Puerto Rico campaign

The Puerto Rico campaign was the American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy attacked the capital, San Juan. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the city's harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser "Isabel II" and the destroyer "Terror" delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and "Terror" was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Major General Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica. After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo on August 1, but was forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican–Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island's interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo, both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares.
On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo and Asomante encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. After about an hour of fighting, Spanish artillery batteries had been silenced. American guns advanced some 2,150 yards and set up positions, but soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and the guns were withdrawn back to the main line. Shortly before the launch of a flanking movement on the Spanish, all military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and Guam.
Prelude.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations, and serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of an Isthmusian canal.
This idea was not new, since William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba. Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: "Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea."
Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: sugar.
On February 15, 1898 USS "Maine" exploded and sunk in Havana Harbor, Cuba. According to the Navy's leading weapons expert, Philip Alger, the explosion was due to a coal fire igniting a reserve magazine of six tons of gunpowder, much of which was already degrading due to the humid climate. However, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba following the sinking of "Maine". In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898 Spain declared war. On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20. One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish–American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic—Puerto Rico and Cuba—and their possessions in the Pacific—the Philippines and Guam.
On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor , the armored cruisers , and , bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba. By July 16, an armistice was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba tree) in Santiago de Cuba by U.S. and Spanish forces ending hostilities in Cuba and its waters. The United States then directed its undivided military resources to Puerto Rico. Two leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd, had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.
Spanish preparations.
On April 21, 1898 the Gazette of Puerto Rico () published a decree signaling martial law for the island, suspending all constitutional rights in the preparation for war.
With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Crown sent the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican provisional battalions to defend Cuba against the Americans, depleting the Puerto Rican troops in the island. The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion, composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery, was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill. After the battle, the Puerto Rican battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead, wounded, missing and prisoners. The Spanish appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Manuel Macías y Casado, declared martial law, resolving to resist the American forces. He declared: "Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes. ... Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain." Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown.
American preparations.
On May 24, 1898, in a letter to Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge wrote, "Porto Rico is not forgotten and we mean to have it".
The Spanish Crown was unaware that, at the time, the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies, among them Henry Howard Whitney, Henry Ward, George Bronson Brea, William Freeman, James Dewel, Frederick Ober and Edwin Emerson, Jr.
According to a story published in "Century" magazine in September 1898, Edwin Emerson, Jr., was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German Consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were that of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo. Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14-year-old Rudolph W. Riefkohl and asked the lad in German if he had a map of Puerto Rico (Emerson had lost his). Riefkohl answered that he did, however it was decidedly too big for Emerson's use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico. Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to the U.S. Army Commanding General, Nelson A. Miles, influencing Mile's decision on the landing points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl's map was published in the "Century" article.
Naval campaign in Puerto Rico (May 8–August 13).
First actions.
The first engagement between the belligerents occurred on May 8, 1898, when the converted liner captured a Spanish freighter, "Rita", in San Juan Bay. On May 9, "Yale" fought a brief battle with "Alfonso XIII", a Spanish auxiliary cruiser, resulting in a Spanish victory. Around this time, Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez was assigned the command of the Spanish forces at the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan. On May 10, when "Yale" returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire on the steamer with an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon, in the first attack against American forces in Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War. For his actions, Rivero-Mendez was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.
Bombardment of San Juan.
The Bombardment of San Juan or the First Battle of San Juan (not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua) refers to an American naval attack on the fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War. The American Naval commanders believed the bulk of the Spanish Fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete was steaming from the Cape Verde Islands to the Antilles and ultimately to Puerto Rico. With this understanding, Rear Admiral William T. Sampson and a squadron of ten American warships, the battleships , , , cruisers and , monitors and , torpedo boat , two unidentified auxiliary cruisers, and an unarmed collier had stood out from Havana at noon on May 2 bound for Puerto Rico. Sampson intended to intercept and destroy the Spanish squadron and then move on to attack secondary shore targets- San Juan's castles, forts and batteries. He was unaware that Topete had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago.
On May 12, Sampson's squadron arrived at San Juan, finding an empty harbor. Making the best of the situation and as an exercise for his untested gunners, Sampson ordered the bombardment of the city's citadels. Captains Ramón Acha Caamaño and José Antonio Iriarte were among those who defended the city, from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. They had three batteries under their command, which were armed with at least three 15 cm Ordóñez cannons. The battle lasted three hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies, the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rico campaign. Caamaño was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class for his actions.
After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana, Cuba and then on to Key West, Florida for repairs and supplies.
Second Battle of San Juan.
On June 22, 1898, under the command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived at San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday the old Spanish cruiser set off from San Juan to engage "Saint Paul" with support from shore batteries. "Isabel II" opened fire on "Saint Paul" at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. , a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser's escape with a torpedo attack but was thwarted when her rudder was damaged by a direct hit from "Saint Paul". Losing steerage, "Terror" inadvertently turned broadside, allowing "Saint Paul" to score direct hits near "Terror"s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. "Terror" abandoned the attack and returned to port, followed by "Isabel II". On June 26, USS "Saint Paul" was relieved by , which continued the blockade of San Juan Bay.
Third Battle of San Juan.
On June 28, 1898, the American auxiliary cruiser fought with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats and one blockade runner. During the engagement, SS "Antonio López", a transoceanic steamer belonging to the Compañía Transatlántica Española carrying a cargo of needed military supplies, was pursued by "Yosemite" until the Spanish freighter ran aground at Ensenada Honda, Puerto Rico with her valuable cargo. Capt. Caamaño was in charge of retrieving the ship's cargo and the men under his command quickly removed as much of the stranded ship's cargo as possible. The desperate efforts proved fruitful, and nearly the entire cargo was salvaged from the hulk with only minor articles and a cannon that had fallen overboard during salvage attempts being lost.
On 15 July, the cruiser arrived to relieve "Yosemite", and the quickly finished off "Antonio Lopez" the next day by firing twenty incendiary shells into the vessel and sinking it. Though "Antonio Lopez" had been sunk, her cargo was successfully delivered and ensured that any American assault on San Juan would be met with stronger resistance. Caamaño was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Naval" (The Cross of the Order of the Naval Merit) by the Spanish government.
The residents of San Juan were furious with Capt. Rivero-Méndez and blamed him for the destruction wreaked on their city by American bombardments. Nothing came of those recriminations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed.
Land campaign in Puerto Rico (July 25–August 13).
Landing in Guánica.
The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans at Fajardo, located on the east coast and had that town fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all.
After Cuba was taken, President William McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo, taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida and on July 21 another convoy, which included USS "Yale", USS "Massachusetts", USS "Gloucester" and USS "Dixie", departed from Guantánamo for a four-day journey to Puerto Rico.
Major General Miles traveled aboard USS "Yale". While approaching the Mona Passage that separates Puerto Rico from the island of Hispaniola to the east, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, choosing Guánica as his landing zone. Miles dispatched patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and to order them to proceed to Guanica. Miles' decision to change the invasion site was based on his belief that the town of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that Spanish coastal gun boats would disrupt a landing at Fajardo.
On July 25, General Miles, 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion and a convoy of ships, under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson of arrived at Guánica Bay. The following Navy ships and Army troopships were part of the convoy: USS "Yale" with Generals Miles and George A. Garretson embarked, carrying General Guy V. Henry, , , , and the U.S. Army transports "Lampasas", "Unionist", "Stillwater" and "Specialist". Two captured Spanish ships, "Nueces" and "Rita" that had been confiscated by USS "Yale" as war prizes were also used.
In 1898, Guánica was a small barrio within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the Guánica lighthouse keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city's mayor.
First skirmish.
"Gloucester" was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica. Twenty-eight sailors and Marines, under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The Marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and "Gloucester" began to bombard the Spanish position. Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco.
Invasion.
After the skirmish was over, men from "Lampasas" landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. 3,300 American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts, an Artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and a medical unit. The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco.
Secretary of War Russell A. Alger learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press report in a local Washington, D.C. newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion: "Spanish troops are retreating from southern part of Puerto Rico. This is a prosperous and beautiful country. The Army will soon be in mountain region. Weather delightful; troops in the best of health and spirit. Anticipate no insurmountable obstacles in future results. Results thus far have been accomplished without loss of a single life.
Battle of Yauco.
After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse, notified Atilio Gaztambide, the mayor of the town of Yauco, located north of Guánica, of the American invasion of Guánica, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "Cazador Patria Battalion", and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers, the Civil Guards, and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana Grande. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.
In the meantime, Garretson, set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce, the largest city in the southern region of the island. Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.
Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties. Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead.
Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of Peñuelas. Garretson's troops entered Yauco in the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig's men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island on July 29. Col. Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.
Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.
Battle of Fajardo.
On August 1, the monitors , , armed tug , and collier were sailing off the coast of Fajardo on the northeast corner of Puerto Rico, when Captain Frederick W. Rodgers, "Puritan"s commanding officer and senior officer afloat, spotted the "Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan" (Cape San Juan Lighthouse) that had been designated the landing site for the US Army's invasion of Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered a reconnaissance landing party ashore, including Puerto Rican volunteers. The sailors advanced to within a of Fajardo, about from the coast, but withdrew when they encountered Spanish troops.
The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in Fajardo was alerted to the American presence and ordered to withdraw after notifying their superiors in San Juan. When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, a Fajardan, realized that the garrison was abandoned and his town defenseless against the Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend Fajardo. Losing hope that Spanish troops would come to the town's aid, Veve went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the town from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 5, Veve entered Fajardo with a contingent of bluejackets and United States flags were hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House at the harbor and City Hall. On the evening of August 6, Captain Charles J. Barclay of "Amphitrite" ordered 28 sailors and 7 officers commanded by Lt. Charles N. Atwater and Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins ashore to relight and occupy the Fajardo Light. They were also ordered to quarter 60 women and children of the town's families that were deemed in danger for having sided with the Americans. As the first group of sailors was entering the darkened lighthouse, Naval Cadet William H. Boardman was mortally wounded when his revolver fell from a faulty holster and discharged into his thigh, cutting the femoral artery. His was one of only two Navy deaths during the Puerto Rico campaign.
On August 4, Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and about 220 troops, including civil guardsmen to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo on August 7, he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo Light and the surrounding hills. At close to midnight on August 8, Pino's troops began their assault on the lighthouse. The landing party of "Amphitrite"s sailors occupying the lighthouse doused the light and signaled the ships offshore, initiating shore bombardment as the naval guns began firing a protective pattern. After two hours, the Spanish forces retreated back to the town. The Americans suffered no casualties, despite a close call when a wayward naval shell smashed through the thick walls of the lighthouse within touch of six men but failed to explode. The Spanish losses were two dead and three wounded, including a lieutenant.
Early the next morning, Barclay decided the continued occupation of the lighthouse was of marginal value and ordered his men back to the ship. A landing party of 30 sailors from "Amphitrite" and a similar number of U.S. Marines from under Lieutenant John A. Lejeune came ashore to secure the area while the 60 Fajardan civilians boarded "Leyden" for passage to Ponce and the lighthouse was abandoned to the Spaniards. In Fajardo, Pino's men tore down the U.S. flags that flew over the harbor Customs House and City Hall, returning to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned. The contingent of about 20 civil guards that had accompanied Pino, were left to maintain order in the town. The skirmish at Fajardo was the only time that American forces withdrew from a position during the Puerto Rico campaign.
Battle of Guayama.
After the town of Yauco was taken, Miles decided to attack the City of Ponce by sea and by land. Garretson's 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town. When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the Puerto Rican Commission, which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco revolt, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard USS "St. Louis" and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas. Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo, a small port east of Ponce that served the larger, nearby coastal town of Guayama. Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.
Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their firepower as more reinforcements arrived. The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautiño Residence (Casa Cautiño) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.
Battle of the Guamaní River Bridge.
On August 6, Colonel Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guamaní (Guamaní River). The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to the town of Cayey. The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of Julio Cervera Baviera entrenched in Guamaní Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time. The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guamaní Heights. This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guánica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.
Battle of Coamo.
Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito, marching through the Carretera Central (Central Road). The caravan was composed of two companies of the "Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria" (Battalion of the Motherland's Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same commander who was in charge of the Ponce garrison. Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning. Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.
Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson, settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo. On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the Baños, damaging the resort. The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson's army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement. Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge; he ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo, after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish. Hita's men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located at Río Descalabrado, while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using a pincer movement.
Battle of Silva Heights.
Brigadier General Theodore Schwan and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros.
Schwan's troops arrived in the town of San Germán and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan's 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling guns, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire. Schwan's men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares. Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva, but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marías. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan's brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.
Battle of Asomante.
The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a region more commonly known as Asomante. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage. As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldiers were injured in the crossfire, prompting a retreat order. The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards. During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissance and Colonel S. Reber, developed a croquis of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher. Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas. While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive. They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.
The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas, from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back. At 10:30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range. Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard's right. They intended to defeat a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster's location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz's Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive. Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However, the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby. Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery, during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson. Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson's camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him that the war had ended. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.
Aftermath.
Treaty of Paris of 1898.
The Puerto Rico campaign, which began with "Yales"s capture of "Rita" on May 8 and ended on December 10, after the Treaty of Paris was signed, was short compared to the other campaigns in the Spanish–American War, because the war came to an end before the military objective of the campaign was completed. Among the factors which benefited the invaders in the short campaign was that the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators. The Treaty of Paris came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the documents of ratification were exchanged. Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence and in the case of Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and the committee which he headed, greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets. Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence, a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as "El Levantamiento de Ciales" or the "Ciales Uprising of 1898" and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic. The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising. Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions were in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders.
As stated in the introduction, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA's and prisoners. The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 18,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wounded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded. The commander of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion, Julio Cervera Baviera gained notoriety as the author of a pamphlet called "La defensa de Puerto Rico", which supported Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado and in an attempt to justify Spain's defeat against the United States, blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army as the reason behind the fiasco. A group of angry "Sanjuaneros" agreed to challenge Cervera to a duel if the commander did not retract his pamphlet. The men drew lots for this honor; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by Cayetano Coll y Toste y Leonidas Villalón. Cervera's seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera. The duel never took place, as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet, and all parties were satisfied.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on April 11, 1899, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the Western Hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain. Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed "Porto Rico Regiment". Some took the offer, such as Teófilo Marxuach, a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment, and others, such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.
"Americanization" of Puerto Rico.
From 1898 to 1900, Puerto Rico was governed by four military officers, Commanding General Nelson A. Miles (1898), Major General John R. Brooke (1898–1898), Major General Guy Vernon Henry (1898–1899) and Major General George Whitefield Davis (1899–1900). Some of these men, such as Miles, Brooke and Henry were experienced veterans of the Indian Wars and, even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the Native Americans, the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories. Henry stated: "It was an entirely new duty for American Army officers. There was no precedent in the experience of these so suddenly placed in charge of this our first real colony, upon which their policy could be based."
The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the United States Department of War's Division of Insular Affairs which was molded after the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Almost immediately, the United States began the "Americanization" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an "unincorporated territory" which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.
In 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island's schools and only English should be taught. Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.
On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the island's currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar, integrating the island's currency into the U.S. monetary system. The United States exerted its control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.
Civil disorder.
A state of civil disorder existed in the island's mountainous region after the invasion of the United States. The local Criollo, who now found themselves unemployed and felt that they had been exploited by their former employers, formed bands called 'Partidas". The Partidas, at first attacked and robbed many of the wealthy plantation owners, who were loyal to the Spanish Crown, in vengeance, however they later began to attack the businesses owned by the local natives. One of the most notable leaders of the Partidas was José Maldonado Román a.k.a. 'Aguila Blanca". Maldonado, who operated in the areas of Juana Díaz and Ponce, harassed the Spanish Civil Guard and later did the same to the American Forces. Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder on the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops who were stationed on the island. These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers. Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly, under the influence of alcohol, and get into fights with the local residents. The state of civil disorder came to a halt on the island after the military government began to rebuild Puerto Rico's infrastructure, thereby providing employment for many of the discontented and unemployed population, and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular Army.
End of military rule and rise of the sugar economy.
Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the Foraker Act of 1900. However, the Act stipulated that the governor, chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans.
In 1901, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico, Charles Herbert Allen, installed himself as president of the largest sugar-refining company in the world, the American Sugar Refining Company. This company was later renamed as the Domino Sugar company. In effect, Charles Allen leveraged his governorship of Puerto Rico into a controlling interest over the entire Puerto Rican economy.
54 years after the end of the Puerto Rico campaign.
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor, which it first exercised in 1948. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, and approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year. Puerto Rico adopted the name of "Estado Libre Asociado" (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic.
Markers, monuments and tombstones.
In Puerto Rico there are no monuments to commemorate the Spanish–American War as such. There are various markers where some of the historical events took place and some tombstones which honor both the American invaders and the Spanish and Puerto Rican defenders of the island. In the town of Guánica there is a rock on the coastal port with an inscription indicating that Major General Nelson A. Miles and his men landed on that spot. There is also a monument in the town dedicated to the veterans of the Spanish–American War, however said monument fails to specify to which veterans it is dedicated to, the Americans or the Spanish/Puerto Ricans. In Yauco there is a monument/tombstone dedicated to an unknown Spanish soldier who had fallen in combat and was left there on that very spot. In Coamo there are two markers that indicate where Rafael Martínez Illescas and Frutos López died. López's tomb is located in the old cemetery of Coamo next to that of the tomb of the three unknown Puerto Rican soldiers who perished in that conflict. Martínez Illescas' body was transferred in 1916, to his hometown Cartagena in Spain where he is buried. The town of Guayama has a monument dedicated to the members of the 4th Ohio Infantry. In Asomante, there is a marker which indicates the place where the "Battle of Asomante" took place.


Juan de Zavala

Juan de Zavala y de la Puente, 1st Marquess of Sierra Bullones (Lima, Peru, 27 December 1804 – Madrid, Spain, 29 December 1879) was a Spanish noble and politician. After fighting in the First Carlist War, the Marquess served as Prime Minister of Spain.
He was the son of the Peruvian Pedro José de Zavala y Bravo de Rivero, 7th Marquess of San Lorenzo, and Grimanesa de la Puente y Bravo de Lagunas, marchioness de la Puente.
Marriage and issue.
He married on 1839 María del Pilar de Guzmán, 24ht Duchess of Nájera, and had five children:


Battle of Villinghausen

The Battle of Villinghausen (or Vellinghausen, also known as the Battle of Kirchdenkern) was a battle in the Seven Years' War fought on the 15th and 16 July 1761 in the western area of present-day Germany, between a large French army and a combined Prussian-Hanoverian-British force led by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick.
Background.
Two French armies, under two Marshals, Duc de Broglie and Prince de Soubise met up in July 1761, intending to force Prince Ferdinand out of Lippstadt, an important town. Allied reinforcements under General Spörcken arrived bringing Ferdinand's forces up to 65,000 while the combined French armies numbered around 90,000.
Battle.
The allied Prussian-Hanoverian-British forces lined up along a series of hills, with their left anchored by the Lippe River (in the north), and the Ahse River in their centre. The French army advanced on 15 July, and Broglie's troops in the north made progress against German troops under Wutginau. However, British troops under Granby just south of Wutginau held their ground and the French assault stalled. Reinforcements for both sides arrived that night and Ferdinand strengthened his left at the expense of his right.
The next morning, Broglie continued his attack on the Allied left, expecting Soubise to attack the weakened Allied right. However, Soubise only ordered a few small actions against the right, due in part that both French commanders were the same rank and reluctant to take orders from the other. Allied reinforcements under Wolff soon arrived along the Lippe River and attacked the French flank, halting Broglie's attack and forcing his men to withdraw. By about noon, the French were in full retreat and the battle was over.
Aftermath.
News of the battle provoked euphoria in Britain, and led William Pitt to take a much tougher line in the ongoing peace negotiations with France. Despite the defeat the French still had a significant superiority in numbers and continued their offensive, although the two armies split again and operated independently. Despite further attempts to push an offensive strategy in Germany, the French were pushed back and finished the war in 1762 having lost the strategic post of Cassel. The Treaty of Paris led France to evacuate the remaining German territory it had occupied during the war.


Lancaster House Treaties

The Lancaster House Treaties of 2010 are two treaties between the United Kingdom and France for defence and security cooperation. They were signed at 10 Downing Street on 2 November 2010 by British prime minister David Cameron and French President Nicolas Sarkozy.
Downing Street Declaration.
The 2 November 2010 Downing Street declaration by President Sarkozy and Prime Minister Cameron. The elements of this declaration are as follows.
Operations and training.
Combined Joint Expeditionary Force.
It was decided to develop a Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF) suitable for a wide range of scenarios, up to and including high intensity operations. It will involve all three armed Services: there will be a land component composed of formations at national brigade level, maritime and air components with their associated Headquarters, and logistics and support functions. It will not involve standing forces but will be available at notice for bilateral, NATO, European Union, United Nations or other operations. It will begin with combined air and land exercises during 2011 and will develop the concept before the next UK-France Summit and progress towards full capability in subsequent years. The Force is intended to stimulate greater interoperability and coherence in military doctrine, training and equipment requirements.
Aircraft carriers.
The UK had earlier announced its decision to install catapults and arresting gear on its new aircraft carriers (then under construction) which French aircraft would be capable of using, creating opportunities for UK and French aircraft to operate off carriers from both countries. Building primarily on maritime task group co-operation around the French carrier "Charles de Gaulle", the UK and France would have aimed to have, by the early 2020s, the ability to deploy a UK-French integrated carrier strike group incorporating assets owned by both countries. This was to ensure that the Royal Navy and the French Navy would work in the closest co-ordination. The decision to install the catapults and arresting gear was later reversed.
Equipment and capabilities.
They agreed cooperation in the following areas.
A400M support and training.
The two governments are committed to develop a joint support plan for future A400Ms ordered by the two countries. The aim is to reduce costs, improve aircraft availability and develop future cooperation in the fields of maintenance, logistics and training. In 2014, the Defense Equipment and Support (DE&S) and the Direction Générale de l’Armement (DGA), through OCCAR (Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en matière d'Armement / Organisation for Joint Armament Co-operation), awarded Airbus with a Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) contract.
Submarine technologies and systems.
The two countries plan to develop jointly some of the equipment and technologies for the next generation of nuclear submarines.
Maritime mine countermeasures.
The Franco-British mine warfare program, called MMCM (Maritime Mine Counter Measures), was notified in March 2015 by the DE&S and the DGA. It associates BAE Systems and Thales as well as their subcontractors, including ECA, ASV, Saab and Kongsberg. “It will provide a demonstration of systems and equipment to defeat sea-mines using remotely-operated, unmanned marine vehicles and sensors."
The contract provides for the delivery of a system to each of the navies in April 2020.
Satellite communications.
The aim of this collaboration is to complete a joint concept study in 2011 for the next satellites to enter into service between 2018 and 2022.
Air to air refuelling and passenger air transport.
The British government will investigate the potential to use spare capacity that may be available in the UK's Future Strategic Tanker Aircraft (FSTA) programme to meet the needs of France for air to air refuelling and military air transport.
Unmanned air systems.
The two countries pledge to work together to develop a new generation of Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) surveillance drones.
In 2011, BAE Systems and Dassault Aviation signed an MoU aimed at developing a MALE drone called Telemos. The industrial sharing defined by the two manufacturers gave BAE the project management on the aircraft and its integration while Dassault was responsible for the systems. This project was abandoned in 2013.
On 16 February 2012, France and the United Kingdom signed a letter of intent relating to the joint study of military drones, thus launching the FCAS-DP project (future combat air system - demonstration program) which should make it possible to develop a combat drone or UCAV (unmanned combat aerial vehicle). The manufacturers involved are BAE and Dassault as aircraft manufacturers, Rolls-Royce and Snecma for the engine and Selex and Thales for sensors and communications. A new step was taken in 2014 with the signing of a declaration of intent to launch a feasibility phase lasting 24 months. At the end of the latter, the British finally decided not to follow up on this project.
A 10-year strategic plan for the British and French Complex Weapons sector.
London and Paris pledged to support the establishment of a "single European industrial prime contractor" to streamline the missile sector. The two countries agreed to "mutual dependence" while preserving their respective strategic autonomy. The aim was to reduce development costs and optimise investments: the approach aimed at reducing costs by around 30% at the European missile company MBDA.
In March 2017, the French and British defence procurement ministers signed an agreement to launch a three-year concept phase for the development of a new long-range missile intended for the Navy and Air Force of each country. The two nations pledged to contribute a total of 100 million euros to complete the study as well as to pool their technologies and test facilities. Called FC/ASW (Future Cruise/Anti-Ship Weapon), the programme should enable the replacement of the Harpoon, Exocet, Storm Shadow and SCALP missiles.
In September 2015, the two nation's defence ministers signed an agreement to implement Centers of Excellence in the missile sector. These technical centers were designed to limit technological redundancies by distributing technical skills and expertise between the two parties. The technologies developed in this context are then integrated into the various MBDA programmes. This makes it possible to rationalise development costs thanks to industrial integration and to guarantee the sustainability of industrial capabilities on both sides of the Channel while linking the two nations through "progressive and controlled interdependence".
The agreement was ratified by the French and British parliaments in October 2016 and provides for the opening of eight Centers of Excellence.
Cyber security.
France and the UK agreed a framework which will govern their enhanced co-operation in this area, leading to strengthened individual and common resilience.
Data Exchange.
The two governments are committed to facilitating the sharing of classified data relating to technologies developed jointly as well as certain operations at the operational level. These exchanges must not, however, be against national security.
Counter-terrorism.
To develop co-operation in the following areas:
International security.
France and UK agreed that they would pursue closer co-operation across the board between NATO and the EU, and a lasting partnership between NATO and Russia based on practical co-operation and reciprocity.
34th Franco-British Summit.
A follow up meeting occurred on 3 March 2016, with further pledges on counter terrorism, military defence, civil nuclear work and migration.
Relationship to European Union Defence Policy.
Several lines of the treaties allude to the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy.
Through the treaties, the parties agree that they are "reaffirming their commitment to supporting the role of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy". The parties agree to deploy together in theatres agreed under the auspices of EU Common Defence and Security Policy. The parties also agree that the treaties "ensure their support for action in the European Union under the Common Security and Defence Policy".
However the treaties are bilateral between the UK and France and do not have a formal link with the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy. Although the treaties mention close defence industrial cooperation, they do not directly mention the European Defence Agency or EU defence industrial programmes and directives which are included under the auspices of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy because many of these were not initiated until after the treaties were signed. For example, the treaties do not make reference to the Lisbon Treaty’s Permanent Structured Cooperation programme which was not instituted until 2017.


Battle of Vystavka

The Battle of Vystavka was the defense of the village of Vystavka and several neighboring villages by Allied forces against a series of attacks from the Red Army during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in late January-early March, 1919.
After the defeat in the Battle of Shenkursk, the Allied garrison at Shenkursk first fell back to Shegovary some 25 miles downriver and then 25 more miles to Vystavka, reaching it on January 27. They prepared defenses and withstood several Red Army attacks over the course of the next several weeks. In early March, after heavy bombardment by Bolsheviks, the Allies fell back 5 more miles downstream to Kitsa. At this moment the Red Army stopped their offensive on the Vaga River front. It was the final engagement of the Russian Civil War to involve Canadian forces, though clashes continued with other allied countries.


St. Mihiel American Cemetery and Memorial

The St. Mihiel American Cemetery and Memorial is located at the west edge of Thiaucourt (Meurthe-et-Moselle), France. The cemetery contains the graves of 4,153 American military dead from World War I. The majority of these died in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, an offensive that resulted in the reduction of the St. Mihiel salient that threatened Paris.
Cemetery.
In the late 1920s, the architect Thomas Harlan Ellett, in collaboration with the sculptor Paul Manship, designed the architectural features of the cemetery, including a memorial peristyle with fluted Doric columns, and flanking it, a chapel and a museum. The project was approved by the National Commission of Fine Arts by 1930, and completed in 1934.
The burial area is divided into four equal quadrants by paths lined with linden trees, at the center of which is a large sundial surmounted by an American eagle. A statue of a World War I soldier, sculpted by Paul Manship, stands at the end of the western axis, while a semi-circular overlook with a sculpted victory vase marks the end of the eastern axis. The American Battle Monuments Commission administers the cemetery.
Memorial.
A large rose-granite urn sits at the center of the white marble peristyle, embellished with sculpted drapery and a winged horse symbolizing the flight of the immortal soul to the afterlife.
Inside the museum, an inlaid marble map created by the mosaic artist Barry Faulkner depicts the St. Mihiel offensive. The surrounding walls are inscribed with the names of 284 missing soldiers, with rosettes to mark the names of those whose remains were later recovered and identified.
The chapel's floor is inlaid with green marble, and its coffered ceiling decorated with gilt Napoleonic bees. Above an ivory-tinted altar, a mosaic depicts St. Michael the Archangel, sheathing his sword, flanked by a pair of doves of peace holding olive twigs. Mosaic shields display the colors of the United States and France.


Battle of Alcolea Bridge

The Battle of Alcolea Bridge was a minor battle that took place on 7 June 1808, during the Peninsular War, at Alcolea, a small village 10 km from Córdoba, the city that would be invaded by French troops later that same afternoon.
Battle.
It is significant in that it was the first staged battle against regular Spanish troops that General Pierre Dupont de l'Étang fought in Andalusia after having left Toledo on 24 May, heading for Cádiz, with 18,000 troops. Although successive movements of French troops would be harried by Spanish guerrilleros fighting along the way, on both sides of the Sierra Morena and in the steep gorge (defile) of Despeñaperros that separates Castile-La Mancha (including Madrid) and Andalusia, Dupont met with no resistance there.
At Alcolea, some 3,000 regular troops, accompanied by some armed civilians, tried, unsuccessfully, to stop the Dupont's vastly superior forces at the bridge over the Guadalquivir and were forced to retreat to Córdoba. Dupont went on to capture Córdoba that same day, his troops ransacking the city over four days.
The seventy troops Dupont had left to protect the bridge were later massacred by guerrillas led by Juan de la Torre, the mayor of the town of Montoro.
One of the Spanish soldiers who fought at Alcolea was Pedro Agustín Girón, who would later become a minister of war, and who would also accuse General Echávarri of not having personally participated.


Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch

The Rosedale Arch is dedicated to the men of Rosedale, a neighborhood district and former municipality on the southern edge of Kansas City, Kansas, who served in World War I. Inspired by the Arc de Triomphe, the Arch was designed by John LeRoy Marshall, a Rosedale resident, and dedicated in 1924. Located on Mount Marty, the flood-lighted arch is most easily visible at night from the intersection of Rainbow Boulevard and Southwest Boulevard. A historic marker was dedicated under the arch in 1993 to honor the soldiers of World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam War.
History.
A groundbreaking ceremony held on July 20, 1923, featuring French General Henri Gouraud, was more impressive than the opening ceremony after the arch was completed.


List of Swedish defence districts

This is a list of Swedish defence districts. The Swedish defence district (, Fo) was an administrative division of the Swedish Armed Forces, and was a lower regional level subdivision, usually corresponding to a Swedish county. The commander of a defence district was the Defence District Commander, who usually commanded local defence units, including infantry, engineers, air defence and light artillery, as well as any Home Guard units in the district. The commander answered to the larger military district that the defence district was part of.


226th Mixed Brigade (Spain)

The 226th Mixed Brigade (), was a mixed brigade of the Spanish Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War. Part of its forces had belonged to the former Bautista Garcet Battalion, which had distinguished itself in the combats of the Córdoba offensive at the beginning of the Civil War. Its formation began in August 1937 in Catalonia, but it was delayed for a long time, the brigade not becoming fully operational until 1938. It had four battalions, the 901, 902, 903 and 904.
History.
Following a long delay, the 226th Mixed Brigade was finally established on 22 April 1938 and placed under the 42nd Division of the XV Army Corps, at the time part of the Agrupación Autónoma del Ebro (A.A.E.). The command of the unit was assigned to Militia Major Antonio Ortiz Roldán. The political commissar was José Carmona Requena.
The bloodbath at the Auts.
At the onset of the Battle of the Ebro on 25 July 1938 two of the brigade's battalions crossed the Ebro River 2 km to the east of Mequinensa —being one of the first units to cross the river, following which the remainder of the brigade joined them arriving finally to the area of Gilabert after heavy combats. The brigade continued battling the rebel faction between Fayón and Mequinensa, especially at the Fayón-Mequinensa-Fabara road junction, finally being able to occupy the Auts, a semi-arid hilly area east of a bend on the Ebro River. Located at the northern end in the pocket formed on the right bank of the Ebro between Mequinensa and Amposta, the occupation of the Auts was hailed as a strategic success. However, while at the Auts the unit suffered intense aerial bombardment on 29 July and it came under heavy artillery fire between the 4 and 5 August, being prevented from advancing eastwards to capture the towns of Fayón and Mequinensa. Finally the trapped and much battered brigade withdrew from the Auts and crossed back the Ebro river on 6 August, after having suffered a great number of casualties. Two of the battalions of the 226th Mixed Brigade distinguished themselves in the bloody combats of the Auts Hills, the First Battalion (901), under Major Jaramillo, and the Fourth Battalion (904) under a Major nicknamed "Dinamita" (Dynamite).
After covering some of the many casualties the brigade returned to the bridgehead in order to give a much-needed reinforcement to the 45th Division on 20 September, moving to Hill 496 of the Serra de Cavalls. Later it was relocated to the defence of Miravet town, which was lost to enemy forces on 4 November. Together with the also much-battered 227th Mixed Brigade it arrived to Benissanet on 5 November and camped at Mount Picossa by Móra d'Ebre on 7 November. On 12 November the brigade made its last stand of resistance against the rebels at Ascó, but it finally had to withdraw in the face of the vehemence and strength of the enemy onslaught.
Withdrawal and extinction of the brigade.
After the Battle of the Ebro ended badly for the Republican forces the 226th Mixed Brigade was concentrated in La Granadella under the command of Militia Major José de la Fuente Álvarez. When the Catalonia Offensive began, the brigade withdrew to the Serra de Prades. On 5 January 1939 it was reported to be defending the roads leading to Vinaixa. By 13 January it was at the Coll de Prenafeta and Coll de Cabra mountain passes. On 14 January it reached Alcover and on 15 the Gaià River line.
While retreating northwards the brigade offered some resistance at Vilafranca del Penedès. On 25 January in the evening the remainder of the 226th Mixed Brigade gathered at the Tibidabo Mountain over Barcelona, but all new recruits disappeared the following morning as the fall of the city was imminent.
While withdrawing towards France on 7 February the brigade was able to reunite with some disperse troops in the banks of the Fluvià River, retreating further northwards to the line of the Muga River while searching for the protection of natural obstacles in the face of the relentless enemy advance. Finally, on 9 February, what remained of the defeated and exhausted 226th Mixed Brigade crossed the French border at Portbou.


Battle of Agua Carta

The Battle of Agua Carta, or the Battle of Lindo Lugar, was an engagement between the National Guard of Nicaragua and the rebels of Augusto César Sandino in 1932.
It was fought near Mount Kilambe at the Agua Carta, a river in Sandino territory, as part of the American occupation of Nicaragua and a long lasting civil war.
Battle.
Following America's return to Nicaragua in 1926, the United States Marines took command of the Nicaraguan National Guard to fight Sandino's rebels and an occupation began which lasted for several years. In early September, First Lieutenant Chesty Puller discovered a trail which seemed to be the route used by the rebels in their southward thrusts. Chesty Puller returned to Jinotega and with Gunnery Sergeant William "Ironman" Lee organized a strong force of forty guards for a raid like patrol against the rebels. Because both Puller and Lee were technically part of the National Guard, Puller assumed the rank of captain and Lee a first lieutenant. The Nicaraguan national guard force under the command of Puller and Lee left on September 20. After traveling a distance, the patrol moved northwest from the bank of the Auyabal river. On September 26, 1932, the patrol was ambushed by a volley of rifle fire. Ambushes at river crossings were very common during the occupation so Captain Puller and his guards had no trouble in fending off the attack. A quick charge sent the attackers scurrying, for this was merely an attempt to harass the patrol. Lieutenant William A. Lee using a Lewis machine gun kept the enemy pinned down while the Nicaraguan guard worked their way up the slope opposite the rebel ambush party. When they gained the crest, they were able to fire directly into the rebel emplacements.
Puller's men had penetrated the center of a rebel encampment , seemingly killing sixteen of the enemy in the process. However, only ten rebels were counted dead and at least ten others escaped wounded. Of the guards two men were killed and four wounded. To obtain medical care for his wounded, Puller immediately withdrew back toward Jinotega. On the return to Jinotega, Puller's patrol was ambushed twice but suffered no further casualties and instead the Nicaraguan guard under Puller killed eight more rebels. Puller's patrol force arrived back at Jinotega on September 30 after their raid on the rebel encampment. Captain Puller received his second Navy Cross of five and later became a general in the United States Marine Corps. First Lieutenant Lee who received some wounds in this operation survived and also received a Navy Cross. on September 30.


Ebba Stenbock

Ebba Gustavsdotter Stenbock (ca. 1550 - 1614, in Finland) was a Swedish noble. She led the defense of the stronghold Turku Castle for the loyalist of Sigismund III Vasa during the Siege by Charles IX of Sweden in succession of her spouse Clas Eriksson Fleming, (1530-1597), governor of Finland. The sister of queen Katarina Stenbock, she married Clas Eriksson Fleming, (1530-1597), governor of Finland, in 1573.
Life.
Ebba Stenbock was the daughter of riksråd and Brita Eriksdotter Leijonhufvud, and the sister of Queen Catherine Stenbock. She was the niece of Queen Margareta Leijonhufvud, and thereby the cousin of the royal children of that marriage, including the future John III of Sweden and Charles IX of Sweden. In 1573, she married Clas Eriksson Fleming in the house of her sister, the Queen Dowager in Stockholm, and moved with him to Finland. She had three children during her marriage: the daughters Katarina, Hebla and Margareta, and her son Johan Fleming. In 1594, her spouse was appointed Governor-General of Finland.
Ebba Stenbock was noted for her fearless conduct toward Duke Charles. In the civil war the erupted in 1595 when Sigismund III Vasa was challenged by his uncle, the future Charles IX of Sweden, her spouse was one of the strongest supporters of Sigismund III Vasa and opposed to Charles IX of Sweden, and held the Swedish province of Finland against Duke Charles. In parallel, the Cudgel War erupted in Finland in 1596.
Cudgel War.
In April 1597, after having subdued the Cudgel War and preparing to resist the expected invasion of Duke Charles, Fleming died. He was succeeded as governor by Arvid Stålarm the Younger, but Ebba took over the moral leadership and decided to continue the line of her spouse and defend Turku Castle against the army of Duke Charles with the help of two noble officers, who took the military leadership by her side. She prepared the castle for a siege awaiting relief from King Sigismund in Poland. In August 1597, Duke Charles and his army invaded Finland, took Åland, which was the fief of her sister Queen Dowager Catherine, and besieged Turku Castle. He offered the women of the Castle safe passage through the lines, including Ebba, but was given no reply. During the siege, he fire through the windows of the castle to frighten the female entourage of Ebba, but: "They would not allow themselves to be afraid, as Lady Ebba spoke to them both nobility and the rest, who were there with her, that they should keep themselves manly", that is to say, that they should sow courage. Ebba was eventually forced to surrender, as no help from Poland arrived.
Fleming was still not buried, and, according to legend, Charles had the coffin opened to reassure himself that Fleming was indeed dead. After having identified the face of Fleming, he was to have pulled Fleming's beard with the words, "If you had been alive, your head would not have been safe", upon which Ebba Stenbock replied, "If my late husband was alive, Your Grace would never have been here."
Later life.
Ebba and her daughters were taken prisoner and brought to Stockholm, where they were separated and placed in house arrest. Ebba was placed in a house belonging to Welam de Wijk, captain of Duke Charles' fleet, and in 1598, de Wijk was arrested for attempt to start a mutiny, encouraged by Ebba, who had promised him marriage to one of her daughters. In 1599, a messenger of Sigismund from Finland was arrested in Stockholm, with Ebba as one of the loyalists he had delivered letters to. Her son was executed in the Åbo Bloodbath the same year. No formal accusation was brought against her, and she and her daughters were released after the Linköping Bloodbath. Like many other wives and daughters of the exiled loyalists to Sigismund, whose estates had been confiscated by Charles, they took refuge with Queen Dowager Catherine Stenbock at Strömsholm.


Milwaukee County War Memorial

The Milwaukee County War Memorial is a memorial building located on Lake Michigan in Milwaukee, WI. It was designed by architect Eero Saarinen. Construction began in 1955 and the building was dedicated on Veterans Day in 1957.
The mosaic mural by Edmund D. Lewandowski was installed in 1959. The mosaic uses more than one million pieces of glass and marble. The slightly-abstracted Roman numerals, in shades of purple, blue, and rich black, are the beginning and ending dates of the U.S. involvement in the Second World War and the Korean War . MCMXLI (1941) through MCMXLV (1945) refers to World War II, and MCML (1950) through MCMLIII (1953) refers to the Korean War.


Norfolk Militia

The Norfolk Militia was formed under the Militia Act of 1757, replacing earlier less formal arrangements. From this date, better records were kept, and the men were selected by ballot to serve for longer periods. Proper uniforms and better weapons were provided, and the force was 'embodied' from time to time for training sessions.
In 1758 the Earl of Orford put the "Act for the better regulating of the Militia" into execution. This set the number of men to serve in the militia in Norfolk at 960, with the city of Norwich providing 151. The Norfolk Militia was divided into the 1st Battalion Western Regiment of the Norfolk Militia (West Norfolk Militia) and the 2nd Battalion Eastern Regiment of the Norfolk Militia (East Norfolk Militia). Between 1797 and 1798 there was also a 3rd Battalion of the Norfolk Militia, but this was not re-raised in 1803.
The East Norfolk Militia was, jointly with the West Norfolk, the first regiment formed under the Bill of 1757, and was also recognised as the first to offer to "march wherever they might be most serviceable to the public defence." Consideration was given by King George II "that every mark of his Royal Favour should be shown to this Corps" and that they "should be distinguished by the title of Militia Royal".
History.
On 4 June 1759 the Eastern Battalion was reviewed by the Earl of Orford on Magdalen Fairstead, just outside Norwich. The event was reported in the press, with the conduct of the men being praised and a statement that the unit could now be ready to march given four days notice. The establishment of the unit was given as 1 Colonel, 1 Lt. Colonel, 1 Major, 11 Captains, 11 Lieutenants, 8 Ensigns, 1 Adjutant, 24 Sergeants, 24 drummers and 466 rank and file.
On Wednesday 4 July 1759 both battalions began a march from Norwich to Portsmouth barracks, to accept orders from Major General Holmes. Marching via Beccles, Ipswich, Colchester, Islington, and Petersfield, they arrived at Portsmouth on Tuesday 24 July. During the march, they were reviewed by King George II at Kensington Palace. Due to the heat, they set off soon after midnight, but were described as being in good spirits. By August the divisions were alternately guarding prisoners of war and undergoing training exercises.
The Militia moved around the country from this point; they were quartered in Cirencester on 5 July 1760, but moved back to guard prisoners in Norfolk in July. On 28 May 1761 King George awarded the two battalions of the Norfolk Militia a "Warrant for Colours". In November the East Norfolk Militia was ordered to Fakenham, then to remain at Wells and Walsingham for the duration of the Fakenham Fair.
In 1759, "A Plan of Discipline Composed for the Use of the Militia of the County of Norfolk" was published by William Windham & George Townshend. This text, written for the use of officers in this English rural militia unit, went on to become one of the most important drill manuals employed during the American Revolution.
Irish service.
In September 1798 all of the officers and most of the rank and file volunteered for service in Ireland during the Rebellion.
Eight hundred men of the West Norfolk Militia were serving in Ireland in 1815 and 1816, and aspects of this were dramatised in the writings of George Borrow's book Lavengro, with Borrow's father having served as a Captain in the unit.
Prisoner shooting.
In 1799 the East Norfolk Militia was escorting French prisoners of war from Yarmouth to Norman Cross. The bell tower of Dereham church was employed as a makeshift overnight cell for these prisoners. Jean De Narde, a 28-year lieutenant and son of a notary from St. Malo, escaped from the tower, but could not leave the churchyard due to posted sentries.
Being unable to escape, De Narde chose to hide in a tree; but his absence was noted and he was soon discovered by a sergeant. De Narde ignored orders to surrender and the sergeant shot him dead. The local people of Dereham were ashamed of this killing and a monument was built by public subscription.
A memorial service for Jean De Narde was held at Dereham church on 23 July 2016, including a re-enactment of the shooting and a minute's silence. A short documentary on the subject of the shooting was released in 2017.
1805 invasion scare.
In 1805, after Britain had declared war on France on 18 May 1803, Napoleon turned his attention to invading England, and started to assemble an expeditionary force at Boulogne. With the British Isles threatened with invasion, the Norfolk Militia were ordered to join the Southern District (Sussex), which covered Kent east of the River Cray and Holwood Hill; Sussex; and Tilbury Fort in Essex. The GOC was Gen Sir David Dundas, Lt Gen The Earl of Chatham. Headquarters were in Canterbury.
The East and West Norfolk Militia regiments were placed, along with the Nottinghamshire Regiment of Militia, into the Infantry Brigade of Maj Gen Alexander Mackenzie Fraser, headquartered in Winchelsea, with the 712 men of the West Norfolk Militia (under Lt Col George Nelthorpe) and 698 men of the East Norfolk Militia (under Lt Col George Berney Brograve, Bt.) being barracked at Clifford Camp.
POW duties and Norman Cross Depot.
A purpose-built prisoner of war camp, the first of its type, was provided at Norman Cross, near Peterborough. The Norfolk Militia became heavily involved in the transit of prisoners from Yarmouth to the camp, and in the operation of the latter. Lieutenant Thomas Borrow of the West Norfolk Militia, father of author George Borrow, was quartered at Norman Cross from July 1811 to April 1813 and George spent his ninth and tenth years in the barracks there.
Disembodiment and peace.
The Militia was disembodied at Great Yarmouth in 1814, and was not called out again until 1820.
In April 1853 612 men of the West Norfolk Militia, under Col. the Earl of Orford, mustered in Norwich at the Swan Hotel. During this muster they were subjected to verbal attacks by members of the Peace Society and "Liberals". 571 out of the 612 men enrolled in the East Norfolk Militia assembled at Great Yarmouth on the same date under Col. the Hon. Berkeley Wodehouse. It was noted that, “Their appearance was much more respectable than might have been expected, and many of those who were prepared to ridicule them acknowledged that they were a much better class than they expected.”
The East Norfolk Militia was presented with new colours on 16 May 1854, and these were still being carried in 1898. These were presented at a public ceremony held on South Denes, Great Yarmouth, that was attended by 10,000 persons, including civic dignitaries. The day concluded with a ball held at Great Yarmouth Town Hall, which had been decorated with the new colours, mirrors and stars formed of bayonets.
An order for the provision of Militia barracks at Great Yarmouth was made in 1853. Originally it was intended to base all three regiments of the Norfolk Militia at Great Yarmouth, but on February 25 the original resolution was rescinded, and it was agreed “that the present Committee be empowered to receive estimates and tenders for building barracks for one regiment of Militia at Norwich, and for one regiment of Militia and one regiment of artillery at Yarmouth, on such plans as they may think best suited for the purpose.” In 1855 it was noted that the government intended to convert the arsenal at Yarmouth to create Gorleston Barracks, a facility for the two field officers, 15 sergeants and 408 men of the East Norfolk Militia, with the old Great Yarmouth barracks having been converted into an Admiralty hospital.
In 1856, the East Norfolk Militia left Great Yarmouth by train, travelling to an encampment at Colchester. At Colchester railway station they were met by the band of the Royal Essex Rifles. The strength at this time was recorded as 1 Major, 13 officers, 3 sergeants and 415 men.
June 1856 saw the left wing of the West Norfolk Militia return to Norwich from Fermoy, County Cork; the right wing reached the city on the 26th.
On April 23 the units at Colchester, including the East Norfolk Militia, were reviewed by Prince Albert, but June 4 saw orders issued for the East Norfolk Militia to return to Great Yarmouth for disembodiment.
On 20 May 1861, the East Norfolk Militia were involved in a serious military riot at Yarmouth, against men of the Royal Artillery. It was reported in the "Norfolk Chronicle" that this riot included the use of belts and stones, and that 200 Artillerymen, armed with swords and knives issued from the arsenal, had to be prevented from joining the fight by "persuasion and threats". The report says that officers from both corps were involved in ending the riot, and that guards had to be placed on the bridge to keep the Artillery out of Yarmouth and the Militia from crossing into Southtown.
Norfolk Artillery Militia.
In 1853 the Norfolk Militia Artillery was formed from detachments of West and East Norfolk Militia. 52 men transferred from the East Norfolk Militia. The Norfolk Artillery Militia were assigned garrison duty at Eastbourne from March 7 - April 25, 1855. Their strength was increased from 200 to 400 men in May.
The Norfolk Artillery Militia were granted barracks in All Saints Green, Norwich from around 1860, these consisting of Ivory House, a parade ground and stables. These barracks remained in use until the late 1920s
The Prince of Wales became Honorary Colonel of the Artillery Militia in 1871, and the Great Yarmouth Assembly Rooms became frequently used as the Officer's Mess, whilst artillery practice was conducted on South Denes. In 1883 Lt. Colonel Lord Suffield and Major Edward Southwold Trafford purchased the building on behalf of the Artillery Militia, and the building remained under the Militia's ownership until 1918 (after which it became a Masonic Lodge).
In 1880 the unit was renamed the 1st Norfolk Artillery Volunteers, then 2nd Brigade Eastern District Royal Artillery (Prince of Wales' Own Norfolk Militia Artillery) in 1882 and, in 1902, becoming the 1st Norfolk Royal Garrison Artillery (Volunteers).
In 1901, during the Second Anglo-Boer War, five officers and 134 Other Ranks from the Prince of Wales's Own Norfolk Royal Garrison Artillery (Militia) were sent to Cape Town, from which they were split up for garrison duty on armoured trains Wasp, Challenger, Bulldog and Blackhalta, among other duties including Military Intelligence and escort duties for the Royal Engineers. The Special Service Company of the Militia was commanded by Colonel Thomas Coke, 3rd Earl of Leicester, who had served in the Scots Guards until 1892.
Thorpe rail disaster, 1874.
Two serving members of the West Norfolk Militia, Sgt Major Frederick Cassell and Sgt Robert Ward, are recorded to have been killed in the Thorpe rail accident whilst returning from a fishing trip. Their bodies were recovered and they were buried with full military honours. Robert Ward had previously been part of the Coldstream Guards.
Uniform.
The uniform of the East Norfolk Militia was scarlet turned up with black. An early sketch by Lord Townshend, published in "A Plan of Discipline Composed for the Use of the Militia of the County of Norfolk" in 1759, shows a Private wearing a simple uniform of cocked hat, jacket, breeches and shoes worn without gaiters. A cross belt and waist belt, with bayonet, are worn over the single-breasted jacket, with the latter secured by a single button close to the collar, two at the chest and three at the waist.
Long boots were discontinued, except for mounted officers, on 12 April 1814. On 22 June 1820 epaulettes, buttons and ornaments of dress were changed from gold to silver, although serving officers were permitted to retain their old style of uniform unless called on for actual service. In January 1831 the old uniform was finally discontinued, with orders that all uniforms must meet the latest King's Regulations and include black velvet and silver epaulettes.
Gold lace was restored to the East Norfolk Militia on 5 June 1882, at the same time as the badge of the then 4th Battalion Norfolk Regiment was changed from the castle and lion to the figure of Britannia.
Commanding officers.
1st Battalion, West Norfolk Militia.
The following is a list of the known commanding officers of the West Norfolk Militia up to the 1881 re-organisation.
2nd Battalion, East Norfolk Militia.
The following is a list of the commanding officers of the East Norfolk Militia up to the 1881 re-organisation.
3rd Battalion.
At this time no additional information has been found on this unit.
Prince of Wales Own Norfolk Artillery Militia.
Raised 1852, drawing from both the East and West Norfolk Militia.
Successor units.
In 1881, following reorganisation of the British Army as part of the Childers Reforms, the West Norfolk Militia became the 3rd Battalion of the Norfolk Regiment, and the East Norfolk Militia became the 4th Battalion. Later titled the Royal Norfolk Regiment, it was amalgamated with the neighbouring Suffolk Regiment to form the 1st East Anglian Regiment. In 1964, the regiment became part of the Royal Anglian Regiment.
East Norfolk Militia (re-enactment group).
The East Norfolk Militia is a Napoleonic era re-enactment group, formed in 2000 to help celebrate the bicentenary of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson being awarded the Freedom of the borough of Great Yarmouth. In 2005 they took part in events to mark the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar at the Royal Norfolk Show. They perform ceremonial and guard duties for events in and around East Anglia. in addition to taking part in living history events, and took part in the bicentenary re-enactment of the Battle of Waterloo.


Battalion (Sweden)

A Swedish battalion during the mid 17th century up to the mid 18th century was the smallest tactical unit in combat. The 600 man unit was formed, temporarily, at the inception of a battle by joining four foot companies from a foot regiment of eight companies. The commander of the regiment, an Överste (Colonel), led the first battalion and his deputy, an Överstelöjtnant (Lieutenant Colonel), the second battalion. Battalion commanders and all other officers marched in front of the formation. Non-commissioned officers (underofficers) marched beside and behind to prevent desertion, and to replace officers who were killed. In addition to his principal duties, senior officers, such as Majors, the Överstelöjtnant and Överste, also commanded a company. So that the Överste could focus on the operations of his regiment and first battalion, command of his company was delegated to a Kaptenlöjtnant. During battle, each officer, except the Fänriks, was in charge of a portion of his company. Underofficer (NCO) ranks comprised Furir, Förare, Fältväbel, Sergeant and Rustmästare.
Tactics -- Infantry vs Infantry.
The formation marched toward the enemy, accompanied by drums, to within from the enemy's line. There, it halted for the third and fourth rows of musketeers to aim and open fire. The march continued some further and halted again for the first and second rows of musketeers to aim and open fire. The zombie like appearance of rapidly approaching Swedes, along with major casualties from the first and second blasts, should induce the enemy to panic and flee, allowing Swedish swords and pikes to kill enemies on the run. It was rare for opposing forces to engage each other in close combat with swords and pikes. Light artillery units were sometimes placed in the gap between battalions – a practice in use at the end of the Great Northern War.
Tactics - Infantry vs Cavalry.
An effective formation to counter cavalry attacks, was to line up the whole regiment into one huge battalion of six lines.
The first two lines consisted of musketeers, the second two of pikemen and the last two musketeers. In this formation, the Major was in charge of the center, the Överstelöjtnant the left wing and the Överste the right wing.