Victor Crutchley

Admiral Sir Victor Alexander Charles Crutchley (2 November 1893 – 24 January 1986) was a senior Royal Navy officer during the Second World War and a First World War recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
Early life.
Crutchley was born on 2 November 1893 at 28 Lennox Gardens, Chelsea, London, the only son of Percy Edward (1855–1940) and the Hon. Frederica Louisa (1864–1932), second daughter of Charles FitzRoy, 3rd Baron Southampton. His mother had been maid of honour to Queen Victoria. He was a godchild of Queen Victoria (from whom he derived his first two names). He joined the navy in 1906 and was educated at the Royal Naval College, Osborne.
First World War.
In September 1915 Crutchley was promoted to lieutenant and posted to a battleship of the Grand Fleet, . "Centurion" participated in the Battle of Jutland. After the battle Captain Roger Keyes assumed command of "Centurion" and acquired a highly favorable impression of Crutchley. Keyes selected Crutchley for the Zeebrugge Raid of 23 April 1918; he was assigned by Keyes as first lieutenant to Commander Alfred Godsal, also of "Centurion", on the obsolete cruiser .
"Brilliant" and were to be sunk as blockships at Ostend. The Germans had moved a navigation buoy, and so the ships were beached in the wrong place under heavy fire. But Crutchley performed well and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.
Crutchley volunteered for the Second Ostend Raid on 9 May, and was posted to the cruiser , again commanded by Godsal. When Godsal was killed and the navigating officer incapacitated, Crutchley took command. When a propellor was damaged on the quay, preventing the vessel fully closing the canal, Crutchley ordered its scuttling and personally oversaw the evacuation under fire.
Crutchley transferred to the damaged motor launch "ML 254". When its wounded captain Lieutenant Geoffrey Drummond collapsed, Crutchley took command. Crutchley oversaw bailing operations, standing in water up to his waist, until the destroyer , carrying Admiral Keyes, came to its aid.
Although the second raid also failed fully to close the Bruges Canal to submarine traffic, Crutchley, Drummond and Rowland Bourke were awarded Victoria Crosses for the action. When there were more worthy recipients than VCs to award, the men were allowed to elect those to receive a VC. Crutchley was one of the last elected VCs. During the final months of the war, Crutchley served on HMS "Sikh" in the Dover Patrol, the Channel force commanded by Keyes.
Inter-war.
In 1920, Crutchley spent a tour of duty on board the minesweeper on the South American and South Atlantic station. He then served on the royal yacht in 1921, the cadet-training dreadnought in 1922–1924, and the royal yacht in 1924.
In 1924 he went to the Mediterranean Fleet for four years, serving under Roger Keyes, now Commander-in-Chief at Malta. Crutchley was on in 1924–1926, and then on the light cruiser in 1926–1928.
Crutchley was a polo player, and was invited to play for Keyes' polo team, the "Centurions". At one point in 1927, Crutchley played on the same team as Keyes, the Duke of York, and Louis Mountbatten. Crutchley was promoted to commander in 1928. In 1930, he married Joan Elisabeth Loveday of Pentillie Castle, Cornwall, the sister of Air Chief Marshal Alec Coryton.
In August 1930, Crutchley joined in the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy where he served until 1933. Serving as executive officer, Crutchley was present at the relief operation after the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, and towards the end of his tour, when the captain was chronically ill, took command of "Diomede" until he was promoted to captain. He was posted home in 1933. Crutchley was senior officer, 1st Minesweeper Flotilla (1st MSF) from 1935 to 1936 aboard the minesweeper at Portland, Dorset. In November, 1935 Crutchley took the 1st MSF to join the Mediterranean Fleet in Alexandria, and cruised to Famagusta, Cyprus for 10 days during the winter. On 16 April 1936, Crutchley was relieved by Captain W. P. C. Manwaring and appointed Captain, Fishery Protection and Minesweeping with overall command over the Royal Navy's Minesweeping and armed trawler fleet.
On 1 May 1937, Crutchley took command of , which had been completely refitted in three years at Portsmouth. Due to acceptance trials "Warspite" was not present at the Coronation Fleet Review of King George VI. Additional engineering work on the steering gear (which still suffered from damage taken at Jutland) and other equipment resulted in weekend leaves for the crew being curtailed, leading to very low morale. Comments appeared in British newspapers, which culminated in an anonymous letter from a crew member. This provoked an inquiry by the Admiralty. The inquiry led to the removal of three of Crutchley's officers, including his executive officer. Crutchley disagreed with the findings of the Inquiry, and made sure that the confidential report on his executive officer would lead to a promotion to captain.
"Warspite" eventually proceeded to the Mediterranean Fleet to serve as the flagship of Admiral Dudley Pound, Commander-in-Chief. Crutchley served as Flag Captain to first Pound and then to Admiral Andrew Cunningham up to the outbreak of war.
Second World War.
North Sea.
After the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939, "Warspite" was assigned to the Home Fleet. Due to the lack of anti-submarine precautions at the North Sea naval bases, it was some time before she reached Scapa Flow, the main fleet anchorage. Until the start of the Norwegian campaign on 9 April 1940, action had been severely limited by the U-boat threat. A significant German naval presence in the North Sea saw the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway. The inconclusive first battle of Narvik was on 10 April.
On 13 April, Crutchley commanded "Warspite" in the second battle of Narvik. She accompanied nine destroyers into Ofotfjord, where eight German destroyers were sunk or scuttled. "Warspite"s catapult plane even sank a U-boat.
After this action, Crutchley was appointed commodore of Royal Naval Barracks, Devonport, overseeing the preparation of crews for assignment to ships. While there he was greeted by a detachment of sailors who had served on "Warspite" at Narvik.
South West Pacific Area.
After the opening of hostilities with Japan, Crutchley was promoted to rear admiral and lent to the Royal Australian Navy for service in the South West Pacific Area. On 13 June 1942 Crutchley succeeded Rear Admiral John Crace in command of Task Force 44, the Australian Squadron, based in Brisbane, the last Briton to do so.
Battle of Savo Island.
During the landings on Guadalcanal, on 7 August 1942, Crutchley served as Commander Task Group 62.2 (CTG 62.2), the covering group, with his flag in . TG 62.2 included three Australian and five American cruisers, fifteen destroyers, and some minesweepers. He was under Admiral Richmond K. Turner USN, commander of the amphibious force. TG 62.2 was on constant alert, rendering support to the landings or fending off Japanese air attacks.
On 8 August, Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher withdrew the aircraft carriers that had provided air cover. Turner decided the amphibious force must also leave the next day. He summoned Crutchley and Vandegrift (commander of the troops on Guadalcanal) to an evening conference on his flagship. Crutchley took "Australia" to the amphibious anchorage, leaving five cruisers and six destroyers on guard to the west.
That night a powerful Japanese cruiser force attacked. They caught Task Group 62.2 by surprise, and sank four Allied cruisers, including . In the wake of the disaster, Crutchley was heavily criticised, both for leaving his command, and for an ineffective deployment which allowed the Japanese to get close without being detected by radar.
Crutchley nonetheless retained the confidence of his superiors. He remained with the RAN in the South West Pacific, commanding TF 44 (redesignated TF 74 in 1943) for another 23 months. His command of the Australian Squadron ended on 13 June 1944.
In September 1944, Crutchley received the American Legion of Merit in the degree of Chief Commander.
Later years.
Crutchley's final command was Flag Officer Gibraltar after the war (14 January 1945 - January 1947). He retired in 1947, and was promoted to admiral in 1949.
Crutchley enjoyed a long retirement at Mappercombe Manor, near Bridport in Dorset. In 1955, he was appointed High Sheriff of Dorset and in 1957, Deputy Lieutenant for Dorset. When he died in 1986 at the age of 92, he was one of the last surviving admirals from World War II. In 1945, Crutchley had bought two paintings ("Capriccio: The Lagoon, Venice" and "La Torre di Marghera") by the landscape artist Bernardo Bellotto. They were given to the nation in lieu of tax and presented to the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery in 1988.


Henry Gage, 6th Viscount Gage

Henry Rainald Gage, 6th Viscount Gage, KCVO, (30 December 1895 – 27 February 1982) was Viscount Gage of Firle Place during much of the 20th century.
He was born to Henry Charles Gage and Leila Georgina Peel. His Gage family ancestry included extensive roots in British North America from the Schuyler family, the Delancey family, and the Van Cortlandt family.
Upon the death of his father in 1912, he succeeded him as Viscount Gage when he was only 16. Gage served in World War I as a Captain of the Coldstream Guards, seeing action in both France and Belgium. He was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 58th (Home Counties) Field Brigade, Royal Artillery, on 17 June 1936.
In 1931, Gage donated papers and letters written between 1758 and 1764 by his famous relative General Sir Thomas Gage to the William L. Clements Library of Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Gage later (between 1958 and 1965) donated letters and documents from ancestral in-law Vice-Admiral Sir Peter Warren to the Sussex Archaeological Society in Lewes.
At the beginning of World War II the family moved to a smaller house and nearby Southover girls' school in Lewes was evacuated for a short time to Gage's family home in Firle. After they had moved, Canadian soldiers were quartered at the family manor. In 1952, Gage's mother-in-law died, leaving art work to his wife, Imogen. The couple decided to showcase the art in their home, opening Firle Place to public tours in 1954.
In 1968, Imogen died. Gage was remarried in 1971 to Diana Cavendish. He died himself in 1982 at the age of 86. A stained glass window by the artist John Piper was installed in St Peter's Church, Firle, and dedicated to his memory.
He was appointed Deputy President of Sussex Wildlife Trust on 13 January 1962 and retired at the AGM on 29 April 1967. He is listed as the Director of Over Timber (Fawley) Ltd. and of Firle Estate Co.Ltd
Family.
On 26 February 1931, Gage married Alexandra Imogen Clair Grenfell (Imogen), daughter of William Grenfell, 1st Baron Desborough; they had three children:
In 1932 John St Clere (whom they called "Sammy") was born. George John would go on to become the 7th Viscount Gage. The future 8th Viscount Gage (Nicolas Gage) was born to Lord and Lady Gage in 1934. They also had a daughter, Camilla Jane, in 1937.


Calvert Pratt

Calvert Coates Pratt OBE (October 6, 1888 – November 13, 1963) was a Newfoundland businessman and a Canadian Senator. He was president of Purity Factories, a Newfoundland food manufacturer. He was also a director of Newfoundland Light and Power, the Canadian Bank of Commerce, British Newfoundland Development Corporation (BRINCO), and a number of other businesses.
He was born in Blackhead, Newfoundland. His brother was poet E. J. Pratt.
At 28, Calvert Pratt became a director and secretary-treasurer of A.E. Hickman Company Limited.
During World War II, he helped institute a ship building program for the Dominion of Newfoundland and helped form the Newfoundland Industrial Development Board serving as its president. In 1946, he was made a member of the Order of the British Empire.
Pratt was a supporter of Joey Smallwood's Newfoundland Confederate Association and its successful campaign to have the former colony join Canadian confederation in 1949.
He was appointed by Louis St-Laurent to Canada's Senate in 1951. He died in office.


DJ Switch (Nigerian DJ)

Obianuju Catherine Udeh, professionally known as DJ Switch, is a Nigerian DJ, songwriter and musician who emerged as the winner of the first edition of The Glo X Factor in 2013 at the age of 29. She is the last of eight children, from Udi in Enugu State, a Geology graduate from University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State and now a professional DJ.
Early life.
DJ Switch was born to Nigerian parents and grew up in Warri, a city in South-South Nigeria, Delta state. Her father has died, and she’s the last of eight children.
She is a Geology graduate from University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
Education.
DJ Switch graduated from the University of Port Harcourt Rivers state in Nigeria.
Career.
DJ Switch started her entertainment career as a disc jockey and moved on to becoming a song writer, as well as a musician. She first earned attention when her group, Da Pulse, emerged as the winner of the 2009 edition of reality music competition, Star Quest. They further went on to release a hit song titled, "So Tey", whichfeatured American rapper Busta Rhymes in the remix.
Her career fully kicked off after she emerged the winner of the maiden and only edition of the Glo X-Factor in 2013. She was signed into a record deal with Sony Music as part of the prizes for the emergence, as the winner of the Glo X-Factor been endorsed by Peter Okoye’s P-Classic Records.
On 20 October 2020, DJ switch live streamed the aftermath of the alleged Lekki Massacre. In the video, they attempted to remove a bullet from the leg of a man who was shot, tying a Nigerian flag around his leg.
Award.
DJ Switch Wins Nigeria's Glo X-Factor


District of Alaska

The District of Alaska was the governmental designation for Alaska from May 17, 1884 to August 24, 1912, when it became Alaska Territory. Previously it had been known as the Department of Alaska. At the time, legislators in Washington, D.C., were occupied with post–Civil War reconstruction issues, and had little time to dedicate to Alaska. General Jefferson C. Davis, a U.S. Army officer, was put in charge as the first commander of the Department of Alaska, which between 1884 and 1912 was renamed the District of Alaska and was appointed a civil government by President Chester A. Arthur with the passage of the First Organic Act. During the Department era, Alaska was variously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army (until 1877), the United States Department of the Treasury (from 1877 until 1879) and the U.S. Navy (from 1879 until 1884), but now the area had its own government.
History.
It was the discovery of gold in the Yukon in 1896 that brought attention to the United States' northern possession. A wave of fortune hunters clamored for passage to the Klondike, but the Klondike was in Yukon Territory, Canada, not Alaska as many a would-be miner believed. Still, the easiest route was by ship to Skagway, or Dyea, in Southeast Alaska. Miners had their choice of two passes across the mountains to the Yukon fields: The Chilkoot Trail, an old Native route, started in Dyea, and the White Pass, also called Dead Horse Trail, was in Skagway. The Chilkoot Trail was a shorter trip but had a considerably steeper climb. The White Pass took a little longer but was at a lower elevation. Skagway and the White Pass trail also had a severe crime problem, organized and led by the infamous badman, Soapy Smith. Smith was killed in Skagway at the Shootout on Juneau Wharf.
Alaska still had plenty of gold of its own, and many who had failed to make their fortunes in the Klondike strike came back to look for it. An earlier strike had established Juneau in Southeast Alaska, and gold was found in Nome in 1899. For several years a prospector named Felix Pedro had been searching in the Tanana Hills of the Interior for a gold-rich creek he had stumbled upon years earlier but had been forced to abandon. As the summer of 1901 drew to a close, Pedro was about to embark with his partner on a 165-mile walk to Circle City for supplies. He met up with E.T. Barnette, who had been forced to disembark from the steamer "Lavelle Young" with his entire load of supplies, some of which he sold to Pedro.
Replenished with supplies, Pedro continued his search in the area, and he finally struck gold in July 1902. Shortly afterward, Barnette's outpost was transformed into a booming town. Named Fairbanks in honor of U.S. Senator Charles W. Fairbanks, the settlement grew as more miners and new businesses arrived. The town had shanties on the fringes, but the center offered many of the economic conveniences of the rest of the U.S. Traffic came through the river, and an overland route to Valdez cut days off a trip to the contiguous United States. Eventually, the Tanana Mining District became a huge gold producer, and the metal attracted Americans and Europeans alike. In 1903 the predecessor to the Alaska Railroad began to be built, which would connect from Seward to Fairbanks by 1923, though Alaska still has no railroad connecting it to the lower 48 states.
Many people in Alaska found ways to profit from the gold rushes without actually panning for the metal themselves. At Ruby Creek, a strike in 1907, and a more substantial one in 1910 brought the rush of miners to the area and created the town of Ruby. The steamers the newcomers used required large quantities of wood to keep them moving, and residents along the river supplemented their trapping and fishing by maintaining profitable wood lots. Ruby grew from a tent city in 1911 to a river port and then had running water in summer, a theater, shops, and cafés. By 1917, at the height of the rush, creeks south of Ruby had yielded $875,000 worth of gold.
Other precious and semiprecious metals were being mined in Alaska, too, particularly copper. In 1910, the richest copper mine in the world started operation at Kennicott in the Wrangell-St. Elias Mountains. The mine extracted more than 591,535 tons of copper ore from the earth, and at its peak employed more than 800 workers.
The more traditional ways of life, fishing, in particular, also provided a livelihood for many Alaskans, particularly after canning was introduced. In 1878 businessmen built the first two canneries at Klawock and Sitka. In 1883 the Arctic Pack Company established a cannery at Nushagak Bay in Southwest Alaska, where they were able to exploit the immense runs of salmon. In 1880, two years later, the Alaska Packing Company opened a cannery across the bay, and by 1908, 10 canneries ringed Nushagak Bay in Southwest Alaska. Kodiak's first canneries were built in the late 19th century when word of phenomenal fish runs became widespread.
By the turn of the 20th century, commercial fishing was gaining a foothold in the Aleutian Islands. Packing houses salted cod and herring, and salmon canneries were opened. Another traditional occupation, whaling, continued with no regard for over-hunting. They pushed the bowhead whales to the edge of extinction for the oil in their tissue (though in recent years, due to a decline in commercial whaling, their populations have rebounded enough for Natives to harvest many each year without affecting the population). The Aleuts soon suffered severe problems due to the depletion of the fur seals and sea otters which they needed for survival. As well as requiring the flesh for food, they also used the skins to cover their boats, without which they could not hunt. The Americans also expanded into the Interior and Arctic Alaska, exploiting the furbearers, fish, and other game on which Natives depended.


John Parker (pioneer)

Elder John Parker (September 6, 1758 – May 19, 1836) was a Predestinarian Baptist minister, veteran of the American War of Independence, scout and minor diplomat for the American government, famous frontier Ranger. He was among the first settlers of Texas before the Texas Revolution and was killed during the Fort Parker massacre in 1836, along with several members of his extended family.
Parker was born in 1758 in Baltimore County, Maryland. His family moved to frontier Virginia while Parker was young and took part along with Daniel Boone and others in scouting the frontier into present day Kentucky and Tennessee. In 1777, the British and Indians launched a series of ruthless campaigns aimed at exterminating the Americans from the frontier. Many of his extended family and family friends, men, women, and children were brutally massacred in the war. As a result, he left home to fight during the next two years in the American Revolution as survivors of the massacres held out in forts, block houses, and frontier settlements, foiling British-led Indian death squads, and launching retaliatory raids on Indian communities. Two years later, in November 1779, he married Sarah "Sallie" White before returning to the war. After John's return to Virginia, the Parkers' first child, Daniel Parker, who was named in honor of friend and compatriot Daniel Boone, was born on April 6, 1781. Other children soon followed.
In the years following the end of the war, Indians on the frontier returned to attacking American frontier families, and for a time pushed back the advances made at the end of the Revolution. Fearing for their family, his wife encouraged him to move elsewhere. Traveling down the old pioneer road about 1785, Parker moved his family to Georgia in search of safer opportunities for a better life.
However, once again Indian depredations--this time encouraged by Spanish and British colonial powers--followed him, and he returned to becoming a frontier ranger in various raids against the Cherokee and other so-called Civilized tribes. After the successful conclusion of these minor but bloody wars, which saw Americans victorious against the Indians in battle and the Europeans in diplomacy, much of the Appalachian area opened up to American settlement. Therefore, in 1803, he once again moved the family, including Sallie, eight children, Daniel's wife Martha "Patsey" Dickerson, and their daughter to newly acquired land bounties for his service during the War of Independence. They settled near Nashboro (present Nashville), Tennessee. By 1817, their family had grown to eleven children, many of whom had married and had children of their own.
The defeat of most of the Indian nations in what is now Southern Illinois opened up further land for settling. In reward for his services in the Northwest Indian War, Parker was awarded additional land bounties. Therefore, the family moved to Illinois and made significant contributions to subsequent intrigues, diplomacy, land development, and Indian fighting in the state. However, in 1824, Sallie died, and in 1825, Parker married the widow Sarah "Sallie" Duty, who had several daughters who had married into the Parker clan.
At age seventy-five, Parker, by now a well-noted frontiersman, surveyor, and patriot, who had years of exemplary service both overtly and covertly on behalf of the United States government, was recruited by Stephen Austin and other Mexican authorities to settle with his extended family and allies on the frontier of Texas, thereby providing a needed bulwark against the devastating Comanche raids. After sufficient preparation and negotiation, Parker and most of his family and several other allied families moved to Texas in 1833.
During 1835, using his vast experience in frontier defense, Parker negotiated with the local Indian tribes, reconnoitered the surrounding area, and eventually coordinated with some of his sons in the building of a fort on the head-waters of the Navasota River, near present Groesbeck in Limestone County, Texas on the frontier of what was then called the Comancheria. The fort stood on the site of past Comanche attacks and was thought sufficient to not only provide protection for the families who all had land grants located, but also to block the route of future Comanche raids.
However, the Parker-led community did not have sufficient intelligence on the full-scale capabilities of the Comanche terror bands, whose speed and ferocity was magnified by their numbers--which at times were in the thousands. Thus, during the early part of May, the community was unprepared for the fast, overwhelming numbers of Comanche warriors which descended to murder, rape, loot, burn and enslave any survivors. On May 19, 1836, following a quick attack which slaughtered those in outlying block houses and burned alive entire families in their homes, the Comanche forces headed straight for Fort Parker and the famed American patriot and Indian fighter John Parker, whilst he and others attempted to rally the community in defense of the fort. But in the rapidity of the Comanche attack and running gun battles which followed, it was clear the Comanche had overwhelming numbers and the community was doomed. Parker ordered as many of the women and children as could be found to be sent off with several hand-picked men, while he and other volunteers made a quick sortie into the Comanche band and diverted them back towards the fort.
Although this was successful, most of the men in the sortie were quickly killed before he and other survivors escaped into the fort, which subsequently proved insufficient to hold off the overwhelming numbers of the Comanche raid. After watching the full horror, he was tortured mercilessly, before being scalped and killed. However, although his wife was seriously wounded, along with another son, they and several other compatriots escaped and eventually gave warning of the approaching Comanche party.
Although Parker and four other members of the Parker clan who were present during the siege were killed at the Fort Parker massacre, several of his kinsmen and children escaped alive, while five remained in the hands of the Comanches. One such family member was his granddaughter, Cynthia Ann Parker, who remained alive in the Comanche nation for twenty-five years and became a member of their tribe.


Juneteenth in Oregon

Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation of slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, and statewide in 2013.
Timeline.
Peoples helped make Junteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the "Mother of Juneteenth" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism.
Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed.
Multnomah County first recognized Juneteenth in 2018, sponsored by County Commissioner Loretta Smith. That event celebrated and heard from Senator Gordly.
Clara Peoples.
Clara Peoples (Née Clara Mae Walker) was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma on 8 September 1926. She moved to Vanport, Oregon in 1945, working for Kaiser Shipyards during the World War 2 shipbuilding efforts, where she started a Juneteenth event in 1945. Her family was flooded and displaced in the 1948 Vanport floods. Moving to 1406 NE Ainsworth with her husband Haley Peoples Sr. in the redlined area of Northeast Portland, she then organized efforts to feed people, which turned into the Community Care Association in 1969. By the following year the association was operating out of 2022 NE Alberta Street, rent-free from the anonymous building owner. The Alberta Street location was previously the Red and White store, seen in a 1931 photo, and was later the Don Pancho Taqueria and Market from 2000-2016.
Later, Peoples and Arlene Grice became the first two Black elevator operators at Joseph Shemanski's Eastern Department Store. She was also the first Black person on the State Board of Agriculture. She was also a hall monitor at Adams High School.
In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013.
Peoples died in October 5, 2015, at age 89. The annual parade was named the "Clara Peoples Freedom Trail Parade" beginning in 2016.
By 2020, Peoples' granddaughter, Jenelle Jack, was the director of Juneteenth Oregon.


Henry Roe Cloud

Henry Roe Cloud (December 28, 1884 – February 9, 1950) was a Ho-Chunk Native American, enrolled in the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska, who served as an educator, college administrator, U.S. federal government official (in the Office of Indian Affairs), Presbyterian minister, and reformer.
Early life.
Henry Roe Cloud was born December 28, 1884, a member of the Bird Clan, on the Winnebago Reservation in northeastern Nebraska and was orphaned when his parents died in 1896 and 1897. After his education in a series of government schools, his intellectual ambition, academic performance, and personal qualities brought him in 1901 to the private Mount Hermon Preparatory School (now Northfield Mount Hermon School) in Massachusetts. He financed his education through the school's work-study program and was introduced to the social circles of America's ruling elite. He graduated a salutatorian in 1906 and the school served as his conduit into the Ivy League.
College education.
Cloud was the first full-blood Native American to attend Yale University. He graduated with a bachelor of arts (B.A.) in psychology and philosophy from Yale College in 1910 and earned a master of arts (M.A.) degree in anthropology from Yale University in 1914. He was a campus celebrity due to the force of his personality and speaking skills, and in an era when rhetoric was an art, he was especially accomplished, attracting large audiences on campus and in national venues. One measure of his prestige as an undergraduate was being tapped for the Yale senior society, Elihu.
Roe advocated for Indians to make a space for themselves in higher education both while still at Yale and shortly after. In 1914, he protested census figures of college attendance - noting that only a minute fraction of the Indian population was college bound. Shortly after, in the late 1920s Meriam Report, Roe Cloud voiced outrage at the under-education of Indians. Scholars such as Joel Pfister compare Roe Cloud's ideology on the education of Indian minorities to W.E.B. Dubois' theory of the "Talented Tenth" in African American culture. Roe Cloud helped organize efforts to form an Indian "Talented Tenth."
While an undergraduate, Cloud attended a lecture by the missionary, Mary Wickham Roe, a member of a prominent Yankee family involved in evangelical Christian mission work. He established a close relationship with her and her husband, Reverend Dr. Walter C. Roe. The couple adopted him, and he took their surname as his middle name.
From 1910-1911 he studied sociology at Oberlin College. He attended Auburn Theological Seminary in New York, where he earned a bachelor of divinity degree and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1913. He returned to school and received a doctorate of divinity from Emporia College, Kansas in 1932.
Career.
In a dissertation by a Purdue University scholar, Cloud's significance is described "as a reformer, an educator, and Indian Service official. As a prominent Indian figure of the 1920s and 1930s, Cloud's life demonstrates how and to what extent Indians were able to influence federal Indian policy. His life also provides a window into the close ties between progressive ideas and the evangelical Protestant Christianity that prompted and guided many of the reform efforts in the first decades of the twentieth century. Cloud's work also shows him to be capable of moving beyond this Progressive Era paradigm of assimilation and embracing new currents of reform such as the push for cultural pluralism."
His career with the Office of Indian Affairs and the Brookings Institution focused on the efforts to establish modern schools for Native American youth. He became superintendent of the Haskell Institute, now known as Haskell Indian Nations University, in Lawrence, Kansas, in 1933.
"Cloud was instrumental in winning acceptance of the Wheeler-Howard Act, known also as the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934."
In 1947, he was appointed the Superintendent of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. "In 1948, he was appointed regional representative for the Grande Ronde and Siletz Indian Agencies in Oregon."
Family.
Henry Roe Cloud's wife, Elizabeth Bender Roe Cloud (1888-1965), spoke widely on American Indian affairs, and served on the Indian Welfare Committee for the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, and won the American Mother of the Year Award in 1950 for her work.
His granddaughter, Renya Ramirez, is an American Studies professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Death and legacy.
Henry Roe Cloud died of a heart attack in Siletz, Oregon, on February 9, 1950. He was buried in Beaverton, Oregon. An entry on Cloud is included in the American National Biography, Vol 5 (1999) and his personal papers are housed as a distinct series in the "Roe Family Papers" in Sterling Memorial Library's Manuscripts and Archives collection at Yale University.
The majority of Cloud's papers, personal photographs, and documents (relating to Yale and the Mount Hermon school) and theological society parchments as well as papers from his work until his death in 1950 were in the care of Henry's Great Grandson, Shahn Roe Cloud Hughes in Portland, Oregon.
In November 2014, the items were donated to the Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives. They are part of the Ravi D Goel Collection on Henry Roe Cloud. Collection highlights include Cloud's candid thoughts on many Indian tribes, leading figures and the state of US-Indian affairs. Almost all of the letters were addressed to his fourth and youngest daughter. A detailed April 1937 letter addresses Cloud's views on the Crees, Joseph Dussome, Baptiste Samatt, and Rocky Boy Superintendent Earl Wooldridge. In a February 14, 1938 letter, Cloud writes about a reunion with his Yale 1910 classmate and then Chinese Ambassador to the United States Wang Zhengting. (See also Yale Manuscripts and Archives April 2015 blog, "Party Diplomacy: The Ravi D. Goel Collection on Henry Roe Cloud.") In a January 12, 1939 letter, he writes of the opportunity to see his Yale classmate and US Senator Robert Taft on his upcoming visit to Washington, DC.
The Henry Roe Cloud conference was held at Yale in 2010, "celebrating 100 years of Native American education."
Yale University Press publishes a series of books, The Henry Roe Cloud Series on American Indians and Modernity.


Lamalcha War


Hupacasath First Nation

The Hupacasath First Nation is a First Nations government based in the Alberni Valley on the west coast of Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada. It is a member of the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council. An alternate spelling of Hupacasath is Opetchesaht or Opitchesaht. Hupacasath First Nation consists of approximately 300 members across five reserves.
In September 2012, the Government of Canada Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement signed a trade agreement with Chinese investors giving them control over major assets such as coal on its 232,000-hectare territory. It comes into effect when it has been ratified by both sides. The Hupacasath First Nations "community argued in federal court in June that the federal government is required to consult First Nations under Section 35 of the Constitution Act, which provides constitutional protection to the aboriginal and treaty rights of aboriginal peoples in Canada."
For thousands of years the Hupacasath people have occupied their traditional territory on Central Vancouver Island (See Traditional Territory Map). The Hupacasath are three distinct tribes: the Muh-uulth-aht, Kleh-koot-aht and Cuu-ma-as-aht (Ahahswinis).
The Muh-uulth-aht people (means people from where there is mountain with the face burnt off) lived in the Great Central Lake area with villages located at the head of Great Central Lake and around the Beaver Creek area of Stamp Falls. Their chief was named Kanaawis (Kanowish) who was a great warrior in his time. This area was and still is a great place for hunting deer, elk fowl, etc. as well for fishing and food gathering activities.
The Cuu-ma-as-ath people lived at Ahahswinis (means cleared in the middle), which was in the general vicinity of where the Port Alberni City is located now, to the Coleman Creek area down the Alberni Canal. Their village was where the current settlement is now located, on the Somass River. Salmon fishing, hunting, gathering, and potlatching were important activities carried out by the people in their traditional territory.
The Kleh-koot-aht people resided around Kleh-koot (Sproat Lake) (means long stretch of level land). Kleh-koot-aht’s area was between Yaaqis (Prairie Farm) and Sproat Falls and there was a seasonal village located on the Sproat River. This village was a place for fishing and smoking salmon, picking blackberries, and hunting deer. There was a longhouse here where they performed potlatches in the winter season.
The Cuu-ma-as, Klehkoot and Muhuulaht people decided to amalgamate prior to the Europeans' arrival. This decision was made because each of the tribes were at war with the Coast Salish people and they thought that joining the three tribes would make them stronger in their war against the Salish.
After the amalgamation, the three tribes decided that they were to be called the Hupacasath. The strongest warrior, Kanaawis, was chosen as grand chief.
The Hupacasath people exercise their aboriginal rights (self-determination in governance, land, resources and culture) in their traditional territory. Use of the territory is governed by the seasons. Hupacasath follow the migratory patterns of the deer and seasonal runs of the salmon.
Traditional Territory
The Hupacasath First Nation's traditional territory is large compared to other Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations. The territory is approximately 229,000 hectares, which engulfs the whole Alberni Valley. The boundaries for this territory are the mountain peaks from the Alberni Valley, which start from the north at Mt. Chief Frank, from the south at 5040 Peak and Hannah Mountain, from the east at Mt. Arrowsmith and Mt Spencer, and from the west from Big Interior Mountain. This territory contains some of the most valuable forest, fish and marine resources in the world. The winds formed by the warm offshore currents of the Pacific Ocean create a tepid maritime climate with a summer dry period. This creates vast forests of western red cedar, yellow cedar, douglas fir, hemlock and balsam. The lakes and rivers contain all five species of Pacific Salmon as well as Steelhead and Trout.
within the Hupacasath territory there are five reserves. Ahahswinis (Reserve #1) is located on the north side of the Somass River in Port Alberni. This is the main village of the Hupacasath tribe. In the past the people here conducted activities such as hunting, fishing, potlatching, berry and fruit picking. Currently this reserve is home to the majority of the Hupacasath people. Some of the people conduct the same activities as their ancestors in this place.
Kleekoot (Reserve #2) is situated on the Stamp and Sproat Rivers just west of Sproat Lake. In the past, this place was used for mainly fishing purposes such as spearing fish, trapping fish in weirs, and preparing fish. Other activities done on this reserve were hunting, potlatching and berry picking. Today this place is home to a few Hupacasath Band members who continue fishing and hunting in the area.
The third Hupacasath reserve in the territory is Cous (Reserve # 3). It is located on the west side of the Alberni Inlet adjacent to Lone Tree Point. There used to be a nice seasonal settlement at this place but it is now bare. This is a result of a death of a chief at this place. Chief Dan Watts died accidentally one day at Cous and after his death everyone left this place. This reserve was used for hunting and fishing purposes primarily. Today there is no one living there but people still go there to do activities such as picnicking, fishing and hunting.
Chu-ca-ca-cook (Reserve # 4) is the smallest Hupacasath reserve. It is located on the west side of the Alberni Inlet just north of Nahmint Bay. This place used to be a fishing site and stop over spot for the Hupacasath people. In recent years however, there has been very little activity or inhabitance there.
Lastly, there is Nettle Island (Reserve # 5). This reserve is outside the Hupacasath territory in the Broken Group Islands in Barkley Sound. This property was purchased from Arthur Maynard in the early 1900s. It was purchased because the Hupacasath people traveled down the inlet to Barkley Sound frequently to conduct business with other First Nations (i.e. trade and barter), to visit relatives, and to attend potlatches held in the area. Today Nettle Island is used for camping and seafood gathering. In addition, it is now part of the Pacific Rim National Park. Therefore, tourists from all over the world now travel to and around Nettle Island to partake in activities such as camping, fishing and kayaking.
Medicines were collected throughout these areas at the appropriate times of year. It is also important to note that there were caretakers for each area or resource, to ensure that nobody abused the land and resources. This care for the territory was practiced year round. Prior to amalgamation, each chief of the three groups had their own people to care for the resources within their ha-houlthe. After amalgamation both the use of and care for the territory was shared


Granville, British Columbia

Granville was the name from 1870 to 1886 for what would become the townsite of Vancouver, British Columbia.
The townsite included the original settlement of Gastown.
History.
The area was first known as Gastown, a settlement around the original makeshift tavern established by "Gassy" Jack Deighton in 1867 just west of the Hastings Mill property.
In 1870 the colonial government surveyed the settlement, laid out a townsite, and renamed it "Granville" in honour of the then-British Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Granville. The township comprised six city blocks from Burrard Inlet south to Hastings Street, and Cambie Street east to Carrall Street.
This site, with its natural harbour, was selected in 1884
as the terminus for the railroad, renamed Vancouver, and incorporated as a city in 1886.
The name "Granville" survives in the city of Vancouver as Granville Street, Granville Mall, Granville Entertainment District, Granville Square, Granville Street Bridge, Granville Station of the Expo Line, Granville Island, and Vancouver Granville electoral district.


Dana, Massachusetts

Dana was a town located in Worcester County, Massachusetts. Dana was lost as a result of the formation of the Quabbin Reservoir.
History.
Formed from parts of Petersham, Greenwich, and Hardwick, it was incorporated in 1801. The town was named for Massachusetts statesman Francis Dana. The town was disincorporated on April 28, 1938, as part of the creation of the Quabbin Reservoir. Upon disincorporation, all of the town was returned to the adjacent town of Petersham. The majority of the land of the former town is still above water.
As with the nearby town of Prescott, after the disincorporation, houses were moved or razed, but cellar holes remained. The public is only allowed to visit the former town of Dana by foot, as the old narrow road is blocked off to cars. In the town center (which is still somewhat maintained by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation), a stone marker has been installed, which reads: "SITE OF DANA COMMON 1801-1938 To all those who sacrificed their homes and way of life (Erected by Dana Reunion, 1996)". The common and a area encompassing the former town center has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


Bill Weld

William Floyd Weld (born July 31, 1945) is an American attorney, businessman, author, and politician who served as the 68th Governor of Massachusetts from 1991 to 1997.
A Harvard and Oxford graduate, Weld began his career as legal counsel to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary before becoming the United States Attorney for the District of Massachusetts and later, the United States Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division. He worked on a series of high-profile public corruption cases and later resigned in protest of an ethics scandal and associated investigations into Attorney General Edwin Meese.
Weld was elected Governor of Massachusetts in 1990. In the 1994 election, he was reelected by the largest margin of victory in Massachusetts history. In 1996, he was the Republican nominee for the United States Senate in Massachusetts, losing to Democratic incumbent John Kerry. Weld resigned as governor in 1997 to focus on his nomination by President Bill Clinton to serve as United States Ambassador to Mexico; due to opposition by socially conservative Senate Foreign Relations committee Chairman Jesse Helms, he was denied a hearing before the Foreign Relations committee and withdrew his nomination. After moving to New York in 2000, Weld sought the Republican nomination for Governor of New York in the 2006 election; when the Republican Party instead endorsed John Faso, Weld withdrew from the race.
Weld became involved in presidential politics in later years. In 2016, he left the Republican Party to become the Libertarian Party running mate of former Governor of New Mexico Gary Johnson. They received nearly 4.5 million votes, the highest number for a Libertarian ticket, and the best for any third-party ticket since 1996 with Ross Perot's Reform Party.
Returning to the Republican Party, Weld announced in April 2019 that he would challenge President Donald Trump in the 2020 Republican primaries, launching his campaign. He won his first and only delegate of the primaries in the Iowa caucus in February, making him the first Republican since Pat Buchanan in 1992 to win a delegate while running against an incumbent president. Weld suspended his campaign on March 18, 2020, shortly after Trump's delegate count made him the presumptive Republican nominee.
Early life and family.
Weld was born in Smithtown, New York. Weld's father, David (1911–1972), was an investment banker; his mother, Mary Nichols Weld (1913–1986), was a descendant of William Floyd, a signatory of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. His ancestor Edmund Weld was among the earliest students (Class of 1650) at Harvard College; eighteen other Welds have attended Harvard, and two Harvard buildings are named for the family. A distant cousin, General Stephen Minot Weld Jr., fought with distinction in the Civil War.
Weld attended Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, graduated with an AB "summa cum laude" in classics from Harvard College in 1966. He studied economics at University College, Oxford. On return to the US he graduated with a JD "cum laude" from Harvard Law School in 1970.
His siblings are Francis "Tim" Weld, David Weld, and Anne (married name Collins). His maternal grandfather was the ichthyologist and ornithologist John Treadwell Nichols, and his first cousin is the novelist John Nichols.
Early career.
Nixon impeachment inquiry.
Weld began his legal career as a junior counsel on the U.S. House Judiciary Committee's impeachment inquiry staff during the 1974 impeachment process against Richard Nixon. He contributed to the groundbreaking "Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment" report, which detailed the historical basis and standards for impeachment of a president. He also worked on researching whether impoundment of appropriated funds was an impeachable offense. Among his colleagues was Hillary Clinton.
U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts.
Weld's experience serving on the impeachment inquiry staff sparked his interest in criminal law. He returned afterward to Massachusetts, where he ran unsuccessfully for Massachusetts Attorney General in 1978. He lost to Democratic incumbent Francis X. Bellotti by 1,532,835 votes (78.4%) to 421,417 (21.6%).
In 1981, Weld was recommended to President Reagan by Rudolph W. Giuliani, then Associate U.S. Attorney General, for appointment as the U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts. During Weld's tenure, the Attorney General's office prosecuted some of New England's largest banks in cases involving money laundering and other white-collar crimes. Weld expanded an ongoing public corruption investigation of the administration of Boston Mayor Kevin White. More than 20 city employees were indicted, pleaded guilty, or were convicted of a range of charges, including several key political supporters of the Mayor. In 1985, "The Boston Globe" said Weld "has been by far the most visible figure in the prosecution of financial institutions."
Weld gained national recognition in fighting public corruption: he won 109 convictions out of 111 cases.
In 1983, "The Boston Globe" stated: "The U.S. Attorney's office has not lost a single political corruption case since Weld took over, an achievement believed to be unparalleled in the various federal jurisdictions."
Promotion to Justice Department.
In 1986, President Reagan promoted Weld to head of the Criminal Division of the Justice Department in Washington, where Weld oversaw 700 employees. Weld was responsible for supervising all federal prosecutions, including those investigated by the FBI and the Drug Enforcement Administration, as well as the work of the 93 U.S. Attorneys (who by then included Rudy Giuliani in Manhattan). During this time, Weld worked on some of the Reagan administration's most significant prosecutions and investigations, including the capture of Panama's Manuel Noriega on drug trafficking charges.
In March 1988, Weld resigned from the Justice Department, together with United States Deputy Attorney General Arnold Burns and four aides, in protest of improper conduct by United States Attorney General Edwin Meese. In July 1988, Weld and Burns jointly testified before Congress in favor of a potential prosecution of Edwin Meese for his personal financial conduct, following a report by a special prosecutor investigating Edwin Meese. Meese resigned from office in July 1988 shortly after Weld's and Burns's testimony.
From 1988 to 1990, Weld was a senior partner at Hale and Dorr.
Governor of Massachusetts (1991–97).
In 1990, Weld announced his candidacy for Governor of Massachusetts to replace the out-going Michael Dukakis. Although Republicans made up under 14% of the Massachusetts electorate and a Republican had not won the gubernatorial election since 1970, Weld's liberal stances on social issues made him a viable candidate for office in the heavily Democratic state. At the state Republican convention, party officials backed Steven Pierce over Weld, and initial polling had Pierce ahead by 25 percentage points. However, Weld gained enough support to force a primary, and in an upset election, he won the Republican nomination over Pierce by a 60–40 margin.
In the general election, he faced John Silber, the president of Boston University. Polls showed Weld anywhere from a statistical tie to trailing by as many as ten points. Voter dissatisfaction with the state's Democratic majority gave Weld support for his promises to reduce the state deficit, lower the unemployment rate, and cut taxes, while Silber's statements to the right of Weld on social issues caused many Democratic voters to vote for Weld. On November 6, 1990, he was elected as the 68th Governor of Massachusetts by a 50–47% margin, to become the first Republican governor of Massachusetts since Francis W. Sargent left office in 1975. Governor Weld is generally considered to have been a moderate or liberal Republican Governor. He is fiscally conservative and socially liberal.
The business community reacted strongly to Weld's leadership. In a 1994 survey of chief executives conducted by the Massachusetts High Technology Council, 83% of those polled rated the state's business climate as good or excellentup from 33% at the beginning of his term. Proponents might claim that Weld's leadership changed the minds of 50% of the CEOs surveyed while others would note the national economic trends or other factors might play a part. Weld also reaped the benefits of the 1990s' prosperity, as the state's unemployment rate fell by more than 3 percentage points during his first term, from 9.6% in 1991 to 6.4% in 1994. As a result, Weld received grades of A in 1992, B in 1994, and B in 1996 from the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, in their biennial Fiscal Policy Report Card on America's Governors. In 1993 he supported adoption of a gun control bill in Massachusetts that included limits on gun purchases under age 21, as well as prohibiting certain types of weapons, which was not ultimately passed. He has since renounced this proposal. Weld is pro-choice and helped to introduce legislation to make it easier for women to access abortion procedures. As Governor, he supported gay and lesbian rights. In 1992, he signed an executive order to recognize domestic partnership rights for same-sex couples. In 1993, he signed into law legislation protecting the rights of gay and lesbian students. He also said he would recognize same-sex marriages that might be performed out of state following a court decision in Hawaii. During his term, he launched a successful effort to privatize many state's human services, laying off thousands of state employees. He also worked to expand Medicaid access by requesting more federal funding and, then, allowing more residents to qualify for the plan to both solve budget problems and increase access to health care in the state. After cutting state spending year-over-year for his first two years, the Republican Party lost its ability to sustain a veto in the legislature due to losses in the Massachusetts State Senate, forcing Weld to make greater concessions to Democratic legislators.
In 1994, Weld won reelection with 71% of the vote in the most one-sided gubernatorial contest in Massachusetts electoral history. Weld carried all but five towns in the whole state, even carrying Boston. Following his landslide victory, Weld briefly considered running for the presidency in 1996.
1996 Senate election.
On November 30, 1995, Weld announced that he would challenge incumbent Democratic Senator John Kerry in the 1996 election. Weld, who was among the first reasonably well-funded Republican Senate candidates in Massachusetts since Edward Brooke was unseated in 1978, said of the race, "I've spent some time recently considering where I can do the most good for the people of Massachusetts, and right now the fights that matter most to the people of this state are in another arena, Congress."
The race was covered nationwide as one of the most closely watched Senate races that year. Noted for how civil their respective campaigns were of one another, Kerry and Weld negotiated a campaign spending cap and agreed to eight separate debates leading up to the election. Though facing a traditional uphill battle in a state where Democrats outnumbered Republicans 3-to-1, and running the same year as the presidential election, Weld was a popular incumbent governor and polled even with Kerry throughout the election.
In the end, Senator Kerry won re-election with 53 percent to Weld's 45 percent – the last seriously contested Senate race in Massachusetts until the special election for Ted Kennedy's seat in 2010. Notably, President Bill Clinton won Massachusetts in 1996 with 62% of the vote.
Ambassadorship nomination and resignation.
In July 1997, Weld was nominated to become United States Ambassador to Mexico by President Bill Clinton. His nomination stalled after Senate Foreign Relations committee Chairman Jesse Helms refused to hold a hearing on the nomination, effectively blocking it. Helms was also a Republican and their party held the majority in the chamber, but Helms objected to Weld's moderate stance on social issues such as his support for gay rights, abortion rights, and the legalization of medical marijuana. This refusal to hold hearings was also rumored to be at the request of former Attorney General and friend of Helms, Edwin Meese. Meese reportedly had a long-standing grudge against Weld stemming from Weld's investigation of Meese during the Iran–Contra affair. Meese denied the speculation, asserting that he wished to keep his distance from Weld. Weld publicly criticized Helms, which the White House discouraged him from doing, but Weld relished the opportunity, saying: "It feels like being in a campaign. I feel newly energized. I love to stir up the pot. I seem to click on more cylinders when the pot is stirred up." Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott said that Weld's chances of being confirmed weren't "very good, and that he hurt himself by attacking the chairman unfairly and with political rhetoric that was just uncalled for." There was speculation that the White House would let his nomination "die", but he refused, saying that he hoped President Clinton "does not plan to give in to ideological extortion" and that "I wanted to send a message that I wanted to be captain of my ship [the nomination] even if it's going to bottom." Some speculated that attacking the more conservative Helms was a way to position him to pick up votes from fellow moderate Republicans in a potential run for president in 2000, but he rejected this, saying that "I've had a lot of people come up to me on the street and say, 'Give 'em hell. That's the Bill Weld we know and love.'"
Weld resigned the governorship on July 29, 1997, to devote his full attention to campaigning for the ambassadorship, even though few thought he would be successful; there was speculation that he was really resigning because he had become tired of serving as governor. A bipartisan majority of Senators signed letters demanding that Helms advance his nomination, but Helms refused. After an intensive six-week battle, Weld conceded defeat and withdrew his nomination on September 15, 1997. He commented, "I asked President Clinton to withdraw my name from the Senate so I can go back to New England, where no one has to approach the government on bended knee to ask it to do its duty."
Later career.
Law firm, private equity partner, and 2004 election.
Weld was a partner in the Boston and Manhattan offices of the international law firm McDermott Will & Emery from 1997 to 2001, and head of the New York office from 2000 to 2001. In December 2000, the private equity firm Leeds Equity Partners announced that Weld would join the firm, to be renamed Leeds Weld & Co., as a general partner, effective on January 1, 2001. At the private equity firm, Weld later "reduced his role to a senior advisor while considering a run for New York governor" in 2005. Weld rejoined McDermott Will & Emery in 2006. Weld was admitted to the bar in New York in 2008. In 2012, Weld moved to the Boston law firm of Mintz, Levin, Cohn, Ferris, Glovsky, and Popeo, becoming a partner there and a principal with the firm's government relations affiliate, ML Strategies LLC.
During the re-election campaign of President George W. Bush, who was running against Weld's old foe John Kerry, Weld helped Bush to prepare for the debates.
Kentucky college management.
From January to October 2005, Weld was chief executive of Decker College in Louisville, Kentucky. His term ended as the college was closing under bankruptcy protection following a disagreement with the U.S. Department of Education about accreditation of its construction-related courses and online instruction. This matter would follow Weld into the 2006 race for Governor of New York, with former U.S. Senator from New York Alfonse D'Amato asserting that Weld was responsible and oversaw "multimillion dollar looting".
On March 27, 2016, "The Wall Street Journal" reported as part of an opinion article that "Bankruptcy trustee Robert Keats alleged [Ralph] LoBosco", a Department of Education employee, "was trying to exact revenge against Decker CEO William Weld". The article continued: "Education Department administrative law judge Robert Layton recently affirmed a 2012 bankruptcy court finding that the Council on Occupational Education had failed to tell the truth in stating that Decker's online programs were never accredited. The Council's 'factually erroneous' assertion caused the Education Department to withdraw federal student aid in 2005, which precipitated Decker's bankruptcy."
Candidacy for Governor of New York, 2005–06.
After being Governor of Massachusetts, Weld moved to New York in 2000. On April 24, 2005, it was reported that he was in talks with the New York Republicans to run for Governor of New York in 2006, against likely Democratic nominee Eliot Spitzer. Incumbent GOP Governor George Pataki announced on July 27 that he would not seek a fourth term. On August 19, 2005, Weld officially announced his candidacy for Governor of New York, seeking to become the second person after Sam Houston to serve as governor of two different U.S. states.
In December 2005, Weld received the backing of the Republican county chairs of New York State during a county chairs meeting. On April 29, 2006, Weld received the Libertarian Party's nomination for Governor Of New York. Weld reportedly offered his chief rival for the nomination, former Republican Assembly leader John Faso, the chance to join his ticket as a candidate for lieutenant governor, an offer Faso reportedly declined. Faso gained increasing support from party leaders in various counties, including Westchester and Suffolk, both of which had large delegate counts to the state convention.
On June 1, 2006, the Republican State Convention voted 61% to 39% to endorse Faso over Weld. On June 5, Stephen J. Minarik (the chairman of the state Republican Party, and Weld's most prominent backer), called on Weld to withdraw from the race in the interest of party unity. Weld formally announced his withdrawal from the race the following day and returned to private life. Spitzer would go on to defeat Faso by the largest margin in New York gubernatorial history.
Later political involvement.
Weld publicly endorsed former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney for the presidency on January 8, 2007; he was a co-chairman for Romney's campaign in New York State. On the same day that Weld endorsed Romney, Gov. and Mrs. Weld also raised $50,000 for Romney's exploratory committee. Weld personally made a donation of $2,100, the maximum allowed per person per election at the time. After the maximum allowed rose to $2,300, Weld donated another $200.
Weld was also active in campaigning for Romney in New Hampshire, where both governors have been known to travel together. Weld went on to endorse Barack Obama over John McCain in the general election. Weld endorsed Romney in the 2012 presidential election.
In February 2016, Weld endorsed Ohio Governor John Kasich for the Republican presidential nomination.
2016 Libertarian vice presidential nomination.
On May 17, 2016, former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson, the Libertarian Party's 2012 presidential nominee and the leading candidate for its 2016 nomination, announced his selection of Weld to be his choice for running mate. The vice-presidential candidate is formally nominated separately from and after the presidential candidate under the Libertarian Party's rules, although as the presidential nominee Johnson was first allowed to speak about his endorsement of Weld. Both candidates won their nominations on a second ballot after narrowly failing to attain an absolute majority on the first ballot. Weld accepted the Libertarian Party's nomination for vice president at the Libertarian National Convention in Orlando, Florida on May 29.
During the campaign, Weld took the lead on fundraising operations, as well as appearing on national television and at campaign rallies across the nation. Together, Johnson and Weld were the first presidential ticket to consist of two Governors since the 1948 election when Thomas Dewey of New York ran as a Republican with Earl Warren of California and Strom Thurmond of South Carolina ran as a States' Rights Democrat with Fielding L. Wright of Mississippi. Despite polling higher than any third-party campaign since Ross Perot in 1992, Johnson and Weld were excluded from the debates controlled by the Commission on Presidential Debates and their poll numbers subsequently declined.
Nationwide, the Johnson/Weld ticket received 4,488,919 votes (3.3%), breaking the Libertarian Party's record for both absolute vote total (previously 1,275,923 for Johnson in 2012) and percentage (previously 1.1% for Ed Clark and David Koch in 1980).
2020 presidential campaign.
On January 17, 2019, Weld rejoined the Republican Party, increasing speculation that he would run for president. On February 14, 2019, Weld announced that he was launching a presidential exploratory committee for the 2020 Republican primary, against incumbent Republican President Donald Trump. Appearing on Bloomberg News, Weld suggested that he could beat Trump in 2020 with help from independent voters. He accused Trump on CNN the same weekend of having "showed contempt for the American people." Weld challenged Trump on the issue of climate disruption, saying that he had made no effort to combat the effects of global warming. "We've got the polar ice cap that's going to melt with devastating consequences if we don’t get carbon out of the atmosphere," Weld told America's Newsroom, noting that he would plan ahead for an "environmental catastrophe."
On April 15, 2019, Weld formally announced his candidacy for President of the United States on "The Lead with Jake Tapper". Weld received 1.3% of the vote in the Iowa caucuses and one pledged delegate on February 3.
Weld suspended his campaign on March 18, 2020.
After ending his campaign, Weld announced that he voted for Joe Biden and Kamala Harris.
Other activities.
Weld is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. He co-chaired its Independent Task Force on North America, which studied the liberalization of markets and free trade between the US, Canada, and Mexico. He was a principal at Leeds, Weld & Co., which describes itself as the United States's largest private equity fund focused on investing in the education and training industry. Weld serves on the board of directors of Acreage Holdings. For a time, he wrote thrillers and works of historical fiction.
In February 2013, Weld publicly supported legal recognition for same-sex marriage in an amicus brief submitted to the U.S. Supreme Court.
Weld joined Our America Initiative's 2016 Liberty Tour a number of times, speaking alongside other libertarian leaders and activists such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition executive director and former Baltimore Police Chief Neill Franklin, Free the People's Matt Kibbe, Republican activists Ed Lopez and Liz Mair, Conscious Capitalism's Alex McCobin, Reason Foundation's David Nott, Foundation for Economic Education's Jeffrey Tucker, the Libertarian Party's Carla Howell, and author and journalist Naomi Wolf; the tour raised "awareness about third party inclusion in national presidential debates" and "spread the message of liberty and libertarian thought."
Throughout 2017 and 2018, Weld appeared at several state Libertarian Party conventions and endorsed various Libertarian candidates in the 2018 United States elections. In January 2019, Weld changed his party affiliation back to Republican, in preparation for his presidential run as a Republican.
Personal life.
Weld married Susan Roosevelt Weld, a great-granddaughter of Theodore Roosevelt, on June 7, 1975. Susan Roosevelt Weld was a professor at Harvard University specializing in ancient Chinese civilization and law, and she later served as General Counsel to the Congressional-Executive Commission on China. The Welds had five children: David Minot (born 1976), a professor of physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara; Ethel Derby (born 1977), a physician; Mary Blake (born 1979), an attorney; Quentin Roosevelt (born 1981), an attorney; and Frances Wylie (born 1983), who has worked for the San Francisco Giants. The couple divorced in 2002.
Weld's second and present wife is writer Leslie Marshall. They live in Canton, Massachusetts.
Weld is an Episcopalian.
Writings.
Weld has written three mass market novels:


Coos History Museum

The Coos History Museum is a history museum located in Coos Bay, Oregon, United States. Opened in 1947 as the Coos-Curry Pioneer and Historical Association Museum, the museum is operated by the Coos County Historical Society.
History.
On November 5, 1891, the Coos County Pioneer Association was established, which in time became the Coos County Historical Society. The organization was focused on the pioneers of Coos County on the Southern Oregon coast. Later in 1941 the name changed to the Coos-Curry Pioneer Association to reflect the inclusion of members from neighboring Curry County. The organization opened its first museum in Coquille in July 1947. In January 1958 the museum moved to Simpson Park in North Bend.
The historical society received a land donation in 2004 of a waterfront plot in Coos Bay. After fundraising, construction of a new museum building began in 2011, with construction completed in February 2015. The new museum building was opened on the city's waterfront in 2015. The grand opening of the new museum was in September 2015, with Oregon Governor Kate Brown in attendance.


Rose City Freeway

The Rose City Freeway, also known as the Fremont Freeway, was a proposed freeway alignment through the Northeast sector of Portland, Oregon. The freeway's path would have begun at the I-5/I-405 interchange near the Fremont Bridge's east approach. From the elevated stack interchange, it would transition to grade, moving roughly northeast to Prescott Street. To establish a northern cross-town freeway belt, a second section of freeway was to follow NE Prescott Street east to I-205. Although functionally the same freeway, this section was going to be named the Prescott Freeway.
A successful freeway revolt surrounding the controversial St. Helens Freeway (I-505) and Mount Hood Freeway in the late 1970s impacted all Portland area freeway plans.
Remnants.
The present north I-405/I-5 interchange is actually an incomplete full stack interchange. A short section of freeway was built past the interchange which transitioned to grade. Ramp stubs exist which would have connected both northbound and southbound I-5 to the eastbound Rose City Freeway. Also the NB I-5 to SB I-405 ramp was built with enough clearance to allow installation of the extra ramps needed to make a full connection to the planned freeway. All of this was built along with the Fremont Bridge, which opened in 1973.
The unfinished freeway structure now serves as the Kerby Avenue exit on the Fremont Bridge's lower deck. Although removing the structure was once considered, nearby Legacy Emanuel Hospital lobbied to connect it to the surface street grid in order to have emergency access from the Fremont Bridge.


Zara Cisco Brough

Zara Cisco Brough (January 3, 1919 – January 7, 1988), often spelled as Zara Ciscoe Brough, commonly referred to as Princess White Flower, served as the Chief of the Nipmuc Native Indian Tribe for 25 years from 1962 until 1987. She is best known for her work to preserve Nipmuc heritage, especially her letter of intention to petition for federal recognition of the Nipmuc as a legally distinct Native American people, which resulted in the Nipmuc being placed on "active consideration" for the status of Federally recognized tribe by 11 July 1995.
During her lifetime she worked as an electronics engineer, fashion designer, drafter, technical writer, and supervisor of government projects. She held the post of "State commissioner for Indian Affairs" from 1974 to 1984. On January 7, 1988, Brough died at a Westborough, Massachusetts nursing home from Parkinson's disease at the age of 68.
In January 2009 a Department of Youth Services facility located at 288 Lyman Street in the town of Westborough was formally named as the Zara Cisco Brough "Princess White Flower" Facility through the House Bill 3231. It had previously been named thus in 2007 but the official act was passed in 2009.
Ancestry and childhood.
Zara Cisco Brough was born in 1919 in New York City, New York. She was the daughter of Sarah Cisco Sullivan and Charles Brough, and the granddaughter of James Lemuel Cisco. Her ancestry is traced back to William of Sudbury (1596–1676) who was also known by the names Naaos, Naoas and Nataous. He served as a deacon in the native church at Hassanamesit which later came to be known as Grafton. According to the account by Richard W. Cogley in the "New England Historical and Genealogical Register", William of Sudbury fathered four sons, one of whom was James the Printer (died 1712) who worked as a typesetter in Cambridge, Massachusetts and credited for his assistance in the Algonquin language "Eliot Indian Bible", the first translation of the Bible into a native language. Sarah Cisco is descended from James the Painter.
Brough's grandfather Chief James Lemeul Ciscoe, was officially entitled Chief of the Hassanamisco Nipmuc, and her great-grandfather Samuel C. Cisco was a Chief of the Narragansett people. Her mother was also a Chief the Nipmuc nation.
Brough spent her childhood at the Hassanamisco Indian reservation in Grafton, Massachusetts. According to her own account her interest in native Indian cultural heritage and history was sparked by her grandfather, who used to tell her about tribal traditions and rituals during her childhood. Brough received her primary education from the Grafton school system.
Early career.
Brough attended engineering college in Washington D.C and went on to take special courses at the New York University, New York. She took up residence after completing her course and, working as a draftsperson, fashion designer, technical writer and supervisor of government projects. She also co-owned a textile printing company during her stay in Washington D.C.
Brough served as a civilian consultant to the Army Air Corps during World War II. In recognition of her work the United States Air force awarded her the United States Air Force Award of Superior Performance.
Return home.
In 1959 she left New York to return home to take care of her ageing mother. After her arrival, Brough accepted the job of vice president of the former Ibis Corporation located in Waltham, Massachusetts, which specialized in electronic and environmental consultation.
Position as chief and political advocacy.
Having returned to her ancestral home she sought involvement in activist and political organizations. In the coming years she worked in defence of the Nipmuc nation from cultural and historical dissolution. Brough was named tribal Chief of the Nipmuc people in 1959. In 1962 she founded the Hassanamisco Museum which was nicknamed "Memorial to the Eastern American Indian" to document and preserve Nipmuc heritage. The mission of the museum has now extended to include historical preservation of hundreds of other Native Indian tribes. The Hassanamisco Museum contains displays of artefacts, manuscripts, crafts, tribal specific legends and news clippings pertaining to the Indian tribes. She was also responsible for the acquisition of dredging rights to Lake Ripple on behalf the Nipmuc Nation.
Brough also played a leading role in establishing the Massachusetts Commission on Indian Affairs, which was created in 1974 and officially recognized by the state of Massachusetts in 1976. Being a founding member of the commission, she was nominated for the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, a post which she held for 18 years from 1976 till 1984. During her tenure as the commissioner, she successfully lobbied to amend the charter of the Hassanamisco Foundation. According to the new amendments, federally recognized Nipmuc reservation lands will never leave Nipmuc hands even if the Cisco bloodline comes to an end. The Cisco Homestead was also later recognized as an endangered historic resource and came under federal protection in 2009. Brough was actively involved in the Council of New England Indians. She organized the Council and established the Nipmuc branch of the council.
Brough served on the Grafton Planning Board and Central Massachusetts Planning Board, and was involved in a number of other organizations such as the Grafton Forest Association, the Framingham Historical Society, the National Geographic Society, the Natural History Museum of New York, Mendon Historical Society, National Congress of American Indians, Technical Writers and Publishers Society, Worcester Art Museum, the Board of Trustees of the Riverside, Old and Indian Cemeteries, Grafton Taxpayers Association and the Grafton Player's Club. In addition to her involvement with numerous committees she chaired the board of directors of the Hassanamisco Reservation Foundation Trust, which works to promote and ensure preservation of Nipmuc tribal lands and heritage.
Career as an author.
In addition to her career as a consultant and position of leadership as Chief of the Nipmuc Nation, Brough was a published writer. In her capacity as an electronics engineer, worked in collaboration with Vance Parker and Brent Haslam and published research detailing theoretical applications of "Pattern Ratio Technique" to arrays. The findings were published in a 1969 scholastic issue of Defense Technical Information Center.
Her non-scientific published works include Native American poetry, retellings of the history of the Nipmuc nation and books of Nipmuc recipes. For her committed involvement with the community she was awarded the Camp-fire Girls Certificate of Appreciation of Outstanding Service in 1970.
Legacy.
She is well known for her work to preserve Nipmuc heritage. Her most renowned effort was a petition for Nipmucs to be granted the status of one of the Federally recognized tribes of the Native American peoples. This resulted in the Nipmuc being placed on "active consideration" for federal recognition by 11 July 1995. Although the tribe gained state recognition, they were denied federal recognition.
In recognition of her efforts for the betterment of the community a Massachusetts Department of Youth Services Facility located at 288 Lyman Street, Westborough was formally named as the Zara Cisco Brough "Princess White Flower" Facility through the House Bill 3231 in 2009. It had previously been named thus in 2007 but the official act was passed in 2009.


Atalante (far-right group)

Atalante is a far-right, white nationalist group based in Quebec City, Canada. Their leader is Raphaël Lévesque. It was founded by Raphaël Lévesque (nickname Raf Stomper), lead singer for Quebecois skinhead band Légitime violence and leader of the earlier white power skinhead group Les Stompers ().
Their name comes from a French frigate that was sunk by the British in the Battle of Neuville in 1760, as part of the Seven Years' War.
Views.
Atalante's ideology has been described as neo-fascist, incorporating elements of revolutionary nationalism, anti-capitalism, Islamophobia, and anti-communism. The group is primarily inspired by Italian neofascist philosopher Julius Evola and the thinkers of the German Conservative Revolution.
Atalante Quebec has staged anti-immigration rallies, and pasted stickers. The group hands out food in Quebec City's underprivileged neighbourhoods but, according to a 2017 communiqué, only to people of "Neo-French origin."
The group's slogan is "Exister, c'est combattre ce qui me nie" (), a phrase taken from French far-right author Dominique Venner.
History.
On July 1, 2017 (the date of the 150th anniversary of Canada), Atalante held a demonstration in front of the Radio-Canada building in Quebec City.
In August 2017, the group put up anti-immigration banners around Quebec City, including one with the hashtag #remigration, referring to their desired return of recent immigrants and their descendants to their countries of origin. During the night of August 21, Atalante put up several banners around Montreal, including on the Olympic Stadium, protesting against a recent wave of asylum seekers from the United States.
In September 2017, Atalante put up posters denouncing so-called "Cultural Marxism" at Université Laval and Cégep Garneau.
In November 2017, Members of Atalante joined a protest with La Meute and Storm Alliance. Atalante unfurled a banner reading "Le Québec aux Québécois" ().
On May 23, 2018, members of Atalante entered the offices of the "Vice" news media in Montreal, masked. They shouted, threw documents on the ground, and intimidated journalist Simon Coutu, who had written about them. On June 18, 2018, Raphaël Lévesque was arrested in connection with this event. He was released that same day upon signing a promise to appear. He was meant to present himself to the Palais de justice in Montreal to be formally tried with breaking and entering, mischief, and intimidation of Simon Coutu. However, he did not appear at the Palais de justice for his hearing and his case was deferred until September 28, 2018. On June 10, 2020, Lévesque was cleared of all charges.
On December 19, 2018, an anonymous anti-fascist collective published a list of all the members of Atalante, outlining the links between the Quebecois group, the Italian neo-fascist group CasaPound, and the French neo-fascist group Social Bastion.


Battle of Ollantaytambo

The Battle of Ollantaytambo (, ) took place in January 1537, between the forces of Inca emperor Manco Inca and a Spanish expedition led by Hernando Pizarro during the Spanish conquest of Peru. A former ally of the Spaniards, Manco Inca rebelled in May 1536, and besieged a Spanish garrison in the city of Cusco. To end the stand-off, the besieged mounted a raid against the emperor's headquarters in the town of Ollantaytambo. The expedition, commanded by Hernando Pizarro, included 100 Spaniards and some 30,000 Indian auxiliaries against an Inca army more than 30,000 strong.
There is some controversy over the actual location of the battle; according to some, it took place in the town itself, while Jean-Pierre Protzen and John Hemming argue that the nearby plain of Mascabamba better matches the descriptions of the encounter. In any case, the Inca army managed to hold the Spanish forces from a set of high terraces and flood their position to hinder their cavalry. Severely pressed and unable to advance, the Spaniards withdrew by night to Cusco. Despite this victory, the arrival of Spanish reinforcements to Cusco forced Manco Inca to abandon Ollantaytambo and seek refuge in the heavily forested region of Vilcabamba, where he established the small independent Neo-Inca State which survived until 1572.
Prelude.
In 1531, a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro landed on the shores of the Inca Empire, thus starting the Spanish conquest of Peru. At that time the empire was emerging from a civil war in which Atahualpa had defeated his brother Huascar to claim the title of Sapa Inca. Atahualpa underestimated the strength of the small force of Spaniards and was captured during an ambush at Cajamarca in November 1532. Pizarro ordered the execution of the emperor in July 1533, and occupied the Inca capital of Cusco four months later. To replace Atahualpa, Pizarro installed his brother Túpac Huallpa as a puppet ruler, but he died shortly afterwards. Another brother, Manco Inca, was crowned in his place. During this stage, Atahualpa's generals were the only opposition to the Spanish advance as a sizable part of the empire's population had fought on Huascar's side during the civil war and joined Pizarro against their enemies.
For a while, Manco Inca and the conquistadors maintained cordial relations, together they defeated Atahualpa's generals and reestablished Inca rule over most of the empire. However, Manco came to realize that real authority rested in Spanish hands when his house was looted with impunity by a Spaniard mob in 1535. Following this episode, the Inca emperor was subject to constant harassment as the Spaniards demanded gold, took away his wives, and even imprisoned him. In response, he fled his capital to start an uprising. In May 1536, an Inca army besieged Cusco, which was garrisoned by a group of Spaniards and native allies. The conquistadors were hard pressed but they managed to resist and counterattack, storming the main Inca stronghold at Sacsayhuaman. Meanwhile, Manco's generals occupied the central highlands of Peru and annihilated several expeditions sent to reinforce Cusco but failed in their attempt to take the recently founded Spanish capital of Lima. As a result of these events, neither side was able to break the deadlock at Cusco for several months, so the Spaniard garrison decided to make a direct attack on Manco's headquarters at the town of Ollantaytambo, northwest of the city.
Sources.
Primary sources about the battle of Ollantaytambo were written mainly by Spaniards. Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of Francisco Pizarro, was part of the expedition against Manco Inca's headquarters. Years later he wrote down his recollections of these and other events in a chronicle called "Relación del descubrimiento y conquista de los reinos del Perú", completed in 1571. The anonymous "Relación del sitio del Cuzco y principio de las guerras civiles del Perú hasta la muerte de Diego de Almagro" starts in January 1536 when Hernando Pizarro arrived in Cusco, and ends with the execution of Diego de Almagro in July 1538. This chronicle, which includes an account of Manco Inca's rebellion and the attack on Ollantaytambo, was written in 1539 probably by Diego de Silva, a Spanish soldier who was actually in Lima during the uprising. An account of the battle was also included in the "Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano" written by Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas between 1610 and 1615. Herrera was the "Cronista Mayor de las Indias" (Chronicler-in-Chief of the Indies) of the Spanish Crown and despite writing in Madrid, had access to many documents and sources. On the Inca side, the only written account of the battle is included in the "Relación de la conquista del Perú y hechos del Inca Manco II" written in 1570 by Titu Cusi Yupanqui, son of Manco Inca.
Order of battle.
Manco Inca had gathered more than 30,000 troops at Ollantaytambo, among them, a large number of recruits from tribes of the Amazon Rainforest. Manco Inca's forces were a militia army made up mostly of conscripted farmers with only rudimentary weapons training. This was the regular fare in the Inca Empire, where military service was a duty for all married men between 25 and 50 years old. In combat, these soldiers were organized according to their ethnic group and led into battle by their native leaders, called "kurakas". They used melee weapons such as maces, clubs, and spears, as well as ranged weapons such as arrows, javelins, and slings; protective gear included helmets, shields, and quilted cloth armor. Against the conquistadors, wooden clubs and maces with stone or bronze heads were rarely able to penetrate Spanish armor; slings and other missile throwing weapons were somewhat more effective due to their accuracy and the large size of their projectiles. Even so, Inca soldiers were no match for the Spanish cavalry in open terrain so they resorted to fighting on rough terrain and digging pits in open fields to hinder the mobility of horses.
The attack was led by Hernando Pizarro, the senior Spanish commander in Cusco, with a force of 100 Spaniards (30 infantry, 70 cavalry) and an estimated 30,000 native allies. One of his main assets against the Inca armies was the Spanish cavalry because horses provided a considerable advantage in hitting power, maneuverability, speed, and stamina over Inca warriors. All Spaniards wore some kind of armor, the most commonly used types were chain mail shirts and padded cloth armor which were lighter and cheaper than full armor suits; they were complemented by steel helmets and small iron or wooden shields. The main Spanish offensive weapon was the steel sword, which horsemen supplemented with the lance; both weapons could easily penetrate the padded armor worn by Inca troops. Firearms, such as arquebuses were rarely used during the Spanish conquest of Peru because they were scarce, hard to use, and despised by horsemen as an ungentlemanly weapon. Spaniards relied heavily on Indian auxiliaries because they provided thousands of warriors as well as support personnel and supplies. These native troops had the same sorts of arms and armor as their Inca counterparts. During the Ollantaytambo campaign, the Pizarro expedition included thousands of auxiliaries, mainly Cañaris, Chachapoyas, and Wankas, as well as several members of the Inca nobility opposed to Manco Inca.
Battle.
The main access route to Ollantaytambo runs along a narrow valley formed in the mountains by the Urubamba River, which connects the site with Machu Picchu to the west and with Pisaq and Cusco to the east. After his uprising, Manco Inca fortified the eastern approaches to fend off attacks from the former Inca capital, now under Spanish occupation. The first line of defense was a steep bank of terraces at Pachar, near the confluence of the Anta and Urubamba rivers. Behind it, the Incas channeled the Urubamba to make it cross the valley from right to left and back thus forming two more lines backed by the fortifications of Choqana on the left bank and 'Inkapintay on the right bank. Past them, at the plain of Mascabamba, eleven high terraces closed the valley between the mountains and a deep canyon formed by the Urubamba. The only way to continue was through the gate of T'iyupunku, a thick defensive wall with two narrow doorways. In the event of these fortifications being overrun, the Temple Hill, a religious center surrounded by high terraces overlooking Ollantaytambo, provided a last line of defense.
Faced with these constraints, the Spanish expedition had to cross the river several times and fight at each ford against stiff opposition. The bulk of the Inca army confronted the Spaniards from a set of terraces overlooking a plain by the Urubamba River. Several Spanish assaults against the terraces failed against a shower of arrows, slingshots, and boulders coming down from the terraces as well as from both flanks. To hinder the efforts of the Spanish cavalry, the Incas flooded the plain using previously prepared channels; water eventually reached the horses' girths. The defenders then counterattacked; some of them used Spanish weapons captured in previous encounters such as swords, bucklers, armor, and even a horse, ridden by Manco Inca himself. In a severely compromised situation, Hernando Pizarro ordered a retreat; under the cover of darkness the Spanish force fled through the Urubamba valley with the Incas in pursuit and reached Cusco the next day.
Battle site.
The actual location of the battle is the subject of some controversy. According to Canadian explorer John Hemming, Spanish forces occupied a plain between Ollantaytambo and the Urubamba River while the main Inca army was located on a citadel (the Temple Hill) overlooking the town, protected by seventeen terraces. However, Swiss architect Jean-Pierre Protzen argues that the topography of the town and its surrounding area does not match contemporary descriptions of the battle. An anonymous account attributed to Diego de Silva claims that the Inca army occupied a set of eleven terraces, not seventeen; while the chronicle of Pedro Pizarro describes a gate flanked by walls as the only way through the terraces. Protzen thinks that these descriptions allude to a set of eleven terraces that close the plain of Mascabamba, near Ollantaytambo, which include the heavily fortified gate of T'iyupunku. At this location, when the Spaniards faced the terraces they would have had the Urubamba River to their left and the steep hill of Cerro Pinkuylluna to their right, matching the three sides from which they were attacked during the battle. If Protzen's hypothesis is correct, the river diverted to flood the battlefield was the Urubamba, and not its smaller affluent, the Patakancha, which runs alongside the town of Ollantaytambo.
Aftermath.
The success at Ollantaytambo encouraged Manco Inca to make a renewed attempt against Cusco. However, the Spaniards discovered the Inca army concentrating near the city and mounted a night attack, which inflicted heavy casualties. On April 18, 1537, a Spanish army led by Diego de Almagro returned from a long expedition to Chile and occupied Cusco. Almagro imprisoned Hernando Pizarro and his brother Gonzalo because he wanted the city for himself; most Spanish troops and their auxiliaries joined his side. He had previously tried to negotiate a settlement with Manco Inca but his efforts failed when both armies clashed at Calca, near Cusco. With the Spaniards' position consolidated by Almagro's reinforcements, Manco Inca decided that Ollantaytambo was too close to Cusco to be tenable so he withdrew further west to the town of Vitcos. Almagro sent his lieutenant Rodrigo Orgóñez in pursuit with 300 Spaniards and numerous Indian auxiliaries. In July 1537, Orgoñez occupied and sacked Vitcos taking many prisoners, but Manco managed to escape. He took refuge at Vilcabamba, a remote location where the Neo-Inca State was established and lasted until the capture and execution of Túpac Amaru, its last emperor, in 1572.


Susie Revels Cayton

Susie Revels Cayton (1870 – 1943) was a writer, editor, activist, and leader in the Black community in Seattle at the start of the 20th century.
Biography.
Early life.
Susie Sumner Revels was born in Mississippi in 1870, the same year her father, Hiram Revels, became the first Black senator in US history. Revels' middle name "Sumner" was a tribute Charles Sumner, Hiram Revels friend, who was sworn in as the Massachusetts senator the year Susie was born. Hiram Revels escorted Sumner at his swearing-in ceremony.
Revels graduated with honors from Rust College, teaching for three years, before returning to school to pursue a degree in nursing.
Career as a writer, journalist, and editor.
Revels met her future husband, Horace Cayton, in Mississippi and after a period of long distance letter writing followed him to Seattle in 1896, where they were married in July of the same year. She had started writing for his Seattle-based newspaper, The Seattle Republican, before leaving Mississippi. She eventually became associate editor in 1900 and continued working at the paper until it folded in 1913.
Revels and her husband started the newspaper "Cayton's Weekly" in 1916, which targeted the Black community in Seattle. The paper ran until 1920 when it was replaced by "Cayton's Monthly" which only ran for two issues.
In addition to her journalistic writing, Revels wrote short stories which appeared in The Seattle Republican, Cayton's Weekly, and the Seattle Post-Intelligencer.
Later life.
In 1919, at the age of 49, Susie Revels Cayton was forced to seek employment as a "domestic" as the family experienced economic hardships.
In her sixties, she became politically active and joined the Communist Party, after being introduced to the organization by her son, Revels Cayton, and was considered "one of the state's most prominent African American radicals". She joined the communist party in reaction to depression-era Seattle, believing that only radical political change could address economic inequality.
She became friends with activists Paul Robeson and Langston Hughes, and was admired by Richard Wright. Langston Hughes dedicated a poem, Dear Mr. President, to her.
Revels Cayton moved to Chicago in 1942, two years after her husband died, to be closer to her children. She continued advocating for progressive politics and communism to promote equality until she died in 1943.
Children.
Susie Revels Cayton had five children with Horace Cayton Sr. They had two sons, activists Horace Cayton, Jr. and Revels Cayton. Their oldest daughter, Ruth. Second daughter, Madge, who was one of the first African American women to graduate from the University of Washington and a social worker. And a third daughter, Lillie. They also adopted their granddaughter, Susan, after Ruth passed away in 1919, and raised her as their youngest child.
Legacy.
In 1992 the Cayton Scholarship was established to honor both Susie and Horace Cayton. This scholarship is available to minority students in Washington state pursuing a public relations career.
In 1902 Revels Cayton and her husband had a house built in Seattle's prosperous Capitol Hill neighborhood. In 2021 Seattle's Landmarks Preservation Board designated the house as a historic landmark.