Novgorod Land

Novgorodian Land () was one of the largest historical territorial–state formations in Russia, covering its northwest and north. Novgorod Land, centered in Veliky Novgorod, was the cradle of Old Russian statehood under the rule of the Rurikovich dynasty and one of the most important princely thrones of the era of Kievan Rus'. During the collapse of Kievan Rus' and in subsequent centuries, Novgorod Land developed as an autonomous Russian state with republican forms of government under the suzerainty of the great princes of Vladimir (later – Moscow). During the period of greatest development, it reached the North to the White Sea, and in the east it spread beyond the Ural Mountains. It had extensive trade relations within the framework of the Hanseatic League. In the 15th century, in the course of the grand–princely policy of "gathering Russian lands", Veliky Novgorod, with the surrounding lands, was completely annexed to the centralized Russian state. Novgorod Land existed as an administrative unit until 1708.
Administrative division.
Administratively, by the end of the Middle Ages it was divided into pyatins, which, in turn, from the second half of the 16th century were divided into halves. The five–fold division was superimposed on the earlier one – on volosts, uyezds (prisuds), pogosts and stans, and, according to the annals, the foundations of this administrative division were laid in the 10th century by Princess Olga, who established places of pogosts and uroks in Novgorod Land. The Tale of Bygone Years defines it as "a great and abundant land".
Judging by the "Tale of Bygone Years" and archaeological data, by the time Rurik arrived in 862, Novgorod was already a large settlement (probably as a chain of settlements from the sources of Volkhov and Rurik Gorodishche up to Kholopiy Town, opposite of Krechevitsy), as well as Ladoga, Izborsk and possibly Beloozero. The Scandinavians probably called this territory Gardariki.
After the entry of Novgorod Land into the Russian state, the territorial division was preserved, and the territories from the end of the 15th century were called pyatins, before the Novgorod Land was divided into lands, and in the 12th century into ryads – bearing the same name with pyatins – Votskaya land, Obonezhsky and Bezhetsky ryad, Shelon, Dereva. In each pyatina there were several prisuds (uyezds), in each prisud (uyezd) – several pogosts and volosts.
Some territories of relatively late Novgorod colonization were not included in the five–fold division and formed a number of volosts that were in a special position: Zavolochye or Dvinskaya land – along the Northern Dvina from Onega to Mezen. This volost was called so because it was located behind the portage – the watershed separating the Onega and Northern Dvina basins from the Volga basin and was located behind the Obonezhskaya and Bezhetskaya pyatins, where the portages to the Onega river (Poonezhie) began. Perm – in the basin of the Vychegda River and the upper Kama. Pechora – beyond the Dvina land and Perm to the north–east on both banks of the Pechora River to the Ural Range. Ugra – on the eastern side of the Ural Range. Tre or Tersky Coast – on the White Sea coast.
Pskov originally belonged to the Novgorod land, however its importance and autonomy grew in the late 13th and 14th centuries culminating in the recognition of the political independence of Pskov by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348.
Population.
The settlement of the territory of Novgorod Land began in the Valdai Upland since the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, along the border of the Valdai (Ostashkovsky) glaciation, and in the north–west of Priilmenye, in the area of the future territorial center, since the Neolithic.
Archaeologically and through the study of toponymy, the presence of migratory so–called Nostratic communities is supposed here, replaced by Indo–European groups (future Balts and Slavs) who came from the south–west and ancestors of the Baltic–Finnish peoples who came from the east. This multi–ethnicity is confirmed by ethnogenetics, genogeography. At the time of Herodotus, about 25 centuries ago, the lands from the Baltic to the Urals were completely or partially mastered by the Androphages, Neuros, Melanchleins, Budins, Physsageti, Iirki, Northern Scythians in the Volga–Kama region, which are often localized depending on the Issedones.
Under Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE, these lands were controlled by the Wends, Stavs, Aors, Alans, Borussians, Tsarist Sarmatians and even more than a dozen large and small peoples. The historian Jordanes, in the list of peoples subordinated to Ermanaric, also points out the inhabitants of the north of Eastern Europe of the 4th century: "In Aunks – Ves', in Abronga – Merya, Mordovians in Meshchera".
In the initial part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the Lavrentievsky Chronicle of 1377 there is an opinion of a medieval chronicler about an older settlement of peoples:
It is traditionally believed that in the 6th century Krivichi tribes came here, and in the 8th century, in the process of Slavic settlement of the East European Plain, the tribe of Ilmen Slovenes came. Finno–Ugric tribes lived in the same territory, having left a memory of themselves in the names of numerous rivers and lakes. The interpretation of pre–Slavic toponymy as exclusively Finno–Ugric is questioned by many researchers.
The time of Slavic settlement dates, as a rule, according to the type of kurgan groups and individual mounds located in this territory. Pskov long mounds are traditionally associated with Krivichi, and mounds in the shape of a hill with Slovenes. There is also the so–called Kurgan hypothesis, based on which various assumptions about the ways of settling this territory are possible.
Archaeological research in Staraya Ladoga and Rurik Gorodishche shows the presence of Scandinavians, traditionally referred to in the Old Russian (medieval) literary sources as Varangians, among the inhabitants of these first large settlements.
Demography.
Archaeologically and through the study of toponymy, the presence of hypothetical migratory so–called Nostratic communities is supposed here, of which Indo–Europeans (Indo–European languages, in particular, future Slavs and Balts) and Finno–Ugrians stood out several thousand years ago in the region south of Priilmenye. This multi–ethnicity is confirmed by ethnogenetics, genogeography.
In addition to the Slavic population, a significant part of the Novgorod Land was inhabited by various Finno–Ugric tribes, who were at different levels of culture and who had different relations with Novgorod. Vodskaya pyatina along with the Slavs was inhabited by Votes and Izhora, who have long been closely associated with Novgorod. The Yem', who lived in southern Finland, was usually at enmity with the Novgorodians and more inclined to the side of the Swedes, while the neighboring Karelians usually kept to Novgorod. From time immemorial, Novgorod came into collision with the Chud inhabiting Livonia and Estonia; with Chud, the Novgorodians are constantly fighting, which later goes into the struggle of the Novgorodians with the Livonian knights. Zavolochye was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, which was often called Zavolotskaya Chud; later Novgorod colonists rushed to this region. Tersky coast was inhabited by the Lapps. Further, Permians and Zyryans lived in the northeast.
The center of the Slavic settlements was the vicinity of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River, and the Ilmen Slovenes lived here.
History.
Oldest period (before 882).
Novgorod Land was one of the centers of formation of the Old Russian state. It was in the Novgorod Land that the Rurikovich dynasty began to reign, and a state formation arose, which in historiography was named Novgorod Russia, Upper Russia, Povolkhov Russia, from which it is customary to begin the history of Russian statehood.
As part of Kievan Rus (882–1136).
At the end of the 9th – beginning of the 10th centuries (in chronicles dating to 882), the center of the Rurikovich state moved from Novgorod to Kiev. In the 10th century, Ladoga was attacked by the Norwegian jarl Eric. In 980, Novgorod Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the Baptist), at the head of the Varangian squad, overthrew the Kiev Prince Yaropolk. In the 990s, Novgorod refused to convert to Christianity, and stood up for its faith with the supreme priest Bogumil Solovey and tysyatsky Ugonyay. Novgorod was baptized by force with "fire and sword": many Novgorodians were killed, and the whole city burned down. In 1015–1019, Prince of Novgorod Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise overthrew the Kiev Prince Svyatopolk the Accursed. The Novgorodians supported Yaroslav during the war, and after his victory in the war, Yaroslav rewarded them and granted the "Yaroslav's Law" and the "Charter" to Novgorod. These documents became the prototype of and were referenced in the charters on which the princes invited by Novgorodians took the oath. Also under Yaroslav, Detinets and Saint Sophia Cathedral were built.
In 1032, in a campaign on the Iron Gate, the Novgorodians were headed by the governor Uleb. In 1020 and 1067, Novgorod Land was attacked by the Polotsk Izyaslavichs.
In the 11th century, the governor – the son of the Kiev prince – still had great powers. In the same period, the institute of posadniks appeared, who ruled in Novgorod at a time when its prince was not there (like Ostromir) or the prince was a minor, as in 1088, when Vsevolod Yaroslavich sent his grandson Mstislav (son of Vladimir Monomakh) to reign in Novgorod. In 1095, the Novgorodians, dissatisfied with the absence of their prince Davyd Svyatoslavich, returned Mstislav, and seven years later they opposed the attempt of the Kiev prince to replace Mstislav with his son. The key republican authorities (veche, prince, posadnik) emerged in Novgorod in the 11th century.
In the second decade of the 12th century, Vladimir Monomakh strengthened the central authority in Novgorod Land. In 1117, without taking into account the opinion of the Novgorod community, Mstislav was recalled to the south by his father, and Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was seated on the throne of Novgorod. Some boyars opposed this decision of the prince, in connection with which they were called to Kiev and thrown into prison.
After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 and the deepening tendencies of political fragmentation, the prince of Novgorod lost the support of the central government. In 1134, Vsevolod was expelled from the city. Returning to Novgorod, he was forced to conclude a "row" with the Novgorodians, limiting his authority. On January 26, 1135, the army of Novgorod, led by Vsevolod and Izyaslav Mstislavich, lost the Battle of Zhdanaya Mountain to the army of Suzdal Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. On May 28, 1136, in connection with the dissatisfaction of Novgorod with the actions of Prince Vsevolod, he was taken into custody, and then expelled from Novgorod.
Republican period (1136–1478).
Vladimir–Suzdal influence.
In 1136, after the expulsion of Vsevolod Mstislavich, republican rule was established on Novgorod Land. Svyatoslav Olgovich, the younger brother of Vsevolod of Chernigov, the main ally of the Mstislavichs and rival of the then Kiev prince, Yaropolk from the House of Monomakh, became the first prince independently called upon by the Novgorodians. As a rule, a representative of one of the two warring princely groups was invited to Novgorod either immediately after his allies occupied key positions in Southern Russia, or before that. Sometimes the Novgorodians helped their allies to take these positions, as, for example, in 1212.
The greatest threat to Novgorod independence was posed by the princes of Vladimir (who achieved the strengthening of personal power in their principality after the defeat of the old Rostov–Suzdal boyars in 1174–1175), since they had an effective lever of influence on Novgorod. They captured Torzhok several times and blocked the supply of food from their "lower" lands.
The Novgorodians also made campaigns in North–Eastern Russia, in particular, under the leadership of Vsevolod Mstislavich, they fought at Zhdanaya Mountain on January 26, 1135, and in 1149, together with Svyatopolk Mstislavich, ravaged the surroundings of Yaroslavl and left because of the spring flood, also as part of the struggle against Yuri Dolgoruky.
In 1170, immediately after the capture of Kiev by the troops of Andrei Bogolyubsky and his allies, the Suzdalites undertook a campaign against Novgorod, in which Roman Mstislavich, the son of the prince expelled from Kiev, was located. The Novgorodians managed to win the defensive battle and defend their independence with the enemy suffering heavy losses.
From 1181 to 1209, with intervals of 1184–1187 and 1196–1197, the Vladimir–Suzdal dynasty was in power in Novgorod, from 1197 its rule was continuous.
Victories of Mstislav Udatny.
In the early spring of 1209, the Toropets prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udatny took Torzhok, capturing not only the local posadnik and several merchants, but also a group of noblemen of the Novgorod prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, the youngest son of Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest. After that, he sent a letter to Novgorod with the offer of help:
"I bow to Saint Sophia, and the tomb of my father, and all Novgorodians; I have come to you having heard about the violence from the prince, and I pity my patrimony."
Having learned about the capture of Torzhok, Vsevolod the Big Nest sent his eldest son Constantine against him. However, apparently Mstislav had the support within the city as Novgorodians arrested their current prince Svyatoslav (brother of Constantine) and expressed support for the new chosen one, confirming the right to "liberty in the princes." In this way, the safety of Mstislav was guaranteed, after which Constantine was forced to stop in Tver and his father who avoided military conflicts in his old age recognized Mstislav as the legitimate ruler of Novgorod.
When he came to Novgorod Mstislav did not have influential patrons or great wealth but he had proved himself as a capable military commander. The Novgorod Chronicle speaks of him in an extremely positive way: fair in court and punishment, a successful commander, attentive to the concerns of people, and noble and selfless.
In Novgorod, Mstislav showed decisiveness and initiative in internal affairs: he replaced the posadniks and the archbishop, launched active construction in the city and the posad, undertook the reconstruction of defensive structures on the southern approaches to his land: the fortress walls of the Velikiye Luki adjacent to Toropets were reconstructed, and administrative reform was carried out in the borderlands: Velikiye Luki were united with Pskov where Mstislav's brother Vladimir rules.
After that, Pskov became responsible for the southern (Polotsk, Lithuania) and western (Estonia, Latgale) borders of Novgorod Land and also controlled the border regions of Southern Estonia (Ugandi, Waiga and partly Sakala) and Northern Latgale (Talava, Ochela). The lands of Northern Estonia (Vironia), Vody, Izhora and Karelia remained under the infuence of Novgorod.
Thus, the administrative–political, defensive, and commercial significance of Pskov began to grow in the process of transforming the Baltic states from a backward pagan province into an important region foe the Western European trade, church, and military expansion. This led to the nomination of a separate prince for Pskov during the reign of Mstislav in Novgorod. He also led a new wave of Russian resistance to the crusaders in the Baltic states.
Mstislav's father Mstislav the Brave, who reigned in Novgorod for less than a year and was buried in Saint Sophia Cathedral (1180), was remembered for his victorious campaign against the Chud at the head of 20,000 troops in 1179. Therefore, Mstislav Udatny began his military campaigns with a similar operation.
At the end of 1209, he made a brief raid into Estonian Vironia, returning with rich booty, and in 1210 made a large campaign against the Chud, capturing the Bear's Head. He took from the Estonians not only a tribute, but also a promise to be baptized into Orthodoxy. He first used Christianity as an additional measure to strengthen his power, which previously had been done only by the Catholics. However, the Orthodox priests were not as mobile as the Catholic ones, and the prince's initiative was not continued: instead priests from Riga came to the Estonians and thus the Bear's Head (Odenpe) later became one of the lands of the Riga bishopric.
Dissatisfied with the passivity of the church Mstislav achieved the removal from service of Archbishop Mitrofan in January 1211 and proposed to nominate Dobrynya Yadreikovich, a monk of the Khutynsky monastery and a member of an influential boyar clan. He became an archbishop under the name of Anthony and was an ardent supporter of preaching and missionary work on the Russian frontiers.
By 1210 the Germans started the conquest of Estonians and signed a peace treaty with Polotsk promising to pay the "Livonian" tribute. At the same time a peace was concluded with Novgorod according to which Mstislav shared the spheres of influence with the Bishop of Riga Albert even though most of Estonia still was not subjugated by the Russians or Germans. The parties left them at the mercy of the winner. At the same time, Novgorod was assigned rights to the northern regions of Latgale (Talava and Ochela) and to Estonian lands along Lake Peipsi: Vironia, Waiga, Ugandi. The rights of the Riga bishop were recognized in Livonia, Lower Dvina (Daugava) and Latgale (without Atzele and Talava). The agreement was secured by the first Russian–German matrimonial alliance – the marriage of the niece of Mstislav, the daughter of Pskov Prince Vladimir Mstislavich, and Theodoricus, the younger brother of Bishop Albert.
At the same time, recognizing the rights of Riga to the lands along the Daugava (possibly also Kukenois and Gerzike) improved the position of Novgorod and Pskov at the expense of Prince of Polotsk Vladimir who lost the support of his compatriots.
Between Moscow, Lithuania and Livonian Order.
In 1216, when the brother of Vladimir Prince Yaroslav organized an economic blockade of Novgorod, Novgorodians, with the help of Smolensk princes, intervened in the power struggle between the Suzdal princes, as a result of which the Vladimir prince was overthrown. However, at the beginning of the 13th century, German Catholic orders (the Order of the Swordsmen and the Teutonic Order) completed the subordination of the Baltic tribes, who had previously paid tribute to Novgorod and Polotsk, and reached the borders of the Russian lands themselves which set the stage for the conflict between Novgorod and the crusader orders in the first half of 13th century. Pskov and Novgorod for a successful fight against them began to need an ally, ready to provide military assistance if necessary. But help did not always come on time, both because of the remoteness of Vladimir from the northwestern borders of Russia, and because of disagreements between the Novgorod nobility and the princes of Vladimir. The more dangerous position of Pskov gave rise to disagreements between Pskov and Novgorod. The Pskovites demanded from Novgorodians and Vladimirites either decisive successes in the Baltic campaigns, or peace with the Order. Pskov often received princes expelled by the Novgorodians.
During the Mongol invasion of Russia the southern parts of Novgorod land were devastated; Volok Lamsky, Vologda, Bezhetsk, Torzhok were all captured by the invaders. Several versions have been proposed by historians to explain the Mongols' refusal to march on Novgorod after the capture of Torzhok on March 5: the upcoming spring thaw, lack of fodder and high losses in the struggle against the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities. On July 15, 1240, Alexander Yaroslavich defeated the Swedes on the Neva and on April 5, 1242 he won the Battle on the Ice of the lake Peipus against the Livonian Order. In 1257–1259 he established his influence in Novgorod threatening it with a Mongol pogrom. In 1268, the Livonian order was again defeated in the fierce Battle of Rakovor.
In the beginning of the 14th century, princes of Tver and Moscow princes vied for the influence over Novgorod. The Golden Horde supported Moscow in this struggle trying to prevent a noticeable advantage of one Russian prince over another and the Novgorod nobility sympathized with the Moscow princes as Moscow was farther than Tver and was thought to pose less danger. Thus the attempt of Mikhail of Tver to subjugate Novgorod by force was thwarted. The independence of Pskov was recognised by Novgorod in 1348 by the Treaty of Bolotovo. According to some primary sources, the Novgorodians participated in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, however some historians question these accounts.
In 1326, in Novgorod, Bishop Moses, Posadnik Olfromey and Tysyatsky Ostafy signed a treaty with the ambassador of the King of Sweden and Norway Magnus IV which defined the spheres of influence in Lappland. Rather than setting a fixed border the treaty stipulated which part of the aboriginal Sami people would pay tribute to Norway and which to Novgorod.
Novgorod traded with Baltic cities for the most part of its history with the first known treaty with Gotland and German cities dating to the late 12th century. After the Baltic cities formed the Hansa a conflict between Novgorod and Hansa ensued. Novgorodians complained about the terms of the fur and salt trade and both sides arrested merchants and confiscated the goods belonging to the other side. The treaty of 1392, known as Niebur's Peace, resolved most of the issues and became the basis for the relationship between Novgorod and Hansa, in spite of several conflicts occurring in the 15th century. The trade with Livonian cities was disrupted by the wars between Novgorod and the Livonian Order. The latter forbade selling horses to Novgorod in 1439 and 1440 and between 1443 and 1450 the Hansa kontor was closed. The importance of trade with the Hansa diminished during the 15th century while the trade with Narva, Stockholm and Vyborg was growing.
The stone walls of the Kremlin and numerous new churches were constructed in 14th century which is considered the golden age of Novgorod architecture. While chronicle-writing existed in Novgorod from the times of Kievan Rus, new genres of literature such as travelogues, novels and hagiographies appeared in 14-15th centuries. Novgorod started minting its own "novgorodka" coins in 1420 and in 1440 a Judicial Charter was issued which codified legal practices.
After 1330s Grand Duchies of Moscow and Lithuania started to dominate the Russian lands and subsequently Novgorodians invited princes from both grand duchies. In 1449 Moscow concluded an Eternal Peace agreement with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania delimiting zones of influence in Russia. In the next few years Vasily the Blind defeated his rival Dmitry Shemyaka and prevailed in the Muscovite Civil War. Dmitry Shemyaka died (possibly by poisoning) in Novgorod in 1453. Vasily the Blind attacked Novgorod in 1456 and after the Novgorodians' defeat in the battle of Staraya Russa they were forced to conclude the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy with Moscow, according to which the powers of the Moscow prince in Novgorod affairs were significantly expanded.
Novgorod signed a treaty with Casimir IV of Poland-Lithuania and invited him to rule as a prince. The treaty safeguarded the Orthodox church in Novgorod: the posadnik was to be Orthodox and the king was not allowed to build Catholic churches in the Novgorod Land. In spite of this, Ivan III launched his first campaign against Novgorod in 1471 alleging that they converted to Catholicism. After the Novgorodian army was defeated in the Battle of Shelon and the city was besieged, the peace treaty of Korostyn was signed according to which Novgorod acknowledged it as a patrimony of Ivan III, subjected its foreign policy to Moscow, accepted the Grand Prince as the ultimate judicial authority and lost some peripheral lands to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Novgorod Land was annexed completely in 1478 and the veche bell was removed to Moscow.
As part of a centralized Russian state (from 1478).
Having conquered Novgorod in 1478, Moscow inherited its former political relations with its neighbors. The legacy of the independence period was the preservation of diplomatic practice, in which the northwestern neighbors of Novgorod – Sweden and Livonia – maintained diplomatic relations with Moscow through the Novgorod governors of the Grand Duke.
In territorial terms, Novgorod Land in the era of the Tsardom of Russia (16th–17th centuries) was divided into 5 fifths (pyatinas): Vodskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya and Bezhetskaya. The smallest units of the administrative division at that time were pogosts.
The lands confiscated from the previous owners were either declared state lands or given to Muscovite military servicemen as manors. The burden on peasants living on state lands significantly decreased compared to the republican period as the in-kind rents were replaced by money ones. On the other hand the rents paid by peasants living on servicemen's manors changed little and sometimes even increased. Two censuses were carried out in the Novgorod land in the end of 15th century after the incorporation of Novgorod Land into Muscovy which are the earliest surviving records of the population of Russia. The population increased by 14% between the two censuses.
On March 21, 1499, the son of Tsar Ivan III Vasily was declared Grand Prince of Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502 he was proclaimed the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir and the autocrat of All Russia and thus became the co–ruler of Ivan III. After the death of Ivan III on October 27, 1505 he became the sole monarch of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
Reign of Ivan the Terrible.
In 1565, after Tsar Ivan the Terrible divided the Russian State into oprichnina and zemshchina, the city became part of the latter. Huge damage to Novgorod was caused by the oprichnina pogrom, which was perpetrated in the winter of 1569/1570 by an army personally led by Ivan the Terrible. The reason for the pogrom was the denunciation and suspicions of treason (as modern historians suggest, the Novgorod conspiracy was invented by the favorites of Ivan the Terrible, Vasily Gryazny and Malyuta Skuratov). All cities on the road from Moscow to Novgorod were looted and Malyuta Skuratov personally strangled Metropolitan Philip in the Tver. The number of victims in Novgorod is estimated between 3,000 and 27,000, out of the total population of 35 thousand people. The pogrom lasted for six weeks and thousands of people were tortured and drowned in Volkhov. The city was plundered and the property of churches, monasteries and merchants was confiscated.
The population of Novgorod land at the turn of 16th century was estimated to be from 500 to 800 thousand and it was largely stable or slightly increased in the first half of the century. According to Turchin and Nefedov, Novgorod Land experienced overpopulation during this period leading to inferior soils brought into cultivation, increasing use of fertilisers, epidemics and declining per capita consumption. As a result of a severe epidemic hitting Novgorod in 1552, massacres by Ivan the Terrible, repeated crop failures and the increasing tax burden, the population decreased five times by the end of the century.
Time of Troubles. Swedish occupation.
In 1609 the government of Vasily Shuisky concluded the Vyborg Treaty with Sweden, according to which Korela was transferred to the Swedish crown in exchange for military assistance.
Ivan Odoevsky was appointed governor of Novgorod in 1610. In the Tsar Vasily Shuisky was overthrown and Moscow swore allegiance to Prince Vladislav. In Moscow, a new government was formed, which began to swear royal and other cities of the Russian state. Ivan Saltykov was sent to Novgorod to be sworn in and to guard against the Swedes who had appeared in the north and from thieves' gangs at that time. The Novgorodians, and probably led by Odoevsky, who was constantly in good relations with the Metropolitan Isidor of Novgorod, who had a great influence on the Novgorodians, and, apparently, who had respect and love among the Novgorodians, agreed not earlier to let Saltykov in and swear allegiance to the prince until they will receive from Moscow a list of approved crucifix letters; but they received an oath only after they took a promise from Saltykov that he would not bring the Poles with him to the city.
Soon in Moscow and throughout Russia a strong movement arose against the Poles; at the head of the militia, which set out to expel the Poles from Russia, became Prokopy Lyapunov, together with some other persons, formed the provisional government, which, having entered into government of the country, began sending out and the governor in the cities.
In the summer of 1611, Swedish general Jacob De la Gardie with his army approached Novgorod. He entered into negotiations with the Novgorod authorities. He asked the governor whether they are enemies to the Swedes or friends and whether they want to comply with the Vyborg treaty concluded with Sweden under Tsar Vasily Shuisky. The governors could only answer that it depends on the future king and that they have no right to answer this question.
The Lyapunov government sent the governor Vasily Buturlin to Novgorod. Buturlin, arriving in Novgorod, began to behave differently: immediately began negotiations with De la Gardie, offering the Russian crown to one of the sons of King Charles IX. Negotiations began that dragged on, but meanwhile, Buturlin and Odoevsky got into a feud: Buturlin did not allow cautious Odoevsky to take measures to protect the city. Buturlin allowed De la Gardie to cross the Volkhov and approach the suburban Kolmovsky monastery under the pretext of negotiations, and even allowed Novgorod merchants to supply the Swedes with supplies.
The Swedes realized that it seemed to them a very convenient opportunity to seize Novgorod, and on July 8 they had an attack that was only repealed because the Novgorodians had time to burn the posads surrounding Novgorod. However, the Novgorodians did not last long in the siege: on the night of July 16, the Swedes managed to break into Novgorod. The resistance was weak, since all the military men were under the command of Buturlin, who retired from the city after a short battle and having robbing Novgorod merchants. Odoevsky and Metropolitan Isidore locked themselves in the Kremlin but with no military supplies or men at their disposal they had to enter into negotiations with De la Gardie. An agreement was concluded under which Novgorodians recognized the Swedish king as their patron, and De la Gardie was admitted to the Kremlin.
By the middle of 1612 the Swedes occupied all of Novgorod Land, except for Pskov and Gdov. After an unsuccessful attempt to take Pskov the Swedes ceased hostilities.
Prince Pozharsky did not have enough troops to fight simultaneously with the Poles and Swedes, so he began negotiations with the latter. In May 1612 Stepan Tatishchev, the ambassador of the Zemstvo government, was sent from Yaroslavl to Novgorod with letters to Metropolitan Isidor of Novgorod, Prince Ivan Odoyevsky, and Jacob De la Gardie, Commander of the Swedish Forces. The government asked Metropolitan Isidor and Boyar Odoevsky how they were doing with the Swedes? The government wrote to De la Gardie that if the king of Sweden gives his brother to the state and christens him in the Orthodox Christian faith, then they are glad to be on the same council with the Novgorodians. Odoevsky and De la Gardie replied that they would soon send their ambassadors to Yaroslavl. Returning to Yaroslavl, Tatishchev announced that there was nothing to be expected from the Swedes. Negotiations with the Swedes about Karl–Philippe's candidate for Moscow's kings became a reason for Pozharsky and Minin to convene the Zemsky Cathedral. In July, the promised ambassadors arrived in Yaroslavl: hegumen of the Vyazhitsky monastery Gennady, Prince Fyodor Obolensky, and out of all the pyatins, from the noblemen and from the townspeople – by person. On July 26, Novgorodians appeared before Pozharsky and stated that "the prince is now on the road and will soon be in Novgorod". The ambassadors' speech ended with the sentence "to be with us in love and unity under the hand of one sovereign."
Then from Yaroslavl to Novgorod a new embassy of Perfiliy Sekerin was sent. He was instructed, with the assistance of Novgorod Metropolitan Isidor, to conclude an agreement with the Swedes "so that the peasantry would be quiet and at peace." It is possible that in connection with this, the question of the election of the king of the Swedish royal, recognized by Novgorod, was raised in Yaroslavl. However, the royal election in Yaroslavl did not take place.
In October 1612, Moscow was liberated and it became necessary to choose a new sovereign. From Moscow to many cities of Russia, including Novgorod, letters were sent on behalf of the liberators of Moscow – Pozharsky and Trubetskoy. In the beginning of 1613 Zemsky Sobor was held in Moscow, at which a new Tsar, Mikhail Romanov, was elected.
On May 25, 1613, an uprising began against the Swedish garrison in Tikhvin. The rebellious posad people recaptured the fortifications of the Tikhvin Monastery from the Swedes and withstood the siege in them until mid–September, forcing the De la Gardie troops to retreat. With a successful Tikhvin uprising, the struggle for the liberation of Northwest Russia and Novgorod begins, culminating in the signing of the Stolbovsky Peace Treaty in 1617.
The Swedes left Novgorod only in 1617, in a completely ruined city only a few hundred inhabitants remained. During the events of the Time of Troubles, the borders of Novgorod Land were significantly reduced due to the loss of lands bordering Sweden on the Treaty of Stolbovo of 1617.
17th-18th centuries.
Novgorod recovered from the destruction during the Time of Troubles and remained an important city in the rest of 17th century. The trade with Sweden continued to be carried out by Novgorod merchants and a Swedish trading post was opened in the city in 1627. Novgorod was one of the major centres of crafts of the Russia, with more than 200 distinct professions and a wide range of goods produced in the city. The walls and ramparts were restored and many new buildings were constructed in Novgorod, including the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Sign, the stone bridge over Volkhov, trade rows and Voivode's court. Elsewhere, the Resurrection Cathedral was built in Staraya Russa.
The Novgorod Land became one of the Old Believers' strongholds after the Schism.
The importance of Novgorod decreased after the coast of Baltic Sea was reconquered by Peter I from Sweden and the new capital was founded there. In 1708, the Novgorod land became part of the Ingermanland (from 1710 – Saint Petersburg Governorate) and Arkhangelogorod Governorates, and in 1726 the Novgorod Governorate was created, in which there were 5 provinces: Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Belozerskaya and Velikolutskaya.


Westerlichttoren

The Westerlichttoren or West Schouwen is a lighthouse in Haamstede, Netherlands. Designed by L. Valk, it was built in 1837. At 47 m above ground and a light stand at 58 m above sea level it is one of the tallest lighthouses in the Netherlands.
The lighthouse is built in brick and iron, the walls are 2.4 m thick at the bottom, tapering upward. It is painted in a red-and-white spiral. A stair of 226 steps, in stone and partially in iron, leads to the top. The lighthouse is unattended.
Light.
The lighthouse is switched on and off automatically by a light sensor. A sailor can recognise the light by its characteristic: group flash 2+1. The current lenses were installed in 1953. Originally the light was an incandescent light bulb of 4200 W, which has been replaced by a 2000 W gas-discharge lamp.
Notability.
This lighthouse was well known by the public as it was used for the former 250 Dutch guilder note designed by Ootje Oxenaar.


Cornelis Hendrik Boudewijn Boot

Cornelis Hendrik Boudewijn Boot (15 September 1813, in Arnhem – 5 November 1892, in The Hague) was a Dutch politician.


Betsy Muus

Betsy Muus (30 June 1891 – 21 October 1986) was a Belgian sculptor. Her work was part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.


Admiralty Board (Russian Empire)

Admiralty Board (, "Admiralteystv-Kollegiya") was a supreme body for the administration of the Imperial Russian Navy in the Russian Empire, established by Peter the Great on December 12, 1718, and headquartered in the Admiralty building, Saint Petersburg.
History.
The responsibilities of the Admiralty Board had been changing throughout its history. It supervised the construction of military ships, ports, harbors, and canals and administered Admiralty Shipyard. The Admiralty Board was also in charge of naval armaments and equipment, preparation of naval officers etc. The first president of the Admiralty Board was Count Fyodor Apraksin. In 1720, the Admiralty Board published a collection of naval decrees called "Книга - устав морской о всем, что касается доброму управлению в бытность флота в море" (A Naval Charter On Everything That Has To Do With Good Management Of A Fleet At Sea), authored by Peter the Great himself among other people. In 1777 the Admiralty Board founded the Russian Hydrographic Service, implementing a plan that marked the beginning of systematic drawing of nautical charts.
In 1802, the Admiralty Board became a part of the Ministry of the Navy. Along with the Admiralty Board, there was also the Admiralty Department in 1805–1827 with the responsibilities of the Chief Office of the Ministry. In 1827, the Admiralty Board was turned into the Admiralty Council (Адмиралтейств-совет), which would exist until the October Revolution of 1917.
In new Russia (Russian Federation) the historic Admiralty Board has been reborn as the Maritime Board (Morskaya Kollegiya) having broad functions to coordinate Russia's maritime future.


Alexander Westerhout

Alexander Hendriksz Westerhout (1590 in Gouda – 1661 in Gouda), was a Dutch Golden Age glass painter.
According to Houbraken he was the teacher of Daniël Tomberg and came from Utrecht.
He was born in Utrecht 1588 and learned to paint there from Jan van den Burg. When the glass painter Adriaan Gerritsz de Vrije died in 1643 he took over his position as curator of the stained glass windows of the Janskerk, Gouda.
According to the RKD he was born in 1590 and was a glazier and curator of the stained glass windows of the Janskerk in Gouda.


Govert-Marinus Augustijn

Govert-Marinus Augustijn (Bergen op Zoom, 27 October 1871 – Hilversum, 26 May 1963) was a Dutch potter in the style of the Art Nouveau. He was the son of pottery manufacturer Govert Johannes Augustijn and Maria van Dijke.
Live and work.
The city of Bergen op Zoom was since the fifteenth century one of the most important centers for the production of ceramics in Europe. A dozen families, including the families "Vetten" and "Augustijn" and Augustine, dominated this industry. The family of Govert-Marinus already knew at least six generations of potters, and was descended from Adriaen Augustijn, a master potter, known to have married on December 20, 1661 with Margrieten Jans.
Govert-Marinus was the grandson of Govert Marinus Govertz. Augustijn (1803-1879), a major pottery manufacturer married to Anna Straatman. This Anna was the sister of , ship owner and commissioner in Brussels, which was the great-father of the famous Belgian Art Nouveau -decorateur Gabriel Van Dievoet, and architect Henri Van Dievoet.
Govert-Marinus married on May 4, 1906 in Bergen op Zoom with Cornelia Scriwanek, born in Maastricht, April 23, 1873.
His work and factory "De Kat".
The family of Govert-Marinus from 1758 onwards owned the pottery factory "Kat." Govert-Marinus himself was educated at firm's dependence "Amstelhoek," in Amsterdam, where he learned the modern techniques of those days. In Amsterdam, he became friends with painter Willem van Dort (1875–1949) and Adriaan Disco (1892–1947). In 1902 he returned to Bergen op Zoom, where he started working in the family business. "De Kat" began at that time to produce a series of art deco works. The factory pressed itself a catalog of his works.


Russian gunboat Korietz

Korietz (, Koreyets; literally meaning "Korean person") was a gunboat in Russian Imperial Navy. She was the lead vessel in a class of eight ships in her class (including the "Mandzhur" served also on the Pacific, "Donets", "Zaporozhets", "Kubanets", "Terets", "Uralets" and "Chernomorets" on the Black Sea.) The etymology of the names of this class of ships was: Korietz is a Russian word for "Korean man", Mandzhur - "Manchuria man", Donets - "Don Cossack" (literally "Cossack from Don"), Kubanets - "Kuban Cossack" ("Kuban man"), Terets - "Terek Cossack" ("Terek man"), Uralets - "Ural Cossack" ("Ural man"), Chernomorets - "Black Sea Cossack" ("Black Sea man") and Zaporozhets - "Zaporozhian Cossack".
Operational history.
"Korietz" was laid down in Stockholm, Sweden at the Bergsund Mekaniksa shipyards in December 1885, launched on August 7, 1886, and commissioned in 1888.
Assigned to service with the Russian Pacific Fleet in 1895, she was a frequent visitor to ports in Korea, Japan and northern China. During the Boxer Rebellion, she participated in the Eight-Nation Alliance attack on Taku Forts in June 1900. During this battle, she was hit six times by shells fired by the Chinese defenders, and suffered nine crewmen killed and 20 wounded.
Together with the cruiser , "Korietz" was dispatched from Port Arthur to the main Korean port of Chemulpo (modern-day Incheon) in early 1904 to protect Russian interests, as diplomatic tensions continued to increase between Russia and the Empire of Japan. After the Russian transport "Sungari" arrived at Chemulpo on 7 February 1904, reporting the sighting of a large Japanese force approaching, "Korietz" (under the command of G. P. Belyaev) was ordered to return to Port Arthur to report and request instructions. In the early morning of 8 February 1904, "Korietz" spotted outside the Chemulpo roadstead, and mistaking it for a fellow Russian ship, loaded its guns for a salute. On closing in, the crew of the "Korietz" realized their mistake and in the ensuing confusion the guns were discharged. "Chiyoda" responded by launching a torpedo. Both sides missed, but this was the first actual exchange of fire in the Russo-Japanese War, and it is highly unclear which side actually opened fire first. "Korietz" retreated back to Chemulpo harbor.
In the subsequent Battle of Chemulpo Bay, Captain Vsevolod Rudnev of the "Varyag" refused an ultimatum by Imperial Japanese Navy admiral Uryū Sotokichi to surrender, and on February 9, 1904 attempted to break through the Japanese squadron from Chemulpo to the open sea. Vastly outnumbered and outgunned, "Korietz" fired 52 rounds at the Japanese ships, but was at a distance that most of its shots did not even reach the Japanese fleet. "Varyag" took heavy damage; "Korietz" suffered from only light damage from shrapnel with no casualties. Unable to break past the Japanese squadron by mid-afternoon, "Korietz" and "Varyag" returned to Chemulpo harbor, where both took refuge near the neutral warships. At 1600 the same day, "Korietz" was scuttled by its crew by blowing up two ammunition magazines. The crew was taken aboard a French cruiser "Pascal", taken to Saigon, French Indochina, and returned to Russia. In St. Petersburg all the officers were awarded the Order of St. George (4th class), the highest military decoration of the Russian Empire.
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the wreckage of "Korietz" was raised by Japanese engineers, and scrapped.
Second gunboat.
There was a second gunboat named "Korietz", laid down in 1906 at the Putilov Plant in Saint Petersburg, Russia. She was of the "Gilyak" class. At the end of the First World War she participated in the Battle of Moon Sound, but was blown up by her crew on August 8, 1915 in to avoid having to be surrendered to German forces.
Other.
The Grisha III class corvette "Koreyets" (Russian Кореец) of the modern Russian Navy was named after the Russo-Japanese War gunboat "Korietz" at the request of the Association of Koreans in Russia.


Gondulph of Maastricht

Gondulph (, perhaps also "Bethulphus") of Maastricht, sometimes of Tongeren (6th/7th century AD) was a bishop of Tongeren-Maastricht venerated as a Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint. Together with Saint Servatius and Saint Monulph, he is one of the patron saints of the city of Maastricht.
Legend.
Very few facts are known about Gondulph of Maastricht. According to a legend, his parents were Munderic and Arthemia. He was married to Palatina, only known child of Maurilion Gallo, a Gallo-Roman aristocrat with likely ties to the Merovingian court. By some reconstructions, the couple had a son named Bodegisel II, who became Duke of Aquitaine. He remains an enigmatic figure. It has been questioned whether he could be identical with Betulph, a bishop of Maastricht mentioned in 614 (see below).
According to tradition, Gondulph was buried in the nave of the church of Saint Servatius in Maastricht, which was built by his predecessor Monulph. In the 11th century, provost Humbert had a cenotaph erected above the alleged grave of the two saints.
Line of succession.
According to some 11th century sources Gondulph's predecessor Monulph transferred the episcopal see from Tongeren to Maastricht. However, the official title "episcopus Tungrorum" (bishop of Tongeren) was retained until the 10th century, although the episcopal see had by that time been transferred from Maastricht to Liège.
Monulph must have occupied the See of Tongeren-Maastricht until the end of the 6th, beginning of the 7th century, because a bishop of Maastricht named Betulph (Betulphus) was present at the Council of Paris in 614. Gondulph then could have been inserted between Monulph and Betulphus, at least if Betulphus is not identified with Gondulph. The case is similar to the situation in the Archbishopric of Mainz, where Bertulfus and Crotoldus seem to be identical. Furthermore, the disputed episcopal lists of the 11th and 12th centuries ignore the historically-attested Betulphus and make Gondulph the immediate successor of Monulph. The biographies of Gondulph from the Middle Ages are largely extracts from the "Vita Servatii", written by the 11th-century French priest Jocundus more than four centuries after Gondulph's death, and for that reason not reliable.
Ecclesiastical tradition.
According to tradition Gondulph occupied the episcopal see of Maastricht for seven years. This last date does not allow for his presence at the Paris Council in 614.
Legend has obscured the historical facts about Gondulph. If Jocundus is to be believed, Gondulph endeavoured to rebuild the town of Tongeren, which had been destroyed during the barbarian invasions. Heavenly intervention caused furious wolves to attack the pagan colonists of the region and devoured them before the eyes of the horrified bishop.
The bodies of Monulph and Gondulph were solemnly exhumed in 1039 by Bishop Nithard of Liège and Gerard of Florennes, Bishop of Cambrai, in the presence of Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor. An epitaph commemorating this event was later misinterpreted, giving rise to a legend according to which the two saints arose from their tomb in 1039 in order to assist at the dedication of Aachen Cathedral.


Johanna Naber

Johanna Wilhelmina Antoinette Naber (25 March 1859 – 30 May 1941) was a Dutch feminist, historian and author during the first feminist wave. She was one of the three founders of the International Archives for the Women's Movement (1935), now known as Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history, and was herself a prolific author of historical texts about influential women and the women's movement.
Biography.
Naber was born in Haarlem to an affluent and intellectual Dutch family. She was the second child and first daughter of rector and (future) professor of philology and classical languages Samuel Adrianus Naber (1828–1913) and his wife Anna Elizabeth L’Honoré (1830–1915). Two of her brothers went on to become professors. The Naber family moved from Zwolle (where they had moved to in 1864) to Amsterdam in 1870. In 1876, Johanna Naber received her HBS diploma after which she continued studying to acquire several teaching certificates. Despite his daughter's ambitions, Samuel Naber did not allow her to study at university. Naber remained unmarried and was therefore expected to stay at home and care for her elderly parents and, later, her unmarried brothers. Naber lived on her own for the first time at age 77. Naber's first book, pertaining to artistic needlework, was published under the pseudonym of Rechlindis in 1887.
Involvement with the women’s movement.
Naber's involvement with the Dutch women's movement started in 1896 when she signed up to contribute to the organisation of the National Exhibition on Women's Work. During the exhibition, which took place in 1898, she served as editor and writer for its official magazine "Vrouwenarbeid" (‘Women’s Work’). Naber went on to become board member and press officer of the "Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht" (the Dutch Organisation for Women's Suffrage). She was one of six Dutch women who were present at the inaugural meeting of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) in Berlin in 1904. She briefly serves as the IWSA's Second Assistant Secretary, but was forced to resign due to her commitments as historian and author. She was involved in the organisation of a second exhibition on women's contributions to society in 1913 and consequently met several times with Dutch queen Wilhelmina who eventually knighted her in the Order of Oranje-Nassau.
She was president of the Dutch Women's Council between 1917 and 1922. In her capacity as president, she was also involved with the International Council of Women. In the 1930s, she participated in the (eventually) successful opposition of a bill that proposed to ban married women from working (something she had also successfully opposed in 1910).
Historian and author.
Naber was a self-taught historian. During the 1890s, she started publishing on important female historical figures. During her lifetime she published many biographies of noteworthy women as well as works on the early Dutch women's movement in the 19th century. Some notable works include her 1909 "Wegbereidsters" ('Pioneers') about various women who had paved the way for the women's movement and "Frederika Bremer (1901-1865). Naar hare brieven" (1921) a biography of Swedish feminist and author Frederika Bremer based on her letters. She furthermore braved an attempt at an overview of the Dutch Women's Movement (entitled "Eerste Proeve van een Chronologisch Overzicht van de Geschiedenis der Vrouwenbeweging in Nederland"). This text later functioned as an important reference work for fellow IAV-founder Willemijn Posthumus-van der Goot's seminal overview of the Dutch women's movement since the 19th century "Van Moeder op Dochter" (‘Mother to Daughter’).
In 1914, Naber established "De Nederlandsche Vrouwengids" (‘The Dutch Women’s Guide’) to address women's issues and concerns. The "Guide" ran until 1919. In 1918, she became the first female board member of the prestigious Maatschappij der Nederlandse Letterkunde or Society of Dutch Literature.
In 1935 she collaborated with Dutch feminists Willemijn Posthumus-van der Goot and Rosa Manus to establish the International Archives for the Women's Movement (IAV), now known as Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history.
Politics and later life.
Unlike many of her contemporaries in the women's movement, Naber was a staunch opposer of pacifism and was involved in several organisations that plead for a strong army in the early 1920s. She was a member of the Liberal State Party and her perspective on gender equality was adopted as part of the party's programme.
Naber died at age 82 on 30 May 1941 in the Hague.


Kharkiv Regiment

The Kharkiv Sloboda Cossack Regiment () was one of five territorial-administrative subdivisions of the Sloboda Ukraine. The regiment's capital was the city of Kharkiv, now in Kharkiv Oblast of Eastern Ukraine.
The Kharkiv Regiment appeared between 1651 and 1659 years. In 1732 it consisted of 19 sotnias. In 1765, the sloboda regiments was abolished, and its territory was reformed into the Sloboda Ukraine Governorate.
Preconditions of appearance.
The settlement of future regimental lands by settlers from the territory of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place against the backdrop of uninterrupted military operations in the Dnieper and Western Ukraine, burdened by punitive expeditions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as by fratricidal civil war involving foreign troops (Tatars and Turks) .
The reasons for the first wave of immigrants from the Right Bank Ukraine to the territory of the Moscow kingdom to the border with Wild Field are the defeat of the troops of Bogdan Khmelnytsky in the Battle of Berestechko in 1651. The western part of the Polish-Moscow treaty was reaffirmed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky publishes a versatile person that allowed the population to relocate to the land of the Moscow kingdom.
After the death of hetman Bohdan Khmelnitsky, the authorities passed into the hands of hetman Ivan Vyhovsky. The period of civil wars (1657-1658) began between supporters of the Moscow and Polish courses, the so-called " The Ruin". The population is once again beginning to move to more calm areas that were under the authority of the Moscow tsars.
Structure of the regiment.
Regiment starshina.
At the head of the regiment were elective colonels and regimental starshina (officers). They were chosen not for a limited time, but for life. However, they could be deprived of the position of the Russian tsar (later the emperor), as well as the decision of the assembly of the elder.
The colonel of the Slobodsky Cossack regiment represented both administrative and military power. The colonel had the right to issue decrees, with his signature - universal. The symbol of the colonel's power was a pernach, a regimental crown, a colonel seal.
The regimental starshina (headquarters) consisted of six people: an obozni (quartermaster), a judge, an osavul, a khorunzhy, a two chancellors.
Sotnia starshina.
The regiment was divided into sotnias.
Sotnia is an administrative unit within the regiment. A Sotnia was headed by sotnik. He was endowed with extensive military, administrative, judicial and financial powers. Originally elected by the Cossacks of the sotnia, later he was chosen by a sotnia starshina and was confirmed by the colonels from among the elders.
The Sotnia starshina (headquarters) consisted of a sotnik, a Sotnia otaman, an osavul, a chancellor and a khorunzhy. The positions of the duties coincided with the regimental ones:


Varzuzhskaya Volost

Varzuzhskaya Volost () was an administrative division (a "volost") of the Novgorod Republic and later of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia, and the Russian Empire. Its seat was in Varzuga.
The volost was established by the Novgorodians in the second half of the 15th century. It was lost by the Novgorod Republic to the Grand Duchy of Moscow after the Battle of Shelon in 1471.
In the 16th century, most of the Kola Peninsula's territory was under the administration of Kolsky Uyezd. Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts were the only territories of the peninsula which were a part of Dvinsky Uyezd.
In 1784, when Arkhangelsk Oblast of Vologda Viceroyalty was transformed into Arkhangelsk Viceroyalty, Varzuzhskaya Volost was transferred under the jurisdiction of the new viceroyalty's Kolsky Uyezd. When the viceroyalty was transformed into Arkhangelsk Governorate in 1796, the volost's jurisdiction again changed accordingly.
In 1828, Tetrinskaya slobodka, Pyalitskaya slobodka, and the "selo" of Ponoy were merged into Varzuzhskaya Volost.
The volost was abolished on , 1841, when volosts of Arkhangelsk Governorate's uyezds were enlarged. Varzuzhskaya Volost, along with Umbskaya Volost and the territory of the Terskaya Lapps, became a part of new Kuzomenskaya Volost.


Jacobus Craandijk

Jacobus Craandijk (7 September 1834, in Amsterdam – 3 June 1912, in Haarlem) was a Dutch Mennonite teacher and minister who enjoyed using his spare time for walks while taking notes and drawing.
He was trained at the Amsterdam Mennonite seminary and first served in Borne from 1859, where he met and later married Anna Geertruida Ballot in 1861. He then served in Rotterdam from 1862, where he served on the board of the Rotterdam-based "Nederlandsch Zendelings Genootschap" (Dutch Mission Society) from 1864. In 1869 he wrote the book "Het Nederlandsch zendelinggenootschap in zijn willen en werken", in which he reported on the goals and more and less successful results of that society since its inception. It upset him to see that each religion set up its own missionary work, which in his opinion, was a waste of resources. In general, it was his aim to persuade people of all faiths to invest in one Missionary society as a way to join forces for good in the third world. To this end he tried but failed to win support for government-sponsored third world development projects. In 1879 Van Craandijk organized and presided over a conference of prominent Dutch Mennonite leaders held at Amsterdam. In 1884 he was called to serve in the Doopsgezinde kerk, Haarlem, where he stayed. In 1897 he spoke at the centennial celebration of the Dutch Missionary society, and he also wrote a memorial boek "Gedenkboek" for the occasion.
Today he is best known for his "Walks with pen and pencil", a series of books with illustrations based on notes he made while walking in various parishes. Together these books form an important archival record and can be seen as early tourist literature. This seven part series is listed as one of the 1000 most important texts in the Canon of Dutch Literature. He is known for 135 drawings of Dutch castles.


Otto van Koppenhagen

Otto van Koppenhagen (January 19, 1895 – January 19, 1978) was a Dutch-born cellist and teacher.
Van Koppenhagen was born in Arnhem, the Netherlands, and came to the United States in 1921. He played with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra from 1928 to 1949 where he was principal cellist.
In 1949 he moved to Providence, Rhode Island, where he became professor of music at Brown University. He continued to teach both private lessons and classes in the music department after his retirement in 1961, and after his wife died he actually lived in the Brown music building.
He died in Providence in 1978.


Robert Boon

Robert Boon (October 26, 1916 – January 13, 2015) was a Dutch-born American film, television, and theater actor. His film credits included "The Tanks Are Coming" in 1951 and "Queen of Blood" in 1966. Boon's television credits included on "The Twilight Zone" episodes "Deaths-Head Revisited" in 1961 and "Mute" in 1963.
Military service.
Boon was born in Haarlem, the Netherlands, on October 26, 1916. During World War II, Boon volunteered to serve a Dutch East Indies oil battalion and was sent to the United States for military training. Boon was transferred to Australia, where he was enlisted to the Australian Army. He took part in the Borneo campaign in May 1945, the last major Allied invasion in the South West Pacific Area during World War II. Following the defeat of Japan, Boon was stationed in Java and Sumatra before returning to the Netherlands.
Acting career.
Boon first became interested in theater and acting as a potential career while studying in post-war Amsterdam. However, Boon first took a position with Bataafse Petroleum Maatschappij (BPM), a former subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell, for financial reasons. BPM sent him to work at its oil facilities in Curaçao. Robert Boon soon joined the Little Theatre, a theater company in Curaçao, and worked part-time as an actor and writer one of the island's radio stations.
He relocated to the United States in the late 1940s. Boon initially moved to New York City, where he worked in live television and radio, before moving to Los Angeles, California, in 1947. He made his film debut in the 1948 film, "Berlin Express". Boon's acting career spanned decades, until his retirement during his 80s. He served on the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences's Best Foreign Language Film's nominating committee for many years.
Death.
Robert Boon died at West Hills Hospital in the West Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles on January 13, 2015, at the age of 98. He had been scheduled for transfer to the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital the next day.


Martin van den Hove

Martin (Maarten) van den Hove (Latinized as Martinus Hortensius (Ortensius)) (1605 – 7 August 1639) was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician. His adopted Latin name is a translation of the Dutch "hof" ("garden"), in Latin "horta".
Early life.
Born in Delft, he studied at Leiden University under Snellius and Isaac Beeckman from 1625 to 1627. He received further instruction from Snellius from 1628 to 1630 at Leiden and at Ghent.
Van den Hove and Philippe van Lansberge.
In 1628, he began studying under Philippe van Lansberge, who was introduced to him by Beeckman. Van den Hove became an enthusiastic supporter of Landsberge, who was by now quite aged, and helped Landsberge complete his project to "restore astronomy" (i.e. create new systematic observations to replace old, insufficient data). Landsberge thanked Van den Hove publicly, considered himself lucky that "by divine providence, in my old age, pressed by sickness, such a strong helper came to my aid, as formerly the learned Rheticus to the great Copernicus."
In 1632, at Copenhagen ("Hafnia" in Latin) and later reprinted at London in 1696, Petrus Bartholin published "Apologia pro observationibus, et hypothesibus...Tycho Brahe...Contra...Martini Hortensii Delfensis criminationes et calumnies, quas in praefationem commentationum praeceptoris sui Philippi Lansbergii Middelburgensis, de motu terrae diurno et annuo etc. cosarcinnavit" ("Defense of the Astronomical Observations and Theses of Tycho Brahe against the accusations and false claims of Martinus Hortensius of Delft, which appear in his preface of the commentary by his teacher Philip van Landsberge, who wrote on the daily and annual motion of the earth"). Van den Hove had attacked many of Tycho Brahe's claims in his preface to his Latin translation of a work by Landsbergen. This was the "Commentationes in motum terrae diurnum, & annuum" (Middelburg, 1630). The first Latin edition of Landsberge's illustrated treatise, the "Commentationes" taught the probability of earth’s motion according to the Copernican theory. Van den Hove regarded Landsberge, not Tycho Brahe, as the one who was restoring astronomy. "Only Landsberge held all ancient observations in esteem," Van den Hove wrote, "whereas Tycho, Longomontanus, and Kepler tended to neglect them."
Career as lecturer.
At the encouragement of Gerard Vossius and Caspar Barlaeus, Van den Hove began lecturing on the mathematical sciences at the Amsterdam Atheneum ("Athenaeum Illustre") in 1634. The Athenaeum Illustre, which had its seat in the fourteenth century Agnietenkapel, is commonly regarded as the predecessor of the University of Amsterdam. Upon assuming his new duties, Van den Hove delivered an inaugural speech, later published as "De dignitate et utilitate Matheseos" ("On the dignity and utility of the mathematical sciences").
Van den Hove also lectured on optics at Amsterdam (1635), and on navigation (1637). In 1638, Van den Hove was made a member of the commission negotiating with Galileo on the determination of longitude by the method of Jupiter's moons.
Work and legacy.
Van den Hove developed a method for measuring the diameters of planets based on the measured visual angle that his telescope revealed. His was probably the first independent set of measurements of the apparent sizes of the planets and fixed stars since the work of Hipparchus in his On Sizes and Distances some seventeen centuries earlier. Van den Hove corresponded with René Descartes, Marin Mersenne, Pierre Gassendi, Christiaan Huygens, and Galileo Galilei. He was made full professor "in the Copernican theory" in 1635 and then nominated professor at Leiden University in 1639, but he died there shortly afterwards.
The crater Hortensius on the Moon is named after him.


Adriaan Ditvoorst

Adriaan Ditvoorst (23 January 1940 – 18 October 1987) was a Dutch film director and screenwriter. He directed nine films between 1965 and 1984. His 1967 film "Paranoia" was entered into the 17th Berlin International Film Festival.


MV Sovetskaya Latviya

MV "Sovetskaya Latviya" (Soviet Latvia, ) was a transport ship operated by the Dalstroy concern of the NKVD. One of its main uses was to transport prisoners as forced labour in the Kolyma camps system.
Prior to Soviet ownership.
The ship was originally christened "Childar" when launched on 25 November 1925. It was operated as a merchant vessel for several years by the Norwegian line Wiel & Amundsen Rederi A/S, based in Halden.
"Childar" ran aground on 4 May 1934 at the entrance to the Columbia River in the United States while en route to Cape Town, South Africa. Four seamen were killed in this incident.
The ship was eventually was repaired at Porsgrunn and re-launched in May 1935 as MS "Aakre" by another Norwegian line, Rederi A/S Henneseid (Thoralf Holta).
In 1939, it was purchased by the Latvian United Shipping Company (Apvienotā Kuģniecības Akciju Sabiedrība), in Riga, Latvia, and renamed "Hercogs Jēkabs", in honour of Duke Jacob of Courland. It was planned that she would maintain a monthly cargo service between Riga and New York City. At that time it was one of the biggest and most modern ships in Latvia as it was only second ship with diesel engine in Latvian merchant fleet. Ship was involved in trans Atlantic voyages from Europe to North and South America.
In Soviet service.
When Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, all merchant vessels were nationalised by the Soviet state, including "Hercogs Jēkabs". Some of the ships were within the immediate control of Soviet authorities and were thereby impressed into the service of the Soviet-controlled Latvian State Sea Shipping Company. However, many Latvian-registered ships outside Soviet-controlled waters defected and turned themselves over to the control of other nations. The exception to the last rule was "Hercogs Jēkabs", which even though outside the reach of Communist authorities along the coast of Chile, nonetheless attempted to sail to the USSR, despite differing opinions among the crew. A dispute about ownership and control was resolved in the favor of the USSR despite the attempts of Latvian diplomats in the West and in time the ship voyaged for Vladivostok. The ship was renamed "Sovetskaya Latviya" in 1942, around which time it entered service for the NKVD and Dalstroy.
It was struck from the Soviet register in 1967.


Herring fair

The herring market or herring fair (, ) is an annual event held in various cities in Finland, notably in Helsinki in October. During the Helsinki herring market, many archipelagoans arrive in the South Harbour to sell fish and other archipelago products directly from their boats. The event is organised by the city of Helsinki.
The first fair in Finland is considered to have been held in Turku in 1636. The Helsinki event is also very old; it said to have first been held in 1743. In 1820 its place was settled as the South Harbour.
The event has been forgotten from time to time, for various reasons, but in the 1980s it was revived and has become very popular.
In addition to the Helsinki and Turku fairs, the fair held at Rauma is also notable.


Gert van Groningen

Gert van Groningen (died ca. 1577) was a sculptor active in Denmark in the 1570s, who probably came from Groningen in the Netherlands.
Gert is known to have been a citizen of Aarhus in 1573 when he was commissioned by King Frederik II to build a stone gate and a well at Skanderborg Castle. In 1574, the king transferred him to Kronborg Castle near Helsingør where he was responsible for coordinating all the sculptural additions. In particular, he designed two entrances, including the grand Royal Entrance complete with a bay, as well as fireplaces for the chambers of the king and his wife, Queen Sophie. It was also decided that the Skanderborg gate should be brought to Kronborg. Van Groningen's work for the king appears to have terminated in 1576 (the work was continued by his son, "Herman Gertsen"). He also completed two sandstone reliefs (1574) with the coats of arms of the king and queen for the entrance to Helsingør's town hall where they still stand today. By contrast, the coat of arms, crucifix and tombstone he designed for the chapel at Frederiksborg have now been lost. The epitaph to Holger Rosenkrantz with two wives in Uth Church near Horsens has also been attributed to Van Groningen.


Johan van Brosterhuysen

Johan (Jan) van Brosterhuysen, also spelled "Brosterhuisen" (ca. 1596 – 1650) was a Dutch botanist, engraver, writer, and translator. At age 14 he was registered as a gownsman on 3 June 1610 at Leiden University, his native city. His interest was botany, but he was unable to acquire a teaching position in that field and took a position as secretary at Heusden Castle. Having moved to Amersfoort he became interested (under the influence of Jacob van Campen) in architecture, until his college friend Constantijn Huygens got him a position as professor of botany and literature in a newly founded academy in Breda; he was also keeper of the botanical garden. He died in Breda in September 1650.
A member of the Muiderkring, the arts and sciences coterie whose central figure was P. C. Hooft, he was known as a "dilettante" with an interest in natural philosophy (the work of Francis Bacon) and a classical scholar, and his interest in literature is proven in his scattered poems, one of which a translation of Petrarch's Sonnet 213, "Grazie ch’a pochi il ciel largo destina". He translated from English as well, and his translation of Francis Godwin's "The Man in the Moone" went through six printings between 1645 and 1700.
Van Brosterhuysen made a number of important friends, including people such as the humanist and theologian Caspar Barlaeus and poet P. C. Hooft, and especially Huygens, a poet and composer and secretary to princes of the House of Orange: In 1634, he was able to cure (perhaps with a botanical remedy) Huygens's wife of kidney stones, and a Latin poem by Huygens dated 1627 thanks Brosterhuysen for advising him on horticultural matters. He is credited with sixteen landscape etchings made, apparently, at Randenbroek, the country estate of artist and architect Jacob van Campen near Amersfoort. His landscapes display "with a distinctive sensibility towards trees and foliage and few indications of human presence".


Geerten Meijsing

Geerten Jan Maria Meijsing (9 August 1950) is a Dutch writer, translator and novelist. He won the AKO Literatuurprijs in 1988 for his novel "Veranderlijk en wisselvallig (Fickle and Changeable)", and in 1999 the Gouden Uil Literatuurprijs for his novel "Tussen mes en keel (Between Knife and Throat)". He published most of his early books under the pseudonym Joyce & Co, notably a trilogy devoted to literature, painting, and music ("Erwin", "Michael van Mander", and "Cecilia").
Geerten Meijsing has one daughter, Iris, named after Iris Storm from Michael Arlen's novel "The Green Hat". He is the younger brother of novelist Doeschka Meijsing.


Jennifer Sigler

Jennifer Sigler is an American editor, formerly based in Rotterdam. From 2013–2019 she was Editor-in-Chief at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where she revamped and oversaw Harvard Design Magazine, and started the series The Incidents, among other publications.
While in Rotterdam, Sigler was editor of Rem Koolhaas's seminal monograph "S,M,L,XL" (1995), and other works. She went on to create the Berlage Institute's journal, "Hunch", in collaboration with architect Wiel Arets, and to edit its first seven issues.
Later, she collaborated with the Why Factory, a think tank at TU Delft run by Winy Maas; the Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art; Dutch Design Fashion Architecture (DutchDFA); Rotterdamse Schouwburg; and REX Architecture; among others. From 2008—2010 she was editorial director and event curator of the 4th International Architecture Biennale in Rotterdam (IABR), Open City, curated by Kees Christiaanse, and co-editor of the book Open City: Designing Coexistence (SUN Publishers, 2009). She is also the recipient of a grant by the Dutch Fund for Art and Architecture for her research into Domestic Labor and Design.
Today, Sigler lives in Cambridge, MA.


Huis aan de Drie Grachten

The Huis aan de Drie Grachten or Huis op de Drie Grachten ("House on Three Canals") is a 17th-century canal house in Amsterdam, at the southeastern end of the Wallen district. The name is a reference to the fact that the building faces three different Amsterdam canals. The south facade faces Grimburgwal, the west facade faces Oudezijds Voorburgwal and the east facade faces Oudezijds Achterburgwal. The address is Oudezijds Voorburgwal 249.
The "Huis aan de Drie Grachten" is a double house in Dutch Renaissance style. A stepped gable crowns each of the three facades. The current structure dates to around 1610, although archeological study has shown that the oldest elements of the house date to the second quartile of the 16th century. The building has "rijksmonument" (national monument) status.
In 1909, the building underwent large-scale renovations under the supervision of the architect Jan de Meijer. He aimed to restore the building to its original 17th-century state, basing himself on a contemporary painting of the house by Gerrit Berckheyde which is now in the collection of the Amsterdam Museum. During the renovations, the building was given new stepped gables, "kruiskozijnen" (windows that are divided into four smaller windows by crossbeams), and a sandstone entrance gate. These replaced the original elements which had been demolished in the 18th century. The renovation also stripped the interior of the house of elements which had been added over the centuries. In 2005, the building underwent a second renovation.
There are two large 17th-century mantelplaces within the house. However, it is not known whether these were added during the 1909 renovations, or whether these are original elements of the house.
August Aimé Balkema opened a bookstore in the building in 1936. During the Second World War, the bookstore was used to clandestinely print and publish works of poetry and other literature. A hidden compartment over one of the mantelpieces was uncovered during the renovations in 2005. This compartment was found to contain an archive of wartime documents, including manuscripts and correspondence. The compartment may also have served as a hiding place for (Jewish) "onderduikers" (people hiding from the Germans).
The building remained in use as a bookstore until 2002. The publishing house Uitgeverij Huis aan de Drie Grachten held office in the building for decades. The publisher focused mainly on literary and linguistic studies. "Over Multatuli", a journal dedicated to the Dutch writer Multatuli, was also published here from 1978.


Pieter Vreede

Pieter Vreede (October 8, 1750– September 21, 1837) was a Dutch politician of the Batavian Republic in the 18th century. Vreede was born in Leiden and died in Heusden. He was a prominent critic of stadholderian misrule and of the urban patriciate.
Early life.
In Leiden, Vreede worked as a cloth and wool manufacturer, as his father had. Pieter Vreede was member of the "Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde" (organization of writers and readers) and published some writings about the bad shape of the Dutch society.
Revolution and Later.
The patriotic revolution broke out in the 1780s in the Netherlands and Pieter Vreede was one of the enthusiastic participants. Pieter and his friend "Wijbo Fijnje" made a constitution for Leiden, helped found the local exercitiegenootschap, a drill society, and helped draft the celebrated Leiden Draft. In 1786, he became a member of the revolutionary town council of Leiden. Vreede joined in a diplomatic expedition in Woerden in 1786. The revolution came to an end, when the Prussian army invaded the Netherlands in 1787. Pieter lost his business in Prussian Emmerich, so his business was reverted to Lier in the Austrian Netherlands.
Revolution broke out in the Austrian Netherlands as well in 1790, when the United States of Belgium were proclaimed. Pieter left Leiden, stopped his business in Lier and settled in Brabant of the States in the city Tilburg, where he continued his business as cloth and wool manufacturer until 1800.
France conquered Brabant in 1794 and Pieter Vreede immediately sided with the French. The French were very popular in the Netherlands. Many regarded the orangist regime as wrong due to the events of 1787. In 1794, he became a member of Batavian committee of Den Bosch. The same year, he became a member of the revolutionary committee of Brabant. The French continued their advance into the Netherlands and Pieter Vreede became a member of the administration of the conquered areas of the Netherlands in January 1795. Revolution broke out in the Netherlands and William V, Prince of Orange had to flee to England. The Batavian Republic was proclaimed.
Life in Government.
Pieter Vreede became a member of the municipality of Tilburg in April 1795. He became a member of the provisional government council of North Brabant in June 1795. He was chosen in the first democratically elected parliament of the Netherlands, the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic in 1796 for the district of Bergen op Zoom. He was chairman of the parliament from 13 November 1797 to 27 November 1797.
Vreede was the most outspoken spokesman of the unitarian democratic parliament members. The unitarion democrats were in favour of a centralized government and of general elections for all adult men. The majority in the parliament was in favour of federalism and semi-democratic elections for property owners. Pieter Vreede and Wijbo Fijnje did a coupe d'état in 1798 and ruled for a few months, alienating both enemies and friends. A coupe d'état made an end to his rule and Vreede had to flee from the Netherlands to Lier, which was French territory at that time.
Later life.
He came back to the Netherlands in the same year and settled in Tilburg where his manufactury was. He stopped his business in 1800 and settled in Waalre.
His political career continued in 1815, when the French were gone and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed. He was a member of the provincial council of North Brabant from 1815 onwards. He worked as commissionary of the customs office first local and then on a national level until his death in 1837.
Family.
Pieter Vreede was married three times and widowed twice. He had 12 children.


Jasper Schade van Westrum

Jasper Schade (1623–1692), was a Dutch representative to the States-General who is best known today for his portrait by Frans Hals.
Biography.
He was also known for his buitenplaats "Zandbergen" on the Amersfoortseweg that was built by Jacob van Campen. His portrait by Hals hung there for centuries, though it was in the possession of National Gallery in Prague by 1890.
This portrait is admirable for the loose brushwork used to depict the gold brocade of his jacket. Research has revealed that it was painted "alla prima" or wet-in-wet. Measuring only 31.5 × 26.6 inches, this portrait could have easily been completed while Schade was on a day trip to Haarlem, taking it with him, still wet. The painting was documented by Cornelis Hofstede de Groot in 1910 who wrote:
"221. JASPER SCHADE VAN WESTRUM (died October 25, 1692), President of the Court at Utrecht. B. 124 ; M. 68. Half-length ;
life size. A youth, turned three-quarters right, looks at the spectator. On his long curls he wears a black felt hat with two bows. He wears a shot-silk costume with a plain close-fitting linen collar. The sleeves are slashed with white, and the coat opens to show the white shirt. The prevailing tone is olive green. At the top of the picture are the arms of Schade van Westrum ; sable, a fess or, with two realistic lions as supporters. [Compare 168.] Dated 1645 ; canvas, 29 1/2 inches by 26 inches. See Moes, Iconographia Batava, No. 6803, i. Engraved by C. Waltner. Sale. John W. Wilson of Brussels, Paris, March 14, 1881. [See 1873 catalogue, p. 83.] In the Rudolphinum, Prague ; given by Prince Liechtenstein."
Schade planned the road his home was built on and planted the trees there that later became a large forest. He later went on to serve as deacon of the chapter of Oud-Munster at Utrecht, and representative to the States-General of the Netherlands from Utrecht. His wedding portrait was painted nine years later in 1654, along with that of his wife Cornelia Strick van Linschoten, by Cornelis Jonson van Ceulen, a Dutch painter who had himself just returned from London.


Binnenvestgracht

The binnenvestgracht was a system of canals that formed part of the fortifications of the Dutch city of Leiden in the early modern period.
History.
Leiden expanded to the north in 1611 and to the east in 1659 and with it completed its bastion fort structure. On the outside was the moat, a semicircular ring of water, with a name and function much the same as the Singel in Amsterdam. Within that were the city's walls, ramparts and gates. To the inside of those the 'binnenvestgracht' was dug, as an extra obstacle. It enclosed most of the city and comprised seven larger parts.
In the nineteenth century city fortifications had lost their use and in Leiden most were demolished. Waste materials were used for narrowing the 'singels' and for filling in the 'binnenvestgracht'. Most stretches of the latter were done between 1867 and 1900. Four segments were filled in as late as 1930 and 1937, two of which have been reopened in 1983.
As of 2018 a few segments of the ring remain, most notably on the north east side of the former bastion fort. Five streets in Leiden are named "Binnenvestgracht" (1st to 5th) in places where the canals used to be. Only the fifth has water in it, but it's not the original segment of the 'binnenvestgracht' in the south west corner of Leiden. That stretch was filled in at the end of the sixteenth century, to make room for what is now the Hortus Botanicus Leiden.


Theo Dobbelman

Theodorus Antonius Hubertus Maria (Theo) Dobbelman (Nijmegen, 22 October 1906 – Montalivet-les-Bains, France, 7 September 1984) was a Dutch sculptor, ceramist and painter.
Dobbelman came into prominence as ceramist and leader of the experimental division of De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles in Delft since 1956. He also taught at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Amsterdam.
Biography.
Early life.
Dobbelman (also: Dobbelmann) was the son of soap maker and politician Pierre Dobbelmann. He initially studied chemistry at the Swiss Fribourg, where he also graduated. He settled in Amsterdam, where he befriended ceramist Just van Deventer.
From 1941 he worked with him in his company Tanagra Pottery. After the Second World War Dobbelman left the business, and he worked as an independent artist. In 1956 he became the leader of an experimental division of De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles in Delft. The department focused on the renewal of ceramics as art form. Early pupils out there were Lies Cosijn and Jet Sielcken. One of the latest pupils out there was Simone Haak.
Later career.
Dobbelman taught ceramics associated with the Institute of Applied Art and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, both in Amsterdam. His students included Frank van Brakel, Hannie Mein, Francine Timmers, and Jan van der Vaart. He was president of Saint Luke Artist Association and member of Arti et Amicitiae.
Later in his life he was invested as a Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau. Dobbelman died in France and was buried on cemetery Zorgvlied.
Work.
Over the years Dobbelman contributed with numerous designs for ceramics, bronze and terra cotta, and to publications, commissions and illustrations. In 1976 the Princessehof Ceramics Museum in Leeuwarden contributed with a retrospective of his work.


Philippus Rovenius

Philippus Rovenius (; baptised 1 January 1573, in Deventer – 10 October 1651, in Utrecht) was apostolic vicar of the Dutch Mission from 1614 to 1651.
Life.
Rovenius studied in Leuven, and was ordained priest in 1599. In 1602 he was made president of the Dutch priestly college in Cologne and in 1605 vicar general of the diocese of Deventer. In 1614 he succeeded Sasbout Vosmeer as vicar apostolic. On 8 November 1620, in Brussels, he was consecrated titular archbishop of Philippi. He based himself in Oldenzaal, then Groenlo (where he witnessed the Siege of Groenlo in 1627 first hand) and finally Utrecht. In 1640 he was banned in Amsterdam.
Rovenius succeeded in reorganising the Catholic Church in the Netherlands, trying to introduce the decisions of the Council of Trent. Although he had become friends with Jansenius in Leuven, he remained faithful to Rome in all things.


Battle of Osijek

The Battle of Osijek () was the artillery bombardment of the Croatian city of Osijek by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) which took place from August 1991 to June 1992 during the Croatian War of Independence. Shelling peaked in late November and December 1991, then diminished in 1992 after the Vance plan was accepted by the combatants. Airstrikes and attacks by JNA infantry and armored units against targets in the city accompanied the bombardment, which caused approximately 800 deaths and resulted in a large portion of the city's population leaving. Croatian sources estimated that 6,000 artillery shells were fired against Osijek over the period.
After the JNA captured Vukovar on 18 November 1991, Osijek was the next target for its campaign in Croatia. The JNA units subordinated to the 12th (Novi Sad) Corps, supported by the Serb Volunteer Guard, achieved modest advances in late November and early December, capturing several villages south of Osijek, but the Croatian Army maintained its defensive front and limited the JNA's advances.
In the aftermath of the Battle of Osijek, Croatian authorities charged thirteen JNA officers with war crimes against civilians, but no arrests have been made to date. Croatian authorities also charged the wartime commander of Osijek's defence, Branimir Glavaš, and five others with war crimes committed in the city in 1991. The five were convicted and received sentences ranging between eight and ten years, and as of March 2015, judicial proceedings against Glavaš are in progress.
Background.
In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions worsened. The Yugoslav People's Army ("Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija" – JNA) confiscated the weapons of Croatia's Territorial Defence ("Teritorijalna obrana" – TO) to minimize potential resistance. On 17 August 1990, the escalating tensions turned into open revolt by the Croatian Serbs. The revolt took place in the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin and in parts of the Lika, Kordun, Banovina regions and eastern Croatia. In January 1991, Serbia, supported by Montenegro and Serbia's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo, made two unsuccessful attempts to obtain approval from the Yugoslav Presidency to deploy the JNA to disarm Croatian security forces.
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March, the JNA itself, supported by Serbia and its allies, asked the federal Presidency to grant it wartime powers and declare a state of emergency. The request was denied on 15 March 1991, and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in the summer of 1991 as the Yugoslav federation started to fall apart. By the end of the month, the conflict had escalated, resulting in the first fatalities of the war. The JNA then stepped in to support the insurgents and prevent Croatian police from intervening. In early April, leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia announced their intention to integrate the areas under their control with Serbia. The Government of Croatia considered this an act of secession.
Timeline.
The JNA intervened directly against Croatia for the first time on 3 July 1991, driving Croatian forces out of Baranja, north of the city of Osijek, and out of Erdut, Aljmaš and Dalj east of Osijek. The advance was followed by intermittent fighting around Osijek, Vukovar and Vinkovci. At several points, JNA positions approached to within several hundred yards of Osijek city limits.
The JNA units near Osijek were subordinated to the 12th (Novi Sad) Corps, commanded by Major General Andrija Biorčević. In the city itself, the JNA had several barracks which housed the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade and the 12th Mixed Artillery Regiment. The 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade contained one of a handful battalions maintained by the JNA at full combat readiness. Osijek was established as their starting point in a planned westward offensive toward Našice and Bjelovar.
Croatian forces in the area were formally subordinated to the Operational Zone Command in Osijek headed by Colonel Karl Gorinšek. In practice, the city's defense was overseen by Branimir Glavaš, then head of the National Defence Office in Osijek, according to information presented at Glavaš trial in the 2000s. Glavaš formally became commander of city defenses on 7 December 1991.
Bombardment of the city.
The JNA first attacked Osijek by mortar fire on 31 July 1991, and heavily bombarded the city's center on 19 August 1991. The attacks came from positions north, east and south of Osijek, and were supported by JNA garrisons stationed in Osijek itself. On 7–9 September, an inconclusive battle was fought in Tenja, within of the city. The JNA garrisons were besieged by Croatian forces in mid-September. After a barracks in the city centre was captured on 15 September 1991, the remaining JNA garrison tried to break through the Croatian troops besieging the barracks and, after heavy fighting, reached JNA positions south of Osijek on 17 September 1991. The intensity of the shelling increased thereafter, peaking through November and December. After a ceasefire was arranged in January 1992, following the acceptance of the Vance plan, the artillery attacks dropped off and became intermittent, and ceased by June.
During its height, the intensity of the bombardment was reported to reach as high as one shell per minute, and the artillery attacks were compounded by Yugoslav Air Force strikes against the city. According to Croatian sources, a total of 6,000 artillery shells were fired against Osijek in the period. Prior to the start of the bombardment, the civilian population of Osijek totaled 104,761 city residents and 129,792 municipal residents. These numbers were significantly reduced as civilians fled the fighting. It is estimated that only about a third of the population remained in the city by the end of November, with some sources placing the estimate even lower, suggesting that the population of the city was reduced to just 10,000 civilians during the most intense periods of the bombardment. Those who remained in Osijek through the fighting generally slept in bomb shelters.
Ground offensive.
After JNA captured Vukovar on 18 November, the JNA 12th (Novi Sad) Corps, supported by the Serbian Ministry of Interior-trained Serb Volunteer Guard paramilitaries, started to advance west between Vinkovci and Osijek on 20 November. The city of Osijek appeared to be the next target of the JNA, which was later confirmed by General Života Panić, commander of the JNA 1st Military District.
On 21 November 1991, the JNA captured the villages of Stari Seleš, Novi Seleš and Ernestinovo situated approximately south of Osijek. Laslovo, south of Ernestinovo, was captured three days later. Those developments threatened Đakovo and pointed to the potential encirclement of Osijek. On 4 December 1991, the Special Envoy of Secretary-General of the United Nations Cyrus Vance visited Osijek to inspect the damage.
In early December, the JNA made modest advances, capturing Antunovac located south of Osijek on 5 December 1991. On the same day, an armoured JNA force unsuccessfully attacked positions held by the Croatian 106th Brigade in Rosinjača Forest near Nemetin, approximately east of Osijek. On 6 December, the JNA pushed Croatian troops out from Tenja, followed by a heavy attack against Osijek repulsed by the Croatian Army ("Hrvatska vojska" HV) on 7 December. On 11 December, HV personnel entered the frontline village of Paulin Dvor, less than west of Ernestinovo, and summarily executed 19 civilians (18 Serbs and one Hungarian). The JNA captured Paulin Dvor five days later, on 16 December, and attacked Osijek once again. The HV managed to contain the attack, though fighting continued south of Osijek until January 1992.
Operation Devil's Beam.
Advances of the JNA north of Osijek threatened HV control of a narrow bridgehead held across the Drava River skirting the city's northern edge. By mid-December the bridgehead was reduced to a strip of land opposite Osijek, encompassing suburban settlements of Podravlje and Tvrđavica. In order to remove the threat, the HV launched an offensive codenamed Operation Devil's Beam () on 17–18 December. The offensive, involving the 1st Battalion of the 135th Brigade, elements of the special forces Frankopan Battalion and the Osijek-based Orao special police unit, Drava River flotilla, artillery of the 106th Brigade, and personnel of the 4th Beli Manastir Police Station, successfully pushed the JNA north, across Stara Drava oxbow lake located approximately north of Osijek. The JNA also withdrew from the village of Kopačevo towards Darda and Vardarac, but the HV did not have sufficient resources to exploit the development. The HV lost eight killed in the offensive, but the JNA's advance towards Osijek from the north was halted.
Aftermath.
By June 1992, approximately 800 people had been killed by the bombardment. By the end of the Croatian War of Independence in 1995, a total of 1,724 people from Osijek had been killed, including 1,327 soldiers and 397 civilians. The city itself suffered great damage during the war, with the bulk of direct damage occurring as a consequence of the 1991–92 bombardment. Direct war damage sustained by the city was estimated at a total of US$1.3 billion. The damage was regularly recorded by 400 volunteers during the bombardment.
Although media reported on the bombardment of Osijek, journalists in the city itself felt that it was receiving an unduly low level of media coverage compared to wartime events elsewhere in Croatia. The attacks on Osijek were welcomed by the "Pravoslavlje" newspaper published by the Serbian Orthodox Church, which appeared to give a blessing to the attack as a part of a "holy war", setting it in the context of World War II massacres and concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia.
The JNA withdrew from Croatia in 1992, but continued to contribute personnel and equipment to the Army of the Republic of Serbian Krajina (ARSK) which controlled the areas previously held by the JNA. Although the United Nations Protection Force peacekeepers deployed to the area on the basis of the Vance plan and placed most of the ARSK heavy weapons in storage, Osijek was intermittently bombarded throughout the war—the last artillery strike occurred in September 1995. The hostilities ceased in November 1995 through the Erdut Agreement securing restoration of Croatian rule in the region.
In November 2010, then-Croatian President Ivo Josipović officially apologized for the Paulin Dvor massacre, shortly after his Serbian counterpart Boris Tadić issued a formal apology for the massacre at Vukovar.
War crime trials.
In 2008, Croatian authorities formally charged Colonel Boro Ivanović, commanding officer of the JNA 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade, and twelve other JNA officers with war crimes against the civilian population. The charges include causing the deaths of 307 civilians in Osijek and surrounding areas, injuries to another 171 civilians, and the destruction of at least 1,188 different structures. , all of the indicted officers remain at large in Serbia.
In 2005, the Osijek District Court convicted former Croatian soldier Nikola Ivanković for his involvement in the killings at Paulin Dvor, and sentenced him to 15 years in prison. In 2012, Enes Vitesković was also convicted for his involvement in the atrocity, and given an eleven-year sentence.
After the war, five Croatian fighters were charged and convicted of eleven counts of murder, one of attempted murder, and one of torture of Serb civilians found in the JNA barracks, which surrendered on 15 September 1991. They received prison sentences of between five and eight years. Glavaš, who was tried alongside them for the same crimes, received a ten-year sentence. Before the conviction became final in 2009, and to avoid extradition, Glavaš fled to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where he had granted citizenship. His sentence was reduced to eight years and became final in 2010, when he was arrested and imprisoned in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In January 2015, the conviction was set aside by the Constitutional Court of Croatia, pending a new trial before the Supreme Court of Croatia.