Atagoyama Kofun (Mito)

The is a "kofun" burial mound located in the Atago neighborhood of the city of Mito in Ibaraki Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It received protection as a National Historic Site in 1934.
Overview.
The Atagoyama Kofun is located on a river terrace on the west bank of the Nakagawa River at an elevation of 40 meters. It is a , which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above, and is one of the best-preserved keyhole-shaped "kofun" in eastern Japan. It is also one the largest found in Ibaraki Prefecture.
The tumulus has a total length of 136.5 meters with an orientation of northwest to southeast and was surrounded by a moat with a width of 23 meters. The tumulus is well-preserved, but the moat has mostly been filled in and is occupied by private residences. The "kofun" is named for a Shinto Shrine, and Atago Shrine located at its summit.
The interior of the tomb has not been excavated, but fragments of Sue ware pottery have been found in the vicinity in 1978 survey. Large cylindrical "haniwa" were found on the ridges and skirts of the posterior part of the posterior dome, so it is estimated that there were originally 3 to 4 rows of "haniwa". From the style of the "haniwa" it is believed to have been built in the early 6th century as the tomb of Takekashima-no-mikoto, the "Kuni no miyatsuko" of the "Nakanokuni", whose territories existed on either side of the Naka River.
The tumulus is one of a cluster of "kofun" in the vicinity, which were not accorded protected status. The tumulus is a five-minute walk from the "Hakamatsuka 2-chome” bus stop on the Ibaraki Kotsu Bus from Mito Station.


Ruslan Skrynnikov

Ruslan Grigorievich Skrynnikov (Руслан Григорьевич Скрынников; 8 January 1931, Kutaisi, Georgian SSR, – 16 June 2009, St. Petersburg, Russia) was a Russian historian who studied the reign of Ivan the Terrible. He later moved on to study the Time of Troubles.
For Skrynnikov, control over the bureaucratic apparatus (rather than the issue of centralization) was the primary point of contention explaining Muscovite political struggles of the 15th and 16th centuries. In the late 1960s he described Ivan's Oprichnina as the reign of terror designed to root out every possible challenge to the autocracy:
Skrynnikov' monographs about the Oprichinina and the Russian conquest of Siberia have been reprinted many times and translated into other major languages. He also authored the biographies of Ivan III, Ivan IV, and other Russian tsars.


Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem

Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem (, ) is a canal ("khlong") in Bangkok. It was dug in 1851 in order to serve as a new outer moat for the expanding city, extending its boundaries from the Rattanakosin Island to the north and east.
History.
When the city of Rattanakosin (the formal name of the capital city today known as Bangkok) was founded by King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I) in 1782, it was set within fortified walls, and Khlong Rop Krung was constructed as a moat to protect the city's eastern flank. The Chao Phraya River formed a natural barrier to the west. By the time of King Mongkut (Rama IV)'s reign, the city had outgrown its original area, and in 1851 the King ordered the digging of another canal, roughly parallel to the old moat, from Wat Thewarat Kunchon to Wat Kaeo Fa. The construction, headed by Chaophraya Si Suriyawong, was completed the following year, and the King named the canal "Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem", roughly meaning "the canal upholding the city's happiness". As the political climate and military practices had vastly changed by then, defensive walls were no longer deemed necessary, although seven forts were nevertheless built along the canal (plus one on the western bank opposite the canal's mouth). The expansion more than doubled the city area, to .


Crown Property Bureau

The Crown Property Bureau (CPB) (; ) is the quasi-government agency responsible for managing the property of the Monarchy of Thailand. The bureau is legally defined as a juristic person and not a government agency. It has no tax obligations. The king appoints six members of the bureau's governing board, with the seventh the sitting Minister of Finance of Thailand. It is claimed that crown property does not belong to the king in his private capacity, but to the monarchy as an institution which continues from reign to reign.
In 2018 King Vajiralongkorn was granted full, personal ownership of royal assets thought to be worth at least $30bn (£22bn). The Crown Property Bureau, which controlled the royal fortune on behalf of the monarchy, said it transferred ownership of the assets following a change in the law a year earlier.
Organisation and budget.
The CPB is headed by Director-General Air Chief Marshal Satitpong Sukvimol. CPB Property Co., Ltd. and CPB Equity Co., Ltd., both subsidiaries of the bureau, are headed by Michael David Selby, former partner of Business Advisory Indonesia and former employee of a United States government agency. During the late-1980s, the CPB had 600 employees, of which 90 percent were devoted to managing the bureau's massive real estate holdings. In 2004, the CPB recorded over five billion baht in earnings. The CPB reportedly controls more than US$37 billion in assets—some say as much as US$59.4 billion—that, according to Thai law, can be spent "at the king's pleasure."
Despite the wealth of the CPB, the royal family receives funds from the government for expenses. Around US$170 million annually in state funding covers the salaries of staff working in the Royal Household Bureau and other palace offices, plus security provided for the royal family by police and armed forces. Public funds also cover the costs of many royal rural development projects. Separately, there is the "budget for the promotion of the dignity of the monarchy", which is granted to government offices for propaganda works. This came to US$438 million in 2015.
Background.
The Crown Property Bureau was established under the Royal Assets Structuring Act of 1936 and became a juristic person in 1948. According to the act, a Board of Crown Property was set up, to be chaired "ex officio" by the finance minister, and served by at least four royally-appointed directors. The king names one of the board members as the director-general of the CPB. The Board of Crown Property is responsible for the overall supervision of the activities of the Crown Property Bureau. Duties and responsibilities of the director-general are prescribed by the Board of Crown Property.
Initially, the CPB was under the jurisdiction of the Royal Treasury of the Royal Household Bureau. On 21 April 1935, the 1934 act to exempt royal assets from taxation took effect. The act categorised royal assets into two types:
On 19 July 1937, the Royal Assets Structuring Act of 1936 became effective. It separated the royal assets into "His Majesty's personal assets", "crown property", and "public property". "His Majesty's personal assets" would be managed by the finance ministry. The CPB was set up with a status equivalent to a division under the treasury department of the finance ministry. Some of the functions, responsibilities, and officials were transferred from the Office of the Privy Purse to the Crown Property Bureau which sought permission to locate its office on the premises of the Office of the Privy Purse on the grounds of the Grand Palace in Bangkok.
The Royal Assets Structuring Act has been amended three times: the second amendment (1941) took effect on 7 October 1941, the third amendment (1948) was promulgated on 18 February 1948 when the CPB's status was then elevated to a juristic person responsible for supervising, preserving, and managing crown property. The CPB director-general is authorized to affix his signature on behalf of the bureau. In July 2017, under the new bill, King Vajiralongkorn will set up a board of directors to oversee his assets. The king is entitled to appoint the board members, as well as to remove them, at his discretion. The law prohibits the taking away of royal assets without the king's approval. Under King Bhumibol, the board of directors for the royal assets answered to the finance minister. Now it is independent of the government.
The Crown Property Bureau has moved its office four times, with Ladawan Palace (commonly referred to as the "Red Palace") having been its home since 18 July 1946. The anniversary of the CPB's establishment is marked on 18 February.
Mission.
The CPB claims to be responsible for protecting and managing the royal assets and property as well as supporting other activities for the benefit of Thai subjects and society. The Crown Property Bureau, however, is under no obligation to detail its holdings or how profits are spent.
Assets.
Real estate.
The CPB owns approximately of property throughout Thailand. The bureau owns 10 km2 in Bangkok, mainly in the city center. The specific tracts of land owned by the CPB in Bangkok have not been made public. Through its shares of Siam Cement Group and Siam Commercial Bank, the bureau received dividends from 2010 equivalent to more than US$200 million.
In central Bangkok, the CPB owns 10 km2 or 3,320 acres (estimates are contradictory) and another 13,200 acres elsewhere in Thailand. In 2008, the Bangkok holdings alone were estimated at US$31 billion in value. Historically, the bureau would rent the land cheaply to small shop owners and members of the lower class.
In 2010, aggregate income from property came to 2.5 billion baht (US$80 million at 2012 rates). Prime real estate includes CentralWorld, a shopping mall, and the nearby Four Seasons hotel. In total, the CPB says it has 40,000 rental contracts, of which 17,000 are in Bangkok.
The CPB renews tenant lease contracts every three years for rent rationalization and planned site development consistent with long-term city planning considerations. The CPB has the authority to assist tenants who are affected by floods or political unrest with rent and fee reductions.
With Bangkok's real estate values increasing in 2017, with average land prices projected to climb four percent, the CPB negotiated deals for some of its central Bangkok prime real estate:
Investments.
The CPB makes long-term investments in selected businesses such as the Siam Cement Group (SCG) (30 percent ownership), the largest Thai industrial conglomerate, and Siam Commercial Bank (SCB) (21 percent ownership), the country's first commercial bank. Through its shares of SCG and SCB, the bureau received dividends from 2010 equivalent to more than US$200 million. The CPB has the majority holding in the Kempinski Hotels group which was sold to an investor from Bahrain in February 2017. Prince Vajiralongkorn often stayed at the Kempinski Munich prior to the purchase of a home on Lake Starnberg, 25 kilometres southwest of Munich.
Corporate social responsibility.
The CPB has expanded its diversified social projects such as temple restorations, and rice research and development with the Rice Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
"Youth development" is promoted jointly in partnership with the SCB and the SCG. The projects have been aimed at supporting the Ministry of Education for inculcating the king's "sufficiency economy" philosophy in the Thai school system and the establishment of the Nitasrattanakosin Exhibition Hall on Ratchadamnoen Avenue for Thai youth to learn, appreciate, and take pride in Thailand's artistic and cultural accomplishments of the Rattanakosin era. The CPB has supported numerous other projects such as scholarships for Thai youth.
Conservation.
In 2016 the CPB joined with the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) to develop land near the Chao Phraya River to build Nagaraphirom Park, surrounding historical buildings.


Ziari

Ziari () is a village in Gurjaani Municipality, Kakheti region, Georgia. It is located 5 km south-west of Gurjaani, at an altitude of about 820 m. The population was 44 inhabitants in 2014.
Ziari has been the site of archaeological research since the 1960s. The numerous stone artifacts unearthed there testify to the presence of paleolithic workshops.


Illig Qaghan

Illig Qaghan (Old Turkic: , chinese: , Pinyin: xiélì kěhàn, Wade-Giles: hsieh-li k'o-han, Personal name: 阿史那咄苾, āshǐnà duōbì, a-shih-na to-pi), later Tang posthumous title Prince Huang of Guiyi (歸義荒王/归义荒王), was the last qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.
Background.
He was a son of Yami Qaghan and his Tuyuhun wife Poshi (婆施). He was raised by the Tuyuhun general Külüg Tarkhan (胡祿達官). After coming of age, he was given the title Baghatur shad (莫賀咄設) and was assigned to rule the eastern parts of the empire.
Reign.
He declared himself Illig Khagan after the death of his older brother Chuluo and married his brother’s widow as well. He gave his nephew Ashina Shibobi the title of Tolis Qaghan afterwards and assigning him to his own former tribes. He continued his predecessors' pro-Sui politics, supporting puppet emperors.
Raids into Tang.
His first contacts with Tang were very hostile. In 621, Tujue forces attacked Fenyin and Xi territories, reaching as south as Yanmen in April. As a response, Turkic ambassadors were arrested in China and vice versa. In May, khagan's forces crushed Tang forces commanded by Li Shuliang (李叔良), Gaozu's cousin who died from arrow wounds after a month. They were repelled later by Yang Shidao.
Later raids were accompanied by Gao Kaidao and Yuan Junzhang (苑君璋), a general formerly under Liu Wuzhou. To stop raids, Gaozu offered khagan a tribute and a Chinese princess. Khagan accepted the proposal and both states released arrested envoys.
Soon raids restarted, in 623, khagan were assisted by Gao Kaidao and Liu Heita in sieging Mayi (present-day Shuozhou, Shanxi) and capturing it. Yuan Junzhang was appointed governor of Mayi. But Mayi was soon reverted by Tujue in hopes of attaining a marriage to Tang princess.
Later Liang Luoren (梁洛仁), the brother of Liang Shidu attacked with assistance from Eastern Tujue to Ling prefecture. However Li Daozong (a cousin of Taizong) was able to repel him, and further expel the khagan's nephew Ashina Yushe (阿史那郁射) from the Wuyuan (五原, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi).
As raids were becoming more frequent in 624, Li Shimin stepped up to accuse Ashina Shibobi of breaking his brotherhood vows, which made Illig Khagan to grow suspect towards Shibobi. Khagan soon attempted to seek peace, sending his nephew Ashina Shibobi and his uncle Ashina Simo to negotiate.
In 625, khagan attacked Ling Prefecture (靈州, roughly modern Yinchuan, Ningxia). Emperor Gaozu sent the general Zhang Jin (張瑾) to resist Tujue with Wen Yanbo serving as Zhang's secretary general. When Zhang engaged khagan, however, he suffered a major defeat, and Wen was captured. As Wen was an important official, khagan put him under interrogation and asked him about the strengths and weaknesses of the Tang state. Wen refused to answer and khagan moved him to the Yin Mountains region.
In 626, just 19 days after Emperor Taizong took the throne, Shibobi and Illig were just across the Wei River from Chang'an. Emperor Taizong, accompanied by Gao Shilian and Fang Xuanling, was forced to meet Tujue across the river and personally negotiate peace terms, including tributes to Eastern Turks, before Illig withdrew.
Civil war.
In 627 he attempted to levy horses from the vassal Tiele tribes after all his livestock died from a snowstorm. The Tiele revolted under a Xueyantuo coalition. Emperor Taizong of Tang wasted no time in allying with these Tiele and the Khitans in a joint attack. Illig was already facing internal dissent from the Göktürk generals jealous of the influence of Illig's Sogdian vizers.
As response, khagan gave 100,000 cavalry to the command of Yukuk Shad to suppress revolts. However shad was defeated by Huige forces commanded by Pusa (菩薩) near Malie (near modern Gansu). Later, more generals of Tujue were defeated by the Xueyantuo.
In 628 Kumo Xi tribes also rose in rebellion against Tujue. Eastern governor Ashina Shibobi was unsuccessful in defeating rebels, which made khagan angry and ordered him to be flogged and imprisoned for 10 days. Taizong used this opportunity to invite him to flee to Tang.
End of reign.
In summer 628, when a number of Khitan tribes surrendered to Tang, Illig offered to trade Liang Shidu for the Khitan tribes, but Emperor Taizong refused stating Liang was already on verge of surrendering himself and Khitan were no Turk. Meanwhile Emperor Taizong sent his brother-in-law Chai Shao (柴紹) and the generals Xue Wanjun (薛萬均), Liu Lancheng (劉蘭成), and Liu Min (Liang's former subordinate) to pressure Shuofang. They soon defeated Eastern Tujue forces and put Shuofang under siege, and Eastern Tujue forces were unable to lift the siege. When the food supplies ran out, Liang Shidu's cousin Liang Luoren assassinated Liang Shidu and surrendered the city to Tang
Around the new year 630, with Eastern Tujue in internal turmoil, khagan attacked Ashina Shibobi (阿史那什鉢苾). As a reaction Emperor Taizong commissioned Li Jing, Li Shiji, Wei Xiaojie, Li Daozong, Chai Shao (柴紹), and Xue Wanche (薛萬徹) to attack Eastern Tujue, with Li Jing in overall command. Li launched his attack in a surprise manner, from Mayi through Wuyang Range (惡陽嶺, in modern southern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), capturing the important city of Dingxiang (定襄, in modern Hohhot). In fear, khagan retreated to Qikou (磧口, in modern Xilin Gol League, Inner Mongolia). Li Jing then sent secret messengers to persuade his associate to surrender. One of them, Kangsumi (康蘇密), took Emperor Yang's wife Empress Xiao and their grandson Yang Zhengdao (楊政道), whom Chuluo khagan had created the Prince of Sui, and surrendered to Li Jing. Khagan sent messengers to Emperor Taizong, offering to submit and to pay homage to him later, but was still considering fleeing further with his forces. Emperor Taizong sent the official Tang Jian (唐儉) as an envoy to khagan, but also ordered Li Jing to escort khagan. Li Jing, reading between the lines and believing that Emperor Taizong's order was to "attack" khagan, after joining forces with Li Shiji, launched the attack. They defeated and captured most of khagan's remaining forces and killed his wife, Sui's Princess Yicheng. Khagan fled further, and was soon captured by his own men Ashina Sunishi (阿史那蘇尼失) and Ashina Nishu (阿史那泥孰) who handed him over to Li Daozong and Zhang Baoxiang (張寶相). He was brought back to Chang'an to face Taizong on 29 March, 630. After listing his crimes against the Tang, Taizong spared the former Qaghan.
Later years.
In his later years, former qaghan grew ill in morale. He was created a commander and appointed to be a governor of Guó Prefecture which was rich with deers 632 by Taizong, but he declined. He died in 634 and was created Prince of Guiyi (歸義王) and named Huang (荒) by Taizong posthumously. His teacher Kulug Tarkhan also reported to take his own life upon sadness. Cen Wenben was ordered to write memorial stone. His tomb is still not found.
Family.
He was married to Princess Yicheng of Sui (義成公主) and a number of wives. He had at least five issues:


Akarendrawarman

Akarendrawarman was a ruler of Malayapura kingdom in the Minangkabau plateau. His name was found in the Pagaruyung VII inscription, which is written in Old Malay, his full title is "Paduka Sri Maharajadhiraja Srimat Sri Akarendrawarman". In carrying out his administration, he was assisted by various other officials, among others was a minister called "Tuhan" (lord) "Parpatih". The kingdom was mentioned to be located in "Parhyangan" on "Mount Mahameru" (Mount Marapi).
De Casparis concluded that Akarendrawarman was the predecessor of King Adityawarman, and that the inscription explained the move of the kingdom's capital from Jambi to West Sumatra. However, that reading conclusion is seen as incorrect by Griffiths and Miksic.


Minye Kyawswa I of Ava

Minye Kyawswa I of Ava (, ; also spelled Minyekyawswa; 1410–1442) was king of Ava from 1439 to 1442. He spent all of his 3-year reign asserting his rule over his kingdom, and defending against raids by the Shan State of Mogaung. He recovered Toungoo, which had escaped Ava's orbit since the start of his father Mohnyin Thado's reign in 1426. He died at Ava in January/February 1442 while his forces were laying siege to Mogaung. He was succeeded by his brother Narapati, the viceroy of Prome.
Early life.
Minye Kyawswa was born to Mohnyin Thado, then Governor of Mohnyin, and his wife (later chief queen) Shin Myat Hla on 18 December 1410 in Mohnyin (modern Kachin State). He was the eldest child of the couple's four children. He had a younger brother (later Narapati I of Ava) and two younger sisters. Later in his teenage years, he was made ruler of a small region in Mohnyin called Mo-Shwe by his father, governor of Mohnyin. When his father became king of Ava in 1426, Minye Kyawswa was made heir-apparent, and was given Salin, Saku, and Legaing districts in fief.
Reign.
Minye Kyawswa's short reign was the archetypal reign of the successive Ava kings in that each king would have to reestablish his rule over his territory. One of his first acts as king was to mediate in a conflict between the "saophas" ("sawbwas", chiefs) of Kale and Mohnyin, and to reassert his rule over the two Shan States, which had been under Ava's suzerainty since the reign of King Minkhaung I. He sent an army to the north. When the expedition arrived at Myedu both chieftains submitted to Ava in fear that the other one would gain the upper hand by submitting first. He installed his brothers-in-law as new saophas.
After securing the loyalty of Kale and Mohnyin, the king quickly turned to the territories much closer to Ava. Toungoo (Taungoo) had been in revolt since 1426 with Hanthawaddy Pegu's backing, and the regions around Toungoo such as Taungdwingyi, Yamethin, and Pinle also raised rebellions when he became king. In late 1440, he sent his armies to reclaim the rebellious regions. They could not take well-defended Pinle and Yamethin but took Taungdwingyi. Most importantly, Ava recovered Toungoo in 1440 after a pitched battle in which the ruler of Toungoo, Saw Oo, was killed in an elephant duel.
Pinle and Yamethin stayed out of Ava's control for the remainder of his reign as the king had to defend against renewed Shan raids starting in 1441. By the late 1430s, Thonganbwa, the "saopha" of Mogaung, had gained control of a large swath of territory between Chinese controlled Yunnan and central Burma. His capital Mogaung was just a short distance away from Ava-controlled Mohnyin. In 1440, Thohanbwa launched several raids into both Ava and Yunnan. In response, Minye Kyawswa sent his brothers-in-law, the Burmese governors of Mohnyin and Kale, to attack Mogaung. In 1441, Ava forces laid siege to Mogaung, which was heavily fortified. While the siege dragged on, the king died at Ava in January/February 1442.


Rai Sahasi II

Rai Sahasi II (Sinha_sena/सिंह_सेन) (), was the last Buddhist ruler of the Rai dynasty of the Sindh region of the Indian subcontinent, in first half of 7th century AD. The Emperors of Rai dynasty were great patrons of Hinduism and Buddhism. This is consistent with the historical accounts from the times of Emperor Ashoka and Harsha, as numerous monarchs from the Indian Subcontinent never sponsored a state religion and usually patronized more than one faith. He succeeded his father "Sinharus" (Rai Sahiras II).
His reign ended in 632 AD.
He was succeeded by his chamberlain, Chach of Alor, who developed illicit sexual relations with Sahasi's wife (queen Rani Suhanadi). Chach conspired with Rani Suhanadi and killed Raja Sahasi II and his brothers were sent to prison. Chach was married with the queen and became ruler of Sindh ending the rule of the Rai Dynasty and starting a line of ruler-ship.


Altan Khan

Altan Khan of the Tümed (1507–1582; ; Chinese: 阿勒坦汗), whose given name was Anda (Mongolian: ; Chinese: 俺答), was the leader of the Tümed Mongols and de facto ruler of the Right Wing, or western tribes, of the Mongols. He was the grandson of Dayan Khan (1464–1543), a descendant of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), who had managed to unite a tribal league between the Khalkha Mongols in the north and the Chahars (Tsakhars) to the south. His name means "Golden Khan" in the Mongolian language.
Consolidation of power.
Borjigin Barsboladiin Altan was the second son of Bars Bolud Jinong, and a grandson of Batumongke Dayan Khan who had re-unified the Mongolian nobility in an attempt to regain the glory of the Yuan dynasty. Altan Khan ruled the Tümed and belonged to the Right Wing of the Mongols along with his elder brother Gün Bilig, who ruled the Ordos. After Gün Bilig's death in 1542, Altan became the de facto leader of the whole of the Right Wing and was given the title, "Tösheetü Sechen Khan".
When Bodi Alagh Khan, the Khagan of the Mongols from the Chahar, died in 1547, Altan forced Bodi Alagh's successor Darayisung Küdeng Khan to flee eastward. In 1551 Darayisung made a compromise with Altan in exchange for giving the title "Gegeen Khan" to him. Altan Khan, who controlled the Ordos tumen of the Huang He or Yellow River was well placed to keep pressure on the Chinese and the Oirat Mongols in Tibet while developing both agriculture and trade.
Altan Khan also founded the city of Köke Khota (Hohhot, meaning "The Blue City"), now the capital of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. There is an impressive statue of him in one of the city's main squares.
Alliance with the Gelug.
Altan Khan is particularly remembered for establishing ties between Mongolia and the religious leaders of the Tibetan Gelug order. Altan Khan first invited 3rd Dalai Lama to Tümed in 1569, but apparently he refused to go and sent a disciple instead, who reported back to him about the great opportunity to spread Buddhist teachings throughout Mongolia. In 1571, Altan Khan got the title "Prince of Shunyi" (Obedient and Righteous Prince) from the Longqing Emperor (March 4, 1537-July 5, 1572), the 12th emperor of China (Ming dynasty). In 1573, Altan Khan took some Tibetan Buddhist monks prisoner. The emperor also gave the Prince of Shunyi's new capital a new name, Guihua, meaning "return to civilization". The prince became very interested in Gelukpa, and Beijing was happy to provide him with Tibetan lamas, Tibetan scriptures, and translations.
Sonam Gyatso accepted Altan Khan's invitation to Tümed in 1577. Altan Khan later had Thegchen Chonkhor, Mongolia's first monastery, built at the place of the meeting. Also, the ruler of the Khalkha Mongols, Abtai Sain Khan, rushed to Tümed to meet the Dalai Lama. The Erdene Zuu Monastery was built by him in 1586, at the site of the former Mongol capital of Karakorum following his adoption of Buddhism as the state religion. This monastery is also often (wrongly) referred to as the first monastery in Mongolia and it grew into a massive establishment. In 1792, it contained 62 temples and some 10,000 lamas.
Sonam Gyatso publicly announced that he was a reincarnation of the Tibetan Sakya monk Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280) who converted Kublai Khan, while Altan Khan was a reincarnation of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), the famous ruler of the Mongol Empire and Emperor of China, and that they had come together again to cooperate in propagating the Buddhist religion.
Altan Khan designated Sonam Gyatso as "Dalai" (a translation into Mongolian of the name Gyatso, meaning "ocean"). As a result, Sonam Gyatso became known as the Dalai Lama which, since then, has been used as a title – frequently translated into English as "Ocean of Wisdom". The title was also posthumously given to Gendun Drup and Gendun Gyatso, who were considered Sonam Gyatso's previous incarnations. Thus, Sonam Gyatso was recognized as being already the 3rd Dalai Lama.
Sonam Gyatso never returned to Tibet but remained proselytizing among the Mongols. The Tümed Mongols and their allies were brought into the Gelug tradition, which was to become the main spiritual orientation of the Mongols in the ensuing centuries.
Sonam Gyatso's message was that the time had come for Mongolia to embrace Buddhism, that from that time on there should be no more animal sacrifices, there must be no taking of life, animal or human, military action must be pursued only with purpose and the immolation of women on the funeral pyres of their husbands must be abolished. He also secured an edict abolishing the Mongol custom of blood-sacrifices. "These and many other such laws were set forth by Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso and were instituted by Altan Khan."
A massive program of translating Tibetan (and Sanskrit) texts into Mongolian was commenced, with letters written in silver and gold and paid for by the Dalai Lama's Mongolian devotees. Within 50 years virtually all Mongols had become Buddhist, with tens of thousands of monks, who were members of the Gelug order, loyal to the Dalai Lama.
When Sonam Gyatso died in 1588, his incarnation – and thus, the new Dalai Lama – was Altan Khan's great-grandson.
Military exploits.
Altan Khan led raids into the Ming dynasty in 1529, 1530 and 1542 returning with plunder and livestock. In 1550 he crossed the Great Wall and besieged Beijing, setting the suburbs on fire. In 1552 Altan Khan gained control of the remains of Karakorum, the old Mongol capital. Longqing Emperor, the reigning emperor of Ming dynasty was forced to grant special trading rights to the khanate, after signing a peace treaty with him in 1571, allowing it to trade horses for silks, which further strengthened it economically. Altan Khan was also granted the title Prince Shunyi ("prince who conforms to righteousness") from the emperor.
During his reign he made several successful military campaigns to the west against rebellious Oirats, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz, bringing them back under his rule.
Death.
Altan Khan died in 1582, only four years after meeting with the Third Dalai Lama. He was 74 or 75 years old at the time.
Succession.
Altan Khan's title Prince of Shunyi was succeeded by his son Sengge Düüreng who was supported by the Ming court. Altan Khan's great-grandson, Yonten Gyatso, was selected as the 4th Dalai Lama.


Wendell Fertig

Wendell Fertig (December 16, 1900 – March 24, 1975) was an American civil engineer, in the American-administered Commonwealth of the Philippines, who organized and commanded an American-Filipino guerrilla force on the Japanese-occupied, southern Philippine island of Mindanao during World War II.
Fertig held a U.S. Army reserve commission and was called into military service before the war in the Pacific began. Ordered from Corregidor before its surrender to the Japanese, he was sent to Mindanao to assume command of engineer activities there. Almost as soon as he arrived, the U.S. Army forces on Mindanao surrendered, but Fertig refused to do so. Fertig used his knowledge of the Filipino people to organize them into a guerrilla army and civilian government. He also used his engineering knowledge to solve problems in supply and construction.
Fertig led the guerrillas against the Japanese and their collaborators, mostly in hit-and-run raids and vital coast watching activities. After making contact with U.S. forces in the Pacific, the guerrillas began to receive supplies, but never enough to stage large-scale attacks. More than once, the Japanese tried to destroy Fertig and his guerrilla army, committing large numbers of troops for this purpose. At these times, Fertig had his forces retreat before the Japanese until they were also dispersed, then counterattacked the Japanese with local superiority in numbers. This continued until American forces returned to the Philippines.
After the war, Fertig returned to his civilian engineering career, but retained his reserve commission. He spent four years as commander of the ROTC detachment at the Colorado School of Mines, his Alma mater, and served in a U.S.-based psychological warfare unit during the Korean War. Leaving active duty in the mid-1950s, he ran a successful Colorado mining company until his death. During his post-war years he was widely regarded as a hero by the people of Mindanao, and was a highly respected figure among the U.S. Special Forces. One authority lists him among the top ten guerrilla leaders in history.
Pre-war.
Wendell Fertig was born in La Junta, Colorado, where he lived until he completed high school. He then studied engineering at the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. After graduation from college, he married his wife Mary. In 1936, he and his family moved to the Philippines where he had a successful career as a civil engineer until the war broke out. Fertig was described as "tall, sandy-haired with an athletic build" and "being calm, genial, deliberate and possessing a remarkable memory and a great facility for remembering names." His experience as an engineer,
... and methods of attacking problems would serve him in the challenges he would face as the leader of the Mindanao guerrillas... It was due primarily to his personal leadership qualities that the Mindanao resistance movement was unified under one leader and became the most successful of all the guerrilla units in the Philippines.
Early in 1941, Fertig was on leave in Manila from his job on Samar. Due to his military classes in college, he held a reserve commission in the United States Army Corps of Engineers. As a result, he was called to duty on June 1, 1941, as a captain (reserve) in the Army Engineers as the United States prepared for war in the Pacific theater. At that time, U.S. analysts believed that the Philippines might be one of the first areas Japan would attack. Fertig's first assignments were as Assistant Engineer, Bataan Field Area, then as Engineer, North Luzon Area. By November 1941, he was Chief of the Construction Section, General Headquarters, and spent most of his time overseeing preparation and improvement of airfields throughout the Philippines.
In late 1941, the U.S. began evacuating the wives and children of military families. In January 1942, according to one of Fertig's daughters, Mary Fertig and their two children, Patricia (Hudson) and Jeanne, left on the last evacuation ship and returned to the United States. However, other sources have Fertig's family leaving the Philippines as early as the summer of 1941. This action was taken to relieve the concerns of officers and enlisted men, called to duty, about the welfare of their families. American civilian families (men, women and children) were not evacuated, so as not to lessen the morale of the citizens of the Philippines. The native people of the Philippines, who could not leave, suffered terribly under the Japanese occupation. It is estimated that at least one out of every 20 Filipinos died at the hands of the Japanese during the occupation.
World War II.
Early war experiences.
On December 20, 1941, Japanese troops invaded the Philippines. Among Fertig's duties during the retreat to Bataan and Corregidor was the destruction of supplies left behind by retreating American forces. His attention to detail was such that he even drove his new Dodge car off a pier and into Manila Bay.
Promoted twice by April 1942, Fertig—by then a lieutenant colonel—was sent from Bataan (on Luzon) to Mindanao by General Edward P. King (Luzon Force Commander) to assist General William F. Sharp (Mindanao Force Commander) in the construction of airfields. In "They Fought Alone", the author states that Lt. Colonel Fertig was ordered off Corregidor to join General Douglas MacArthur's headquarters in Australia. However, since he was not known to members of MacArthur's headquarters in Australia, it is probably correct that he was ordered to Mindanao to assist American forces there. Fertig arrived on Mindanao on April 30, 1942, and was assigned to supervise the demolition of main roads and bridges to prevent their use by the Japanese.
Avoiding capture.
After the U.S. forces in and around the island of Luzon surrendered in May 1942, Fertig decided not to give himself up to the Japanese. When another fleeing officer accompanying him asked what they were going to do, Fertig replied, "Any damn thing but surrender." During his movement from Corregidor to Mindanao, Fertig survived or avoided a number of airplane crashes. As a result, he felt that he was destined for something special. Later, after organizing the guerrilla forces on Mindanao, he wrote in this diary,
I am called on to lead a resistance movement against an implacable enemy under conditions that make victory barely possible even under the best circumstances. But I feel that I am indeed a Man of Destiny, that my course is charted and that only success lies at the end of the trail. I do not envision failure; it is obvious that the odds are against us and we will not consistently win, but if we are to win only part of the time and gain a little each time, in the end we will be successful.
Upon learning of the surrender of the American forces under General Wainwright, Fertig spent weeks crossing the mountains and jungles in an attempt to contact General Sharp. Upon learning that Sharp had surrendered his forces to the Japanese on May 10, 1942, Fertig then spent more weeks considering his options, realizing that to gain face and authority, he had to wait until guerrillas contacted him. Fertig monitored the military and political situation in Mindanao, by means of the "jungle telegraph." Fertig also grew a red goatee, believing that it would make him look older and wiser among a people who believed that age brought wisdom.
Many of the emerging guerrilla forces at that time were simply bandit groups pretending to fight the Japanese, but really using the collapse of the American-supported government to set themselves up as rulers of local areas. These groups competed with each other for territory and authority. On September 12, 1942, the leader of one strong group approached Fertig, hoping to use him as a front (i.e. representing American military forces) to assume authority over the entire island. Fertig consented, but then used his knowledge of the Filipino people and the current situation in Mindanao to eventually take over the command of that group and then others. Recognizing that he needed a higher rank, so he would be taken seriously by potential recruits to his struggle, including the leaders of other existing guerrilla bands, Fertig promoted himself to brigadier general. This self-promotion to "brigadier general" did not endear him to General MacArthur or his staff, but MacArthur did send logistical support to Fertig throughout 1943 and 1944.
Organizing the resistance.
Japanese bombings, destruction by retreating American troops, deprivations by bandit "guerrilla" bands, and hoarding by civilians had significantly reduced available war supplies, as well as those items necessary to run an effective government. Fertig used his engineering skills and the skills of other escaped Americans and resisting Filipinos to create many supplies from scratch. For example, tuba was brewed from coconut palms to provide alcohol to fuel gasoline vehicles, batteries were recharged by soaking them in tuba, soda bottles and fence wire were used to create a telegraph to enhance communications, curtain rods were cut into pieces and shaped to provide ammunition for .30 caliber rifles, steel was shaved from automobile springs and curled to make recoiling springs for rifles, money was printed in both English and the local language using wooden blocks, and fishermen towed Japanese mines ashore to secure the explosive amatol so it could be used to make gunpowder. Soap was made from coconut oil and wood ashes. Then the soap was traded for sugar which was then used to make alcohol for fuel.
Often, seemingly impossible problems were overcome simply through perseverance. For example, Gerardo Almendres, a Filipino high school student had sent away for an International Correspondence Schools course on radios shortly before the war started. Fertig assigned him the task of building a radio even though Almendres had never handled one. Almendres was assisted by a Filipino traveling salesman who had sold radios and by another Filipino who once had listened to a radio. Radio parts (vacuum tubes and other electrical parts) were scrounged from old radio receivers and sound equipment from an old movie projector and other electrical devices. Their makeshift radio eventually worked and they began to receive transmissions from other radios, including those of Roy Bell on Negros, who traveled to Fertig's camp and devised a new aerial. However, they had no way of knowing if their own transmissions were successful until, on January 31, 1943, the U.S. Navy radio monitoring station in San Francisco answered their call sign. Robert C. Ball, William F. Konko, and Stewart Willever, Jr., became Fertig's "signal corps."
This was an extremely important accomplishment as American military commands in the Pacific had no idea that there was any effective armed resistance on Mindanao or even in the Philippines. General Charles Willoughby, MacArthur's intelligence chief, had assured him that there was no possibility of such. The American command in the Pacific first heard of Fertig when the Japanese announced that a bombing mission had killed "Major General Fertig," but the Americans simply dismissed it as propaganda. It took weeks before American intelligence was able to confirm who Fertig was, and that he was alive and not operating as an agent of the Japanese. Part of this investigative process involved Mary Fertig, who was contacted for personal information on her husband's life. Mrs. Fertig was actually in receipt of a letter that her husband had sent on the last American plane leaving Mindanao. A phrase in the letter, "Pineapples for Breakfast", let Mrs. Fertig know that her husband was alive and well on Mindanao, as that is where they spent short vacations and, while there, he enjoyed having pineapples for breakfast. The latest American intelligence had placed Fertig on Corregidor at the time of the surrender, and so the U.S. Army assumed that he was either dead or a prisoner of the Japanese. In February 1943, with tenuous communication established, General MacArthur appointed Fertig as Commanding Officer of the 10th Military District on Mindanao. During the initial exchange of messages, MacArthur disallowed any promotion of American armed forces personnel in the Philippines to general rank. As a result, Fertig "reduced" himself in rank to colonel, but continued wearing the brigadier general stars fashioned for him by a Filipino metalsmith.
Due to the difficulty in communicating with Fertig and his command via makeshift radio Almendres had built, a submarine loaded with military and medical supplies was eventually sent to Mindanao, arriving on March 5, 1943. It also carried two Americans who had known Fertig in the Philippines. One was Charles Smith, who on December 4, 1942, had escaped with two other Americans and two Filipinos by sailing a small boat to Australia, perhaps, at that time, the longest open-boat voyage since Captain Bligh's. Smith was now a captain in U.S. Army Intelligence. The other was Charles Parsons, formerly a businessman but now serving as a lieutenant commander in U.S. Navy Intelligence. In addition to his other pre-war business interests in Manila, Parsons had represented Panama as its resident counsel. When the Japanese occupied Manila, Parsons was careful to speak only Spanish and convinced the Japanese he was a citizen of Panama. As a result, the Japanese eventually sent Parsons and his family on a long journey "back to Panama," but when the Swedish ship carrying them docked in New York, and before he could report to U.S. intelligence, FBI agents came aboard the ship, quietly asked Parsons who he was and quickly hustled him and his family ashore. However, another source states that Parsons reported to U.S. intelligence in the Canal Zone after the ship docked in Panama. It was simply a matter of diplomatic honor that no one in the German, Italian or other legations, who knew Parsons' true citizenship status, exposed his masquerade to the Japanese. Their role, as Smith and Parsons immediately explained to Fertig, was to verify that he was actually leading a resistance movement and, if so, whether it was worth the risk of men and supplies to support him.
At the same time, Parsons and Smith brought Fertig some unpleasant orders from MacArthur's headquarters. The American Army was willing to provide radios and other equipment for Fertig's command, but these were only to be used for passing information on Japanese activities, from coastwatchers and other sources, to Australia. The guerrillas were ordered not to engage in offensive activities against the Japanese. Fertig admitted that gathering intelligence was an important mission that he would support. However, due to the numerous atrocities that the Japanese were committing against the Philippine population, the only way that Fertig could continue to recruit and maintain a guerrilla force was to aggressively attack the Japanese when and where the guerrillas had a chance of winning, so as to provide the Filipinos an outlet for revenge against the Japanese. Fertig stated that if he ordered his men to stop killing the Japanese, then his men would follow other leaders who would probably not be willing to cooperate with MacArthur's headquarters and its directives. In addition, General Charles A. Willoughby, MacArthur's Chief of Intelligence, was convinced that providing the guerrillas with arms and ammunition was a waste of resources. If a regular U.S. Army had been defeated by the Japanese in the Philippines, then no irregular force could do better. The guerrillas' only purpose was to provide intelligence and later, if fully equipped prior to the return of American forces to the Philippines, to fight as regular forces under the command of American officers.
The almost total lack of supplies was a serious problem, but it was not the most pressing problem Fertig faced. At the time of the Japanese invasion, most Philippine army units were of low quality. They were not only poorly trained, enough time not having passed to do so, but they were under-equipped and did not have the firepower to resist better armed Japanese troops, tanks and planes. Most of the soldiers were barefoot, and many of their World War I era weapons lacked replacement parts and did not operate properly. As a result, many Filipino units fled when attacked by the Japanese. This was symptomatic of Fertig's most pressing need—experienced leaders. He knew that eventually numerous leaders would emerge from the Filipinos, some 'guerrilla' bands already had strong leaders, but he needed them now. His best resource for this leadership cadre was American servicemen who had either not surrendered or had escaped from prisoner-of-war camps. Many were already fighting as guerrilla leaders or were eager to do so, others joined him after he explained the need for their services, but many others were not willing and demanded they be sent to Australia where they could rejoin regular units. Fertig's reaction was not always one of understanding. He told many that they would be returned when a means was found, but that they would never be allowed to return. Others he removed from duty when it was apparent they did not have the leadership skills required. Eventually, they were also returned to Australia by submarine, many with negative reports on their behavior. Some regular Army personnel resented being commanded by a 'civilian turned soldier,' even if he had been in the Philippines more years than they had. Many of the younger Americans had disobeyed orders to surrender due to their individualism. Others had used their cunning to evade the Japanese or escape from the POW camps. These traits sometimes led to clashes with the older men who had lived in the Philippines for years and were now in command positions due to their reserve commissions or promotion by Fertig. As a result, those who departed did not always report favorably on Fertig once they reached MacArthur's headquarters in Australia. Those who stayed and fought received immediate commissions, or were promoted if they already were officers, in the U.S. Army, although they might be sailors, Marines, or even civilians. MacArthur eventually approved all of Fertig's promotions, even though advised not to do so by Lt. Colonel Courtney Whitney, his staff officer for Filipino civilian affairs.
Fighting the Japanese.
Colonel Fertig slowly assumed control over more of the existing, rival 'guerrilla' units on Mindanao and turned them to harassing the Japanese. Over the next two and a half years, Fertig created and commanded the Mindanao segment of the "United States Forces in the Philippines" (USFIP), recruiting escaped prisoners-of-war, and soldiers and American civilians who had refused to surrender. However, his real strength came from the thousands of pro-American Filipinos, many of whom were enraged by Japanese atrocities, who now joined existing or formed new organizations under his command. The Japanese were not unaware of these activities, especially as they began to suffer losses in men and equipment and lose control of large areas.
Between 1942 and 1944, USFIP conducted numerous raids against the Japanese Occupation Forces on Mindanao to both sustain Fertig's operation with captured supplies and to carry on harassing operations against the Japanese. This caused discord between Fertig and MacArthur's headquarters. The American South West Pacific Area command wanted Fertig to man coastwatcher units to report on Japanese movements, especially shipping, as its main effort. However, to retain the loyalty of his forces in the wake of Japanese atrocities, Fertig also had to wage an active campaign to kill Japanese and their collaborators, as well as disrupt activities aimed at civilians. Attacks against the Japanese often initiated terrible reprisals by the Japanese against local civilians, so Fertig issued orders that the guerrillas on Mindanao were to avoid situations that would result in such reprisals. However, due to the Japanese callousness toward the local populations, reprisals often still occurred.
Initially, Fertig's forces were able to repel Japanese attempts to recapture territory held by the guerrillas. The Japanese could not take any major actions against USFIP on Mindanao as, not only were they dealing with other resistance movements in the Philippines, but most of their combat troops had been deployed to other areas of the Pacific. However, in late Spring 1943, the Japanese began military actions on a large scale on Mindanao. In those areas affected, USFIP forces had to retreat and give up land, established camps, and government infrastructure to the stronger Japanese forces.
As the guerrilla units and government infrastructure fled before the Japanese forces, something occurred which Fertig had hoped for. He called it the "pillow effect." By providing no resistance to a stronger force, the guerrillas survived the Japanese blow. When the Japanese withdrew, the pillow expanded to its original shape. As the company-sized guerrilla units dissolved, the Japanese began breaking up their units into smaller groups—eventually into squads—to track down these smaller units. Then, without any orders from above, first two or three guerrillas, then 10 or more, then platoon and then company-sized units reorganized and struck back at the smaller Japanese units, causing the Japanese heavy casualties in hundreds of small fire fights. The Japanese responded by reforming into battalion-sized units that needed large towns to support them. Eventually, the Japanese, using 15,000 to 18,000 troops on Mindanao, held the large towns on the sea coast while the USFIP held the rest of the countryside, or approximately 95% of the island of Mindanao. The guerrillas were so effective in some areas, local Japanese commanders made separate truces with them. In exchange for the guerrillas not attacking Japanese troops, the Japanese agreed to stay out of those areas.
In August 1943, based upon favorable reports to MacArthur by Parsons and Smith, Fertig was promoted to full Colonel by MacArthur and received the Distinguished Service Cross for his efforts. On August 23, Fertig received the following message:
In recognition of your meritorious services as District Commander and extraordinary heroism in action during the period of 8 May 42 to 6 August 43, I have awarded you the Distinguished Service Cross, Announcement of your award is published in GO Hqs. USAFFE dtd 18 August. I congratulate you on the distinguished service to your country and to the Filipino people that has so well earned for you such recognition and hope that in it you will find inspiration for even greater future service. Quezon congratulates you on promotion.
Fertig even created a 'navy' by arming several small merchant vessels, which he used to protect convoys of small vessels that helped distribute supplies brought in by submarine. These vessels also attacked Japanese shipping, primarily small inter-coastal vessels and patrol boats. The USFIP navy was armed with various machine guns salvaged off downed bombers, home-made cannons, and even mortars. Later, some used 20 mm cannons supplied by the U.S. Navy. One vessel was even 'armored' using large, circular forestry saws taken from abandoned plantations. Some of the actions these vessels participated in were heroic to the extreme, as when one small vessel deliberately engaged in a running battle with a large Japanese steamer, and another, a sailing ship armed with 20 mm cannon, fought off Japanese aircraft and actually shot one down, perhaps establishing a record for being the only sailing ship to shoot down an airplane—a Japanese Mitsubishi medium bomber. More importantly, the crew salvaged a new Japanese bomb sight from the wreckage and sent it out on the next submarine to Australia. One of Fertig's most audacious ship captains was Waldo Neveling, a German civilian, soldier of fortune, and an "enemy alien" Fertig had commissioned into the U.S. Army. Another ship, called "The Bastard", was actually a 26-foot whaleboat captained by Australian Robert "Jock" McLaren, an escaped prisoner-of-war from the Sandakan POW camp on Borneo. McLaren would sail his boat into Japanese controlled ports in broad daylight, shoot up the supply vessels and piers with machine guns and a mortar, then turn tail and run.
To help prepare for the eventual invasion of American forces, Fertig even had airstrips prepared and disguised, one as long as 7,000 feet which took over a year to build. The airstrips were built and then covered with topsoil and planted with crops. All that was needed was a bulldozer to scrape off the topsoil and the airstrip would then be ready for planes. Some of these airstrips were later used by U.S. Marine Corps squadrons to provide close-air support during the invasion.
Early in 1945, the Japanese army once again launched a major effort in an attempt to destroy the guerrillas on Mindanao. Although essentially a repeat of their previous failed efforts, they came close to destroying the guerrillas, not by eliminating them, but by cutting off their sources of supplies. This effort came to an abrupt end when the American army and navy launched their long-awaited offensive against the Philippines, with a landing, first on Leyte, and then, on April 18, 1945, on Mindanao. As the Japanese army pulled its troops out of Mindanao to defend other portions of the Philippines, American air and naval forces exacted a terrible toll on Japanese shipping, killing untold thousands of Japanese troops. When many of the survivors of the sinking ships swam ashore, they found Filipino guerrillas and civilians waiting for them on the beaches, armed with bolos. Exhausted from the swim, the Japanese were unable to fight back against the terrible retribution the Filipinos then exacted for the atrocities the Japanese had perpetrated against them during the years of occupation.
The USFIP also contributed heavily to coastwatching activities as requested by MacArthur's headquarters. Fertig's coastwatchers provided information leading to the victories in the first Battle of the Philippine Sea (the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot") and the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Other intelligence gathered by Fertig's guerrillas was so accurate that aerial reconnaissance flights before attacks were often canceled so as not to warn the Japanese. The guerrillas often went to great risks to secure accurate information. For example, they would make pencil-and-paper rubbings of the serial numbers on enemy artillery to prove the accuracy of their information. However, estimates of enemy strength in an area were sometimes unreliable, as, with the American forces now in the Philippines, the Japanese were constantly moving their forces around to meet the threat. Lieutenant General Robert Eichelberger, commanding the U.S. Eighth Army, often downplayed guerrilla intelligence, but this was throughout the Philippines as a whole. For the 10th Military District, commanded by Fertig, he had this to say:
We did have considerable information about dispositions of enemy troops, since guerrilla forces on Mindanao were the most effective and best organized in the Philippines.
However, probably the best estimate of the value of guerrilla intelligence came from the Japanese, when they released an official communique stating that the Americans had "perfected a new aerial bomb which was attracted by concentrations of ammunition and fuel." The 'bomb' was simply accurate information on Japanese installations supplied by the guerrillas.
As first American carrier planes, and then long-distance land-based planes, began raids on the Philippines, the guerrillas became important for yet another reason. As American pilots bailed out when their planes were hit by Japanese anti-aircraft fire, they often found Filipino guerrillas waiting for them even before they hit the ground. Pilots who landed in the water were picked up quickly by Filipinos in small, swift boats. Often the pilots would be expressing their appreciation of the guerrillas to their ships' debriefing officers within a day or two. Fertig soon issued orders that pilots were not allowed to go on patrol with the guerrillas, as some of the more enthusiastic pilots were doing. He knew they were more important flying missions against Japanese targets. Besides, Colonel Fertig now had a good supply of experienced, battle-hardened American and Filipino leaders for his combat patrols.
From its humble beginnings, USFIP became one of the best equipped and most effective irregular units operating in World War II. When the submarine "USS Narwhal" arrived at Mindanao in Nov. 1943 to deliver supplies, the crew was met by a uniformed band playing "Stars and Stripes Forever." Although submarines had already delivered supplies to Fertig and other guerrilla leaders, the Narwhal's large size enabled it to deliver 100 tons of supplies at a time, whereas other submarines could only deliver four tons or less. This greatly increased the ability of the guerrilla forces not only to inflict damage to the enemy, but also provide the necessary supplies to care for the medical health and well-being of the guerrilla forces and their civilian supporters. In addition, "USS Narwhal" had the room to evacuate guerrillas needing critical medical care, as well as American civilians, primarily women and children, who had been hiding out in the Philippines and were suffering from malnutrition and diseases. According to U.S. Navy records, 16 of 41 resupply missions to the Philippines were directed to Mindanao between January 14, 1943 and January 1, 1945. For all of the Philippines, a total of 1,325 tons of supplies were landed, with 331 people landed and another 472 evacuated.
As an indicator of USFIP strength on Mindanao, during January and February 1945, in preparation for the return of regular American forces, the guerrillas seized the Dipolog airstrip in northern Zamboanga and held it while surrounded by the Japanese. With the arrival of regular American forces in March 1945, Fertig's guerrilla forces participated in the Battle of Mindanao that effectively ended organized Japanese resistance on that island. They then disbanded. On September 15, 1945, the 6th Infantry Division of the Philippine Army was reactivated, and its ranks were heavily seeded with Filipino veterans of the USFIP at all levels of command.
By late 1944, Fertig commanded a force estimated at between 25,000 and 40,000 effectives, with most sources agreeing on 36,000—the equivalent of an Army Corps—with 16,500 of them armed. Officers with responsibility for corps command usually hold the rank of lieutenant general. In addition, Fertig created and helped administer the civilian government of Mindanao while at the same time conducting the guerrilla war against the Japanese. The USFIP killed at least 7,000 Japanese soldiers and, while a constant drain on Japanese resources, they also prevented the Japanese from fully utilizing Mindanao's resources in support of its war efforts. At one time, the Japanese committed approximately 60,000 troops in an attempt to crush guerrilla resistance on Mindanao, troops that were desperately needed elsewhere. Throughout the entire Philippines, the guerrillas managed to tie down a Japanese army of 288,000 troops, of which approximately 43,000–60,000 were on Mindanao, depending on the time period.
After the war, examination of Japanese records indicated that the Japanese high command felt that 24 battalions of troops would be needed to guard rear areas against guerrillas once the American invasion of the Philippines began. Since seven divisions were slated to resist the invasion, this resulted in a ratio of one rear-area soldier to every three front-line troops. Ultimately, the Japanese concluded that, "It is impossible to fight the enemy and at the same time suppress the activities of the guerrillas."
While summarizing Colonel Wendell Fertig's contributions to the American war effort and his leadership of the USFIP on Mindanao, Keats (1990) states:
...apart from his insistence on honesty and justice, and the idea that the guerrilla army be a process of a responsible civil government, his fundamental contribution to Mindanao was his concern that the reward for performance should always be increased responsibility. In his command, demonstrated competence was the sole means to promotion, and no man was denied an opportunity to prove himself. This concept built a nation in North America, and it built another on Mindanao... It was Fertig, more than any other man, who gave the Filipinos of Mindanao increasing reason to believe in themselves. This, rather than a military victory, was Fertig's triumph.
The Moro Muslim Datu Pino sliced the ears off Japanese and cashed them in with Colonel Fertig at the exchange rate of a pair of ears for one bullet and 20 centavos.
Post-war.
Some scholars question why Fertig did not receive the Medal of Honor, despite his considerable military achievements at great risk of his life. Others question why, when Fertig commanded so large an army of irregular guerrillas, he was not promoted to brigadier general when other men, who were never in combat, received that rank as the U.S. Army grew in size. William Manchester, in his 1978 biography of MacArthur, "American Caesar", offers the opinion that MacArthur and his staff may have had their own agenda in minimizing the efforts of Fertig, other resistance leaders and the guerrillas themselves in liberating the Philippines. For example, The American Joint Chiefs of Staff authorized General MacArthur to liberate the island of Luzon, but none of the other Philippine islands. After capturing Luzon, MacArthur invaded numerous other islands without authorization, and his actions were followed by a retroactive endorsement from the Joint Chiefs. Manchester stated, "He [MacArthur] wanted to become the liberator of the Philippines." The Japanese Army's practice of referring to Fertig as "Major General Fertig, Commander in Chief in the Philippines" throughout the occupation period and its use of Japanese military notation in referring to the 10th Military District as the "10 Army Group" did not endear Fertig to MacArthur's headquarters.
Manchester also relates that Lieutenant Colonel Courtney Whitney, an "ultraconservative Manila corporation lawyer" was assigned to MacArthur's staff, promoted, and assigned responsibility for Philippine civil affairs. Manchester wrote:
By minimizing the efforts of the guerrilla movement in freeing the Philippines, Whitney also robbed it of political clout after the war to make any substantial liberal changes in Philippine government and society after the war.
In May 1946, Colonel Fertig was awarded the U.S. Army Distinguished Service Medal. The citation reads in part:
After the war, Fertig spent four years as the officer-in-charge of ROTC at the Colorado School of Mines, a surprisingly low-level post after such a distinguished wartime career.
However, when the Korean War began, he spent two years at the Pentagon with a psychological warfare unit. From July 1951 to June 1952, he was the Special Forces Plans Officer in the Office of the Chief of Psychological Warfare with Headquarters U.S. Army. Then from June 1952 to August 1953, he served as Deputy Chief of Psychological Warfare. It was during this time that he helped establish the Army's Psychological Warfare Center at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, which later became the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School. Due to his wartime experiences and post-war work, Fertig is one of three men who "used their wartime experience to formulate the doctrine of unconventional warfare that became the cornerstone of SF [Special Forces]," and is considered one of the founding fathers of the U.S. Army Special Forces.
Colonel Fertig was released from active duty in the mid-1950s.
Fertig was widely regarded as a hero by the people of Mindanao. In June 1958, Wendell Fertig and his wife returned to Mindanao on a business trip. As the inter-island freighter pulled into Cagayan, the ship's captain approached Fertig and said, "Sir, I think friends await you." As numerous small craft full of shouting men surrounded the ship, Wendell and Mary Fertig saw:
They then saw a huge banner over the pier:
Wendell Fertig ran a successful mining company in Colorado until he died on March 24, 1975.
Popular culture.
A movie on Wendell Fertig has been in the planning stages for several years. As of March 2009, "Robert Towne had finished the screenplay and it was presented to Sony Productions for final approval. David Fincher, the director, is eager to start production."
Several movie Web sites now list the movie, but most state it is "in development." Brad Pitt, with whom Fincher has worked before, is listed in the role of "Fertig." The New York Times site lists Columbia TriStar Motion Picture Group as the studio, Sony Pictures as the domestic theatrical distributor, and Red Wagon Entertainment as the production company.
Wendell Fertig and some fictionalized actions of the U.S. Forces in the Philippines are featured in W.E.B. Griffin's 7th book of The Corps series, "Behind the Lines"; and also in the 4th book of his Men at War series, "The Fighting Agents". The books are based on the beginning phases of Fertig's operation and the top-level political maneuvering surrounding it.
Wendell Fertig and 2 "imposters" appeared on an episode of the game show "To Tell the Truth" on September 9, 1963.


Hirabayashi Castle

 was a Sengoku period Japanese castle located in the Kamihayashi neighborhood of the city of Murakami, northern Niigata Prefecture, Japan. The castle ruins have been protected as a National Historic Site since 1978.
Background.
Hirabayashi Castle is located on top of Mount Yōgai, a 200-meter hill near the mouth of the Arakawa River, and at the northern edge of the Echigo Plain. The location is more than 200 kilometers from the Jōetsu area, which contained the provincial capital of Echigo Province, and was isolated from Dewa to the north and east by mountains.
History.
During the Sengoku period, northern Echigo was controlled by a number of petty lords known as the “Agakitashu” , who were originally the magistrates sent by absentee landlords to administer "shōen" manors in the area during the Kamakura period. Over the centuries, the position became hereditary, and these magistrates became virtually independent. The Hirabayashi area was originally controlled by the Hirabayashi clan, the original builders of the castle. However, during the Nanboku-chō period, their territory was seized by the Irobe clan. The Irobe were a cadet branch of the Taira clan from the Chichibu region of what is now Saitama Prefecture and were thus related to the Honjō clan of neighbouring Murakami Castle. At the beginning of 16th century, the Nagao clan, a cadet branch of the Uesugi clan grew in power in southern Echigo. During an internal conflict between different branches of the Nagao, the Irobe supported Nagao Fusayoshi, the "shugo" of Echigo against Nagao Tamekage, the deputy "shugo". Tamekage ordered the Nakajō clan, a powerful neighbour, to attack Hirabayashi Castle. The castle eventually fell, and the Irobe were forced to pledge fealty to Nagao Tamekage.
The Irobe revolted when Nagao Tamekage was replaced by his son, Nagao Harukage, however, when Uesugi Kagetora (Kenshin) succeeded Harukage, the Irobe became his retainers. Irobe Katsunaga (1493-1569) achieved distinction as an Uesugi general at the fourth Battle of Kawanakajima in 1561. During the 1563 campaign against the Odawara Hōjō, he captured Sano Castle in Kōzuke and was ranked as seventh among Kenshin's generals. After the death of Kenshin in 1578, the Irobe supported his successor Uesugi Kagekatsu. In 1598, Uesugi Kagekatsu was transferred to Aizu by order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the Irobe clan accompanied him to his new domains. Hirabayashi Castle was abandoned and fell into ruin afterwards.
The remains of several "kuruwa" and portions of earthworks, moats, and wells can still be found at the site. The castle ruins are located about 20 minutes on foot from Hirabayashi Station on the JR East Uetsu Main Line.
Design of Hirabayashi Castle.
Hirabayashi Castle was typical of Sengoku period mountain forts in that it consisted of several enclosures spread across a long and narrow ridge, utilising the natural terrain as part of its defences. The inner bailey is located at the top of the mountain, and is roughly pentagonal in shape, and was protected by a simple clay wall. The main gate to the inner bailey as a large "masugata"-style gate. A peacetime residence was located at the foot of the mountain. Archaeological excavations have determined that the site of the residence stretches for about 300 meters from east-to-west and about 200 meters from north-to-south, has large earthworks and empty moats in good condition,


Legazpi Cathedral

The Cathedral Parish of Saint Gregory the Great (), also known as Legazpi Cathedral and locally as Albay Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to Saint Gregory the Great in the Old Albay District of the city of Legazpi, Albay, in the Bicol region of the Philippines. It is the seat of the Diocese of Legazpi. In 2018, a historical marker of the National Historical Commission of the Philippines was unveiled at the cathedral.
History.
 The city of Legazpi today was initially a barangay called "Sawangan", which at present corresponds to the location of the Legazpi Port. The mission in the area, the "Mission de San Gregorio Magno de Sawangan", was founded by the Franciscans in 1587 as a "visita" of Cagsaua. Its first church of nipa and lumber was constructed which was placed under the patronage of Saint Gregory the Great, the pope of the Catholic Church from 590 to 604 CE. In 1616, it became a full pledged parish and was called "Albay". It was reconstructed with wood planks in 1635 which was razed by fire in 1754. The first stone church was built under Fr. Pedro Romero in 1834 which was charred again during the Philippine-American War in 1900. In 1945, parts of the church were damaged during the World War II, and was subsequently repaired under Fr. Nicanor Belleza. In 1951, it became the seat and cathedral of the Legazpi Diocese upon its foundation from the territories of Diocese of Nueva Caceres..


Lokissara

Lokissara was a soldier who was enlisted with an army abroad and defeated the Royal Polonnaruwa Army deposing Lilavati. Lokissara ruled for nine months from 1210 to 1211 before the Royal Army restored Lilavati for the third time.


Tarabya of Pegu

Tarabya of Pegu (; , ) was the self-proclaimed king of Pegu (modern Bago, Myanmar) from 1287 to 1296. He was one of several regional strongmen who emerged after the fall of the Pagan Empire in 1287.
Initially, Tarabya was allied with Wareru, the strongman of the nearby Martaban province. But after their decisive victory over Pagan in 1295–1296, the alliance turned into an intense rivalry, which culminated in the two men fighting a duel on elephant-back about two years later. Tarabya was defeated, and after a brief stay in Martaban (Mottama), executed.
Background.
Tarabya was originally a commoner by the name of Nga Pa-Mun (ငပမွန်, ), or A-Che-Mun (အချဲမွန်, ). His ascent to power was accidental. He was a brother-in-law of Akhamaman (also known as A-Kha-Mun), the self-proclaimed king of Pegu, who successfully revolted against King Narathihapate in 1285 during the Mongol invasions of the country. Two (or three) years later, Akhamaman was assassinated by his brother-in-law Lekkhaya Byu. In response, Ma Ta-Shauk (မတယှောက်), Akhamaman's and A-Che-Mun's father-in-law, recruited A-Che-Mun to eliminate the usurper. Eight days after the death of Akhamaman, A-Che-Mun assassinated Lekkhaya Byu. He declared himself king of Pegu with the title of Tarabya.
Reign.
Consolidation of Pegu province.
Tarabya came to power during anarchic times. No central authority had emerged after the assassination of the king by Prince Thihathu of Prome in July 1287. The Pagan Empire was no more; every region went its own way. At his accession, Tarabya controlled only around the town. To his west and south, he was still hemmed in by Prome (Pyay) and Dala–Twante, ruled by Pagan princes, Thihathu and Kyawswa, respectively. To his east, the Martaban (Mottama) province was controlled by another rebel Wareru. To his north, Thawun Gyi was in charge of Toungoo (Taungoo).
The frantic fighting among the sons of the fallen king gave petty rulers like Tarabya time to prepare. He reinforced Pegu's defenses while Thihathu fought his brothers Uzana of Bassein and Kyawswa throughout the Irrawaddy delta. By the time Thihathu attacked Pegu, Tarabya was well prepared to withstand a long siege. But Thihathu died in a freak accident during the siege, and Prome forces retreated. Soon after, Kyawswa left Dala for Pagan to become king. Tarabya quickly stepped in, and seized the entire Pegu province, including Dala, by the time Kyawswa emerged as king of Pagan on 30 May 1289.
War with Pagan.
Initially, Tarabya saw no reason to acknowledge the new king at Pagan. Kyawswa had no real army, and the real power increasingly belonged to the three generals, who defeated the Mongol invasion into Central Burma in 1287. Tarabya was more concerned about the local rival next door: Wareru, who then controlled the Martaban province (present-day Mon State and southern Kayin State), and had the backing of the Tai-state of Sukhothai to the east. Nonetheless, 1293, he and Wareru entered into an alliance as a precaution against a Pagan invasion. In marriages of state, Tarabya married Wareru's daughter May Hnin Theindya while Wareru married Tarabya's daughter Shin Saw Hla.
The alliance was timely. Pagan's hand was forced in 1293 when Wareru received royal recognition and the gift of a white elephant from King Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai. In the dry season of 1295–1296 (also reported as 1293–1294), a sizable Pagan army led by Yazathingyan invaded to retake the entire southern coast. The army captured Dala and laid siege to Pegu. The city was starving when Wareru's troops from Martaban arrived and broke the siege. The combined Martaban–Pegu forces went on to dislodge the Pagan army from Dala, and drive the invaders out of the Irrawaddy delta.
The victory proved decisive. Neither Pagan nor its successor states would attempt a large scale invasion of the south for about another 90 years (until 1385).
Showdown with Wareru.
With Pagan out of the picture, the rivalry between Tarabya and Wareru came back to the fore. The immediate point of contention was the control of the newly won Irrawaddy delta. It is unclear how they decided to rule the delta but the uneasy alliance lasted until late 1296, (The alliance overall lasted at least three years during which Tarabya and Wareru's daughter had two children.) The relationship deteriorated to the point of war. The two sides met at the border, and the two lords agreed to fight in single combat on their war elephants. Wareru defeated Tarabya in combat but spared Tarabya's life at the intercession of the monks. Wareru also appointed Laik-Gi, one of his ministers, governor of Pegu.
Death.
Tarabya was brought to Martaban. His wife Theindya and their two young children also came. Soon after, he was found plotting an attempt on Wareru's life, and was executed. According to the "Pak Lat Chronicles", it was Theindya who reported the plot to her father. But when her father ordered Tarabya's execution, she tied her tresses with his and dared executioners to cut off his head. It did not work; the executioners managed to cut his hair off, and beheaded him.
Aftermath.
Tarabya's two young sons were brought up by Wareru. But the boys held a grudge against their grandfather for the father's death. In January 1307, they stabbed their unsuspecting grandfather to death. The boys were caught, and executed.