Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem

The Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem took place in 1894, and is part of the string of Dutch interventions in and around Bali, Dutch East Indies (now: Indonesia), that led to complete colonization of both Bali and Lombok by the early 20th century.
Initial alliance.
The island of Lombok inhabited by the Sasak who adopted Islam in the 16th century. Some Balinese groups from the Kingdom Karangasem had ruled in the western part of Lombok island, and one of them, the Mataram group, succeeded in gaining over the rest of the Balinese groups, especially the Singarasi, as well as the totality of the island in 1839. From that a rich Balinese Court culture developed in Lombok.
Contacts with the English, through G.P. King developed, foreign trade interests developed as the Dutch managed to stop English influence by signing a treaty with Mataram in 1843. Mataram was an ally of the Dutch during the Dutch intervention in Bali (1849), and was rewarded with the overlordship over Karangasem.
Sasak rebellion.
Trouble erupted in 1891 when the Muslim Sasak of Eastern Lombok arose in rebellion against the Balinese ruler of Lombok, Anak Agung Gde Ngurah Karangasem. The rebellion, following rebellions in 1855 and 1871 which had already been quashed by the Mataram ruler, erupted when he requested thousands of troops from the Sasaks in order to make an attack on the Klungkung kingdom in Bali in an attempt to become the Supreme Ruler of Bali.
On 25 August 1891, the ruler's son Anak Agung Ketut Karangasem was sent against rebellious Praya, of the Lombok kingdom of Selaparang with 8,000 troops. On 8 September, 3,000 more troops were sent under the ruler's other son, Anak Agung Made Karangasem. As the royal army seemed in trouble, the ruler asked for the help of the vassal ruler of Karangasem, Anak Agung Gde Jelantik, to send him 1,200 elite troops to quash the rebellion. The war raged on from 1891 to 1894, and the Mataram army being the most advanced, complete with two modern warships, the "Sri Mataram" and the "Sri Cakra", managed to occupy the rebellious villages and to surround the last Sasak resistance.
On 20 February 1894, the Sasak formally called for Dutch intervention and support. The Dutch, seeing these events as an opportunity to extend their control in the East Indies, chose to support the Sasak, who had asked for their protection, and the Dutch started to disrupt the importation of weapons and supplies from Singapore by the Balinese rulers.
Dutch intervention (July 1894).
The blockade did not suffice, and the Dutch demand for Mataram's submission was rejected. In July 1894 the Dutch chose to send a military expedition to topple the Mataram ruler. Three ships were sent from Batavia, the "Prins Hendrik", the "Koningin Emma" and the "Tromp", transporting 107 officer, 1,320 European soldiers, 948 indigenous soldiers and 386 horses.
From August 1894, the Balinese chose to resist the Dutch military presence. They attacked the 900-strong Dutch military camp by surprise at night at Mayura Palace in Cakranegara on 25 August 1894, and killed more than 500 soldiers, sailors and coolies. Included among the dead was General P.P.H. van Ham, commander of the expedition. The Dutch retreated and entrenched themselves in fortifications on the coast.
Dutch reinforcements (November 1894).
The Dutch returned with more reinforcements under General Vetter. Mataram was attacked and utterly destroyed. On 8 November 1894, they made systematic artillery bombardments on the Balinese positions at Cakranegara and destroyed the palace, killing about 2,000 Balinese and losing 166 men.
By the end of November 1894, the Dutch had annihilated the Balinese positions, with thousands of dead, and the Balinese surrendered or committed puputan, ritual suicide.
Lombok and Karangasem became part of the Dutch East Indies, and were administered from Bali. Gusti Gede Jelantik was appointed as Dutch regent in 1894, and ruled until 1902.
The Lombok royal treasure was seized by the Dutch, including of gold, of silver, and jewelry. Soon Bangli and Gyanjar also accepted Dutch suzerainty, but southern Bali kept resisting until the Dutch intervention in Bali (1906).


Remah, Abu Dhabi


Nikolai Mossolow

Nikolai Mossolow (1 July 1910 – 9 November 1988) was a Russian-born Namibian historian and archivist.
Mossolow was born in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1910, to Colonel Constantine Mossolow (1866–1924) and former dancer Xenia Vladimirovna Bosse (1886–1972). Mossolow first came to Namibia, then named South West Africa, in 1931 to visit his mother who had emigrated to that country and married a German Karakul farmer shortly after his father's death. He returned to Europe to study History of Art, Anthropology, Archaeology and Ancient Languages at the University of Dorpat in Estonia, the Friedrich-Wilhelms University in Berlin, and the German Archaeological Institute in Rome. but returned to South West Africa in 1939 when he saw that the outbreak of World War II was inevitable. He then worked as an archivist in the National Archives in Windhoek and later published numerous historical books and articles about South West African places, persons and events. Mossolow married Gisela Herta Alice Wollmann, and on his retirement in the early 1980s, he and his family moved to Somerset West outside Cape Town, South Africa, where he died on 9 November 1988. His daughter is the well known South African operatic soprano Sabina Mossolow.


Nasser bin Abdulaziz Al Saud

Nasser bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (1911 – 15 September 1984) was one of the former Riyadh governors and a member of the House of Saud.
Early life and education.
Prince Nasser was born in Qasr Al Hukm, Riyadh, in 1911. There are other reports, giving his birth date as 1913 and as 1921. He was the sixth son of King Abdulaziz. His mother was Bazza I, a Moroccan woman. Prince Nasser had no full-brothers or full-sisters. He received education in Riyadh at the school of the palace, learning Quran, horsemanship and war techniques.
Riyadh governorship.
In 1938, King Abdulaziz appointed him as the governor of Riyadh Province. However, he had to resign from his post due to an event, leading to death of one of his brothers and others. When Prince Nasser was the governor, he organized a party, after which his brother Prince Mansour, then the defense minister, and several foreigners died of alcohol poisoning. Upon hearing of this event, King Abdulaziz threw him in jail. Subsequently, Nasser bin Abdulaziz lost his post and never returned to public life.
Exclusion from succession.
Prince Nasser was excluded from the succession to throne because of the incident that occurred during his term as the Governor of Riyadh Province. Both Nasser and Prince Saad were older than Prince Fahd when the latter was appointed crown prince in 1975. However, the supersession did not cause turmoil because both of them were regarded as weak contenders due to being relatively less experienced. Furthermore, Prince Nasser lost his chance due to "dissolute" mores. He was regarded as unsuitable for succession by the larger family. His lack of accomplishment and low birth (his mother was a woman of colour from Morocco) were also factors leading to his exclusion.
Personal life.
One of his wives, Muhdi bint Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Sudairi, was the younger sister of his step-mother, Hassa, who was one of King Abdulaziz's wives and the mother of seven influential sons, known as the Sudairi Seven. Naseer and Muhdi had five sons: Prince Khalid, Prince Abdullah, Prince Fahd, Prince Turki and Prince Ahmed.
One of Nasser's sons, Turki bin Nasser, was a former military officer and the former head of the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME). Another son, Mohammed bin Nasser, is the governor of Jizan Province. Another son Mansour bin Nasser was one of King Abdullah's advisors. Yet another son, Abdulaziz bin Nasser, is a businessman and the father of Saud bin Abdulaziz, who murdered his servant in London in 2010. Abdullah bin Nasser, another son of Prince Nasser, was the president of Saudi football club Al Hilal in the 1970s.
Prince Nasser's daughter, Al Bandarah, died in Riyadh in February 2017.
Death.
Prince Nasser could not walk and used a wheelchair in his last years. He died on 15 September 1984 and was buried in Riyadh.
Legacy.
His family founded Prince Nasser bin Abdulaziz Center for Autism, an affiliated body of the Saudi Autism Center; the center was opened in April 2012.


Faiz Mohammad Khan

Faiz Muhammad Khan Bahadur, (r.1742–1777) the third Nawab of Bhopal, was the son of Yar Muhammad Khan, the second Nawab of Bhopal (as a reagent), and the stepson of Mamola Bai a very influential Hindu wife of Y Muhammad and a direct descendant of Dost Mohammad Khan.


Jind State

Jind State was a princely state located in the Punjab region of north-western India. The state was in area and its annual income was Rs.3,000,000 in the 1940s.
History.
The princely state of Jind & Sangrur was founded in 1763. It was part of Cis-Sutlej state grouping of princely states, which was ruled by the Scindhia dynasty of the Maratha Empire, various small Punjabi kingdoms of the Cis-Sutlej states paid tributes to the Marathas, until the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805, after which the Marathas lost this territory to the colonial British raj.
 On 25 April 1809 Jind became a British protectorate. Gajpat Singh ruled under the title of "raja" until 1789, then Bhag Singh until 1819, Fateh Singh until 1822, and Sangat Singh until 1834. After a vacancy of three years, Sarup Singh ruled until 1864, succeeded by Raghubir Singh, who took the title "Raja-i Rajgan" in 1881. In 1887 he was succeeded by Ranbir Singh, who became "Maharaja" in 1911 and continued to rule the state until its accession to India in 1947. Ranbir Singh, last Ruler of Jind, was called Colonel His Highness Farzand-i-dilband Rasikh-ul-itikad Daulat-i-englishia Raja-i-rajgan Maharaja Sir Ranbir Singh Rajendra Bahadur.
After the independence of India in 1947, the princely states were first integrated with India and later those were merged in various states of India in 1949 whereby they lost all ruling rights and the rulers were given a "Privy Purse" (type of pension) as part of their agreements tfirst integrate with India. The Privy Purse was abolished in by the 26th Amendment in 1971, by which all their privileges and allowances from the Central Government ceased to exist, was implemented in 1973 after a two-year legal battle. Though according to the hereditary convention of succession the eldest son of the successive generations continued to claim the title of Maharaja. After Ranbir Singh's death his eldest son Rajbir Singh (b.1918 - d.1959) claimed the [officially abolished] title, which then passed to Rajbir's eldest son Satbir Singh (b.1940 - still living).
On 20 August 1948, with the signing of accession to India, Jind became a part of the Patiala and East Punjab States Union and ceased to exist as a separate state. Jind town and district now form a part of Indian state of Haryana.
Postage stamps prior to King George V consisted of Indian stamps over printed as "Jhind State", with the letter 'H' in the name. On the George V stamps, the 'H' is omitted and is overprinted as "Jind State" (Reference actual stamps from the Victorian, Edward VII and George V eras).
Rulers of Jind.
The rulers of the state bore the title of 'Raja' until 1881. They had the privilege of a 13-gun salute.
Claiming descent from Jaisal, founder of Jaisalmer State in 1156, the founder of this Sikh dynasty, Phul Singh, was Chaudhary (Governor) of a province to the south east of Delhi. Phul’s descendants founded three States: Patiala, Jind and Nabha. Phul had six sons, Tiloka Ram Singh, Rudh, Chunu, Jhandu, and Takhtmal. Tiloka had two sons, Gurudutta and Sukh Chain. Sukh Chain founded Jind, which was ruled by his descendants, while Gurudatta's descendants ruled Nabha State.
Maharaja.
12 Dec 1911 – 15 Aug 1947 Sir Ranbir Singh (s.a.)


Sambisari

Sambisari is a 9th-century Hindu temple located at Sambisari hamlet, Purwomartani, Kalasan, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The temple was buried about five metres underground. Parts of the original temple have been excavated. The temple is located about east of Yogyakarta near Adisucipto International Airport.
Discovery.
The temple emerged in July 1966 by a farmer when working on land that belongs to Karyowinangun. His hoe hit the carved stone which was a part of the buried temple ruins. The news of discovery reached the Archaeology office in Prambanan and the area was secured. The excavation and reconstruction works was completed in March 1987. The temple is thought to have been buried by an eruption of volcanic ash from the nearby Mount Merapi.
The discovery of Sambisari temple probably was the most exciting archaeological findings in Yogyakarta in recent years, leading to speculation about whether there are other ancient temples still underground in the vicinity, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic ash.
History.
Based on architectural and ornamental similarities to another Hindu temple in Indonesia, Prambanan, the presence of Hindu statues around the temple walls, and the lingga-yoni inside the main temple, historians have concluded that Sambisari was a Shivaite Hindu temple built around the first or second decade of the 9th century (circa 812-838). This conclusion was supported by the findings of a gold plate in the vicinity engraved with letters that according to paleography were used in early 9th century ancient Java.
According to Wanua Tengah inscription III dated 908 that contains the name of kings that ruled Mataram Kingdom, the temple was probably built during the reign of Rakai Garung (ruled 828-846). However, historians also consider that the construction of a temple was not always issued by a king. Lesser nobles might have also ordered and funded the construction.
Architecture.
Visitors must descend the flight of stairs on the western side to reach the central part of the temple, the base of which is lower than the current ground level.
The outer parts are wide terraces. Recent excavations revealed the outer layer of walls surrounding the temple, which cover a wider area. Only the north-eastern part of this outer wall was excavated, the rest still is buried underground.
The Sambisari complex was surrounded by a rectangular wall made from white stone measured . In this main yard, there are eight small lingga, four located at the cardinal points and four others in the corners.
The Sambisari temple complex consisted of a main temple and a row of three smaller "pervara" (guardian) temples in front of it. The center "pervara" temple measures , while northern and southern "pervara" temple measures each. Each of these lesser temples has no stone body and roof, and only consists of base part and balustrades.
The main temple is facing west and took form of a square with size . The temple has no real base (foot) part, so the sub-basement part also serves as the base part. The "siar" is adorned with "makara" supported by dwarf (gana). There is no Kala carving on top of the main gate. By ascending the stairs, the visitors can reach the rectangular wide gallery, which has balustrades surrounding the main temple.
On this gallery there are 12 "umpak" (stone base), 8 bases took round shape and 4 others are square ones. This stone bases probably used to support wooden pillars, suggesting that the main temple used to be covered by a roof structure made from organic materials that now are already decayed and gone.
The body of the main temple measures and high. Around the temple walls are niches containing statues of Hindu gods, topped by Kala's head. In the northern niche, there is a Durga statue, in the eastern niche, a Ganesha statue, and in the southern niche, an Agastya statue. The portal to the main room is on the western side. The entrance is flanked by niches that once contained guardian statues of Mahakala and Nandisvara. Inside the temple reside a yoni, measured and high. On the north side of the yoni, there is a waterspout supported by a Nāga serpent. Atop the yoni is a lingga measuring at the base and high.


Pampanga High School

Pampanga National High School (also known as Pampanga High School or PHS) is a high school in the City of San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines.
It was formerly known as Jose Abad Santos High School or JASHS. The current main building of Pampanga High School was completed in 1935. It follows Standard Plan No. 20 of Gabaldon schoolhouses and is currently being restored as part of the Heritage Schoolhouse Restoration Program of the Department of Education. Among its graduates is former President Diosdado P. Macapagal.
Old building.
The Old Pampanga High School Building was the original site of the Pampanga High School. Completed shortly after 1910 it served as the main building of the Pampanga High School until 1935 when it was transferred to its present site. The building was then used as an annex of the school. It also served as the site of the University of the Philippines Extension Program in San Fernando, Pampanga until floods hit San Fernando in 1995.
The beginnings of the Pampanga High School could be traced to the Eusebio Residence located near the town plaza of San Fernando where classes first began in 1908. Due to the lack of students, it was unable to form a senior class until 1911–1912. Its first principal was Mr. John W. Osborn. The school was later moved to this building near the Provincial Capitol in order to accommodate more students.
The school population grew to 4000 plus students in the mid 1960s as youths from nearby towns started to enroll. Pablo Pinlac, the principal, started sports program like Track and Field, Basketball, Volleyball, Soccer, Baseball, etc. Thanks to coaches like Rafael Aguilar the school competed against other Central Luzon schools.
Starting around this time, the school newspaper, The Pampangan was getting recognition nationally. Under Miss Gervacia Guarin's leadership, the school won several medals against schools from the big cities.
In 1960, Pampanga High School had one of its more successful year when several writers won a gold medal (P. Lacson in Sportswriting), and two bronze medals and some top six winners.
A lot of the graduates migrated to the US and became very successful doctors, nurses, accountants, etc. And those who stayed are just as prominent.
In 2010, the Pampanga High School Student government installs ID Scanners to monitor the attendance of all the Students and faculties of Pampanga High School. It is one of the Public Schools who use this kind of system.
The early foundations of what we know today as Pampanga High School were initially laid out in July 1901 when first American civil governor Howard H. Taft succeeded Major General Arthur MacArthur as American Chief Executive in the Philippines . Governor Taft, who became the 27th president of the United States of America in 1909–1913, fully established a civilian government in the Philippines to replace the military rule of his predecessors.
One of the four executive departments of the central government, the Department of Public Instruction under the administration of Honorable Bernard Moses, a member of the Second Philippine Commission initiated public education in Pampanga and in other provinces of the Philippines . Twenty-five civilian educators from the six hundred American teachers known as Thomasites who arrived from the United States aboard the U.S.A.T. Thomas on August 23, 1901 were assigned in nineteen towns of Pampanga. The initial objectives of the American educators with the cooperation of municipal and provincial officials were to establish at least one primary school (Grades I to IV) in each municipality and the recruitment of native Pampangan teachers for training in the English language and in new teaching methods. A "teachers institute" was created in San Fernando to meet the need for native Pampangan teachers.
It was quite a struggle in putting up a new educational system right after the Philippine–American War. New buildings had to be constructed; supplies, books and other instructional materials had to be procured. Pampangan native teachers had to learn the English language and had to be trained in new methods of teaching. The cooperation of parents and local government officials had to be solicited also.
By 1905, about a year after the provincial capital was transferred from Bacolor to San Fernando, Governor Macario Arnedo was able to secure additional funds from the national government to open five intermediate schools (Grade V to VII) along with the provincial school and two trade schools, one in Apalit and one in Bacolor.
By the end of the first decade of the 20th century, the intermediate schools increased to eight and the provincial normal school was converted into a regular high school. The trade school in Apalit ceased operations in later years while the trade school in Bacolor grew into an industrial arts and technical college, which was renamed later as Don Honorio Ventura College of Arts and Trades in honor of Governor and Secretary of the Interior HonorioVentura.
The effort and sacrifices of the pioneering educators in Pampanga resulted to positive progress. As evidence of the quality of public education in Pampanga particularly in the secondary level, eleven (11) of the more than two hundred (200) participants to the "Pensionado Program" set up by the Philippine Commission in 1903 to 1910 were originally from Pampanga. Many of these government scholars with at least secondary education diplomas who were sponsored to study in American colleges and universities became great leaders in government service, law, education, medicine and politics. The most famous of these government scholars was Secretary of Justice and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Jose Abad Santos who is acclaimed today as a national hero.
In the 1918-1919 commencement exercises of the University of the Philippines, Pampangans were awarded the second highest total of degrees. Only graduates from the Manila area exceeded the total of Pampangan UP graduates in that particular school year. Such commendable accomplishments validated the intellectual excellence of many Pampangan students and the outstanding college preparation they received from their secondary school teachers.
The Golden Jubilee Celebration Souvenir Program of Pampanga High School in 1962 indicated that in 1908 the Pampanga High School classrooms were located in a big house in downtown San Fernando known then as the " Buison Building ". When the student population increased tremendously, the Pampanga High School moved to a bigger concrete building along the old highway near the Provincial Capitol in barrio Santo Nino. The high school building in downtown San Fernando became later a popular lodging and dining facility known as Pampanga Hotel and Restaurant.
The school principal during the early years of Pampanga High School was an American educator by the name of John W. Osborn. Nineteen (19) students graduated in 1912 with Wenceslao Vitug as valedictorian and Macaria Roque as salutatorian. The school was under the supervision of American educators until 1935 when the last American principal, Charles G. Whitewell was succeeded by Demetrio Andres who served as school principal until 1939.
In 1937, during the administration of provincial Governor Pablo Angeles David when the Philippines was still a commonwealth and Manuel L. Quezon was the president, classes were transferred again to new and bigger facilities along Teopaco Street now known as High School Boulevard in San Fernando, Pampanga. The concrete high school building near the provincial capitol was converted to a military hospital after World War II. It became later the San Fernando Branch of the University of the Philippines until it was significantly damaged by lahar in 1991.
Classes at Pampanga High School were interrupted in 1942 to 1944 due to World War II. When regular classes were resumed after the war, Alvaro Punla and Wilfredo Castro graduated valedictorian and salutatorian, respectively, in 1945.
In an exchange of emails with Dr. Antonio R. Suba of PHS Class 1942, he wrote that the members of his class received their diplomas in 1946 in a special graduation ceremony. Class members who perished during World War II were honored and their respective families received their diplomas.
Repairs and renovations of aging facilities and structural damage brought by the 1991 volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo and other calamities are being initiated as funds become available through government appropriations and donations from generous alumni. The federation of school alumni associations under the presidency of Mr. Angelo D. David of Class 1947 is currently raising funds and coordinating the implementation of the Total Master Site Development Plan of the Pampanga High School to meet the needs of a growing student population.
On October 22, 2005, the ground breaking ceremony of a new three storey building to be built at the school campus was attended by prominent alumni, school administrators, faculty members and government officials.


Wadhwan State

Wadhwan was a princely state during the British Raj.
The town of Wadhwan in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat was its capital. Its last ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union on 15 February 1948.
History.
Wadhwan was founded as a state around 1630. It became a British protectorate in 1807. The rulers of the state bore the title 'Thakur Sahib'.
Rulers.
Rulers were styled 'Thakur Sahib'


Battle of Gegodog

The Battle of Gegodog (also spelled Battle of Gogodog) took place in 13 October 1676 during the Trunajaya rebellion, and resulted in the victory of the rebel forces over the Mataram army led by the Crown Prince Pangeran Adipati Anom. Gegodog is located in the northeastern coast of Java, east of Tuban.
Prior to the battle, Trunajaya invaded eastern Java and occupied Surabaya and other towns. King Amangkurat I sent an army to face him, led by the crown prince. The crown prince expected a sham battle from Trunajaya, his former protégé. However, Trunajaya offered a real fight which resulted in a decisive victory over the much larger royal army. The royal army was routed, and the king's elderly uncle Pangeran Purbaya was killed after leading a futile charge. The rebel victory was followed by further successes - including more conquests and the defections of Mataram subjects into Trunajaya's side.
Background.
Prior to the rebellion, the Madurese nobleman Trunajaya lived in exile in Mataram and had a close relation with the crown prince of Mataram (then known as Pangeran Adipati Anom, future Amangkurat II). Trunajaya's father-in-law and a prominent nobleman Raden Kajoran had introduced him to the crown prince in 1670. Both had a grudge against King Amangkurat I, the crown prince over the execution of Pangeran Pekik, the prince's maternal grandfather, and Trunajaya over his exile and the execution of his father. The two forged a friendship, partly due to this mutual dislike. In 1670 or 1671, Trunajaya left Mataram for his homeland Madura and became its ruler. He used the crown prince's patronage (as well as his own family's name) to gain followers which allowed him to wrest control of the island.
The Trunajaya rebellion began in 1674 as Trunajaya's forces conducted raids against the cities under Mataram control. In 1676, a rebel army of 9,000 invaded East Java from their base in Madura, and took Surabaya – the principal city of East Java – shortly after. The army consisted of East Javanese, Madurese and Makassarese and was led by Trunajaya and his Makassarese ally Karaeng Galesong.
Battle.
In 1676, the King decided to send a large army to suppress the rebellion. The army was much larger than Trunajaya's, but was predominantly made up of conscripted peasants. It also included West Javanese auxiliaries. The king put the crown prince in charge of this army; he was either unaware of the crown prince's role in the rebellion or planned to have him murdered during the campaign. Other princes also joined the army, including the King's uncle Pangeran Purbaya, Sultan Agung's only remaining brother who was almost 80 years old, as well another son of the king Pangeran Singasari who was the crown prince's archenemy.
The Mataram army marched to Jepara, and then eastwards towards territories controlled by the rebels. It met the rebel army in Gegodog, east of Tuban on the north coast of eastern Java. The Crown Prince initially expected that he and his protégé Trunajaya would only fight a sham battle and then both forces would join against the King. However, Trunajaya betrayed his former friend and patron, and the presence of other princes might have prevented the crown prince from faking the battle. After a long wavering, the prince ordered an attack on 13 October. Trunajaya offered a real battle, which went badly for the royal army. In a desperate effort, the aged Pangeran Purbaya rallied the troops and led a final charge. According to Thomas Stamford Raffles, he "performed extraordinary feats of valour", had his horse shot under him and continued to fight on foot, before he was overpowered and slain. The charge failed, and the battle ended in a decisive victory for the rebels. Mataram troops disintegrated and retreated, along with the Crown Prince and other princes, towards the capital.
Aftermath.
After the rebel victory, Javanese defection into Trunajaya's side accelerated, and Trunajaya followed up his victory by further conquests of Mataram's territories. His forces advanced westward along the northern coast, and by January 1677 nearly all of Mataram's northern coast, with the notable exception of Jepara, fell into his hands. Towns as far west as Cirebon submitted to Trunajaya. Jepara did not fall due to the united efforts of the king's military governor there and VOC forces who arrived there from Batavia. The inland advance was slower, but rebel forces under Raden Kajoran would ultimately overrun and sack the capital in June 1677.
For Mataram, the defeat was disastrous. After the battle, Mataram could only wage a defensive campaign. Its territories, expanded by Sultan Agung decades before, would fall into rebel hands, laid in ruin and their fortifications dismantled, culminating in the fall of the capital. The rebellion would continue for several more years, and Mataram would be forced to request assistance from the Dutch East India Company (VOC) - in exchange for geopolitical and financial compensations - to turn the tide of the war.
The crown prince was blamed for the defeat and was accused of colluding with the enemy. After Gedogog, he was replaced by his brothers, Pangeran Martasana and Pangeran Puger, in leading the Mataram forces. After the fall of the capital he fled with his father, and upon his father's death during the retreat, he took the throne as Amangkurat II.


Bissau Palace Hotel, Jaipur

The Bissau Palace Hotel, Jaipur is a heritage hotel in Jaipur, in India. Built in the 19th century, it was the palace of Raghubir Singhji, a royal nobleman. It is located just outside the walls of the old city of Jaipur, a short distance to the north of Chand Pol (an entrance gate to the old city). It is situated northeast of the downtown area.
History.
Built in the 19th century during the reign of Maharaja Sawai Jagat Singh (1803–18), the structure originally served as a palace of the nobleman Rawal Raja Raghubir Singhji. The Shekhawati estate was home to the rawals of Bissau. The palace was converted to a hotel in 1965. Now a heritage hotel, it is situated in Jaipur's old bazaar area.
Architecture and fittings.
Bissau Palace Hotel has a curved entry facade, and the enclosed area within the palace displays checkerboard patterned flooring, while the lounge has wooden floors. There are 36 rooms, some of which have unique bed fittings and ornamentation, including antique furnishings and artifacts. Over the fireplace in the palace hangs a painting of the Maharaja of Bissau with his courtiers. Also seen on the walls of the palace are swords that were used during encounters with Muslims. Next to the sitting room is a wood-paneled library filled with old books. Along with exhibits of typical artifacts of Rajasthan, there are many showcases containing jewelry, weapons, sculptures of elephants, vases, and photographs – including a tiger shikar scene and Lord Mountbatten visiting the royal family of Bissau. The hotel has three restaurants, including one on the rooftop, and presents Rajasthani folk dancers during buffet dinners.
Grounds.
Bissau Palace Hotel is reached via a circular entry way. A well-tended garden, housed with many species of birds, is part of the grounds. Among the other facilities are a swimming pool and tennis courts.


Indonesian criminal procedure

Indonesia is a civil law country with five major codes. Its criminal procedure code, the Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Acara Pidana ("KUHAP"), determines the procedures and rights of individuals at different stages of the trial process.
History of Indonesia's criminal procedure.
Colonial times.
Before 1910, “Hukum Adat” or Adat laws applied in Indonesia. When the Dutch colonized Indonesia in 1910, they set up a civil law system that took precedence over the Adat laws. In terms of the criminal procedure, for example, the Dutch enacted two statutes to govern different parts of Indonesia. The "Herziene Inlandsch/Indonesisch Reglement" ("HIR") applied to Jawa and Madura, while the "Rechtsreglement Buitengewesten" ("Rbg") applied to the rest of Indonesia. The Adat laws applied to the natives only if it did not clash with the Dutch statutory provisions.
Japanese occupation.
When the Japanese occupied Indonesia in March 1942, they applied their Japanese Martial Law. This superseded all existing laws in Indonesia at that time.
Present.
Today, Indonesia’s legal system is based on Dutch Colonial Law, Adat Law and National Law.
After Indonesia gained independence in August 1945, it adopted the Dutch HIR as its code of criminal procedure. In 1981, Indonesia replaced HIR with the KUHAP. The KUHAP improved upon the HIR by adding adversarial features to the criminal procedure. However, the KUHAP does not sufficiently protect human rights and its safeguards are often ignored in practice because there are no penalties for failing to comply with the Act. In response to dissatisfaction with the formal procedures in the Act, a working group drafted a new statue to replace the KUHAP in 2000. However, Indonesia has not adopted the working group's recommendations to date.
Steps involved in an ordinary criminal trial.
Arrest.
The police must produce a warrant upon arrest if the suspect is not "caught in the act". They must also send a copy of such warrant to the suspect’s family.
Detention.
Suspects must be released within one day of arrest unless the investigator, prosecutor, or judge orders a detention. Detention is limited to offences liable to imprisonment of 5 years or more, and crimes under Art 21(4)(b). Suspects may be detained for a maximum of 60 days without judicial consent.
Investigation.
Investigators must inform the public prosecutor before they begin their investigations. If the investigation is terminated due to insufficient evidence or if the event does not constitute an offence, investigators must inform the prosecutor and suspect.
During investigation, investigators have the authority to summon witnesses for examination.
When the investigation is completed, investigators must promptly submit the dossier of the case to the public prosecutor. If the public prosecutor believes that the investigation is incomplete, he will return the dossier and order for a supplementary investigation. The dossier is then resubmitted.
Prosecution.
After examining the dossier of the case, the public prosecutor will determine if the case meets the requirements to be brought to court. If he decides to prosecute, he must prepare a Bill of Indictment and bring the action before an appropriate district court. Summonses will then be issued to the suspect and witnesses, if any, to attend trial.
If the public prosecutor decides to cease prosecution, he must produce a written decision to be sent to suspect, investigator, and the judge. Please refer to the appendix for more information about the structure of Indonesia's Public Prosecution Service.
Pre-trial proceedings.
Pre-trial proceedings are limited to examining whether the arrest and/or detention was legal and to decide whether the district court has the jurisdiction to try the case.
Trial procedures.
At the outset of trial, the prosecutor will read out the Bill of Indictment. The judge will then summon the accused and witnesses to give their testimonies, which will then be examined. The head judge will lead the examination at trial. The prosecutor and the legal counsel may question the witnesses through the head judge.
If an accused refuses to answer a question, the head judge will suggest that he answer and thereafter continue the examination.
After examination, the prosecutor will submit his charges before the accused submits his defence. The prosecutor may reply to the defences put up, provided that the accused has a right to reply. The head judge will then consult other judges on the bench before he reaches a decision.
Judgment.
The court will acquit the accused if guilt has not been legally and convincingly proven or dismiss all charges if the acts do not constitute an offence.
If the court concludes that the accused is guilty of committing the offence, it will impose a punishment. The public prosecutor will then execute the judgment.
The appeal process.
Ordinary legal remedies.
Once a decision has been reached and read by the judge in a General Court of first instance, the aggrieved party may file an appeal to the relevant court of appeal within seven days.
No appeal can be filed against a:
There are three grounds for appealing to the High Court:
After the High Court passes a judgment on an appeal, the aggrieved party can appeal to the Supreme Court as a matter of cassation.
There are three grounds for appealing to the Supreme Court:
Extraordinary legal remedies.
Judgments are final and binding at the last appellate level. However a convicted person or his family may seek a final extraordinary remedy by submitting a request to the Supreme Court for reconsideration of the judgment, except when it is a judgment of acquittal or the dismissal of charges. Such a request is not time-barred and may only be made once.
A request for reconsideration of a judgment may be made when:
Role of the judge.
The role of judges in the Indonesian criminal justice system is to impose a proper punishment on offenders based on a sufficient means of legal proof. Judges are generally only involved in the trial proceedings.
When a judge receives a Bill of Indictment from the Public Prosecutor, he will determine a trial date and order the latter to summon the accused and witnesses to attend the trial.
During the trial proceedings, the judge is obliged to ensure that the defendant or witness remains free to answer the questions posed. If the judge fails to do so, his decision will be annulled.
At the end of the trial proceedings, the judge can only convict a person if he has at least two pieces of legal evidence supporting the conviction. Based on the evidence presented, the judge can punish, acquit or dismiss the charges against the accused.
If the accused is convicted and he is sentenced to a punishment that deprives him of his liberty, the judge will assist the head judge to supervise the execution of the punishment.
Role of the prosecutors.
The Public Prosecution Service of Indonesia is the only agency that has state powers to prosecute offenders. As such, there is no private prosecution in the Indonesian criminal justice system.
Prosecutors are involved in the whole trial process, from the investigations, to trial proceedings and the execution of punishment. At the investigation stage, the prosecutor supervises the police’s investigations. The prosecutor only personally investigates cases when there are special crimes, such as corruption. Once the police complete investigations, they hand the evidence to the prosecutor. If the evidence is satisfactory, the prosecutor will prosecute the offender at an appropriate court. He will prepare a Bill of Indictment for the judge to begin the trial proceedings.
During the trial proceedings, the prosecutor must ensure that the defendant, witnesses and experts are all present. The prosecutor must also present all evidence concerning the crime. In practice, the prosecutor usually presents three or more pieces of legal evidence to support the defendant’s guilt.
After the judge has passed judgment on the case, the judge’s clerk will send a copy of the execution of punishment to the prosecutor. The prosecutor will then execute the punishment.
Legal protections for the accused.
Rights to counsel.
A suspect has a right to obtain legal assistance from one or more legal counsels at every stage of the examination. At the start of the investigations, the police will inform the suspect of his right to receive legal assistance during examination at trial.
If the suspect does not have legal assistance, he will receive free legal aid if he faces the death penalty, or imprisonment of fifteen years or more. The suspect will also receive free legal aid if he is destitute and faces imprisonment of five year or more.
Once the suspect obtains legal assistance, the counsel has a right to contact him from the moment he is arrested or detained. The counsel also has a right to be present at, and listen to, interrogations. This ensures that the police do not carry out unfair interrogation techniques.
Rules of evidence.
The court only admits five types of legal evidence. They are:
In terms of the witness' testimony as a means of legal proof, the judge will compare a witness’ testimony against other witness testimonies or other means of proof to determine whether the testimony is true. In the process, he also considers all other factors that affect the witness’ credibility. A witness usually makes a testimony under oath. However, a testimony not made under oath can still be admitted as supplemental legal evidence if it is consistent with a testimony made under oath.
As for an indication as a means of legal proof, an indication is an act, event, or situation that is consistent with other facts. It can only be obtained from the testimony of a witness or accused, or from a document.
To convict an accused, a judge must have at least two means of legal proof to support the charge. This ensures that a suspect cannot be convicted merely because he confessed his guilt.
Current controversies and debates.
Problems concerning evidence.
Indonesian courts only acc have a clear provision on the admissibility of illegally obtained evidence. Hence, the prosecution can present evidence that was obtained through torture, ill-treatment, or contrary to any provision in the KUHAP. Furthermore, there is no judicial avenue for an accused to seek redress if illegal evidence were presented at trial. This undermines the legal safeguards in the KUHAP.
Restricted rights to counsel.
Counsel has a right to contact his client “at every moment.” However, this right is undermined because a 1983 Ministry of Justice regulation interprets the phrase to mean that the client has a right to communicate with his counsel ‘at every moment during office hours’. Based on this, police stations mysteriously close when lawyers visit their clients. This prevents the counsel from communicating with his client, undermining the suspect’s right to counsel.
Abuse of detention powers.
The police can abuse its powers to detain a suspect by using threats of detention to pressure a suspect to confess that he is guilty. In addition, the KUHAP does not ensure that detainees are brought to court promptly. Under the KUHAP, a suspect can be detained for up to 60 days without judicial intervention. For example, if the police detains a suspect for 20 days under Art24(1), a prosecutor can extend this detention for another 40 days under Art 24(2). Please refer to the appendix for more information about how long a suspect can be detained without judicial intervention.
Fictional right to silence.
Finally, it is unclear whether an accused has a right to remain silent during examination. Although an accused “shall not be burdened with the duty of giving evidence”, Art 175 seems to undermine this right. Under Art 175, the head judge can suggest that the accused answers the question. The examination will continue after the head judge makes this suggestion. However, since there is a high respect for authority in Indonesia, the head judge's “suggestion” will probably persuade the accused to answer the question. This undermines the right to remain silent during examination.


List of historical parties in Turkey

Below is the list of historical parties in Turkey. In this list, the parties which merge to create another party are also shown. But, the parties which were closed by the military rule in 1981 and continued with the same name afterwards are not shown.


Tsundue Pema Lhamo

Ashi Tsundue Pema Lhamo (1886–1922) was the first Queen consort of Bhutan.
Early life.
"Ashi" Tsundue Pema Lhamo was born in 1886 in Kurto Khoma, as the daughter of Kunzang Thinley, 18th and 20th "Dzongpon" of Thimphu, and his wife, Sangay Drolma, a noble lady from Kurto Khoma.
Her father, Kunzang Thinley, was a first cousin of the First Druk Gyalpo, Ugyen Wangchuck (her future husband).
She has an only brother, Ugyen Thinley Dorji (1906–1949), 8th "Gangteng Tulku".
She belonged to the Peling and the Nyö lineages.
Marriage and family.
She married, as his fourth wife, "Gongsar" Ugyen Wangchuck. The wedding took place at Wangducholing Palace, Bumthang, in 1901. She was 15 years old.
At first, she was called "Maharani" in her country.
Her children with the First Druk Gyalpo were:
Queen of Bhutan.
Tsundue Pema Lhamo, the first Queen consort of Bhutan, was deeply devoted to Buddhism and was the only woman in the district of Bumthang whose wrist fit Yeshe Tsogyal's bracelet.
She died in April 1922 at Wangducholing Palace.


Lontara

Lontara or lontaraq () are Bugis palm-leaf manuscripts that record knowledge on such topics as history, science, custom, and laws. The term originates from the Javanese/Malay word "lontar", which is the type of tree that provides the leaves used.
The types of lontara includes


Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties () is the designation under which the UNESCO has included several tombs and burial complexes into the list of World Heritage Sites. These tombs date from the Ming and Qing dynasties of China.
Tombs were included in the list in 2000, 2003 and 2004. Three Imperial tombs in Liaoning Province, all built in the 17th century, were added in 2004: the Yongling tomb, the Fuling tomb and the Zhaoling tomb were constructed for the founding emperors of the Qing dynasty and their ancestors. These tombs feature rich decoration of stone statues and carvings and tiles with dragon motifs, illustrating the development of the funerary architecture of the Qing dynasty. The three tomb complexes, and their numerous edifices, combine traditions inherited from previous dynasties and new features of Manchu culture.
Ming Tombs.
Hongwu Emperor, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, made major reforms to the mausoleum. He changed the mounds on the ground from the previous bucket-shaped square to round or oblong, canceled the palace, and enlarged the temple building. The Qing Dynasty followed the Ming Dynasty system, paying more attention to the combination of the cemetery and the surrounding mountains and rivers, paying attention to the order of the buried people, and forming the matching sequence of the emperor and concubine tombs, and the sacrificial system was more perfect and reasonable. There are 13 tombs in the Ming tombs site near Beijing, but other Ming Dynasty tombs are also part of the World Heritage Sites. For example, the Xianling Tomb, located in Hubei Province, was constructed for the 12th emperor of the Ming Dynasty from 1519 to 1566.
Qing Tombs.
In traditional China, the veneration of the dead is very important. After the first emperor of the Qing dynasty conquered the Ming dynasty, he choose to build Qing tombs with the Ming tombs, to assure his new subjects that the traditions of the Han Chinese would still be respected. In addition, the first emperor of the Qing dynasty believed the concept of 'Mandate of Heaven', this is also one of the reasons that he choose to build around the Ming Tombs.
As a feudal ruler, he treated it as an important work related to the prosperity and decline of the country and the length of the emperor's fortune. This concept was pushed to its peak. In the site selection and planning and design of the tomb, the traditional Chinese Feng Shui theory was fully used, and the cosmology of "the harmony between man and nature" was embodied, and the human spirit was cast in nature, creating a lofty, great and eternal Immortal imagery. In terms of the scale and quality of the building, it strives to be magnificent, spectacular and exquisite, in order to embody the idea of the supremacy of imperial power, show off the imperial style and majesty, and become the symbol of the materialization of imperial power.
The Three Tombs of ShengJing ( ) are the ancestors' tombs that created the foundation of the Manchu and Qing imperial family. The shape of the tombs of the three tombs is imitated as illuminated mausoleums with strong stylized features, which influenced the construction of the tombs of the Qing Dynasty after entering the Pass. The three tombs of Shengjing plus the Eastern Tombs of the Qing Dynasty and the Western Tombs of the Qing Dynasty, constitute a group of Qing imperial tombs, condensing the history of the Qing Dynasty.
Properties included in the World Heritage Site.
WHS No. 1004ter includes the following individual tombs and tomb groups:
Other Imperial tombs.
The UNESCO World Heritage Site does not include the mausoleum complexes which the Hongwu Emperor (Ming dynasty) had built for his ancestors:


Francis Slacke

Francis Slacke (6 June 1853 – 8 August 1940) was a senior officer in the Indian Civil Service and later became Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal.
Early life.
Francis Alexander Slack (post Slacke) was born in the parish of Saint Saviour in Jersey and educated at Blundell's School in Tiverton, University College, Oxford and St John's College, Cambridge. On 19 November 1879 Slacke married Caroline Elizabeth Cave, 2nd daughter of Thomas Cave, M.P. and sister of Viscount Cave.
Career.
Slacke entered the Indian Civil Service in 1874 and was admitted at the Inner Temple on 27 May 1875. His appointments included:
Slacke retired from the Indian Civil Service in 1912 and was subsequently appointed Fellow of Calcutta University (1907) and President of Fisheries Advisory Committee (1908).


Costobarus

Costobarus (Greek: Κοστόβαρος) was an associate of Herod the Great (who made Costobarus governor of Idumea) and second husband of Herod's sister Salome I. He was also known as Costobar.
Another member of the Herodian dynasty was Costobar, who was the brother of Saul. Both Saul and Costobar were likely grandsons of Costobarus.
Costobar(us), husband of Salome.
Costobarus was an associate of Herod during the latter’s rise to power. Following the capitulation of Jerusalem in 37 BC during the campaign by Mark Antony and Herod against the Hasmonean king Antigonus II - Costobar controlled the exits from the city. Around this time, Antony appointed Herod as Tetrarch of Judæa and Herod appointed Costobarus as Governor of Idumæa and Gaza. In c. 34 BC, Herod gave his sister Salome in marriage to Costobarus.
While Costobarus “gladly accepted these favours, which were more than he had expected”, he was never “Herod's man". His focus was always towards Idumæa and his own ambitions in that region. Costobarus was from a noble and priestly family in Idumæa; and he resented that the Hasmonean John Hyrcanus had made the Idumæans adopt the customs and laws of the Jews. He “did not think ... it ... proper for him to carry out the orders of Herod, or for the Idumæans to ... be subject to them.” He also had ambitions to rule Idumæa himself, and “to achieve greater things”. These attitudes led him to three acts which aroused Herod against him and eventually led to his execution.
His first transgression to become known (but the second to be initiated) was to approach Cleopatra to ask Antony for Idumæa to be transferred to her (instead of to Herod), as it “had always belonged to her ancestors”. Costobarus was “ready to transfer his loyalty to her” and hoped that he would eventually become its ruler. Cleopatra did ask, but Antony refused. Herod sought to kill Costobarus as soon as he found out, but his mother and sister prevented him from doing so. Herod eventually pardoned Costobarus for his actions. But from then on, Herod no longer trusted Costobarus.
The next revelation (the third event in sequence) came as part of the divorce proceedings which Salome initiated against Costobarus. Between c. 27 BC and 25 BC, she issued him a writ of annulment (which the woman was not permitted to do under Jewish Law, but Salome did so none the less), and declared to Herod that she did this “out of loyalty to ... [Herod] himself”. She then informed Herod that Costobarus was intending to flee the country in the company of Herod’s brother Pheroras, who was out of favour with Herod at this time because of his infatuation with a slave girl and his consequent rejection of a marriage which Herod had arranged.
Then Salome added the third revelation (but the first and longest running transgression): Costobarus had been protecting, for at around 12 years, the sons of Baba, Herod’s enemies. When Costobarus had been guarding the exits to Jerusalem in 37 BC, Baba and his family were some of the people Herod had wished to restrain, but Costobarus hid them on his own estate (because of their popularity with the people), and later denied all knowledge of them. “And when the king [Herod] was informed of these things ... he sent [his officers] to the place where they were reported to be staying, and had them kill these men and those who were accused with them ...” And so, Costobarus was executed (c.27-25 BC).
Costobar, brother of Saul.
Costobar and Saul were royal Herodian brothers, and kinsmen of Antipas ben Alexas, and of Agrippa II. While Josephus does not specify the parents of Costobar and Saul, the name “Costobar” provides a clue: their grandfather was very likely Costobar(us), the second husband of Salome, the sister of Herod “the Great”. “Costobar” is an uncommon name, there being only these two individuals so named in all of Josephus' writings. This means that Antipas ben Alexas was a nephew of Costobar and Saul, through their sister Cypros bat Antipater and Agrippa II was first cousin once removed to them through their aunt Bernice (Berenice), who married Aristobulus ben Herod and are the parents of Agrippa I.
When the Jewish insurrection against Roman rule was gaining momentum, Costobar, Saul and Antipas requested Agrippa II to send assistance to prevent the imminent uprising. The two brothers also were active against the insurgents.
Following the Battle of Beth-horon (25 November 66 AD) in which the Jewish insurgents defeated the Roman general Cestius, Costobar, Saul and Antipas were besieged in the royal palace. Subsequently, Costobar, with his brother Saul, escaped from Jerusalem to re-join Cestius: who dispatched them to Emperor Nero in Archaia, Greece.
Antipas, who had remained in Jerusalem, was arrested by the insurgents, and slain in prison by John ben Dorcus, (i.e. John benTabitha), who was under commission from the “brigands” [zealots].
There is a fringe theory that the Saul in Josephus' writings was the same person as Saul of the New Testament. According to this theory, references to Saul in Acts of the Apostles and some verses of Paul's Epistle to the Romans are believed to reveal connections to the Herodian royal family. In Acts of the Apostles, Saul is named in a list of Christian prophets and teachers in Antioch, following Manaen, who was “brought up with Herod the Tetrarch”, but the verse does not clearly connect Saul to Manaen, or to Herod; In the last chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, Paul sends greetings to a man named Herodion, whom he calls a kinsman (Gk: συγγενῆ). However, Herodion is a not uncommon name in the ancient world, and Paul refers to several others as kinsmen in the same chapter. This term likely meant nothing more than that they were also Jewish. If he were a member of the Herodian family, Saul would indeed have been a Roman citizen. His behaviour prior to his conversion, in which he “made havoc for the church” could be seen as reminiscent of that in which Costobar and Saul “were lawless and quick to plunder ... those weaker than themselves”, however, the account of the violent behaviour of Costobar and Saul in Josephus would have post-dated Paul's conversion to Christianity by decades.
The Costobarian Herods.
Costobarus and Salome (the elder) had two children: Bernice and Antipater. By her marriage to Aristobulus ben Herod, Bernice united the Costobarian and Hasmonean scions of the Herodians. The descendants of the two principals included two kings of Judæa - Herod Agrippa (Agrippa I), and his son Agrippa II, the Tetrarch, Herod of Chalcis, Herodias and Salome (the younger) of the New Testament, a line of treasurers of the Temple, and the brothers Costobar and Saul. The younger Salome was the matriarch of the Christian Aristobulus of Britannia. The family tree of these individuals is shown below.


Imperial Bank of China

The Imperial Bank of China (Traditional Chinese: 中國通商銀行, Simplified Chinese: 中国通商银行) was the first Chinese-owned bank modelled on Western banks and banking practices. It was founded in Shanghai by Mr. Sheng Xuanhuai in 1897 successfully operating until 1913 when it was renamed to the Commercial Bank of China. The "rebranding" was for political reasons following the overthrow of the last emperor Pu Yi by the Nationalists in 1911.
The manager, Andrew Wright Maitland (1850-1906), was hired out of retirement from The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Ambitions for the bank were high, and it was proposed that it takeover the issuance of banknote throughout China. Maitland's signature - A.W. Maitland - appears on the banknotes. Although offices were opened in Canton (Guangzhou) and Beijing (then Peking) the Imperial Bank of China never received the full support of central government and it became marginalised.
The bank was closed down in 1952 after being taken over by the Central Government of the People's Republic of China.
History.

The Imperial Bank of China, which was China's first modern bank and China's first limited liability bank, opened for business in 1897. The Imperial Bank of China is also notable for being the first indigenous Chinese bank to employ foreigners as a part of their staff and it was the first of many Chinese banks to order their banknotes from foreign printers.
The bank was organised as a joint-stock firm. The Chinese official Sheng Xuanhuai, who was a patron of the bank, adopted the internal regulations of HSBC, and its senior managers were foreign professionals. Following the early guidelines of the HSBC, the total number of banknotes issued by the Imperial Bank of China was at no time to exceed its paid-up capital, furthermore these guidelines also stipulated that ⅓ of it would have to be covered by a reserve in hard currency. Balance sheet data of the Imperial Bank of China is fragmentary but it suggests that these guidelines on banknote issuance may not have been actively used after 1906.
The fact that the IBC followed HSBC guidelines gave it a good reputation among foreign investors. Since the coffers of the imperial Chinese government had been depleted by the end of the nineteenth century, Sheng started selling equity in the new financial institution to bureaucracies both within and outside of the Chinese government. During this period Chinese official Zhang Zhidong feared that many imperial institutions would come in the hands of private owners but Sheng managed to maintain a good relationship with the imperial government despite these fears.
There is ample evidence to suggest that domestic Chinese financial institutions had lent a large number of capital to expatriate-run companies during the latter days of the Qing dynasty even when foreigner nationals were not among their main shareholders. In the year 1901 73% of the loan portfolio of the IBC was advanced to foreign firms.
After the proclamation of the Republic of China, the bank changed its English name to the Commercial Bank of China in 1912. The name more accurately translated its Chinese name and removed any link to the Qing Dynasty.


Kham-Oun I

Queen Kham-Oun I (15 July 1885 – 5 June 1915), was queen consort of Laos from 1904 to 1915 by marriage to king Sisavang Vong. She was the mother of Sisavang Vatthana. She died at the Royal Palace, Luang Prabang.


Nakhchivan State Museum of History

The Nakhchivan State Museum of History () is a museum of history of Nakhchivan, established in 1924. The museum is located on Istiglal Street in the city of Nakhchivan, Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.
History.
Nakhchivan State Museum of History was opened in 1924. The museum was established as a historical-ethnographic museum, originally. In later years, the museum was named as Museum of History and Country Lore. In 1968 the museum obtained the status of State Museum.


Wajoq

Wajoq, also spelled Wajo, Wajo', or Wajok, was a Bugis elective principality in the eastern part of the South Sulawesi peninsula. It was founded in the 15th century, and reached its peak in the 18th century, when it briefly became the hegemon of South Sulawesi replacing Boné. Wajoq retained its independence until it was subdued in the early 20th century by the Dutch colonial government. It continued to exist in some form up to the mid-20th century, when the self-governing entity was transformed into Wajo Regency in the newly independent Republic of Indonesia.
History.
Early history (c. 1400–1582).
The emergence of Wajoq and other interior polities of South Sulawesi is associated with the major agricultural expansion and political centralization in the 14th century, which was encouraged by an increase in external demand for South Sulawesi rice. Population rose as the formerly common swidden agriculture was increasingly replaced with intensive wet rice cultivation. Throughout the interior of the peninsula, forests were cleared and new settlements were founded. The people of Wajoq themselves associate the origin of their polity with migrations and establishment of new settlements. Wajorese text "Lontaraq Sukkuqna Wajoq" ("Complete Chronicle of Wajoq"), for example, recounts the story of a Bugis noble who, on a hunting expedition, found "an area with wide fields, thick forests with wild boars, deer, and buffalo, and numerous lakes replete with fish". He then decided to settle there and founded the polity of Cinnotabiq, which transformed into Wajoq in the early 15th century.
Tradition maintains that the name "Wajoq" came from the "bajoq" tree, under which the then Cinnotabiq ruler La Tenribali supposedly concluded a social contract with the three chiefs of Boliq, whose communities formed the core of Wajoq. La Tenribali was appointed to reign over Boliq lands and thus became the first "batara" (ruler, "sky") of Wajoq. The third "batara" of Wajoq, La Pateddungi To Samallangiq, was forced to abdicate by his people, reportedly because of his immoral actions. He was later assassinated by a Wajorese noble. Wajoq then underwent a constitutional change, after which a governing council was established. This council included and was presided by an elective principal ruler, who from then on would be known as the "arung matoa" (lit. "senior lord"). La Paléwo To Palippu from Béttémpola was chosen by the council as the first "arung matoa" of Wajoq.
During the reign of the fourth "arung matoa", La Tadampareq Puang ri Maggalatung ( 1491–1521), Wajoq became one of the major Bugis polities. By the turn of the 16th century, Wajoq had been able to secure a relatively higher standing in its relationship with the neighboring Luwuq, which was a powerful polity in South Sulawesi during the 15th century, and presumably was regarded as Wajoq's overlord. Together with Luwuq, Wajoq won a war against the nearby polity of Sidénréng in Ajatappareng, forcing the latter to cede its territories north of the central lakes to Wajoq. Wajoq under La Tadampareq also absorbed the remnants of what might have been the core territories of Cina, another influential early Bugis polity. Balance of power in the region further shifted in the early 16th century when Boné, a Bugis polity south of Wajoq, emerged victorious against Luwuq, and thus assumed a paramount position in the eastern part of the peninsula. At the same time, the Makassar twin kingdoms of Gowa and Talloq to the west also started to expand their power. Early in the century, Gowa had cooperated with Boné in wars against Luwuq and Wajoq, but by the mid of the century their struggles for hegemony made Gowa and Boné clashed against each other. By this time, Wajoq had also fallen under Gowa's sphere of influence, and supported Gowa in a war against Boné in the 1560s.
The "Tellumpocco" alliance and the rise of Gowa-Talloq (1582–1660).
The continued rise of Gowa and its harsh treatment of its Bugis subordinates Wajoq and Soppéng prompted the latter two to sign the Treaty of Timurung, a mutual defense pact initiated by Boné in 1582. The relationship between these three allied Bugis polities, also known as the "Tellumpocco" ("Three Powers", lit. "Three Peaks"), is defined as that of brothers, with Boné acting as the elder, Wajoq the middle, and Soppéng the younger one. It sought to reclaim the autonomy of these Bugis lands, and to stop Gowa's expansionism. Gowa's subsequent campaigns against Wajoq in 1582 as well as against Boné in 1585 and 1588 were all successfully repulsed by the alliance. Another campaign in 1590 was abandoned following the murder of Gowa's ruler Tunijalloq.
Nevertheless, by the early 17th century, Gowa and Talloq had succeeded in becoming the most dominant powers in the South Sulawesi peninsula as they bolstered international trade and promoted the new faith of Islam. Between 1608 and 1611, Gowa waged successful campaigns throughout South Sulawesi, forcing Soppéng to embrace Islam in 1609, Wajoq in 1610, and Boné in 1611. Thereafter, the "Tellumpocco" surrendered the control of their foreign affairs to Gowa, although they were allowed to retain the alliance and still preserve considerable autonomy within their own domains. This arrangement proved to be quite successful to win the support of the Bugis. Wajoq in particular grew increasingly loyal to Gowa. The "arung matoa" To Mappassaungngé (r. 1627–1628) even offered to guard the Gowa capital when its ruler was off for an expedition, despite he was not being obliged to do so.
Wajoq entered another conflict when the ruler of Boné, La Maddaremmeng (r. 1626–1643), whether for political or religious reasons, attacked and pillaged Pénéki, one of Wajoq's constituent communities. As La Maddaremmeng refused to compensate for the goods seized in Pénéki, Wajoq and Boné went to war against each other. Gowa and Soppéng sided with Wajoq in this conflict, and the joint forces succeeded in defeating Boné in late 1643. Boné was harshly punished by being made a vassal of Gowa, with a Bugis noble installed as a regent responsible to a Makassar lord. A subsequent rebellion led by La Maddaremmeng's brother was also quashed, and Boné's status was further degraded to that of a "slave" (i.e. a colony), while its nobles were forcibly relocated to Gowa. Several contested territories held by Boné were given to Wajoq, and a large number of people from Boné were forced into unpaid labor in Wajoq. This humiliation entrenched a feeling of resentment among the people of Boné towards both Gowa and Wajoq.
Makassar War and Wajorese migrations (1660–1730).
By the second quarter of the 17th century, Gowa and Talloq had become the most politically and economically powerful polities in eastern Indonesia. The twin kingdoms' attempt to retain their hegemony brought them to a conflict with the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which wanted to monopolize the spice trade in the Moluccas. In 1660, the Dutch attacked Gowa and managed to seize the fort of Paqnakkukang. Gowa then forced its vassals to provide labor to build military constructions in anticipation of further conflict, which ultimately resulted in a rebellion led by the Boné noble Arung Palakka. However, his attempt to revive the "Tellumpocco" alliance failed, as Wajoq refused to break its treaty with Gowa to join forces with the rebels. Lacking enough support, the rebellion was successfully quelled by Gowa and Wajoq forces, driving Arung Palakka to escape to Buton, and later, to Batavia, seeking aid from the VOC.
During the Makassar War (1666–1669), Wajoq fiercely supported Gowa against the alliance of the VOC and local forces from Boné and elsewhere led by Arung Palakka. Even after the fall of Gowa's court Sombaopu and the formal surrender of Gowa and Talloq, the "arung matoa" La Tenrilai To Sengngeng (r. 1658–1670) still refused to abide by the Treaty of Bungaya and continued to resist the Dutch and Boné forces. By mid-1670, Arung Palakka had launched a large-scale invasion of Wajoq. Despite hard resistance from Wajorese defenders, the walled capital city of Tosora fell to the Boné-led forces in December 1670. La Tenrilai was killed in action, and his successor La Paliliq To Malu (r. 1670–1679) was forced to sign a treaty restricting Wajorese political, trade and military powers, in addition to the Treaty of Bungaya. In spite of Wajoq's surrender, it still faced harsh retribution from Arung Palakka and the people of Boné. Many Wajorese were kidnapped and harassed or had their belongings seized. Boné also annexed the coastal territories near the mouth of Cenrana River, which was Wajoq's sole access to the sea. Wajoq's complains to the Dutch at Makassar regarding Boné's arbitrary actions were given little attention. By this time, Arung Palakka had been sending soldiers to help the VOC in a campaign in Java, and the VOC did not want to risk severing their relationship with an important ally.
It was these difficulties faced by the Wajorese in their homeland which prompted them to emigrate elsewhere. While migration had always been an important part of Wajorese culture, it was particularly prominent in the aftermath of the Makassar War, when a large number of Wajorese migrants established themselves abroad in Makassar, eastern Borneo, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Straits of Malacca area, among other places. These diaspora communities were connected to their homeland as well as to each other by familial, commercial, political and legal ties. By the early 18th century, a sequence of Wajorese rulers had begun to take advantage of these connections to revitalize their country. Several rulers ordered their people abroad to buy weapons to rearm Wajoq. Attention was also given to commerce; one particular "arung matoa", La Tenriwerrung Puanna Sangngaji (r. 1711–1713), even proclaimed it as a moral duty, noting that the people of Wajoq "could not 'stand upright' unless they sought riches". His successor, La Saléwangeng To Tenrirua (r. 1713–1736), actively supported international commerce in more practical ways. He dredged the river that leads to the capital Tosora to ease access for large boats, strengthened local industries by requiring them to appoint political representatives known as "akkajenangngeng", created an official governmental post with the specific role of promoting trade, and set up a fund which can be used for investment on commerce and agriculture as well as for social security purposes.
Wajoq under La Maddukelleng (1730–1754).
Since Arung Palakka's death in 1696, none of his successor was as capable as him in maintaining Boné's hegemony over South Sulawesi. This allowed Wajorese trade to flourish without much restriction. Interaction between Wajorese diaspora communities and their homeland intensified, and it culminated in the 1730s when the exiled Wajorese La Maddukelleng came back to South Sulawesi. At first, he and his followers raided several communities in the western part of the peninsula and in the islands near Makassar. In 1736, he assumed the leadership of Pénéki (a constituent polity of Wajoq) and got involved in a confrontation with Boné. Following a retaliatory invasion from Boné, many Wajorese people came to support La Maddukelleng, and he assumed the position of "arung matoa" (r. 1736–1754) not long after. With popular support, he led Wajoq into victory over Boné. By mid-1737 a peace agreement had been signed, and Boné was obliged to compensate for all the losses Wajoq had suffered under the rulers of Boné since the Makassar War. Liberated from Boné dominance, Wajoq assumed a hegemonic position in South Sulawesi, with Wajorese record even stating that Wajoq was recognized as the leader of the "Tellumpocco" at the time.
Government and politics.
As with many other Bugis states, Wajoq was a confederation of smaller political and territorial communities. These communities were related to each other as well as to the central government at Tosora in various ways, ranging from vassalage to alliance "as between brothers". The polity of Wajoq was divided into three "limpo" or main districts, namely Béttémpola, Tua, and Talotenreng, which represented its three original founding communities. Each "limpo" held power over several smaller communities that either chose to affiliate themselves with the said "limpo" or were conquered. Each of these communities had considerable freedom, with its own leader and customs. It can also switch allegiance between different states, and by doing so, both its people and its territory will be subject to the new state.
The paramount ruler of Wajoq was titled "arung matoa". The "arung matoa" was chosen among the "white-blood" or nobility class. The position of arung matoa cannot be held at once with another office. It also cannot be inherited and can only be held for life as long as the ruler was deemed fit for the position. A ruler in precolonial South Sulawesi was expected to be subordinate to the state and the "adat" or customary law which delineates the autonomy of local communities; failure to do so may result in removal from office. The "arung matoa" La Samaléwa To Appakiung (r. 1612–1616), for example, was deposed by his people, reportedly because of his arbitrary actions.
In running the day-to-day administration of Wajoq, the "arung matoa" was assisted by three pairs of civilian and military leaders, each pair representing one of the three "limpo". The civilian leader of a "limpo" was called a "ranreng" or regent, while the military leader was called a "baté lompo" (lit. "great banner") or standard bearer. The titles of the "baté lompo" were taken from the banner they carried: "Pilla" or "Scarlet" for Béttémpola, "Patola" or "Multi-colored" for Talotenreng, and "Cakkuridi" or "Yellow" for Tua. Each of the "ranreng" and "baté lompo" were at least as powerful as the "arung matoa"; together, these seven officials formed the state's highest governing body, known as "Petta Wajoq".
The central governing council of Wajoq consisted of 40 officials, collectively called the "Arung Patampulu" (lit. "Forty Lords"), of which the "arung matoa" was a member as well as the head. The whole members only convened on certain occasions, including the election of a new "arung matoa". The power of "Arung Patampulu", in turn, was balanced by three non-noble officials known as "punggawa", who were elected among the elders of each district. These "punggawa" had considerable power. According to Brooke:
In addition to having "punggawa" as the formal permanent representation in the government, "respectable" commoners and village heads were also entitled to participate in the occasional extraordinary deliberative assembly which might be held in case the "Arung Patampulu" could not agree on the best way to resolve certain issues. These commoners may discuss and give input to the government on the best way to resolve these issues, although the ultimate decision in this kind of situations rested in the hands of "arung matoa".
Culture and society.
Wajorese texts often reiterate that "the people of Wajoq are free", and that their only master is the customary law, which is based on consensus. The concept of the "freedoms of Wajoq" included, among others: freedom of expressing opinions, freedom to act based on one's intention, freedom of movement, freedom of contract, and the freedom from unjust punishment. These "freedoms", however, had limitations and do not necessarily apply to the whole population.
Bugis women in the precolonial states of South Sulawesi were routinely involved in many aspects of the society. Women were also actively involved in the government. One 19th-century observer states that the women of South Sulawesi were commonly "consulted by the men on all public affairs" and were often "raised to the throne, [even] when the monarchy is elective". The British adventurer James Brooke (future Rajah of Sarawak), notes that at the time of his visit to Wajoq in 1840, four out of six members of Petta Ennengngé were women, who frequently "appear in public like the men; ride, rule, and visit even foreigners, without the knowledge or consent of their husbands."
Economy.
Wajoq was the source of most South Sulawesi overseas merchants between late 17th and late 19th centuries. Wajorese commerce extended as far as Sumatra, Cambodia, and New Guinea. Throughout the Maritime Southeast Asia, Wajorese and other Bugis merchants acted as intermediaries between large and small trading nations. Wajorese trade flourished in part because of deliberate support from the government at Wajoq as well as from Wajorese communities abroad. Leaders of Wajorese overseas communities regularly convened to advance their interest. One such conference in the early 18th century saw the codification of laws regulating Wajorese commerce and navigation, popularly called the Ammana Gappa's law code, after the then leader of the Wajorese community in Makassar. These laws set up frameworks for managing credit and debts as well as regulating other kinds of business relationships, providing ways to resolve conflict and giving Wajorese merchants advantages over merchants from other groups in Maritime Southeast Asia. Such a law code, according to historian Kathryn Wellen, is "highly unusual, if not unique, for early modern insular Southeast Asia".
The government financially supported Wajorese merchants by providing monetary loans, taken from the fund established by La Saléwangeng. Borrowers were obliged to return the principals alongside parts of their profits. The profits would then be used to further Wajoq's interest, such as building armaments or renovating the state's mosque. This system allowed a large segment of Wajorese population to participate in commerce while also utilizing their economic power for the benefit of the society as a whole.


Idalium

Idalion or Idalium (, "Idalion") was an ancient city in Cyprus, in modern Dali, Nicosia District. The city was founded on the copper trade in the 3rd millennium BC. Its name in the 8th century BC was "Ed-di-al" as it appears on the Sargon Stele of 707 BC, and a little later on the .
Recent excavations have uncovered major buildings on the site which are open to visitors.
A new museum is also near to the site.
History.
The ancient city.
The original inhabitants were natives of the island, known to scholars as the "Eteocypriotes". The original city lay on the northern side of the Gialias River in modern "Ayios Sozomenos". During the 13th century BC the people of Ed-di-al began manufacturing operations on the south side of the river in what is now modern Dhali. From there the city grew to the major urban and copper-trading centre founded by the Neo-Assyrians at the end of the 8th century BC.
The city was the centre of the worship of the Great Goddess of Cyprus, the "Wanassa" or Queen of Heaven, known as Aphrodite and her consort the "Master of Animals". This worship appears to have begun in the 11th century BC and continued down through the Roman Period.
The ancient city was located in the fertile Gialias valley and flourished there as an economic centre due to its location close to the mines in the eastern foothills of the Troodos Mountains and its
proximity to the cities and ports on the south and east coast. Idalion prospered and became so wealthy that it was among the 11 cities of Cyprus listed on the Sargon Stele (707 BC) and first among the ten Cypriot kingdoms listed on the prism (many-sided tablet) of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (680–669 BC).
The city included two acropolises while houses were in the lower city. The fortified palace was built in 750-600 BC on Ampileri Hill, the west acropolis of the city, and rebuilt in 600-475 BC against attacks by Kition. The Temple of Athena was also located there. The east acropolis on Moutti tou Arvili Hill functioned as a sacred centre and included the Temples of Apollo, Aphrodite and of other gods. The lower city was also fortified, at least during the 5th c. BC.
The first evidence of non-Cypriot presence (Greek, Phoenician, and others) appears in the Archaic Period (c. 550 BC) in Phoenician inscriptions found in the Adonis Temenos on the East Acropolis.
Production by the mint dating from 535 BC shows the city's authority and prosperity. The fortified palace was also a sign of this prosperity as it is one of the few, and the largest known, in Cyprus.
The first Kings of Idalion were Greek as shown from coin inscriptions and the important Idalion Tablet. The tablet also shows that the last king, Stakyspros, was democratic in governing by decisions taken with a council of citizens and the resulting documented laws discovered in the temple of Athena. It also shows that there was a social welfare system during the sieges of the city by the Persians and Kitions of 478-470 BC. The king was the biggest landowner and borders of plots were registered.
The city was conquered by Kition, a Phoenician city at that time, in about 450 BC. The palace became their administrative centre; the archive of tax payments was discovered here. Under Kition the city became the centre of a cult of Aphrodite and of the Helleno-Phoenician deity Resheph-Apollo.
From 300 BC the palace and west acropolis were abandoned and the city became centered on the east acropolis, around the special sanctuaries for Aphrodite and Adonis which continued their importance.
The city existed in Hellenistic and Roman times but its extent is not yet known.
"Rosemary scented Idalium" appears in the poetry of Propertius and others as the place where Venus (or Aphrodite, the original pre-Greek Queen of Heaven) met Adonis (the original pre-Greek consort of the Queen of Heaven, or 'Lord').
Cypro-Syllabic script.
Cypro-Syllabic script (11th to 2nd century BC) was deciphered based on the Cypriot-Phoenician bilingual text of Idalion which is now in the British Museum's collection. Starting with the Cypriot-Phoenician bilingual text of Idalion (a dedication to the god Reshef Mikal – identified as Apollo Amyklos – 4th century BC), George Smith carried out a first attempt at interpretation in 1871, later developed and improved, thanks also to the Idalion Tablet, by the Egyptologist Samuel Birch (1872), the numismatist Johannes Brandis (1873), the philologists , , Justus Siegismund (1874) and the dialectologist H.L. Ahrens (1876).
Archaeology.
The site is one of the few that was left undisturbed for centuries and therefore is ideal for archaeological investigation.
In the 19th century Luigi Palma di Cesnola, U.S. consul, was brought ancient pots and limestone statuettes by residents of Dhali. He went there and claimed to have “cleared” some 3,000 tombs after which three ships were loaded with antiquities, one of which sank in the Mediterranean, while the others reached New York to help found the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
In 1868 R. Hamilton Lang, the British Consul, found an open-air sanctuary which he called the "Temple of Apollo" containing 142 limestone sculptures, now in the British Museum.
From 1927, the Swedish Cyprus Expedition started its work on the island and did a lot of work at Idalium. On the western acropolis they excavated the remains of a fortification wall. They identified six different building periods. Periods 1–3 were dated to the Late Cypriote III, when the city kingdom of Idalion seems to have been formed. Periods 4–6 were considered to belong from Cypro-Geometric III to Cypro-Archaic II. Based on these assumptions, the earliest settlement on the acropolis could have begun around 1200 BC.
More recent excavations have brought to light much of the fortified palace and other monuments.
The sanctuary of Adonis (Apollo) has produced many statues and objects which are now in museums.
The Idalion Tablet is a 5th-century BC bronze tablet found here and inscribed on both sides. The script of the tablet is in the Cypriot syllabary and the inscription itself is in Greek. The tablet records a contract between "the king and the city" and mentions a reward given to a family of physicians for providing free health services to casualties during the siege of Idalion by the Persians.
North of Idalium is the Nymphaeum of Kafizin, with Cypro-syllabic inscriptions dated to 225–218 BC.


Mi Mi Khaing

Mi Mi Khaing ( ; 1916 – 15 March 1990) was a Burmese scholar and writer who authored numerous books and articles on life in Burma during the 20th century. She is notable as one of the first women to write in English about Burmese culture and traditions.
Life.
Born of Mon ancestry, Mi Mi Khaing grew up during the British colonial rule of Burma and was educated in British schools. She attended St. John's Convent School, and gained first a BA (Hons) from Rangoon University and then a BSc from King's College London. She married Sao Saimong, a noted scholar and a member of the royal family of Kengtung State, one of the Shan States. In addition to her writing career, she also established Kambawza College in Taunggyi and served as its principal. In later life she lost her sight as the result of a brain tumour, but learnt to read and write in Braille.
The geologist Yin Yin Nwe is her daughter.


Jumla District

Jumla District (), is one of the ten directly constituent districts of the Karnali province of Nepal. This district has Jumla as its headquarters, an area of ; it had populations of 89,427 and 108,921, respectively, in the national censuses of 2001 and 2011. Its territory lies between longitudes 81⁰ 28' and 82⁰ 18' East, and between latitudes 28⁰ 58' and 29⁰ 30' North.
The Nepali language (then known as Khas language) originated in the Sinja Valley. Sinja was the capital of Khas Kingdom, and the dialect called "Khas Bhasa" is still spoken among that region's people.
History.
Khasa Kingdom.
Jumla was a part of Khasa kingdom during the 11th to 13th century. After 13th-century, Khasa Kingdom collapsed and divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in the Karnali-Bheri region and the Kingdom of Jumla was one of them.
Kingdom of Jumla.
The Jumla Kingdom was one of the many kingdoms that dotted Nepal before its reunification by King Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha and later by his younger son Bahadur Shah. The kingdom was founded around 1404 when Baliraja, who married the daughter of the last ruler of the Yatse (Malla) Kingdom, succeeded his father-in-law. It was one of the most powerful kingdoms in western Nepal, being one of the 22 Baise principalities of the Karnali region which had once been part of the larger Yatse Kingdom. After centuries of intermittent warfare, it appropriated the kingdom of Mustang in 1760. In the late 18th century the Jumla kingdom successfully defended itself against the first attack by King Prithivi Narayan Shah, and legend even has it that he got injured in the battle. Later, with the help of the kingdoms surrounding Jumla, Bahadur Shah attacked again and annexed Jumla for the Gorkha kings in 1789. The Jumla kings were Thakuris (Sijapati, Malla, Shahi) like the Gorkha Kings.
The Jumla Kingdom belonged to the more extensive pre-unification kingdoms in Nepal. At the height of its power it extended from Mustang in the east to present-day Uttarakhand, a state in modern-day India, territory that the Kingdom of Nepal lost to the East India Company in 1816 during the partition of Nepal. The Jumla kings belonged to the Kalyal dynasty, linked to the Mewar clan of Rajasthan, India. There have also been marriages between the Jumla royal family and the Shah's royal family of Nepal. The direct descendants of the erstwhile Jumla royal family include currently, Nepali Film legend Nir Shah, Former Director-General of Nepal Electricity Authority Harish Chandra Shah, DIGP (Retd) Sher Bahadur Shah, Colonel Nepal Army (Retd.) Bhim Bahadur Shah and AIGP (Retd.) of Nepal Police, Surendra Bahadur Shah.
Kings of Jumla.
The kings of Jumla, post-1400:
Geography and Climate.
Geographically, Jumla is a Himalayan mountainous region of which elevations ranges from to . The Higher Himalayan Region consists of Patarasi and Kanjirowa Himalayan ranges. The major rivers in Jumla are Hima, Tila and Jawa.
Demographics.
At the time of the 2011 Nepal census, Jumla District had a population of 108,921. Of these, 98.6% spoke Nepali and 0.6% Tamang as their first language.
Divisions.
On 10 March 2017 Government of Nepal restricted old administrative structures and announced 744 new local level units (9 added later) as per the new constitution of Nepal 2015,
According to new structure Jumla district is divided into 1 municipality (urban) and 7 rural municipality:


Alburquerque Church

The Santa Monica Parish Church of Alburquerque, commonly known as the Alburquerque Church, is a Roman Catholic church in the municipality of Alburquerque, Bohol, Philippines. It is under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tagbilaran. The church was declared as an Important Cultural Property by the National Museum of the Philippines in 2013.
The church was partially damaged when a 7.2-magnitude earthquake struck Bohol and other parts of Central Visayas last October 15, 2013. It was declared a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Institute in 2014.
Church history.
Visita of Baclayon.
The parish traces its beginnings as a "visita" of Baclayon Church. The settlement in the area was then known as "Sagunto", after a town in Valencia, Spain. Upon the request of Doña Mariana Irag, a chapel, convento and school were erected in 1842 at the boundary between the towns of Baclayon and Loay. The first structure in 1842 was made of wood and bamboo and was erected at the western end of the plaza, approximately where the present school stands. A larger and sturdier church was constructed on the eastern side of the plaza in 1856. The settlement was officially elevated to a town in 1861 and adopted a new name of Alburquerque, after a town in Badajoz, Spain.
Inauguration as parish.
The parish was formally inaugurated in 1869, eight years after the settlement became a town. The parish was under the jurisdiction of the Augustinian Recollects until 1898, after which the secular clergy took over.
Until the 1880s, the parish church appeared like a huge shed with three aisles and wells made of tabique. The construction of the convent was begun under Fr. Tomas Fernandez (1869-1875). The present church structure was built under Fr. Manuel Muro in 1885, utilizing the same three-aisled plan. Construction was commenced in 1896 by his successor. The upper portions of the walls and the tower over the facade were completed only in the 1920s-1930s.
Historical and cultural declarations.
In 2013, the National Museum of the Philippines declared the church an Important Cultural Property. A historical marker was unveiled by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines on August 27, 2014.
Features.
The Alburquerque Church is in the shape of a cruciform. Remains of a low stone wall mark the boundaries of the church complex. A low hill and a ravine is located behind the whole complex. This may have a defensive purpose.
Facade.
The church has a portico on the front which is actually the choirloft on the second floor. This choirloft/portico feature is typical of many Bohol churches. A series of arches in the frontage bestows a unique grace and rhythm to the ensemble.
Altar.
The original retablo is gone, although there are two smaller neo-gothic style ones at both ends of the transept. These smaller side retablos are painted to simulate three-dimensional carvings. The old pulpit is still being used. On both sides of the main altar are sacristies or storage-areas.
Ceiling.
Ray Francia painted the ceiling of the church from April 12 to August 3, 1932. His signature is on one side of the choirloft.
Other Interior Details.
Pillars made of large tree trunks masked by metal sheets march down the aisle of the church. It is being argued that these pillars date back to the original 1880 structure.
Choirloft.
The choirloft can be reached from the second floor of the convent by crossing the arcade. A stairway from the choirloft leads down to the nave of the church. Another staircase in the center leads up to the bell tower.
Bell Tower.
The bell tower is quadrangular and was constructed in the early decades of the 20th century. Three patron saints of the parishare inscribed among the bells: Santa Monica, San Agustin and "Calipay" (Joy).
Exterior.
An arcade links the church to the convento. A wide field in front of the church enables the structure to dominate over its surroundings. The grotto at the back of the courtyard hides a ruin, presumably another unfinished arcade. To the left of the church are the original twin buildings for the "escuela de ninos" built in the 1880s.
Convento.
The parish rectory has a coralstone ground floor and an upper floor made of wooden boards, tabique and bricks. Over the main entrance appears the year of the inauguration which is 1876. The convento has a grand twin stairway, made under Fr. Manuel Muro (1882-1896). There is a proto-museum in one corner of the upper floor, containing some of the church's antiquities. The back of the convento has a veranda offering a view of the church. The eastern end of the convento has a massive open-air terrace or azotea built by Fray Manuel simultaneously with the stairway.
2013 Bohol earthquake.
The Alburquerque church sustained minimal damage from the 2013 Bohol earthquake. Three years prior to the quake, restoration work was already being done in the parish. It is notably one of the few intact churches after the earthquake in the tourist trail of Bohol.
Historical marker.
On August 27, 2014, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines installed and unveiled a historical marker at the facade of the church. The marker reads as follows:


Mizdarkhan

Mizdarkhan is a necropolis and archeological site in Karakalpakstan, an autonomous republic within Uzbekistan. Founded in the 4th century BC, it was inhabited for approximately 1,700 years, after which it was used as a sacred burial site.
History.
Founded in the 4th century BC, Mizadarkhan was once the second-largest city in Khorezm after Konye Urgench. A local legend says it is the burial site of Adam, which may account for its sacred status in ancient times.sacred status in ancient times
Mizdarkhan was built close to an older city of fire-worshippers, and Zoroastrianism was practiced here, too. In the medieval period, Zoroastrian and Islamic traditions entwined, as is evidenced by burial sites which have been excavated.
Mizdarkhan thrived until the 14th century when Timur led three campaigns against Khorezm. He attacked Mizdarkhan and reduced it to rubble, and after this the city was depopulated and used solely as a burial place. Most of the mausoleums and the small mosque which are visible today date from this period
Main sites.
The complex of monuments at Mizdarkhan is located on three hills close to the village of Khodjeyli. There are remnants of a fortress with walls 10m thick, which creates a strong impression of how prosperous and well defended the city once would have been. Within these fortified walls are the ruins of two important buildings, a fire temple and a palace.
Opposite the fortressis a hill with the original Zoroastrian cemetery. Unlike Muslims, Zoroastrians didn’t bury their dead, but rather left the bodies to be consumed by birds of prey on top of a flat roofed tower called a dakhma. They then put the clean bones into ossuaries, a number of which have been discovered here.
The grave associated with Adam is beneath a mud brick mausoleum. Local legend says that a brick falls from the structure every year, and when the last brick has fallen, the world will end. In order to protect mankind from this event, pilgrims place additional bricks on the structure when they visit, ensuring it stays standing.
On the western edge of Mizdarkhan the 11th-century tomb of Yusup Ishan and a number of other grand mausoleums dating from the medieval period. These are Muslim burial sites, and some of the mausoleums have beautiful decorative tiles.