History of Washington (state)

The history of Washington includes thousands of years of Native American history before Europeans arrived and began to establish territorial claims. The region was part of Oregon Territory from 1848 to 1853, after which it was separated from Oregon and established as Washington Territory following the efforts at the Monticello Convention. In 1889, Washington became the 42nd state of the United States.
Prehistory and cultures.
Archaeological evidence shows that the Pacific Northwest was one of the first populated areas in North America. Both animal and human bones dating back to 13,000 years old have been found across Washington and evidence of human habitation in the Olympic Peninsula dates back to approximately 9,000 BCE, 3,000 to 5,000 years after massive flooding of the Columbia River which carved the Columbia Gorge.
Anthropologists estimate there were 125 distinct Northwest tribes and 50 languages and dialects in existence before the arrival of Euro-Americans in this region. Throughout the Puget Sound region, coastal tribes made use of the region's abundant natural resources, subsisting primarily on salmon, halibut, shellfish, and whale. Cedar was an important building material and was used by tribes to build both longhouses and large canoes. Clothing was also made from the bark of cedar trees. The Columbia River tribes became the richest of the Washington tribes through their control of Celilo Falls, historically the richest salmon fishing location in the Northwest. These falls on the Columbia River, east of present-day The Dalles, Oregon, were part of the path millions of salmon took to spawn. The presence of private wealth among the more aggressive coastal tribes encouraged gender divisions as women took on prominent roles as traders and men participated in warring and captive-taking with other tribes. The eastern tribes, called the Plateau tribes, survived through seasonal hunting, fishing, and gathering. Tribal work among the Plateau Indians was also gender-divided with both men and women responsible for equal parts of the food supply.
The principal tribes of the coastal areas include the Chinook, Lummi, Quinault, Makah, Quileute, and Snohomish. The Plateau tribes include the Klickitat, Cayuse, Nez Percé, Okanogan, Palouse, Spokane, Wenatchee, and Yakama. Today, Washington contains more than 20 Indian reservations, the largest of which is for the Yakama.
At Ozette, in the northwest corner of the state, an ancient village was covered by a mud slide, perhaps triggered by an earthquake about 500 years ago. More than 50,000 well-preserved artifacts have been found and cataloged, many of which are now on display at the Makah Cultural and Research Center in Neah Bay. Other sites have also revealed how long people have been there. Thumbnail-sized quartz knife blades found at the Hoko River site near Clallam Bay are believed to be 2,500 years old.
Colony.
Early European and American exploration.
The first European record of a landing on the Washington coast was in 1774 by Spaniard Juan Pérez. One year later, Spanish Captain Don Bruna de Heceta on board the "Santiago", part of a two-ship flotilla with the "Sonora", landed near the mouth of the Quinault River and claimed the coastal lands up to the Russian possessions in the north.
In 1778, the British explorer Captain James Cook sighted Cape Flattery, at the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. But the strait itself was not found until Charles William Barkley, captain of the "Imperial Eagle", sighted it in 1787. Barkley named it for Juan de Fuca. The Spanish-British Nootka Conventions of the 1790s ended Spanish exclusivity and opened the Northwest Coast to explorers and traders from other nations, most important being Britain, Russia, and the United States. Further explorations of the straits were performed by Spanish explorers Manuel Quimper in 1790 and Francisco de Eliza in 1791 and then by British Captain George Vancouver in 1792. Captain Vancouver claimed the sound for Britain and named the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows Puget's Sound, in honor of Peter Puget, who was the lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. The name later came to be used for the waters north of Tacoma Narrows as well. Vancouver and his expedition mapped the coast of Washington from 1792 to 1794.
Captain Robert Gray (for whom Grays Harbor County is named) discovered the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792, naming the river after his ship "Columbia" and later establishing a trade in sea otter pelts. The Lewis and Clark expedition, under the direction of President Thomas Jefferson, entered the state from the east on October 10, 1805. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were surprised by the differences in Indian tribes in the Pacific Northwest from those they had encountered earlier in the expedition, noting, in particular, the increased status of women among both coastal and plateau tribes. Lewis hypothesized that the equality of women and the elderly with men was linked to more evenly distributed economic roles.
Canadian explorer David Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River commencing in 1807. In 1811, he became the first European to navigate the entire length of the river to the Pacific. Along the way he posted a notice where it joins the Snake River claiming the land for Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort there. Subsequently, Fort Nez Perces trading post, was established near present-day Walla Walla, Washington. Thompson's notice was found by Astorians looking to establish an inland fur post. It contributed to David Stuart's choice, on behalf of the American Pacific Fur Company, of a more northerly site for their operations at Fort Okanogan.
By the time settlers arrived in the 1830s, a population of Métis (mixed race) people had grown from centuries of early-European fur traders procreating with Native American women. Before Caucasian women began moving to the territory in the 1830s, it was not uncommon for traders to seek Métis women for wives.
American–British occupation disputes.
American interests in the region grew as part of the concept of manifest destiny. Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States by the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty, (but not possession, which was disallowed by the terms of the Nootka Conventions).
Britain had long-standing commercial interests through the Hudson's Bay Company and a well-established network of fur trading forts along the Columbia River in what it called Columbia District. These were headquartered from Fort Vancouver in present-day Vancouver, Washington.
By the Treaty of 1818, following from the War of 1812, Great Britain and the United States established the 49th parallel as the border west to the Continental Divide of the Rocky mountains; but agreed to joint control and occupancy of Oregon Country. In 1824, Russia signed an agreement with the U.S. acknowledging it had no claims south of 54-40 latitude north and Russia signed a similar treaty with Britain in 1825.
Joint occupancy was renewed, but on a year-to-year basis in 1827. Eventually, increased tension between U.S. settlers arriving by the Oregon trail and fur traders led to the Oregon boundary dispute. On June 15, 1846, Britain ceded its claims to the lands south of the 49th parallel, and the U.S. ceded its claims to the north of the same line, in the present day Canada–US border, in the Oregon Treaty.
In 1848, the Oregon Territory, composed of present-day Washington, Oregon, and Idaho as well as parts of Montana and Wyoming, was established. Washington Territory, which included Washington and pieces of Idaho and Montana, was formed from Oregon Territory in 1853. In 1872, An arbitration process settled the boundary dispute from the Pig War and established the US–Canada border through the San Juan Islands and Gulf Islands.
Early American Settlements.
Eastern Washington.
Settlements in the eastern part of the state were largely agricultural and focused around missionary establishments in the Walla Walla Valley. Missionaries attempted to 'civilize' the Indians, often in ways that disregarded or misunderstood native practices. When missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman and Narcissa Whitman refused to leave their mission as racial tensions mounted in 1847, 13 American missionaries were killed by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians. Explanations of the 1847 Whitman massacre in Walla Walla include outbreaks of disease, resentment over harsh attempts at conversion of both religion and way of life, and contempt of the native Indians shown by the missionaries, particularly by Narcissa Whitman, the first white American woman in the Oregon Territory.
This event triggered the Cayuse War against the Indians, followed by the Yakima War, together with continuing until 1858.
The Provisional Legislature of Oregon in 1847 immediately raised companies of volunteers to go to war, if necessary, against the Cayuse, and, to the discontent of some of the militia leaders, also sent a peace commission. The United States Army later came to support the militia forces. These militia forces, eager for action, provoked both friendly and hostile Indians. In 1850, five Cayuse were convicted for murdering the Whitmans in 1847 and hanged. Sporadic bloodshed continued until 1855, when the Cayuse were decimated, defeated, bereft of their tribal lands, and placed on the Umatilla Indian Reservation in northeastern Oregon.
The conflicts over the possession of land between the Indians and the 'American' settlers led the Americans in 1855, by the 'treaties' at the Walla Walla Council, to coerce not only the Cayuse, but also the Walla Walla and the Umatilla tribes, to the Umatilla Indian Reservation in northeastern Oregon; fourteen other tribal groups to the Yakama Indian Reservation in southern Washington State; and the Nez Perce to a reservation in the border region of Washington, Oregon and Idaho. That same year, gold was discovered in the newly established Yakama reservation and white miners encroached upon these lands. The tribes - first the Yakama, eventually joined by the Walla Walla and the Cayuse - united together to fight the Americans in what is called the Yakima War. The U.S. Army sent troops and a number of raids and battles took place. In 1858, the Americans, at the Battle of Four Lakes, defeated the Indians decisively. In a newly imposed 'treaty,' tribes were, again, confined to reservations.
Puget Sound.
As American settlers moved west along the Oregon Trail, some traveled through the northern part of the Oregon Territory and settled in the Puget Sound area. The first settlement in the Puget Sound area in the west of what is now Washington State was Fort Nisqually, a farm and fur-trading post owned by the Puget's Sound Agricultural Company, a subsidiary of the Hudson's Bay Company. Washington's pioneer founder, Michael Simmons, along with the black pioneer George Washington Bush and his Caucasian wife, Isabella James Bush, from Missouri and Tennessee, respectively, led four white families into the territory and settled New Market, now known as Tumwater, in 1846. They settled in Washington to avoid Oregon's racist settlement laws. After them, many more settlers, migrating overland along the Oregon trail, wandered north to settle in the Puget Sound area. Contrasted with other American occupations of the West, there was comparatively little violence between settlers and Native Americans, though several exceptions, such as Territorial Governor Isaac Ingalls Stevens' extensive campaigns in 1853 to force Indians into ceding lands and rights, are notable: the Puget Sound War, Cayuse War, Yakima War, and Spokane War being the largest conflicts between the new American authorities and indigenous governments. Raids by Haida, Tlingit and other northern tribes from British and Russian territory terrorized Native Americans and settlers alike in Puget Sound in the 1850s (see Port Gamble). Miners bound for the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in British Columbia in 1858 using the Okanagan Trail traveled underarms and there were many instances of violence along the route.
Lumber industries drew settlers to the territory. Coastal cities, like Seattle (founded in 1851 and originally called "Duwamps"), were established. Unlike the wagon trains that had carried entire families to the Oregon Territory, these early trading settlements were populated primarily with single young men. Liquor, gambling, and prostitution were ubiquitous, supported in Seattle by one of the city's founders, David Swinson "Doc" Maynard, who believed that well-run prostitution could be a functional part of the economy. The Fraser Gold Rush in what would, as a result, become the Colony of British Columbia saw a flurry of settlement and merchant activity in northern Puget Sound which gave birth to Port Townsend and Whatcom (which became Bellingham) as commercial centres, at first attempting to rival Victoria as a disembarkation point of the goldfields until the colony's governor ordered that all access to the Fraser River go via Victoria. Despite the limitation on goldfield-related commerce, many men who left the "Fraser River Humbug", as the rush was for a while misunderstood to be, settled in Whatcom and Island counties. Some of these were settlers on San Juan Island during the Pig War of 1859.
Upon the admission of the State of Oregon to the union in 1859, the eastern portions of the Oregon Territory, including southern Idaho, portions of Wyoming west of the continental divide (then Nebraska Territory), and a small portion of present-day Ravalli County, Montana were annexed to the Washington Territory. In 1863, the area of Washington Territory east of the Snake River and the 117th meridian west was reorganized as part of the newly created Idaho Territory, leaving that territory with only the lands within the current boundaries of the State of Washington.
Statehood.
After the passage of the Enabling Act of 1889, Washington became the 42nd state in the United States on November 11, 1889. The proposed state constitution, passed by a four-to-one ratio, originally included women's suffrage and prohibition, but both of these issues were defeated and removed from the accepted constitution. Women had previously been given the vote in 1883 by the Washington Territorial Legislature, but the right was rescinded in 1887 by the Washington Territorial Supreme Court as a response to female support of prohibition. Despite these initial defeats, women in the Pacific Northwest received the right to vote earlier than the rest of the country with Washington passing a suffrage amendment in 1910. Prohibition followed in 1916, two years before the rest of the nation.
Early prominent industries in the state included agriculture, lumber, and mining. In eastern Washington, Spokane was a major hub of mining activity and the Yakima Valley was known for its apple orchards and wheat fields. The heavy rainfall to the west of the Cascade Range produced dense forests and the ports along Puget Sound prospered from the manufacturing and shipping of lumber products, particularly the Douglas fir. In 1905, Washington State became the largest producer of lumber in the nation. Seattle was the primary port for trade with Alaska and for a time possessed a large shipbuilding industry. Other industries that developed in Washington include fishing, salmon canning, and mining. For an extended period of time, Tacoma was known for its large smelters where gold, silver, copper and lead ores were treated. The region around eastern Puget Sound developed heavy industry during the period including World War I and World War II and the Boeing Company became an established icon in the area.
Progressive Era.
The progressive force of the early 20th century in Washington stemmed partially from the women's club movement which offered opportunities for leadership and political power to tens of thousands of women in the Pacific Northwest region.
1920s.
Bertha Knight Landes was elected mayor of Seattle in 1926, the first woman mayor of a major city in the United States.
In 1924, Seattle's Sand Point Airfield was the endpoint of the first aerial circumnavigation of the world.
Great Depression.
Vancouver became the endpoint for two ultra-long flights from Moscow, USSR over the North Pole. The first of these flights were performed by Valery Chkalov in 1937 on a Tupolev ANT-25RD airplane. Chkalov was originally scheduled to land at an airstrip in nearby Portland, Oregon but redirected at the last minute to Vancouver's Pearson Airfield.
During the depression era, a series of hydroelectric dams were constructed along the Columbia River as part of a project to increase the production of electricity. This culminated in 1941 with the completion of the Grand Coulee Dam, the largest in the United States.
World War II.
During World War II, the Puget Sound area became a focus for war industries with the Boeing Company producing many of the nation's heavy bombers and ports in Seattle, Bremerton, Vancouver, and Tacoma available for the manufacturing of ships for the war effort. As the demand for labor and the number of young men drafted increased simultaneously, women entered the workforce in great numbers, recruited by local media. One-fourth of the laborers in shipyards were women, resulting in the installation of one of the first government-funded child-care centers in the workplace.
In eastern Washington, the Hanford Works nuclear power plant was opened in 1943 and played a major role in the construction of the nation's atomic bombs. One of the atomic bombs (nicknamed 'Fat Man' and dropped on Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945) was fueled by Hanford plutonium and was transported in Boeing B-29s, also designed in Washington State.
Contemporary Washington.
Eruption of Mount St Helens.
On May 18, 1980, following a period of heavy tremors and eruptions, the northeast face of Mount St. Helens exploded outward, destroying a large part of the top of the volcano. This eruption flattened the forests for many miles, killed 57 people, flooded the Columbia River and its tributaries with ash and mud and blanketed large parts of Washington in ash, making day look like night.
Economy.
Washington is well known for several prominent companies, the most notable of which are Microsoft, Amazon.com, Boeing, Nordstrom, The Bon Marché, Costco, and Starbucks. Monopolies have a long history in the state. Bill Boeing's namesake company grew from a small airplane company in 1916 to the national aircraft and airline conglomerate of Boeing and United Airlines, which was subsequently broken up by anti-trust regulators in 1934.
Politics.
Politics in Washington have been generally Democratic since the 1950s and 60s and President John F. Kennedy's election. The state's system of blanket primaries, in which voters may vote for any candidate on the ballot and are not required to be affiliated with a particular political party, was ruled unconstitutional in 2003. The party-line primary system was instituted for the 2004 presidential and gubernatorial elections. In 2004, voters elected Governor Christine Gregoire into office, making Washington the first state to have a female governor and two female senators, Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell.
Protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle, sometimes referred to as the "Battle of Seattle", took place in 1999 when the WTO convened to discuss trade negotiations. Massive protests of at least 40,000 people included organizations such as NGOs involved in environment issues, labor unions, student groups, religious groups, and anarchists.
On January 30, 2006, Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law legislation making Washington the 17th state in the nation to protect gay and lesbian people from discrimination in housing, lending, and employment, and the 7th state in the nation to offer these protections to transgender people. Initiative activist Tim Eyman filed a referendum that same day, seeking to put the issue before the state's voters. In order to qualify for the November election, the measure required a minimum of 112,440 voter signatures by 5:00 p.m. June 6, 2006. Despite a push from conservative churches across the state to gather signatures on what were dubbed "Referendum Sundays," Eyman was only able to gather 105,103 signatures, more than 7,000 signatures short of the minimum. As a result, the law went into effect on June 7, 2006. The Washington legislature introduced more advanced converge of domestic partnerships in 2008.


Roslyn Hill

Roslyn Hill, sometimes called "The Queen of Alberta Street," was one of the original developers of what became the Alberta Arts District of Portland, Oregon, starting in the early 1990s.
She, working with business partners, is credited with redeveloping several blocks along Alberta Street, and pioneering the use of urban touches such as public art and corrugated metal siding paired with existing vintage structures.
Roslyn Hill is an important figure in the making and revitalization of the NE Portland, Alberta Arts District. The Alberta neighborhood consisting of the Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard and 33rd NE Avenue streets is a historical marker for the once thriving African-American Albina neighborhood of Portland. Roslyn Hill is a member of the Alberta Street Historical Markers Project which works to honor the history of the African American community on Alberta Street. Hill was honored by the national AARP in 2008 as an "urban-blight fighter."


Greek Mexicans

Greek Mexicans (Greek: Ελληνομεξικανοί) are people of whole or partial Greek descent living in Mexico. The largest Greek communities are in Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Sinaloa. Smaller numbers of Greeks can be found in Aguascalientes, Acaponeta, Tepic, and Pachuca.
History.
Greeks have immigrated to Mexico since the 18th century, with the largest influx arriving in the mid-20th century and settling in Mexico City, Sinaloa state, and border cities. While many had left Greece due to war, political instability and economic problems in Greece, the Mexican government also offered incentives for Greeks to work in Mexico, specifically in Sinaloa. During the 1940s, the Mexican government invited a large number of Greeks to Sinaloa to improve harvest of tomatoes. Soon the Greek community became so large that the area around the Tamazula, Humaya, and Culiacán rivers became known as the "Valle de Grecia" (“Valley of Greece”). Today, Sinaloa has a heavy Greek presence, and Greek surnames are very common in the state. Greek Mexican families can also be found in other major cities around the republic, such as Mexico City and Guadalajara. Included are Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians, who became adjusted to Mexican society because of the linguistic similarities between Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Spanish, as well as Latin identity of Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians. Most Greeks that arrived in Mexico City went to live in La Merced neighborhood and formed a community around Calle Academia or Academia Street. They had many businesses catered to Greek immigrants as well as for other immigrants and locals.
Figures.
Statistics regarding the exact number of Greek people in Mexico vary greatly, especially due to the different numbers for native-born Greeks and for Mexican citizens of Greek descent. The only official number is of native-born Greeks, which stood at 298 at the time the Mexican national census of 2000. When including descendants of Greeks, published estimates range from 1,000 to 4,000 individuals.
The General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad estimates that only 1,000 Greeks live in Mexico. On the other hand, according to the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the number stands at about 4,000, including descendants of Greeks. In agreement with the estimate by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Elena Stamatiadou, president of the Comunidad Helenica de Mexico in Mexico City, estimated that there are at least 1,500 Greek families living in Mexico. Stamatiadou stated that most families are of second and third-generation ethnic Greeks from Euboea, Greece's second largest island. A lower estimate of 300 families was published in "Greece Now" magazine in 2004. Other sources report significant numbers of immigrants from Cyprus and mainland Greece.
Communities.
Greektown in Mexico City.
Thousands of Greeks immigrated to Mexico City and formed a community on and around Calle Academia or Academia Street in the La Merced neighborhood. Many families had businesses that catered to Greek families as well as others such as nearby Turkish, Lebanese, Jewish, Armenian, Syrian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese and local families in the area. Pita Bread and Gyro style cooking styles heavily influenced Mexican gastronomy, especially in Mexico City. After two generations the families prospered and moved to other parts of the city and suburbs such as Naucalpan where they built the largest Greek Orthodox Church in the country. The Legacy of the Greektown or Barrio Griego is close to gone today as migrants from other parts of Mexico, especially Oaxaca, have moved in as La Merced is the "port of entry" for many migrants from other parts of the world as well as every corner of Mexico. Today, around Mexico City, many families are found in the more affluent southern neighborhoods but many younger Greek-Mexicans live in trendier neighborhoods such as La Roma, Polanco, Zona Rosa, Napoles and Santa Fe while many others have been returning to the Historical Center as well.
Sinaloa.
The state of Sinaloa has the largest Greek community in all of Mexico, with estimates in the capital city of Culiacán standing at 2,000 individuals. Greeks can also be found in the cities of Mazatlán, Guamúchil, Guasave, and Los Mochis. Culiacán is home to the Comunidad Helénica of Culiacán (Hellenic Community of Culiacán).
Naucalpan.
Around 250 Greek Mexican families, or 1,500 individuals, live in and around Mexico City. A major centerpiece of the Greek community of the Greater Mexico City area is the Greek Orthodox Church of Santa Sofia in Naucalpan, Mexico State. The church also serves as the home for the Comunidad Helenica de Mexico (Hellenic Community of Mexico}.
Guadalajara.
Guadalajara is home to around 230 Greeks. It is also the home of the Casa Helenica de Guadalajara (Hellenic House of Guadalajara) and the Amigos de Grecia (Friends of Greece), which organize community events and offers Greek classes to the public. Colotlán, Jalisco has its own Greek community.


Bathurst Street Theatre

The Randolph Theatre (formerly the Bathurst Street Theatre) is a 500 seat theatre in Toronto, Ontario, that is housed in a former church. The Gothic revival building is located at 736 Bathurst Street at the intersection with Lennox Street. The theatre is in the former church sanctuary, while the 100-seat Annex Theatre is in an adjoining building at 730 Bathurst Street.
Oscar Peterson, Jim Carrey, Gordon Pinsent, Ted Dykstra, Eddie Izzard, Martin Bragg and the Toronto Theatre Fringe Festival are just some of the individuals and companies who have graced the stages and studios of 736 Bathurst Street. The Gothic revival building is a landmark, not only in the history of Toronto but also the heritage of theatre in Canada.
Beautiful and functional, the building was profiled in 2009 by the Ontario Heritage Trust as a prime example of adaptive reuse of places of worship. In addition, since March 2001, the building has been home to the Randolph College for the Performing Arts, Canada's first Triple Threat(R) training institution for professional performers.
History.
The current building was erected in 1888 by the congregation of the Bathurst Street Wesleyan Methodist Church. The cornerstone was laid by Sir John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada. Over the years it inspired many church congregations, eventually becoming the Bathurst Street United Church. In the 1950s, facing a dwindling congregation, the building began to be rented out for concerts and plays. The building became better known as a theatre than a church. In 1985, the building became a permanent and well known theatre.
The building was originally home to Bathurst Street Wesleyan Methodist Church. This congregation was an extension of Elm Street WMC, and started in 1860. In 1862, services were being conducted in a cottage on nearby Markham Street, and the area was known as Seaton Village, still outside of the Toronto city limits.
After a gift of land on Bathurst Street from the son of John Strachan, the first building on this site was constructed in 1866. Following a congregational split in 1869 (when Primitive Methodists in the area formed their own congregation), this congregation continued to grow and was joined by the former Primitive Methodist congregation in 1884, following the union of Methodists across Canada.
The present building (originally known as Bathurst Street Methodist Church) was erected by the congregation in 1888 to meet the demands of the growing population, and the United Methodist presence in Toronto. The building was designed by the architectural firm of Gordon & Helliwell.
In 1925, the congregation joined the new United Church of Canada and became Bathurst Street United Church. A minority of Presbyterians from St. Paul's PC (then located north of Bloor) joined, as St Paul's (which merged with Dovercourt Road PC in 1968, Chalmers in 1980, Dufferin Street PC in 1994, and closed in June 2005) remained within the Presbyterian Church in Canada.
In the 1950s, as the earlier families emigrated to the suburbs, the congregation shrank. A number of strategies were tried to increase attendance: one of these was the Sunday Evening Forums, wherein the Sunday evening sermon was replaced by a panel discussion on social issues among prominent guests. Running from 1944 to 1951, noted panelists included Tim Buck, who lived nearby.
The small congregation had difficulty maintaining the old structure, and they began to rent out the building for concerts and plays. Increasingly, the building became better known for its role as a theatre than for being a church.
In 1985, the congregation finally opted to leave the building, and it now meets at nearby Trinity-St. Paul's United Church. The building then became a permanent and well-known theatre. In 2000, the United Church of Canada sold the building to George Randolph Jr.


John Johnston (Indian agent)

John Johnston was an Indian agent in the United States Northwest Territory. He was born on 25 March 1775 near Ballyshannon in the north of Ireland. His father was Scottish and his mother was a Huguenot. He left Ireland when he was eleven years old, travelling to America with a priest and a trusted family friend who was also his tutor. When he emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1786, his father, mother, four brothers, and one sister remained in Ireland. They came to America five years after he settled here.
Johnston's career with Native Americans started as a wagoner for General Anthony Wayne's Legion of the United States. He returned to Pennsylvania after the campaign and worked as a law clerk. At age 27, Johnston met Rachel Robinson, who was 16. They eloped to Lancaster, Ohio and were married on 15 July 1802. They had 15 children - the first 4 were the first all-white children to be born at Ft. Wayne (now Fort Wayne, Indiana). 14 of their 15 children lived into adulthood.
In 1802, President Thomas Jefferson appointed Johnston as Indian Agent at the new trading agency in Fort Wayne, and by 1809 he was in charge of two Indian Agencies. His primary responsibility was to manage trade so that Indians in the area would not seek trade with the nearby British. Johnston was responsible to the territorial governor, William Henry Harrison, and to the Superintendent of Indian Trade. Almost immediately, however, a rivalry began between Johnston and William Wells, the official interpreter at Fort Wayne. The Miami of Fort Wayne trusted Wells, who had been adopted into their tribe, while U.S. government officials questioned Wells' loyalty and sided with Johnston. Johnston remained at Fort Wayne through a period of growing resentment between the American Indians and the United States, and filed a report summarizing Indian accounts of the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
That same year, an Indian agency was established at Piqua, Ohio, and Johnston asked to be transferred to the new agency. He was at this agency during the War of 1812, and organized a Shawnee party under Captain Logan to rescue women and children during the Siege of Fort Wayne, where his brother, Stephen, was killed. He had much better relations with the local Shawnee and Wyandot than he had with the Indians at Fort Wayne, and served as Indian Agent until 1829. He helped negotiate the Treaty of Upper Sandusky in 1842, which removed the Wyandot from Ohio to the West.
It was reported that he earned a $1200.00 salary per year as an agent, and he retained that position until let go by President Jackson - a total of thirty-one years.
Johnston was a Whig, and in 1844 was one of Ohio's delegates to the Whig Party's national convention. After the convention, he travelled to campaign for Henry Clay.
Besides his duties as an Indian agent, he also contributed to many other facets of Ohio. He was a canal commissioner with Ohio for eleven years, president of the historical and philosophical societies in Ohio, and founder of the first Sunday school in Miami County, Ohio. John Johnston was also founder of Kenyon College, served on the board of trustees of Miami University, and was a member of the board at West Point. He wrote "Indian Tribes in Ohio" before he died in 1861 in Washington, D.C. Today, his Piqua farm maintained by the Ohio Historical Society.
John and Rachel Johnston were married for 38 years before his wife died on 24 July 1840, after eleven days of illness. The bereavement after the death of his wife in the family home, caused him to leave and move to Cincinnati with a daughter, and then later to Dayton, where he died in 1861 at the age of 86.


Tse-whit-zen

Tse-whit-zen ("č̕ixʷícən" in the Klallam language, meaning "inner harbor") is a 1,700- to 2,700-year-old village of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe located along the Port Angeles, Washington waterfront. It is located at the base of Ediz Hook on the Olympic Peninsula. During construction in August 2003 of a graving dock associated with replacement of the Hood Canal Bridge, the village's cemetery and other prehistoric remains were discovered. The construction project was abandoned at this site because of the importance of the find, as the village was intact. It is the largest pre-European contact village site excavated in Washington State.
Archaeological excavation has revealed more than 10,000 artifacts and more than 335 intact skeletons. The Washington State Department of Transportation decided to halt all construction efforts related to the graving dock on December 21, 2004. Since then it has worked to ensure the preservation of remains and artifacts already uncovered by the construction.
As a result of a legal settlement with Washington State, the tribe received the land of the village site, as well as $2.5 million to build a cultural center or museum at the site. The tribe intended to begin construction around 2012.
History.
The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe occupied the village of Tse-whit-zen for more than 2,700 years, according to radiocarbon dating. Their territory extended from this area along the Hoko River on the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the present-day Hood Canal, and this was one of several villages throughout the area. The earliest confirmed settlement at the village site dates to 750 B.C., about the same time as the founding of Rome, Italy.
This village site, which includes longhouse areas, ceremonial areas, places for fish and clam drying, was occupied by the Klallam until the 1930s. During the early 20th century, businesses owned by European Americans built a number of lumber mills on top of the village site at the waterfront during the expansion of the lumber industry. Because the ground was covered with of fill, the village and cemetery site was preserved through this period.
Archaeological excavation has revealed possibly eight long house structures.
Elder Adeline Smith of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe championed the preservation of Tse-whit-zen. As a child, Smith had been warned by adults never to walk on or play on the site of Tse-whit-zen, as it was considered sacred by her people. She was also instrumental in gaining removal of the Elwha Dam and contributing to preservation of the Klallam language through creating a dictionary and written form.
The site is the largest ancient (pre-contact) Native American village discovered in Washington state to date (as of 2013).


Battle of Whitestone Hill

The Battle of Whitestone Hill was the culmination of the 1863 operations against the Sioux or Dakota people in Dakota Territory. Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village September 3–5, 1863. The Native Americans (also called Plains Indians) in the village included Yanktonai, Santee, and Teton (Lakota) Sioux. Sully killed, wounded, or captured 300 to 400 Sioux, including women and children, at a cost of about 60 casualties. Sully would continue the conflict with another campaign in 1864.
Background.
In the bitter Dakota War of 1862 a faction of the Santee Dakota or Sioux in Minnesota rose up in rebellion against the United States because of the non-payment by the U.S. government to the Sioux of much-needed food and money required by treaties. The Sioux killed more than 600 whites, mostly unarmed civilians. The Sioux were defeated, the leaders of the rebellion executed, and, in April 1863, nearly all Sioux, whether participants in the war or not, were forcibly expelled or ordered to leave Minnesota and Sioux lands were confiscated.This caused about 4,000 Santee to flee from Minnesota to Dakota Territory where they united with other elements of the Yanktonai, Yankton, and Lakota or Teton Sioux. Sioux warriors continued to carry out small scale raids on civilian and military targets in Minnesota.
In mid-1863, the United States Army under General John Pope in Minnesota mounted two large military expeditions against the Sioux in eastern Dakota Territory. The objectives of the expeditions were to prevent a renewal of the 1862 war, promote white settlement in the eastern Dakotas, and protect access to the Montana goldfields via the Missouri River. Brigadier General Henry Hastings Sibley commanded one of the two prongs of the operation. He led 2,000 soldiers overland from Minnesota to the Missouri River, fighting three battles in July with the Sioux at Big Mound, Dead Buffalo Lake, and Stony Lake. Although he did not inflict heavy casualties, Sibley's men pushed the Sioux to the western side of the Missouri River and destroyed much of their property including winter supplies of jerky and many of their tipis.
The second prong of the operation was led by Sully who was supposed to ascend the Missouri River with 1,200 men, rendezvous with Sibley, and crush the Sioux between the two forces. Because of low water in the river, Sully was delayed in ascending the Missouri in steamboats. When Sully arrived in the vicinity of present-day Bismarck, North Dakota in mid-August, Sibley had already returned to Minnesota. Sully's 1,200 men included the 6th Iowa Cavalry, commanded by Colonel David Wilson, the 2nd Nebraska Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Robert Furnas, plus eight mountain howitzers, scouts and a wagon train. Sully's men were armed with long-range rifles, rather than the usual cavalry carbines, which gave them a decided advantage over the Sioux, mostly armed with muskets, shotguns, and bows and arrows.
Meanwhile, some of the Sioux Sibley had chased west across the Missouri River had returned to the east of the river to replenish their winter supplies of buffalo meat. Sully searched for the Indians toward the southeast On September 3, Sully found numerous remains of recently killed buffalo near a lake and that afternoon his scout, Frank LaFramboise, a mixed-blood Santee, reported a village of 400 lodges 10 miles ahead. LaFramboise was captured briefly by a party of Sioux warriors, but released, a sign perhaps that the Sioux were not looking for a battle. Sully ordered his advance force, a battalion of the Sixth Iowa, numbering 300 men, under Major A. E. House to surround the encampment and to prevent the Indians from leaving. He left four companies to guard his supply train and then advanced with his main force at a gallop covering the 10 miles in one hour.
While Major House and his battalion of the Sixth Iowa were scouting the Indian camp and waiting for Sibley to come forward with additional soldiers, a delegation from the Sioux advanced with a white flag constructed from a flour sack, claimed to be peaceful and only interested in hunting, and offered to surrender several of their chiefs. House, lacking instructions, demanded that the whole camp of Indians surrender unconditionally. He suspected that the Indians were stalling so the women would have time to pack up the camp and escape. House was likewise stalling until reinforcements arrived.
Yanktonai, including the Cuthead band, were probably the most populous of Sioux peoples in the encampment which also contained Santee, Hunkpapa (possibly including a rising leader named Sitting Bull), and Sihasapa or Blackfoot Sioux. Sully believed the number of warriors in the encampment to be about 1,500. That seems exaggerated. Four hundred lodges with 5 to 10 persons per lodge would house 2,000 to 4,000 persons, including 500 to 1,000 adult males, some women, children, and aged probably having been left behind for safety west of the Missouri River. The Sioux claimed they had 950 men in the battle.
Battle.
Sully arrived about 6 p.m. on the ridge overlooking the large, much dispersed Indian encampment. He estimated that only 600 to 700 of his men were present. He saw the Sioux packing up their tipis and departing and concluded that the Indians were more inclined to flee than fight. Sully's objective was to "corral" the Indians and he deployed his force to cut off their escape routes and to advance on the village. He sent Colonel Wilson and the 6th Iowa to his right flank and Colonel Furnas and the 2nd Nebraska to his left to occupy several ravines which offered the Sioux an opportunity to conceal themselves from the soldiers and escape. Covered on both flanks, Sully with three companies and artillery advanced into the encampment without serious opposition. Two chiefs, Little Head and Big Head, and about 150 of their followers surrendered. Because of the close quarters and chaotic nature of the battlefield, Sully was unable to use his artillery.
Many of the Sioux were caught between the Sixth Iowa and the Second Nebraska, with the Iowa soldiers advancing on foot and pushing the Sioux into the arms of the Nebraskans who exchanged fire with the Indians at a range of only 60 yards. With darkness approaching, however, Colonel Wilson of the Sixth Iowa ordered an ill-advised mounted charge with one battalion. However, in his haste he failed to order some of his men to load their weapons and heavy fire from the Sioux caused the cavalry horses to bolt and the charge to break down. The battalion fell back and took up defensive positions on foot.
On the left, Colonel Furnas also withdrew his Nebraskans to a defensive position, fearing friendly fire and losing control of his soldiers in the increasing darkness. The soldiers spent a harrowing night, "the Indians pillaged the battlefield and scalped the dead soldiers; squaws were screaming and wailing" and a wounded soldier screamed for help but the soldiers thought he was a decoy to lure them out of their defenses. They found him next morning, still alive but dying from lacerations inflicted by the Indians. The Sioux escaped in the darkness.
The next morning the camp was empty of Indians except for the dead and a few lost children and women. Sully sent out patrols to attempt to locate the fleeing Sioux but they found few Indians. Sully ordered all the Indian property abandoned in the camp to be burned. This included 300 tipis and 400,000 to 500,000 pounds of dried buffalo meat, the winter supplies of the Indians and the product of 1,000 butchered buffalo. On September 5, Sully's soldiers had another encounter with the Sioux. A patrol of 27 soldiers commanded by Lt. Charles W. Hall encountered an estimated 300 Sioux about fifteen miles from Whitestone Hill. The Indians chased the soldiers back to Sibley's camp, killing six and wounding one.
Sully's casualties were approximately 22 killed and 38 wounded. No reliable estimates of Sioux killed and wounded are available, with estimates ranging from 100 to 300, including women and children. Captured Sioux totaled 156, including 32 adult males. Indian sources often call Whitestone Hill a massacre with Sully attacking a peaceful camp, killing a large number of women and children, and concur that Sully's band deliberately destroyed substantial food supplies, equipment, and living shelters. One of Sully's interpreters, Samuel J. Brown, a mixed-blood Sioux, said "it was a perfect massacre" and "lamentable to hear how those women and children was massacred." The contrary view is that Sully had a "long demonstrated concern for the Indians and a spotless record of honor and integrity." Despite the deliberate targeting and execution of children and infants, the substantial casualties of the soldiers demonstrate, according to Michael Clodfelter, that Whitestone Hill was a battle, not a massacre.
Aftermath.
Due to the poor condition of his horses and mules and his lack of supplies, Sully was unable to pursue the Sioux. He left Whitestone Hill on September 6 and marched his men to Fort Pierre in present-day South Dakota. Nearby, he built another fort, called Fort Sully, where some of his men were garrisoned for the winter. This would lead to a renewed operation in 1864 against the Sioux and the Battle of Killdeer Mountain. While Sully's expedition impoverished some of the Sioux it did not achieve its objective of ending the Indian threat in the eastern Dakotas.
LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, a Standing Rock Sioux tribal historian, states to the contrary that after the incident U.S. forces continued to pursue, harass, and kill the Sioux for several days.
About 600 Sioux, mostly Santee, took refuge in Canada after the battle. They were followed by 3,000 more in 1864. Minnesota expelled all Sioux, including those who had not participated in the Dakota War of 1862 and, also, expelled the friendly Winnebago. The State confiscated and sold all Sioux land in the state. Soon, only 25 Santee, steadfast friends of the whites, were allowed to live in the state.
Whitestone Hill State Historic Site.
The State Historical Society of North Dakota protects a portion of the battlefield as Whitestone Hill State Historic Site. The site includes a small museum about the battle, two monuments, one honoring the Indian dead and a second commemorating the soldiers who died in the battle, and a picnic area. The site is open seasonally. The nonprofit Whitestone Hill Battlefield Historical Society (WHBHS) partners with the State Historical Society of North Dakota, to support preservation and interpretation at the Whitestone Hill battlefield.


Boyd Mounds Site

The Boyd Mounds Site (22MD512) is an archaeological site from the Late Woodland and Early Mississippian period located in Madison County, Mississippi near Ridgeland. Many of the mounds were excavated by The National Park Service in 1964. It is located at mile 106.9 on the old Natchez Trace, now the Natchez Trace Parkway. It was added to the NRHP on July 14, 1989 as NRIS number 89000784.
Description.
The site consists of six burial mounds dating to the Late Woodland and Early Mississippian period. Of the six mounds at the site, Mound 2 is situated next to a parking area off the Natchez Trace Parkway and is accessible to visitors. Mound 2 is by and in height. Excavations done by the National Park Service in the early 1960s showed that the mound was initially two mounds that were constructed side by side but were later joined together whan a new layer of earth was added to create a single oblong mound. Excavators also found the remains of forty one individuals, and an array of artifacts such as pottery in the mound.


Memorials to Theodore Roosevelt

Several memorials have been devoted to Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States. Additionally, various groups have acted to preserve his legacy.
Theodore Roosevelt Association.
In 1919, the Theodore Roosevelt Association (originally known as the Permanent Memorial National Committee) was founded by friends and supporters of Roosevelt. Soon renamed the Roosevelt Memorial Association (RMA), it was chartered in 1920 under Title 36 of the United States Code. In parallel with the RMA was an organization for women, The Women's Theodore Roosevelt Association, that had been founded in 1919 by an act of the New York State Assembly. Both organizations merged in 1956 under the current name. This organization preserved Roosevelt's papers in a 20-year project, preserved his photos and established four public sites: the reconstructed Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site, New York City, dedicated in 1923 and donated to the National Park Service in 1963; Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park, Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York, dedicated in 1928 and given to the people of Oyster Bay; Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., given to the federal government in 1932; Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's Oyster Bay home, opened to the public in 1953 and was donated to the National Park Service in 1963 and is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site.
Another attempt at a presidential library.
Dickinson State University in western North Dakota is attempting to create a presidential Library called the Theodore Roosevelt Center. It has pursued the mission of digitizing and archiving all of TR’s letters, diaries, photographs, political cartoons, audio and video recordings, as well as other media. In 2013, the North Dakota legislature appropriated $12 million to build an actual complex similar to the official libraries run by the National Archives. As of May 2017, the physical library is expected to be completed in 2019.""


Margot Roosevelt

Margot Roosevelt (born Margot Roosevelt Barmine; August 13, 1950) is an American journalist who covers economic and labor news for the "Los Angeles Times". She is a great-granddaughter of President Theodore Roosevelt.
Early life.
Roosevelt is the daughter of Edith Kermit Roosevelt and Alexander Gregory Barmine; Roosevelt's maternal grandfather is Archibald Roosevelt, a son of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.
She was educated at the Lycée Français de New York and the École Française Internationale in Washington, D.C. Roosevelt also attended the University of Madrid, Spain and the University of Dallas in Irving, Texas. She graduated from Harvard University (Radcliffe College) with a degree in history.
Career.
Roosevelt's first newspaper job was at the "Charlottesville Daily Progress" in Virginia. She was also a staff correspondent of the "Washington Post" for 13 years, during which time she was chief environmental correspondent for three years, congressional correspondent in Washington, D.C. for three years, and New York bureau chief for four years. She joined "Time" magazine in 1987, reporting from "Time"'s Paris bureau from 1988 to 1994, when she moved to Los Angeles as National Correspondent for Time.
In 2007, Roosevelt joined the Los Angeles Times as an environmental reporter. She was a 2010 National Center for Atmospheric Research Journalism Fellow and 2010 Climate Media Fellow of the Earth Journalism Network. In 2011, Roosevelt received the award for "Distinguished Science Journalism in The Atmospheric and Related Sciences" from the American Meteorological Society.
Starting in 2012, Roosevelt covered economic news and the Southern California economy for the "Orange County Register". She returned to the L.A. Times in 2018.
Personal life.
In 1969, she was married to Ralph Hornblower III. Before their divorce in 2000, she was known as Margot Hornblower. They have two sons.
Roosevelt lived in Sherman Oaks, California in 2009.


Sam Barlow (pioneer)

Samuel Kimbrough Barlow (December 7, 1795 – July 14, 1867) was a pioneer in the area that became the U.S. state of Oregon, and was key in establishing the Barlow Road, the most widely chosen final segment to the Oregon Trail.
Biography.
Barlow was the son of William Henry Harrison Barlow and Sarah Kimbrough, born in Nicholas County, Kentucky. He trained as a tailor, and in 1818 moved to Bloomington, Indiana, where he married and started a family, perhaps in 1822. He and his wife, Susannah Lee, had six children: Sarah, James, John, Eliza Jane, Eli, and William.
Barlow was convicted of manslaughter in August 1827, for killing George Matlock with an ax on October 16, 1826. He was sentenced to one year of hard labor. Scores of people, including the victim's brother, pleaded for Barlow's pardon and quashing of his sentence since he did it to prevent harm to his wife and children. Indiana Governor James B. Ray pardoned him on December 6, 1827.
In 1845, when he was 53, Barlow's family arrived in Oregon. His party of seven wagons joined Joel Palmer's group of 23 wagons and explored and, after considerable difficulty, blazed a wagon trail over the Cascade Range, which became the Barlow Road in 1846. They arrived in Oregon City, Oregon on Christmas night.
Along the way Barlow made an early ascent of Mount Hood, though he did not reach the summit; he and Palmer were scouting a way for their wagon train to cross what is now Barlow Pass. On October 7, 1845, to see over trees and get a westward view to find a way off the mountain, they climbed to the 9,000 foot level of the mountain.
In the summer of 1850, Barlow was appointed Justice of the Peace for Clackamas County (which was much larger then) by acting Governor Kintzing Prichette.
On September 17, 1850, Barlow purchased the donation land claim of Thomas McKay, which he later sold to his son William. The land eventually became the town of Barlow, Oregon, named for William, not Samuel.
In 1854 Barlow, along with Cyrus Olney, Granville O. Haller, Thomas J. Dryer, Wells Lake, and T.O. Travailliot were reported as making the first ascent of Mount Hood, though the report has been disputed.
Barlow is buried beside Susannah Lee Barlow at Barlow.
There is also a high school east of Gresham, Oregon, Sam Barlow High School, named after him.


Joe D. Williamson

Joe D. Williamson (March 28, 1909 – February 26, 1994) was a sailor and a maritime photographer and historian who worked in the Puget Sound region.
Career.
In 1937 Williamson opened his own photograph shop on the Seattle Waterfront, near Colman Dock and the Grand Trunk Pacific dock. During World War II, Williamson was master of the motor vessel "Speeder" which transported shipyard workers from downtown Seattle to shipyards on Harbor Island.
In 1948, Williamson was one of the five founders of the Puget Sound Maritime Historical Society ("PSMHS"). He was also its first president, serving from 1948 to 1950. In 1959, Williamson was doing business as Marine Transportation Company, and owned a 45-foot long harbor launch, the "Susan Jane", which was powered by a gasoline engine. In 1959, he sold the "Susan Jane" to Boyd Burchard. Williamson also owned a motor yacht called "Photo Queen", which was 50 feet long. In 1962, Williamson closed his photograph shop and moved to Bainbridge Island, Washington.
Williamson's collection of over 35,000 maritime photographs was purchased by the Puget Sound Maritime Historical Society in 1980. It was said of Williamson that he would one day be considered the equal of the famous logging photographer Darius Kinsey (1869–1945).
Authorship.
Williamson was listed as the co-author or a contributor in a number of books, including:


2nd Parliament of British Columbia

The 2nd Legislative Assembly of British Columbia sat from 1875 to 1878. The members were elected in the British Columbia general election held in September and October 1875. The government of George Anthony Walkem was defeated on a confidence motion on January 25, 1876, and Andrew Charles Elliott was asked to form a new government. On March 29, 1878, a government bill to redistribute the seats in the legislature was defeated and the assembly was dissolved on April 12, 1878.
There were three sessions of the 2nd Legislature:
James Trimble served as speaker.
Members of the 2nd General Assembly.
The following members were elected to the assembly in 1875
Notes:
By-elections.
By-elections were held for the following members appointed to the provincial cabinet, as was required at the time:
By-elections were held to replace members for various other reasons:


Brazilian Mexicans

There is a Brazilian diaspora in Mexico. Although the first Portuguese-speaking immigrants in Mexico were the Portuguese, Brazilians today are the largest Portuguese-speaking community living in the country.
History.
There has been a Brazilian presence in Mexico since at least 1895, when the National Census counted 91 residents. As a result of the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état, around one hundred individuals were admitted into Mexico as political refugees.
Brazilians residing in Mexico are mainly businessmen, traders, models, escorts, athletes, students, academics and scientists. There are major Brazilian communities in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla and Ensenada. There is also a Brazilian presence in the Riviera Maya.
Institutions.
Founded in 1945 in Mexico City, the main cultural organization is the Centro Cultural Brasil-México. With more than fourteen thousand works, the center houses the largest collection of Brazilian books in Mexico. The collection grew through the donations from the Brazilian community, the Brazilian Embassy and publishers that have participated in the Guadalajara International Book Fair. Other organizations include the Casa do Brasil and Ce.Bras, both also in Mexico City.
Notable individuals.
 Football
 Other


Oregon Rifles

The Oregon Rifles was the first military force organized for the protection of Oregon Country in the northwest of North America. Shortly after the Whitman Massacre, Oregon Governor George Abernethy communicated to the legislature his concern about the seriousness of the conditions, and issued a call for volunteers. A company of 45 men, furnishing their own rifles and equipment, organized in Oregon City and arrived in The Dalles on December 21, 1847.
Those who did not have their own rifles were furnished arms by John McLoughlin. H. A. G. Lee was named captain of the unit.


Johannes de Peyster III

Johannes de Peyster or Johannes de Peyster III (1694 – February 27, 1783) was the Mayor of Albany, New York three times between 1729 and 1742.
Early life.
De Peyster was born in 1694. He was the son of Johannes De Peyster Jr. and Anna Bancker (1670–1740). His father was the 23rd Mayor of New York City, and served as a Captain with the 2nd Battalion, Company of Foot, New York. His parents had 12 children, several who died young. His siblings that survived to adulthood included: Elizabeth de Peyster (1692–1760), who married James Beekman (1687–1730), Cornelia de Peyster (1695–1753), who was married to Matthew Clarkson (1699–1739) and Gilbert Tennent (1703–1764), Gerardus de Peyster (b. 1697), who married Eva van Nuys Ouke, Anna de Peyster (1700–1735), Maria de Peyster (b. 1706), who married Gerard Bancker in 1731, William de Peyster (1709–1784), who married Margareta Roosevelt (1709–1776), daughter of Johannes Roosevelt, and Catharina de Peyster (b. 1711), who married Hendrick Rutgers (1712–1779).
His paternal grandparents were Johannes de Peyster, Sr. and Cornelia Lubberts. His uncle was Abraham de Peyster, who also served as mayor from 1691 to 1694, and his aunt was Maria De Peyster, who was married to David Provost. His maternal grandparents were Gerrit Bancker, a pioneer fur trader, and Elizabeth Van Epps. His uncle was Evert Bancker, the 3rd and 12th Mayor of Albany, New York. His nephews included Gerard Bancker (1740–1799), New York State Treasurer from 1778 to 1798, and Henry Rutgers (1745–1830), namesake of Rutgers College.
Career.
From 1717 to the 1740s, he was Lieutenant of Foot County Troops in the militia and Captain of a Troop in 1744.
In 1726, De Peyster became the Recorder of Albany. Shortly thereafter, he served as Mayor of Albany for a total of three times. The first term began in 1729 and he was in office until 1731 when he was succeeded by Johannes "Hans" Hansen, who served from 1831 to 1732. De Peyster succeeded him and was only in office that year, having been succeeded by Edward Holland who served until 1740 when Johannes Schuyler, Jr. became mayor. Schuyler, the son of Mayor Johannes Schuyler and father of Revolutionary War General Philip Schuyler, served from 1740 until 1741 when De Peyster again served. His third and final term ended in 1742 when he was succeeded by Cornelius Cuyler. Cuyler was the son of Mayor Johannes Cuyler, grandson of Mayor Dirck Wesselse Ten Broeck, and father of Mayor Abraham Cuyler.
For eleven years, he served as Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Province of New York, appointed in 1734, 1738, 1739, and 1746. He was also a member of Provincial Assembly
From 1756 to 1766, he was the Surrogate of Albany County. He held the position again from 1778 to 1782, when the Province became New York State. In 1782, he was replaced in the role by his grandson, John De Peyster Douw. During The Seven Years War, he served as Paymaster of Troops from 1755 to 1756.
Personal life.
In 1715, De Peyster married Anna Schuyler (1697–1750), the only child of Albany Mayor Myndert Schuyler (1672–1755) and Rachel Cuyler (1674–1747). Her paternal grandparents were David Pieterse Schuyler (1636–1690), brother of Philip Pieterse Schuyler, and Catharina Verplanck (1639–1690) who both died during the Schenectady massacre of 1690. Together, they had eight children, but only two of the last four born after 1722 survived to adulthood:
Descendants.
He was the grandfather of nine children born to his daughter Anna, including John De Peyster Douw (1756–1835), who took part in the Clinton-Sullivan Expedition and also served as Surrogate of Albany County, replacing de Peyster in 1782.
Through his daughter Rachel, he was the grandfather of Johannes De Peyster Ten Eyck (d. 1798), Myndert Schuyler Ten Eyck (1753–1805), Henry Ten Eyck (b. 1755), and Tobias Ten Eyck (b. 1764).


Dewdney Trail

The Dewdney Trail is a trail in British Columbia, Canada that served as a major thoroughfare in mid-19th century British Columbia. The trail was a critical factor in the development and strengthening of the newly established British Colony of British Columbia, tying together mining camps and small towns that were springing up along the route during the gold rush era prior to the colony's joining Canadian Confederation in 1871. The route's importance and urgency was prompted because many new gold finds were occurring at locations near the US border that were much more easily accessed from Washington Territory than via any practicable route from the barely settled parts of the Lower Mainland and Cariboo. Today, approximately 80 percent of the former trail has been incorporated into the Crowsnest Highway.
Characteristics.
The trail was built in southern British Columbia and linked what was then Fort Hope (now just Hope) in the southwest to what became Fort Steele in the southeast. Covering a distance of , its purpose was to secure British control of the parts of the colony flanking the US border, which included the new gold rush at Wild Horse Creek and at other points between such as Rock Creek. Approximately 80 per cent of what is now Highway 3 started life as the Dewdney Trail, but this is largely because the terrain allows for no other low-altitude transit of the regions involved.
The route very roughly parallels the Canada-US border along the 49th parallel, and at times reaches elevations of more than 1,200 metres (4,000 ft). It passes through varied scenery, including four major mountain ranges (Cascades, Monashees, Selkirks and Purcells), some major river valleys (Skagit, Similkameen, Okanagan, Kettle, Columbia, Goat, Moyie and Kootenay) and historic townsites such as Hope, Princeton, Grand Forks, Trail, Creston, Yahk, Moyie and Cranbrook.
Construction and history.
Overseeing the trail's construction was Edgar Dewdney, a Devonshire-born engineer. When gold was discovered in the Similkameen River and Rock Creek area, the governor of the newly established British colony of British Columbia, James Douglas, was anxious to protect British interests, and determined that a trail should be built to the Interior. After the Royal Engineers surveyed a route in 1860 from Ft. Hope to Vermilion Forks (now Princeton), Dewdney and Walter Moberly won the contract to build the trail. That first section was completed in 1861 and covered .
The specifications for the trail were that it be 1.3 m (4 ft) wide, clear of trees and boulders, and any wet sections made passable. The middle 0.5 metre section (1.5 ft) was to be smooth and hard, and in areas where there were bluffs, slides or dangerous areas, there had to be enough space for animals and people to get through. Bridges over the many creeks and rivers were to be 4 metres (12 ft) wide. For this, the builders were paid $496 per mile.
In 1863, gold was discovered in Wild Horse Creek, in the East Kootenays. The new governor of British Columbia, Frederick Seymour, believed that the trail should be extended to Wild Horse Creek in order to keep the gold from being transported south via a shorter route into the US, rather than into British coffers. Thus in 1865, Dewdney, then 28 years old, was awarded the contract, and completed the much longer second section (300 miles, or 480 km.) in seven months, for a cost of $75,000. The second part of the trail passed through wilderness and required the builders to penetrate three mountain ranges.
The route was first surveyed by a crew of the Royal Engineers, with local First Nations hired to pack supplies over the mountains between Hope and Princeton, covering a day. However, at Allison’s Ranch, near Princeton, the First Nations porters refused to travel down the Similkameen River, so they were paid off, and Dewdney bought a dozen horses from the ranch.
By May 13, 1865, they had reached So-o-yoyos (called Osoyoos today). They climbed Anarchist Mountain and then down into the Kettle River Valley and the settlement of Rock Creek. Rock Creek had been founded during a gold rush, and had attracted around 5,000 people, but was nearly deserted when Dewdney and his team passed through. (While placer mining continued in Rock Creek until the 1930s, with $200,000 worth of gold being removed, it is believed that the mother lode was never found.) They released their exhausted horses in the Kettle River valley near Rock Creek, and with the aid of some Sinixt people, forged eastwards to Christina Lake. Just before the mountains west of present-day Rossland, the group split into two in order to determine the best way across. Dewdney sent former Royal Engineer George Turner and most of the crew up over what is now the Santa Rosa Pass through the Rossland Range to get to Fort Shepherd, built by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1858 on the Columbia River opposite the mouth of the Pend d'Oreille.
Dewdney headed north of Christina Lake with five men, walking over the Rossland Mountains farther north to emerge on the Lower Arrow Lake where they acquired a canoe and paddled down to rejoin the main party at Shepherd on May 27, 1865. While the crew rested, Dewdney and a couple of volunteers paddled back up the Columbia and up the Lower Kootenay River, portaging 14 times to get to the West Arm of Kootenay Lake. After exploring other possible options, Dewdney concluded that Kootenay Lake was too big a barrier to make it a viable route, so he returned to Fort Shepherd.
He ultimately found his way through the mountains, following valleys carved out by streams. He emerged near the spot where Rossland was eventually established. Then he followed what became known as Trail Creek, which emptied into the Columbia River – the city of Trail stands there today.
Some of the crew were then set to working their way westward back up Trail Creek, roughing out the Trail over the Santa Rosa Pass and back to Rock Creek. Meanwhile, Dewdney, ex-Royal Engineer Robert Howell and a small crew crossed the Columbia and travelled up the Pend d’Oreille to the Salmon (now Salmo) River and then up the Lost Creek valley and across the Nelson Range by way of the Kootenay Pass. (Travellers on Highway 3 today still cross by this route, also known as the Salmo-Creston pass.) Then they headed down Summit Creek into what is now called the Creston Valley in the East Kootenays.
Next they crossed the swampy territory of the Purcell Trench at the head of Kootenay Lake, before crossing the Purcell Mountains via Duck Creek. Travelling down the eastern side via the Goat River, they eventually intersected the Walla Walla Trail at Yahk in the Moyie River valley. The crew must have been elated to reach the Walla Walla Trail, since it was the main route into the US. From there it was a relatively easy walk along the Walla Walla, and they arrived at Galbraiths’ Ferry, near Fisherville, in early June.
Dewdney hired William Fernie and 65 men to start construction of the trail, heading back to the west. (The East Kootenay town of Fernie is named for Mr. Fernie.) He received $25,000 in cash and gold dust to pay the crew, and had a nasty moment after he had cached the money in a tree stump while guiding Chief Justice Matthew Baillie Begbie from Summit Creek over a particularly boggy area as Begbie travelled to Fisherville (a mining town that had grown up near the gold strike), where he was going to preside over court. When Dewdney returned for the purse, he initially thought it had been taken – it had vanished and the stump in which he had cached it was shattered. But it transpired that the weight of the purse had broken the stump, and Dewdney found it as he hacked frantically at the stump.
By September, pack trains were travelling the trail to Wild Horse. By 1866, the best of the gold was largely gone from the Wild Horse strike, and miners dismantled Fisherville to try to mine underneath it. In its heyday, the town boasted government offices, saloons, stores and a brewery, and housed 5,000 people or more.


American immigration to Honduras

United States citizens have emigrated to the Republic of Honduras (1821) for many reasons including agriculture, mining endeavours, business, military service and missionary work. In the last two centuries, the United States has developed many interests in Honduras. These have included banana farming and mining of gold and silver. Honduras also represents a route to the isthmus between North and South America and the Panama Canal. The United States has deployed armed forces to Honduras on numerous occasions to protect these interests. In geopolitical terms, Honduras has represented a bulwark against socialist forces in Central America and has a permanent United States military presence. Honduras has also received United States foreign aid. All of these factors have led to a gradual increase over many decades of American immigrants to Honduras.
History.
The American Civil War (1861 1865) instigated a wave of migration to the northern and western areas of the United States, to Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. In smaller numbers, people also immigrated to Central America. José María Medina (18261878), President of The Republic of Honduras received the immigrants. In 1856, an American legation was opened in Tegucigalpa. In 1862, James R. Partridge (18231884), a Unionist, became the first U.S. government representative to reside in Honduras.
The first record of immigration from the U.S. to Honduras was made in the city of San Pedro Sula, on May 3, 1867. Sixty-one immigrants from the South, led by Colonel Malcom Green, made a formal request for immigration.
Marco Aurelio Soto (18461908) was President of Honduras from 1876 to 1883. Soto owned the mining rights to mineral deposits at El Rosario, San Juancito, Honduras. Soto offered companies that invested in his mine an exemption from Honduras taxes for a period of twenty years. In 1880, Julius Valentine, of New York City, founded the "New York and Honduras Rosario Mining Company". Valentine gave Soto fifty percent of the company's stock for mining rights at El Rosaria.
On April 1, 1895, President of Honduras, José Policarpo Bonilla Vasquez (18581899), issued another immigration law. He sought to regulate immigration to Honduras from the United States, Germany, England, France, Italy, China, and Palestinian (Arabia). A law of 1906 applied to immigrants from the United States, Europe, Palestine and to people of the Jewish faith. Other new laws encouraging immigration followed in the presidencies of Vicente Mejía Colindres (18781966) and Tiburcio Carías Andino (18761969).
In the late 19th century and early twentieth century, immigrants from the United States worked in Honduras' banana growing and mining industries. They made up the majority of the workers in these industries. American investment began with the Rosario Mining Company, followed by the founding of the United Fruit Company, and the Standard Fruit Company.
Missionaries.
The first missionaries in Honduras were the Mercedarians who arrived with the Spanish in 1563. In 1793, the first Church of England missionary, Christian Frederick Post arrived in British Honduras. In 1896, the first American Protestant missionaries, arrived in Honduras. They were Evangalists from the Central American Mission founded by Cyrus I. Scofield. From the 1930s, the Unity of Brethren have been important in Honduras religion.
Military presence.
For many years, the U.S. has had vested interests in Honduras and a focus on keeping access to the isthmus between North and South America. Protection of these interests has involved keeping the Honduras government stable, preventing Communist influence in the Honduras region and intervening to stop neighbouring unrest, using Honduras as a launch pad.
From March 23 to 31, 1903, Marines protected the U.S. consulate and the steamship wharf at Puerto Cortes when Manuel Bonilla deposed Juan Ángel Arias Boquín. Between February and June 1907, during a war between Honduras and Nicaragua, U.S. Marines under the command of Captain William Freeland Fullam (18851926) protected Americans in Puerto Cortes, La Ceiba and Trujillo. In 1911 and 1912, Marines protected U.S. interests during Honduran civil unrest.
In 1919 and 1924, the U.S. again intervened to ease Honduran civil unrest. The 1919 episode ended with general elections. On February 15, 1924, nine officers and 167 marines from the USS Milwaukee landed at Ampala. The force remained to protect the U.S. Legation until April 30, 1924. Other troops arrived including troops from the USS Billingsley under the command of V. H. Godfrey; troops from the USS Denver under E. W. Sturdevant from March 3 to 15, 1924; and under T. H. Cartwright from February 19, 1924 to January 27, 1925. Further troops landed at La Cieba under the command of R. L. Nelson between March 8 and 15, 1924 and under J. M. Bain between September 7 to 21, 1924.
On March 16, 1988, the U.S. launched Operation Golden Pheasant. 3,200 U.S. troops were deployed to Honduras at the request of the President of Honduras, José Azcona del Hoyo (19252005). Their mission was to contain the Sandinista National Liberation Front of Nicaragua which was considered by President Reagan to be supported by the Soviet Union.
From the 1980s, the United States Air Force has had a permanent presence of about 600 troops in Honduras at the Soto Cano Air Base at Palmerola, south of Comayagua. It has been a base for security and for foreign aid in Central America.
First registers of Americans in Honduras.
The number of American immigrants to Honduras has gradually increased.
In 2013, approximately 29,000 people who were not native to the nation lived in Honduras. 23,577 individuals were from North America. 2,939 were from Europe, 2,603 from Asia (1,415 Chinese), 56 from Africa, and 19 from Oceania.
Surnames.
Benneth, Connor, Douglas, Jackson, Johnson, Neal, Post, Stewart, Thomas, Yearwood, Watson.


John DeBras Miles

John DeBras Miles (June 7, 1832– March 20, 1925) was an American Indian agent at the Kickapoo people Agency and at the Darlington Agency for the Cheyenne and Arapaho.
Early life and family.
John DeBras Miles was born at Dayton, Ohio, June 7, 1832, to David and Susanna (DeBras) Miles. His family were members of the Society of Friends and he grew up in Miami County, Ohio. He attended business college in Richmond, Indiana and when he was seventeen took a job teaching. When he was twenty years old he entered the merchandise and milling industry. On November 25, 1857 John married Lucy Davis in Grant, Indiana. Together they had eight children: Lena, Josephine, Susan, Whittier, Eva, John Herbert and James. On January 13, 1892 Lucy (Davis) Miles died in Lawrence, Kansas. On June 7, 1894, John DeBras Miles married Margarite Hedrick in Kansas City, Missouri. On January 15, 1922 Margarite (Hedrick) Miles died at Sutherland Springs, Texas.
Indian agent.
In 1868 President Ulysses S. Grant appointed John DeBras Miles agent of the Kickapoo people Agency in Atchison, Kansas. In 1871, he was assigned as special commissioner to Mexico. In 1872 john DeBras Miles was assigned to the Darlington Agency after the death of Brinton Darlington, there he was in charge of the Cheyenne and Arapaho for twelve years. Agent Miles resigned on March 31, 1884, his replacement was D. B. Dyer. Starting in 1884, he served as lawyer for the Cheyenne and Arapaho. In 1877 he was assigned as special commissioner to the Uncompahgre Ute Indians in Colorado.
Death.
John DeBras Miles died at his home in Fresno, California on March 20, 1925.
Notes.
Oklahoma Historical Society John DeBras Miles Bio
John DeBras Miles Findagrave Memorial


Ponkapoag

Ponkapoag , also Punkapaug, Punkapoag, or Punkapog, is the name of a Native American "praying town" settled in the western Blue Hills area of eastern Massachusetts during the colonization of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States by settlers from Britain in the 17th century. It is the name given to the winter residence (and subsequently to the tribe) of the group of Massachusett who lived at the mouth of the Neponset River near Dorchester in the summer, in what was known as Neponset Mill. Ponkapoag is now contained almost entirely by the town of Canton, Massachusetts. The name is derived from a nearby pond south of Great Blue Hill; Ponkapoag means "shallow pond" or "a spring that bubbles from red soil".
History.
Ponkapoag Plantation was established in 1657 as a town parcel formed from Dorchester, Massachusetts Bay Colony. It was the second Christianized native settlement, or "Praying Town" in Massachusetts, after Natick was established in 1651. In 1654 members of the Nemasket Tribe located in the village of Cohannet in current day Bristol County were among the first Native Americans relocated to Ponkapoag by missionaries. From 1657 to his death around 1670, Quashaamit (William) served as a teaching minister in Ponkapoag, and also deeded large parcels of land in modern day, Mendon, Milford, Braintree (Quincy), and North Smithfield.
The Massachusett (punkapoags) still live within their territory today.


FASA Studio

FASA Studio (formerly FASA Interactive) was an American video game developer that was founded in 1994 by the tabletop game company FASA Corporation.
In 1996, FASA Interactive and Virtual World Entertainment, another company created by FASA Corp. founders Jordan Weisman and L. Ross Babcock, became wholly owned subsidiaries of Virtual World Entertainment Group (VWEG). In 1999, Microsoft Corporation purchased VWEG to acquire the talent at FIT and the intellectual properties of FASA Corp. The VWE component of VWEG was sold to a group headed by VWEG's former CFO, James Garbarini. FASA Interactive then became a FASA Studio, a component of Microsoft Studios. As such, the company developed games exclusive to the Windows and Xbox platforms. Its headquarters were located in Redmond, Washington, only a few miles from Microsoft Corporation's main campus.
FASA was officially shut down on September 12, 2007 with only the Community Manager and Technical Support Manager positions remaining active to support their games. Microsoft subsequently licensed the rights to produce electronic adaptations of FASA games back to Weisman, who directed a venture called Smith & Tinker. Smith & Tinker closed down November 8, 2012.


National Bank of Alaska

National Bank of Alaska (originally known as Bank of Alaska) was Alaska's largest financial institution for the latter part of the 20th century. In 2000, it was purchased by Wells Fargo, giving the larger bank a presence in 23 states.
Founding and early history.
Bank of Alaska was founded in 1916 by Andrew Stevenson in Skagway, Alaska. The bank's first headquarters were in the building previously occupied by the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce at Fifth and Broadway, but it soon built a new headquarters one block away at Sixth and Broadway, a building which has remained in the possession of the company and its successors to this day. Bank of Alaska soon opened additional branches in Wrangell and Anchorage, which had just been named.
Edward Anton Rasmuson, who was hired in the first year as the bank's attorney, and his family and descendants long played central roles in the bank's governance. He assumed control in the financial turmoil following World War I, and by 1919, he was serving as the bank's president. His wife, Jenny Olson Rasmuson, sat on the board of directors. In 1945, the bank's headquarters were moved to Anchorage. Rasmuson died in 1949, and left the bank to his son, Elmer E. Rasmuson.
Expansion.
In 1950, the bank adopted a national charter, becoming the National Bank of Alaska. A 1960 merger made National Bank of Alaska the largest bank in the state with 19 branches in six locations. Elmer Rasmuson also passed the business to his son, retiring in 1975. Edward Bernard Rasmuson became president and CEO.
By 1978, National Bank of Alaska was operating 34 branches in 19 communities. In 1982, it was reorganized as a wholly owned subsidiary of bank holding company National Bancorp of Alaska. By 1983, its assets topped $1 billion, and by 1990, it owned about half of all bank assets in the state.
Wells Fargo purchase.
In December 1999, National Bancorp of Alaska agreed to a $907 million buyout by Wells Fargo & Co. It had more than $3 billion in assets, and 53 National Bank of Alaska branches in 29 Alaskan communities, with an additional branch in Seattle, Washington. The acquisition transaction closed in 2000, and branches converted to the Wells Fargo brand in June 2001. Wells Fargo officials said the acquisition gave them the country's "most extensive banking franchise", with branches in 23 states.


Al Sieber

Al Sieber (February 27, 1843 – February 19, 1907) was a German-American who fought in the U.S Civil War and in the American Old West against Indians. He became a prospector and later served as a Chief of Scouts during the Apache Wars.
Early life.
Albert "Al" Sieber was born in Mingolsheim, Baden as the 13th of 14 children. He was baptized on March 1, 1843, in St. Lambertus Church, Mingolsheim. His father Johannes died on September 16, 1845. Between March and April 1851, three years after the "Badian Revolution", his mother Eva Katharina née Fischer, immigrated with her still living eight children (six had already died) to Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The family moved to Minnesota several years later.
Civil War service.
He enlisted on March 4, 1862, in Company B, 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry during the American Civil War. Sieber was severely wounded on July 2, 1863 in the Battle of Gettysburg, at Cemetery Ridge. He fought in several key engagements, including Battle of Antietam, Battle of Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville, Battle of Gettysburg, Apache Wars, Battle of Cibecue Creek, and Battle of Big Dry Wash. After the war, he became a prospector in California, Nevada, and in Arizona Territory, where he managed a ranch from 1868 to 1871.
Army scout and guide.
In July 1871, General George Stoneman hired Sieber as Chief of Scouts and he served for much of the Apache Wars. He participated in Crook's Tonto (Apache) campaign (1871–73). When the Camp Verde reservation was closed, Sieber was told to move Yavapais and Tonto Apaches to the San Carlos Reservation in the middle of winter. He remained employed there and participated in several engagements with Apache groups that had left the reservation.
On October 24, 1874, the "Arizona Miner" reported, "Al Zieber, Sergeant Stauffer and a mixed command of white and red soldiers are in the hills of Verde looking for some erring Apaches, whom they will be apt to find." Three days later, Sieber and Sgt. Rudolph Stauffer found the Apaches that had escaped the reservation at Cave Creek and fought them. Josephine Earp wrote that when she arrived in Arizona, she learned that "some renegade Yuma-Apaches had escaped from the reservation to which they had been consigned and had returned to their old haunts on the war-path" and that Sieber was tracking the escaped Apache. She said Sieber and his scouts led her stagecoach and its passengers to a nearby adobe ranch house where they remained until the Indians were captured.
In February, April, and May 1877, Sieber acted as a guide for Pima County Marshal Wiley Standefer, who was pursuing outlaws in the region.
In 1883 Crook went into the Sierra Madre of Mexico following Geronimo. Sieber was Crook's lead civilian scout and mentor to Tom Horn, whom he taught to speak German, as well as fighting together during the Battle of Cibecue Creek and Big Dry Wash. Sieber was in the field but not present when Geronimo surrendered to Lt Charles B. Gatewood and General Nelson Miles in 1886.
Sieber stayed on at San Carlos as Chief of Scouts for another 13 years.
Wounds.
In 1887, Sieber was shot and wounded when the Apache Kid and his followers escaped the reservation to prevent being jailed again. During his various battles and fights over the course of his life, Sieber received 28 wounds.
Perjury and revenge on the Apache Kid.
A few days after the Apache Kid surrendered, he was found guilty of mutiny and desertion and sentenced to ten years at the military prison on Alcatraz Island. Secretary of War William Endicott reviewed the court-martial file of the Apache Kid and came to the conclusion that the trial had not been fair. On October 20, 1888, six months after his arrival on Alcatraz, the Apache Kid was released and headed back to San Carlos, Arizona. Unhappy with military law, Sieber decided to retry the Kid, this time for attempted murder in territorial court. On October 29, 1889, as the star witness, Sieber testified that the Apache Kid had shot him even if he knew the Kid was not wearing a weapon at that moment. Witnesses saw Curley, another Apache scout, shoot at Sieber, but none were called to testify. Al Sieber's perjury resulted in a sentence of seven years in the Yuma Territorial Prison for the Apache Kid and 3 other scouts.
Post army life and death.
Sieber was fired from his San Carlos Chief of Scouts position in December 1890 by Major John L. Bullis. He left San Carlos and took up prospecting until 1898.
On February 19, 1907, Sieber was leading an Apache work crew that was building the Tonto road to the new Roosevelt Dam site on the [confluence of the Salt River and Tonto Creek on the border of Gila County and Maricopa County] in Gila County. The project was under the supervision of another famous frontier scout, "Yellowstone" Luther Kelly at Apache Trail, a separate downstream road, Maricopa County, Arizona. Sieber was killed when a boulder rolled on him during construction. He was buried with military honors at the cemetery in Globe, Arizona.
In film and media.
Sieber has been portrayed in a number of films:


Indian Shaker Church and Gulick Homestead

The Indian Shaker Church and Gulick Homestead are an ensemble of historic buildings in The Dalles, Oregon, United States. Built by Henry Gulick directly on the Columbia riverbank in the 1890s, it is the only remaining 19th century fishing homestead in Oregon. Gulick, an employee of the locally-important Seufert salmon canning concern, included a church building in the complex in "ca." 1896 for his wife, Harriet, a member of the Wasco people. The church was the smallest of five Indian Shaker Church congregations in the state.
The church and homestead were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.


Indian Joe

Indian Joe, (Captain Joe, Old Joe, Jo Indian, Joe Injun, Abenaki translation of Joseph: Susapp) was a Native American scout.
Biography.
Born near Louisbourg, Nova Scotia of Mi'kmaq origin, he was adopted by Abenaki people, who took him to St. Francis (today's Odanak). He served as a scout under Colonel Jacob Bayley (1726-1815). He was injured in the Rogers' Rangers raid on the village. He eventually moved to the area of Cowass (today's Newbury, Vermont).
During the American Revolutionary War, Joe again served under Jacob Bayley and later under Moses Hazen. After the war, he and Molly lived in Danville, Vermont and on an island on what is now called Joe's Pond in Danville. Joe died on February 19, 1819, after he fell and was injured by the severe cold. His burial was paid for by Frye Bayley, and he was given a military style funeral.
Legacy.
Several places are named after Joe and Molly:
Other tributes: