Television in the United Kingdom

Regular television broadcasts in the United Kingdom started in 1936 as a public service which was free of advertising, while the introduction of television and the first tests commencing in 1922. Currently, the United Kingdom has a collection of free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription services over a variety of distribution media, through which there are over 480 channels for consumers as well as on-demand content. There are six main channel owners who are responsible for most material viewed.
There are 27,000 hours of domestic content produced a year at a cost of £2.6 billion. Since 24 October 2012, all television broadcasts in the United Kingdom have been in a digital format, following the end of analogue transmissions in Northern Ireland. Digital content is delivered via terrestrial, satellite and cable, as well as over IP. As of 2003, 53.2% of households watch through terrestrial, 31.3% through satellite, and 15.6% through cable.
The Royal Television Society (RTS) is a British-based educational charity for the discussion, and analysis of television in all its forms, past, present, and future. It is the oldest television society in the world.
Broadcast television providers.
Free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription providers operate, with differences in the number of channels, capabilities such as the programme guide (EPG), video on demand (VOD), high-definition (HD), interactive television via the red button, and coverage across the UK. All providers make available the UK's five most-watched channels: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5.
Broadcast television is distributed as radio waves via terrestrial or satellite transmissions, or as electrical or light signals through ground-based cables. In the UK, these use the Digital Video Broadcasting standard. Most TVs sold in the UK (as well as much of the rest of Europe) come with a DVB-T (terrestrial) tuner. Following the financial failure of digital terrestrial pay TV service ITV Digital in 2002, UK digital terrestrial TV services were rebranded as Freeview and do not require a subscription. Set-top boxes are generally used to receive channels from other providers. Most services have integrated their broadcast TV services with additional video streams distributed via the Internet, or through their own Internet Protocol network.
The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board publish quarterly statistics of the number of UK households per broadcast TV platform. Aggregating the statistics for Q1 2020 show that 56% subscribe to one or more broadcast TV services, vs 44% who receive free TV.
Digital terrestrial television.
The primary digital terrestrial TV service is Freeview, which launched in 2002 and is free-of-charge to view. It replaced the subscription service named ONdigital or ITV Digital, which ran from 1997-2002. Digital terrestrial television was itself the replacement for analogue terrestrial TV, which ran from 1936-2012.
As of March 2021, Freeview contains up to 70+ TV and radio channels, which are received via an aerial. It is operated by DTV Services Ltd., a joint venture between the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Sky. The transmitter network is predominately operated by Arqiva.
The TV channels are transmitted in bundles, called multiplexes, and the available channels are dependent on how many multiplexes are transmitted in each area. Three multiplexes, carrying channels from BBC, ITV, Channel 4, S4C, and Channel 5 as well as radio, are available to 98.5% of the population from 1,154 transmitters. A further 3 multiplexes transmit to 90% of homes from 80 transmitters, and another 2 multiplexes are available to 76% of homes from 30 transmitters. The terrestrial service consisting of just the 3 public service multiplexes, available to 8.5% of the population, is informally called 'Freeview Light' by some websites. In Northern Ireland, a multiplex carrying channels from the Republic of Ireland can reach 90% of Northern Irish homes from 3 transmitters. Local TV and radio is available from an additional multiplex at 42 transmitters.
Multiple vendors sell hybrid set-top-boxes or smart TVs which combine terrestrial channels with streamed (Internet TV) content. Internet-based TV services such as BBC iPlayer, ITV Hub and All 4 are available via the broadband connection of Freeview Play and YouView receivers. These also support optional subscription services such as Netflix and Prime Video. BT TV and TalkTalk TV offer additional subscription channels for their respective broadband customers using YouView devices. Netgem TV offers set-top-boxes combining Freeview Play with subscription channels, and is available directly or from several broadband suppliers.
Cable television.
Many regional companies developed cable-television services in the late 1980s and 1990s as licenses for cable television were awarded on a city-by-city basis. The mid-1990s saw the companies start to merge and the turn of the century only three big companies remained. In 2007 Telewest and NTL merged, resulting in the formation of Virgin Media, which is available to 55% of households. Cable TV is a subscription service normally bundled with a phone line and broadband.
Satellite television.
There are two distinctly-marketed direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) services (also known as direct-to-home (DTH), to be distinguished from satellite signals intended for non-consumer reception).
Sky TV is a subscription service operated by Sky Ltd, owned by Comcast, which launched in 1998 as SkyDigital. Compared to the previous analogue service which had launched in 1989, it provided more channels, widescreen, interactive TV and a near video-on-demand service using staggered start times for pay-per-view content. Innovations since have included high definition, 3D TV, a digital video recorder, the ability to view recordings on other devices, remote operation via the Internet to add recordings, and on-demand content via the satellite-receiver's broadband connection of both Sky and third-party TV. The Sky subscription also includes access to Sky Go, which allows mobile devices and computers to access subscription content via the Internet.
Freesat is a free satellite-service developed jointly by the BBC and ITV. In contrast to Freesat from Sky, it does not need a viewing card. Like Sky, it provides high-definition content, digital recording and video-on-demand via the broadband connection. The on-screen programme guide lists the available channels, rather than encrypted channels which need a subscription to view.
Sky previously marketed Freesat from Sky as a distinct service, but after March 2020, the website redirects to Sky's subscription service.
Freesat and Sky TV transmit from SES Astra satellites at 28.2° east (Astra 2E/2F/2G). As the satellites are in geostationary orbit, they are positioned above the earth's equator () approximately 35,786 km above mean sea level; this places them above the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Internet video services.
TV via the Internet can be streamed or downloaded, and consist of amateur or professionally produced content. In the UK, most broadcasters provide catch-up TV services which allow viewing of TV for a window after it was broadcast. Online video can be viewed via mobile devices, computers, TVs equipped with a built in Internet connection, or TVs connected to an external set-top-box, streaming stick or games console. Most of the broadcast TV providers have integrated their set-top-boxes with Internet video to provide a hybrid broadcast and online service.
Catch-up services.
Since 2006, UK channel owners and content producers have been creating Internet services to access their programmes. Often, these are available for a window after the broadcast schedule. These services generally block users outside of the UK.
Online video services for professionally produced content.
There are numerous online services targeting the UK, offering a combination of subscription, rental and purchase options for viewing online TV. Most are available via any Internet connection, however some require a specific broadband connection. Some services sell 3rd party services, such as Amazon's Prime Video.
BARB tracks the number of households subscribing to Netflix, Prime Video and Now, referred to as SVOD households. Their statistics for Q1 2020 show that 53% of households subscribe to at least one of these, and 24% to at least two. Netflix has 13.01 million subscribers, Prime Video (Amazon) has 7.86 million, and Now has 1.62 million, according to BARB's figures for Q1 2020. BARB's equivalent figures for broadcast TV show that 56% of households subscribe.
The table following summarises some of the available Internet TV services in the UK. For brevity, it does not include catch-up-only or amateur-only services, individual channels, distributors of illegal or adult content, services which solely redistribute free broadcast channels, or services which don't target the UK.
Channels and channel owners.
Viewing statistics.
Most viewed channels.
The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) measures television ratings in the UK. As of 1 March 2020, the average daily viewing time per home was 3 hours 11 minutes (of BARB-reported channels, includes broadcast and Internet viewings). 17 channels have a 4-week share of ≥ 1.0%.
Most viewed broadcaster groups.
As of March 1, 2020, there are 10 broadcaster groups with a four week share of ≥ 1.0% (although BARB reports sub-groups of BBC and ViacomCBS individually, and it's unclear what the 'ITV' group refers to)
BBC and UKTV.
The British Broadcasting Corporation is the world's oldest and largest broadcaster, and is the country's principal public service broadcaster. The BBC is funded primarily by a television licence and from sales of its programming to overseas markets. It does not carry advertising. The licence fee is levied on all households that watch or record TV as it's being broadcast and the fee is determined by periodic negotiation between the government and the BBC.
Its first analogue terrestrial channel, the BBC Television Service, launched in 1936. It rebranded to BBC 1 in 1964, the same year that BBC 2 launched, the UK's third analogue terrestrial channel after ITV. Both channels styled as BBC One and BBC Two from 1997. BBC News 24 launched as an analogue cable channel in 1997, later rebranding to BBC News. BBC Parliament, which was originally an analogue cable channel known as The Parliamentary Channel, was acquired by the BBC in 1998. From 1998 onwards the BBC started digital TV transmissions, launching new channels and broadcasting via satellite in addition to terrestrial and cable. BBC Three closed as a broadcast channel in 2016, continuing as an Internet video service.
The BBC's Internet-based service iPlayer contains content from the BBC's TV channels, the Welsh-language public-service broadcaster S4C, as well as videos created from BBC radio programmes, with Radio 1 in particular appearing as a channel alongside the normal TV channels.
UKTV is a commercial broadcaster owned by BBC Studios, one of the BBC's commercial units. Originating in 1992 with UK Gold, UKTV expanded its channels from 1997 onwards, with the BBC taking full ownership in June 2019. Unlike the BBC's public service channels, the UKTV channels contain advertising.
ITV.
ITV is the network of fourteen regional and one national commercial television franchise, founded in 1955 to provide competition to the BBC. ITV was the country's first commercial television provider funded by advertisements, and has been the most popular commercial channel through most of its existence. Each region was originally independent and used its own on-air identity. Through a series of mergers, takeovers and relaxation of regulation, thirteen of the franchises are now held by ITV plc, and the remaining two by STV Group. STV Group uses the on-air brand name of "STV" for its two franchises in Scotland. ITV plc uses the on-air brand name of "UTV" in Northern Ireland, and "ITV" for the remaining regions, although UTV has used ITV branding and presentation since April 2020 due to the impact of Coronavirus on staffing. The national breakfast-time franchise is held by ITV plc, which appears as an indistinguishable programming block across the network. Legally, the network has been referred to as "Channel 3" since 1990, which is the name Ofcom uses.
Since 1998, ITV plc has operated additional free or subscription channels, starting with ITV2.
Channel 4.
Launched in 1982, Channel 4 is a state-owned national broadcaster which is funded by its commercial activities (including advertising). Channel 4 has expanded greatly after gaining greater independence from the IBA, especially in the multi-channel digital world launching E4, Film4, More4, 4Music, 4seven and various timeshift services. Since 2005, it has been a member of the Freeview consortium, and operates one of the six digital terrestrial multiplexes with ITV as Digital 3&4. Since the advent of digital television, Channel 4 is now also broadcast in Wales across all digital platforms. Channel 4 was the first British channel not to carry regional variations for programming, however it does have 6 set advertising regions.
With Bauer Media Group, Channel 4 jointly owns a range of music channels under the Box Plus Network banner.
Sky.
Sky is a European broadcaster owned by global American media conglomerate Comcast. Sky Television launched in 1989, with a 4-channel service received via satellite. The channels at launch were Sky Channel, Sky News, Sky Movies and Eurosport. They were initially free to receive, and Sky Movies was the first to move to a subscription early in 1990. Sky News was the UK's first dedicated news channel. The new service was the UK's first consumer satellite TV service, beating rival BSB, with which Sky would later merge to become BSkyB. Sky's satellite service grew to become a subscription platform through which Sky offer their own channels, pay-per-view services and channels from other broadcasters. Sky's digital platform launched in 1998, with the original analogue service closing in 2001. Sky was acquired by Comcast in 2018.
Since 2012, Sky operate Now, an Internet TV streaming service offering subscriptions without a fixed-term contract.
Sky's channel portfolio has grown greatly since the launch of digital TV. Sky make their channels available via rival cable and Internet services as well as their own satellite service and Now.
ViacomCBS.
Channel 5 was the fifth analogue terrestrial channel to launch, in March 1997. Due to constraints with the available UHF frequencies at the time, many households had to retune their video recorders, which shared the frequency on their RF output with the frequency used by Channel 5's new broadcasts. Channel 5 was the first terrestrial channel to also broadcast via satellite. From 2006 onwards, Channel 5 launched new digital channels and an Internet on-demand service. After changing ownership several times, in May 2014 Channel 5 and its sister channels were acquired by Viacom, an American media conglomerate.
By the time it acquired Channel 5, Viacom already operated a large number of subscription channels in the UK, including the MTV, Nickelodeon and Comedy Central channels, which are available via Sky TV, Virgin Media and Now. In terms of viewing share, the combined viewing across ViacomCBS's channels make the group the UK's 5th largest broadcaster, according to BARB's viewing figures for 1 March 2020. Viacom merged with CBS in December 2019.
Local and regional television.
Local television.
Since 2012, additional local TV channels are available via Freeview channel 7 or 8. The channels are licensed by Ofcom, with 34 local TV channels licensed as of 2 July 2020. 19 of the licenses are held by That's TV, and 8 are held by Made Television. The remainder are held independently. Each license contains the amount of local TV programming required. As an example, the license for Scarborough, which is held by That's TV, requires 7 hours of local programming per week (1 hour/day on average). 13 additional licenses were originally intended, but Ofcom decided not to advertise these in June 2018.
The way Ofcom structured local TV - being dependent on terrestrial transmission - was criticised in a Guardian article in 2015 as being 'years behind in its thinking', as it doesn't account for the Internet. In the article, Ofcom responded that the licensing scheme was inherited from the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. In April 2018, BBC News reported that 'many of the stations have been ridiculed for the poor quality of their output or have been reported to Ofcom for breaching broadcasting rules'. The local TV companies receive a subsidy from the BBC of £147.50 per local news story, funded by the license fee, paid whether the BBC uses the content or not. A June 2018 article on BuzzFeed claims that That's TV was created primarily to extract money from the BBC whilst delivering little content of useful value.
Regional television.
BBC One, BBC Two and the ITV network (comprising ITV and STV) are split into regions in which regional news and other programming is broadcast. ITV/STV is split into 14 geographic licencees, with several of these split into 2 or 3 sub-regions, resulting in a greater total number of regional news programmes. Ofcom sets a quota for the BBC and ITV on the amount of regional programming required.
Advertising on ITV/STV and Channel 4 is regional. Channel 4 is split into 6 advertising regions, but has no regional programming.
Country-specific channels.
BBC Scotland and the Gaelic-language channel BBC Alba target Scotland, and the Welsh-language channel S4C targets Wales. In Northern Ireland, channels originating in the Republic of Ireland are available, including RTÉ One, RTÉ2 and the Irish-language TG4.
Programming.
British television differs from other countries, such as the United States, in as much that programmes produced in the United Kingdom do not generally have a long season run of around 20 weeks. Instead, they are produced in a series, a set of episodes varying in length, usually aired over a period of a few months. See List of British television series.
100 Greatest British Television Programmes.
100 Greatest British Television Programmes was a list compiled in 2000 by the British Film Institute (BFI), chosen by a poll of industry professionals, to determine what were the greatest British television programmes of any genre ever to have been screened. Although not including any programmes made in 2000 or later, the list is useful as an indication of what were generally regarded as the most successful British programmes of the 20th century. The top 10 programmes are:
100 Greatest TV Moments.
100 Greatest TV Moments was a list compiled by Channel 4 in 1999. The top 10 entries are:
List of most watched television broadcasts.
The majority of special events attracting large audiences are often carried on more than one channel. The most-watched programme of all time on a single channel is the 1973 wedding ceremony of The Princess Anne, shown only on BBC1. The figures in these tables represent the average viewership achieved by each broadcast during its run-time and do not include peak viewership.
"Notes":
Genre lists.
100 Greatest Kids' TV shows.
The 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows was a poll conducted by the British television channel Channel 4 in 2001. The top 5 UK-produced programmes are:
British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series.
The British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series is one of the major categories of the British Academy Television Awards. The last 5 winners are:
Terrestrial channel programming.
Weekday.
Weekday programming on terrestrial channels begins at 6 am with breakfast national news programmes (along with regional news updates) on "BBC Breakfast" on BBC One and "Good Morning Britain" on ITV, with Channel 5 showing children's programmes under the "Milkshake!" brand. Channel 4 predominately broadcasts comedy programmes such as "Everybody Loves Raymond" and in its morning slot. The weekday breakfast news programme ends at 9:15 am on BBC One and 9am on ITV.
Following this on BBC One, lifestyle programming is generally shown, including property, auction and home and gardening. BBC One continues this genre until after the lunchtime news, whereby afternoon has a soap called "Doctors" followed by dramas. BBC Two airs the BBC News updates and political programming between 9 am and 1 pm. Channel 4 often shows home-project and archaeology lifestyle programming in the early afternoon after a "Channel 4 News" summary. Channel 5 broadcasts chat show programmes in the morning including "Jeremy Vine" with regular news bulletins. In the afternoon, it shows dramas followed by an hour of Australian soaps such as "Home and Away" and "Neighbours" and films.
News bulletins are broadcast between 6 pm and 7 pm on both BBC One and ITV, with BBC One beginning with the national BBC News at Six and ITV with the flagship regional news programme. At around 6:30 pm, BBC One broadcasts the regional news programmes whilst ITV broadcasts the ITV Evening News. Channel 4 News starts at 7 pm and 5 News broadcasts for half an hour at 5 pm and 6:30 pm.
Primetime programming is usually dominated by further soaps, including "EastEnders" on BBC One, "Coronation Street" and "Emmerdale" on ITV, and "Hollyoaks" on Channel 4. These soap operas or 'continuing dramas' as they are now called can vary throughout the year, however weekly dramas, such as "Holby City", are also fixed to scheduling. BBC Two broadcasts factual programming, including lifestyle and documentaries. BBC Four begins programming at 7PM. The channel shows a wide variety of programmes including arts, documentaries, music, international film, comedy, original programmes, drama and current affairs. It is required by its licence to air at least 100 hours of new arts and music programmes, 110 hours of new factual programmes and to premiere 20 foreign films each year. BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 broadcast dramas and documentaries in the evenings. At 10pm with the flagship national news on BBC One in BBC News at Ten (followed by Newsnight on BBC Two) and on ITV on ITV News at Ten followed by the regional late night news. Because of this, the UK can often rely more heavily on TV guides, be it with the newspaper, online, via information services on the television such as the BBC Red Button service or the built in Electronic Programme Guides.
Weekend.
Weekend daytime programming traditionally consists of more lifestyle programming plus films and live and recorded coverage of sporting events on most weekend afternoons. There are further battles for viewers in the weekend primetime slot, often featuring documentaries and game shows in the evening. Lunchtime, early evening and late evening news programmes continue on BBC One and ITV although the length of the bulletins are shorter than during the week. Sunday night schedules usually consist of dramas, light entertainment, documentaries, films, music concerts, festivals or sporting events.
Cultural impact.
Christian morality.
In 1963 Mary Whitehouse, incensed by the liberalising policies followed by Sir Hugh Greene, then director general of the BBC, began her letter writing campaign. She subsequently launched the Clean Up TV Campaign, and founded the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association in 1965. In 2008, Toby Young in an article for "The Independent" wrote: "On the wider question of whether sex and violence on TV has led to a general moral collapse in society at large, the jury is still out. No one doubts that Western civilization is teetering on the brink ... but it is unfair to lay the blame entirely at the feet of BBC2 and Channel 4."
In 2005, the "" elicited 55,000 complaints, and provoked protests from Christian organisation Christian Voice, and a private prosecution against the BBC by the Christian Institute. A summons was not issued.
Awards.
The British Academy Television Awards are the most prestigious awards given in the British television industry, analogous to the Emmy Awards in the United States. They have been awarded annually since 1954, and are only open to British programmes. After all the entries have been received, they are voted for online by all eligible members of the Academy. The winner is chosen from the four nominees by a special jury of nine academy members for each award, the members of each jury selected by the Academy's Television Committee.
The National Television Awards is a British television awards ceremony, sponsored by ITV and initiated in 1995. Although not widely held to be as prestigious as the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards are probably the most prominent ceremony for which the results are voted on by the general public. Unlike the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards allow foreign programmes to be nominated, providing they have been screened on a British channel during the eligible time period.
Regulation.
Ofcom is the independent regulator and competition authority for the communication industries in the United Kingdom, including television. As the regulatory body for media broadcasts, Ofcom's duties include:
In 2008, Ofcom issued fines to the total of £7.7m. This included £5.67m of fines to ITV companies, including a £3m fine to LWT over voting irregularities on Saturday Night Takeaway, and fines totalling £495,000 to the BBC. Ofcom said phone-in scandals had contributed significantly to the fine totals.
The Committee for Advertising Practice (CAP, or BCAP) is the body contracted by Ofcom to create and maintain the codes of practice governing television advertising. The Broadcast Advertising Codes (or the TV codes) are accessible on CAP's web site. The Codes cover advertising standards (the TV Code), guidance notes, scheduling rules, text services (the Teletext Code) and interactive television guidance. The main sections of the TV Code concern compliance, programmes and advertising, unacceptable products, political and controversial issues, misleading advertising, harm and offence, children, medicines, treatments, health claims and nutrition, finance and investments, and religion.
The Advertising Standards Authority is an independent body responsible for resolving complaints relating to the advertising industry within the UK. It is not government funded, but funded by a levy on the advertising industry. It ensures compliance with the Codes created by CAP. The ASA covers all forms of advertising, not just television advertisements. The ASA can refer problematic adverts to Ofcom, since the channels carrying the adverts are ultimately responsible for the advertising content, and are answerable to Ofcom. Ofcom can issue fines or revoke broadcast licences if necessary.
Licensing.
In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies, a television licence is required to receive any publicly broadcast television service, or for using BBC iPlayer. This includes the commercial channels, cable and satellite transmissions, Internet-streamed channels, and applies regardless of the technology used to view. The money from the licence fee is used to provide radio, television and Internet content for the BBC, Welsh-language television programmes for S4C, monitoring, several orchestras and performing groups, and contributions to broadband roll out. The fee is classified as a hypothecated tax rather than a subscription. The BBC gives the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income per month in 2019/2020:
Production.
As of 2002, 27,000 hours of original programming are produced year in the UK television industry, excluding news, at a cost of £2.6bn. Ofcom has determined that 56% (£1.5bn) of production is in-house by the channel owners, and the remainder by independent production companies. Ofcom is enforcing a 25% independent production quota for the channel operators, as stipulated in the Broadcasting Act 1990.
In-house production.
ITV plc, the company which owns 12 of the 15 regional ITV franchises, has set its production arm ITV Studios a target of producing 75% of the ITV schedule, the maximum allowed by Ofcom. This would be a rise from 54% at present, as part of a strategy to make ITV content-led chiefly to double production revenues to £1.2bn by 2012. ITV Studios currently produces programmes such as "Coronation Street", "Emmerdale" and "Heartbeat".
In contrast, the BBC has implemented a Window of Creative Competition (WOCC), a 25% proportion over and above the 25% Ofcom quota in which the BBC's in-house production and independent producers can compete. The BBC produces shows such as "All Creatures Great and Small" and "F***off I'm a Hairy Woman".
Channel 4 commissions all programmes from independent producers.
Independent production.
As a consequence of the launch of Channel 4 in 1982, and the 25% independent quota from the Broadcasting Act 1990, an independent production sector has grown in the UK. Notable companies include Talkback Thames, Endemol UK, Hat Trick Productions, and Tiger Aspect Productions. A full list can be seen here:
History.
Closed and aborted television providers.
The following Internet TV services have closed:
The following services were aborted before launch:
Analogue terrestrial television.
Analogue TV was transmitted via VHF (1936) and later UHF (1964) radio waves, with analogue broadcasts ending in 2012.
VHF transmissions started in 1936 and closed in 1985 (with a gap 1939–1946), carrying two channels. The launch channel was the BBC Television Service, known as BBC 1 since 1964. This was joined by Independent Television, a network of regional franchises launching between 1955 and 1962. The channels transmitted in monochrome using the 405-line television system at 25 frames per second, initially with an aspect ratio of 5:4, switching to in 1950.
UHF transmissions started in 1964 and closed in 2012. The launch channel was BBC 2. This would be joined by BBC 1, the ITV network, Channel 4 or S4C in Wales, Channel 5 as well as a network of local TV channels. Transmissions started using the System I standard, a 625-line monochrome picture at 25 frames/second (576i) and a 4:3 aspect ratio. Technical advancements included colour (1967), teletext (1974), and stereo sound (1991). The drive to switch viewers from analogue to digital transmissions was a process called the digital switchover.
Whilst there are no longer any analogue broadcasts in the UK, a PAL signal may be present in closed RF distribution systems, e.g. a video feed from an intercom in a block of flats, or a security system.
Defunct channels.
There are nearly 200 defunct British channels. For a list, see List of former TV channels in the UK or .
Commentary.
The rise of television in the UK.
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1927 to develop radio broadcasting, and inevitably became involved in TV in 1936. The BBC is funded by income from a "Broadcast Receiving Licence" purchased by UK residents. The cost of this is set by agreement with the UK Government.
Television caught on in the United Kingdom in 1947, but its expansion was slow. By 1951, with only two transmitters, near London and Birmingham, only 9% of British homes owned a television set. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to have a regular daily television schedule direct to homes, and it was the first to have technical professions to work on TVs.
Up until 1972, television broadcasting hours were tightly regulated by the British government, under the control of the Postmaster General. Before the launch of the commercial channel ITV in 1955, the BBC was restricted by law to just five hours maximum of television in a day. This was increased at the launch of the commercial channel ITV to a 7-hour broadcasting day for both channels. Gradually the number of hours were increased. Typically, during the late 1960s, the law regulated a 50-hour broadcasting week for all television channels in the UK. This that meant BBC1, BBC2 and ITV could only broadcast normal programming for 7 hours a day from Mondays to Fridays, and 7.5 hours a day on Saturdays and Sundays.
Until 1957, television in the United Kingdom could not air from 6.00pm-7.00pm. This was called the "Toddlers' Truce", in which the idea was that parents could put their children to bed before primetime television would commence; this restriction was lifted in 1957. However, on Sundays, television remained off the air from 6.00pm-7.00pm. This was in response to religious leaders' fears that television would interfere with people attending church services. In 1958, a compromise was reached, in which only religious programming could be aired during this time slot. The restriction was lifted in January 1972.
The Postmaster General allowed exemptions to the regulations. All schools programming, adult education, religious programming, state occasions, political broadcasts and Welsh language programming were totally exempt from the restrictions. Sport and outside broadcasting events were given a separate quota of broadcasting hours which could be used in a year, starting off at 200 hours a year in the mid 1950s, rising to a quota of 350 hours a year by the late 1960s. Broadcasting on Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Eve and New Year's Day was also exempt from the tightly controlled restrictions.
The election of a Conservative government in June 1970 brought in changes to the control of broadcasting hours. At first, the typical broadcasting day was extended to 8 hours a day, with an increase in exemptions over Christmas, and an increase in the sport/outside broadcasting quota. On 19 January 1972, the then Minister for Posts and Telecommunications, Christopher Chataway, announced to the British House of Commons that all restrictions on broadcasting hours on television would be lifted from that day, with the broadcasters allowed to set their own broadcasting hours from then on. By November 1972, a full daytime schedule had been launched on ITV from 9.30am each day, with the BBC also expanding their schedules to include more daytime programming.
The UK Government previously appointed people to the BBC's Board of Governors, a body responsible for the general direction of the organisation, and appointment of senior executives, but not its day-to-day management. From 2007, the BBC Trust replaced the Board of Governors. It is operationally independent of BBC management and external bodies, and aims to act in the best interests of licence fee payers.
Commercial television was first introduced in the United Kingdom in 1955. Unlike the US, there was a distinct split between advertisements and programming. Advertisers purely purchased spots within pre-defined breaks within programming, and had no connection to the programme content. The content and nature of adverts was strictly controlled by the ITA, the body controlling commercial television.
History of satellite television.
The first commercial direct-broadcast satellite (DBS, also known as direct-to-home) service in the United Kingdom, Sky Television, was launched in 1989 and used the newly launched Astra satellite at 19.2° east, providing four analogue TV channels. The channels and subsequent VideoCrypt video encryption system used the existing PAL broadcast standard, unlike the winner of the UK state DBS licence, British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB).
In 1990, BSB launched, broadcasting five channels (Now, Galaxy, The Movie Channel, The Power Station and The Sports Channel) in D-MAC format and using the EuroCypher video encryption system which was derived from the General Instruments VideoCipher system used in the USA. One of the main selling points of the BSB offering was the Squarial, a flat plate antenna and low-noise block converter (LNB). Sky's system used conventional and cheaper dish and LNB technology.
The two companies competed over the UK rights to movies. Sky operated from an industrial park in Isleworth in West London, whereas BSB had newly built offices in London (Marco Polo House). The two services subsequently merged to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). BSB's D-MAC/EuroCypher system was gradually replaced with Sky's VideoCrypt video encryption system.
In 1994, 17% of the group was floated on the London Stock Exchange (with ADRs listed on the New York Stock Exchange), and Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation owns a 35% stake.
By 1998, following the launch of several more satellites to Astra's 19.2° east position, the number of channels had increased to around 60 and BSkyB launched the first subscription-based digital television platform in the UK, offering a range of 300 channels broadcast from Astra's new satellite, at 28.2° east position under the brand name Sky Digital. BSkyB's analogue service has now been discontinued, with all customers having been migrated to Sky Digital.
In May 2008, a free-to-air satellite service from the BBC and ITV was launched under the brand name Freesat, carrying a variety of channels from Astra 28.2°E, including some content in HD formats.


Margolis

Margolis is a surname that, like its variants shown below, is derived from the Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation of the Hebrew word (Israeli Hebrew [maɹgalit]), meaning 'pearl,' and may refer to:


History of the punk subculture

The history of the punk subculture involves the history of punk rock, the history of various punk ideologies, punk fashion, punk visual art, punk literature, dance, and punk film. Since emerging in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia in the mid-1970s, the punk subculture has spread around the globe and evolved into a number of different forms. The history of punk plays an important part in the history of subcultures in the 20th century.
Antecedents and influences.
Several precursors to the punk subculture had varying degrees of influence on that culture.
Art and philosophy.
A number of philosophical and artistic movements were influences on and precursors to the punk movement. The most overt is anarchism, especially its artistic inceptions. The cultural critique and strategies for revolutionary action offered by the Situationist International in the 1950s and 1960s were an influence on the vanguard of the British punk movement, particularly the Sex Pistols. Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren consciously embraced situationist ideas, which are also reflected in the clothing designed for the band by Vivienne Westwood and the visual artwork of the Situationist-affiliated Jamie Reid, who designed many of the band's graphics. Nihilism also had a hand in the development of punk's careless, humorous, and sometimes bleak character. Marxism gave punk some of its revolutionary zeal.
Several strains of modern art anticipated and influenced punk. The relationship between punk rock and popular music has a clear parallel with the irreverence Dadaism held for the project of high art. If not a direct influence, futurism, with its interests in speed, conflict, and raw power foreshadowed punk culture in a number of ways. Minimalism furnished punk with its simple, stripped-down, and straightforward style. Another source of punk's inception was pop art. Andy Warhol and his Factory studio played a major role in setting up what would become the New York punk scene. Pop art also influenced the look of punk visual art. In more recent times, postmodernism has made headway into the punk scene.
Literature and film.
Various writers, books, and literary movements were important to the formation of the punk subculture. Poet Arthur Rimbaud provided the basis for Richard Hell's attitude, fashion, and hairstyle. Charles Dickens' working class politics and unromantic depictions of disenfranchised street youth influenced British punk in a number of ways. Malcolm McLaren described the Sex Pistols as Dickensian.
Punk was influenced by the Beat generation, especially Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs. Kerouac's "On the Road" gave Jim Carroll the impetus to write "The Basketball Diaries", perhaps the first example of punk literature. George Orwell's dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four" might have inspired much of punk's distrust for the government. In his autobiography "No Dogs, No Blacks, No Irish!", John Lydon remembers the influence that film version of "A Clockwork Orange" had on his own style. John Waters' 1972 underground classic, "Pink Flamingos", is considered an important precursor of punk culture.
Music.
Punk rock has a variety of origins. Garage rock was the first form of music called "punk", and indeed that style influenced much of punk rock. Punk rock was also a reaction against tendencies that had overtaken popular music in the 1970s, including what the punks saw as "bombastic" forms of heavy metal, progressive rock and "arena rock" as well as "superficial" disco music (although in the UK, many early Sex Pistols fans such as the Bromley Contingent and Jordan quite liked disco, often congregating at nightclubs such as Louise's in Soho and the Sombrero in Kensington. The track "Love Hangover" by Diana Ross, the house anthem at the former, was cited as a particular favourite by many early UK Punks.) The British punk movement also found a precedent in the "do-it-yourself" attitude of the Skiffle craze that emerged amid the post-World War II austerity of 1950s Britain.
In addition to the inspiration of those "garage bands" of the 1960s, the roots of punk rock draw on the snotty attitude, on-stage and off-stage violence, and aggressive instrumentation of The Who; the snotty attitude of the early Rolling Stones, which can be traced back to Eddie Cochran and Gene Vincent of the late 1950s; the abrasive, dissonant mental breakdown style of The Velvet Underground; the sexuality, political confrontation, and on-stage violence of Detroit bands Alice Cooper, The Stooges and MC5; the English pub rock scene and political UK underground bands such as Mick Farren and the Deviants; the New York Dolls; and some British "glam rock" or "art rock" acts of the early 1970s, including T.Rex, David Bowie, Gary Glitter and Roxy Music. Influence from other musical genres, including reggae, funk, and rockabilly can also be detected in early punk rock.
Earlier subcultures.
Previous youth subcultures influenced various aspects of the punk subculture. The punk movement rejected the remnants of the hippie counterculture of the 1960s while at the same time preserving its distaste for the mainstream. Punk fashion rejected the loose clothes, and bell-bottomed appearances of hippie fashion. At the same time, punks rejected the long hair adopted by hippies in favor of short, choppy haircuts, especially in the Britain as a follow on from the precursor Mod, Skinhead and the late sixties/early 70s Bootboy hairstyle fashions. The hippie crash pad found a new inception as punk houses. The jeans, T-shirts, chains, and leather jackets common in punk fashion can be traced back to the bikers, rockers and greasers of earlier decades. The all-black attire and moral laxity of some Beatniks influenced the punk movement. Other subcultures that influenced the punk subculture, in terms of fashion, music attitude or other factors include: Teddy Boys, Mods, skinheads and glam rockers. In 1991, Observer journalist John Windsor wrote a story about artist Frankie Stein - Precursor to Punk, observing that she was wearing a safety pin as earring some years before her friends in SexPistols picked it up and experimented in tandem with Sassoon artistic director Flint Whincop with hairstyles copied by people in her circle such as Toya, Steve Strange and what became The Sex Pistols.
Origins.
The phrase "punk rock" (from "", meaning a beginner or novice), was originally applied to the untutored guitar-and-vocals-based rock and roll of United States bands of the mid-1960s such as The Standells, The Sonics, and The Seeds, bands that now are more often categorized as "garage rock". The earliest known example of a rock journalist using the term was Greg Shaw who used it to describe music of The Guess Who in the April 1971 issue of "Rolling Stone", which he refers to as "good, not too imaginative, punk rock and roll". Dave Marsh also used the term in the May 1971 issue of "Creem" in reference to music by ? and the Mysterians. The term was mainly used by rock music journalists in the early 1970s to describe 60s garage bands and more contemporary acts influenced by them.
In the liner notes of the 1972 anthology album "", critic and guitarist Lenny Kaye uses the term "punk-rock" to refer to the mid-60s garage rock groups, as well as some of the darker and more primitive practitioners of 1960s psychedelic rock.
The next step in punk's early development, retroactively named protopunk, arose in the north-eastern United States in cities such as Detroit, Boston, and New York. Bands such as the Velvet Underground, the Stooges, MC5, and The Dictators, coupled with shock rock acts like Alice Cooper, laid the foundation for punk in the US. The transvestite community of New York inspired the New York Dolls, who led the charge as glam punk developed out of the wider glam rock movement. The drug subculture of Manhattan, especially heroin users, formed the fetal stage of the New York punk scene. Art punk, exemplified by Television, grew out of the New York underworld of drug addicts and artists shortly after the emergence of glam punk.
Shortly after the time of those notes, Lenny Kaye (who had written the Nuggets liner notes) formed a band with "avant-garde" poet Patti Smith. Smith's group, and her first album, "Horses", released in 1975, directly inspired many of the mid-1970s punk rockers, so this suggests one path by which the term migrated to the music we now know as punk. There's a bit of controversy which isn't mentioned. The term "punk" was used to define the emerging movement was when posters saying "PUNK IS COMING! WATCH OUT!" were posted around New York City. Also, "Punk Magazine" would use the term and help popularize it. From this point on, punk would emerge as a separate and distinct subculture with its own identity, ideology, and sense of style.
Economic recession, including a garbage strike, instilled much dissatisfaction with life among the youth of industrial Britain. Punk rock in Britain coincided with the end of the era of post-war consensus politics that preceded the rise of Thatcherism, and nearly all British punk bands expressed an attitude of angry social alienation. Los Angeles was also facing economic hard times. A collection of art school students and a thriving drug underground caused Los Angeles to develop one of the earliest punk scenes.
The original punk subculture was made up of a loose affiliation of several groups that emerged at separate times under different circumstances. There was significant cross-pollination between these subcultures, and some were derivative of others. Most of these subcultures are still extant, while others have since gone extinct. These subcultures interacted in various ways to form the original mainline punk subculture, which varied greatly from region to region.
New York.
The first ongoing music scene that was assigned the "punk" label appeared in New York in 1974–1976 centered around bands that played regularly at the clubs Max's Kansas City and CBGB. This had been preceded by a mini underground rock scene at the Mercer Arts Center, picking up from the demise of the Velvet Underground, starting in 1971 and featuring the New York Dolls and Suicide, which helped to pave the way, but came to an abrupt end in 1973 when the building collapsed. The CBGB and Max's scene included The Ramones, Television, Blondie, Patti Smith, Johnny Thunders (a former New York Doll) and the Heartbreakers, Richard Hell and the Voidoids and Talking Heads. The "punk" title was applied to these groups by early 1976, when "Punk Magazine" first appeared, featuring these bands alongside articles on some of the immediate role models for the new groups, such as Lou Reed, who was on the cover of the first issue of "Punk", and Patti Smith, cover subject on the second issue.
At the same time, a less celebrated, but nonetheless highly influential, scene had appeared in Ohio, including The Electric Eels, Devo and Rocket from the Tombs, who in 1975 split into Pere Ubu and The Dead Boys. Malcolm McLaren, then manager of the New York Dolls, spotted Richard Hell and decided to bring Hell's look back to Britain.
London.
While the London bands may have played a relatively minor role in determining the early punk sound, the London punk scene would come to define and epitomize the rebellious punk culture. After a brief stint managing the New York Dolls at the end of their career in the US, Englishman Malcolm McLaren returned to London in May 1975. With Vivienne Westwood, he started a clothing store called "SEX" that was instrumental in creating the radical punk clothing style. He also began managing The Swankers, who would soon become the Sex Pistols. The Sex Pistols soon created a strong cult following in London, centered on a clique known as the Bromley Contingent (named after the suburb where many of them had grown up), who followed them around the country.
An oft-cited moment in punk rock's history is a 4 July 1976 concert by the Ramones at the Roundhouse in London (The Stranglers were also on the bill). Many of the future leaders of the UK punk rock scene were inspired by this show, and almost immediately after it, the UK punk scene got into full swing. By the end of 1976, many fans of the Sex Pistols had formed their own bands, including The Clash, Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Adverts, Generation X, The Slits and X-Ray Spex. Other UK bands to emerge in this milieu included The Damned (the first to release a single, the classic "New Rose"), The Jam, The Vibrators, Buzzcocks and the appropriately named London.
In December 1976, the Sex Pistols, The Clash, The Damned and Johnny Thunders & the Heartbreakers united for the "Anarchy Tour", a series of gigs throughout the UK. Many of the gigs were canceled by venue owners, after tabloid newspapers and other media seized on sensational stories regarding the antics of both the bands and their fans. The notoriety of punk rock in the UK was furthered by a televised incident that was widely publicized in the tabloid press; appearing on a London TV show called "Thames Today", guitarist Steve Jones of the Sex Pistols was goaded into a verbal altercation by the host, Bill Grundy, swearing at him on live television in violation of at the time accepted standards of propriety.
One of the first books about punk rock — "The Boy Looked at Johnny" by Julie Burchill and Tony Parsons (December 1977) — declared the punk movement to be already over: the subtitle was "The Obituary of Rock and Roll". The title echoed a lyric from the title track of Patti Smith's 1975 album "Horses."
Elsewhere.
During this same period, bands that would later be recognized as "punk" were formed independently in other locations, such as The Saints in Brisbane, Australia, The Modern Lovers in Boston, and The Stranglers and the Sex Pistols in London. These early bands also operated within small "scenes", often facilitated by enthusiastic impresarios who either operated venues, such as clubs, or organized temporary venues. In other cases, the bands or their managers improvised their own venues, such as a house inhabited by The Saints in an inner suburb of Brisbane. The venues provided a showcase and meeting place for the emerging musicians (the 100 Club in London, CBGB in New York, and The Masque in Hollywood are among the best known early punk clubs).
SFR Yugoslavia.
The former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a member of the Eastern Bloc, but a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Maintaining a more liberal communist system, sometimes referred to as "Titoism", Yugoslavia was more opened to Western influences comparing to the other communist states. Hence, starting from the 1950s onwards, a well-developed Yugoslav rock scene was able to emerge with all its music genres and subgenres including punk rock, heavy metal and so on. The Yugoslav punk bands were the first punk rock acts ever to emerge in a communist country.
Notable artists included: the pioneers Pankrti, Paraf and Pekinška patka (the first two formed in 1977, the latter in 1978), the 1980s hardcore punk acts: KUD Idijoti, Niet, KBO! and many others. Many bands from the first generation signed record contracts with major labels such as Jugoton, Suzy Records and ZKP RTL and often appeared on TV and in the magazines, however some preferred independent labels and the DIY ethos. From punk rock emerged the new wave and some bands, such as Prljavo kazalište and Električni orgazam decided to affiliate with it, becoming top acts of the Yugoslav new wave scene. The Yugoslav punk music also included social commentary, which was generally tolerated, however there were certain cases of censorship and some punks faced occasional problems with the authorities.
The scene ceased to exist with the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, and its former artists continued their work in the independent countries that emerged after the breakup of Yugoslavia, where many of them were involved in anti-war activities and often clashed with the domestic chauvinists. Since the end of the wars and the departure of the nationalist leaders, the music scenes in the ex-Yugoslav countries re-established their former cooperation. The Yugoslav punk is considered an important part of the former Yugoslav culture, not only that it influenced the formation of the once vibrant Yugoslav new wave scene but also it gave inspiration to some authentic domestic movements such as New Primitives and others.
Spain.
In Spain, the punk rock scene emerged in 1978, when the country had just emerged from forty years of fascist dictatorship under General Franco, a state that "melded state repression with fundamentalist Catholic moralism". Even after Franco died in 1975, the country went through a "volatile political period", in which the country had to try to relearn democratic values, and install a constitution. When punk emerged, it "did not appropriate socialism as its goal"; instead, it embraced "nihilism", and focused on keeping the memories of past abuses alive, and accusing all of Spanish society of collaborating with the fascist regime.
The early punk scene included a range of marginalized and outcast people, including workers, unemployed, leftists, anarchists, queens, dykes, poseurs, scroungers, and petty criminals. The scenes varied by city. In Madrid, which had been the power center of Franco's Falangist party, the punk scene was like "a release valve" for the formerly repressed youth. In Barcelona, a city which had a particularly "marginalized status under Franco", because he suppressed the area's "Catalan language and culture", the youth felt an "exclusion from mainstream society" that enabled them to come together and form a punk subculture.
The first independently released Spanish punk disc was a 45 RPM record by Almen TNT in 1979. The song, which sounded like the US band The Stooges stated that no one believed in revolution anymore, and it criticized the emerging consumer culture in Spain, as people flocked to the new department stores. The early Spanish punk records, most of which emerged in the explosion of punk in 1978, often reached back to "old-fashioned 50s rocknroll to glam to early metal to Detroit’s hard proto-punk", creating an aggressive mix of fuzz guitar, jagged sounds, and crude Spanish slang lyrics.
Late 1970s: diversification.
In 1977, a second wave of bands emerged, influenced by those mentioned above. Some, such as The Misfits (from New Jersey), The Exploited (from Scotland), GBH (from England) Black Flag (from Los Angeles), Stiff Little Fingers (from Northern Ireland) and Crass (from Essex) would go on to influence the move away from the original sound of punk rock, that would spawn the Hardcore subgenre.
Gradually punk became more varied and less minimalist with bands such as The Clash incorporating other musical influences like reggae and rockabilly and jazz into their music. In the UK, punk interacted with the Jamaican reggae and ska subcultures. The reggae influence is evident in much of the music of The Clash and The Slits, for example. By the end of the 1970s, punk had spawned the 2 Tone ska revival movement, including bands such as The Beat (The English Beat in U.S.), The Specials, Madness and The Selecter.
The message of punk remained subversive, counter-cultural, rebellious, and politically outspoken. Punk rock dealt with topics such as problems facing society, oppression of the lower classes, the threat of a nuclear war, or it delineated the individual's personal problems, such as being unemployed, or having particular emotional and/or mental issues, i.e. depression. Punk rock was a message to society that all was not well and all were not equal. While it is thought that the style of punk from the 1970s had a decline in the 1980s, many subgenres branched off playing their own interpretation of punk rock. Anarcho-punk become a style in its own right. Nazi punk arose as the radical right wing of punk.
1980s: further diversification.
Although most of the prominent bands in the genre pre-dated the 1980s by a few years, it was not until the 1980s that journalist Garry Bushell gave the subgenre "Oi!" its name, partly derived from the Cockney Rejects song "Oi! Oi! Oi!". This movement featured bands such as Cock Sparrer, Cockney Rejects, Blitz, and Sham 69. Bands sharing the Ramones' bubblegum pop influences formed their own brand of punk, sporting melodic songs and lyrics more often dealing with relationships and simple fun than most punk rock's nihilism and anti-establishment stance. These bands, the founders of pop punk, included the Ramones, Buzzcocks, The Rezillos and Generation X.
As the punk movement began to lose steam, post-punk, new wave, and no wave took up much of the media's attention. In the UK, meanwhile, diverse post-punk bands emerged, such as Joy Division, Throbbing Gristle, Gang of Four, Siouxsie and the Banshees & Public Image Ltd, the latter two bands featuring people who were part of the original British punk rock movement.
Sometime around the beginning of the 1980s, punk underwent a renaissance as the hardcore punk subculture emerged. This subculture proved fertile in much the same way as the original punk subculture, producing several new groups. These subcultures stand alongside the older subcultures under the punk banner. The United States saw the emergence of hardcore punk, which is known for fast, aggressive beats and political lyrics. It can be argued, though, that Washington, DC was the site of hardcore punk's first emergence.
Early hardcore bands include Dead Kennedys, Black Flag, Bad Brains, the Descendents, The Replacements, and the Germs, and the movement developed via Minor Threat, the Minutemen, and Hüsker Dü, among others. In New York, there was a large hardcore punk movement led by bands such as Agnostic Front, The Cro-Mags, Murphy's Law, Sick of It All, and Gorilla Biscuits. Other styles emerged from this new genre including skate punk, emo, and straight edge.
Alternative and indie legacy.
The underground punk movement in the United States in the 1980s produced countless bands that either evolved from a punk rock sound or claimed to apply its spirit and DIY ethics to a completely different sound. By the end of the 1980s these bands had largely eclipsed their punk forebearers and were termed alternative rock. As alternative bands like Sonic Youth and the Pixies were starting to gain larger audiences, major labels sought to capitalize on a market that had been growing underground for the past 10 years.
In 1991, Nirvana achieved huge commercial success with their album, "Nevermind". Nirvana cited punk as a key influence on their music. Although they tended to label themselves as punk rock and championed many unknown punk icons (as did many other alternative rock bands), Nirvana's music was equally akin to other forms of garage or indie rock and heavy metal that had existed for decades. Nirvana's success kick-started the alternative rock boom that had been underway since the late 1980s, and helped define that segment of the 1990s popular music milieu. The subsequent shift in taste among listeners of rock music was chronicled in a film entitled "", which featured Nirvana, Dinosaur Jr, and Sonic Youth; Nirvana also featured in the film "Hype!" (U.S.CHAOS).
1990s: American revival.
A new movement in the mainstream became visible in the early and mid-1990s, claiming to be a form of punk, this was characterized by the scene at 924 Gilman Street, a venue in Berkeley, California, which featured bands such as Operation Ivy, Green Day, Rancid and later bands including AFI, (though clearly not simultaneously, as Rancid included members of Operation Ivy, who had broken up 2 years prior to the formation of Rancid).
Epitaph Records, an independent record label started by Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion, would become the home of the "skate punk" sound, characterized by bands like The Offspring, Pennywise, NOFX, and The Suicide Machines, many bands arose claiming the mantle of the ever-diverse punk genre—some playing a more accessible, pop style and achieving commercial success. The late 1990s also saw another ska punk revival. This revival continues into the 2000s with bands like Streetlight Manifesto, Reel Big Fish, and Less Than Jake.
Pop punk.
The commercial success of alternative rock also gave way to another style which mainstream media claimed to be a form of "punk", dubbed pop punk or "mall punk" by the press; this new movement gained success in the mainstream. Examples of bands labeled "pop punk" by MTV and similar media outlets include; Blink 182, Simple Plan, Good Charlotte, and Sum 41.
By the late 1990s, punk was so ingrained in Western culture that it was often used to sell commercial bands as "rebels", amid complaints from punk rockers that, by being signed to major labels and appearing on MTV, these bands were buying into the system that punk was created to rebel against, and as a result, could not be considered true punk (though clearly, punk's earliest pioneers, such as The Clash and The Sex Pistols also released work via the major labels).
2000s and 2010s.
There is still a thriving punk scene in North America, Australia, Asia and Europe. The widespread availability of the Internet and file sharing programs enables bands who would otherwise not be heard outside of their local scene to garner larger followings, and is in keeping with punk's DIY ethic. It has allowed a rise in interaction between punk scenes in different places and subgenres, as evidenced by events such as Fluff Fest in the Czech Republic, which brings together DIY punk enthusiasts from across Europe.


Christ Church Cathedral (Houston)

Christ Church Cathedral, Houston is the cathedral church for the Episcopal Diocese of Texas. The congregation was established in 1839, when Texas was still an independent republic. It is the oldest extant congregation in Houston and one of the oldest non-Roman Catholic churches in Texas. Many Episcopal churches in Houston and the surrounding area were founded as missions of Christ Church, such as Trinity Church, Houston, founded in 1893.
History.
Located at 1117 Texas Avenue in Downtown Houston, the current building dates from 1893. In 1938 the building suffered a major fire. A firefighter sprayed down the ornately carved rood screen to prevent its destruction, and it survived with only minor damage. Everett Titcomb composed the anthem "Behold Now, Praise the Lord" for the rededication and centennial of Christ Church.
Christ Church became the cathedral of the diocese in 1949. Presently, Christ Church has a baptized membership of more than 3000 communicants.
Clergy.
Christ Church's first rector was the Rev’d Charles Gillett of Connecticut. He led the congregation to build its first church building in 1845. James P. deWolfe was the church's rector from 1934 to 1940. He rebuilt the edifice and started many programs before going on to be the Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Long Island. The current dean is the Very Reverend Barkley S. Thompson.
Cathedral House Episcopal School.
The school opened in 1986 on the campus of Christ Church Cathedral with a philosophy grounded in the teachings of Maria Montessori. Classrooms include nursery, movement, toddler, primary and kindergarten.


Mohsen Moeini

Mohsen Moeini (born 27 March 1979) is an Iranian author and director. His work mainly centers around his philosophical and historical preoccupations. As well as directing his own plays, he has directed plays by foreign authors such as Peter Handke and Rainer Werner Fassbinder whose works he staged in Iran for the first time. He has directed the first play to be staged in the Milad Tower.


Manuel (name)

Manuel is a male given name originating in the Hebrew name Immanu'el (, which means "God with us." It was possibly brought from the Byzantine Empire (as ) to Spain and Portugal, where it has been used since at least the 13th century. Manuel is popular in Spanish, Portuguese, German, Romanian, Greek (Latinized), Polish and Dutch where "Manny" or Manu is used as a nickname.


The Monkees discography

This is a list of official recordings by The Monkees.
Singles.
Notes.
A: Released in Japan as The Monkees, and as Mickey Dolenz & Davy Jones elsewhere. The Japanese single failed to chart in 1971, but a 1981 reissue reached #93.

B: Released in 1976 as Micky Dolenz, Davy Jones and Peter Tork. A remixed reissue was released in 1986 as We Three Monkees.

C: Initially released as The Monkees, but subsequently released as Micky Dolenz & Peter Tork of The Monkees due to a trademark dispute.


Into the Shadows

Into the Shadows is a 2009 documentary film by co-directors Andrew Scarano and Phil Hignett about the state of Australian cinema. "Into the Shadows" placed 2nd in the Audience Award for Documentary in the 2009 Canberra International Film Festival.


Beaumont Herald Extraordinary

Beaumont Herald of Arms Extraordinary is an officer of arms extraordinary in England. Beaumont is a royal herald, but is not a member of the College of Arms. The office was created in 1982 and named after the barony of Beaumont, one of the subsidiary titles of the Earl Marshal, the Duke of Norfolk. The badge of office combines the cross potent of the Kings of Jerusalem from whom the Beaumonts are descended, with the lion and fleur-de-lis charges from the family coat of arms. It is blazoned "In front of a Cross Potent a Lion rampant within eight Fleurs-de-lis in orle Or."


Dimitri Donskoj (film)

Dimitri Donskoj, () is a 1909 Russian short film directed by Kai Hansen.


Abba (given name)

Abba is a form of ab, meaning "father" in many Semitic languages. It is used as a given name, but was also used as a title or honorific for religious scholars or leaders. (The word abbot has the same root.)


Colorado lunar sample displays

The Colorado lunar sample displays are two commemorative plaques consisting of small fragments of Moon specimen brought back with the Apollo 11 and Apollo 17 lunar missions and given in the 1970s to the people of the state of Colorado by United States President Richard Nixon as goodwill gifts.
Description.
Apollo 11.
The Colorado Apollo 11 lunar sample display commemorative plaque consists of four "Moon rock" rice size particle specimens that were collected by Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin in 1969 and a small Colorado state flag that was taken to the Moon and back on Apollo 11.
The four "Moon rocks" weigh about 0.05 grams total and are encased in a clear plastic button the size of a coin which is mounted to a wooden board approximately one foot square on a small podium pedestal display. The small wooden commemorative podium plaque display also has mounted on it a small Colorado state flag that had taken been to the Moon and back, which lies directly below the "goodwill Moon rocks". The small podium plaque display was given to the people of the state of Colorado as a gift by President Richard Nixon. Similar lunar sample displays were also distributed to all the other states of the United States and all the countries (at the time) of the world.
Apollo 17.
The Colorado Apollo 17 lunar sample display commemorative style plaque (10 by 14 inches) consists of one "Moon rock" particle specimen that was cut from lunar basalt 70017 and a Colorado state flag. The basalt 70017 was collected by Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt on the Moon in 1972. Once lunar basalt 70017 was brought back to Earth from the Moon, the basalt Moon rock was cut up into small fragments of approximately 1 gram. The specimen was encased in a plastic ball and mounted on the wooden plaque along with the Colorado state flag which had been taken to the Moon and back by the crew of Apollo 17. The plaque was then distributed in 1973 by President Richard Nixon to the state of Colorado as he did that year to the other 49 states (the same as for the Apollo 11 plaque gifts). This was done as a goodwill gesture to promote peace and harmony.
History.
The Colorado Apollo 11 lunar samples plaque was first displayed in a low-security location with easy public access on the first floor of the Colorado State Capitol building beginning around 1992. By 2010 the Colorado Apollo 11 "goodwill Moon rocks" had been moved to a locked third-floor display case at the Capitol. However, in that year, the Capitol Building Advisory Committee decided to move it to an unknown location until it could come up with plans for a permanent secure location. This action was prompted by news reports that Apollo 11 "goodwill Moon rocks" from the first crewed Moon landing may be worth as much as $5 million.
The $5 million price tag reported for either set of Apollo "Moon rocks" is a black market valuation that the state government does not put much trust on. But whatever "high valuation" it may have is a tempting target for thieves.
The Colorado Apollo 17 lunar sample display was accepted by then-Colorado Governor John Vanderhoof from NASA astronaut Jack Lousma on January 9, 1974. After that, it was considered lost until it was located in June 2010 in Vanderhoof's Grand Junction home. Vanderhoof, who left office in 1975, said "he didn't know what to do with the display once he left office so he simply decided to take it with him". The plaque display with the Apollo 17 "Moon rock" has since been moved to the Colorado School of Mines, where it is currently on display in the Geology Museum.


Anita Fields

Anita Fields (born 1951) is an Osage/Muscogee Creek Native American artist from the U.S. state of Oklahoma.
Fields is nationally recognized for her unique rendering of ceramic sculptures and mixed-media installations. As a Native American ceramic artist, she has created conceptual installations. Fields specializes in ceramics, non-functional earthenware, and ribbonwork.
Museums that have collected Fields' work include the Heard Museum in McKinney, Texas, the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, the Museum of Art and Design in New York City, the Museum of the American Indian at the Smithsonian Institution, and Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas.
Her work has been included in exhibitions such as Atlatl's "Who Stole the Tepee" at the National Museum of the American Indian, "Legacy of the Generations: American Indian Women Potters" at the National Museum of Women in the Arts, "Fluent Generations: The Art of Anita, Tom and Yatika Fields" at the Sam Noble Museum, and "Hearts of Our People: Native Women Artists", a traveling 2019-2020 exhibition at Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN, Frist Art Museum, Nashville, TN, Renwick Gallery, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C., and Philbrook Museum of Art, Tulsa, OK.
In 2019, Fields participated in an exhibition project called "Voices from the Drum" where 19 drums were dispersed to accomplished Osage artists. Each artist created a design to be displayed on the drum. The drums, having significance in Osage culture, were created by hand by Rock Pipestem.
Fields is working at the Tulsa Artist Fellowship in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and is involved in a 3 year term on the Osage Election Board as an Alternate Member.
Early life.
Anita Luttrell was born in Hominy, Oklahoma, on the Osage Nation. She is enrolled in the Osage and is a descendant of the Muscogee Creek. She grew up on her grandfather's allotment until she was around eight years old, when her family moved to Colorado. Fields lived in Colorado until she was 18 years old. Her father was a guide, outfitter, and a welder who supported the family. Fields' grandmother on her mother's side was a seamstress, and taught Fields how to sew when she was a young girl. Fields enjoyed making clothes for her favorite doll and relished in these artistic outlets from an early age.
While in third grade in Colorado, Fields was taught how to make a fresco and a collage. Her teacher at the time was passionate about the arts and influenced Fields' own love for art that would develop through time.
Education.
After graduating from Wheat Ridge High School, Fields attended the Institute of American Indian Arts (IAIA) in Santa Fe, New Mexico from 1972 to 1974. She originally went there to paint, but was exposed to many different media such as video and multi-media, clay, and sculpture, which expanded her focus. Fields met her husband, Tom Fields (Muscogee Creek/Cherokee), in Colorado over a holiday. Fields left the institute to raise a family with Tom. Before having children, Fields took classes at community centers and museums, such as the Osage Nation Museum. During this time Fields learned Osage finger weaving and ribbonwork. The Oklahoma Department of Career and Technical Education hired Tom, so the couple moved to Stillwater, Oklahoma. Fields later enrolled at Oklahoma State University and graduated with a bachelor's degree in fine arts. It was after completing her BFA that she made the commitment to become a full time clay artist. “Because I’m able to use clay, and the earth, I have this really strong feeling of how the earth holds the memory of the people who were there,” she said.
Artwork.
Starting out, Fields began making non-functional sculptures, such as little figurines. Fields made an entire series of little clay boxes with smaller clay figures inside of them. During this period, Fields developed a lot of her work through the process of terra sigillata. Anita's work is usually fired in an electric kiln and finished by a postsmoking process with sawdust, straw, or leaves. She often adorns nonsmoked sculptures with tiny raku ware additions, such as elk teeth. While many of her works are figurative, the figures represent the spirituality and do not depict anyone in particular. Fields explains, "I want to show the spirituality of us as women, how we fit into family, how we remain strong yet filled with love, and how we overcome all difficulties."
Clothing is a prominent inspiration in Field's clay work. For her, clothing is a symbol of transformation and heritage. Some of her pieces are dresses, standing independent, or of female figures wearing dresses. In line with this theme, Fields created a series of clay parfleches. She was especially interested in the metaphor these parfleches provided of the culture of the times and was fascinated by what we make to take care of ourselves.
Other examples of her work include masks, platters, buckskin dresses, and abstracted figurative work. Her depiction of domestic motifs is intended to honor all women.
After witnessing the graffiti work of her son, Fields was inspired to start incorporating distorted messages on her work. For example, in her work "Finding Our Way to the Earth" she includes her grandmother’s handwriting as background images. She said her grandmother kept detailed notes on calendars and stenographer notebooks. “My grandmother had really beautiful handwriting,” she said.
Exhibitions.
Fields' work has been displayed in many museums. A sample of these include:
Criticism and press.
Most recently, Fields was interviewed and received a spread in the February/March 2019 issue of American Craft Magazine.
Additionally, Fields' art has been published in several works, including:


Robert Cooke (officer of arms)

Robert Cooke (born c. 1535, died 1592–3) was an English Officer of Arms during the reign of Elizabeth I, who rose swiftly through the ranks of the College of Arms to Clarenceux King of Arms, serving in that office from 1567 until his death in 1592–3.
Cooke served as Deputy Earl Marshal at the funeral of Sir Philip Sidney in 1587, but was later accused by some fellow heralds of granting arms to unworthy men for personal gain.
Life and work.
Educated at Kirkham Grammar School from a recusant family, Cooke was brought up in the household of Sir Edmund Brudenell, an ardent genealogist. He went up to St. John's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1558. He was appointed Rose Blanche Pursuivant Extraordinary, 25 January 1561–2 and succeeded William Flower as Chester Herald of Arms four days later. Both events were recorded in the diary of Henry Machyn, who twice identified Cooke as the servant of Lord Robert Dudley. Cooke was promoted to Clarenceux King of Arms on 21 May 1567. Cooke served as Acting Garter King of Arms, after the death of Sir Gilbert Dethick on 3 October 1584, until the permanent appointment of Sir Gilbert's son William Dethick on 21 April 1586. As Acting Garter, Cooke with Robert Glover, Somerset Herald, accompanied the Earl of Derby to France to invest King Henri III with the Garter in 1584.
As Clarenceux, Cooke was responsible for arranging the funerals of all knights resident south of the River Trent In this capacity he oversaw the "magnificent" state funeral at St Paul's Cathedral of Sir Philip Sidney, who died in Flanders on 17 October 1586. Detailed drawings of the funeral procession on 16 February 1587, with its hundreds of mourners, were published as "The Procession at the Obsequies of Sir Philip Sydney, Knight, drawn and invented by Thomas Lant, Gentleman, servant to the said honourable Knight, and engraven on copper by Derick Theodore de Brijon, in the City of London. 1587."
Cooke had sought appointment as Garter (with the support of Dudley, by then the powerful Earl of Leicester), and William Dethick, who secured the appointment, later charged Cooke with encroaching on the traditional privileges of Garter King of Arms. In 1595, after Cooke's death, William Segar, Norroy King of Arms, sided with Dethick, criticising Cooke for his inability to write clearly and for making many grants of arms to "base and unworthy persons for his private gaine onely." Ralph Brooke, York Herald and sometimes deputy to Cooke, complained in 1614 that Cooke had granted more than 500 new coats of arms during his tenure.
Visitations.
In 1530, Henry VIII had issued an instruction governing the conduct of heraldic visitations, in which Clarenceux and Norroy Kings of Arms (or their deputies) were to tour their areas of authority, recording coats of arms and pedigrees of armigers, with powers to forcibly prevent the bearing of unauthorised arms.
As Chester Herald and deputy to William Harvey, who preceded him as Clarenceux, Cooke conducted visitations of Worcestershire in 1560, Devonshire in 1562, Lincolnshire in 1562 and 1564, and Leicestershire and Warwickshire in 1563.
As Clarenceux, Cooke conducted visitations of London in 1568 and again in 1593; Worcestershire in 1569; Herefordshire in 1569 and 1584; Worcester in 1569; Shropshire in 1569 and 1584; Essex in 1570 and 1583; Surrey, Hertfordshire and Middlesex in 1572; Devonshire in 1572; Somerset in 1573 and 1591; Cornwall in 1573; Kent in 1574 and 1589; Dorsetshire in 1574; Hampshire and Cambridgeshire in 1575; Suffolk in 1577; Buckinghamshire in 1580; Bedfordshire in 1582 and 1586; Gloucester in 1583; Berkshire in 1584; and Norfolk in 1589. Robert Glover, Somerset Herald, Richard Leigh (then Portcullis Pursuivant), and Ralph Brooke (then Rouge Croix Pursuivant), acted as Cooke's deputies on various visitations.
Other manuscripts.
Cooke's invaluable writings in manuscript include "An English Baronage", "Heraldic Rudiments", "An Ordinary of Arms" and "A Treatise on the Granting of Arms". On one copy of "An English Baronage" the antiquarian Sir Simonds d'Ewes wrote a title concluding "in which are a world of errors, "ergo caveat lector"."


Ride for Your Life

Ride for Your Life is a 1924 American Western film directed by Edward Sedgwick and featuring Hoot Gibson.
Preservation.
With no prints of "Ride for Your Life" located in any film archives, it is a lost film.


Margulies

Margulies (rarely Margolyes) is a surname that, like its variants shown below, is derived from the Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation of the Hebrew word (Israeli Hebrew ), meaning 'pearls,' and may refer to:
 Josh Margulies, "American actor"
See also.
Margulias


List of Maryland state historical markers in Somerset County

This is a list of the Maryland state historical markers in Somerset County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Somerset County, Maryland by the Maryland Historical Trust (MHT). The locations of the historical markers, as well as the latitude and longitude coordinates as provided by the MHT's database, are included below. There are currently 26 historical markers located in Somerset County.


Paeksang Pavilion

The Paeksang Pavilion is an historic structure located at the site of the Anju Fortress in Anju City, South Phyongan Province, North Korea. It is a National Treasure of North Korea (#31). The name "Paeksang" means one hundred scenes, as it "as it commands a hundred beautiful scenes".
History.
The Pavilion was used as the command post of the Anju Fortress. First records of the Pavilion are found in the early part of the 14th Century. Koryo Dynasty ceramic items have been unearthed at the site. It was rebuilt in 1753 and once again after being destroyed during bombings in the Korean War.
Description.
The floor is laid at a height of 2.23m. Round pillars stand on the foundation stones of the temple, standing straight on the pillars under the floor. Stairs in the middle of the floor lead to the second story. The structure has a "well-designed" stylobate with middle sections wider than the other sections between pillars on the four sides, stressing the centre. The pavilion has a hip-saddle roof and its ceiling was designed to give offer a wide view of the surrounding area.


List of Indiana state historical markers in Vigo County

This is a list of the Indiana state historical markers in Vigo County.
This is intended to be a complete list of the official state historical markers placed in Vigo County, Indiana, United States by the Indiana Historical Bureau. The locations of the historical markers and their latitude and longitude coordinates are included below when available, along with their names, years of placement, and topics as recorded by the Historical Bureau. There are 12 historical markers located in Vigo County.


List of polka artists

This is a list of polka artists. It includes notable musicians and musical groups that play polka.


Hans Zimmer discography

This is the discography of Hans Zimmer, an award-winning German composer and music producer.
Zimmer has composed and produced over one hundred soundtracks and film scores. Of them, about 50 soundtracks and songs were nominated for awards. He won one Academy Award ("The Lion King"), four Satellite Awards ("The Thin Red Line", "Gladiator", "The Last Samurai", ""), two Golden Globe Awards ("The Lion King", "Gladiator"), four Grammy Awards (two prizes for "The Lion King", "Crimson Tide", "The Dark Knight"), three Saturn Awards ("The Dark Knight", "Inception", "Interstellar"), two Annie Awards ("Kung Fu Panda", "Secrets of the Furious Five"), and one WAFCA Award ("Inception").
As score producer.
These are for films and other media which Zimmer did not compose the score, but for which he produced the soundtrack.
As other.
These are for films which Zimmer did not serve as main composer, but still contributed original music to the score


Victoria City Hall

Victoria City Hall is the city hall for Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. It is located at the corner of Douglas Street and Pandora Avenue adjacent to the CTV Vancouver Island studios and the McPherson Playhouse in Downtown Victoria. It is home to the Victoria City Council. It was completed in 1890. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1977 and was also designated as a heritage site by the municipality in 1979.
Construction.
Architect John Teague designed Victoria's City Hall, which is considered "one of the best surviving examples of Second Empire-style public architecture in Western Canada." The earliest surviving municipal hall has a foot 105 tall Gillet and Johnson clock tower, three types of facades, tall windows, pedimented dormer windows and a metal mansard roof. The exterior is constructed of concrete, brick and stone. The Second Empire style reflects a change in the design and construction of governmental buildings, intended to symbolize the government's growth and power. It was constructed from 1878 to 1891 at Pandora Avenue and Douglas Street.
Centennial Square.
City Hall is a landmark in Victoria's Old Town District that in 1963 was nearly razed to make way for the Centennial Square, but is now an important historical building there.


Persian Gulf National Day

Persian Gulf National Day () is an official holiday in Iran observed on the 10th day of Ordibehesht, the second month in the Iranian calendar. This usually coincides with the 29th or 30th of April of the Gregorian calendar. The purpose of this holiday is to celebrate the history, name, and significance of the Persian Gulf. The holiday commemorates the day that combined forces of the Safavid Empire and the British East India Company captured Ormuz expelled the Portuguese from the Strait of Hormuz.
Background.
The Persian Gulf, in Western Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. The "Tehran Times" notes that the term Persian Gulf and its translations have been used since earlier than 400 BC in many languages, and especially in the Arabic language. On almost all the maps printed before 1960 and in most modern international treaties, documents and plans, this water basin is known as the "Persian Gulf". The 10th day of Ordibehesht has been designated as the Persian Gulf National Day to commemorate the historic victory and also serves as a reminder of the real name of the Persian Gulf.
The establishment of National Persian Gulf Day was a response to the movement among pan-Arabists to rename the Persian Gulf the Arabian Gulf. The Arab League officially recognized the name Arabian Gulf in 1964, but most international bodies, including the United Nations and International Hydrographic Organization use the term Persian Gulf. Arab states of the Persian Gulf largely use the term Arabian Gulf. The United States use the term Persian Gulf, though the practice of the United States Fifth Fleet, based in Bahrain, is to use the preferred term of the host nation.
Iran established Persian Gulf National Day in 2005. The day is marked with various ceremonies in Iran, especially in the coastal cities of the Persian Gulf.
The date commemorates the Anglo-Persian capture of Ormuz in 1622 which drove Portuguese colonial forces out of the Strait of Hormuz. The Postal Service of the Islamic Republic of Iran, has issued a series of stamps commemorating "the national day of Persian Gulf".
Anglo-Persian conquest of Hormuz.
In the Persian–Portuguese war, Safavid Iran and the British East India Company challenged Portugal and The Kingdom of Ormus for supremacy in the Persian Gulf. In 1602, the Safavid army under the command of Imam-Quli Khan expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain. In 1612, the Portuguese Empire took the city of Gamrūn and transliterated the name to Comorão. Almost two years later (in 1615), Comorão was taken by 'Abbās the Great after a naval battle with the Portuguese and renamed "Bandar-e' Abbās", or "Port of 'Abbās".
In 1622, with the help of four English ships, Shah Abbas and Persians took Hormuz from the Portuguese in the Capture of Ormuz (1622).
Registration as a day of National Heritage.
In 2010, traditional naval documentation of the Persian Gulf was registered on Iran's National Heritage List. The decision was made by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicraft Organization and presided over by former vice President Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei, to register the day as a day of national heritage. The campaign launched by individual Arab states to rename the Persian Gulf which drove this decision. The Iranian postal authority has issued a series of stamps commemorating the day. In October 2018, the WIPO, the intellectual property agency of the UN, certified Persian Gulf Pearl based on the Lisbon Agreement. According to the agreement, based on international law, no country, government, or organization can use another name to refer to the Persian Gulf Pearl brand.


List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Alberta

This is a list of National Historic Sites () in the province of Alberta. As of March 2018, there are 61 National Historic Sites designated in Alberta, 15 of which are administered by Parks Canada (identified below by the beaver icon ). The first three sites in Alberta were designated in 1923: the site of rival trading posts Fort Augustus and Fort Edmonton, the site of the Frog Lake Massacre and the site of the first outpost of the North-West Mounted Police in Western Canada at Fort Macleod.
Numerous National Historic Events also occurred across Alberta, and are identified at places associated with them, using the same style of federal plaque which marks National Historic Sites. Several National Historic Persons are commemorated throughout the province in the same way.
This list uses names designated by the "Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada", which may differ from other names for these sites.


Nikoljdan


Outside the Gates

Outside the Gates is a 1915 American silent fantasy film directed by Joe De Grasse and featuring Lon Chaney and Pauline Bush. It is thought to have been scripted by Ida May Park (De Grasse's wife). The film is now considered to be lost.
Plot.
Sister Ursula is a nun in a convent in Southern Spain. One day, while the peddler Perez (Lon Chaney) comes to the convent to sell his wares, she sees Manuel, a handsome cavalier, riding by and she cannot suppress her attraction to him. Perez sells the Abbess a beautiful length of fabric for an altar cloth, but when Ursula is putting it away, she cannot resist the temptation to cover herself in the cloth and admire her own beauty. Coming to her senses, she runs to the Abbess to confess her sins. Her penance is to kneel in vigil before the altar all night long, but during the night she falls asleep. She dreams that Perez tempts her to leave the convent with him by saying he will bring her to Manuel.
Ursula travels with Perez while disguised as a boy, and they come upon a group of thieves in the forest who attack and imprison Manuel when he rides near their camp. With the help of Perez, Ursula drugs the thieves on guard duty and the two help Manuel to escape.
The trio comes upon a troupe of dancing girls, who think Ursula is really a young boy and tease her for being shy. Carmela, one of the dancers, attempts to win Manuel's favor, and when he ignores her advances, she attacks him with a knife. Ursula steps in her path and is stabbed in the arm. While tending to Ursula's wound, Manuel discovers she is actually a nun. The dancing girls plan a feast for Ursula, but Carmela denounces her as a fallen nun. They all attack her and brutally beat her for her sins. Suddenly Ursula wakes up on the altar with the Abbess beside her, and realizes it was all just a bad dream. She never really left the convent at all. Ursula and the Abbess pray together for her forgiveness.
Reception.
"One of Joseph De Grasse's productions in which the writer evidently put a lot of thought, but some of the actions of the characters will be more apt to strike the spectator as humorous than serious. However, the story is very well constructed and contains some psychological ideas which will make people think twice. The scenes in the convent are beautiful and the rest are almost equally artistic. William Dowlan is a chevalier and Lon Chaney gets in some fine character work as the peddler." ---Motion Picture News


DJ Muggs production discography

The following is a production discography of American record producer DJ Muggs. It includes a list of songs produced, co-produced and remixed by year, title, artist and album.


Revolver (comics)

Revolver is the title of a short-lived British comic book magazine published by Fleetway Publications in the early 1990s. Founded by Steve MacManus and edited by Peter Hogan, "Revolver" was a spin-off from "2000AD". "Revolver" attempted to take advantage of the 1960s revival which was sweeping British culture in the early 1990s, including the explosion of the British music scene at the time.
The title of the magazine referred to its revolving, diverse content; it also alluded to the Beatles' album of the same name.
"Revolver" gained a small following, but not enough for it to last beyond its seventh issue. It was given the 1991 UK Comic Art Award for Best New Publication.
Publication history.
"Revolver" was published between July 1990 and January 1991, lasting for seven regular issues and two specials. After it was canceled, some sources blamed the magazine's poor sales on it being labeled "Mature Content," and thus being sold on newsstands next to men's magazines. Two of its stories were concluded in another Fleetway publication, "Crisis". ("Crisis" itself folded a few months later.)
The magazine's letters page was called "The Whole Wide Whirl."
Contents.
"Revolver" featured a wide range of graphic styles and contributors, everything from a surreal inside-the-mind-of Jimi Hendrix storyline ("Purple Days"), a psychedelic superhero in the form of Peter Milligan and Brendan McCarthy's "Rogan Gosh", distorted caricatures in "Pinhead Nation" (Shaky Kane), plus "Happenstance and Kismet" (Paul Neary and Steve Parkhouse), student-house antics in "Dire Streets" (Julie Hollings), as well as the resurrection of Dan Dare, this time in a story called simply "Dare". In "Dare", writer Grant Morrison and artist Rian Hughes gave a new interpretation to the original "Eagle" character in a political story, setting Dan Dare against a thinly veiled caricature of the Thatcher government.
Two "Revolver Specials" were also published, a "Revolver Horror Special" (including some material by Neil Gaiman and Mark Buckingham) around Halloween 1990, and a "Revolver Romance Special" in March 1991, two months after the cancellation of "Revolver" itself.
After "Revolver"'s cancellation, "Dare" and "Happenstance and Kismet" were completed in the pages of "Crisis". "Dare" was collected into a four-issue limited series in 1992 by Fantagraphics. "Rogan Gosh" was compiled into a collected edition in 1994 by the Vertigo imprint of DC Comics.


Alicia Svigals

Alicia Svigals (born January 8, 1963) is an American violinist and composer. A co-founder of the Grammy-winning band The Klezmatics, she is considered by many to be the world's foremost living klezmer fiddler.
Early life.
Alicia Svigals, violinist, composer and vocalist, was born on January 8, 1963 in The Bronx, New York City and studied ethnomusicology at Brown University.
Career.
During the 1980s and 1990s, she studied with older klezmer violinist Leon Schwartz with the intent of reviving the style and technique of the klezmer violin tradition which had largely disappeared, and of which few recorded examples remain. Although classically trained since childhood, she also travelled around Europe and Israel in her youth and tried to learn local styles. Of her playing style, she said that it is "a combination of old fiddle style, clarinet technique, and this sort of Greek-Turkish timbre [... it's] half reconstructed-half invented."
She has taught klezmer to hundreds of students around the world over the past two decades, including violinists Steven Greenman and Itzhak Perlman.
Svigals was one of the founders in 1986 of the band the Klezmatics, and co-led the ensemble until 2001. With them, she appeared on "A Prairie Home Companion", Rosie O'Donnell's "Kids are Punny", "Good Morning America", MTV News, Nickelodeon, and NPR's "New Sound" and "Weekend Edition". As a composer for the group, she provided music for the play "A Dybbuk" by Tony Kushner, and collaborations with poet Allen Ginsberg and Israeli singer Chava Alberstein. They also performed with Itzhak Perlman on PBS' Emmy-winning Great Performances documentary "In the Fiddler's House" and on the "Late Show with David Letterman", and appeared together in concert at Radio City Music Hall, Tanglewood, and Wolf Trap.
Svigals has been commissioned to compose for the Kronos Quartet, as well as recording for the television series The L Word. She was awarded the Foundation for Jewish Culture's 2013 New Jewish Culture Network commission for her original score to the 1918 silent Pola Negri film The Yellow Ticket. In 2014 she was an NEA MacDowell Fellow in composition, and a fellow at LABA: A Laboratory for Jewish Culture.
She is featured on recordings by such Hasidic artists such as Avraham Fried and Lipa Schmeltzer. She has collaborated with 'second generation' author Thane Rosenbaum, whose novel "The Golems of Gotham" is based in part on Svigals. She is featured on Herb Alpert’s 2008 recording of the Yiddish theater song "Belz", arranged by Marvin Hamlisch. Other recording, performing and composing collaborators include Diane Birch, Gary Lucas, Robert Plant and Jimmy Page, John Cale, Ben Folds, John Zorn, Debbie Friedman.
Personal life.
Svigals also has a wedding and bat/bar mitzvah band that plays every genre of music, based in New York and Boston. She is a lesbian.