Mervin Vavasour

Mervin Vavasour (1821 – 27 March 1866) was a member of the Royal Engineers, one of the corps of the British Army.
Early life.
He was probably born at Fort George, Upper Canada in 1821, to Captain Henry William Vavasour of the Royal Engineers and Louisa Dunbar, daughter of Sir George Dunbar. He enrolled in the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, England in February 1837, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers on 19 March 1839. He was eventually sent to Montreal, arriving on 18 September 1841. In 1842, he was promoted to lieutenant.
Oregon mission.
In 1845–46, during the Oregon Boundary Dispute, Lieutenants Vavasour, and Henry Warre were dispatched on a mission to evaluate the logistics of a military campaign in the Columbia District (known then to Americans as the Oregon Country). This was done in response to a territorial dispute generally known as the Oregon Question, and the stated policy of President of the United States James K. Polk to expand into and control those territories along the west coast of North America, much of which the British contested as belonging to them. Vavasour and Warre travelled in the guise of civilian fur traders through territory controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), confidentially evaluating the strategic potency of both the land and the HBC's facilities. This information made its way back to London in 1846.
HBC officer Peter Skene Ogden traveled with the British officers and held a low opinion of Vavasour. In a letter written in April 1846 to Governor George Simpson, Odgen complained that Vavasour was "to the last hour a disagreeable Puppy and at times most disgusting particularly when under the influence of Brandy and Opium."

Despite the rhetoric neither Britain or USA wanted a third war in 70 years; and a war over the Oregon Country was averted by diplomacy when Britain gave up all claims to lands in the lower Columbia Basin and Puget Sound. Vavasour's report concluded that the British Army, if deployed in the region, would be faced with substantial obstacles. These included: their poor evaluation of the readiness of the HBC forts and other facilities for military uses, the significant number of American settlers crossing into the territory via the well established Oregon Trail, and the considerable obstacles posed by the Rocky Mountains to British supply lines.
Later career.
Vavasour sailed to England in October 1846, and served in the British Isles, being promoted to 2nd captain in 1849. He was later posted to the West Indies from 1851 to 1852. He went on half-pay in 1853.
Legacy.
Vavasour published his notes and the images drawn by Warre in "Sketches in North America and the Oregon Territory" (1849). From this comes some of the earliest European artistic renderings of the Rocky Mountains and also valuable records such as an 1846 plan diagram of Fort Edmonton to scale. This plan influenced the reconstruction of the fort as Fort Edmonton Park, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, in the 1960s.
There is also Mount Vavasour in Alberta, Canada, named for Vavasour in 1918; it is south of Mount Warre, named for Warre.
Vavasour Street, in Savona, B.C., is named after Mervin Vavasour as well.


Vanderbilt Orbis

Orbis is a student-produced publication at Vanderbilt University, which provides an outlet for a broad array of progressive, left-wing and minority voices on campus. In addition, "Orbis" is well known for investigative work that frequently covers topics overlooked or underreported in other campus media.
History.
"Orbis" was founded in 2001 by a group of Vanderbilt students who were motivated by what they perceived as surprisingly large and enthusiastic support on campus for Al Gore's presidential campaign, at what was widely perceived to be a conservative campus. Those students hoped to create an outlet for progressive and left-leaning views, and engaging progressive students in a common forum that would demonstrate the depth of progressive viewpoints on campus. They also hoped to foster an environment that would be more open to Vanderbilt's increasingly diverse student body.
Originally, "Orbis" was a bi-weekly publication, printed in a newspaper format. The articles focused on both national, local and campus issues, ranging from the September 11 terrorist attacks and citywide elections, to arts and entertainment, to issues affecting LGBT students and different ethnic and religious minority groups on campus. "Orbis" is managed and distributed on the campus of Vanderbilt University, but it is financially independent from the university's administration in important respects. "Orbis" is one of several publications supported by Vanderbilt Student Communications, a non-profit corporation which funds student-produced media on Vanderbilt's campus.
Beginning in 2005, "Orbis" underwent a series of major changes, including a re-vamp of the layout, moving to tabloid-size format, and longer issues. "Orbis" continues to adhere to this paradigm today. Issues typically consist of in-depth commentary pieces, investigative reporting on university politics (such as an April 2008 feature about the high number of rapes on Vanderbilt's campus), as well as reviews of films, books, and music from a progressive perspective. The staff of "Orbis" has also made a point since 2005 of making coverage of student movements (such as Vanderbilt's movement for a living wage) an important part of its content. Issues are released monthly throughout the academic year, resulting in the publication of eight issues per year. "Orbis"' current tagline is "Vanderbilt's Progressive Voice".
As of the 2013–2014 academic year, the paper took a hiatus from publication. In 2015, the paper resumed publication with an emphasis on environmental and investigative journalism.
Recognition.
In 2003, "The Nation" named "Orbis" one of "Ten Papers We Like."
In 2006, after undergoing significant changes in style, layout, and content, "Orbis" was named "Breakthrough Publication of the Year" by Campus Progress, a division of the Center for American Progress .


High Steel

High Steel is a 1966 short National Film Board of Canada documentary film directed by Don Owen about Mohawk Ironworkers from Kahnawake building New York City skycrapers.
Synopsis.
Featuring breathtaking sequences of workers walking along narrow steel beams high above street level, "High Steel" is based largely on the experiences of one Mohawk ironworker working in Manhattan, Harold McComber. The film contrasts the daring work of McComber and his coworkers in the skies above New York with life back home in Kahnawake. It also explains how the Mohawk people living across the Saint Lawrence River from Montreal first gained their reputation for high steel work in the late 19th century, working on a railway bridge that ran through their land. However, as the film recounts through narration and archival photos, such a reputation came at a terrible cost: while working on the Quebec Bridge further down river near Quebec City, dozens of Mohawks were among the 75 men killed during its 1907 construction collapse—with a devastating impact on the small community. While celebrating their courage and skill, the film also makes plain how Mohawks are forced to leave home in order to make a living, with McComber regretting that his sons have had to grow up without their father.
Production.
The film's director of photography was John Spotton, with Don Francks as narrator, Julian Biggs as producer, and with a song by Bruce Mackay, "Mountains of Iron and Steel" (replacing Gordon Lightfoot, who was originally supposed to have provided music). The film was shot using 35 mm cameras, with film crews having to gain access to the construction site high above the ground by traversing a ladder from an adjacent building.
Reception.
"High Steel" received the Canadian Film Award for Best Editing. It also received a Special Youth Prize
from the Berlin International Film Festival.


KATV (Alaska)

KATV, broadcasting on cable systems on channels 2, 4, 5, & 6, were television stations located in Ketchikan, Alaska.


Lost Lagoon

Lost Lagoon is an artificial, captive 16.6-hectare (41 acre) body of water, west of Georgia Street, near the entrance to Stanley Park in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Surrounding the lake is a trail. The lake features a lit fountain that was erected by Robert Harold Williams to commemorate the city's golden jubilee. It is a nesting ground to many species of birds, including non-native mute swan (whose wing tendons have been clipped to prevent escaping), Canada geese, numerous species of ducks, such as mallard ducks, and great blue herons. Also many turtles are usually resident on the northern shore.
Naming and history.
Native food gatherers used the low tide mudflats as a source for clams, and a midden on the north side indicates that a large dwelling once stood there. In the Squamish language, the name is Ch'ekxwa'7lech, meaning "gets dry at times". Settlers also built cabins around the lake, which were all removed between 1913 and 1916 during construction of the causeway. The lake was created in 1916 by the construction of the Stanley Park causeway; until then, Lost Lagoon was a shallow part of Coal Harbour, which itself is an extension of Burrard Inlet.
The name for Lost Lagoon comes from a poem written by Pauline Johnson, who later explained her inspiration:
"I have always resented that jarring unattractive name [Coal Harbour] for years. When I first plied paddle across the gunwale of a light canoe and idled about the margin, I named the sheltered little cove Lost Lagoon. This was just to please my own fancy for, as that perfect summer month drifted on, the ever restless tides left the harbor devoid of any water at my favorite conoeing hour and my pet idling place was lost for many days; hence my fancy to call it Lost Lagoon.
The lake was officially named Lost Lagoon in 1922 by the park board, long after Johnson's death and, ironically, after the lagoon had been permanently lost after becoming landlocked.
Development.
When the causeway was first proposed in 1909, an intense public debate took place over the fate of the basin. As with most of the early controversies concerning the use of Stanley Park, organized labour was pitted against the more upper and middle class proponents of the City Beautiful movement. Trade union representatives argued that the majority working class population was in need of recreational facilities, while their opponents maintained that more aesthetic or ethereal considerations should take precedence in park development. The Vancouver Trades and Labour Council was adamantly opposed to the idea of an artificial lake, and argued for it to instead be filled in for use as a sports field. The park board retained the services of T. Mawson and Associates, an architectural landscaping firm that had designed the park's zoo and many other facilities in Stanley Park. The proposal the board settled on featured an artificial lake with a sports stadium on the northwest side and a large museum on the southwest shore. The $800,000 price tag, however, proved too steep for the board's budget, and the non-lake parts of the proposal were quashed.
The next phase in the lake's development came in 1929, when the saltwater pipes entering from Coal Harbour were shut off, turning it into a freshwater lake. The BC Fish and Game Protection Association was given permission to stock the lake with trout. The Stanley Park Flyfishing Association was formed, and charged members to fish in the lake, while the park board profited from the canoe and boat rentals. This came to an end in 1938 when the walkway around the lake was constructed and the area declared a bird sanctuary. Civic budgets were significantly reduced during the depression, but the park board benefited from the free labour of relief recipients, who were used to landscape Lost Lagoon.
The next controversy surrounding the lake followed the proposal for a fountain to be erected in the lake to coincide with the city's Golden Jubilee anniversary celebrations in 1936. For the mayor, it would be "a miracle of engineering," with the spray of water lit by virtually "limitless combinations" of colour. The public, in contrast, were not impressed by the proposal. Its $33,019.96 price tag was considered extremely frivolous in the midst of an economic crisis. As written in The Sunday Sun Edition of the Vancouver Sun Newspaper, Saturday, August 8. 1936. The lead story in the Magazine section is; SECRETS OF THE FOUNTAIN. It was the conception and idea of then, Chief Electrical Engineer, Robert Harold Williams with Hume and Rumble Ltd. electrical contractors. R.Harold Williams designed and supervised the erection of the Vancouver's Golden Jubilee fountain. After a business trip to Los Angeles he saw a fountain and thought this would be a great gift for the city for their up and coming birthday, Golden Jubilee celebration. To build the fountain, Lost Lagoon was drained. Seventy piles were driven into the mud. On these a concrete mat was laid. The fountain was built upon this mat. The work was of necessity rushed; it was done in a month. "The fountain is worthy of all the traditions of art, worthy of Vancouver's Golden Jubilee, and it will be a permanent, decorative joy in Stanley Park". "When operating , it is like a symphony concert, in motion and color instead of music, says Harold Williams, engineer, of Hume & Rumble Ltd., under whose personal supervision the work has been done." Vancouver's Jubilee Committee and private citizens who contributed are to be commended on their work in pushing for this beautiful fountain, which is sure to be one of the major attractions during the Golden Jubilee celebration. "We've had to hurry," says Mr. Williams," in that time 285 tons of cement have been utilized and all the special equipment was built." All equipment was built in Canada and the pumps were constructed in Vancouver. All union labor was employed. It was restored for Expo in 1986.
Lost Lagoon is a popular place for park users for strolling the perimeter trail and bird watching. On the southeast corner of the lake is the Lost Lagoon Nature House, an old boathouse that is now an interpretive centre for the Stanley Park Ecology Society. While rare in recent decades, Lost Lagoon can freeze during a cold spell, permitting public ice skating and ice hockey.


Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency

George W. Bush, a Republican from Texas, was elected President of the United States on December 12, 2000 (following the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Bush v. Gore") and was inaugurated as the nation's 43rd president on January 20, 2001. Re-elected on November 2, 2004, his second inauguration was on January 20, 2005, and his presidency ended on January 20, 2009 with the inauguration of Barack Obama. The following articles cover the timeline of Bush's presidency:


Marquette League

From 1904 to 1991 the Marquette League served as a Roman Catholic fund-raising organization in the United States that supported Catholic missions and schools among Native Americans in the United States.
History.
Rev. Henry Ganss of Lancaster, Pennsylvania founded the League in New York City, in May 1904, and two months later, it received a Papal blessing from Pius X. Ganss was a fundraiser for the ‘’Preservation Society’’ of the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, and he founded the League as a fundraising auxiliary of the Preservation Society. However, the Preservation Society ceased in 1922 while the League continued to thrive.
In collaboration with the Bureau, the League distributed the funds and in-kind donations it raised for missions, mission schools and students. It built new missions and satellite chapels and maintained them with supplies; it trained and maintained catechists; and it provided scholarships to students and clothing to the needy.
The League had a lay directorate of 25 members, chosen at first from among local councils of the St. Vincent de Paul Society. To further its work, it established branch organizations in several northeastern U.S. cities, including Baltimore and Washington, D.C. It charged an annual membership fee of $2.00 and published ’’The Calumet’’ as a fundraising newsletter from 1913 to 1958. Notable members included Rev. John J. Wynne, S.J., Eugene A. Philbin (1904–1919), Monsignor William Flynn (Director General, 1925–1936) and Rev. Bernard Cullen (Director General, 1937–1957).
During its first six years (to 1910), aid from the League provided for the establishment of mission chapels in several states. They included Arizona among the Hopi people; South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation and the Rosebud Indian Reservation among the Oglala and Brulé Lakota people respectively; Nebraska on the Winnebago Indian Reservation among the Winnebago people; and North Dakota on the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation among the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation. From 1952 to 1958, the League also recruited lay volunteers to serve at missions and schools throughout the United States.
The League disbanded in 1991.


Second Battle of Adobe Walls

The Second Battle of Adobe Walls was fought on June 27, 1874, between Comanche forces and a group of 28 U.S. bison hunters defending the settlement of Adobe Walls, in what is now Hutchinson County, Texas. "Adobe Walls was scarcely more than a lone island in the vast sea of the Great Plains, a solitary refuge uncharted and practically unknown."
Background.
Adobe Walls settlement.
Adobe Walls was the name of a trading post in the Texas Panhandle, just north of the Canadian River. In 1845 an adobe fort was built there to house the post, but it was blown up by traders three years later after repeated Indian attacks. In 1864 the ruins were the site of one of the largest battles ever to take place on the Great Plains. Colonel Christopher "Kit" Carson led 335 soldiers from New Mexico and 72 Ute and Jicarilla Apache scouts against a force of more than 1000 Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache. The Indians forced Carson to retreat, though he was acclaimed as a hero for successfully striking a blow against the Indians and for leading his men out of the trap with minimal casualties. This is known as the First Battle of Adobe Walls.
After the "enormous slaughter" of the buffalo in the north during 1872 and 1873, the hunters moved south and west "into the good buffalo country, somewhere on the Canadian . . . in hostile Indian country". In June 1874 (ten years after the first battle) a group of enterprising businessmen had set up two stores near the ruins of the old trading post in an effort to rekindle the town of Adobe Walls. The complex quickly grew to include a store and corral (Leonard & Meyers), a sod saloon owned by James Hanrahan, a blacksmith shop (Tom O'Keefe) and a sod store used to purchase buffalo hides (Rath & Wright, operated by Langton), all of which served the population of 200-300 buffalo hunters in the area. By late June "two hunters had been killed by Indians twenty-five miles down river, on Chicken Creek" and two more were killed in a camp on "a tributary of the Salt Fork of Red River" north of present-day Clarendon. "The story of the Indian depredations had spread to all the hunting camps, and a large crowd had gathered in from the surrounding country" at the "Walls".
American Indian alliance.
The remaining free-ranging Southern Plains bands (Comanche, Cheyenne, Kiowa and Arapaho) perceived the post and the buffalo hunting as a major threat to their existence. That spring the Indians held a sun dance. Comanche medicine man Isatai'i promised victory and immunity from bullets to warriors who took the fight to the enemy. The 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty reserved the area between the Arkansas River and Canadian River as Indian hunting grounds. Yet, since 1873, several buffalo hunting parties operated in the area, in violation of the treaty, prompting Indian outrage.
Battle and siege.
On June 5, 1874, Hanrahan and his party of hunters departed Dodge City for Adobe Walls. The party encountered a band of Cheyenne Indians on June 7 at Sharp's Creek, 75 miles southwest of Dodge, who ran off all of their cattle. The party then joined a wagon train that was en route to the Walls, arriving just hours before the major battle took place. Some 28 men were then present at Adobe Walls, including James Hanrahan (the saloon owner), 20-year-old Bat Masterson, William "Billy" Dixon (whose famous long-distance rifle shot effectively ended the siege) and one woman, the wife of cook William Olds.
At 2:00 am on June 27, 1874, the ridgepole holding up the sod roof of the saloon made a loud cracking sound, although two men nearby thought that it sounded like "the report of a rifle". According to some sources Hanrahan awoke the camp by firing a gun, then telling the others that the sound had come from the ridgepole. The reason for his action was that he knew about the attack in advance, but did not tell anyone, afraid that men would leave the camp, hurting his business. Everyone in the saloon and several other men from the town immediately set to repair the damage. Thus, most of the inhabitants were already wide awake and up at dawn when a combined force of Comanche, Cheyenne and Kiowa warriors swept across the plains, intent on erasing the populace of Adobe Walls. In Dixon's words:
There was never a more splendidly barbaric sight. In after years I was glad that I had seen it. Hundreds of warriors, the flower of the fighting men of the southwestern Plains tribes, mounted upon their finest horses, armed with guns and lances, and carrying heavy shields of thick buffalo hide, were coming like the wind. Over all was splashed the rich colors of red, vermillion and ochre, on the bodies of the men, on the bodies of the running horses. Scalps dangled from bridles, gorgeous war-bonnets fluttered their plumes, bright feathers dangled from the tails and manes of the horses, and the bronzed, halfnaked bodies of the riders glittered with ornaments of silver and brass. Behind this headlong charging host stretched the Plains, on whose horizon the rising sun was lifting its morning fires. The warriors seemed to emerge from this glowing background.
The Indian force was estimated to be in excess of 700 strong and led by Isatai'i and Comanche Chief Quanah Parker, son of a captured white woman, Cynthia Ann Parker. Their initial attack almost carried the day; the Indians were in close enough to pound on the doors and windows of the buildings with their rifle butts. The fight was in such close quarters that the hunters' long-range rifles were useless. They were fighting with pistols and Henry and Winchester lever-action rifles in .44 rimfire. After the initial attack was repulsed, the hunters were able to keep the Indians at bay with their large-caliber, long-range Sharps rifles. Nine men were located in Hanrahan's Saloon—including Bat Masterson and Billy Dixon—11 in Meyer's & Leonard's Store and seven in Rath & Wright's Store.
The hunters suffered four fatalities, three on the first day: the two Shadler brothers asleep in a wagon were killed in the initial onslaught, and Billy Tyler was shot through the lungs as he entered the doorway of a building while retreating from the stockade. On the fifth day William Olds accidentally shot himself in the head while descending a ladder at Rath's store. A search following the initial battle turned up the bodies of 15 Indians killed so close to the buildings that their bodies could not be retrieved by their fellow warriors.
"By noon the Indians had ceased charging, and had stationed themselves in groups in different places, maintaining a more or less steady fire all day on the buildings", by 2 pm the Indians rode out of range at the foot of the hills, and by 4 pm the besieged started venturing out from the buildings to gather relics and bury the Shadlers. The Indians stayed in the distance while deciding how to handle the situation, effectively laying siege to Adobe Walls.
During the second day the besieged buried or dragged away the dead horses to "prevent the evil smell from reaching the buildings". George Bellfield's outfit made it to the Walls, as did Jim and Bob Cator, while Henry Lease volunteered to ride to Dodge City, Kansas, while two hunters visited the surrounding camps to warn them that "the Indians were on the war path".
On the third day after the initial attack, 15 Indian warriors rode out on a bluff nearly a mile away to survey the situation. At the behest of one of the hunters, William "Billy" Dixon, already renowned as a crack shot, took aim with a "Big Fifty" Sharps (it was either a .50-70 or -90, probably the latter) that he had borrowed from Hanrahan and cleanly dropped a warrior from atop his horse. "I was admittedly a good marksman, yet this was what might be called a 'scratch' shot." Seeing their fellow warrior killed from such a distance apparently so discouraged the Indians that they decamped and gave up the fight.
More hunters came in on the third and subsequent days so that, by the sixth day, the garrison amounted to about 100 men. Those in the camp might have experienced it as a siege, although sieges were not part of Comanche warfare or battle strategy. Nevertheless, Indians were close by during the days after the initial attack. Quanah had been wounded, which might have taken the edge off the attack, as was always the case with Comanches when the war chief fell in battle. The Indians retired soon afterward. "The Indians probably came to the conclusion that if they remained long enough, charged often enough and got close enough, all of them would be killed, as they were unable to dislodge us from the buildings." Casualty reports vary, and are not known with any great accuracy, although most agree that fewer than 30 total deaths would be a close number.
Within a week of the fight, 25 men headed to Dodge, including Hanharan, Masterson and Dixon, only to learn upon arrival that a relief party of 40 men under Tom Nixon had already headed south to bring back "Mrs. Olds and the greater part of the men".
By August a troop of cavalry made it to Adobe Walls, under Lt. Frank D. Baldwin, with Masterson and Dixon as scouts, where a dozen men were still holed up. "Some mischievous fellow had stuck an Indian's skull on each post of the corral gate." The killing had not ended, however; one civilian was lanced by Indians while looking for wild plums along the Canadian River. The next day the soldiers and remaining men left Adobe Walls, heading south to join Gen. Nelson A. Miles' main command on Cantonement Creek. The Indians later "burned the place to the ground."
Billy Dixon's lucky shot.
Controversy prevails over the exact range of Billy Dixon's shot. Baker and Harrison set it at about 1000 yards, while a post-battle survey by a team of US Army surveyors, under the command of Gen. Nelson A. Miles, measured the distance: 1,538 yards, or nine-tenths of a mile. For the rest of his life, Billy Dixon never claimed that the shot was anything other than a lucky one; his memoirs do not devote even a full paragraph to "the shot". He, however, did confide to people in the area that he took to the shot near an outcropping of rock that the hunters regularly shot from their camp in a betting game. In addition, he spoke about the incident that made him shoot at the Indians on the hilltop.
Forensic archaeologists have discovered that the guns in use at Adobe Walls included several Richards' Colt conversions, some Smith & Wesson Americans and at least one Colt .45 (then new on the frontier) pistol, along with numerous rifles in calibers .50-70, .50-90, .44-77, .44 Henry Flat and at least one .45-70 (also very new). At the time Sharps did not use designations like .50-90 ("Big Fifty" Sharps). Instead, it designated cartridges by bore size and case length. Technically, the "Big Fifty" was known as the .50 Sharps 2-1/2 Inch. Depending on the bullet used, the case could be loaded as any of what was later designated .50-90, .50-100 or .50-110. The .50-90 loading used the heaviest bullet and gave the best performance at relatively short ranges out to about 100 yards. The two heavier loads used relatively lighter bullets and gave better performance at extended ranges. This makes it more likely that Billy Dixon's shot was made with a .50 Sharps 2-1/2 Inch case loaded to .50-110 specification. In Sharps' nomenclature, the .50-70 was first known as the .50 Sharps 1-3/4 Inch and later as the .50 Sharps 2 Inch, and was sometimes referred to as the "Little Fifty."
Aftermath.
Buffalo hunting ended in that region of the country "just as the Indians had planned". The result of Adobe Walls was a crushing spiritual defeat for the Indians, though it was seen as a military victory. It also prompted the U.S. military to take its final actions to crush the Indians once and for all. Within the year the long war between whites and Indians in Texas would reach its conclusion.
In September, just three months after Adobe Walls, an army dispatch detail consisting of Billy Dixon, another scout (Amos Chapman) and four troopers from the 6th Cavalry were surrounded and besieged by a large combined band of Kiowas and Comanches. During what became known as the Battle of Buffalo Wallow, with accurate rifle fire they held off the Indians for an entire day. An extremely cold rainstorm that night discouraged the Indians, and they broke off the fight; every man in the detail was wounded and one trooper killed. For this action Billy Dixon, along with the other survivors of "The Buffalo Wallow Fight", were awarded the Medal of Honor.
Significance.
This fight is historically significant because it led to the Red River War of 1874–75, resulting in the final relocation of the Southern Plains Indians to reservations in what is now Oklahoma. A monument was erected in 1924 on the site of Adobe Walls by the Panhandle-Plains Historical Society.
On June 27, 1924, a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the second Battle of Adobe Walls was held at the site in Hutchinson County. A marble shaft bearing the names of those who took part in the battle was unveiled. W.T. Coble and his wife, the owners of the Turkey Track Ranch on which the site is located, deeded five acres of land to the Panhandle Plains Historical Society in Canyon, Texas, for the permanent preservation of the historic spot. The society subsequently founded the Panhandle Plains Historical Museum.
There is an exhibit of the battle in the Hutchinson County Historical Museum in Borger.


Regan Yee

Regan Yee (born 4 July 1995) is a Canadian athlete. She competed in the women's 3000 metres steeplechase event at the 2019 World Athletics Championships.


John Buyers

John Buyers was the first officer of the brig "Barwell" in 1799 on her voyage to China. Later he was the first officer of the brig "Margaret" as an investment he and John Turnbull made in Turnbull and Co., John Turnbull being his second officer and a historian. "Margaret", after some delay, left England on July 2, 1800, and sailing by way of the Cape of Good Hope, reached Sydney in February 1801. They reached the Society Islands in September 1802. After trading with various islands in the group, the ship sailed for the Hawaiian Islands, arriving at Oahu on December 17. After trading for salt at Oahu, Kauai, Niihau, and Hawaii island, "Margaret" sailed south on January 21, 1803. The ship sailed in among the Tuamotuan atolls and, on March 6, 1803, Nukutepipi, one of the Duke of Gloucester Islands, was visited and named Margaret Island, after the ship, though previously discovered in 1767. On March 10, Makemo was discovered and named Phillips Island, after a late sheriff of London, Sir Richard Phillips. On the same day, Taenga was discovered and named Holts Island. Some other islands were sighted but they had been previously discovered and were not landed on. Once in Tahiti, Turnbull set up an establishment ashore for buying pigs and salting them down with the salt obtained in the Hawaiian Islands.
"Margaret", under Buyers, set out to trade for hogs with the neighboring islands, but ran onto a reef in the Palliser Islands and was wrecked. Buyers and his crew, after considerable hardship, managed to reach Tahiti on a roughly constructed barge made of planks from the wreck. A ship which called at Tahiti afforded passage to Sydney for both Turnbull and Buyers. They left Sydney on 16 March 1804, in "Calcutta" and reached England via Cape Horn. Though a financial failure, the voyage obtained interesting information about the Society and Hawaiian Islands and the discovery of the islands Margaret, Phillips, and Holt in the Tuamotu Archipelago.


Berger Building

The Berger Building is a historic building in Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
Location.
The building is located at 164 North 8th Avenue (Rosa L Parks Blvd) in Nashville, the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. It is downtown.
History.
In 1925, Samuel Berger, a businessman, purchased the land as an investment. He hired architect O. J. Billis to design this two-storey building. It was completed in 1926, and Berger leased it to other businesses for commercial use.
When Berger died in 1934, the building was willed to Vanderbilt University. It belonged to the university for the next two decades, until they sold it in 1954.
Architectural significance.
It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since November 8, 1984.


Verona (steamship)

The steamship Verona was a small steamboat of the Puget Sound Mosquito Fleet.
Career.
"Verona" was built in 1910 at the Martinolich shipyard at Dockton, Washington. The vessel is best known for an event which occurred on November 5, 1916. The vessel was transporting members of the Industrial Workers of the World to Everett, Washington, in connection with a labor dispute. On arrival in Everett, a shooting broke out which has since become known as the Everett Massacre. In 1923 "Verona" was owned by the Union Navigation Company, a Poulsbo concern, which in that year sold the vessel to Kitsap County Transportation Co. From 1935 to 1936 "Verona" was owned by the Puget Sound Navigation Company.
Disposition.
The aging "Verona" burned after completing its last night run from Bainbridge Island on Jan 10, 1936. Fireboats concentrated on saving nearby steamers.


William Tebeau

William Henry Tebeau (November 23, 1925 – July 5, 2013) in 1948 became the first African-American man to graduate from Oregon State College. He was an engineer for ODOT for 36 years. A residence hall at OSU and Highway 126 between Eugene and Florence are both named after him.
Early life.
William Tebeau was born in Baker, Oregon, United States, to Henry William Tebeau and Frances (née Binor) Tebeau. At age 12, he joined the Boy Scouts of America, earning the Order of the Arrow and eventually becoming an Eagle Scout. In 1943 he graduated from Baker High School.
Education.
Tebeau was admitted to Oregon State, but he was not offered a housing assignment because of his skin color, nearly a decade prior to Oregon's fair housing laws. He found a job at a fraternity house tending the furnace, in exchange for a room in the basement. He was graduated with a degree in chemical engineering in 1948. When he was unable to find work as a chemical engineer, he studied on his own to become a civil engineer.
Engineering career.
Tebeau earned his civil engineering license and joined the Oregon State Highway Department, where he worked for 36 years. He also taught at Chemeketa Community College, where he was named 1970 Teacher of the Year.
Honors.
In May 2014, Oregon State University announced that its new residence hall east of the Kerr Administration Building on Washington Way would be named after Tebeau, the first African-American male to earn a degree from the university.
In January 2016, the Oregon Legislature passed SB 5, designating State Highway 126 between Florence and Eugene as "William Tebeau Memorial Highway".


List of historical ships in British Columbia

The following is a list of vessels notable in the history of the Canadian province of British Columbia, including Spanish, Russian, American and other military vessels and all commercial vessels on inland waters as well as on saltwater routes up to the end of World War II (1945).


Battle of Huanucopampa

After the disastrous battle of Chimborazo, the expected victor of the war, Huáscar, had been deeply humiliated, his army routed and forced to withdraw to the south, shadowed by a contingent of the northerners sent by Atahualpa under the command of generals Chalcuchimac and Quizquiz, possibly as well Rumiñahui. Huáscar himself split his army along the border in three divisions, one main division commanded by Uampa Yupanqui with troops from Kuntisuyu and from the south, planning to cross the Cotabambas river. Another army was led by Guanca Auqui, Agua Panti, Paca Yupanqui and a third led by Huáscar himself (taking command personally for the first time) and his brothers Tito Atauchi and Topa Atao.
The armies met at the plains close to Huanuco, when Huáscar ordered Uampa Yupanqui to take battle with the followers. Initially the battle was reportedly successful for the Huáscaran troops, with Atahualpa's captain Tomay Rima killed in battle, upon when Huáscar launched a massive assault with all his soldiers. The battle allegedly lasted for an entire day and ended inconclusive, as Chalcuchima and Quizquiz pulled back upon night towards a hill nearby. Huáscar ordered his warriors to burn the grass, causing massive losses among the Atahualpan forces. Instead of pressing this attack, however, Huáscar chose to retreat safely to the south across the river, ordering his brother Topa Atao to fortify a pass carrying the main route to the nearby Inca capital of Cuzco. Once again followed by the army of Quizquiz and Chalcuchima, the latter managed to envelop and destroy the forces of Topa Atao. Permanently losing his possible outlets for advantage, Huáscar was himself defeated and captured at Quipaipan in April, 1532.


Point No Point Treaty

The Point No Point Treaty was signed on January 26, 1855 at Point No Point, on the northern tip of the Kitsap Peninsula. Governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, convened the treaty council on January 25, with the S'Klallam, the Chimakum, and the Skokomish tribes. Under the terms of the treaty, the original inhabitants of northern Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Peninsula were to cede ownership of their land in exchange for small reservations along Hood Canal and a payment of $60,000 from the federal government. The treaty required the natives to trade only with the United States, to free all their slaves, and it abjured them not to acquire any new slaves.
On the first day of the council, treaty provisions were translated from English to the Chinook Jargon for the 1,200 natives who assembled at the sand spit they called "Hahdskus", across Admiralty Inlet from Whidbey Island. Today this is the site of a lighthouse.
Skokomish leader Hool-hol-tan expressed concern about finding sufficient food in the new locations, and did not like the lands being offered as a reservation. L'Hau-at-scha-uk, a To-antioch, was afraid he would die if he left his ancestral lands. Others objected that the land was being bought too cheaply, now that they understood what it was worth. The whites played down the importance of the land, but the first day ended without an agreement.
But by the next morning, the various chiefs and headmen returned under white flags to add their marks to the treaty. It had already been prepared by the United States representatives in its final form; they had no true intention of negotiating over its provisions.


French Mexicans

French Mexicans (, or ) are Mexican citizens of full or partial French ancestry. French nationals make up the second largest European immigrant group in Mexico, after Spaniards.
Migration history.
French immigration to Mexico started after Mexico became an independent country in 1821, as foreign immigration was prohibited by Spanish authorities under the colonial regime. The first wave of French immigration to Mexico occurred in the 1830s, following the country's recognition by France, with the foundation of a French colony on the Coatzacoalcos River, in the state of Veracruz. In total, 668 settlers were brought from France to populate the colony. Most of them went back to France as the project of colonization failed, but some permanently settled in Mexico. In 1833, another colony was founded in the state of Veracruz as well, under the name of Jicaltepec. A second wave of French immigration came to Mexico at the end of the 1840s, during the California Gold Rush (at the time gold was discovered, California was still part of the Mexican territory). As a consequence, in 1849 French represented the second foreign community in Mexico after Spaniards. Between 1850 and 1914, Mexico received 11,000 French immigrants.
According to the 2010 Census, French people form the second largest European emigrant community in Mexico after Spaniards, and eleventh overall immigrant community. There are around 9,500 French nationals registered in Mexico and about 6,000 to 7,000 Frenchmen unregistered. Two thirds of them are Mexicans of French ancestry holding double nationality. Many Mexicans of French descent live in cities and states such as Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Aguascalientes, Veracruz, Guanajuato, Guadalajara, Puebla, Queretaro and Mexico City.
Second Mexican Empire.
Most French Mexicans descend from immigrants and soldiers that settled in Mexico during the Second Mexican Empire, headed by Maximilian I of Mexico and masterminded by Emperor Napoleon III of France in the 1860s to create a Latin empire in the New World (indeed responsible for coining the term or Amérique latine, or 'Latin America'). Emperor Maximilian's consort, Carlota of Mexico, a Belgian princess, was a granddaughter of Louis-Philippe of France.
The "Barcelonnettes".
The largest wave of immigration from France to Mexico came from the city of Barcelonnette, in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. Between 1850 and 1950, 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants of the Ubaye Valley immigrated to Mexico. Many established textile businesses between Mexico and France. While 90% stayed in Mexico, some returned to Barcelonette, and from 1880 to 1930, built grand mansions called "Maisons Mexicaines" and left a mark upon the city. Today, there are 60,000 descendants of the "Barcelonnettes".
French settlement in Veracruz.
In 1833, 98 persons coming from Haute-Saône, Haute-Marne, Côte-d'Or and Yonne settled in a colony called Jicaltepec, in the state of Veracruz. In 1874, the community resettled on the other bank of the river, in San Rafael. From 1880 to 1900 the population of the colony grew from 800 to 1,000 inhabitants. There are now around 10,000 French Mexicans in the state of Veracruz.
Involvement in World War II.
Jean René Champion, a Mexican of French ancestry, was the first Free French Forces ("Forces Françaises Libres") officer to enter Paris on the day when the city was liberated from the Nazis on August 26, 1944.
French contributions to Mexican society.
The French introduced cultural traits adopted by the Mexican culture and may have helped coin the term “Mariachi”, though it is not certain. The word “Mariachi” may have originated during French Napoleonic rule in the 1860s since French settler families used the music during weddings (marriage). Clark attributes this to "phonetic coincidence" (Clark, 1996). An important culinary contribution was the bolillo, which is now widely used for the torta. The French also heavily influenced Mexico's pan dulce.
Education.
There are two French international schools in Mexico:


Mokotakan

Mokotakan is an open-air museum located in Saint-Mathieu-du-Parc in the Mauricie region of Quebec, Canada. It traces the presence of aboriginal peoples in Quebec for more than 5000 years. The eleven aboriginal peoples of Quebec represented at the site are Abenakis, Algonquins, Atikamekws, Cree, Wendat, Innu (Montagnais), Inuit, Maliseet, Micmac, Mohawk, Naskapis. The interpretive village was constructed based on various buildings recovered from various sites from the eleven nations.
The mission of this site is the sharing, dissemination and interpretation of culture of indigenous peoples of the Americas, with emphasis on the eleven nations of Quebec. A guided tour teaches visitors lifestyles, culture, history and spirituality of these peoples.
"Mōkotākan" means "crooked knife" in Atikamekw, an indispensable tool of the eleven nations of Quebec.
Affiliations.
The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.


Harriman Alaska expedition

The Harriman Alaska expedition explored the coast of Alaska for two months from Seattle to Alaska and Siberia and back again in 1899. It was organized by wealthy railroad magnate Edward Harriman. Harriman brought with him an elite community of scientists, artists, photographers, and naturalists to explore and document the Alaskan coast.
Genesis of the voyage.
Edward Harriman was one of the most powerful men in America and controlled several railroads. By early 1899, he was exhausted. His doctor told him that he needed a long vacation. Harriman went to Alaska to hunt Kodiak bears. Rather than go alone, he took a scientific community to explore and document the coast of Alaska.
He contacted Clinton Hart Merriam, the head of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy at the United States Department of Agriculture, and one of the founders of the National Geographic Society. Harriman told Merriam that he would cover the expenses of scientists, artists, and other experts who would join the voyage. He asked Merriam to choose the scientific party.
Historians question why Harriman wanted to go to Alaska. Some think he was considering developing Alaskan resources. Some think he was considering building a railroad to the Alaskan territory. Some people at the time openly wondered if he was going to buy Alaska, or build a railroad bridge from Alaska to Siberia — a railroad around the world. Nothing seemed impossible for Edward H. Harriman.
Merriam held a flurry of meetings and sent many telegrams. He organized a broad range of experts: arctic experts, botanists, biologists and zoologists, geologists and geographers, artists, photographers, ornithologists and writers.
Harriman had the steamship SS "George W. Elder" refitted for the expedition. The remodeled ship featured lecture rooms, a library with over 500 volumes on Alaska, a stable for animals, taxidermy studios, and luxury rooms for the team. Some on the expedition referred to her as the "George W. Roller", for its tendency to roll at sea, causing seasickness among the passengers.
Participants.
The members of the interdisciplinary team included many of the best American scientists, artists, and photographers of the time.
Arctic experts
Botanists
Biologists and zoologists
Geologists and geographers
Artists and photographers
Writers
Harriman also brought a medical team, a chaplain, hunters and packers, guides, and taxidermists. He brought his own family and his servants. Together, with the crew of the "Elder", the total number of people on the ship was 126.
Voyage.
By the end of May, the ship's guests and passengers had all arrived in Seattle. Newspapers around the world ran front-page stories about the trip. The "Elder" left Seattle on 31 May 1899. Cheering crowds saw them off.
Their first stop was the Victoria Museum on Vancouver Island. They then traveled farther north to Lowe Inlet, where they stopped to explore and document the wildlife.
On 4 June, they stopped in Metlakatla, the European-style settlement that was created by Scottish missionary William Duncan for the Alaskan indigenous people. The scientists visited with Duncan in his home.
In the next two weeks the "Elder" stopped at several spots on Alaskan soil, including Skagway and Sitka. They saw the results, both positive and negative, of the Klondike Gold Rush. They continued to catalog plants, animals, and marine creatures, as well as geological and glacial formations. Harriman had brought a graphophonic recording machine, and used it to record a native Tlingit song.
By 25 June, they had reached Prince William Sound. They discovered an undocumented fjord in the northwest corner of the Sound. They named it "Harriman Fjiord."
While the scientists had some control over where they stopped to explore, Harriman retained the final judgment. He was anxious to hunt a bear, and he decided to head toward Kodiak Island when he heard that there were bears there.
On 7 July, they reached Popof Island in the Shumagin Islands. Four of the scientists, Ritter, Saunders, Palache, and Kincaid (accompanied by guide Luther Kelly), decided to camp on Popof Island while the rest of the scientists continued on to Siberia. This allowed them to make much more detailed notes about the area, rather than quick notes on frequent stops along the way.
Edward Harriman’s wife wanted to put her feet on Siberian soil, so the "Elder" continued northward. By 11 July, the ship had put into Plover Bay in Siberia.
Harriman, by this time, was impatient and ready to get back to work. The "Elder" steamed southward, picking up the party on Popof Island. On 26 July, the "Elder" made one last stop, at an abandoned Tlingit village at Cape Fox. On July 30, the ship pulled into Seattle.
Expedition publications.
Harriman paid for the creation of several sizable volumes of the discoveries of the expedition. When Harriman died in 1909, his wife provided additional money to continue the publications. Merriam served as the editor, and spent twelve years working on the publications.
John Burroughs, a best-selling nature author, was the official scribe of the expedition. He wrote much of "Volume I", an overview of the trip. "Volumes VI" and "VII", which were to be written by Merriam and feature mammals, never appeared. Perhaps Merriam simply couldn’t find the time with his other duties. Subsequent volumes were written by other expedition scientists or authors hired by Merriam to finish the work. While they often mentioned the beauty and grandeur of the Alaskan coast, the publications were mostly highly technical and written for other scientists.
The first volume was published in 1901, and they continued to be published in the next few years. The Smithsonian republished the entire series in 1910, and the volumes are now available as free downloads.
Accomplishments.
The expedition claimed to have discovered some 600 species that were new to science, including 38 new fossil species. They charted the geographic distribution of many species. They discovered an unmapped fjord and named several glaciers. Gilbert’s work on glaciers represented new thinking in the field.
Another legacy of the trip was the career of Edward Curtis. On the trip, he developed a close friendship with George Grinnell, who was an expert on Native American culture. After the expedition, Grinnell invited Curtis with him on a trip to the Blackfeet Reservation in Montana. Curtis, moved by what was commonly believed to be a dying way of life, spent much of his career documenting Native American culture.
At first, John Muir found Harriman distasteful and his hunting barbaric. But, over the course of the trip and afterward, the two became friends. Years later, Muir recruited Harriman to help with governmental lobbying on National Park legislation. It was Muir who gave the eulogy at Harriman’s funeral in 1909.
In many ways, the expedition was an intersection of 19th-century science and 20th-century science. It often represented the best of the new century’s science, but it also showed how scientists thought in the previous century.
They foreshadowed practices of 20th-century science by being a truly interdisciplinary team. The wealth of disciplines represented on the voyage enabled them to work together to solve many pieces of the puzzle. They also discussed the potential loss of the wilderness and the indigenous peoples. They saw the remnants of the Yukon gold rush, and how self-serving treasure hunters were plundering the countryside and the dignity and viability of the indigenous cultures.
But in many ways, they were still firmly rooted in 19th-century science. In the 19th century, the common way to write scientific articles was to create endlessly long descriptions of the physical characteristics of plants or animals. Most of the publications from the expedition followed this protocol. This approach to biology withered away in the early 20th century.
Another example of 19th-century thinking was their perspective on indigenous cultures. Their ethnocentric view regarded the indigenous people as savages. While the scientists remarked in horror that the indigenous cultures were disappearing, they simultaneously felt that adopting modern European-style technology, dress, and customs would somehow be a helpful step for them.
The intersection of 19th- and 20th-century science was even evident among different opinions of those on the expedition. Upon seeing the indigenous peoples involved in salmon fishing operations and canning factories, those on the "Elder" felt different things. Some saw the cannery operations as forced labor, akin to slavery. Other expedition members saw the cannery operations as efficient and effective.
Cape Fox artifacts.
On July 26, 1899, the expedition landed in Cape Fox, at an abandoned Tlingit village. The village had been deserted for about five years, but many pieces of Tlingit artwork and totem poles were still there. Some members of the expedition (in protest of other members) removed some of the artifacts from the village. While this has been described by some as "looting," it must be considered in the context of the times. Members of the expedition believed that the indigenous cultures of Alaska would soon be extinguished by the encroaching of modern civilization. Their desire was to save to museums what they believed would be the last remnants of the Tlingit artwork and culture. The expedition saw the artifacts as inanimate objects from a deserted village. To the Tlingit living nearby, the artifacts were a sacred part of their identity.
The Cape Fox artifacts were indeed preserved in museums. In 2001, a group of scientists retraced the steps of the 1899 Harriman Expedition. The 2001 scientists and crew, including the great-great-granddaughter of Edward Harriman, returned a number of artifacts to the descendants of the original Cape Fox Tlingit residents.


Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe

The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe (legally Mashpee Wampanoag Indian Tribal Council, Inc.) is one of two federally recognized tribes of Wampanoag people in Massachusetts. Recognized in 2007, they are headquartered in Mashpee on Cape Cod. The other tribe is the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) on Martha's Vineyard.
In 2019, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe consisted of more than 2,900 enrolled members. In 2015 their 170 acres in Mashpee and an additional 150 acres in Taunton, Massachusetts were taken into trust on their behalf by the US Department of Interior, establishing these parcels as reservation land.
On March 27, 2020, under the Trump Administration, the Tribal Council was informed by the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs that reservation designation would be rescinded and, with the US Department of the Interior, over 300 acres of land would be removed from the federal trust. Cedric Cromwell, the tribal chair, said this action is "unnecessary" and "cruel." "This is an existential crisis for tribes," said Jean-Luc Pierite, of the North American Indian Center, a Boston-based advocacy group. On June 6, a US District Court ruling reversed the Department of Interior's ruling and ordered the DOI to maintain the reservation status of the tribe's 321 acres of land until the department issues a new decision. On February 20, 2021, the federal government decided to drop the legal battle against the Mashpee lands.
History.
Indigenous peoples have been living on Cape Cod for at least 12,000 years. The historic Algonquian-speaking Wampanoag are one of 69 tribes of the original Wampanoag Nation; they are the Native people encountered by the English colonists of the New Plymouth Colony in the seventeenth century. The Wampanoag also controlled considerable coastal area. They are one of the several Algonquian-speaking tribal nations in what are now considered Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The Wampanoag and English (later European Americans) have interacted and shaped each other's cultures for centuries, with marriage between the groups also taking place.
English colonists began to settle in and around the traditional tribal community of present-day Mashpee, Massachusetts also called Marshapoag (Big Pond), and Saukatukett (South Sea), in the 1630s when Rev Leverech of Sandwich began preaching there. He was later replaced in 1658 by missionary Rev Richard Bourne, from the neighboring town of Sandwich. In 1629 the Mashpee Wampanoag, along with eight other Wampanoag tribes granted “Indian Title” to the King of England to a tract of land that would become Plymouth Colony. In 1660, Bourne assisted the tribe in codifying the territory in at least one of two deeds. Beginning in 1665, the Wampanoag, petitioned the General Court for Mashpee’s status as a ‘praying town’, a form of government established by Missionary Rev John Eliot and confirmed by the General Court of the colony. In May 1666, a delegation of English leaders, including Richard Bourne, John Eliot and his son, John Cotton, Thomas Mayhew, and two Wampanoag interpreters convened a week-long meeting in Mashpee to hear from the Tribe regarding their petition (hearing the confessions) and report back to the General Court. The petition being granted, the Mashpees now governed themselves via the law of ‘praying towns’. Praying Town status afforded tribes protection of the English Crown and a greater chance to remain on their homelands. While this helped to maintain tenure in the land, these new laws also patterned English systems of justice and took away freedoms of the Wampanoag to live traditionally.
Following the Wampanoag defeat in King Philip's War (1675–1676), those on the mainland were resettled with the Sakonnet in present-day Rhode Island. Other Wampanoag were forced to settle in the praying towns, such as Mashpee, in Barnstable County on Cape Cod. The colonists sold many Wampanoag men into slavery in the Caribbean, and enslaved women and children in New England.
The colonists designated Mashpee on Cape Cod as the largest Native American reservation in Massachusetts. The town's name is an Anglicization of a native name, ‘Mâseepee: 'mâs’ meaning ‘large’and, ‘upee’ meaning ‘water’. So named for Mashpee/Wakeby Pond; the largest fresh water pond on Cape Cod.
In 1763, the British Crown designated Mashpee as a plantation of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, against the will of the Wampanoag. By this designation, the Crown gave the colonial district of Mashpee authority to integrate into its territory the area governed by the Mashpee Wampanoag. The colony gave the natives the "right" to elect their own officials to maintain order in their area, but otherwise subjected them to colonial government. The Wampanoag population of the plantation declined steadily due to social disruption and infectious disease contracted from the colonists. They also suffered from continuing encroachment on their lands by the English.
Following the American Revolutionary War, the State in 1788 revoked Mashpee self-government, which European-American officials considered a failure. They appointed a committee of overseers, consisting of five European-American members, to supervise the Mashpee. When William Apess, a Pequot Methodist preacher, helped the Mashpee Wampanoag lead a peaceful protest in 1837 against the overseers, who did not protect the Wampanoag from colonists stealing their wood, the governor threatened a military response. Rule by the overseers resulted in the loss of additional Wampanoag lands.
Nineteenth-century restrictions and land loss.
In 1834, the state returned a certain level of self-government to the Wampanoag, although they were not completely autonomous. With the idea that emulating European-American farming would encourage assimilation, in 1842 the state broke up some of the Wampanoag communal land. It distributed of their property in allotments of parcels to heads of households, so that each family could have individual ownership for subsistence farming.
The legislature passed laws prohibiting European Americans from encroaching on Wampanoag land, but the state did not enforce these. The competing settlers also stole wood from the reservation. The Wampanoag held a large region, once rich in wood, fish and game, which was desired by white settlers. They envied the growing community of Mashpee. The Mashpee Indians suffered more conflicts with their white neighbors than did other more isolated or less desirable Indian settlements in the state.
In 1870 the state, against a vote of the Tribe, incorporated the Town of Mashpee as a Town. It was the second-to-last jurisdiction on the Cape to undergo the process. Mashpee Wampanoag held every seat in Town Government until 1967. With European Americans moving to Mashpee in growing numbers and taking seats in town government, ultimately the Mashpee Wampanoag lost control of town government. The majority of the Tribe’s citizens live in and around Mashpee today. Many also worked on whaling and other ships that operated from Cape and other Massachusetts ports in the 19th century. They continue to identify as Mashpee Wampanoag by their common culture. Census rolls of the Tribe grew from marriages and mixed-race children as they formed unions with neighbors.
20th century.
Beginning in the 1970s, the Mashpee Wampanoag worked to regain its political power; it sought federal recognition of its tribal status by the federal government. The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council, Inc was incorporated in 1972 under the leadership of its first president, Russell "Fast Turtle" Peters. In 1974 the Council petitioned the Bureau of Indian Affairs for recognition. Like other "landless" tribes of the Atlantic Coast area, they encountered difficulties documenting their continuity. The recognition process required documentation of continued existence since first contact with European arrivals. In many areas, outsiders assumed that, as tribes became multi-racial, they no longer were "Indians." But the Mashpee Wampanoag had experience in continuing their culture, and most of their descendants identified as Wampanoag. The federal acknowledgment petition documents were a collection of 54,000 pages before the petition was considered by the Department of Interior Office of Federal Acknowledgement.
In 1976 the tribe filed a landmark land claim lawsuit, suing the Town of Mashpee for the return of ancestral homelands. The US District Court ruled that, lacking federal recognition as a tribe, the Mashpee Wampanoag people had no standing to pursue the land claim. The tribe continued to pursue federal recognition for three decades, gaining it in 2007.
21st century.
In 2000 the Mashpee Wampanoag Council was headed by chairman Glenn Marshall. Marshall led the group until 2007, when it was disclosed that he had a prior conviction for rape, had lied about having a military record, and was under investigation associated with the tribe's casino lobbying efforts.
Marshall was removed from office by the Tribe and was a succeeded by tribal council vice-chair Shawn Hendricks. He held the position until Marshall pleaded guilty in 2009 to federal charges of embezzling, wire fraud, mail fraud, tax evasion, and election finance law violations. Marshall had steered tens of thousands of dollars in illegal campaign contributions to politicians through the tribe's hired lobbyist Jack Abramoff. The latter was convicted of numerous charges in a much larger fraud scheme associated with Native American gaming, especially related to his representation of a Mississippi tribe.
On May 23, 2007, the Mashpee Tribe gained formal federal recognition as a tribe. Led by its chairman Shawn Hendricks, who was elected to succeed Marshall, tribe representatives worked with Abramoff's lobbyist colleague Kevin A. Ring to pursue a plan to develop Indian gaming, as this seemed a route to generate revenues to help the tribe take care of its people. In 2008 Ring was indicted and convicted on federal corruption charges linked to his work for the Mashpee band.
During this period, there was considerable internal tension within the tribe. Tribal elders sought access to the tribal council records detailing the council's involvement in the Ring scandal, filing a complaint in Barnstable Municipal Court. The tribal council voted to formally "shun" these members, banning these elders from the tribe for seven years. The federal government had also sought records from the tribe as part of its 2007 investigation into Abramoff and his colleagues.
In 2009 the tribe elected council member Cedric Cromwell to the position of council chair and president. Cromwell's campaign had promised reforms. He worked to distance himself from the previous chairmen, although he had served on the tribal council for the prior six years during which the Marshall and Abramoff scandals took place. He was among those who voted to shun tribal members who tried to investigate. A challenge to Cromwell's election by defeated candidates, following allegations of tampering with voting and enrollment records, was filed with the Tribal Court.
Cromwell's administration has been hampered by a series of protests by elders over casino-related finances.
Meanwhile, the tribe continued to negotiate with the state to gain a license to develop a casino on its land in Taunton. "In 2013, the Mashpee and the state reached an agreement that would see the group give Massachusetts 17 percent of all casino revenue it generated. However, those payments were contingent on the state not licensing a[nother] casino in the region."
In September 2015 the Department of Interior took into trust 321 acres in Mashpee and Taunton, MA as a reservation for the Mashpee Wampanoag, who had held the land in fee simple. As reported by Casino.org, "This is a reclamation of land that was once ours," tribal chairman Cedric Cromwell told "The Boston Globe". "Tribal lands once stretched from Cape Ann to Rhode Island, and this new reservation represents only a dot on the map, but it feels really good."
On March 27, 2020, the Bureau of Indian Affairs reportedly told the tribe that their reservation will be dis-established and their land taken out of trust, per an order from Secretary of the Interior David Bernhardt.
On November 13, 2020, the Chairman of the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe and a small business owner from Warwick, Rhode Island were indicted on two counts of accepting or paying bribes as an agent of an Indian tribal government and one count of conspiring to commit bribery. Chairman Cromwell was also indicted on four counts of extortion under color of official right and one count of conspiring to commit extortion. According to the indictment, Cromwell contracted with an architecture company owned by David DeQuattro, in connection with the Wampanoag Tribe’s plans to build a resort and casino in Taunton.
Membership.
The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council has established criteria for enrollment as a member. The tribe requires that a person be able to document descent from recognized members, and it requires persons to live in or near Mashpee, and to be active in the tribe.
Land and casino.
After gaining federal recognition, the tribe lobbied the state for approval to build a casino on their Mashpee land. Indian gaming operations are regulated by the National Indian Gaming Commission established by the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. It contains a general prohibition against gaming on lands acquired into trust by federally recognized tribes after October 17, 1988, the date of the act. The tribe's attempts to gain approvals have been met with legal and government approval challenges, as it did not continuously control a reservation before this date. It had become landless because of colonial and local Massachusetts town actions against it.
In November 2011, the Massachusetts legislature passed a law to license up to three sites, each in a separate region of the state, for gaming resort casinos and one for a slot machine parlor. The Wampanoag were given a "headstart" to develop plans for a casino in southeastern part of the state.
The tribe proposed a $500 million casino on land owned in Taunton, Massachusetts, which it then had under a purchase agreement. This is about 48 miles driving distance from Mashpee. They were challenged by the Pocasset Wampanoag, which was also seeking an agreement for a casino. The state said it would accept the tribe's bid for a casino at that location, as one of three the state intends to authorize. By 2014, the tribe was completing an FEIS for development of the property in Taunton, as well as property it owns in Mashpee. The latter is to be developed for administrative office needs.
By 2010, the Wampanoag Tribe's plan had agreement for financing by the Malaysian Genting Group. It had gained the political support of Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick, and former Massachusetts Congressman Bill Delahunt, who is working as a lobbyist to represent the casino project. Both Kerry and Delahunt received campaign contributions from the Wampanoag Tribe in transactions authorized by Glenn Marshall. Marshall was later implicated in the Jack Abramoff lobbying scandal.
Land trust.
In September 2015, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, an agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior, approved the tribe's application to take 321 acres of land into federal trust to create the Mashpee Wampanoag reservation; this included 170 acres of land the tribe already controlled in Mashpee and also gave the tribe jurisdiction over 150 newly acquired acres in Taunton.
In February 2016, a group of Taunton property owners filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court against the Mashpee Wampanoag's plans to build a gaming casino on the tribe's land in Taunton. They challenged the land-into-trust deal, citing "Carcieri v. Salazar" (2009), a U.S. Supreme Court decision which held that the government could not take land into trust for tribes recognized after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. The City of Taunton filed a brief in favor of the casino, as its residents had voted strongly in favor of its development, and Interior Department lawyers brought into question of Congress' original intent in making the 1934 law.
Meanwhile, despite the court challenge, the Mashpee Wampanoag began development of the Taunton site.
In July 2016, the U.S. district court found that the BIA had exceeded its authority, entered summary judgment for the plaintiffs, and ordered the matter remanded to the BIA. In February 2020, the First Circuit Court of Appeals sided with the district court, maintaining that the Department of Interior lacked authority to take tribal land into trust for the benefit of the tribe. On March 27, 2020, the Trump administration announced it would remove over 300 acres of land from the federal trust and take away the designation of "reservation." A hearing was scheduled for U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C. on May 7, 2020.
Representation in other media.
A documentary video, "Mashpee" (1999), describes the effect of 1970s land claims by the Wampanoag.


John McKee

John McKee (1771 – August 12, 1832) was an American politician active in the Southeastern United States. He served as agent to the Cherokees and Choctaws, and was the first Representative of Alabama's 2nd District from 1823 to 1829. He was also commissioned by President James Madison in 1811 to help wrest East and West Florida from Spanish control.
Early life.
McKee was born in Rockbridge County, Virginia (then part of Augusta County), and attended Liberty Hall Academy in Lexington. By 1792 McKee was in the Southwest Territory (which later became the State of Tennessee). He was appointed that year by territorial Governor William Blount to survey the boundary with the Cherokee nation established by the 1791 Treaty of Holston. McKee was sent on a peacekeeping mission to the Cherokees in 1793, and was temporarily appointed territorial agent for the Cherokees in 1794. In 1795, McKee became a lawyer, a lieutenant colonel in the militia, and clerk for Blount County, Southwest Territory. In 1797 McKee was sent by the United States government to meet with representatives of Panton, Leslie and Company in Pensacola, Florida, to discuss debts owed by the Choctaws to that company. McKee was appointed United States agent to the Choctaw nation in 1799, and served in that capacity until 1802.
After his dismissal as agent to the Choctaws, John McKee served at times as representative to the Choctaws for John Forbes and Company (the successor to Panton, Leslie and Company). The Choctaws had large debts to Forbes, and McKee and Forbes believed that the only way the Choctaws could pay their debts was by selling their land to the United States. McKee continued to do business with Forbes even when he was employed by the United States government.
Florida mission.
In 1810 the westernmost districts of Spanish West Florida revolted and were soon annexed by the United States. Juan Vicente Folch y Jaun, governor of West Florida, feared that filibusterers would try to seize the rest of the province. In an attempt to prevent military intervention by the United States, in early December 1810 Folch offered to peaceably turn over Florida to the United States if he had not received reinforcements or instructions to not do so by the end of the year. John McKee was in Mobile, and was given a copy of Folch's offer to carry overland to Washington.
Shortly after John McKee reached Washington in January 1811, President James Madison decided to send George Mathews to negotiate the surrender of West Florida with Governor Folch, and to investigate means to detach East Florida from Spain so that it could be annexed by the United States. Late in January 1811, McKee was appointed to accompany Mathews on his mission to the Floridas. McKee and Mathews traveled to St. Marys, Georgia, just across the St. Marys River from East Florida, where Mathews determined that conditions for a revolt in East Florida were not ripe. McKee and Mathews then headed to Mobile to meet with Governor Folch. Folch had in the meantime rescinded his offer to surrender West Florida to the United States, having received money and orders from Veracruz. After further unsuccessful negotiations with Governor Folch, McKee went to Fort Stoddert (on the Mobile River) to watch events in West Florida, while Mathews returned to St. Marys to do the same for East Florida. Mathews sent McKee instructions about inciting rebellion in Mobile and Pensacola, in West Florida, but McKee's efforts were of a "halfhearted nature.". McKee's commission to help acquire the Floridas for the United States was cancelled in early 1812.
Later life.
In 1813 John McKee was sent by Andrew Jackson to ensure that the Choctaws sided with the United States against the Creeks. He recruited Choctaws to fight against the Red Sticks in the Creek War (1813–1814), and personally led a contingent in one attack. McKee was re-appointed agent to the Choctaw nation in 1814, and recruited Choctaws and Chickasaws to fight with Andrew Jackson against the British. McKee was one of the agents who negotiated the Treaty of Fort St. Stephens with the Choctaw nation in 1816. McKee continued as agent to the Choctaw nation until 1821. He served as the registrar of the United States Land Office in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, from 1821 to 1823.
John McKee was the first Representative of Alabama's 2nd District from 1823 to 1829. In 1824, McKee was sent to Tallahassee, Florida, to settle the location of the township granted to the Marquis de Lafayette by Congress. After leaving the House of Representatives in 1829, McKee was one of the men who negotiated the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with the Choctaw nation in 1830.
John McKee built a house in Boligee, Alabama in 1816, which remained his permanent home. McKee may have married a Chickasaw woman, with whom he had a son and daughter. He died at his home in Boligee in 1832.
References.


Patricia Roppel

Patricia Ann Roppel (April 5, 1938 – January 6, 2015) was historian, writer and educator who specialized in the history of Southeast Alaska. She had thirteen books and more than 100 articles published during her career. Much of her work focused on the people and locations of that particular region, as well as the state's major industries, including mining, salmon fishing and hatcheries, and canning. She was named "Alaska Historian of the Year" in both 1978 and 2006 in recognition of books released during those years.
Roppel was born Patricia Snowden on April 5, 1938, in Ellensburg, Washington, to Richard and Helen Snowden. She received a degree in home economics from Oregon State University.
Roppel moved from Washington to Alaska in 1959. She originally worked as a home economics teacher at Ketchikan High School in Ketchikan, Alaska, from 1959 to 1965. Roppel published her first article in 1965.
Alaska Governor Jay Hammond appointed Roppel to the new Alaska Historical Commission in 1975. The Commission oversaw the creation of a new high school textbook on the history of Alaska and advised state lawmakers on related issues. She was reappointed for three terms on the Commission from 1975 until 1983. In 1991, Governor Wally Hickel appointed Roppel to the Alaska Humanities Forum, a position she held until 1996. She was reappointed to the Alaska Historical Commission in 2003 by Governor Tony Knowles. She remained on the Commission until her death in 2015, including a tenure as Vice-Chair of the Commission from 2006 to 2008.
Roppel and her husband originally lived in Ketchikan, Alaska. They moved to Sitka, Alaska, in 1983, and to Wrangell, Alaska, in 1992. Patricia Roppel died from cancer in Bellevue, Washington, on January 6, 2015, at the age of 76. She was survived by her husband of fifty-five years, Frank Roppel, and their two children, John and Cindy.


Prospect, North Carolina

Prospect is a census-designated place (CDP) in Robeson County, North Carolina. The population was 690 at the 2000 census. Located due northeast of Pembroke, North Carolina, Prospect is a traditionally Methodist community, with its church members largely becoming representatives for the entirety of the American Indian-Methodist community. Prospect is noted for one of its native sons, Adolph Dial, whose contributions to American Indian Studies have led to an heightened awareness of the local Lumbee Tribe and Native Americans throughout the Southeastern United States.
Geography.
Prospect is located at (34.729295, -79.220714).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , all of it land.
The Prospect community is general considered to cover as far east as Preston and Red Hill Rd., and as far north as Old Maxton/Red Spring Rd.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 690 people, 239 households, and 183 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 255.8 people per square mile (98.7/km). There were 248 housing units at an average density of 91.9/sq mi (35.5/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was:
There were 239 households, out of which 38.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.7% were married couples living together, 17.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.4% were non-families. 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.38.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 27.7% under the age of 18, 12.2% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.0 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $34,038, and the median income for a family was $42,143. Males had a median income of $31,583 versus $11,705 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $11,359. About 20.1% of families and 21.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.9% of those under age 18 and 13.2% of those age 65 or over.
Origin.
Many believe the origin of the Prospect community began when Preston Locklear claimed large swaths of land along what is known today as the Long Swamp.
Dr. Peter H. Wood lists Preston Locklear as a Tuscarora in his 1992 report "Tuscarora Roots". In 1992 there were about 4,000 Tuscaroras in Robeson County, NC. Locklear is listed as a founder of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke in The Museum of the Southeast American Indian.
Churches in Prospect.
Unlike the majority of Robeson County, the boundary of Prospect Community contains almost exclusively Methodist churches; the Methodist churches included within Prospect are Prospect United Methodist Church, Prospect Methodist Church, New Prospect Church, and New Prospect Methodist Church. Prospect United Methodist Church was itself founded by the Reverend W. L. Moore, the grandfather of Adolph Dial, founder of the American Indian Studies department at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. Notably, Island Grove Baptist Church and Preston Gospel Chapel are the only non-Methodist churches in the community. Island Grove having broken-off from the theology to join the Burnt Swamp Baptist Association in 1955. Preston Gospel Chapel was originally called Doogle Hill and was located about a half mile east of the current location. It was established by the Scottish around 1875 as part of the Assembly Movement. Preston's original sanctuary was built in 1948. The present sanctuary was built in the late 1970s with the addition of a fellowship hall and small apartment for visiting preachers in the 1990s.
Importance of Prospect United Methodist Church.
The pillar of Prospect community is Prospect United Methodist Church, or as it's been known since it first appeared in the Wilmington Star in 1871, Prospect Church. The importance of Prospect Church to the community is best told through the vast assembly of its buildings, spanning a distance of 150 yards along W.L. Moore Road; this series of buildings, known as the "Temple" serves the largest congregation of Native Americans in the United States. The construction of the church, which would become the basis for the founding of Prospect Community, was due in large part to the efforts of local farmers in the area, allowing them to come together relative to their shared space. Over the course of the years major construction projects leading to new buildings were completed in 1865, 1876, 1895, 1946, 1961, 1970, 1976, 1987 and 1989. Though no longer standing, the original structure built in 1865 and the second structure built in 1876, were both made of logs and pegs, with the 1865 structure also serving as a single-room schoolhouse. The 1895 assembly, the last structure to be made out of timber, still stands today behind Moore's Chainsaw. The church is now the main producer of spokespeople for Lumbee Methodist, with members attending national conferences as representatives and delegates for the American Indian-Methodist community. The church also has had an active role in the community's schools and education, with a daily worship service offered by the church to local high school students, and the establishment of the Anderson Scholarship Fund to help benefit those who pursue church vocations as a result of being a part of the youth services.
Adolph Dial.
A notable member of Prospect Methodist Church, Adolph Dial was the Founding Chairman of the Department of American Indian Studies at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. Born in Prospect in 1922 to Noah and Mary Ellen Dial, Dial would become a leading authority in academia for not only the Lumbee tribe, but also among North Carolinian and national historians in the field of Native American studies. Though Dial gained statewide recognition soon after his employment at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke in 1958, Dial grew to national prominence during his tenure on the American Indian Policy Review Commission. In 1971, the Ford Foundation provided Dial and fellow history professor at UNC-P, David Eliades a great for continued research on the Lumbee Indians—this in turn led to the publication of the 1975 ethnography, "", an expansive history of the tribe covering its history from colonialism through the modern day. Dial's contributions have led to the establishment of scholarly awards in his name at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke, as well the naming of the Dial Humanities Building on the school's campus.
Adolph Dial believed he was descended from John White's Lost Colonists, specifically Virginia Dare.


Camp Grant massacre

The Camp Grant massacre, on April 30, 1871, was an attack on Pinal and Aravaipa Apaches who surrendered to the United States Army at Camp Grant, Arizona, along the San Pedro River. The massacre led to a series of battles and campaigns fought between the Americans, the Apache, and their Yavapai allies, which continued into 1875, the most notable being General George Crook's Tonto Basin Campaign of 1872 and 1873.
Background.
Some historians feel the reduction of Indian hostilities in the region had triggered fears of economic crisis in Tucson, since the Federal government was reducing funds for pacifying and controlling hostile tribes, mostly Apaches. Merchants who survived on the "blankets for peace" economy, were afraid their source of income would soon be lost.
In early 1871, to bolster public support for increased hostilities and increased federal funding of "gifts" to the Apaches, several Arizonans allegedly staged mock raids on isolated settlements. One of these settlements was in Aravaipa Canyon.
Indian affairs in early 1870s Arizona lurched back and forth between peace and war. Each new round of hostilities brought increasing conflict between the settlers and the soldiers. The report of the Indian Peace Commission, in 1867, led to the creation of the Board of Indian Commissioners two years later. Investigating abuses within the Office of Indian Affairs, the commissioners spearheaded a growing movement for Indian rights that culminated in the Quaker Policy of President Ulysses S. Grant's administration.
A major problem faced by Arizona's military was they had too few soldiers for too vast an area of land. Most chronicles of the time regarded Apaches as the biggest menace, but Yuman-speaking Yavapais, who were often identified as Apache Mohaves or Apache Yumas, killed and mutilated settlers just as often. Divided into four subtribes, the Tolkapaya, or Western Yavapais, the Yavepe and the Wipukpaya or Northeastern Yavapais and the Kewevkapaya or Southeastern Yavapais, the Yavapais ranged from the Colorado River to the Tonto Basin. Like the Apaches, they were mobile and extremely independent, their only political authorities being war chiefs and advisory chiefs selected by local groups. This made it extremely difficult for the United States Army to run down or negotiate with more than one Yavapai group at a time. Troops had to pursue the Yavapais across rough desert terrain. Many of the soldiers deserted, fleeing places like Camp Grant, a sun-scorched collection of adobe buildings.
Camp Grant.
Early in 1871, a 37-year-old first lieutenant named Royal Emerson Whitman assumed command of Camp Grant, Arizona Territory, about 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Tucson. In February 1871, five old Apache women straggled into Camp Grant to look for a son who had been taken prisoner. Whitman fed them and treated them kindly, so other Apaches from Aravaipa and Pinal bands soon came to the post to receive rations of beef and flour. That spring, Whitman created a refuge along Aravaipa Creek, about five miles (8 km) east of Camp Grant for nearly 500 Aravaipa and Pinal Apaches, including Chief Eskiminzin. The Apaches began cutting hay for the post's horses and harvesting barley in nearby ranchers' fields.
Whitman may have suspected that peace could not last. He urged Eskiminzin to move his people to the White Mountains near Fort Apache, which was established in 1870, but he refused. During the winter and spring, William S. Oury and Jesús María Elías formed a vigilante group, the Committee of Public Safety, which blamed every depredation in southern Arizona on the Camp Grant Apaches. After Apaches ran off livestock from San Xavier on April 10, Elías contacted his old ally Francisco Galerita, leader of the Tohono O'odham at San Xavier. Oury collected arms and ammunition from his followers.
Massacre.
On the afternoon of April 28, six Anglo Americans, 48 Mexican Americans, and 92 Tohono O'odham gathered along Rillito Creek and set off on a march to Aravaipa Canyon; one of the Americans was William S. Oury, the brother of Granville Henderson Oury. At dawn on Sunday, April 30, they surrounded the Apache camp. The O'odham were the main fighters, while the Americans and Mexicans picked off Apaches who tried to escape. Most of the Apache men were off hunting in the mountains. All but eight of the corpses were women and children. Twenty-nine children had been captured and were sold into slavery in Mexico by the Tohono O'odham and the Mexicans themselves. A total of 144 Aravaipas and Pinals had been killed and mutilated, nearly all of them scalped.
Aftermath.
Lieutenant Whitman searched for the wounded, found only one woman, buried the bodies, and dispatched interpreters into the mountains to find the Apache men and assure them his soldiers had not participated in the "vile transaction". The following evening, the surviving Aravaipas began trickling back to Camp Grant. Many of the settlers in southern Arizona considered the attack justifiable homicide and agreed with Oury, but this was not the end of the story.
Within a week of the slaughter, a local businessman, William Hopkins Tonge, wrote to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs stating, "The Indians at the time of the massacre being so taken by surprise and considering themselves perfectly safe with scarcely any arms, those that could get away ran for the mountains." He was the first person to refer to what had taken place as a massacre.
The military and the Eastern press called it a massacre, so President Grant informed Governor A.P.K. Safford that if the perpetrators were not brought to trial, he would place Arizona under martial law. In October 1871, a Tucson grand jury indicted 100 of the assailants with 108 counts of murder. The trial, two months later, focused solely on Apache depredations; it took the jury just 19 minutes to pronounce a verdict of not guilty. Western Apache groups soon left their farms and gathering places near Tucson in fear of subsequent attacks. As pioneer families arrived and settled in the area, Apaches were never able to regain hold of much of their ancestral lands in the San Pedro River Valley. Many groups of Apaches joined up with the Yavapais in Tonto Basin, and from there, a guerilla war began which lasted until 1875.
Site of Camp Grant and the massacre.
The massacre occurred in the vicinity of Camp Grant. In 1871, its location was on an upper terrace on the east bank of the San Pedro River, just north of the junction with Araviapa Creek. The camp was in the vicinity of 32°50'51.22"N, 110°42'11.91"W. The Camp Grant site was near the present Aravaipa Campus of Central Arizona Community College, which is located between the towns of Mammoth and Winkelman on Arizona State Route 77. Few remains of the site are visible.
Current authorities place the massacre site south of the Aravaipa Creek and about five miles upstream from Camp Grant. No marker is at the site of the massacre, and the location is only generally known.
Descendants of those massacred are in 2021 fighting in opposition to the siting of a massive copper mine at Oak Flat, proximate to the massacre site.


Snowblind Studios

Snowblind Studios was an American video game developer located in Kirkland, Washington. They were founded in 1997, specializing in role-playing video games.
In February 2009, Snowblind Studios was acquired by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. Originally located in Bothell, Washington, after the Warner Bros. acquisition, the studio was relocated to Kirkland. Following the release of ", the studio was merged in with Monolith Productions in 2012.
Game engine.
The Snowblind engine, also referred to as the Dark Alliance game engine, is a game engine created by Snowblind Studios for perspective correct overhead third person view role-playing games. It was first used by Snowblind Studios to create ". The previous "Baldur's Gate" games used the Infinity Engine which was created by BioWare for isometric role-playing games.
The first game to use the engine was "Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance", a joint collaboration between Interplay Entertainment and Snowblind Studios. Interplay then used the engine for all their ports of the game except the Game Boy version, which used its own game engine. These ports of the game greatly expanded on how much content the game was able to use and the amount of saving slots present in the game.
The engine was then used by Snowblind Studios in its "EverQuest" games starting with "Champions of Norrath". Snowblind improved the engine in their own ways, such as adding new features such as character creation and online multiplayer. Interplay, however, continued to use the engine, due to the fact they partly owned the engine, for their console games. Interplay used the engine for their sequel to "Dark Alliance", ', which was developed by Black Isle Studios. This sequel once again improved on the engine's capabilities and added more features, improved graphics and better audio; it added features from the Infinity Engine "Baldur's Gate" games such as "Companions". Interplay then released ' and "The Bard's Tale"; both games improved on the engine in their own way. "Brotherhood of Steel" added a reputation system to the game and "The Bard's Tale" improved on other features of the engine, such as audio. "The Bard's Tale" was the Dark Alliance Engine's first PC release. Interplay was developing a sequel to "Brotherhood of Steel", "". This game would have added the features of sniping, stealth and a more advanced reputation system. It was, however, canceled.
Snowblind Studios then released ', which refined the online multiplayer and changed the linear portion of the games released for the engine and allowed characters to change the ending. Around this time, Snowblind began to license the engine out to indie developers; however, of these developers, only one could make a game. The game was met with a lawsuit by Titus Software, the owners of Interplay, and Acclaim Entertainment but in the end, it was ultimately released as '.
Snowblind then created "Justice League Heroes" with the same engine in 2006. The game was released around the time the next gen of video game consoles was out, but due to it being created for the previous gen, it was released for Xbox and PlayStation 2. A portable version of the engine was used for the PlayStation Portable, but the Game Boy and Nintendo DS versions used their own engine. To fit the superhero theme of the game, Snowblind Studios put most of their effort into the length of the game, thereby taking out many features of the engine.


KACN-LP


White Bluffs, Washington

White Bluffs was an agricultural town in Benton County, Washington, United States. It was depopulated in 1943 along with the town of Hanford to make room for the nuclear production facility known as the Hanford Site.
Prior to the arrival of white settlers, the land was inhabited by the Wanapum Indians, a tribe closely related to the Palouse, Yakama, and Nez Perce tribes.
The first white settlement at White Bluffs was in 1861. The original townsite was located on the east bank of the Columbia River in Franklin County, near present-day Area 100H of the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. A ferry was built to accommodate traffic across the Columbia headed for the gold rush in British Columbia. By the early 1890s the population had grown and the town expanded to the west bank of the Columbia in Benton County.
The state government authorized a "colonization" project in 1921 to build 99 homes for returning World War I veterans, but abandoned it in 1925.
When U.S. government seizures of homes of White Bluffs residents occurred beginning in March 1943, some homes were seized immediately for government office buildings. Residents were given from three days to two months to abandon their homes. Homes and orchards were burned by the government to clear the site. The remains of some 177 persons buried at the White Bluffs Cemetery were moved on May 6, 1943, to the East Prosser Cemetery, some 30 miles (50 km) away.
At the time of the government destruction of the town of White Bluffs, production of pears, apples, vegetables, and grapes for wine production were primary sources of livelihood. Today, almost nothing remains of the town.
A U.S. Department of Energy photo gallery containing various White Bluffs pictures was released on June 15, 2008.