,854. It covers an area of 749.34 km2 with a population density of 55.85 inhabitants/km2, and is situated at an altitude of 575 meters. Antequera is the most populous city in the interior of the province and the largest in area. It is the twenty-second largest in Spain. The city is located 45 km from Málaga and 115 km from Córdoba. The cities are connected by a high-speed train and the A-45 motorway. Antequera is 160 km from Seville and 102 km from Granada, which is connected by motorway A-92 and will be connected by the high-speed Transverse Axis Rail in the near future.
Due to its strategic position in transport and communications, with four airports located approximately one hour away and the railway running from the Port of Algeciras, Antequera is emerging as an important centre of transportation logistics, with several industrial parks, and the new Logistics Centre of Andalusia "(Centro Logístico de Andalucía)". In addition, the Vega de Antequera, watered by the river Guadalhorce, is a fertile agricultural area that provides cereals, olive oil, and vegetables in abundance.
The nearby natural reserve of El Torcal, famous for its unstable limestone rocks, forms one of the most important karst landscapes in Europe. It has an extensive archaeological and architectural heritage, highlighted by the dolmens of Menga, Viera, and El Romeral, and numerous churches, convents, and palaces from different periods and in different styles. Antequera played a role in the rise of Andalusian nationalism: it was the site of the drafting of the Federal Constitution of Antequera in 1883, and also of the so-called Pact of Antequera in 1978, which led to the achievement of autonomy for Andalusia. It was considered as a possible headquarters of the Andalusian government, but lost the vote in favor of Seville.
Geography.
Overview.
Antequera lies 47 km north of the city of Málaga on the A45 highway, at the foot of the mountain ranges of "El Torcal" and " Sierra de la Chimenea", 575 m above mean sea level. It occupies a commanding position overlooking the fertile valley bounded to the south by the Sierra de los Torcales, and to the north by the Guadalhorce River. At 817 km², the municipality is the largest, in terms of area, in the province of Málaga and one of the largest in Spain. The population is 41,197 (2002 census).
The saltwater Fuente de Piedra Lagoon, which is one of the few nesting places of the greater flamingo in Europe, and the limestone rock formation of the Torcal, a nature reserve and popular spot for climbers, are nearby. Across the Guadalhorce is "Peña de los Enamorados", ("The Lovers' Rock"), named after the legend of two young Moorish lovers from rival clans who threw themselves from the rock while being pursued by the girl's father and his men. This romantic legend was adapted by the English poet Robert Southey for his "Laila and Manuel", in which the lovers were a Muslim girl and her father's Christian slave.
Municipality.
Antequera borders with the municipalities of Humilladero, Mollina, Alameda, Benamejí (Province of Córdoba), Cuevas Bajas, Sierra de Yeguas, Fuente de Piedra, Campillos, Villanueva de Algaidas, Archidona, Villanueva del Rosario, Ardales, Colmenar, Casabermeja, Villanueva de la Concepción, Almogía, Valle de Abdalajís and Álora. The municipal territory includes the villages of Bobadilla, Cañadas de Pareja, Cartaojal, Colonia de Santa Ana, La Higuera, La Joya, Los Llanos, Los Nogales and Villanueva de Cauche.
History.
Prehistory.
On the northern outskirts of the city there are two Bronze Age burial mounds (barrows or dolmens), the "Dólmen de Menga" and the "Dólmen de Viera", dating from the third millennium BCE. They are the largest such structures in Europe.
The larger one, "Dólmen de Menga", is twenty-five metres in diameter and four metres high, and was built with thirty-two megaliths, the largest weighing about 180 tonnes. After completion of the chamber (which probably served as a grave for the ruling families) and the path leading into the centre, the stone structure was covered with earth and built up into the hill that exists today. When the grave was opened and examined in the nineteenth century, archaeologists found the skeletons of several hundred people inside.
The "Dólmen del Romeral", which dates from about 1800 BCE, is outside the city. A large number of smaller stones were used in its construction.
Los Silillos, a significant Bronze Age prehistoric village was uncovered several miles north of Antequera.
From the seventh century BCE, the region was settled by the Iberians, whose cultural and economic contacts with the Phoenicians and Greeks are demonstrated by many archaeological discoveries. In the middle of the first millennium BCE, the Iberians mingled with wandering Celts (see "Celtiberians") and with the civilization of Tartessos of southern Spain.
The dolmen complex of Menga, Viera, and Romeral was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2016 under the name "Antequera Dolmens Site". The manifest for recognition from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) also includes Peña de los Enamorados (Lovers' Rock) and El Torcal.
Ancient history.
The city was known to the Ancient Romans as Anticaria or Antiquaria. It lay within the lands of Tartessos and their successors the Turdetani, the most civilized of the Prehistoric Iberians. Carthaginian Iberia developed along the coast from the sixth century BCE, with their port of Malaca (Málaga) on Anticaria's coast. The Carthaginians expanded into the interior under Hamilcar Barca during the 230s BCE following Carthage's loss of Sicily during the First Punic War. The Roman Republic slowly conquered eastern Hispania over the course of the Second Punic War, cementing its control with Scipio Africanus's 206 BCE victory at Ilipa. The territory was ceded by Carthage in 201 BCE and Anticaria's region was organized as Hispania Ulterior in 197 BCE. That year, the Turdetani rose in revolt, being put down a few years later by legions under Cato the Elder. The area was then heavily Romanized with many colonies established nearby. The present street plan largely follows those of the Roman town. Following Agrippa's success in suppressing the Cantabri in northern Spain, Hispania was again reorganized: Anticaria then formed part of Hispania Baetica. Under the Romans, Anticaria was particularly known for the high quality of its olive oil. Spain became increasingly Christian after the second century.
During the fall of the Roman Empire, the area of Anticaria fell to the pagan Siling Vandals in the 410s. After they were attacked by the Visigoths, they voluntarily submitted to Gunderic of the Hasding Vandals and western Alans in 419. His half-brother Genseric succeeded him, eventually relocating his people to Africa. Spain was then dominated by the Visigothic Kingdom, which converted to Arian Christianity.
Middle ages.
The Arab invasion of the Iberian peninsula began in 711 under Tariq ibn-Ziyad. Anticaria was conquered around 716, becoming part of the Umayyad Caliphate under the name Medina Antaquira (Arabic for "Antaquira City"). Umayyad Spain was formally Muslim, but broadly (though not entirely), tolerant of other religions. Amid the "Reconquista", a coalition of Christian kings drove the Muslims from Central Spain in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Over the next few years, the Almohads were defeated and al-Andalus greatly reduced in strength. Medina Antaquira, which at that time had a population of about 2600, became one of the northern cities of the remaining Nasrid kingdom of Granada and an important border town. To defend against the Catholic Spanish troops from the northern kingdoms, fortifications were built and a Moorish castle erected overlooking the city. For about two hundred years, Medina Antaquira was attacked repeatedly.
On 16 September 1410, after a nearly 4-month siege, the city capitulated to a Castilian army led by the "infante" Ferdinand of Trastámara. The Muslim population was forced to leave their homes, departing to Archidona and Granada. Following a compromise, they surrendered the castle and their Christian slaves in exchange for being provided with beasts of burden to carry their goods out of the city. For two days, they were able to sell their properties. 895 men, 770 women and 863 children left. The settling for new Christian population was tasked to Rodrigo de Narváez. After the conquest and up until 1487, Antequera was attached to Seville from an ecclesial standpoint.
The city became part of the Kingdom of Seville, a realm of the Crown of Castile. On 20 February 1448, despite some earlier reluctance to take such a dangerous measure in a relatively big town, John II granted Antequera the privilege of "homicianos", thus easing the conditions for the settling of criminals seeking redemption. However demographic growth in Antequera, a borderland that had been recently endangered by the military campaign undertaken by Muhammad X in the area, did not substantially improve. By 1477 the situation was critical. Nasrids attempted to conquer the city, ravaging the crops and firing housing.
The city served as major military power base during the War of Granada.
Population boomed after the conquest of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs in 1487 (and the ensuing conquest of Granada in 1492), as concerns about military insecurity were left in the past.
Early modern history.
Throughout the 16th century Antequera, that enjoyed a rich neighbouring "vega" irrigated by the Guadalhorce, was noted as cereal production centre, and was key in the food provision of Málaga. The economic fabric of the city shifted from a borderland military-focused economy to the strengthening of the agricultural role in the early 16th century.
Antequera became an important commercial town at the crossroads between Málaga to the south, Granada to the east, Córdoba to the north, and Seville to the west. Because of its location, its flourishing agriculture, and the work of its craftsmen, all contributing to the cultural growth of the city, Antequera was called the "Heart of Andalusia" by the early sixteenth century. During this time the townscape also changed. Mosques and houses were torn down, and new churches and houses built in their place. The oldest church in Antequera, the late Gothic "Iglesia San Francisco", was built around the year 1500.
In 1504, the humanist university of the "Real Colegiata de Santa María la Mayor" was founded; it became a meeting place for important writers and scholars of the Spanish Renaissance. A school of poets arose during the sixteenth century that included Pedro Espinosa, Luis Martín de la Plaza, and Cristobalina Fernández de Alarcón. A school of sculpture produced artists who were employed mainly on the many churches built, and who were in demand in Seville, Málaga and Córdoba and the surrounding areas. The newly built churches included "San Sebastián" in the city centre and the largest and most splendid of the city, "Real Colegiata de Santa María", with its richly decorated mannerist façade.
Still more churches and convents were built into the eighteenth century (today there are 32 in the city altogether), as were palaces for the members of the aristocracy and the wealthier citizens, in the Spanish Baroque style.
Antequera's prosperity slowly came to a close at the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth. Spain had to accept the loss of its American colonies and lost a number of crucial military conflicts in Europe. That led to a deep economic crisis, which in some parts of the country, led people to turn to bartering. Church, aristocracy, and the upper middle class — the great landowners — who had been the clients and sponsors of the creative arts, lost most of their fortunes and could not afford to build more churches or palaces.
Late modern history.
Starting from the mid-eighteenth century, Spain underwent a series of reforms, in particular a land reform and the reduction of the power of the Church (the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767) that produced a slow economic recovery. In Antequera, textile production became the main industry. In 1804, yellow fever caused a setback, as well as the Napoleonic wars that broke out shortly after.
In the 1960s, the nearby Costa del Sol developed into an international tourist hotspot and Antequera experienced another economic upswing. Today the city is an important tourist and cultural center, nationally, as well as regionally.
Main sights.
Other buildings.
The city's museums house about 80% of all the art treasures in the province of Málaga, which makes it one of the cultural centres of Andalusia.
In the eastern suburbs there is one of the largest burial mounds in Spain, dating from the Bronze Age, and with subterranean chambers excavated to a depth of c. 20 m. See the Dólmen de Menga.
Economy.
Historically, the region's economy was based on the production and processing of agricultural products (olives, grain, and wool), as well as furniture manufacturing. In the mid-nineteenth century, it manufactured flannels, paper, leather, silk, and soap and it carried on a large trade in grain, fruit, olive oil, and locally-quarried marble. A large sugar industry was established in 1890. By the First World War, it lay on the Bobadilla–Granada railway and woolen textiles were being manufactured. The primary employers of the region, however, continued to be involved in the production and trade of grain, fruit, olive oil, and wine. The textile industry collapsed in the early twentieth century.
Today, tourism is the main industry and there are an increasing number of international visitors.
Transport.
Antequera has two railway stations: Antequera-Ciudad which is a stop for Media Distancia trains between Seville and Almería; and Antequera-Santa Ana which receives services on the Antequera–Granada high-speed rail line and the Madrid–Málaga high-speed rail line.


Isarn, Count of Pallars

Isarn (died 948) was the Count of Pallars from 920 until his death, and effectively a sovereign prince. He was the eldest of the four sons of Raymond I, Count of Pallars and Ribagorza. With his younger brother Lope he co-ruled Pallars after his father's death in 920. Their brothers Bernard and Miró co-governed Ribagorza. A fifth brother, Otto (or Ato), was Bishop of Pallars, which allowed the counts, especially Isarn, to effectively control the Church in their territories.
Isarn probably co-governed Pallars with his father from around 900. In 904 he was captured along with seven hundred others during a raid by the Qasawi Muslim lord of Lleida, Llop ibn Muhammad. From the "Códice de Roda" we know that he remained a prisoner at Tudela until 918, when he was liberated by his cousin, King Sancho I of Pamplona. As count, Isarn founded a convent, , at Burghals and made his daughter Ermengardis its first abbess in 945. At that date he signed a charter as "Domnus Isarnus comes et marchio dum resideret in Paliarensis regno": "Lord Isarn, count and margrave, while residing in the kingdom of Pallars." Isarn also had a son named William who succeeded him but died without descendants.


John Briggs (East India Company officer)

General John Briggs (1785–1875) was a British officer in the army of the East India Company, and an author.
Life.
Briggs entered the Madras Infantry in 1801. He took part in the Mahratta wars, serving in the final campaign as a political officer under Sir John Malcolm, whom he had previously accompanied on his mission to Persia in 1810. He was one of Mountstuart Elphinstone's assistants in the Dekhan, subsequently served in Khandesh, and succeeded Captain Grant Duff as resident at Sattára.
In 1831 Briggs was appointed senior member of the board of commissioners for the government of Mysore when the administration of that state was assumed by the British. His appointment to this office, which was made by the governor-general Lord William Bentinck, was not agreeable to the government of Madras, and after a stormy tenure which lasted around a year, Briggs resigned his post in September 1832. He was transferred to the residency of Nágpur, where he remained until 1835. In that year he left India, and never returned. In 1838 he attained the military rank of major-general. He became then lieutenant-general (1851) and full general on 6 February 1861.
After his return to England he took a prominent part as a member of the court of directors of the East India Company in the discussion of Indian affairs, and was an opponent of Lord Dalhousie's annexation policy. He was also an active member of the Anti-Corn-law League.
Briggs was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his proficiency in oriental literature. He died at Burgess Hill, Sussex, on 27 April 1875, at the age of eighty-nine.
Works.
He was a good Persian scholar, and translated Ferishta's "Mohammadan Power in India", and the "Siyar-ul-Murákhirin", which recorded the decline of Moghul power. He was also the author of an essay on the land tax of India, and in a series of "Letters Addressed to a Young Person in India" he discussed questions on the conduct of army officers, and civil servants, and especially their treatment of Indians. In 1836, he wrote an essay length tract advocating the professional training of the Indian Officer class of the East India Company's armies. Indian officers provided the crucial command, control and communication functions between British officers and the rank-and-file Indian sepoys and sowars.


Scandza

Scandza was described as a "great island" by Gothic-Byzantine historian Jordanes in his work "Getica". The island was located in the Arctic regions of the sea that surrounded the world.
The "Getica", written in 551 AD, gives a history of the Goths, beginning in Scandza from where they later migrated to Gothiscandza, near the mouth of the Vistula River. It is believed that Jordanes was describing Scandinavia. The Swedish archaeologist Göran Burenhult describes this account as a unique glimpse into the tribes of Scandinavia in the 6th century.
Jordanes was a Roman citizen living in Constantinople but described himself as being of Gothic descent.
Geographical description through history.
Early Greek and Roman geographers used the name "Scandia" for various uncharted islands in Northern Europe. The name originated in Greek sources, which used it for a long time for different islands in the Mediterranean region. In the Iliad the name denotes an ancient city in Kythira, Greece.
The first attested written use of the name for a Northern European island appears in the work of Roman Pliny the Elder, "Naturalis Historia" of c. AD 77. Pliny described "Scandia" as an island located north of Britannia. This island does not appear to be the same as the island Pliny calls "Scatinavia", located near Cimbri. In Claudius Ptolemy's "Geographia", written in the 2nd century AD, Scandia is described as the most easterly of the Scandiae islands, a group of islands located east of the Cimbrian peninsula. This is the region where Pliny had located "Scatinavia".
When Scandinavian scholars became familiar with the Roman records in the Middle Ages, Scandiae was used as an alternative Latin name for Terra Scania. The early 13th-century Latin paraphrase of the Scanian Law bears the title "Lex Scandiae provincialis".
Jordanes referred to Ptolemy's description of "Scandia" "as a great island shaped like a juniper leaf" (i.e. long and not round) "having bulging sides and which tapered down in the south at a long end". He also referred to Pomponius Mela's description of "Codanonia" (called "Scatinavia" by Pliny the Elder) which was located in the Codanian Gulf (probably Kattegat). "This island was in front of the Vistula and that there was a great lake" "from which sprang the river "Vagus"". "On the western and northern side it was surrounded by an enormous sea", "but in the east there was a land bridge which cut off the sea in the east forming the "Germanic Sea"". "There were also many small islands" (the Swedish and Finnish archipelagos) "where wolves could pass when the sea was frozen. In winter the country was not only cruel to people but also to wild beasts. Due to the extreme cold there were no swarms of honey-making bees."
In the 16th century, Olaus Magnus, a Swedish cartographer familiar with Pliny's writings, created a map where he placed the name "Scandia" in the middle of today's Sweden. In Olaus Magnus' map, the name denotes an area including "Svecia" (Svealand), "Gothia" and "Norvegia" (Norway), where he places various tribes described by the ancient geographers.
Although mainly a historical name, "Scandia" still occasionally continues in use today as a Latin name for Scandinavia. The Scandinavian Bishops Conference, an Episcopal Conference organized by the Catholic Church since 1923, is called "Conferentia Episcopalis Scandiae".
Midsummer sun and the midwinter darkness.
In the north, there was the nation of the "Adogit" (perhaps referring to the inhabitants of Hålogaland in Norway or the people of Andøya) who lived in continual light during the midsummer (for forty days and nights) and in continual darkness (for as long) during the midwinter. Due to this alternation they go from joy to suffering (the first description of the Scandinavian winter depression). The sun moreover seemed to pass along the horizon rather than rise from below.
Inhabitants.
Jordanes names a multitude of tribes living in Scandza, which he named a "womb of nations" (loosely translated), and says they were taller and more ferocious than the Germans (archaeological evidence has shown the Scandinavians of the time were tall, probably due to their diet). The listing represents several instances of the same people named twice, which was probably due to the gathering of information from diverse travellers and from Scandinavians arriving to join the Goths, such as Rodwulf from Bohuslän. Whereas linguists have been able to connect some names to regions in Scandinavia, there are others that may be based on misunderstandings.
On the island there were the "Screrefennae" (i.e. Sami peoples) who lived as hunter-gatherers living on a multitude of game in the swamps and on birds' eggs.
There were also the "Suehans" (Swedes) who had splendid horses like the Thuringians (Snorri Sturluson wrote that the 6th-century Swedish king Adils had the best horses of his time). They were the suppliers of black fox skins for the Roman market and they were richly dressed even though they lived in poverty.
There were also the "Theustes" (the people of the "Tjust" region in Småland), "Vagoths" (probably the Gutes of Gotland), "Bergio" (either the people of "Bjäre Hundred" in Skåne, according to L Weibull, or the people of Kolmården according to others), "Hallin" (southern Halland) and the "Liothida" (either the "Luggude Hundred" or "Lödde" in Skåne, but others connect them to Södermanland) who live in a flat and fertile region, due to which they are subject to the attacks of their neighbours. Other tribes were the "Ahelmil" (identified with the region of Halmstad), the "Finnaithae" ("Finnhaith-", i.e. "Finnheden", the old name for Finnveden), the "Fervir" (the inhabitants of Fjäre Hundred) and the "Gautigoths" (the Geats of Västergötland), a nation which was bold and quick to engage in war. There were also the "Mixi", "Evagreotingis" (or the "Evagres" and the "Otingis" depending on the translator), who live like animals among the rocks (probably the numerous hillforts and "Evagreotingis" is believed to have meant the "people of the island hill forts" which best fits the people of Bohuslän). Beyond them, there were the "Ostrogoths" (Östergötland), "Raumarici" (Romerike), the "Ragnaricii" (probably Ranrike, an old name for a part of Bohuslän) and the most gentle "Finns" (probably the second mention of the Sami peoples mixed for no reason). The "Vinoviloth" (possibly remaining Lombards, "vinili") were similar.
He also named the "Suetidi"; a second mention of the Swedes It can also be relevant to discuss if the term "Suetidi" could be equated with the term "Svitjod". The Dani were of the same stock and drove the Heruls from their lands. Those tribes were the tallest of men.
In the same area there were the "Granni" (Grenland), "Augandzi" (Agder), "Eunixi", "Taetel", "Rugii" (Rogaland), "Arochi" (Hordaland) and "Ranii" (possibly the people of Romsdalen). The king Rodulf was of the Ranii but left his kingdom and joined Theodoric, king of the Goths.


Panellinion (steamship)

The steamship Panellinion () was one of the first Greek ships of its kind with a propeller, used initially as a postal ship, later as an auxiliary warship, and finally as a merchant ship for almost half a century. The ship had a distinguished career and rose to fame in the country.
Shipbuilding.
Built in 1855, during the reign of King Otto, it was part of the efforts to modernize and renew the Royal Greek Navy. The ship was built in the Henderson ship yards under the supervision of G. Tombazis. It had two masts and a chimney. Its speed reached 11 knots.
After this ship was built, another four were ordered creating the most advanced fleet of its kind in the Eastern Mediterranean and were used for the postal service:
With the arrival of the "Panellinion" and her sister ships in 1857, a special contract was signed with the then new Hellenic Steamships company of Ermoupolis to undertake seaborne transportation which until then barely existed.
Cretan revolt of 1866.
During the reign of King George I, a revolution began in Crete in 1866. "Panellinion" along with "Hydra" were equipped at the Syros shipyard with two guns each and were immediately used to break the Ottoman blockade of Crete as well as with the delivery of troops and supplies. Due to the restricted capacity, these two ships were later replaced by "Arkadi", "Kriti", and "Enosi".
During this revolution, "Panellinion" conducted a total of nine missions and several smaller reconnaissance patrols. In the three years of service in the revolution, its commanders were N. Sachtouris, B. Orloff, and N. Angelikaris.
On 1 October 1866, after the "Panellinion" delivered a squad of volunteers under the command of major Charalambos Zymvrakakis and supplies in Loutro, it was engaged by the Ottoman coast guard. However, it managed to escape by cutting its anchor off.
Cretan Revolt (1878).
During the 1878 revolution in Crete, "Panellinion" played a similar role and completed 17 missions. Its commanders during this period were N. Sourmelis and N. Drivas.


2000 Polish presidential election

Presidential elections were held in Poland on 8 October 2000. Incumbent President Aleksander Kwaśniewski was easily re-elected in the first round with more than 50% of the vote.
Background.
President Kwaśniewski was seen as very likely to win re-election in the run up to the presidential election with polls showing that his popularity was high as 70% support. His main challenger was expected to be Marian Krzaklewski from the Solidarity Electoral Action, which had formed the government since winning the last parliamentary elections in 1997. The other main candidate was a former Foreign Minister and more liberal conservative Andrzej Olechowski, who won support from voters who were discontented with both of the other main candidates and in particular younger voters, businessmen and intellectuals.
Candidates seen as having less of a chance included Andrzej Lepper, a populist farmers leader who opposed entry into the European Union and former president Lech Wałęsa. Wałęsa was rejected as the candidate for the Solidarity party he had won the presidency for, and thus ran separately in the election.
In order to be elected in the first round a candidate had to gain over 50% of the vote. If no candidate reached this level, then a second round would have been held between the top two candidates. As the campaign continued, the biggest question in the election was whether or not incumbent President Kwaśniewski would win the 50% required to avoid a second round.
In the August before the election Kwaśniewski and another former president and candidate Lech Wałęsa were investigated by a court on allegations that they had been informers for the Communist secret police. If they had been found guilty they could have been banned from seeking election to political office for 10 years. However they both claimed that the evidence had been manipulated by political opponents and were cleared by the court.
Solidarity candidate Krzaklewski attacked Kwaśniewski for his past as a Communist party activist. However opinion polls in August showed this had little effect with Kwaśniewski well ahead with over 60% support, while Krzaklewski was second and Olechowski third, but both a long way behind. President Kwaśniewski's campaign focused on reconciling all of Poland with slogans including "Poland, our common home". Most voters felt he had done well as President and he was seen as having done a good job in guiding Poland to membership of NATO. Krzaklewski's popularity was not high due to the infighting in the government led by his Solidarity party since they had won the 1997 parliamentary election. Meanwhile, Lech Wałęsa trailed badly in the polls with only about 2% support, which Wałęsa saw as being due to voters seeing him as being responsible for the pain involved in the transition from communism.
In the election 3 candidates ran on platforms against the European Union. During the campaign one of them, Andrzej Lepper, was arrested for illegally blocking a customs post, however he claimed that this was an attempt to sabotage his campaign.
As the election neared Kwaśniewski dropped in the polls and it became uncertain whether he would win the 50% required to avoid a second round. This followed a television advertisement from Solidarity candidate Krzaklewski in which Kwaśniewski was accused of having mocked Pope John Paul II. The video showed Kwaśniewski apparently urging his security advisor to kiss the ground is a parody of the Pope, although Kwaśniewski claimed this was inaccurate. At least one poll showed Kwaśniewski's support having dropped by 10% in one week following this, however it was the other main candidate, Andrzej Olechowski, who benefited as Krzaklewski was seen as being tarnished for having run a negative campaign.
Candidates.
There was no second round since Aleksander Kwaśniewski got over 50% in the first round.
First Round
Results.
Incumbent President Kwaśniewski won the election in the first round receiving almost 54% of the vote. Independent Andrzej Olechowski came second beating Solidarity candidate Krzaklewski into third place. Meanwhile, former President Lech Wałęsa only won 1% of the vote and following the election stood down as leader of his small Christian Democratic party.


Stobno, Lower Silesian Voivodeship

Stobno is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wołów, within Wołów County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It lies approximately south of Wołów and north-west of the regional capital Wrocław.
History.
The settlement dates back to prehistoric times, and there are archaeological sites from the Bronze Age and the Early Middle Ages in Stobno. The earliest mention concerning this village dates from 1259, when it was part of Piast-ruled Poland, within which it was located since the late 10th century. As a result of the fragmentation of Poland, it was located within the Duchy of Głogów, which in 1506 was incorporated to the Kingdom of Bohemia, then ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty, and after 1526 under the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1742 it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, and from 1871 to 1945 it was part of Germany.


Timeline of Novara

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Novara (anciently called Novaria) in the Piedmont region of Italy.
See also.
Timelines of other cities in the macroregion of Northwest Italy:()
References.
"This article incorporates information from the Italian Wikipedia."


Battle of Skalitz

Battle of Skalitz was a minor engagement in the Königgratz/Sadowa campaign of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 in Bohemia on June 28. The Battle of Nachod the previous day (June 27, 1866) set the scene for Steinmetz to advance on Skalitz (Česká Skalice) where he defeated Archduke Leopold.
Events.
Having been beaten the previous day by Steinmetz at Nachod, the Austrians had regrouped at the Aupa heights near Skalice, a town with only one bridge over the river Aupa. There Ramming's VI Corps was relieved by Archduke Leopold's VIII Corps. Benedek, having reached the field and scouted the terrain, decided by 11:00 am to abandon any thought of counterattacking the Prussians with the combined VI, VIII and IV Corps, resumed his march towards Jičín, and ordered the VIII Corps to abandon Skalice if by 2:00 pm no serious battle had started. After transmitting these orders Benedek departed towards his main army. Merely 15 minutes after Benedek left, the battle erupted.
While the Austrians prevaricated, Steinmetz decided at 8:30 am to send eight infantry battalions and three batteries of the 9th Division to test the VIII Corps' left flank, while his 10th Division would engage and pin the Austrian center. By 11:00 the 9th Division was nearing the Fragnern brigade and the Prussians infiltrated the tactically vital Dubno Forest. At 12:30 Fragnern on his own initiative decided to use his brigade to dislodge the Prussians in the woods and he left his strong position atop the hill to attack them in the woods. General Fragnern's charge was met by concentrated Prussian infantry fire from the Dreyse needle gun and he was killed and 3,000 men of his brigade were killed or wounded. Fragnern's brigade was shattered and abandoned the field in panic.
The next brigade in the Austrian line, Kreyssern's, was then sucked into the ill conceived Austrian counter push. Feeling obliged to shore up Fragnern's faltering brigade, General Kreyssern sent five battalions to support the fleeing regiments from Fragnern's command. Kreyssern's battalions were met by a Prussian grenadier regiment from 9th Division and a brigade from 10th Division near the railway embankment. Kreyssern was killed during the fire fight and his brigade collapsed, enabling the Prussians to reach Skalice's railway station. 10th Division then attacked VIII Corps' center and right while 9th Division turned the Austrian left flank. At 2:15 pm, recognizing the danger of being cut off from his lone bridge, Archduke Leopold ordered VIII Corps to retreat, which turned into a headlong flight. By 3:00 pm the Prussians had taken Skalice.
Results.
Having been led by an incompetent princely commander who, according to Wawro, did not give a single order during the battle, and subordinates launching attacks without orders, the Austrian VIII Corps was badly mauled. In all it lost about 6,000 men, amongst which were 3,000 prisoners. As a cause of the battle, Benedek prevaricated and halted Northern Army's advance on Jičín, which enabled the Prussian armies to link up and envelop his army, and ultimately lead to his defeat at Königgrätz.


Theodore Sigritsa

Theodore Sigritsa () or Sigritzes (died 924) was a Bulgarian military commander and noble, "kavkhan" (first minister) of Emperor Simeon I (r. 893–927).
In 895 he headed a delegation in Constantinople for exchange of prisoners and captives between Bulgaria and Byzantium during the Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896. In the first year of the Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927 Theodore worked out the prearrangement for peace after arduous and prolonged negotiations, which included the coronation of Simeon as Emperor of the Bulgarians. He participated in a successful campaign against the Principality of Serbia in 917, but in 924 he and Marmais, leading a small army, were ambushed by the Serbs and killed. Their deaths were followed by the Bulgarian annexation in the same year.


List of years in Switzerland

This is a list of years in Switzerland. See also the timeline of Swiss history. For only articles about years in Switzerland that have been written, see .


2020 Deauville American Film Festival

The 2020 Deauville American Film Festival was the 46th edition of the Deauville American Film Festival, held at Deauville, France from September 4 to 13, 2020. The festival was held in spite of the COVID-19 pandemic.
French singer and actress Vanessa Paradis was appointed as the President of the Jury. The festival paid tribute to Kirk Douglas. The Grand Special Prize was awarded to "The Nest" directed by Sean Durkin. "The Nest" film was also awarded with the International Critics' prize and the Revelation Prize.


2005 in Sweden

Events from the year 2005 in Sweden


Welf II, Count of Swabia

Welf II ( - died 10 March 1030) was a Swabian count and a member of the Elder House of Welf.
Life.
He was a younger son of Count Rudolf II and Ita, a daughter of Duke Conrad I of Swabia of the Conradine dynasty. He constructed a castle at Ravensburg.
In the 1020s, Welf feuded with the Augsburg and Freising bishops. He pillaged the treasury of Bishop Bruno of Augsburg, brother of Emperor Henry II, and sacked the city of Augsburg.
Welf opposed the election of the Salian count Conrad II as King of the Romans in 1024 because it did not suit his interests, but he had to eventually relent. The next year he joined a rebellion launched by the Babenberg duke Ernest II of Swabia, but finally submitted in 1027. He died, probably in captivity, in 1030. He was buried at Weingarten Abbey.
Marriage and issue.
Welf II was married to Imiza, daughter of Count Frederick of Luxembourg. With Imiza, Welf had at least two children:


Clan McQuillan

Clan McQuillan () is an Irish clan that descends from the north coast of County Antrim, Ireland. Still a popular name throughout County Antrim, the McQuillans are known mostly for their association with Dunluce Caste and for their battles with the Scottish McDonnell clan.
Origin of name.
The name McQuillan is of disputed origin, with two prevailing theories:
Spelling variations for the name McKellen include: McQuillan, McQuillen, McQuillian, McQuillin, McQuillon, McCailin, McAilin, MacQuillian, MacQuillon, MacCaillion, MacQuillin, MacQuillan, McKillan, McQuilland, McAiland, McAylin, McCaillion, McKillion, McKillin, McKillon, MacKillan, MacQuilland, MacAyland, MacAilan, Quillan and many more.
History.
In 1442, according to the Annals of Ulster, the MacQuillan-O'Cahan feud started.
By the 1460s, with the earldom of Ulster near its end, the surviving de Mandevilles of north Antrim deserted their manors in Twescard and sold their interests to the MacQuillans who were already established there. The MacQuillans would rename Twescard, the Route, after their "rout", a common term then for a private army. Their principal residence in the Route was at Dunluce Castle, near the mouth of the River Bush.
The end of the MacQuillan-O'Cahan feud came in 1559, when their allies, the MacDonnells of the Glens turned upon them. Sorley Boy MacDonnell, with the aid of levies from Scotland, launched a mass assault on the Route against the MacQuillans. The final battle of this assault was at Aura, and saw the end of the MacQuillans and the conquest of the Route by the MacDonnells.


Officer Concentration Station Rothesay

Officer Concentration Station Rothesay (Polish language: Stacja Zborna Oficerów Rothesay) was a military center of Polish Armed Forces in the West. Created on August 14, 1940 (Order Nr. L.dz. 1977/I.tjn.40), as Officer Camp Nr. 23, it was located in Rothesay, Bute, Scotland.
Officers of the Polish Army, who were sent to the camp, were billeted in several local hotels, such as „Craigmor”, „Craignetham Private Hotel”, „Madras”, „Glenearu”, „Ardyn”, „Struan”, „Bute Arms”, „Esplanade”, „Grand Marine”, „Royal” and „Victoria”. With the permission of Commander-in-chief of Polish Army and British authorities, families of officers were allowed to join them. The relatives of the officers were treated as foreign subjects, and since the Isle of Bute was located in a protected zone, special permission was required to enter the town of Rothesay.
On August 28, 1940, all officers began compulsory English courses, and on September 10, the camp was renamed into Officer Camp Nr. 2 Rothesay.
Due to protests of British Members of Parliament, all officers from Rothesay were in the spring of 1942 sent to different locations, officially for training purposes. Only a handful of sick and senile officers remained there.
Among commandants of the camp were: General Boleslaw Jatelnicki-Jacyna, General Stefan Jacek Dembinski and Colonel Kazimierz Rumsza.
Generals of the Polish Army, who were kept in the camp:


Christoforos Perraivos

Christoforos Perraivos () was a Greek officer of the Greek War of Independence, member of the Filiki Eteria and author. In non-Greek sources his name is usually found as "Per(r)evo(s)."
Biography.
Perraivos was born on 3 April 1773 in the village of Palioi Poroi, Pieria. His family name was Hatzivasiliou (Χατζηβασιλείου), but adopted the nickname “Perraivos” alluding to the Perrhaebi, an ancient Greek tribe of Thessaly. It is believed that he was an illegitimate son of a certain monk Hieronymos, an official at the Metropolis of Larissa.
In 1793, with the help of the said Hieronymos, he left Greece to study at the Greek School in Bucharest and in 1796 to study medicine in Vienna. There he met the Greek humanist and revolutionary Rigas Feraios and entered an underground revolutionary organization. In 1797 Perraivos was arrested with Rigas and others by the Austrian authorities in Trieste but, unlike Rigas Feraios who was handed over to the Turks, Perraivos was released.
Afterwards he left for Corfu, then under French administration, and enlisted in the foreign units of the French army. He remained there when the Russians took over the Ionian Islands in 1798. He fell into disfavour with the Russians but he managed to stay in Corfu and to serve in the army, thanks to the protection of the Greeks Eleftherios Benakis (a Russian agent) and Georgios Palatinos (secretary of the Russian Admiral). In Corfu he worked also as a teacher in Greek schools from 1804. During 1805-1806 he was attached to the Russian admiral Mikhail Dolgorukov and later was given the rank of major by the Russian admiral Dmitry Senyavin. As a commander of 4 units of 100 men ("hekatontarchies") he defended the island of Lefkada (one of the Ionian islands, then "Santa Maura") that was threatened by Ali Pasha.
When the French occupied the Ionian Islands for a second time in 1807 he retained his rank and became a member of the Albanian Regiment, established the same year (Boppe, p. 11). Memoirs of his service under the Russians and the French are included in his “History of Souli and Parga”. This work was written in Corfu in 1801, where he stayed till 1817. Its first volume was published in Greek in 1803 in Paris and includes the earliest historical essay on Souli based on first-hand informations gathered from Souliotes refugees fighters in the island. It also includes information on the activities of Russia, France and Britain in the Ionian and Adriatic during the Napoleonic Wars and the wars against Ali Pasha and the Ottomans. It was translated into Italian by C. Gherardini in 1815 and from Italian to English in 1823.
In 1817, after the departure of French from Corfu, he emigrated to Russia. In Odessa he met the leaders of the Filiki Eteria and became a member of this organization. Following the orders of the Eteria he travelled to the semi-autonomous Mani Peninsula to organize the revolution against the Ottoman Empire. In Wallachia he met Alexander Ypsilantis, the political and military head of the Greek revolution, in 1820 and tried to persuade him to postpone the uprising. However, Ypsilantis, resolved to begin the revolution in March 1821, sent Perraivos to Epirus to coordinate with the Souliotes and other captains whom he knew from Corfu. He was in Epirus on the outbreak of the revolution (March 1821) and fought with the Souliotes in various battles, as in the siege of the Riniassa castle. After the treaty between Souliotes and Ottomans and the evacuation of Souli, he went to Missolonghi and then to other parts of Greece, participating in many military campaigns and political missions. In 1829 participated in the Fourth National Assembly at Argos as a representative of Thessaly. After independence he authored his "War memoirs".
He served in the regular army of the new Greek Kingdom as a lieutenant general, and was promoted to General by King Otto of Greece in 1844.
He died on 4 May 1863 in Athens.


Werner Holmberg

Gustaf Werner Holmberg (1 November 1830 – 24 September 1860) was a Finnish landscape painter.
Biography.
Early life.
Holmberg was born in Helsinki. His father was Olof Henrik Holmberg (1799–1863) and mother Josefina Gustava Federley (1806–1840). His mother passed away from a lung disease and Olof raised his six surviving children with the help of his sisters. Werner was interested in painting from a young age, taking private lessons from and later Magnus von Wright. He also learned oil painting from Johan Erik Lindh. In 1848 he became a student at the just-formed Academy of Fine Arts. However his father Olof wanted his son to study law, so in his first year of university studies he also worked part-time at the National Board of Customs. At the university he learned painting from Berndt Godenhjelm and von Wright again. In 1850 he helped Robert Wilhelm Ekman paint frescoes in the Turku cathedral. In 1853 he finished his studies.
Study at Düsseldorf.
In July 1853 he moved to Düsseldorf as the first Finnish art student, after many Norwegian and Swedish art students had already gone there to study. He studied there under Hans Gude. Erik Bodom was also recruited to help him with his work. Nordic topics were popular in Germany, and he first focused on them with works such as "The Kyrö Rapids". His breakthrough was in 1856 with "Autumn Morning", and with the new-found fame he was able to quickly sell all of his paintings. By this point Gude recognized Holmberg as fully trained and ended his tutorship, although they still kept close contact. As he ran out sketches of Finland, he began painting German landscapes.
After the study at Düsseldorf.
In 1857, after four years of being away, he returned to Finland, spending time with relatives. In the summer of 1858 he spent time in Norway and married Norwegian Anna Glad (1834–1909), a painter and daughter of the commander of Akershus Fortress, Christian Glad. Gude also spent some time with Holmberg in Norway, painting watercolor sketches together near Christiania. Holmberg had settled to live in Düsseldorf where he spent the winter with Anna. They visited Finland in the summer of 1859 and spent time in Kuru.
Death.
But by early 1860 he was having considerable difficulties with his lungs, relating to tuberculosis that he had already struggled with for years. In the spring they had a daughter, Betzy (who later became a composer) but the couple also ran into some financial troubles as they had a harder time selling paintings. The situation looked brighter again when he was invited to be a professor of landscape art in a new art school in Weimar. However, the invitation was cancelled and Werner was now bedridden with his sickness. As he died in September, many of his paintings were left unfinished. One of his sisters and an older brother had also died from the same sickness.
Legacy.
Holmberg is the first Finnish painter to have received international recognition. His effect especially to Finnish landscape painting was large.


French indemnity

The French indemnity was the indemnity the French Third Republic paid to the German Empire after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.
Background.
An armistice was concluded on 28 January 1871 to allow elections to the French National Assembly. A preliminary peace was signed on 26 February with the Treaty of Frankfurt signed on 10 May.
The Prussian State Ministry on 8 February recommended an indemnity of 1 billion thaler (3 billion francs), 95% of which would be paid to the army. The Prussian Finance Minister Otto von Camphausen said:
The German nation had after all suffered so many additional losses in blood and material goods which are beyond all accounting that it is entirely justified to assess the price of the war generously and in addition to the estimated sum to demand an appropriate surcharge for the incalculable damages.
The Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck sent his personal banker Gerson von Bleichröder to negotiate between the French government and French financial circles. Adolphe Thiers, the head of the French provisional government, offered an indemnity of 1.5 billion francs and claimed that France would be unable to pay 5 billion. Bismarck responded by saying that the Prussian Army would occupy France, "we will see if "we" can get 5 billion francs from it". Bismarck wrote that "France being the richest country in Europe, nothing could keep her quiet but effectually to empty her pockets".
The French National Assembly ratified the terms by 546 votes to 107.
Indemnity.
The indemnity was 5 billion francs (£200 million or $1 billion), with German troops occupying France until it was paid. The 5 billion gold marks, converted using the retail price index in 2011, was worth 342 billion. Converted using the GDP deflater it amounted to 479 billion and substantially more according to other comparisons such as GDP per head.
The indemnity was proportioned, according to population, to be the exact equivalent to the indemnity imposed by Napoleon on Prussia in 1807.
Aftermath.
The last payment of the indemnity was paid in early September 1873, two years before the deadline, and the German army of occupation was withdrawn in mid-September.
It was generally assumed at the time that the indemnity would cripple France for thirty or fifty years. However, the Third Republic that emerged after the war embarked on an ambitious programme of reforms: it introduced banks, built schools (reducing illiteracy), improved roads, increased railways into rural areas, encouraged industry and promoted French national identity rather than regional identities. France also reformed the army, adopting conscription.
In Germany the swift payment of the indemnity caused a stock market boom, along with an asset bubble in the form of a property boom. This lasted until the Panic of 1873 which ushered in the Long Depression until 1896.


Duchy of Modena


Saint Greca

Saint Greca (12 October 284 – 21 January 304, Decimomannu) was a Christian woman who lived on Sardinia. According to tradition she was martyred during the Diocletianic Persecution. She is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church.
History.
Tradition holds that the saint was a Christian living in Decimomannu in the 3rd and 4th centuries who was imprisoned and whipped. She was then tortured by having three nails hammered into her head to try to force her to recant her faith, before finally being beheaded in 304.
Though there are no sources attesting to her martyrdom's historicity, the cult around saint Greca the martyr dates back at least to the 14th century, when she is mentioned in several documents, especially those referring to the convent at Decimo, which was attached to the church of Santa Greca. That monastery dated back to the 9th century - a coffin for a nun named Greca from that era has been found in Fangariu Cagliari. A document of 1413 relating to the appointment of an abbess refers to the "monastery and church of saint Greca, martyr, in the town of Decimo" - this is the earliest reference to saint Greca as a martyr. The present church was rebuilt in the 18th century but still includes the 11th century semi-circular apse reusing proto-Roman building material.
In 1618 an inscribed tombstone from the 4th or 5th century was rediscovered, rediscovered in Decimomannu near the ancient church of Santa Greca in 1560. It records a woman called Greca aged 20 years, 2 months and nineteen days and that she was buried on 21 January. Based on these dates and assuming 304 was the year she died, her birthdate has been hypothesized as 12 October 284. The inscription also bears the Christ monogram and precedes Greca's name with "B. M.", the Latin abbreviation for "Beatae memoriae" (of blessed memory) or "Bene merenti" (well worthy), rather than as previously thought "Beata Martyr" (blessed martyr)).
The inscription was soon linked to the existing cult of saint Greca and Francisco d'Esquivel, archbishop of Cagliari inserted a festival of saint Greca into his diocese's liturgical calendar. In 1633 excavations at the church began - these unearthed a single tomb in the church, containing a single human skeleton. Considered to be relics of saint Greca, the skeleton was divided in two, with half being placed in the Sanctuary of the Martyrs in Cagliari Cathedral and the other half remaining at Decimo. At the request of the Sacred Congregation of Rites the feast of saint Greca was removed from the diocese's calendar in 1882, only for the Congregation to re-insert it the following year among feasts honoured by local cults. By a decree dated 31 May 2016, Arrigo Miglio, Metropolitan Archbishop of Cagliari, made the church of Santa Greca into a diocesan sanctuary under the title of "Sanctuary of Saint Greca Virgin and Martyr of Decimomannu". On 22 September the same year a Holy Door was opened at the church and it remained open throughout the festivities around Greca's saint's day.


Aosta Cathedral

Aosta Cathedral (; ) is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Aosta, in north-west Italy, built in the 4th century. It is the episcopal seat of the Diocese of Aosta.
In the 11th century the Palaeo-Christian structure was replaced by a new one, dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist. The architecture of the cathedral was modified during the 15th and 16th century.
The present façade, in Neoclassical style, was built between 1846 and 1848. The structures remaining from the Romanesque period are two clock-towers and the crypt, and also the remaining part of an Ottonian fresco cycle on the church ceiling.


Cadbury Hill

Cadbury Hill is a small hill, mostly in the civil parish of Congresbury, overlooking the village of Yatton in North Somerset. On its summit stands an Iron Age hill fort, which is a Scheduled Ancient Monument.
Background.
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of the 1st millennium BC. The reason for their emergence in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture. The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain. Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze, and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status. Power passed into the hands of a new group of people. Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated "[the forts] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [of an increasing population] burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn't see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction".
Archaeology.
The hill fort is known, in archaeological circles, as Cadbury-Congresbury in order to differentiate it from the Cadbury Castle hillfort in South Cadbury. It appears to have been constructed in the Iron Age when one or more ramparts, with walls and ditches, were built on the steep slopes of the hill to defend an area covering some eight and a half acres. The remains of Iron Age round houses may still be seen inside. The hill fort was refortified around 400 and occupation extended into the sub-Roman period, from which much imported pottery has been recovered. It has been suggested that this was the monastery of Saint Congar after whom Congresbury was named.
Excavation took place between 1968 and 1973, and was published in 1992 Mediterranean imports were found with 173 A-ware and 547 B-ware sherds and around 48 glass vessels. These suggest that the hill was the site of an elite settlement.
Wildlife.
Cadbury Hill is a designated Local Nature Reserve. In 2009, a 19th-century agricultural stock pond – previously hidden by undergrowth – was restored by the Yatton & Congresbury Wildlife Action Group (YACWAG). The Local Nature Reserve comprises ancient semi-natural woodland, scrub and unimproved grassland. Species of interest include marsh tit, noctule bat, slow worm, wood anemone, bluebell, betony, small scabious, rock rose, small leaved lime. On the northern limestone slope grow hundreds of common spotted orchids. The hill fort itself has many ant hills, which are visited by green woodpeckers.
The grassy plateau of the hill fort is owned and managed by Yatton and Congresbury Parish Councils and the rest, including a car park and former landfilled quarry, by North Somerset Council.


Operation Strangle (World War II)

Operation Strangle was a series of air interdiction operations during the Italian Campaign of World War II by the United States Fifteenth and Twelfth Air Forces to interdict German supply routes in Italy north of Rome from 19 March 1944 to 11 May 1944. Its aim was to prevent essential supplies from reaching German forces in Central Italy and compel a German withdrawal. The strategic goal of the air assault was to eliminate or greatly reduce the need for a ground assault on the region. The Allies failed in the overly ambitious objective of the campaign, namely the forced withdrawal of German forces from the Gustav Line, but the air interdiction seriously complicated the German conduct of defensive operations and played a major role in the success of the subsequent Allied ground assault Operation Diadem.
Two principal interdiction lines were maintained across the narrow boot of Italy. This meant that no through trains were able to run from the Po Valley to the front line, and that south of Florence nearly all supplies had to be moved by truck. Over the course of eight weeks, the Allies flew 21,000 sorties (388 per day) and dropped 22,500 tonnes of bombs. The operation employed medium bombers and fighter bombers over a area from Rome to Pisa and from Pescara to Rimini.
Operation Strangle was also the name of the unsuccessful rail interdiction operation of the United Nations Command air forces in 1951–1952 during the Korean War.
"Diadem" phase.
Operation Strangle achieved air superiority before the Diadem phase commenced. During Diadem, commanders continued interdicting supply lines but also conducted close air support to maintain air superiority. Some changes in target selection proved to have far-reaching effects on later military doctrine: a partial switch from rail to road targets, coupled with a concentration on the region closest to enemy lines, aimed to cripple the enemy by denying reliable transportation and reducing access to local supplies.
These efforts impaired but did not critically deplete German access to fuel and ammunition. The Germans used alternate routes and quickly repaired damaged points, especially at night and in bad weather, when the Americans could not bomb. German supply needs were low during the Operation Strangle, so in some respects they were able to maintain and even increase supplies.
The major benefit to the Allies of Operation Strangle was unintended: it reduced German troop mobility. The Germans had no reserve forces behind front lines and relied upon tactical mobility, so the inability to transfer forces quickly to weakly held points crippled their battle readiness. Three weeks after the ground campaign began, the Germans were in full retreat.
Analysis.
According to a 1972 Rand Corporation case study of the mission, Operation Strangle was an important milestone in the development of United States military interdiction doctrine. The report's conclusion was that the overriding objective of supply denial was unattainable. Interdiction was a relatively new military strategy at the time, and American commanders lacked adequate understanding of German supply methods. Although supply denial was not the sole mission of the operation, it remained the primary goal even after it had clearly failed. The effect on troop movement was incidental. According to the Rand report:


Battle of Carmona

One of Scipio's (later Africanus) first major battles in Spain, this siege is described by Appian in his "Iberica" (Wars in Spain) at 5.25-28.
Now this Hasdrubal ordered all the remaining Carthaginian forces in Spain to be collected at the city of Carmone to fight Scipio with their united strength. Hither came a great number of Spaniards under the lead of Mago, and of Numidians under Masinissa. Hasdrubal had the infantry in a fortified camp, Masinissa and Mago, who commanded the cavalry, bivouacking in front of it. Scipio divided his own horse so that Lælius should attack Mago while he himself should be opposed to Masinissa. This fight was for some time doubtful and severe to Scipio, since the Numidians discharged their darts at his men, then suddenly retreated, and then wheeled and returned to the charge. But when Scipio ordered his men to hurl their javelins and then pursue without intermission, the Numidians, having no chance to turn around, retreated to their camp. Here Scipio desisted from the pursuit and encamped in a strong position, which he had chosen, about ten stades from the enemy. The total strength of the enemy was 70,000-foot, 5000 horse, and thirty-six elephants. That of Scipio was not one-third of the number. For some time, therefore, he hesitated and did not venture a fight, except some light skirmishes.
[26] When his supplies began to fail and hunger attacked his army, Scipio considered that it would be base to retreat. Accordingly he sacrificed, and bringing the soldiers to an audience immediately after the sacrifice, and putting on again the look and aspect of one inspired, he said that the deity had appeared to him in the customary way and told him to attack the enemy, and had assured him that it was better to trust in heaven than in the size of his army because his former victories were gained by divine favor rather than by numerical strength. In order to inspire confidence in his words he commanded the priests to bring the entrails into the assembly. While he was speaking he saw some birds flying overhead with great swiftness and clamor. Looking up he pointed them out and exclaimed this was a sign of victory which the gods had sent him. He followed their movement, gazing at them and crying out like one possessed. The whole army, as it saw him turning hither and thither, imitated his actions, and all were fired with the idea of certain victory. When he had everything as he wished he did not hesitate, nor permit their ardor to cool, but still as one inspired exclaimed: "These signs tell us that we must fight at once." When they had taken their food he ordered them to arm themselves, and led them against the enemy, who were not expecting them, giving the command of the horse to Silanus and of the foot to Lælius and Marcius.
[27] Hasdrubal, Mago, and Masinissa, when Scipio was coming upon them unawares, being only ten stades distant, and their soldiers not having taken their food, drew up their forces in haste, amid confusion and tumult. Battle being joined with both cavalry and infantry, the Roman horse prevailed over the enemy by the same tactics as before, by giving no respite to the Numidians (who were accustomed to retreat and advance by turns), thus making their darts of no effect by reason of their nearness. The infantry were severely pressed by the great numbers of the Africans and were worsted by them all day long, nor could Scipio stem the tide of battle, although he was everywhere cheering them on. Finally, giving his horse in charge of a boy, and snatching a shield from a soldier, he dashed alone into the space between the two armies, shouting: "Romans, rescue your Scipio in his peril."3 Then those who were near seeing, and those who were distant hearing, what danger he was in, and all being in like manner moved by a sense of shame and fear for their general's safety, charged furiously upon the enemy, uttering loud cries. The Africans were unable to resist this charge. They gave way, as their strength was failing for lack of food, of which they had had none all day. Then, for a short space of time, there was a terrific slaughter. Such was the result to Scipio of the battle of Carmone, although it had been for a long time doubtful. The Roman loss was 800; that of the enemy 15,000.
[28] After this engagement the enemy retreated with all speed, and Scipio followed dealing blows and doing damage whenever he could overtake them. After they had occupied a stronghold, where there was plenty of food and water, and where nothing could be done but lay siege to them, Scipio was called away on other business. He left Silanus to carry on the siege while he went into other parts of Spain and subdued them. The Africans who were besieged by Silanus deserted their position and retreated again until they came to the straits and passed on to Gades. Silanus, having done them all the harm he could, rejoined Scipio at New Carthage. In the meantime Hasdrubal, the son of Hamilcar, who was still collecting troops along the Northern ocean, was called by his brother Hannibal to march in all haste to Italy. In order to deceive Scipio he moved along the northern coast, and passed over the Pyrenees into Gaul with the Celtiberian mercenaries whom he had enlisted. In this way he was hastening into Italy without the knowledge of the Italians.
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Staller (title)

Staller is an Anglo-Saxon title whose origin, and exact meaning, is disputed. One suggestion is it derives from the Latin , or Count of the Stable, a title used in the Byzantine Empire, and later adopted by the Franks.
Another theory is it is refers to a seat, or "steall" in the kings hall, one of the privileges granted a thegn, or royal retainer. However, this is unproved.
It seems likely it was a different term for an existing position; the first confirmed occurrence in England was by Edward the Confessor, who used it for senior members of his personal household. Their duties appear to have been flexible; on a charter witnessed by stallers Ansgar, Bondi, Robert FitzWimarc, and Ralph in 1065, they are described as Royal stewards.


Spianada

The Spianada (, , "esplanade") is a large square in the city of Corfu, Greece. It is the largest square in Greece and is located in front of the Old Fortress of the city of Corfu.
History.
The square's name derives from the Venetian word for "open flat area", during the four centuries of Venetian rule in the island of Corfu.
Its final construction dates back to the temporary French occupation of the Ionian islands and Corfu during the Napoleonic Wars.
The "cricket court", a large park area, occupies a large section of the square. The love of the city inhabitants for cricket is of British origin, from the period of British domination (1814-1864).
It is one of the most central and popular sites of the city and a tourist destination.


Mendinho

Mendinho, also "Meendinho", "Mendiño" and "Meendiño", was a medieval Iberian poet.
Nothing is known about Mendinho except by inference. Scholars generally assume from the reference to the shrine of "San Simión" (in the modern Isle of "San Simón", Rías Baixas of Vigo, Spain) that he was Galician. And it is supposed from his name (without any accompanying patronym or toponym), his style, and the place of his song in the manuscripts (the Cancioneiro da Vaticana, Vatican Library, and the Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon, Portugal) that he was a "jogral" - a non-noble Minstrel.
Mendinho may have been active in the early 13th century, making him one of the earliest poets in this genre whose work has survived. A single cantiga de amigo (song about a boyfriend sung in the feminine) is attributed to him - "Sedia-m' eu na ermida de San Simion", but it is among the most famous in the Galician-Portuguese lyric corpus of around 1685 texts. It has been admired for its imagery (critics say the girl is afraid of the waves of her own passion), its rhythm, and its formal and semantic parallelism (including the system of alternating strophes with the rhymes-sounds "-on(or)/-ar"). The text in the manuscripts is problematic in places, especially in the refrain, where the reading is much disputed.
In 1998, the Día das Letras Galegas (Galician Letters Day) was dedicated to Mendinho, along with Martín Codax and Xohán de Cangas. His single known poem was set to music by Alain Oulman, the French composer and long term musical collaborator of the great Portuguese Fado singer Amália Rodrigues. An English translation/adaptation of "Sedia-m'eu na ermida..." is contained in the longpoem "The Tale of Tekarionyoken" (2013) by Thomas M. Capuano (p. 33).
Sediam'eu na ermida de San Simión.
Text of Cohen 2003, slightly modified.


Eller Beck Formation

The Eller Beck Formation is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period. It consists of a lower unit less than 3 m thick consisting of mudstone with subordinate ironstone, with an upper unit typically 4–6 m thick consisting of fine-medium grained sandstone, further south it changes into finer grained facies with mudstone and limestone.


Ponte Amerigo Vespucci

Ponte Amerigo Vespucci is a bridge over the Arno River in Florence, Italy and named after Florence-born explorer Amerigo Vespucci. It joins the Lungarno Amerigo Vespucci to the Lungarno Soderini. To the east is the Ponte alla Carraia.
This bridge, like most of the other bridges over the Arno, is a reconstruction. Plans were made in 1908 to bridge this section of the Arno to service quartiere di San Frediano, but the plans were never realized. In 1949, a bridge, ponte di via Melegnano, was constructed from the recycled remains of other bridges that had been destroyed by the Nazi army as they withdrew before the advancing Allied forces during World War II.
Between 1952 and 1954, a competition for the construction of a new bridge was held, and the plan of the architects George Giuseppe Gori, Enzo Gori and Ernesto Nelli and of engineer Riccardo Morandi was chosen. The plan called for three spans in a thin, flat arch over two piers which supports the roadway. The final effect gives the impression of a single, slightly curved span. Construction on the bridge was completed in 1957.
It was designed to be reflective of the nearby historical structures but also to be an obviously modern structure.


Ceinture rouge

The Ceinture Rouge ("Red Belt") refers to the communes of the Île-de-France that were dominated by the French Communist Party from the 1920s until the 1980s. These communes are those that are traditionally working-class areas whose residents were employed in the heavy and light industries that once dominated the economic landscape of the Petite Couronne (the departments that border Paris) and large population centers in the outer departments of the Île-de-France.
While the phenomenon is not specific to Paris and can also be seen in Lyon, Turin, Milan or Genoa, for example, "its scale and, most importantly, the length of the communist implantation in these municipalities make it a unique phenomenon in Europe".
The strength of the French Communist Party in these areas also led to this party forming the government at the departmental level in Seine-Saint-Denis from its creation in 1967 up to 2008, when control of the Departmental Council went to the Socialist Party of France.
History.
Beginnings (1920 to 1935).
The idea of a "Red Belt" takes its roots in the 1920s.
At the 1919 municipal elections, "a first red wave let municipal socialism take roots in communes with an industrial and working-class tradition, such as Aubervilliers and Saint-Denis. A year later, these towns voted for the newly created Communist Party," notes historian Emmanuel Bellanger.
The phrase itself was coined in an article written by Paul Vaillant-Couturier, "Paris encircled by the revolutionary proletariat" after the legislative elections of 1924 and the municipal elections of 1925.
However, at that time, the PCF's tactics of “class against class” only allowed it to win nine towns in 1925: it kept Bezons, Bobigny and Villetaneuse, took Saint-Denis from SFIO dissidents, and Clichy, Malakoff, Vitry-sur-Seine, Ivry-sur-Seine, Villejuif from the right.
In the 1929 municipal elections, the PCF won Pierrefitte-sur-Seine from the right, while Alfortville and Bagnolet were lost to the SFIO.
The "golden age" of local-level communism (1935–1981).
Front Populaire.
The PCF stopped using the "Red Belt" as a motto as it engaged in the strategy of the “Front Populaire” alliance for the 1935 municipal elections. The alliance between the PCF and the SFIO captured 26 municipalities. However, it lost its fiefdom of Saint-Denis, as Jacques Doriot, who had been excluded from the communist party in 1934, was reelected.
Thanks to the success of the PCF at the 1935 elections, Georges Marrane, communist mayor of Ivry-sur-Seine, became president of the General Council of the department of Seine in 1936.
The communist party was also successful is the neighbouring Seine-et-Oise department: out of 129 municipalities with a population above 2,500, "red" municipalities rose from 8 to 24 at the 1935 elections: Argenteuil, Aulnay-sous-Bois and Blanc-Mesnil all elect communist mayors. This number rose further to 54 in 1945, the year in which even the very bourgeois city of Versailles had a mayor "close to the communists".
This success can be partially attributed to the housing crisis that brought a large working-class population to the suburbs, where the living conditions were particularly poor. The communist party's agenda, which focused on public investment in housing and healthcare, appeared particularly attractive:
Aftermath of the second world war.
The Communist party emerged from World War II as a dominant political force:
After the second world war, other parties tried to exploit the PCF's political isolation and reduce its stronghold over the Paris suburbs. A 1947 law introduced the proportional allocation of seats in municipal councils for cities with a population above 9,000 inhabitants. Since the PCF could not form alliances with other political parties, it lost 22 communes in Seine-Banlieue to the SFIO and to Charles De Gaulle's RPF in the 1947 elections.
At the end of the 1950s, the PCF's setbacks on the national stage paradoxically illustrated what Pierre Bellanger calls "the resilience of municipal communism". The first of these setbacks was the 1958 constitutional referendum. Despite the PCF's opposition, it was overwhelmingly approved, with a majority in every single "département" and major city. In the Paris suburbs, Bagnolet was the only "red" city where the "no" was actually ahead. This defeat proved that the PCF was not able to impose its vote, even in its traditional fiefdoms.
Two months later, the PCF was crushed at the 1958 legislatives elections, going from 150 seats to 10. Communist leaders Étienne Fajon, Jacques Duclos and Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier lost their seats.
After these two major defeats, the PCF was expected to experience major losses at the 1959 municipal elections. But the opposite happened: revived by the unpopularity of the Pinay-Rueff plan, the PCF won 7 new cities, bringing its total to 31 in Seine-banlieue.
The reinstatement of the majoritarian system from 1959 to 1977 benefited the PCF. In the mid-60's, it formed alliances with the SFIO, which managed to capture 25 of the 39 cities with a population over 30,000 inhabitants.
The strength of the PCF played a central role in the 1964 redistricting of the Ile-de-France region, designed to only leave one General Council to the communists:
This equilibrium functioned until 1977. Despite the considerable progress of the Socialist Party at the National level after the Epinay Congress, voters of the inner suburbs kept favouring municipal communism: there were 46 communist municipalities in the inner suburbs in 1971 - a number that rose to 54 in 1977. In addition, the PCF made new inroads in the outer suburbs, in Poissy, Les Mureaux and Mantes-la-Ville, and confirmed recent wins in cities such as Montereau, Palaiseau or Savigny-sur-Orge. The 1978 legislative elections confirmed that the PCF was the first left-wing party in the Ile-de-France region.
Decline (since 1981).
1977 marked the pinnacle of the Red Belt. Its following decline has many causes: first, the communist party rapidly lost influence at the national level in the 1980s, after forming an alliance with the Socialist Party and joining the socialist government after the 1981 elections. While Jacques Duclos, the communist candidate, had received 21.7% of the national vote in the 1969 presidential election, André Lajoinie only obtained 6.8% in 1988.
In Ile-de-France, the party also failed to adapt to the changing demographics of working-class cities. As historian Romain Ducoulombier notes:
In the National Assembly, the decline started as early as 1981: the party lost half of the seats it held (13 out of 27) - a trend confirmed 5 years later with the loss of 4 more seats. After that, the number remained stable until 2002, when it lost 2 more seats in the aftermath of the dismal results of Robert Hue in the presidential election.
In municipal elections, the decline was slower but inexorable: when a city elected a non-communist mayor, it hardly ever made the journey back. As Philippe Subra notes:
In the (1988–2004) period, the number of cities held by communists in Ile-de-France went from 67, including 51 with a population over 20,000, to 42, of which 32 have a population above 20,000.
The 2014 municipal elections represented a major defeat for the Communist party: in Seine-Saint-Denis, it lost Bobigny, Saint-Ouen, Bagnolet and Blanc-Mesnil, four cities that it had held for decades. In the Yvelines, it was defeated in Achères, the last city it held in the département. But its most significant setback was the loss of Villejuif, a city that had had a communist since 1925 and in which former communist leader Georges Marchais had been elected to the National Assembly. The communist victories in Montreuil and Aubervilliers appeared as a consolation prize.
The 2020 municipal elections confirmed the slow disappearance of the Red Belt: the PCF lost 4 out of 10 cities it held in the département of Val-de-Marne: Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, Choisy-le-Roi, Valenton and Champigny-sur-Marne, but it won back Villejuif. In the département of Seine-Saint-Denis, it lost two of its historical fiefdoms, Saint-Denis and Aubervilliers, but won back Bobigny.
Symbolism and political significance of the Red Belt.
The Red Belt as a "laboratory" of communism.
The idea of a Red Belt around Paris is not only an electoral phenomenon. It constitutes, in the words of Annie Foucault, "a political myth":
As early as the 1920s, the communist party uses these cities as examples of what it could achieve on the national stage. But the image of a "Red Belt" is also used by political opponents to denounce the dangers that communism would represent at the national level. As Emmanuel Bellanger writes:
To avoid demonization, communist mayors actually stayed clear from radical changes when they won a city: while their party was often isolated nationally, communist mayors collaborated with their left- and right-wing colleagues. Jacques Girault thus writes:
Communist cities are used to demonstrate the benefits of the communist platform, with a strong emphasis on social services, collective housing and taxes paid mostly by corporations. These policies are perceived positively, even by people who are not communist sympathizers at the national level:
But this model was largely based on the presence of large factories around Paris, which would bring tax revenues and would need factory workers living nearby. In the 1970s, the deindustrialization of the inner suburbs brought its decline: the Plaine-Saint-Denis, which used to be largest industrial zone in Europe, became an industrial wasteland within years, while Renault-Billancourt closed in 1989:
The Red Belt as a springboard for national communist figures.
These constituencies also provide a springboard to the national stage, as well as safe seats for the leadership of the communist party:
Effects on the urban landscape.
Because of the emphasis communist cities placed on affordable working-class housing, Red belt cities often present "a certain type of urban landscape, with an alternation of modest individual homes and low-rent collective housing projects, the presence of industrial activities and a particular collective culture and sociability".
One ingredient of this collective culture and sociability is the creation of cultural institutions and, in particular, large public theaters:
These theaters and cultural institutions are the direct result of the communist municipalities' strategy, in the 1960s and 1970s, to use public commissions to create buildings that represent the idea of architectural modernity: another example is provided by the concrete administrative center of the communist municipality of Pantin, built in 1970 by Jacques Kalisz, a communist architect. In other cities, André Lurçat, Paul Chemetov, Serge Magnien and other modernist architects close to the PCF renovated the suburbs. Georges Valbon, mayor of Bobigny, accepted the renovation of the town according to the standards of slab urbanism: he notably entrusted Oscar Niemeyer with the creation of the departmental labor exchange.
As these suburban cities broke with their communist past, newly elected mayors often tried to mark the change by renaming streets that referred to communist leaders. In Argenteuil, Frédéric Says notes:
List of cities that have been part of the "Red Belt".
Based on the départements created in 1964.
The cities whose name is followed by an asterisk have a mayor from the PCF or Front de Gauche since the 2014 municipal elections. Those followed by 2 asterisks (**) have a left-wing majority that includes most of the time the PCF, but which mayor neither belongs to the PCF nor the Front de Gauche.


Blisworth Limestone Formation

The Blisworth Limestone Formation is a geological formation primarily consisting of limestone deposited during the Bathonian stage of the Middle Jurassic, found in the Jurassic ridge which extends north and south through England. It was laid down in the shallows of the Jurassic sea and is part of the more widely defined Great Oolite Group. It was previously known as the Great Oolite Limestone, White Limestone and the Snitterby Limestone Formation. It is the lateral equivalent of the White Limestone Formation From the Jurassic ridge it extends eastwards below the later deposits and in the North Sea terminology, it is part of the West Sole Group. (Cameron p. 74)
Formation.
The Blisworth limestone lies above the Upper Estuarine Series of strata. The latter was formed close to the coast where rivers flowed from the London-Brabant Island. The land sank a little in relation to the sea so the site lay a little further offshore. In the hot, shallow sea, the water partially evaporated so that the dissolved calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was precipitated onto minute nuclei to form tiny spheres which together resemble hard fish roe. This is composed of eggs; hence the name oölite. The process goes on today in the seas off the Bahamas (Kirkaldy p. 59). Much of it also contains marine shells, notably of oyster. Subsequently, the site was submerged less deeply so that the overlying Blisworth Clay was deposited in brackish conditions. (Gallois p. 20)
The stratum is known as Blisworth Limestone because it was first studied at Blisworth in Northamptonshire when the Blisworth tunnel was being dug for what is now called the Grand Union Canal. The tunnel finally opened in 1805.
Occurrence.
Blisworth limestone is a generally thin but widely spread deposit in eastern England. It becomes thicker as one progresses southward from north Lincolnshire or westward from Norfolk. In the King's Lynn district, it is a shelly oolitic limestone 1 to 2 m thick. At Wiggenhall it is around 190m below mean sea level (OD) and at Tydd St Mary, around 140m. (Gallois) At Bourne, Lincolnshire, at the eastern edge of the Jurassic ridge, it is around 15m below OD. (BGS sheet 144) It is exposed at the surface around the valleys of the East and West Glen rivers (River Glen, Lincolnshire) in which vicinity it is 2.4 to 4.8 metres thick. (BGS sheet 143). Its exposure continues southward in a similar relationship to the Jurassic ridge, to the west of Peterborough. (BGS sheet 157) Around Towcester it reaches a thickness of 9m. (Hains & Horton p. 85)
Application.
Blisworth limestone is used as a building material, in particular as blocks of stone. Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire is made from Blisworth limestone.


Calucones

The Calucones were a Rhaetian tribe mentioned by a few of the classical sources, but not all. Pliny the Elder (Book 3 Chapter 24 of Naturalis Historia, published in 77 CE) quotes a monument to the reign of Augustus, the tropeaum Alpium, located in the Rhaetia of his day, stating that Augustus subdued the Alpine peoples from the upper sea to the lower sea, including the Calucones.
Ptolemy in Geography (Book 2 Chapter 10) on the other hand locates the Kaloukones on either side of the Elbe "below" (north of?) the Silingae or Silesians. Since the Elbe does not drain the Alps, if the two Calucones are the same, the tropeaum cannot have meant that Augustus subdued only Rhaetia. However, the tropeaum also lists the Rugusci, another Rhaetian tribe, but some have hypothesized this the tribe he intended to reference was the Rugii who at that time would have been located on or near Rügen. According to this theory, Pliny's upper and lower seas would have been the Baltic and the Mediterranean respectively. This hypothesis is not likely to be true, unless Augustus achieved some sort of alliance with Germanic tribes stretching over the entire region from the Danube to the Baltic Sea.


Rittersturm

The so-called Rittersturm ("Assault on the Knights") was the seizure of the hitherto imperially immediate territories of the Imperial Knights within the Holy Roman Empire by the major powers in 1802–03.
In 1803, under the new political structures imposed by the final resolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss", the Imperial Knights or "Reichsritterschaften" should have remain untouched, unlike the ecclesial prince-bishoprics which were forcibly secularised. But by the winter of 1802/1803, the territorial states of Bavaria, Hesse-Kassel and Württemberg attempted to take possession of the tiny and fragmented estates belonging to the neighbouring Imperial Knights through a combination of Surrender and Transfer Edicts ("Abtretungs- und Überweisungspatenten") and military force.
In autumn 1803 the majority of the roughly 300 knightly estates were "de facto" annexed by their larger neighbours. In the winter of 1803/1804 the Princes of Leiningen, Hohenlohe and zu Löwenstein followed suit. The annexing powers often had competing claims. Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Leiningen and Bavaria each sent troops to occupy parts of the estates of the Freiherr von Massenbach late in 1803. Massenbach territory ultimately fell to Württemberg in May 1807.
The measures were denounced by the knights to the "Reichshofrat" and, in January 1804, pronounced as illegal by Emperor Francis II. The emperor empowered the states of Austria, Baden, Saxony and Regensburg (Mainz) to enforce his decision. Although Francis was not practically able to reverse many of the annexations, the threat of force put a stop to the "Rittersturm". In 1806, with the end of the Empire, the formal mediatisation of the baronies was concluded. Article 25 of the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine ("Rheinbundakte") sanctioned unilateral action by territorial states.


Alla Horska

Alla Horska (; 18 September 1929, Yalta — 17 November 1970, Vasylkiv) — Ukrainian artist of the sixties, monumentalist painter, one of the first representatives of the underground art movement, dissident and a well-known activist of the human rights movement of the 1960s (Sixtiers Movement) in Ukraine.
Biography.
In 1962 Alla Horska became one of the founders and active members of the Club of Creative Youth.
In 1962 Alla Horska, Vasyl Symonenko and Les Tanyuk revealed the unmarked mass grave sites of those "enemies of the Soviet state" disposed by NKVD in Bykivnia, Lukyanivsky and Vasylkivsky cemeteries. The activists declared it to the Kyiv City Council ("Memorandum II").
In 1965–1968 she took part in protests against the repressions of Ukrainian human rights activists: Bohdan and Mykhailo Horyn, Opanas Zalyvakha, Sviatoslav Karavansky, Valentyn Moroz, Vyacheslav Chornovil, and others. Because of this, she was persecuted by the Soviet security services. However, a kind of protection for her was that she, together with a group of artists, worked on monumental works of art in Donetsk and Krasnodon (now Sorokyne), which were considered important and had an ideological bias.
In 1967 Horska attended Viacheslav Chornovil’s trial in Lviv. There was a group of Kyiv activists who protested against the illegal conduct of court proceedings. The next year she signed "Protest Letter 139" addressed to General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union demanding to cease such illegal proceedings. Consequently, KGB began pressuring and threatening the "signers" of this letter.
Death.
Alla Horska died in 1970. On 7 December 1970, her funeral took place. The funeral turned into a civil resistance campaign in which such well-known dissidents as Yevgen Sverstiuk, Vasyl Stus, Ivan Gel, and Oles Serhienko made their speeches.
Art.
She has created dozens of works: mosaics, murals, stained glass, etc.