Indian martial arts

Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases “Indian martial arts”, usually deriving from Dravidian sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. archery, armed combat), by Classical times they were used generically for all fighting systems.
Among the most common terms today, "śastra-vidyā", is a compound of the words ' (weapon) and ' (knowledge). "Dhanurveda" derives from the words for bow (') and knowledge ('), the “science of archery” in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general. The Vishnu Purana text describes dhanuveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of “applied knowledge” or upaveda, along with "shastrashastra" or military science. A later term, "yuddha kalā", comes from the words "yuddha" meaning fight or combat and "kalā" meaning art or skill. The related term "śastra kalā" (lit. weapon art) usually refers specifically to armed disciplines. Another term, "yuddha-vidyā" or “combat knowledge”, refers to the skills used on the battlefield, encompassing not only actual fighting but also battle formations and strategy. Martial arts are usually learnt and practiced in the traditional akharas.
History.
Antiquity (pre-Gupta).
An Indus valley civilization seal shows two men spearing one another in a duel which seem to be centered on a woman. A statue of a spear thrower was also excavated from an Indus valley site.
"Dhanurveda", a section found in the Vedas (1700 BCE - 1100 BCE) contains references to martial arts. Indian epics contain the earliest accounts of combat, both armed and bare-handed. Most deities of the Hindu-Buddhist pantheon are armed with their own personal weapon, and are revered not only as master martial artists but often as originators of those systems themselves. The "Mahabharata" tells of fighters armed only with daggers besting lions, and describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees, rocks and fists. Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.
The oldest recorded organized unarmed fighting art in the Indian subcontinent is malla-yuddha or combat-wrestling, codified into four forms in the Vedic Period. Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press-ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.
In Sanskrit literature the term "dwandwayuddha" referred to a duel, such that it was a battle between only two warriors and not armies. Epics often describe the duels between deities and god-like heroes as lasting a month or more. The malla-yuddha (wrestling match) between Bhima and Jarasandha lasts 27 days. Similarly, the "dwandayuddha" between Parasurama and Bhishma lasts for 30 days, while that between Krishna and Jambavan lasts for 28 days. Likewise, the "dwandwayudda" between Bali and Dundubhi, a demon in the form of a water buffalo, lasts for 45 days. The Manusmriti tells that if a warrior's topknot comes loose during such a fight or duel, the opponent must give him time to bind his hair before continuing.
The "Charanavyuha" authored by Shaunaka mentions four "upaveda" (applied Vedas). Included among them are archery ("dhanurveda") and military sciences ("shastrashastra"), the mastery of which was the duty ("dharma") of the warrior class. Kings usually belonged to the kshatria (warrior) class and thus served as heads of the army. They typically practiced archery, wrestling, boxing, and swordsmanship as part of their education. Examples include such rulers as Siddhartha Gautama and Rudradaman. The Chinese monk Xuanzang writes that the emperor Harsha was light on his feet despite his advancing age and managed to dodge and seize an assailant during an assassination attempt.
Many of the popular sports mentioned in the Vedas and the epics have their origins in military training, such as boxing ("musti-yuddha"), wrestling ("maladwandwa"), chariot-racing ("rathachalan"), horse-riding ("aswa-rohana") and archery ("dhanurvidya"). Competitions were held not just as a contest of the players' prowess but also as a means of finding a bridegroom. Arjuna, Rama and Siddhartha Gautama all won their consorts in such tournaments.
In the 3rd century, elements from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, as well as finger movements in the "nata" dances, were incorporated into the fighting arts. A number of Indian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in kalaripayat can be applied to dance and kathakali dancers who knew kalaripayat were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Until recent decades, the chhau dance was performed only by martial artists. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen.
Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam in the Sangam era. The word kalari appears in the "Puram" (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and "Akam" (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe both a battlefield and combat arena. The word "kalari tatt" denoted a martial feat, while "kalari kozhai" meant a coward in war. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice and horse riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear ("vel"), sword ("val"), shield ("kedaham"), and bow and arrow ("vil ambu"). The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to kalaripayat. References to “Silappadikkaram” in Sangam literature date back to the 2nd century. This referred to the silambam staff which was in great demand with foreign visitors.
The ten fighting styles of northern sastra-vidya were said to have been created in different areas based on animals and gods, and designed for the particular geography of their origin. Tradition ascribes their convergence to the 6th-century Buddhist university of Takshashila, ancient India's intellectual capital. Located in present-day Panjab, Pakistan, the Ramayana ascribes the city's founding to Bharata who named it after his son Taksha. From the 7th to the 5th centuries BC it was held in high regard as a great centre of trade and learning, attracting students from throughout present-day Pakistan and northern India. Among the subjects taught were the “military sciences”, and archery was one of its prime arts.
Some measures were put into place to discourage martial activity during the Buddhist period. The Khandhaka in particular forbids wrestling, boxing, archery, and swordsmanship. However, references to fighting arts are found in early Buddhist texts, such as the Lotus Sutra (c. 1st century AD) which refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri. It also categorised combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples and throws. The Lotus Sutra makes further mention of a martial art with dance-like movements called "Nara". Another Buddhist sutra called "Hongyo-kyo" (佛本行集經) describes a “strength contest” between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta. Siddhartha Gautama himself was a champion wrestler and swordsman before becoming the Buddha.
Classical period (3rd to 10th centuries).
Like other branches of Sanskrit literature, treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. Vajra-musti, an armed grappling style, is mentioned in sources of the early centuries AD. Around this time, tantric philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini, chakra, and mantra.
The "Sushruta Samhita" (c. 4th century) identifies 107 vital points on the human body of which 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline ayurveda which was taught alongside various martial arts. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that Indian subcontinent's early fighters knew and practised attacking or defending vital points.
Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. This is similar to the style described in the "Agni Purana".
Martial arts were not exclusive to the kshatriya caste, though the warrior class used them more extensively. The 8th-century text "Kuvalaymala" by Udyotanasuri recorded fighting techniques being taught at educational institutions, where non-kshatriya students from throughout the subcontinent “were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels ("niyuddham")”. Hindu priests of the traditional gurukula still teach unarmed fighting techniques to their students as a way of increasing stamina and training the physical body.
The Gurjara-Pratihara came into power during the 7th century and founded a kyshatria dynasty in northern India which exceeded the preceding Gupta Empire. During this period, Emperor Nagabhata I (750–780 AD) and Mihir Bhoja I (836–890) commissioned various texts on martial arts, and were themselves practitioners of these systems. "Shiva Dhanuveda" was composed in this era. The "khadga", a two-handed broad-tipped heavy longsword, was given special preference. It was even used for "khadga-puja", ritualised worship of the sword. The Gurjara-Pratiharas continuously fought off Arab invasions, particularly during the Caliphate campaigns in India. The Arab chronicler Sulaiman wrote of the Gurjara ruler as the greatest foe to Islamic expansion, while at the same time praising his cavalry. The Gurjara people still keep up their tradition of gatka and kushti, and until today there are world-class wrestlers from the community competing at national and international levels.
Middle Ages (11th to 15th centuries).
Kalaripayat had developed into its present form by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties. The earliest treatise discussing the techniques of malla-yuddha is the "Malla Purana" (c. 13th century), unlike the earlier "Manasollasa" which gives the names of movements but no descriptions.
Over a period of several centuries, invading Muslim armies managed to occupy much of present-day Pakistan and northern India. In response to the spread of Muslim rule, the kingdoms of South India united in the 14th century to found the Vijayanagara Empire. Physical culture was given much attention by both royalty and commoners in the empire, with wrestling being particularly popular with both men and women. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters of Vijayanagara, and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as cockfights, ram fights, and wrestling. One account describes an akhara in Chandragiri where noblemen practiced jumping exercises, boxing, fencing and wrestling almost every day before dinner to maintain their health, and observed that “men as old as seventy years look only thirty”.
The Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle wrote of cane-fighting in southern India. According to Pietro, it was the custom for soldiers to specialise in their own particular weapon of expertise and never use any other even during war, “thereby becoming very expert and well practised in that which he takes to”.
As their ancient predecessors, swordplay and wrestling were commonly practiced by the royalty of Vijayanagara. Krishna Deva Raya is said to have arranged a duel between a champion swordsman and the prince of Odisha who was known for being an expert with both the sword and dagger. The prince accepted the challenge until he learned he would be fighting one not of royal blood and so killed himself rather than having to “soil his hands”. Fernao Nunes and the Persian envoy Adbur Razzak relate that Deva Raya II survived an assassination attempt “as he was a man who knew how to use both sword and dagger better than anyone in his kingdom, avoided by twists and turns of his body the thrusts aimed at him, freed himself from him, and slew him with a short sword that he had.”
Mughal era (1526–1857).
After a series of victories, the Central Asian conqueror Babur established Mughal rule in north India during the 16th century. The Mughals were patrons of India's native arts, not only recruiting akhara-trained Rajput fighters for their armies but even practicing these systems themselves. The "Ausanasa Dhanurveda Sankalanam" dates to the late 16th century, compiled under the patronage of Akbar. The "Ain-i-Akbari" tells that the Mughal court had various kinds of fighting men from around the empire who would demonstrate their skills every day in exchange for rewards. Among them were said to be both native and Mughal wrestlers, slingers from Gujarat, Hindustani athletes, boxers, stone-throwers and many others.
“There are several kinds of gladiators, each performing astonishing feats. In fighting they show much speed and agility and blend courage and skill in squatting down and rising up again. Some of them use shields in fighting, others use cudgels. Others again use no means of defence, and fight with one hand only; these are called "ek-hath". Those who come from the eastern districts of Hindostan use a small shield called “"chirwah"”. Those from the southern provinces have shields of such magnitude as to cover a man and a horse. This kind of shield is called "tilwah". Another class use a shield somewhat less than the height of a man. Some again use a long sword, and seizing it with both hands they perform extraordinary feats of skill. There is another famous class called Bankúlis. They have no shield but make use of a peculiar kind of sword which, though curved towards the point, is straight near the handle. They wield it with great dexterity. The skill that they exhibit passes all description. Others are skillful in fighting with daggers and knives of various forms; of these there are upwards of a hundred thousand. Each class has a different name; they also differ in their performances. At court, there are a thousand gladiators always in readiness.”
Avid hunters, a popular sport among the Mughals was "shikar" or tiger-hunting. While often done with arrows and later even rifles, it was considered most impressive to kill a tiger with a hand-to-hand weapon such as a sword or dagger. A warrior who managed to best a tiger would be awarded the title of "Pachmar".
In the 16th century, Madhusudana Saraswati of Bengal organised a section of the Naga tradition of armed sannyasi in order to protect Hindus from the intolerant Mughal rulers. Although generally said to abide by the principle of non-violence ("ahimsā"), these Dashanami monks had long been forming akhara for the practice of both yoga and martial arts. Such warrior-ascetics have been recorded from 1500 to as late as the 18th century, although tradition attributes their creation to the 8th-century philosopher Sankaracharya. They began as a stratum of Rajput warriors who would gather after harvest and arm peasants into militarised units, effectively acting as a self-defense squad. Prevalent in Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Bengal, they would give up their occupations and leave their families to live as mercenaries. Naga sadhu today rarely practice any form of fighting other than wrestling, but still carry trishula, swords, canes and spears. To this day their retreats are called "chhauni" or armed camps, and they have been known to hold mock jousts among themselves. As recently as the 1950s, it was not unusual for Naga sadhu to strike to kill someone over issues of honour.
There is also a 17th-century "Dhanurveda-samhita" attributed to Vasistha.
The pehlwani style of wrestling developed in the Mughal Empire by combining native malla-yuddha with influences from Persian "varzesh-e bastani".
Maratha dynasty (1674–1859).
Coming from a hilly region characterized by valleys and caves, the Marathas became expert horsemen who favoured light armour and highly mobile cavalry units during war. Known especially as masters of swords and spears, their heavily martial culture and propensity for the lance is mentioned as early as the 7th century by Xuanzang. After serving the Dakshin sultanates of the early 17th century, the scattered Marathas united to found their own kingdom under the warrior Shivaji. Having learned the native art of mardani khela from a young age, Shivaji was a master swordsman and proficient in the use of various weapons. He took advantage of his people's expertise in guerilla tactics ("Shiva sutra") to re-establish "Hindavi Swarajya" (native [Hindu being a term traditionally applied to the native inhabitants of India throughout antiquity] self-rule) at a time of Muslim supremacy and increasing intolerance. Utilizing speed, focused surprise attacks (typically at night and in rocky terrain), and the geography of Maharashtra, Karnataka, & South India; the Maratha rulers were successfully able to defend their territory from the more numerous and heavily armed Mughals. The still-existing Maratha Light Infantry is one of the “oldest and most renowned” regiments of the Indian Army, tracing its origins to 1768.
Paika Rebellion.
Paika is the Odia word for fighter or warrior. Their training schools, known as paika akhada, can be traced back to ancient Kalinga and their art was at one time patronised by King Kharavela. In March 1817, under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mohapatra, nearly 400 Khanda of Ghumusar in Ganjam marched towards Khordha in protest against British colonial rule. Many government buildings were burnt down and all the officials fled. The British commander of one detachment was killed during a battle at Gangapada. The paika managed to capture two bases at Puri and Pipli before spreading the rebellion further to Gop, Tiran, Kanika and Kujang. The revolt lasted a year and a half before being quelled by September 1818. Today the paika akhada are known mainly for their street performances during festivals.
Modern period (1857—present).
Indian martial arts underwent a period of decline after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century. More European modes of organizing kings, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional combat training associated with caste-specific duties. The British colonial government banned kalaripayat in 1804 in response to a series of revolts. Silambam was also banned and became more common in the Malay Peninsula than its native Tamil Nadu. Nevertheless, traditional fighting systems persisted, sometimes even under the patronage of enthusiastic British spectators who tended to remark on the violence of native boxing and the acrobatic movements characteristic of Indian fighting styles.
The British took advantage of communities with a heavily militaristic culture, characterising them as “martial races” and employing them in the armed forces. Sikhs – already known among Indians for their martial practices – were particularly valued by the colonists as soldiers and guards, and were posted throughout not only India but Southeast Asia and other parts of the British Empire. Members of the army were allowed to box as a way of settling disputes, provided that they were still able to carry out their duties as soldiers after a match. The particular form of boxing used by the Punjabi soldiers was "loh-musti", as the kara worn by Sikhs could be wielded like brass knuckles.
The resurgence of public interest in kalaripayat began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout south India which characterised the growing reaction against British colonial rule. During the following three decades, other regional styles were subsequently revived such as silambam in Tamil Nadu, thang-ta in Manipur and paika akhada in Orissa.
Texts.
Agni Purana.
One of the earliest extant manual of Indian martial arts is in the Agni Purana (dated to between the 8th and the 11th century), The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251, categorizing weapons into thrown and unthrown classes and further divided into several sub-classes. It catalogs training into five major divisions for different types of warriors, namely charioteers, elephant-riders, horsemen, infantry, and wrestlers.
The nine asanas (stances) in the fight are listed below:
Then there follows a more detailed discussion of archery technique.
The section concludes with listing the names of actions or “deeds” possible with a number of weapons, including 32 positions to be taken with sword and shield ("), 11 names of techniques of using a rope in fighting, along with 5 names of “acts in the rope operation” along with lists of “deeds” pertaining to the chakram (war-quoit), the spear, the "tomara" (iron club), the gada (mace), the axe, the hammer, the "bhindipāla" or "laguda", the vajra, the dagger, the slingshot, and finally deeds with a bludgeon or cudgel. A short passage near the end of the text returns to the larger concerns of warfare and explains the various uses of war elephants and men. The text concludes with a description of how to appropriately send the well-trained fighter off to war.
Arthashastra.
The Arthashastra, c. 4th century BCE, typically attributed to Chanakya chief advisor of Chandragupta Maurya is one of the earliest treatises on statecraft, including diverse topics such as economics, politics, diplomacy and military strategy.
Others.
There is an extant "Dhanurveda-Samhita" dating to the mid-14th century, by Brhat Sarngadhara Paddhati (ed. 1888).
Other scattered references to fighting arts in medieval texts include the:
"Kamandakiya Nitisara" (c. 8th century ed. Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1896),
The "Nitivakyamrta" by Somadeva Suri (10th century),
The "Yuktikalpataru" of Bhoja (11th century) and
The "Manasollasa" of Somesvara III (12th century)
Weapons & Arts.
A wide array of weapons are used in the Indian subcontinent, some of which are not found anywhere else. According to P.C. Chakravati in "The Art of War in Ancient India", armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal-tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo, wooden or metal shields, axes, short and longbows in warfare as early as the 4th century BC. Military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240–480) and the later Agni Purana identify over 130 different weapons.
The "Agni Purana" divides weapons into thrown and unthrown classes. The thrown ("mukta") class includes twelve weapons altogether which come under four categories, viz.
These were opposed to the much larger unthrown class of three categories.
The duel with bow and arrows is considered the noblest, fighting with the spear ranks next, while fighting with the sword is considered unrefined, and wrestling is classed as the meanest or worst form of fighting. Only a Brahmins could be an acharya (teacher) of sastravidya, Kshatriya and vaishya should learn from the Acharya, while a shudra could not take a teacher, left to “fight of his own in danger”.
Over time, weaponry evolved and India became famous for its flexible wootz steel. The most commonly taught weapons in the Indian martial arts today are types of swords, daggers, spears, staves, cudgels, and maces.
Weapons are linked to several superstitions and cultural beliefs in the Indian subcontinent. Drawing a weapon without reason is forbidden and considered by Hindus to be disrespectful to the goddess Chandika. Thus the saying that a sword cannot be sheathed until it has drawn blood. It was a mother's duty to tie a warrior's sword around his waist before war or a duel. In addition, she would cut her finger with the sword and make a tilak on his head from a drop of her blood. Weapons themselves were also anointed with tilak, most often from the blood of a freshly-decapitated goat ("chatanga"). Other taboos include looking at one's reflection in the blade, telling the price or source of acquisition, throwing it on the ground or using it for domestic purposes.
Swordsmanship (Khadgavidya).
Nakula and Sahadeva are said to be skilled swordsmen in Mahabharata. Sword-fighting is one of the common Indian fighting arts. Varieties include the curved single-edge sword, the straight double-edge sword, the two-handed longsword, the gauntlet-sword, and the urumi or flexible sword. Techniques differ from one state to another but all make extensive use of circular movements, often circling the weapon around the user's head. The flexible nature and lightweight of Indian swords allows for speed but provides little defensive ability, so that the swordsman must instead rely on body maneuvers to dodge attacks. Entire systems exist focusing on drawing the sword out of the opponent's body. Stances and forms traditionally made up the early training before students progress to free sparring with sticks to simulate swords in an exercise called gatka, although this term is more often used in English when referring to the Panjabi-Sikh fighting style. A common way to practice precision-cutting is to slice cloves or lemons, eventually doing so while blindfolded. Pairing two swords of equal length, though considered impractical in some parts of the world, is common and was considered highly advantageous in the Indian subcontinent.
Staffplay (Lathi khela).
Stick-fighting (lathi khela) may be taught as part of a wider system like Gatka, silambam or on its own. In the "Kama Sutra" the sage Vātsyāyana enjoins all women to practice fighting with single-stick, quarterstaff, sword and bow and arrow in addition to the art of love-making. The stick ("lathi" in Prakrit) is typically made of bamboo with steel caps at the ends to prevent it from splintering. Wooden sticks made from Indian ebony may also be used. It ranges from the length of a cudgel to a staff equal to the wielders height. The stick used during matches is covered in leather to cushion the impact. Points are awarded based on which part of the body is hit. Techniques differ from system to system, but northern styles tend to primarily use only one end of the staff for attacking while the other end is held with both hands.
Southern styles like also make use of this technique but will more often use both ends of the staff to strike. The latter is the more common method of attacking in the eastern states and Bangladesh, combined with squatting and frequent changes in height.
Spearplay.
Yudhishthira is said to be a master in spearplay warfare in "Mahabharata", while Shalya was also noted to be an excellent warrior in the field of spearplay. Also according to Indian Hindu myths, Kartikeya, the son of Lord Shiva, is said to be skilled in spear-fighting, by holding his divine spear called Vel. The Indian spear is typically made of bamboo with a steel blade. It can be used in hand-to-hand combat or thrown when the fighters are farther apart. Despite primarily being a thrusting weapon, the wide spearhead also allows for many slashing techniques. By the 17th century, Rajput mercenaries in the Mughal army were using a type of spear which integrated a pointed spear butt and a club near the head, making it similar to a mace. On the other hand, the longer cavalry spear was made of wood, with red cloth attached near the blade to prevent the opponent's blood from dripping to the shaft. The Marathas were revered for their skill of wielding a ten-foot spear called "bothati" () from horseback. Bothati fighting is practiced with a ball-tipped lance, the end of which is covered in dye so that hits may easily be confirmed. In solo training, the spear is aimed at a pile of stones. From this was eventually developed the uniquely Indian "vita" which has a length of cord attached to the butt end of the weapon and tied around the spearman's wrist. Using this cord the spear can be pulled back after it has been thrown.
Archery (Dhanurvidya).
Archery is noted to be one of the noblest form of defense within Indian cultural heritage. As mentioned in Vedic literature, the bow and arrow is the most applauded weapon among Kshatriyas. Siddharta Gautama was a champion with the bow, while Rama, Arjuna, Karna, Bhishma, Drona and Ekalavya of the epics were all said to be peerless archers.
"Dhanurveda" is an ancient treatise on the science of archery. It describes the practices and uses of archery, the craft of bow and arrow making, training of the army, and enumerates the rules of engagement. The treatise also discusses martial arts in relation to the training of warriors, charioteers, cavalry, elephant warriors, infantry etc.
It was considered as a sin to shoot a warrior from the back and fight more than one warrior at a time.
The bow used in the Vedic period were called danush, and were described in detail in the Vedas. The curved shape of the bow is called vakra in the Artha Veda. The bowstring was called jya, and was strung only when needed. An arrow was called an iṣu, and a quiver was called an iṣudhi which was slung on the back. Archers wore a hastaghna, which was an arm guard or shield usually worn on the left forearm and was used to protect the wearer from friction caused by the bowstring.
A "dhanushkara" was a bowyer, or the profession of bow crafting and arrow making, and it had become a regular profession by the early Vedic period. Others called "jyakara" specialized in making bowstrings.
Composite bows made of horn, sinew, and wood were invented in the Asian Steppes and would have been an integral part of the armory of the Aryan people. As in other civilizations such as the Hittites and Persians, the use of composite bows coincides with chariot warfare. Additionally the smaller size was of the compound bow would have made it preferable on mounted warfare.
A type of Indian longbow was five to six feet long and fired a long cane arrow with metal or bone arrow heads. The Cretan chronicler Nearchus who accompanied Alexander the Great into India, had noted that the warriors would use a bamboo bow, which had to rest on the ground and steady with the feet to draw to its full length. The arrow fired from this bamboo bow could penetrate any armor used in antiquity. The Indian long bows were described as the height of their users by Arrian, and Deccan bows in 1518 as “long like those of England”.
Traditional archery is today practiced mainly in the far northern states of Ladakh and Arunachal. One sport which has persisted into the present day is "thoda" from Himachal Pradesh, in which a team of archers attempt to shoot blunt arrows at the legs of the opposing team.
Mace-fighting (Gadayuddha).
Gada (mace) is the weapon of God Hanuman in Ramayana. Lord Vishnu also carries a gada named Kaumodaki in one of his four hands. In the Mahabharata epic, the fighters Bhima, Duryodhana, Jarasandha and Balarama were said to be masters of the gada. In the mace combat, Bhima wins the final battle against Duryodhana by hitting his inner thigh. Such an attack below the waist was said to be against the etiquette of mace duels, implying a degree of commonality to this type of fighting. It was and still is used as training equipment by wrestlers. The traditional gada (mace) was essentially a wooden or steel sphere mounted on a handle and with a single spike at the top. An alternative mace-head was the lotus-shaped "padam". According to the "Agni Purana", the gada can be handled in twenty different ways. Due to its weight, the gada is said to be best suited to fighters with a large build or great strength. The Mughal club or mace, known as a "gurj" or "gargaj", had a head consisting of 8–10 petal-shaped blades. Fitted with basket-hilt, a spherical pommel, and a spiked top, this type of club was designed for beating down armour-clad opponents. Alternatively, some gurj had a spiked top and a hand-guard.
Wrestling (Mallayuddha).
Grappling arts ("malla-vidya"), practiced either as sport or fighting style, are found throughout the Indian subcontinent. True combat-wrestling is called malla-yuddha, while the term malakhra refers to wrestling for sport. Malla-yuddha was codified into four forms which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as "yuddha". Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, persists in Karnataka. Traditional malla-yuddha is virtually extinct in the north where it has been supplanted by kusti, but another form called malakhra still exists in parts of India and Sindh, Pakistan. Vajra-musti was another old grappling art in which the competitors wrestled while wearing a horned knuckleduster. In a later style called "naki ka kusti" (claw wrestling), the duellists fought with bagh nakha. Numerous styles of folk wrestling are also found in India's countryside, such as mukna from Manipur, Inbuan wrestling from Mizoram and Khomlainai among the Bodos.
Wrestling (Pehlwani).
Pehlwani is a form of wrestling from the Indian subcontinent. It was developed in the Mughal Empire by combining native malla-yuddha with influences from Persian "varzesh-e bastani". One of the most famous practitioners of pehlwani was The Great Gama (Ghulam Mohammad Baksh Butt), who is considered one of the greatest wrestlers of all time.
Boxing (Mushtiyuddha).
Boxing (musti-yuddha) is traditionally considered the roughest form of Indian unarmed combat. In ancient times it was popular throughout northern Indian subcontinent, but is rarely practiced today. Boxers harden their fists by striking stone and other hard objects. Matches may be either one-on-one or group fights. All kinds of strikes and grabs are allowed, and any part of the body may be targeted except the groin. Another form of boxing was "loh-musti" (meaning “iron fist”), said to have been practiced by the God Krishna. In this variation, boxers fought while wielding a kara or steel bracelet like a knuckleduster. Grabs, kicks, biting and attacks to the groin were all legal, the only prohibition being spitting on the opponent which was considered crude and dishonourable. The kara used for regular matches was unadorned, but the form employed during war had one or more spikes around its edge. The kara may be paired with one on each hand, but it was generally only worn on one hand so the other hand could be left free. In some cases the free hand could be paired with another weapon, most commonly the bagh nakha.
Kicking.
Kick-fighting ("aki kiti") is the preserve of tribes from Nagaland. While the entire Naga population of northeast India and northwest Myanmar was traditionally known for their skill with broadswords ("dao") and other weapons, disputes among tribesmen and between tribes were settled with a solely kick-based form of unarmed fighting. The goal is to either drive the opponent to their knees or outside of the ring. Only the feet are used to strike, and even blocking must be done with the legs.
Pugilism.
Many forms of unarmed combat ("bāhu-yuddha" or "bhuja-yuddha") incorporate too wide an array of techniques to be accurately categorized. In modern times when the carrying of weapons is no longer legal, teachers of the martial arts often emphasise the unarmed techniques as these are seen to be more practical for self-defense purposes. A warrior who fights unarmed is referred to as a "bhajanh", literally meaning someone who fights with their arms. The bare-handed components of Indian fighting arts are typically based on the movements of animals, Hindu deities. Binot, a Central Indian art which focuses on defending against both armed and unarmed opponents, maybe the earliest system of its kind. In the Mughal era, such fighters were known as "ek-hath" (lit. “one-hand”), so named because they would demonstrate their art using only one arm.
Bal Vidya.
64 different types of skills and arts existed in ancient India which lead to well-developed individuals boosting their mind, body, and intellect making them capable of performing their responsibilities efficiently and effectively on personal, social and national level. Today, unhealthy and irregular lifestyles, frustrations and rising competitions in every sphere of life are affecting the health of people, especially the youth. In such a scenario, one of the ancient Indian arts referred to as “Bal Vidya” can help not only to improve the physical health but also upscale the mental and intellectual well-being of a person. A strong mind and intellect is equally important along with a strong body. Shree Aniruddha Upasana Foundation (Mumbai, India) attempts to review these ancient Indian martial arts form and provides “Bal Vidya” training to both men and women free of charge. Art forms like Mudgal Vidya, Vajra Mushthi, Surya Bhedan, Ashwa and various types of Yashwanti Malla Vidya using various weapons like Laathi (iron-bound bamboo stick), Kaathi (Pole), Fari-Gadga, Dorkhand (rope)and Dandpatta (gauntlet-sword). A book detailing all these art forms with the title “Bhartiya Prachin Bal Vidya” (The Ancient Indian Bal Art) is also available for achieving proficiency through practice post attending training sessions.
Systems.
As in other respects of Indian culture, Indian martial arts can be roughly divided into northern and southern styles. The northern systems (including Pakistan and Bangladesh) may generically be referred to as "shastra-vidiya", although this term is often used synonymously with gatka. The main difference is that the north was more exposed to Persianate influence during the Mughal period, while the south is more conservative in preserving ancient and medieval traditions. The exception to this rule are the northeastern states which, due to their geographic location, were closed off from most pre-European foreign invaders. As a result, northeast Indian culture and fighting methods are also closely related to that of Southeast Asia. In addition to the major division between north and south, martial systems in the Indian subcontinent tend to be associated with certain states, cities, villages or ethnic groups.
Regional Styles.
Masters in Andhra Pradesh trace their lineage to the Vijayanagara empire, popular in Konaseema region. The native system of "Chedi Talimkhana" or "yudhkaushalya che talim" is often abbreviated to Talimkhana or simply Talim. The art makes use of several weapons which are used in preset forms. These include knife fighting ("baku samu"), sword fighting ("katti samu"), and staff fighting ("kara samu") in addition to other weapons such as the gada (mace) and pata (guantlet sword).
Bengali war-dances bear testament to the weapons once used in the Bengal region. Today most of these weapons are used only in choreographed fights, including "dao khela" (knife fighting) and "fala khela" (sword fighting). Traditional stick-fighting (lathi khela) is still used in free sparring today. The sticks may be short like a cudgel or a long staff. The former are sometimes paired with a shield.
Lathi khela is a traditional Bengali martial art – a kind of stick fighting practised mainly in Bengal and Northeast India. Stick fighting has an ancient history in the Indian subcontinent. Rich farmers and other eminent people hired "lathial" for security and as a symbol of their power. Duels were used as a way to protect or take land and other possessions. A proverb in some South Asian languages is "whoever wields the lathi keeps the cow". Zamindars (feudal lords) sent groups of "lathial" to forcefully collect taxes from villagers. Lathi training was at one time included in the Bratachari system of education.
“Pari-khanda” is a fighting form created by Rajputs and is still practised in many parts of Bihar. “Pari” means shield and “khanda” means sword according “Chhau” region, therefore this art uses sword and shield for fighting. This fighting form has given birth to a local dance form named “Chhau” dance and its martial elements have been fully absorbed by this dance. It is even practised in some parts of Jharkhand and Odisha. Chhau is the name of the traditional dance- drama of the eastern regions of India and is of three types. The three forms of “Chhau” are named after the district or village where they are performed, i.e. the Purulia Chau of Bengal, the Seraikella Chau of Bihar and the Mayurbhanj Chau of Orissa.
The Kannada fighting arts are taught exclusively at traditional training halls or "garadi mane". Disciplines include unarmed combat ("kai varase"), staff-fighting ("kolu varase") and sword-fighting ("katti varase") among various other weapons. These are most often seen today only during choreographed demonstrations at festivals.
Kashmiri swordsmanship is said to have an ancient history, but it was only much later that it acquired its modern name of sqay. Sqay survived a decline following the partition of India by adopting competitive methodologies of karate and taekwondo. Types of competition include sparring, breaking, and forms or "khawankay". Pracitioners spar using fake swords called "tora" which are paired with a shield. Sparring is point-based, the points being awarded for successful hits with the tora or with the foot.
The Keralite art of fighting came into its present form through the kalari, the local variation of the gurukula educational institution. Historically, the warrior groups of Kerala practiced Kalaripayut. Today there are three branches of kalaripayat: northern, central and southern. Training progresses from footwork and stances to unarmed techniques, blunt weapons, and finally to edged weapons. The most common weapons today are the staff, stick, sword, shield, spear, dagger and flexible sword.
The Marathas developed their fighting style based on the state's hilly geography. Mardani khel today teaches armed techniques for use in single combat as well as defense against several opponents. Other weapons include the sword, shield, spear, dagger, kukri, double deer horns, and bow and arrow.
The Manipuri art of Huyen langlon was once practiced by the state's indigenous hill tribes who would engage in duels governed by strict rules of conduct. The armed component called thang-ta is named after the system's main weapons, the "thang" (sword) and "ta" (spear). Practitioners spar through "cheibi gatka" in which a foam sword is used together with a shield. Unarmed huyen lalong is called "sarit-sarak" and is used in conjunction with thang-ta when the fighter loses their weapon.
Aki Kiti is a semi-contact combat sport characterized by kicking and blocking solely using the soles of the feet. The word Aki Kiti means "kick fighting".
The Odishan martial art traces back to the "paika" class of warriors who were particularly known for their use of the "khanda" or double-edge straight sword. During times of peace, the paika would hone their skills through martial dances, forms-training and various acrobatics.Their descendants have preserved these exercises in training halls called paika akhada, and demonstrate them mainly through street performances. Their method of sword training called "phari-khanda" is still used as the first part of the chhau dance. Other weapons include the staff and guantlet-sword.
Martial arts in northwest India and adjacent Pakistan were traditionally referred to by several terms but the most common today is "shastar-vidiya" or “science of edged weapons”. Swordsmen practiced their techniques either in routines using real swords, or freestyle sparring with wooden sticks called gatka, a form of stick-fighting. Gatka is associated with the Sikh history and an integral part of an array of Rajput Shastar Vidiya. During the colonial period, the term "gatka" was extended to mean northwestern martial arts in general. Some aspects of the art, such as the unarmed techniques or fighting in armour, are today practiced almost exclusively by the Nihang order of Sikhs. Gatka incorporates several forms, each with their own set of weapons, strategies and footwork. In the late 18th century, this martial art further developed as a recreational game and University Lahore codified its rules for playing it as a game.
The native Tamil martial art has come to be referred to as silambam after its main weapon, the bamboo staff. Training begins with footwork patterns before progressing to stances and subsequently fighting techniques. Aside from its namesake, silambam includes a variety of weapons such as the sword, twin sticks, double deer horns, whip, sword, shield and sword, dagger, flexible sword and sickle. Unarmed silambam ("kai silambam") is based on animal movements such as the snake, eagle, tiger and elephant. Other Martial Arts of Tamil Nadu are Varma Kalai, Adi Thadi, Malyutham AND Gusthi (Boxing form of Tamil Nadu, not to be confused with North Indian Kushti which is a Wrestling art.)
Influence.
With expansion of Indosphere cultural influence of Greater India, through transmission of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism leading to Indianization of Southeast Asia through formation of non-Indian southeast Asian native Indianized kingdoms which adopted sanskritized language and other Indian elements such as the honorific titles, Sanskritised naming of people, Sanskritised naming of places, Sankritised institutional mottos, Sanskritised educational institute names, as well as adoption of Indian martial arts, Indian architecture, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has also been aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora. The martial arts influenced by the Indian martial arts include Angampora, Ankam, Bokator, Eskrima, Krabi krabong, Kbachkun Dambong-Veng, Khmer traditional wrestling, Pencak Silat, Silat, Thaing (Burmese), Võ thuật Bình Định, etc.


List of Indiana state historical markers in Jasper County

This is a list of the Indiana state historical markers in Jasper County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Jasper County, Indiana, United States by the Indiana Historical Bureau. The locations of the historical markers and their latitude and longitude coordinates are included below when available, along with their names, years of placement, and topics as recorded by the Historical Bureau. There are 6 historical markers located in Jasper County.


Spodik

A spodik (or spodek; , from Polish "spodek" "saucer") is a tall, black fur hat worn by some Hasidic Jews, particularly by members of sects in 19th-century Congress Poland. The origins of the spodik and the shtreimel are unclear, but it is often thought that the Jews living in Europe adopted wearing fur hats from the Eastern European culture and perhaps from the nobility.
Description.
Spodiks are to be distinguished from kolpiks, and from shtreimels, which are a similar types of fur hat worn by Hasidim. Shtreimels are shorter in height, wider, and donut-shaped, while spodiks are taller, thinner in bulk, and of cylindrical shape. Kolpics and spodiks have the same shape, but the former are brown, while the latter are black. Such hats are typically worn only on special occasions, such as the Sabbath, holidays, and weddings.
Spodiks used to be made from fisher tails. Nowadays they are made also from fox fur.
Use.
Ger Hasidim, being the largest Hasidic community of Polish origin, are the most famous for wearing spodiks. Virtually all married men among the Gerer Hasidim wear a spodik. Due to an edict by the Grand Rabbi of Ger designed to stop the extravagance of the hats, Gerrer Hasidim are only allowed to purchase fake fur spodiks that cost less than $600.
Other groups that wear Spodiks include Alexander, Amshinov, Ashlag, Kotzk, Modzitz, Ozharov, Radzin and Sochatchov.


Votes for Women (newspaper)

Votes for Women was a newspaper associated with the women's suffrage movement in the United Kingdom. Until 1912, it was the official newspaper of the Women's Social and Political Union, the leading suffragette organisation. Subsequently, it continued with a smaller circulation, at first independently, and then as the publication of the United Suffragists.
History.
The newspaper was founded in October 1907 by Emmeline and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence. The couple became joint editors of the newspaper, which was published by the St Clement's Press. It was adopted as the official newspaper of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), already the leading militant suffragette organisation in the country. Many copies were sold by WSPU members standing on the street. The pavement sellers were often harassed by passersby, and were forced to stand in the gutter lest the police arrest them for "obstruction of the pavement".
Initially, the newspaper cost 3d and was published monthly, with weekly supplements bringing it up-to-date. In April 1908, its publication was increased to a weekly frequency, and the following month the price was dropped to only 1d. During this period, the WSPU viewed the paper as a tool for recruitment and fundraising, and devoted much time to increasing its circulation. Posters advertising the paper were designed by Hilda Dallas, an artist in the Suffragette Atelier. And for example, each summer, WSPU members were urged to recruit new subscribers while they were on seaside holidays.
The paper was redesigned in 1909 and its page size was increased. The WSPU launched a major advertising campaign, including Helen Craggs and others on an omnibus touring London, and established permanent sales pitches in central London. This took circulation to a peak of 33,000 a week in early 1910.
In 1912 the Pethick-Lawrences were arrested, and Evelyn Sharp briefly assumed the editorship of the paper. Subsequently, the Pethick-Lawrences were expelled from the WSPU, and thereafter they published the newspaper independently, its supporters being organised in the Votes for Women Fellowship. This group was intended to encompass members of a variety of women's suffrage organisations, whether militant or non-militant. The Fellowship formed groups across the country, which focused their time on education. This convinced some members that they should form a new campaigning group. In February 1914, "Votes for Women" announced the formation of the United Suffragists, in which the Pethick-Lawrences became active, and in August they transferred control of the newspaper to the new group. Sharp then took over sole editorship of the newspaper.
Later years.
The paper continued to appear during World War I, but with a much-reduced circulation, and it struggled to remain financially viable. Sharp reoriented the paper to appeal more to middle-class women, with the slogan "The War Paper for Women". Although she personally came to oppose the war, she ensured that the paper maintained a neutral stance on it.
Women's suffrage was enacted by degrees beginning in 1918, and in March of that year the United Suffragists dissolved itself, the newspaper also ceasing to appear.


Federico Caballero

Federico Caballero is a Filipino epic chanter who is a recipient of the National Living Treasures Award.
Buhay ni Federico Caballero.
Born on December 25, 1938, Caballero is of the Panay-Bukidnon people from the Central Panay mountains. He is known for his work on the documentation of the oral literature, particularly the ten epics. These epics are rendered in an extinct language related to Kinaray-a.
Federico Caballero who is also called Nong Pedring learned about epics from his mother and his grandmother, Anggoy Omil who would chant these to him and his siblings as a lullaby. When Anggoy and his mother died, he went on to continue the traditions and documented these epics which are referred to as the Labaw Dunggon and Humadapnon epics with researchers. He worked with the Bureau of Nonformal Education, to teach people how to read and write and would promote the tradition of epic chanting despite the initial objection of his children.
He also worked as the "manughusay" in his local community, an arbiter who helps resolves disputes and conflicts in the community. He is considered as a "bantugan" due to his positive influence extending beyond his community. And he is good at doing anything that peoples tell him to do, So he's basically a jack of trade
The National Commission for Culture and the Arts recognized him as a National Living Treasure in the year 2000 for "weaving the fabric of oral tradition".
Personal life.
Caballero is married to Lucia, who is a "binukot" a title similar to a princess in Panay-Bukidnon tradition, and has three children.


Ankuwa

Ankuwa was an ancient Hattian and Hittite settlement in central Anatolia. Along with Hattusa and Katapa, it was one of the capitals from which the Hittite kings reigned during the year. Travelling from Hattusa, the royal entourage would arrive at Imralla on the first night, Hobigassa on the second, and Ankuwa on the third.
The settlement has been linked to modern Ankyra for etymological reasons, but Hittite sources have been discovered to place the settlement along the southern bend of the Marrassandtiya River, the modern Kızılırmak. Alishar Hüyük has also been suggested as a location.


Mount Sapo

Mount Sapo is a fictional mountain supposed to exist somewhere near Rome, presumably in Italy. It appears in a fanciful rewriting of the history of soap, and it is often claimed to explain the origins of the name. The tale occurs in a number of online sources, including the website of The Soap and Detergent Association.
The story about Mount Sapo explains that upon its slopes, ancient Romans used to sacrifice animals as burnt offerings. Wood ash from the fires of their altars mingled with the grease from the animal sacrifices, forming a primitive kind of soap. This soap found its way to the clays of a nearby stream, where local people found that it helped them get their laundry cleaner. Soap gets its Latin name, "sapo", from the name of the mountain.
This narrative is probably a hoax. There are many reasons to find it improbable:


Cornelius Hasselblatt

Cornelius Hasselblatt (born 1960) is a German Finno-Ugric specialist, translator and Estophile. He lives in the Netherlands.
From 1980 to 1986 he studied Finno-Ugric languages and culture in Hamburg and Helsinki. In 1990 he defended his doctoral thesis.
From 1998 to 2014 he was a professor of Finno-Ugric languages and culture at Groningen University.
He is a foreign member of the Estonian Academy of Sciences.


Niksar

Niksar is a city in Tokat Province, Turkey. It was settled by many empires, being once the capital city of the province. Niksar is known as "Çukurova of the North-Anatolia" due to its production of many kinds of fruits and vegetables except citrus fruits. On May 2, 2018, Niksar was included in the World Heritage tentative list.
History.
Niksar has been ruled by the Hittite, Persian, Greek, Pontic, Roman, Byzantine, Danishmend, Seljuk and Ottoman Empires. It has always been an important place in Anatolia because of its location, climate and productive farmland.
It was known as Cabira in the Hellenistic period ( in Greek). It was one of the favourite residences of Mithridates the Great, who built a palace there, and later of King Polemon I and his successors.
In 72 or 71 BCE, the Battle of Cabira during the Third Mithridatic War took place at Cabira, and the city passed to the Romans. Niksar was called Diospolis, Sebaste, and Neokaisareia during the Roman period. Pompey made it a city and gave it the name of Diopolis, while Pythodoris, widow of Polemon, made it her capital and called it Sebaste. It is not known precisely when it assumed the name of Neocaesarea, mentioned for the first time in Pliny, "Hist. Nat.", VI, III, 1, but judging from its coins, one might suppose that it was during the reign of Tiberius. In 344 the city was completely destroyed by an earthquake Neocaesarea became part of the Eastern Roman Empire when the Roman Empire divided into two parts in AD 395. Another earthquake occurred in 499, the 499 Nicopolis earthquake.
During the Middle Ages, the Muslims and Christians disputed the possession of Neocaesarea, and in 1068 a Seljuk general, Melik-Ghazi, whose tomb is still visible, captured and pillaged it. When the Seljuqs raided Anatolia in 1067, Neocaesarea was conquered by Afşın Bey, one of the commanders of Alp Arslan. The Byzantines retook the area in 1068. Conquered by Artuk Bey after the Battle of Manzikert, Neocæsarea once again returned to Byzantium in 1073. Melik Gümüştekin Ahmet Gazi (better known as Danishmend Gazi), founder of the Danishmend, was the real conqueror of Neocaesarea. After the conquest the Gazi made it his capital city, and, under the name Niksar, became a center of science and culture. The Danishmend Gazi's mausoleum stands in a large cemetery just outside the town.
By 1175, during the reign of Kılıç Arslan II, Niksar was dependent on the Seljuks of Rum. After the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, Niksar was governed by the Eretnids and then the Beylik of Tacettin, a beylik and became the center of the latter principality. After Kadı Burhanettin (who conquered Niksar in 1387) was killed in battle, the people of Niksar sought aid from the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I. The Sultan's son, Süleyman Çelebi, took Niksar for the Ottomans. In the later Ottoman period, Niksar became part of Tokat Province. Fatih Mehmet launched a raid on Trabzon from Niksar, and Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent raided the east from there. The town was predominantly Muslim in the mid 17th century.
Ecclesiastical history.
Neocaesarea was an episcopal see in the late Roman province of Pontus Polemoniacus. At first called Cabira, it became the civil and religious metropolis of Pontus. In around 315, the Synod of Neo-Caesarea was held there. It is now one of the bishoprics listed in the "Annuario Pontificio" as titular sees and is referred to as Neocaesarea in Ponto to distinguish it from Neocaesarea in Syria.
Bishops.
Noted bishops include Saints Gregory Thaumaturgus, Paul of Neocaesarea, and Thomas, a 9th-century martyr.
Gregory of Nyssa claimed that about 240, when Gregory Thaumaturgus was consecrated bishop of his native city, Neocæsarea had only seventeen Christians and that at his death (270) it counted only seventeen pagans. In 315 a great council was held there, the acts of which are still extant. In the early church baptism was generally by immersion. Baptism by perfusion, that is by pouring the water over the candidate, was permitted in the case of the seriously ill and where sufficient water for immersion was unobtainable or impractical, as in, for example, prisons. The Council of Neocaesarea ruled that individuals baptized by perfusion were disqualified from being presbyters. This became an issue in the case of Novatian, who had received baptism by perfusion when dangerously ill.
Being early placed at the head of an ecclesiastical province, Neocæsarea had four suffragan sees about 640 ("Ecthesis" of pseudo-Epiphanius, ed. Heinrich Gelzer, 539), retaining them until the tenth century, when Trebizond obtained its independence and, by degrees, the other three suffragans were suppressed. In 1391 the Archdiocese of Neocaesarea was confided to the metropolitan of Trebizond (Miklosich and Müller, "Acta", II, 154). About 1400 there was, however, a regular metropolitan (op. cit., II, 312), residing at Ordu. Among the twenty-seven bishops of this city mentioned by Le Quien, the most noted are Saints Gregory Thaumaturgus, Paul of Neocaesarea, and Thomas, a 9th-century martyr.
Geographic location.
Niksar is approximately . It is located at 40°35' north latitude and 36°58' east longitude. Its average altitude is 350m above sea level. It is surrounded by Erbaa on the northwest, Tokat on the southwest, Almus on the south, Başçiftlik on the southeast and Akkuş on the north. It is one of the five largest counties of Tokat. The Canik Mountains are to the north, Dönek Mountain to the south, and the Niksar Lowland is situated between these mountains. The Niksar Lowland is one of the most important lowlands of the Black Sea Region. The Canik Mountains are covered with plateaus that lie parallel to the Black Sea. Çamiçi High Plateau is one of the most important ones.
Niksar lands are irrigated by large and small tributaries of the Kelkit River. Forests cover 53% of the plateau, and pasture 12%; 32% of the land is devoted to agriculture, and only 3% is unsuitable for farming. Beech, pine, horn beech, and spruce trees can be found in the higher altitudes to the north of Niksar. In the lowlands there are poplar and willow trees, and fruit trees in the valleys. Polecats, rabbits, wolves, foxes, lynxes, bears, and pigs are the main hunting animals that live in the mountains and forests. Partridges, quail and ducks are among the more important game birds found here. Niksar has a transitional climate between the Middle Black Sea and Inner Anatolia. It is generally slightly warm and rainy in winter and hot in summer. The county averages an annual rainfall of 475.2 mm, and the annual average temperature is 14.7 °C.
Cuisine of Niksar.
The most remarkable feature of traditional Tokat-Niksar houses is the kitchen. Called "Aşevi" or "Aşgana" in the local dialect, the kitchen is usually the largest room of the house and serves as a sort of lounge for the family. The typical kitchen has a fireplace on one side used for cooking or washing and a storeroom on the other in which dried foods, preserves, sauces, cheese and grape leaves are kept. Beside the storeroom is a wooden granary with partitions for storing cereals and legumes. In Turkey, it is common to eat meals around a low table.
The famous local foods of Niksar are walnut, tomato paste and grape leaves which is a main ingredient of "dolma", a very popular dish in Turkey.


Geommu

Geommu (also transliterated "Gummu", "Kommu") is a traditional sword dance practiced in Korea. Geommu is performed with special costume, dance moves, and music. The dance is known for its grace in performance. Extra emphasis is placed on the movement of the costuming, notably the sleeves, in harmony with the movements of the dancer. The symbolic use of ssang dan geom, i.e. a replica of dual short swords, keeps to the militaristic origins of this dance. Geom-mu has become a dance of great beauty and is treasured as the South Korea's 12th Important Intangible Cultural Property.
History.
According to legend, Geommu originated during the later portion of the Three Kingdoms of Korea with estimates placing it near 660 AD. At that time, Korea was divided into the three kingdoms, Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. The legend of Geommu states that a young boy in Silla named Hwangchang had an unusual talent for sword dance. His talent brought him great fame, even in the enemy kingdom, Baekje. One day, a king of Baekje invited him to his court to perform his great skill. The boy performed but in an act of great defiance killed the king before the royal assembly. Hwangchang was executed by the Baekje military. People in Shilla expressed their respect and sorrow at Hwangchang’s death by dancing in imitation of Hwangchang’s abilities, adorning a mask which was made to resemble his face. Thereafter, people named this dance "Hwangchangmu”.
Surviving as a folk dance and cultural asset, Geommu was considerably changed during the Joseon Dynasty period from 1392 through 1910. At that point Geommu was rearranged by the Royal Court and recreated by the Kisaeng. The Kisaeng learned the formalized dance through the Gwonbeon, a pre-Korean War performance institution comparable to the Geisha tradition of Japan. One major change was the Kisaeng performers discontinued wearing the traditional mask while dancing Geommu. Geommu has remained a Court dance in the form of Jinju Geommu but has also retained its status as a primarily female dance. Geommu was also modified to use a replica sword while performing to prevent accidental injuries to the performer and audience.
Costume and sword.
Dancers of Geommu wear Hanbok, Kwaeja (overcoat), Jeon-Dae (belt), and Jeon-Rip (military style cap). Hanbok is the traditional Korean dress that consists of Chima (a skirt) and Jeogori (a jacket). These elements combine to form a stylized version of the Joseon Dynasty military uniform. The costume traditionally has the colors of blue, red, yellow, green and black but many regional variations exist. The Jinju region has a blue Chima and a jade green Jeogori. Gwangju in the Jeolla province has a red Chima and a light green Jeogori.
The knife or Kal (칼) is the replica sword used in Geom-mu, also referred to as a short sword, dan geom or dan do (단검/단도). Between the blade and the handle of a Kal are three rings. These three rings have varying sizes and make sounds when performers dance the Geom-mu.
Performing Geommu.
Geommu is a group dancing activity performed by 6 to 8 performers. It has two unique characters which are Chum-sawi, a dance motion, and 'Changdan, rhythmic cycle or ‘long and short’. There are three typical motions, Ipchum-sawi, Anjeon-sawi, and Yeonpungdae. In Ipchum-sawi the dancers form two rows and stand face to face. Anjeon-sawi is to dance kneeling down while maintaining the two rows of Ipchum-sawi. The last motion, Yeonpungdae, the dancers form a circle and rotate in pattern.
Variations.
Geommu is a compound of the Korean words "Geom", meaning sword, and "mu", meaning dance. This name applies to the base martial form of the dance. The dance is also known by the term Hwangchangmu in reference to its origin story. The royal court version of the dance is called Jinju Geommu.
Geommu and Changdan rhythmic patterns.
In Geommu, special rhythmic cycles called Changdan appear. Changdan is usually made by Janggu, a double-headed hourglass drum and Buk, a barrel drum. In Korea there are many variations of Changdan with each name designating a certain type of meter, tempo, and beat. Basic nature of Korean rhythmic patterns may be described as having these four main characteristics (Garland encyclopedia of world: East Asia- China, Japan, Korea, p. 901).
Types of traditional Korean music in Geommu.
The traditional Korean music of Geommu is Samhyeon-Nyukgak. Originally, Samhyeon designated three chordophones, Geomungo, Gayageum, and Hyangbipa and Nyukgak designated Buk, Janggu, Haegeum, and Piri at the Unified Shilla period from 654 to 780. The significance of Samhyeon had disappeared and remained the import of Nyukgak. Nowadays Samhyeonnyukgak indicates the wind instrumental music. It is used to accompany marching and dancing with 6 instruments, Haegeum, Janggu, Buk, Daegeum, and two Piri. Haegeum is a string instrument, resembling a violin. [Jangu] and [buk] are drums. Janggu is made from a hollow wooden body and two leather skins. The two sides produce sounds of different pitch and tone. Puk is a barrel-shaped with a round wooden body covered on both ends with animal skin. It is played with both an open hand and a wooden stick in the other hand. Daegeum and Piri are aerophones. Daegeum is a large bamboo transverse flute and Piri is a double reed instrument made of bamboo. Its large reed and cylindrical bore gives it a sound mellower than that of many other types of oboe.
Preservation.
Many parts of Geommu have been lost over time. South Korea established a law in 1962 named the Cultural Properties Protection Act in order to protect Geommu and other intangible cultural properties. Geommu was named as the 12th intangible cultural property by law in 1967. Geommu is actively preserved and practiced primarily in the Jinju, Gyeongsangnamdo, South Korea.


Order of the Smile

The Order of the Smile (Polish: "Order Uśmiechu") is an international award given by children to adults distinguished in their love, care and aid for children.
History.
The idea of the Order of the Smile was established in 1968 by the Polish magazine "Kurier Polski", inspired by Wanda Chotomska. In 1979 (announced by the UNESCO as the International Year of the Child) the Secretary-General of the United Nations Kurt Waldheim officially recognized the Order. From then, the Order of the Smile became an international order.
In 1996, in Rabka, the Order of the Smile Museum was established on the grounds of the family park known as "Rabkoland." After the region had been given the official status of the "City of Children from around the World," an initiative was put forward to open a permanent Polish Santa's Village, which would accept letters addressed to Santa Claus from children across Poland.
In 2003 an International Chapter of the Order of the Smile session took place outside the Warsaw headquarters in Świdnica, where the Child Friendship Center was being erected. Świdnica had been officially titled the "Capital of Children's Dreams," and September 21, 2003, was declared Order of the Smile Children's Day.
Design.
Chotomska's television series "Jacek i Agatka" announced a competition to submit a design for the Order of the Smile. The award's logo was created and developed by a nine-year-old girl from Głuchołazy, Ewa Chrobak. Using a plate as a template, she drew a sun, and added uneven rays of light. The design, one of 45,000 that had been submitted, was chosen by Szymon Kobyliński, who elaborated it into its current form.
Nomination.
All candidates for the Order of Smile should be nominated by children. Nominations can come from a single child or collectively from many children. Nominations can be submitted from all around the world. The candidates should be people of extraordinary love and work for children. Nominations should be sent to the International Chapter of the Order of Smile (ICOS). Afterwards the candidates are chosen to be Laureates by the Chapter.
The Order is awarded twice a year: in spring and in fall. Laureates of the Order of Smile include now about 1000 people from almost 50 countries (state of April 2016).
Decorating.
The medal - which is a badge representing a smiling sun - is awarded in Warsaw, Poland by the International Chapter of the Order of the Smile. There is a special procedure of the decoration. In special cases the decoration could be held outside Poland, in the country of the laureate. The right to use the title of the "Knight of the Order of Smile" is guaranteed only to those who were decorated at an official ceremony organized by the Chapter.
Traditionally, upon being awarded with the medal, each recipient must drink a glass or cup of lemon juice while smiling throughout the process.
International Chapter.
Although most of the 59 members of the Chapter are of Polish descent, it includes representatives from other countries such as Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Sudan, Tunisia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the United States.
At the forefront of the International Chapter of the Order of Smile stands the Chancellor, Marek Michalak, who remains in this position since 19 January 2007. Previous Chancellors include: Ewa Szelburg-Zarembina (from 1968 to 1976), Radoslaw Ostrowicz (from 1982 to 1990), and Cezary Leżenski (from 1976 to 1981, and again from 1992 to 2006).
On 16 November 1992, the International Chapter of the Order of Smile was officially registered in Poland as an association.
Winners.
Some notable Knights to receive the Order of the Smile include:
The youngest Knight to ever receive the Order of the Smile is Malala Yousafzai, who was awarded the order in 2016, then aged 19. The oldest was Irena Sendler in 2007, aged 97.


A Certain Young Man

A Certain Young Man is a 1928 comedy film directed by Hobart Henley. The film stars Ramon Novarro, Marceline Day, Renée Adorée, Carmel Myers and Bert Roach. The film is considered lost. A trailer for the film is preserved at the Library of Congress.
Synopsis.
An English lord is overly fond of married women.
Production.
The film was shot in 1926, but was not released until 1928. Sally O'Neil was originally cast as Phyllis but was replaced by Marceline Day. Joan Crawford, still an ingenue at the time, was considered for that same role, but she was deemed "unsuitable". Castmember Willard Louis died a few months after filming wrapped, and his name was removed from the credits.
Release.
"A Certain Young Man" opened to reviews that were lukewarm at best, and was a financial failure at the box office. Some screenings were preceded by the Technicolor short "The Czarina's Secret" featuring Sally Rand and Olga Baclanova. The film's release followed on the heels of "A Gentleman of Paris" with Adolph Menjou, which was based on the same source material and was considered a better adaptation. Novarro's performance was unfavorably compared with that of Menjou by several critics, including Mordaunt Hall of the "New York Times", who found the overall film "only mildly amusing and very shallow," though he found Myers "charming" and work by supporting actors Huntley Gordon and Bert Roach "favorable."
Personally, Novarro hated the film and his performance. In an interview in the April 1931 issue of "Modern Screen", he said "In acting, in directing, in everything — I want to be 'definite'. Even when I am later proven wrong — it will at least have been so definite that I myself know it. I am responsible for the worst performance that has ever been given on the screen. It was in "A Certain Young Man" and it was terrible. I am mortally ashamed of it — yet I'd rather have been bad than just fair."


List of Indiana state historical markers in Fulton County

This is a list of the Indiana state historical markers in Fulton County.
This is intended to be a detailed table of the official state historical marker placed in Fulton County, Indiana, United States by the Indiana Historical Bureau. The location of the historical marker and its latitude and longitude coordinates are included below when available, along with its name, year of placement, and topics as recorded by the Historical Bureau. There is 1 historical marker located in Fulton County.


Architecture of Slovenia

The architecture of Slovenia has a long, rich and diverse history.
Modern architecture in Slovenia was introduced by Max Fabiani, and in the mid-war period, Jože Plečnik and Ivan Vurnik. In the second half of the 20th century, the national and universal style were merged by the architects Edvard Ravnikar and Marko Mušič.
Prehistory and Antiquity.
Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marshes in the immediate vicinity of Ljubljana were settled by people living in pile dwellings. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland. These lake-dwelling people lived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used dugout canoes made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks. Their archaeological remains, nowadays in the Municipality of Ig, have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states.
Around 50 BC, the Romans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona. This entrenched fort was occupied by the "Legio XV Apollinaris". In 452, it was destroyed by the Huns under Attila's orders, and later by the Ostrogoths and the Lombards. Emona housed 5,000–6,000 inhabitants and played an important role during numerous battles. Its plastered brick houses, painted in different colours, were already connected to a drainage system.
Medieval period and early modernity.
After the 1511 Idrija earthquake, Ljubljana was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. Wooden buildings were forbidden after a large fire at New Square in 1524.
With the Counter-Reformation, in the middle and the second half of the 17th century, foreign architects built and renovated numerous monasteries, churches, and palaces in Ljubljana and introduced Baroque architecture
Art Nouveau and Secession style.
During the reconstruction that followed the 1895 Ljubljana earthquake, a number of districts were rebuilt in the Vienna Secession style. Public electric lighting appeared in the city in 1898. The rebuilding period between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the "revival of Ljubljana" because of architectural changes from which a great deal of the city dates back to today and for reform of urban administration, health, education and tourism that followed. The rebuilding and quick modernisation of the city were led by the mayor Ivan Hribar.
Together with Ciril Metod Koch and Ivan Vancaš, Max Fabiani introduced the Vienna Secession style of architecture (a type of Art Nouveau) in Slovenia.
Fabiani's first large-scale architectural project was the urban plan for the Carniolan, now Slovenian capital Ljubljana, which was badly damaged by the April 1895 Ljubljana earthquake. Fabiani won a competition against the more historicist architect Camillo Sitte, and was chosen by the Ljubljana Town Council as the main urban planner. One of the reasons for this choice was Fabiani was considered by the Slovene Liberal Nationalists as a Slovene. Second reason was that he knew Ljubljana better than Sitte and prepared really good and modern plan. With the personal sponsorship of the Liberal nationalist mayor of Ljubljana Ivan Hribar, Fabiani designed several important buildings in the town, including the L-shaped school in the Mladika Complex facing Prešeren Street (), which is now the seat of the Slovenian Foreign Ministry.
Max Fabiani also designed Prešeren Square as the hub of four streets. In place of the medieval houses which were damaged by the earthquake, a number of palaces were built around it. Between Wolf Street and Čop Street stands the Hauptmann House, built in 1873 and renovated in 1904 in the Secessionist style by the architect Ciril Metod Koch. The other palaces include the Frisch House, the Seunig House and the Urbanc House, as well as the Mayer department store, built thirty years later.
Royalist Yugoslav period.
Yugoslav architecture emerged in the first decades of the 20th century before the establishment of the state; during this period a number of South Slavic creatives, enthused by the possibility of statehood, organized a series of art exhibitions in Serbia in the name of a shared Slavic identity. Following governmental centralization after the 1918 creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, this initial bottom-up enthusiasm began to fade. Yugoslav architecture became more dictated by an increasingly concentrated state authority which sought to establish a unified state identity.
In 1919, Ivan Vurnik and Jože Plečnik founded the Ljubljana School of Architecture.
The 1920s decade is associated with the search for a Slovene "National Style", inspired by Slovene folk art and the Vienna Secession style. The Cooperative Business Bank, designed by Vurnik and his wife Helena Kottler Vurnik who designed the decorative facade in the colors of Slovene tricolor, has been called the most beautiful building in Ljubljana.
Beginning with the late 1920s and 1930s, Yugoslav architects including Vurnik and Plečnik began to advocate for architectural modernism and functionalist , viewing the style as the logical extension of progressive national narratives.
Jože Plečnik gave Ljubljana its modern identity by designing iconic buildings such as the Slovene National and University Library building. He also designed other notable buildings, including the Vzajemna Insurance Company Offices, and contributed to many civic improvements. He renovated the city's bridges and the Ljubljanica banks, and designed the Ljubljana Central Market and the Žale cemetery.
Socialist Yugoslav period.
The architecture of Yugoslavia was characterized by emerging, unique, and often differing national and regional narratives. As a socialist state remaining free from the Iron Curtain, Yugoslavia adopted a hybrid identity that combined the architectural, cultural, and political leanings of both Western liberal democracy and Soviet communism.
Immediately following the Second World War, Yugoslavia's brief association with the Eastern Bloc ushered in a short period of socialist realism. Centralization within the communist model led to the abolishment of private architectural practices and the state control of the profession. During this period, the governing Communist Party condemned modernism as "bourgeois formalism," a move that caused friction among the nation's pre-war modernist architectural elite.
Despite being a fervent Catholic, in 1947 Jože Plečnik was invited to design a new Parliament building. Plečnik proposed the "Cathedral of Freedom" where he wanted to raze the Ljubljana Castle and to build a monumental octagonal building instead. The unrealized Plečnik Parliament is featured on the Slovene 10 cent euro coin
Socialist realist architecture in Yugoslavia came to an abrupt end with Josip Broz Tito's 1948 split with Stalin. In the following years the nation turned increasingly to the West, returning to the modernism that had characterized pre-war Yugoslav architecture. During this era, modernist architecture came to symbolize the nation's break from the USSR (a notion that later diminished with growing acceptability of modernism in the Eastern Bloc).
During this period, the Yugoslav break from Soviet socialist realism combined with efforts to commemorate World War II, which together led to the creation of an immense quantity of abstract sculptural war memorials, known today as "spomenik"
In the late 1950s and early 1960s Brutalism began to garner a following within Yugoslavia, particularly among younger architects, a trend possibly influenced by the 1959 disbandment of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne.
With 1950s decentralization and liberalization policies in SFR Yugoslavia, architecture became increasingly fractured along ethnic lines. Architects increasingly focused on building with reference to the architectural heritage of their individual socialist republics in the form of critical regionalism.
Growing distinction of individual ethnic architectural identities within Yugoslavia was exacerbated with the 1972 decentralization of the formerly centralized historical preservation authority, providing individual regions further opportunity to critically analyze their own cultural narratives.
The next generation of Slovenian architects was led by Novo Mesto-born Edvard Ravnikar, student of Jože Plečnik. Ravnikar, a professor at the Ljubljana School of Architecture, promoted Scandinavian architectural style in Slovenia, particularly Finnish achievements in architecture accomplished by those such as Alvar Aalto. His most notable creations feature prominently in Ljubljana, among them Republic Square, Cankar Hall, Maximarket department store, and the Museum of Modern Art.
Contemporary period.
The international style, which had arrived in Yugoslavia already in the 1980s, took over the scene after the independence.


Omphale (Cardonne)

Omphale is an opera by the French composer Jean-Baptiste Cardonne, first performed at the Académie Royale de Musique (the Paris Opera) on 2 May 1769. It takes the form of a "tragédie en musique" in five acts. The libretto, by Antoine Houdar de La Motte, was originally set by André Cardinal Destouches in 1701.


Charity Castle

Charity Castle is a 1917 American silent comedy-drama film directed by Lloyd Ingraham starring Mary Miles Minter. The film is believed to be lost.
Plot.
As described in a film magazine, Merlin's (Forrest) father Simon Durand (Barrows) sends the son away from home because of his extravagance. The only condition upon which he can return is by presenting his first week's salary. The father then leaves to obtain a "water cure," and the servants go on vacation, leaving the mansion empty. After the death of the woman who takes care of his bachelor apartment, Merlin adopts her two children, Charity (Minter) and her younger brother known as the Prince (Callis). When numerous bill collectors come to the apartment for money Merlin owes them, Charity, who is a strong believer in fairy tales, decides to go the Merlin's father and see if he will relent and take his son back. When she and the Prince arrive at the mansion, they find it deserted and immediately take up their abode in the desolate building, which they start calling a castle, until the return of the owner. As their guests they invite Bill (Ahearn) the burglar, Sam (Russell) the bum, and Lucius Garrett (Aitken), an unemployed Shakespearean actor. When the elder Durand returns, he is furious and at first attempts to drive the intruders away, but then relents after Charity and the Prince win his heart and he gives the men employment on his estate. Merlin in the meantime has secured a position, and has endeavored to find the children but is unsuccessful. When he gets his first check, he goes to see his father, and the children are happy when son and father reconciled.


Dona, Dona

"Dona Dona" popularly known as "Donna, Donna" is a song about a calf being led to slaughter written by Sholom Secunda and Aaron Zeitlin. Originally a Yiddish language song "Dana Dana" (in Yiddish דאַנאַ דאַנאַ), also known as "Dos Kelbl" (in Yiddish דאָס קעלבל meaning "The Calf") it was a song used in a Yiddish play produced by Zeitlin.
History.
"Dana Dana" was written for the Aaron Zeitlin stage production "Esterke" (1940–41) with music composed by Sholom Secunda. The lyrics, score, parts, and associated material are available online in the "Yiddish Theater Digital Archives". The lyric sheet is in typewritten Yiddish and handwritten Yiddish lyrics also appear in the piano score. The text underlay in the score and parts is otherwise romanized in a phonetic transcription that appears oriented toward stage German. The YIVO standardized transliteration system was not then in widespread use, and many Yiddish transliterations looked like German, to which the Yiddish language is closely related.
The orchestra plays the "Dana Dana" melody at several points in "Esterke". The original is 2/4, in G minor for a duo of a man and a woman, choral with the orchestral accompaniment. Secunda wrote "Dana-" for the orchestral score and "Dana Dana" for the vocal scores. The Yiddish text was written with Roman alphabet. He wrote for the choral score "andantino" (somewhat slowly) and "sempre staccato" (play staccato always). The melody of the introduction was also used at the end of the song. He wrote "piu mosso" (more rapidly) for the refrain and some passages that emphasize the winds. First, a woman (Secunda wrote "she") sings four bars and then the man (Secunda wrote "he") sings the next four. They sing together from the refrain. Although singing the third part of "Dana Dana" (="Dana Dana Dana Dana...") the man sometimes sings lower than the melody using disjunct motions. The melody is refrained. Then "he" sings the melody, and "she" sometimes sings "Dana", other times sings "Ah" with a high voice or technical passage. Secunda wrote "molto rit." (suddenly much more slowly) for the ending of the first verse. There are some differences between the original and the melody that are well known. Secunda wrote "ha ha ha" for the choral score with the broken chords.
There are various views as to the meaning of the words 'Dana, dana' in the original Yiddish version of the song, repeated sixteen times in each chorus. The words 'dana, dana' are a common refrain in Polish folk song, heard often in formulas such as 'Oj, dana dana, moja dana'. Some believe it to be a nonsense word, but it may have earlier ritual origins in Polish song or be imitative of musical instruments . Zeitlin, who spent most of his life in the Polish-speaking world before emigrating to the US in 1939, likely took the 'dana' refrain from this source. A comment appearing in the Hebrew newspaper Haaretz (ref https://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1.1256045), gives the meaning of Dana as the sound that was commonly made by the guide of a horse-drawn cart to encourage the horse to continue to step forward as it drags its heavy load. According to the comment in Haaretz, the translation of the word Dana (from Yiddish to Hebrew) was provided by Kol Israel in 1962, when the song was performed by Nechama Hendel. In the John Camden Hotten slang dictionary, the word Dana related to a nightman's or dustman's cart in old German / Austrian slang. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/42108/42108-h/42108-h.htm Incidentally, in Turkish, Azerbaijani and other Turkic languages "dana" means a "weaned calf".
Versions.
Secunda translated "Dana Dana" into English language (changing the vocalization of 'dana' to 'dona'), but this version didn't gain much attention.
The lyrics were translated once again in the mid-1950s, this time by Arthur Kevess and Teddi Schwartz. This version became especially popular after being recorded in 1960 by Joan Baez for her debut album "Joan Baez". On the album, the song is retitled "Donna, Donna", doubling the "n" while retaining the long "o" pronunciation. A staple for Baez, "Donna, Donna" was used throughout the civil rights protest movement of the 1960s.
In 1964, the song was recorded in French language by French singer Claude François as "Donna, Donna" reaching the top of the French Singles Charts for two consecutive weeks in December 1964. François co-wrote the French lyrics with Vline Buggy. The song also known by its longer title "Donna, Donna (Le Petit Garçon)" is a completely revamped version lyricwise, as it no longer describes a helpless calf being led to its slaughter, as in the original Yiddish version, but is rather about the troubles of an aspiring young boy growing up dreaming about his own future. In the last verse, in an autobiographical twist, Claude François alludes to himself by singing the verse as "ce petit garçon que j'étais" (this small boy that I was...).
Very soon after the Claude François version, the Scottish singer-songwriter Donovan recorded another very popular cover of Baez' version in 1965. The track appeared on his album "What's Bin Did and What's Bin Hid". The title is also "Donna, Donna", thus reinforcing further the popular "Donna" rather than the original transliteration "Dona".
"Dana Dana" has been translated from Yiddish into Hebrew as "Lama Dona" and interpreted by Rika Zaraï. Zaraï went on also to launch a French oriental dance version in her album "Hava".
The song was recorded in many other languages as well including German, French, Swedish, Japanese, Hebrew, Russian, Italian, Catalan and Vietnamese.
In Vietnamese language, the lyrics was translated metaphorically from French version by Trần Tiến, a well-known musician in Vietnam. This version was performed by a girlband name Tam Ca Áo Trắng (Trio of schoolgirls).
There is also a less popular Vietnamese version called "Tiếc thương" (Mourning) that expresses the mourning of a man whose lover died at the young age.
Covers.
The song has been recorded in original Yiddish lyrics amongst others by:
The German folk ensemble Zupfgeigenhansel interpreted it as part of their 1978 album "Jiddische Lieder ('ch Hob Gehert Sogn)" (as "Dos Kelbl" (YouTube video) with lyrics attributed (mistakenly) to Jtschak Katsenelson).
The most famous recordings in the English language include those by Joan Baez and Donovan. But there are also versions by:


Kuju Castle

The Kuju Castle is a military fortress from the Goryeo period, located in Kusong, North Korea.
The fortress was the site of the defeat of the Khitan invasion in 1018 under the command of Gang Gam-chan. The site is number 60 on the list of National Treasure of North Korea.


Calgary City Hall

Calgary City Hall (often called Old City Hall or Historic City Hall), is the seat of government for Calgary City Council, located in the city's downtown core of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The historic building completed in 1911 serves as the offices for Calgary City Council, consisting of the office of the Mayor, fourteen Councillors and municipal Clerk. Calgary City Hall originally housed the municipal council and portions of administration from its completion in 1911 until the construction of the Calgary Municipal Building adjacent to Old City Hall in 1985, which currently houses the offices of 2,000 civic administrators.
Calgary City Hall is designated a National Historic Sites of Canada, as well as a Provincial Historical Resource, and Municipal Historical Resource.
History.
Calgary City Hall was constructed on the site of the City's first town hall, with the land donated by a private citizen in 1885, the year after the municipality was incorporated. The original wood-framed town hall only stood for a handful of years before being demolished. In the early 1900s it became apparent the growing City needed a new seat of government, and a debate ensued on the future location of the structure. In 1904, Calgary City Council found a site located on the corner of 7th Avenue and 1st Street S.E. which was suitable and available for $20,000. The plan went before the public through a pleblicite which required a two-thirds majority, and with 156 voters agreeing, and 95 against the proposition, the plan failed by a margin of 12 votes. Finally the city would settle on the site of the community's original City Hall, set back only a few feet from the current structure. The city would retain Architect William M. Dodd whose designs around Calgary included Central School (1905-1969), Clarence Block (1901), Norman Block (1902), and the Alexandra School (1904), as well as consulting on Regina's City Hall. Construction of the new structure began in 1907, and quickly encountered several financial and design issues.
Construction issues.
The four-storey building was constructed with a steel structural frame supporting the Paskapoo Sandstone exterior, which became a common building material in the city following the Calgary Fire of 1886, with the sandstone sourced from the Bone and Oliver Quarry. Construction itself was filled with controversy and delays. Costs for the building continued to rise, and in April 1909 residents rejected a plebiscite for a bylaw providing additional funds for construction. Following the bylaws failure, Dodd withheld payment to the primary contractor, the Alberta Building Company, which subsequently walked off the job. Shortly afterwards in January 1910, William Dodd's employment as architect was terminated, and he was replaced with local firm Hodgson & Bates. Construction resumed following approval of a bylaw for additional funds in Spring 1910. It is estimated the project cost a total of $300,000 by the time is was completed in 1911, approximately double the initial budget.
Time capsule.
A sealed copper box was placed by Calgary's 10th Mayor Arthur Leslie Cameron and former mayors George Murdoch and George Clift King on September 14, 1908 in the building's cornerstone. Amongst the items in the time capsule, a copy of the New Testament, official copy of bylaws, voters' list, various reports of city departments, various medals of various departments, and a copy of the five newspapers circulating in the city. The time capsule was opened by Mayor Naheed Nenshi in November 2018 part of the restoration of the building.
Completion.
The long awaited Calgary City Hall was opened by Conservative Member of Parliament and Leader of the Opposition Robert Borden on June 26, 1911. However, the City Hall building size would quickly become insufficient for the growing community, and by 1913, the building was already too small to house several civic services. Originally the structure served as the headquarters of the Calgary Police Service from 1911 to 1914, with 15 jail cells occupying a portion of the ground floor. Additionally, the building contained the city's court room which was conveniently located on the ground floor adjacent to the police department. When opened, a cannon was installed near the front entrance, which was replaced by a fountain. The site was landscaped with 210 palm trees; one of which survived until 1935.
Plaque.
A plaque at the entrance is dedicated to the memory of Lieutenant-Colonel Russell Lambert Boyle and the 10th Battalion, CEF. Boyle was a Calgary area rancher who was killed during the 2nd Battle of Ypres while commanding the 10th Battalion, which was recruited from Calgary and Winnipeg.
Description.
Calgary City Hall was designed by architect William M. Dodd to reflect Calgary's role as the urban centre in Southern Alberta. Dodd was known partnering with Edward Collis Hopkins to design Regina City Hall (which was demolished in 1965), along with his other designs in Calgary caught the attention of Calgary City Council. Dodd designed the building to embody Richardsonian Romanesque architectural style, with a symmetrical form with an elevated main floor, and includes a single clock tower with a Seth Thomas Clock installed, heavy stone exterior walls, bands of recessed windows, a recessed main entrance, stone arches and keystones above many windows and entries carved with the City's coat-of-arms. Notable interior elements include a highly ornamental cast-iron staircase and sky-lit rotundas.
Historical site status.
On October 18, 1978, Calgary City Hall was designated as a Provincial Historical Resource, the designation notes the heritage value of old Calgary City Hall lies "with Calgary's historic status as the urban and economic centre of Southern Alberta, and its architectural significance as a monumental civic building."
On November 23, 1984, Calgary City Hall was designated a National Historic Site with the name "Calgary City Hall National Historic Site of Canada". The designation referenced the historic value of the site as the only surviving example of a pre-1930s civic hall in the prairie cities, and the prominence of the Romanesque Revival style and clock tower.
On April 17, 1990, the City of Calgary designated Calgary City Hall as the municipality's first Municipal Historic Resource under the "Historical Resources Act".
Current use.
The building is still used as an active office space for the office of the Mayor, members of City Council, and the municipal Clerk. The meeting chambers for Calgary City Council, meeting rooms and city administration is housed in the adjacent Calgary Municipal Building.
Restoration.
The quality, condition and cost of Calgary City Hall has been a civic debate since construction started in 1907, and the structure has undergone restoration a number of changes throughout its history. The first restoration occurred in 1962 at a cost of CA$2.5 million () and addressed the interior and exterior of the building. The second restoration took place in the late 1990s with a cost of CA$9.3 million ().
In late 2014, Calgary City Council approved CA$34.1 million for renewal of Old Calgary City Hall. Protective scaffolding was installed outside the building in 2014, as pieces of the original Paskapoo sandstone began falling from the building. According to one source: "The work is so extensive that it would force city council and staff to leave the premises for up to four years."