Byattaba

Byattaba (; ; also Byat-Hta-Ba) was the ruler of the Martaban province of the Martaban–Hanthawaddy Kingdom from 1364 to 1388. He came to power by staging a coup against King Binnya U with the help of his brothers. Their rebellion led to the relocation of the Mon-speaking kingdom's capital to Pegu (Bago) in 1369.
In 1364, Byattaba, then a senior official, seized the Martaban province south of Donwun while his brother Laukpya seized the entire Bassein province. In 1371/72, the rebel brothers and the king signed a treaty that allowed the brothers to be his nominal vassals. In 1384, the brothers refused to extend the same recognition to Binnya U's son and successor Razadarit. Unlike Laukpya, Byattaba did not help Ava in the northern kingdom's two invasions against Pegu in 1385–1387. Nonetheless, he was driven out of Martaban in 1388 by Razadarit. He fled abroad, never to be heard from again.
Early life.
According to the chronicle "Razadarit Ayedawbon", Byattaba was the eldest son of Saw E Pyathat, a general in the Martaban army. His personal name was Nyi San (ညီစန်, ), and he was probably born in the early-to-mid 1320s. He was a half-cousin, twice removed of kings Saw O (r. 1311–1323) and Saw Zein (r. 1323–1330). He had three younger brothers: E Bya Bon, Laukpya and U-Lo, and at least one younger half-brother, Ma Lagun.
Their father died in action in the late 1320s against a war with Prome, a vassal state of Pinya. Saw Zein decided to look after Pyathat's children. The king died in 1330 but his promise to take care of Pyathat's children was honored by subsequent monarchs. Nyi San apparently was in sufficiently high social standing that he was given the title Byattaba, and was allowed to marry Princess Tala Mi Ma-Hsan, daughter of Saw Zein and half-sister of Binnya U (r. 1348–1384).
Byattaba's star continued to rise in the early reign of Binnya U. In the first five years of U's reign, U faced two internal rebellions and an external invasion by Lan Na. Byattaba and his brothers were loyal to U, and the king reciprocated. By the early 1360s, he had brought the two elder brothers—Byattaba and E Bya Bon—into his inner circle, and appointed the third brother Laukpya governor of Myaungmya, a key port in the Irrawaddy Delta. The king personally married Byattaba's daughter Tala Thazin Zaw Ngaik, and Laukpya's son Saw E Binnya, and appointed E Binnya governor of Tari, a small town.
Rebel ruler of Martaban (1364–1371).
Silent coup (1363–1364).
Despite the king's trust in them, the brothers were contemplating a rebellion. The main instigator was Laukpya, who was posted far away from Martaban, and had quickly developed a network of support across the delta province through a series of alliances. The opening came in 1363. That year, the king asked Byattaba to guard the capital Martaban while the king and his retinue went on a months-long elephant hunting trip near the Siamese border. The king, whose main title was Hsinbyushin ("Lord of the White Elephant"), had been searching for a white elephant, considered highly propitious by Burmese sovereigns, since the death of his first white elephant in 1354/55. The king believed that his victory over the Lan Na invasion of 1351–1352 was due to the luck brought by his white elephant. The king and his sizable retinue, consisted of his key advisers, generals and 2000 troops, went on the planned hunting trip, November 1363. The king left the capital in the trusted hands of Byattaba, who in turn was aided by his brothers E Bya Bon and U-Lo.
The brothers then staged a silent coup. Byattaba consolidated power at the palace. E Bya Bon took over the defenses of Lagun Byi, a town north of Martaban while U-Lo took over Moulmein (Mawlamyaing), the town immediately south of Martaban, across the Salween (Thanlwin). In the delta, Laukpya had fortified Myaungmya. Only their half-brother Lagun, governor of a small eastern delta town of Let-Hlyit remained loyal to the king. The king did not learn about the coup until four months into the trip. He rushed back to the capital. His troops recaptured Lagun Byi from E Bya Bon but twice failed to take Martaban, losing his two best generals in the process. In the western theater, Laukpya tried to seize Dala–Twante but could not get past the defenses of his half-brother Lagun.
Stalemate (1364–1369).
By the rainy season of 1364, a stalemate had developed. The king had set up camp at Donwun, 100 km north of Martaban. Byattaba had held on Martaban and the southern coast but his hold was tenuous. In Martaban, Byattaba and E Bya Bon had had to institute a lockdown of the city to prevent people from fleeing. With the king controlling the most populous Pegu province, the brothers realized that they could not hold out for long. They appealed to the king of Lan Na to intervene, promising a cut of the tax revenue of Martaban and Moulmein ports.
At Chiang Mai, King Kue Na was interested. Chiang Mai had wanted to pull Martaban, a former Sukhothai tributary, into its sphere of influence at least since 1351 while Chiang Mai's rival Ayutthaya had claimed all former Sukhothai tributaries since 1350. When he heard that Chiang Mai might again invade, U repaired ties with Chiang Mai by sending his eldest daughter to Kue Na in a marriage of state. Although Chiang Mai's intervention did not materialize, U did not proceed to retake Martaban or the delta.
An uneasy ceasefire persisted for the next five years. The brothers controlled nearly two out of the three provinces of the kingdom: Byattaba held the Martaban province, south of Donwun (modern Mon State and southern Kayin State) while Laukpya held the delta (modern Ayeyarwady Region). The king controlled only the northern third of the Martaban province to Donwun, and the all-important Pegu province (modern southern Bago Region and Yangon Region).
Renewed fighting (1369–1371).
The brothers then launched a surprise attack on Donwun in 1369. Their attack was opportunistic, and came a few days after the death of Chief Minister Pun-So, U's righthand man. During the mourning period, E Bya Bon and 700 warriors, disguised as mourners, managed to get inside Donwun, and seized U's palace. The king fled to Pegu (Bago), about 120 km northwest of Donwun, across the Bay of Martaban, and relocated his capital there. (Although the move to Pegu was made under duress, the move proved permanent. By then, Pegu was the more natural location to be the capital due to its strategic location—between the other two provinces—and its "agricultural and demographic potential". The traditional home of the dynasty, Martaban, on the other hand, was located on the upper Tenasserim coast, and too close to the Tai kingdoms to the east.)
The brothers' advantage was fleeting. They tried but neither Byattaba nor Laukpya could make any headway into Pegu throughout 1370–1371. Meanwhile, U secured his rear by successfully negotiating a peace treaty with King Swa Saw Ke of Ava that demarcated the border between the two kingdoms. Soon after the treaty with Ava, U launched a counterattack, which was partially successful. His forces retook Donwun but could not advance farther south. The two sides were now back on their pre-1369 borders.
Viceroy ( 1371/72–1384).
Truce.
According to the "Razadarit Ayedawbon", it was the king that first sued for peace with the rebel brothers. Despite his success in retaking Donwun, he was still concerned about a potential interference by Lan Na. (The marriage alliance between the two states was at a breaking point. His daughter Tala Mi Thiri was never happy at Chiang Mai, and had been asking her father to bring her back for several years.) The brothers too were interested in an agreement that would preserve their status. The two sides then agreed to a treaty that called for U to recognize the brothers as the rightful viceroys of Martaban and Bassein (Irrawaddy delta) provinces, and to pay them 10 "viss" (16.33 kg) of gold and ten elephants in exchange for the brothers' recognition of U as their sovereign as well as brokering of an agreement with Lan Na to maintain peace. As the "Razadarit Ayedawbon" recounts, U realized the absurdity of the overlord paying tribute to the vassals but he ultimately decided to swallow his pride, and agreed to the terms. On the other hand, Byattaba and Laukpya realized that they needed Lan Na's support in order to neutralize Pegu's stronger position. The brothers sent 15 "viss" (24.49 kg) of gold in total to retain Chiang Mai's support. The king of Lan Na sent back Tala Mi Thiri to Pegu.
Nominal vassal.
The treaty held until Binnya U's death in 1384. Though officially viceroys, Byattaba and Laukpya ruled their territories like sovereigns. For their part, they did not get involved in the affairs of Pegu even when the king gradually withdrew from governing due to his long illness. When U's 15-year-old son Binnya Nwe raised a rebellion in 1383, neither viceroy interfered. When princess-regent Maha Dewi asked them to contribute troops to put down the rebellion, each sent a regiment to ensure that the fighting would not spill over to their territories. But neither joined the actual fighting.
Back in rebellion (1384–1388).
Independent but neutral.
In January 1384, the Pegu court chose the rebel son Nwe, who took the reign name of Razadarit. Byattaba and Laukpya did not acknowledge the new king, who at his accession had not yet turned 16. It was not just them. Even rulers of the northern Martaban province who were loyal to the late king refused to acknowledge the new boy king. Razadarit for his part considered the entire "32 districts" of the Martaban province in revolt. One silver lining was that not all the rebels were united. For example, Gov. Smim Than-Hlyit of Donwun, who fought against Byattaba in the 1360s, declared that he was not allied anyone.
Byattaba and Laukpya too were not in sync as to how to respond to Razadarit. Laukpya believed that they needed external support to keep Pegu at bay. Laukpya's preferred external power was the northern Ava Kingdom, which by the mid-1380s, had emerged as the main power in the Irrawaddy valley, and was intent on restoring the erstwhile Pagan Empire. Byattaba, whose territory bordered the Tai states to the east, was much more circumspect about an alliance with Ava, and ultimately decided to stay neutral. Unlike Laukpya, he did not attack Pegu during the first two invasions of Pegu by Ava in 1385–1387. The fighting took place almost entirely in the delta.
War (1387–1388).
Byattaba's decision would come back and haunt him. In 1387, after two failed invasions, Ava had to pause its war in the south as it was pulled into a renewed conflict with the northern Shan state of Maw. Razadarit immediately seized the opportunity, and sent a sizeable army to Martaban in the dry season of 1387–1388. Much of the fighting took place in the northern parts of the province. It took several months before the Pegu army could breach the defenses of Donwun. Than-Hlyit and his 300 troops tried to flee to Martaban but the governor-general was killed en route by the Pegu troops.
The way to Martaban was now open. Unlike before, Laukpya had not opened the western front. But Byattaba did not panic. He still had the support of his other brothers, E Bya Bon and U-Lo, who were commanders in his army, and had collected enough men and arms. When the Martaban command heard that a Pegu army was taking a circuitous route through the woods to encircle the city from the east, the brothers planned a surprise attack outside the city. In the wee hours, the Martaban army, led by the three brothers themselves, ambushed and destroyed the five vanguard regiments of the Pegu army. But the Martaban command did not know that two Pegu rearguard regiments, led by generals Smim Than-Byat and Dein, were still in the area. While the Martaban army dispersed to mop up the remaining enemies in the area, Than-Byat launched a surprise attack targeting the battalions guarding the Martaban command. It worked. Byattaba, E Bya Bon and U-Lo all fled. The remaining Martaban forces surrendered.
Aftermath.
Byattaba and his brothers could not get back to Martaban or Moulmein before Razadarit's forces. They fled to a foreign country. At Martaban, a victorious Razadarit had Byattaba's chief wife Princess Tala Mi Ma-Hsan present all the tax payments owed to his father Binnya U in gold, silver, pearls, emeralds, and other precious stones. The king then appointed Byat Ka-Man as governor of Martaban.
Family.
Byattaba's chief wife was Princess Tala Mi Ma-Hsan. The couple had one daughter named Tala Thazin Zaw-Ngaik, who was married to her first cousin Saw E Binnya, son of Laukpya. In all, Byattaba had three sons (Ma Taw, Ma Yay, Yazathu) and four daughters.


Ding Wei (Song dynasty)

Ding Wei ( 966 – June 1037), courtesy name Gongyan, was a Song dynasty chancellor, who dominated the courts during Emperor Zhenzong's later reign and Emperor Renzong's early reign.
Ding Wei's opponent Wang Zeng () claimed that Ding was considered one of the "Five Devils", along with Wang Qinruo, Lin Te (), Chen Pengnian () and Liu Chenggui (), a group of high-ranking ministers unpopular at the time. In the centuries to follow, Ding Wei has almost always been portrayed as a treacherous minister in popular fiction.
Early career.
Ding Wei once wrote a prose essay with his friend Sun He () that quite impressed Wang Yucheng, a leading literati. Wang Yucheng considered their writing the best in China since Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan almost two centuries ago. In 992, Ding Wei passed the imperial examination and became the controller-general of Raozhou. A year later, he accompanied the crown prince Zhao Yuankan to inspect Fujian. Upon his return, he presented a report on salt and tea, and was made fiscal commissioner.


Hamengkubuwono III

Hamengkubuwono III (also spelled Hamengkubuwana III, February 20, 1769 – November 3, 1814) was the third sultan of Yogyakarta, reigning from 1810 to 1811 and from 1812 to 1814.
His eldest son was Diponegoro, and his son and successor Hamengkubuwono IV was a half brother of Diponegoro.


History of Shamakhi

The history of Shamakhi covers the history of Azerbaijani city Shamakhi from ancient times to the present day.
Antique period.
As a result of archaeological excavations carried out in the north-western part of Shamakhi in the XX century, a settlement that dates back to the V-IV centuries BC was discovered. Being one of the cities of Caucasian Albania, Shamakhi is mentioned by the ancient geographer Ptolemy (II century) under the name of Kemaheya or Mamakheya. In 1958, hoards of coins minted during the Caucasian Albania were found on the territory of the present city.
There are the remains of an ancient city with an area of over 50 hectares to the west of the modern city of Shamakhi. At the end of the IV century BC, a new settlement appeared on this territory, which later acquired city features.
Medieval period.
In the year 861 Mazyadid Heysam Ibn Khalid founded state of Shirvanshahs. In 918, Shamakhi was declared the capital of this state.
In 1032–1033 years Shamakhi was sacked as a result of invasions of the slavic tribes.
In 1123-1124, the city was captured by the Georgian king David IV.
In 1222, during the Mongol invasion of Azerbaijan, Shamakhi was captured and destroyed. The medieval Shamakhi is mentioned in the Persian anonymous work "Ajaib ad-Dunya" (XIII century).
Being one of the major trade and craft centers in the middle East, the city had an important place in the silk trade. The trade relations of Shamakhi and Venetian merchants are mentioned written sources of the XV-XVI centuries
In 1500, the city was captured by the founder of the Safavid dynasty, Shah Ismail Khatai.
In 1607, the Safavid Shah Abbas I occupied Shamakhi.
Early modern period.
In 1721, Shamakhi was attacked by the troops of the leader of the Lezgins, Haji Davud of Mushkur.
In 1734, after the sacking of the city by Nader Shah, inhabitants were resettled in Agsu, renamed "Yeni Shamakhi". After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Shamakhi was declared the capital of the Shamakhi Khanate.
In 1768, the Shamakhi khanate was annexed to the Quba khanate. After the death of Fatali Khan of Quba in 1789, the khanate regained its independence. This did not last long: in 1796, the Russian army took Shamakhi. Russian troops were withdrawn only after the order of the new Emperor – Paul I.
In 1805, Mustafa Khan of Shamakhi became a subject of Russia with the condition of transferring the Northern khanates under his control and non-payment of tribute. The accession of the Shirvan khanate to Russia in 1805 was confirmed by the Gulistan treaty of 1813. In 1820, the Khan's administration in Shirvan was abolished. In the period from 1840 to 1846, Shamakhi was the administrative center of the Caspian region, and from 1846 to 1859 - the administrative center of the Shamakhi province. A strong earthquake that occurred on December 2, 1859, contributed to the fact that the center of the province was moved to Baku. The city itself became the administrative center of the Shamakhi uyezd in the Baku province.
Contemporary period.
As a result of the massacre in March 1918 committed by Armenian and Bolshevik armed forces, more than 7,000 Muslims were killed in Shamakhi.
In April 1920, Soviet power was established in Shamakhi, as in all cities of Northern Azerbaijan.
Culture.
Shamakhi is the homeland of many prominent Azerbaijani intellectuals (Mirza Alakbar Sabir, Fazlullah Naimi, Imadeddin Nasimi, Seyid Azim Shirvani, Falaki Shirvani, Khagani Shirvani, Haji Zeynalabdin Shirvani, Mohammad Hadi, Abbas Sahhat, Ali Alizadeh, Aziza Jafarzadeh, Alim Qasimov, etc.).
At the initiative of the well-known pharmacist of Cafeeine Omar Ibn Osman (uncle of Khagani Shirvani) there was a medical school founded in the XII century in Shamakhi.
In the 19th century, county schools, schools for shiites and sunnis (1847-1849), art clubs and literary majlises (assemblies) were opened in Shamakhi.
In 1906, the women's costume from Shamakhi was transferred to the Caucasian Museum in Tbilisi as a Museum exhibit.
In 2010, a monument to a lone Turkish officer of the Caucasian Islamic army was erected in Shamakhi.
Sightseeing places.
Despite the increased seismicity of the region (a number of devastating earthquakes in 1192, 1607, 1669, 1859 and 1902), most of the historical monuments are still preserved:
In world culture.
Shamakhi is mentioned by the Russian poet A. S. Pushkin in the "Tale of the Golden Cockerel” ("give me a maiden, the Queen of Shamakhi") and is depicted in the paintings of the Russian artist G. Gagarin: “Shamakhi Bayadere"," The dancer from Shamakhi"," the Nisa Dancer", written in 1847
The city is also mentioned in the work of the French playwright Alexandre Dumas "Caucasus" (1847).
See also.
Shamakhi


Roadmap to democracy

Myanmar's roadmap to democracy (; officially the Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy), announced by General Khin Nyunt on 30 August 2003 in state media, provided a seven-step process in restoring democracy in the country. Endorsed by the State Peace and Development Council, it essentially describes the reassembly of the National Convention () in Nyaunghnapin, Hmawbi Township, Yangon Division to write a constitution, hold a national referendum to approve the constitution, hold general election to elect members to the Hluttaw (legislative body), and finally hold parliamentary sessions.
Phases.
This road map has been variously translated into English as:
The translation found in the "New Light of Myanmar" is as follows:
Reaction.
Exile media and pro-democracy groups were critical of the road map, for its lack of set deadlines or time frames. The "Myanmar Times" claimed that the roadmap represented progress and hope for the eventual democratisation of the country. UN envoy to Burma, Ibrahim Gambari pressed for a more "credible and inclusive" roadmap in 2008.


Rai Sahiras II

Rai Sahiras II was the second-last Buddhist ruler of the Rai Dynasty during early the 7th century. The Emperors of this dynasty were great patrons of Hinduism and Buddhism. This is consistent with the historical accounts from the times of Emperor Ashoka and Harsha because Indian monarchs never sponsored a state religion and usually patronized more than one faith.
Sahiras was killed in a battle with the King of Nimroz and was succeeded by his son, the last Jat Buddhist ruler of Sindh, Rai Sahasi II.


Mattancherry Palace

The Mattancherry Palace is a Portuguese palace popularly known as the Dutch Palace, in Mattancherry, Kochi, in the Indian state of Kerala which features Kerala murals depicting portraits and exhibits of the Rajas of Kochi. The palace was included in the "tentative list" of UNESCO World Heritage Site.
History.
The Palace was built and gifted by the Portuguese as a present to the king of Cochin around 1545. The Dutch carried out some extensions and renovations in the palace in 1663, and thereafter it was popularly called Dutch Palace. The rajas also made more improvements to it. Today, it is a portrait gallery of the Cochin Rajas and notable for some of the best mythological murals in India, which are in the best traditions of Hindu temple art. The palace was built to appease the king after they plundered a temple nearby.
The landing of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese explorer at Kappad in 1498 was welcomed by the Kochi rulers. They were given exclusive right to construct factories. The Portuguese repulsed the repeated attacks of the Zamorians and the Cochin Rajas practically became vassals of the Portuguese. The influence of the Portuguese were supplanted by the Dutch and they took over Mattancherry in 1663. Subsequently, the area was taken over by Hyder Ali and still later by the British East India Company
The Palace.
The palace is a quadrangular structure built in Nālukettu style, the traditional Kerala style of architecture, with a courtyard in the middle. In the courtyard there stands a small temple dedicated to 'Pazhayannur Bhagavati', the protective goddess of the Kochi royal family. There are two more temples on either side of the Palace, one dedicated to Lord Krishna and the other to Lord Siva. Certain elements of architecture, as for example the nature of its arches and the proportion of its chambers are indicative of European influence in basic Nālukettu style.
The Dining Hall has carved wooden ornate ceiling decorated with a series of brass cups. The palace also contains rare examples of traditional Kerala flooring, which looks like polished black marble but is actually a mixture of burned coconut shells, charcoal, lime, plant juices, and egg whites.
Murals.
The glory of the palace rests on the large number of murals, executed in the best traditions of Hindu temple art, which are religious, decorative and stylised. The murals have been painted in rich warm colours in tempera technique.
The king's bedchamber or "Palliyara", to the left of the entrance and occupying the southwest corner of the Palace, is noteworthy with its low wooden ceiling and of wall surface covered with about 48 paintings. These illustrate the "Ramayana", from the beginning of the sacrifice of Dasaratha to Sita's return from captivity in Lanka. The paintings in this section are the earliest in the palace, dating back to the 16th century. The last five scenes are from the 'Krishna Lila', representing a cheerful Lord Krishna with eight of his milkmaid consorts. The paintings are attributed to the artistic bent of mind of Veera Kerala Verma.
The upper staircase rooms, notably that of the coronation hall that was extended under Dutch patronage, contain some murals. The notable compositions in this section are - Lakshmi seated on the lotus, sleeping Vishnu ("Ananthasayanamurti"), Shiva and Parvati seated with Ardhanariswara and other goddesses, the coronation of Rama, and Krishna lifting Mount Govardhana.
On the opposite side of the coronation hall is the staircase room or Kovinithalam (Room No II), with a descent to the lower storey, there are four paintings of Shiva, Vishnu and Devi, and one incomplete. Room No. IV depict scenes from Kumarasambhava and other works of the great Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa. The latter set of paintings belonging to the eighteenth century.
Other exhibits.
Portraits of the Rajas of Cochin, from 1864 onwards, are displayed in what was once the Coronation Hall. These were painted by local artists in western style. The ceiling of the hall is decorated with floral designs in woodcraft.
Amongst the other exhibits in the palace are an ivory palanquin, a howdah, royal umbrellas, ceremonial dress used by the royalty, coins, stamps and drawings. .
Restoration.
In 1951, Mattancherry Palace was restored and declared a centrally protected monument. The palace is already undergoing a second restoration by the Archaeological Survey of India. The restoration will raise the historical structure to a building and a museum of an international standard, preserving its originality, yet highlighting the important facets, The palace is an architectural masterpiece showcasing the blend between colonial and Kerala architecture. The restoration aims at showcasing its true grandeur. The work which started in 2007 was scheduled to be completed by 2009.
Paradesi Synagogue.
Nearby is the Paradesi Synagogue built in 1568. Alongside are the antique shops in the meandering alleys of Jew Town, most of whose inhabitants have since migrated to Israel. The Mattancherry jetty and bus stand are behind the Palace. The area is full of shops attracting tourists hunting for mementoes to carry back home.
Situated in between the Mattancherry Palace and the Paradesi Synagogue is the Pazhayannur Bhagavathy Temple, the ancestral deity or "Paradevata" of the Cochin Royal Family. The temple with royal patronage which shares its wall with the Jewish synagogue tells volumes about the religious tolerance and intercultural amity that existed during the time of the Kingdom of Cochin.


Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate

The Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate (; ) was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the Tanzimat reform. After 1861 there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian mutasarrıf, which had been created as a homeland for the Maronites under European diplomatic pressure following the 1860 massacres. The Maronite Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.
Background.
1840 Mount Lebanon conflict.
As the Ottoman Empire began to decline, the administrative structure came under pressure. Following continued animosity and fighting between the Maronites and the Druze, representatives of the European powers proposed to Sultan Abdülmecid I that the Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. The Sublime Porte was finally compelled to relinquish its plans for the direct rule of the Lebanon, and on December 7, 1842, the sultan adopted prince Metternich's proposal and asked Assad Pasha, the governor (wali) of Beirut, to divide the Mount Lebanon, into two districts: a northern district under a Christian Kaymakam and a southern district under a Druze Kaymakam, both chosen among tribal leaders. Both officials were to report to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut.
1860 civil war.
On May 22, 1860, a small group of Maronites fired on a group of Druze at the entrance to Beirut , killing one and wounding two. This sparked a torrent of violence which swept through Lebanon. In a mere three days, from May 29 to 31, 60 villages were destroyed in the vicinity of Beirut. 33 Christians and 48 Druze were killed. By June the disturbances had spread to the “mixed” neighbourhoods of southern Lebanon and the Anti Lebanon, to Sidon, Hasbaya, Rashaya, Deir el Qamar, and Zahlé. The Druze peasants laid siege to Catholic monasteries and missions, burnt them, and killed the monks. France intervened on behalf of the local Christian population and Britain on behalf of the Druze after the massacres, in which over 10,000 Christians were killed.
History.
Creation of the Mutasarrifate.
On 5 September 1860, an international commission composed of France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and the Ottoman Empire met to investigate the causes of the events of 1860 and to recommend a new administrative and judicial system for Lebanon that would prevent the recurrence of such events. In the 1861 "Règlement Organique", Mount Lebanon was preliminarily separated from Syria and reunited under a non-Lebanese Christian mutasarrıf (governor) appointed by the Ottoman sultan, with the approval of the European powers. Mount Lebanon became a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate. In September 1864, the statute became permanent. The mutasarrıf was to be assisted by an administrative council of twelve members from the various religious communities in Lebanon. Each of the six religious groups inhabiting the Lebanon (Maronites, Druzes, Sunni, Shi’a, Greek Orthodox and Melkite Catholic) elected two members to the council.
This Mutasarrifate system lasted from 1861 until 1918, although it was "de facto" abolished by Djemal Pasha (one of the "Three Pashas" of the World War I-era Ottoman leadership) in 1915, after which he appointed his own governors.
Naming.
The members of the international commission researched many names for the new administrative division and its governor. Many titles were considered; "Emir" (أمير) was quickly refuted because it was offensive to the Ottoman Porte ("Emir" being a title of the Ottoman Sultan) and was reminiscent of the Emirate system that the Ottomans fought to abolish. "Vali" (والي) also fell from consideration because the commission members wanted to convey the importance of the rank of the new title which was above than to that of the Ottoman governors of nearby vilayets; "Governor" (حاكم) was also abandoned because they thought the title was commonplace and widespread. The commission members also ruminated over the title of "President" (رئيس جمهورية) but the designation was not approved by the Ottoman government. After two weeks of deliberation, the French term "plénipotentiaire" was agreed upon and its Turkish translation "mutasarrıf" was adopted as the new title for the governor and for the division, which was dubbed in Arabic as the "mutasarrifiyah" of Mount Lebanon.
List of mutasarrifs.
Eight mutasarrifs were appointed and ruled according to the basic mutasarrifate regulation that was issued in 1861 then modified by the 1864 reform. These were:
The mnemonic word "DaFRuWNaMYO" (in Arabic, دفرونميا) helped school children memorize the name of the mutasarrifs.
List of governors.
When the First World War broke out in 1914, Djemal Pasha occupied Mount Lebanon militarily and revoked the mutasarrifate system. He appointed the mutasarrifs during this period. Those governors were:
List of Administrative Council members.
1861-1864 Administrative Council members:
The 1861-1864 Administrative Council was later amended to include the following members:
1864-1869 Administrative Council members:
Demographics.
The total population in 1895 was estimated as 399,530, with 30,422 (7.8%) Muslims, 49,812 (12.5%) Druze and 319,296 (79.9%) Christians. In 1913, the total population was estimated as 414,747, with 37,741 (9.1%) Muslims, 47,290 (11.3%) Druze and 329,482 (79.4%) Christians.
1895 and 1913 censuses.
Source:


Manoi

Manoi (Chao Phom Manoi) was king of the southern Laotian Kingdom of Champasak from 1813 to 1820.


Badarmude bus explosion

The Badarmude bus explosion was a terrorist attack on a civilian commuter coach in Southern Nepal near the village of Badarmude on July 6, 2005.
Overview.
The bus was a regular coach, which are common in Nepal for transporting local people around the Himalayan mountains. The bus was travelling its usual route to the stop in the rural town of Badarmude 175 km south of Kathmandu with at least 120 passengers on board and on the roof at the time of the attack.
As the bus crossed a small wooden bridge over a mountain stream, a member of a terrorist organisation detonated a small bomb from his position 250m away behind a tree. The bomb was not large enough to seriously damage the bus on its own, but did succeed in collapsing the fragile bridge into the stream below, taking the bus with it. Parts of the bus and its passengers littered the banks stream and remains of the bridge, and injured people requiring immediate medical assistance were scattered throughout the wreckage.
Local people provided the most immediate relief, but army officials were hampered in organising a proper rescue operation, due to the remote nature of the terrain. The eventual report stated that there were 38 dead (some sources say 53), and 71 injured, some of them very seriously, including those requiring amputation and lengthy hospitalisation.
The attack has not been claimed, but was almost certainly the work of the Communist Party of Nepal, fervent Maoists, who have been fighting the Nepal Civil War against the monarchy since 1996 . Their great opponent in King Gyanendra has recently stepped up attacks on their positions and a crackdown on their supporters, following his reinstatement of absolute monarchy in Nepal following mild democratic reforms.
The CPN does not have a history of attacking purely civilian targets, and previous assaults on buses have either been because the bus was transporting troops, or had been violating strikes ordered by the CPN. Neither was the case here, and the cause of the attack remains unknown.


Battle of Changzhou

Battle of Changzhou occurred during the Taiping Rebellion. It was won by the Qing dynasty, who regained control over all of Jiangsu.


Dmanisi

Dmanisi (; , ) is a town and archaeological site in the Kvemo Kartli region of Georgia approximately 93 km southwest of the nation’s capital Tbilisi in the river valley of Mashavera. The hominin site is dated to 1.8 million years ago.<ref name="doi10.1073/pnas.1106638108">1.85-1.78 Ma 95% CI. </ref> It was the earliest known evidence of hominins outside Africa before stone tools dated to 2.1 million years were discovered in 2018 in Shangchen, China.
A series of skulls which had diverse physical traits, discovered at Dmanisi in the early 2010s, led to the hypothesis that many separate species in the genus "Homo" were in fact a single lineage. Also known as Skull 5, D4500 is the fifth skull to be discovered in Dmanisi.
History.
The town of Dmanisi is first mentioned in the 9th century as a possession of the Arab emirate of Tbilisi, though the area had been settled since the Early Bronze Age. An Orthodox Christian cathedral – "Dmanisi Sioni" – was built there in the 6th century. Located on the confluence of trading routes and cultural influences, Dmanisi was of particular importance, growing into a major commercial center of medieval Georgia. The town was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 1080s, but was later liberated by the Georgian kings David the Builder and Demetrios I between 1123 and 1125. The Turco-Mongol armies under Timur laid waste to the town in the 14th century. Sacked again by the Turkomans in 1486, Dmanisi never recovered and declined to a scarcely inhabited village by the 18th century. The castle was controlled by the House of Orbeliani.
Archaeological site.
Extensive archaeological studies began in the area in 1936 and continued in the 1960s. Beyond a rich collection of ancient and medieval artifacts and the ruins of various buildings and structures, unique remains of prehistoric animals and humans have been unearthed. Some of the animal bones were identified by the Georgian paleontologist A. Vekua with the teeth of the extinct rhino "Dicerorhinus etruscus etruscus" in 1983.
This species dates back presumably to the early Pleistocene epoch. The discovery of primitive stone tools in 1984 led to increasing interest to the archaeological site. In 1991, a team of Georgian scholars was joined by the German archaeologists from Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, and later the U.S., French and Spanish researchers.
"Homo erectus georgicus".
Early human (or hominin) fossils, originally named "Homo georgicus" and now considered "Homo erectus georgicus", were found at Dmanisi between 1991 and 2005. At 1.8 million years old, they are now believed to be a subspecies of "Homo erectus" and not a separate species of "Homo". These fossils represent the earliest known human presence in the Caucasus.
Subsequently, four fossil skeletons were found, showing a species primitive in its skull and upper body but with relatively advanced spines and lower limbs. They are now thought to represent a stage soon after the transition from "Australopithecus" to "Homo erectus".
Human habitation in the Caucasus goes back to the remotest antiquity. The hominin remains discovered in 1991 by David Lordkipanidze at Dmanisi, Kvemo Kartli (1.8 million years old) are the oldest found outside Africa. Neanderthal remains have been found at Ortvale K’lde (1973) and elsewhere in the Caucasus (36,000–50,000 years old).
The Dmanisi hominin remains are still making an impact on the paleontological community. the Dmanisi skull 5 is in the middle of a controversy: many hominin fossils formerly thought to be different species may not have been separate species at all. Several early members of the genus Homo were possibly one evolving lineage.


Ettara Yogam

The Ettara Yogam or the King and Council of Eight has been the administrative setup of Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple for centuries.
Origin.
According to historians, a six member Sabha was constituted to run the Temple in the 1045 AD. This Sabha was later known as Thiruvaananthapurathu Sabha. The Pushpanjali Swamiyar, though not a member of the Sabha, presides over all its meetings. The Secretary to the Sabha is known as the Sabhanjithan. The decision taken by the Sabha can be implemented only if the Ruler of Venad approves of it. This administrative setup consisting of the Arachan (Ruler) of Venad, Pushpanjali Swamiyar, six member Sabha and Sabhanjithan is called Ettara Yogam.
Popular legend takes the origin of Ettara Yogam way back to "Dvapara Yuga". Lord Parasurama installed the Idol of Sri Padmanabhaswamy and entrusted the administration of the Temple with Koopakkara Potti, Vanchiyoor Athiyara Potti, Kollur Athiyara Potti, Muttavila Potti, Karuva Potti, Neythasseri Potti and Srikaryathu Potti. King Adithya Vikrama of Vanchi (Venad) was directed by Parasurama to protect the Temple. Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple became the Kula Daivam (Tutelary Deity) of the Royal Family of Venad.
According to historians, a six member Sabha was constituted to run the Temple in the 225 ME. This Sabha was later known as Thiruvaananthapurathu Sabha. The Pushpanjali Swamiyar, though not a member of the Sabha, presides over all its meetings. The Secretary to the Sabha is known as the Sabhanjithan. The decision taken by the Sabha can be implemented only if the Ruler of Venad approves of it. This administrative setup consisting of the Arachan (Ruler) of Venad, Pushpanjali Swamiyar, six member Sabha and Sabhanjithan is called Ettara Yogam.
Members.
7 Bhramins , one Nair family representative and half was Maharaja.
A Sannyasin from Naduvil Madhom or Munchira Madhom presides over the meetings of the Sabha. He is called Pushpanjali Swamiyar as he performs floral worship to Lord Sri Padmanabha daily. The Swamiyar can hold office during the pleasure of the Crown. The members of Thiruvaananthapurathu Sabha are
Only Nair family in the ettara yogam was Azhakathu family.
Srikaryathu Potti is the Sabhanjithan or Secretary to the Sabha. Important decisions taken by the Sabha could be implemented only if the Raja of Venad/ Travancore approved of them. Kshetrakaryam Potti also known as Adhikara Padartham represents the Raja of Venad/ Travancore during sessions of Ettara Yogam. Desies, Karanatha Kurup, Karanakkanakku and Pandarakkanakku attend its meetings. It is to be understood that Kshetrakaryam Potti, Desies, Karanatha Kurup of the Palliyadi family, Karanakkanakku and Pandarakkanakku are not members of Ettara Yogam. The Palliyadi Kurup was the security chief of the Temple.
According to another version, the Pushpanjali Swamiyar and the six main Potties had one vote each in deciding the matters of the Temple. Besides them, the Maharajah of Venad or Travancore, the Srikaryathu Potti and the Karanavar of the Palliyadi family (the only Nair representative) had half vote each.
The membership of the "Ettara Yogam" (other than the Pushpanjali Swamiyar) is passed hereditarily and the member families are represented by the senior most male member therein.
Ettuveetil Pillamar.
The Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple possessed vast landed areas over which the ruler of Travancore had no control whatsoever. These lands were divided into eight "adhikarems" or districts and over each of these districts as a governor was placed a noble family, all with the title of Pillai.Hence they came to be known as the Ettuveetil Pillamar or the Lords of the Eight Houses.The confederacy of these Pillamar was eventually destroyed in the 18th century by Maharajah Anizhom Thirunal Marthanda Varma after they were found guilty of murder and conspiracy against the Royal House. The Pillamar were organised into a confederacy in the 17th century.
Erosion of authority.
Owing to the large amount of power vested in their hands, the Ettuveetil Pillamar became highly arrogant. The Pillamar conspired against the royal house and several murders and other acts of atrocity were committed owing to the powerlessness of the Sovereign. Eventually Maharajah Anizhom Thirunal Marthanda Varma (1706–1758) decided to put an end to their power and destroyed the Pillamar. The confederacy of the Pillamar was dismissed and the member families were banished from Travancore. From the time of Marthanda Varma the authority of Yogathu Pottimar eroded and the Temple came under the direct control of the Maharajahs of Travancore.
Ettara Yogam in modern times.
According to the 1998 book, "Sree Padmanabha Swamy Temple", written by Princess Aswathi Thirunal Gowri Lakshmi Bayi, the Ettarayogam still exists in principle.
For the last few hundred years, seven Ettarayogam Potti families have continued to receive requests from the Padmanabhaswamy Temple authorities for "anujna" (permission) to conduct festivals–for example in 2011. When the Karuva Potty family was without an heir (the Karumadom colony land and nearby areas like Kuriathy belonged to the Karuva potty family), the Muttavila Potty got the title of Karuva potty, and also the title: Sarwaswadana Dattu. Neythasseri potti inherited the power after marrying from Koovalasseri (which also perished without an heir) and later settled in Thiruvananthapuram. The request for giving permission to conduct rituals like Arattu to the Karuva Potty is still given to Muttavila Potty in addition to the one due to Muttavila Potty.
After the Alpashi and Painkuni festivals every year, the Dakshina is given to Tantri Tharananallur Nambuthiripad by these Potti families.
With the passing away of Sri Uthradom Thirunal Marthanda Varma in December 2013, his nephew Sri Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma became the titular Maharaja of Travancore in January 2014. Like his predecessors, Sri Moolam Thirunal also got concurrence from the Ettara Yogam before assuming the title 'Maharaja'. In the presence of the Maharaja designate, the Yogathil Pottimar and the Tantri, the Pushpanjali Swamiyar Maravanchery Thekkedathu Neelakanta Bharatikal signed on the Neettu (Order) of the Ettara Yogam giving recognition to Sri Moolam Thirunal as Chirava Mooppan (Maharaja of Travancore) and Thrippappoor Mooppan (Protector of Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple). This ceremony took place at Kulasekhara Mandapam in Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple.
References.
The Travancore State Manual By T.K.Velupillai


Masykur Abdul Kadir

Masykur Abdul Kadir is a former felon who served 15 years in an Indonesian prison for his role in the 2002 Bali bombings. Kadir's conviction was a precedent setting court case for Indonesian law, as he was arrested and imprisoned on the basis of a law that was passed after he had violated it. He was released from prison in 2010.
Biography.
Kadir was born on the island of Bali, Indonesia. He later moved to Denpasar, where he claimed he worked as a tour guide. In the early 2000s he became involved with Jemaah Islamiyah, an Islamic terror cell that operated in Indonesia. Kadir was described as the group's "local boy" on Bali; he met with members of the group twice, renting an apartment from them, hiring a car for members of the group, and personally driving members of the group to locations — which later became targets for terror attacks — in southern Bali. How much Kadir actually knew about the terror cell is in dispute, but the Indonesian government claimed that he helped the group scout locations for future terrorist attacks.
On 12 October 2002, a series of bombs were detonated in Bali and Denpasar, killing 202 people in total. In the aftermath of the attack, the Indonesian government began a crackdown on terrorist activity inside the country; several members and affiliates of Jemaah Islamiyah were arrested, including Kadir. Kadir was proven to have met with three members of the terror group in the immediate aftermath of the blast, and was subsequently put on trial for aiding in an act of terrorism. Kadir claimed that he was a tour guide, and that his clients "Just happened to be" the bombers. No evidence was presented connecting Kadir to the assembly of the bombs used in the attack, and as such he was sentenced to 15 years in prison under Article 13(a) of Law No 15.
After being sentenced, Kadir and his lawyers appealed his conviction and questioned the constitutionality of the ruling; this objection was raised as Article 13(a) (which had been passed in the immediate aftermath of the Bali bombings) had not yet been formulated when Kadir was arrested, and thus he was being charged for committing an act that was not yet illegal when he committed said act. Kadir won his appeal, and the matter was brought before the Constitutional Court of Indonesia. The court found by a margin of five to four that trying terrorist suspects under retroactive laws violated the Indonesian constitution (specifically Article 28(1)), but the court also noted that, as the Constitutional Court's decision itself could not operate retrospectively, Kadir would remain in prison to serve out his sentence.
Kadir was released from prison in 2010 after serving 7 years of his 15-year sentence. In the years after his release, he took part in meetings between former terrorists and victims of terror attacks, adding that he hoped such meetings would aid in the healing process.


Niskala Wastu Kancana

King Niskala Wastu Kancana or also known as Prabu Raja Wastu or popularly known as Wastu Kancana (c. 1348 – 1475) was one of the great kings of the Sunda Kingdom reigning throughout most of the 15th century.
According to Carita Parahyangan manuscript, he ruled for 104 years, between 1371–1475. His reign is remembered as a long era of peace and prosperity.
Early life.
Wastu was the youngest son of Prabu Maharaja and the brother of Princess Pitaloka Citraresmi, which together, with most of Wastu's family, perished in Pasunda Bubat incident. In 1357, his family went to Majapahit in East Java to marry Wastu's eldest sister, Princess Pitaloka, with Maharaja Hayam Wuruk of Majapahit. As a child, Wastu however, was left to stay in Kawali palace, and did not accompany his family to travel to faraway Trowulan in Majapahit. Gajah Mada, the ambitious prime minister of Majapahit, saw the event as an opportunity to demand Sunda Kingdom submission to Majapahit overlordship. He demanded Princess Pitaloka to be given as a mere concubine, as a token of submission. Enraged, the Sundanese party felt humiliated and refused, thus subsequently violence broke out, and the entire Sundanese royal party were killed, including Wastu's parents, sister, and extended family.
As a child, Wastu was considered too young to reign. Subsequently, the throne was delegated under the regency of his tutor and also a relative, Hyang Bunisora, until Wastu come of age. Hyang Bunisora ruled for 14 years, until as a regent, he abdicated in favour of Prince Wastu.
Reign.
In 1371, Prince Wastu ascended to throne, stylized as Prabu Raja Wastu Kancana. Raja Wastu resided in Kawali palace of Galuh. According to Kawali inscription, approximately dated from second half of the 14th century, mentioned that King Prabu Raja Wastu constructed the defensive structures; walls and moats surrounding Kawali city, and renovated Surawisesa palace.
The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I (Jayagiri) reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care of "dayohan" in Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of collecting taxes from the residents because they were knowledgeable about the (Hindu) religion and worshiped the gods.
He reigned for about 104 years (1371–1475), and celebrated as an era of peace and prosperity. Compared to other previous Sunda kings, the Sundanese manuscript Carita Parahyangan allocated quite a lot of verses about Niskala Wastu Kancana, all of them full of praise and adoration.
Death and successor.
The Batutulis inscription dated from later period, mentioned him as Rahiyang Niskala Wastu Kancana, the father of Rahyang Niskala, and the grand father of Sri Baduga Maharaja, King of Pakuan Pajajaran. According to Carita Parahyangan, the hundred years old king was abdicated and retreated to hermit life. Rahiyang Niskala Wastu Kancana was buried at Nusa Larang (forbidden island), which might be identified as Nusa Kambangan near the estuarine of Ci Tanduy that flow through Galuh Kingdom territory.
Niskala Wastu Kancana's son, named as Tohaan di Galuh in Carita Parahyangan, succeeded him as the king. The new king however, reigned for only seven years and subsequently demoted. Carita Parahyangan tell that "... kena salah twa(h) bogo(h) ka estri larangan ti kaluaran ..," which translate as "because (his) wrongdoing, fell in love with a forbidden outsider woman." The term "outsider woman" is interesting and has led to various proposition; could it be the new king fell in love with a foreigner. Or according to tradition, probably it was because the new king fell in love with a Javanese woman. According to tradition, in his grief, enraged by the death of his family in Majapahit, King Niskala Wastu Kancana issued edict of "estri larangan ti kaluaran" which forbade Sundanese to marry Javanese. A law that later were violated by his own son.


Catarman Cathedral

Catarman Cathedral, also known as the Our Lady of the Annunciation Cathedral Parish, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in the Philippine municipality of Catarman, Northern Samar, in the country's Eastern Visayas region. It is dedicated to the Virgin Mary under the title Our Lady of the Annunciation, and has been the cathedral of the Diocese of Catarman since the diocese's establishment in 1974.
History.
The Jesuits ordered the construction of the first church made out of wood and nipa as a "visita" of the parish of Palapag, under the patronage of the "Nuestra Senora de la Anunciacion" in 1596. The said church was subsequently reconstructed after it was burned in an uprising headed by Agustin Sumuroy in 1649. The Franciscans took over the administration of Catarman in 1768. Fray Vicente Lopez, OFM ordered the construction of the fort as a defense against the frequent raids of Moro pirates. On December 8, 1854, the church was again reconstructed after suffering heavy damage during a typhoon. The parish church of Catarman became the island's newest cathedral when it was canonically dedicated as the seat of the Diocese of Catarman on March 11, 1975.


Sattagydia

Sattagydia (Old Persian: 𐎰𐎫𐎦𐎢𐏁 "Thataguš", country of the "hundred cows") was one of the easternmost regions of the Achaemenid Empire, part of its Seventh tax district according to Herodotus, along with Gandārae, Dadicae and Aparytae. It is believed to have been situated east of the Sulaiman Mountains up to the Indus River in the basin around Bannu in modern day's Pakistan .
Geography.
The location of Sattagydia has been subject to debate. Its association with Gandara in the 7th tax district of the Herodotus list implies that it was close to Gandara. Olmstead believed that it stretched from "the lower slopes of the Hindu Kush". Based on these considerations, two locations have been proposed: the first being "the area of the confluence of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers in Afghanistan", and the second, "the area of the middle Indus, around the modern city of Bannu".
Following recent archaeological findings, the Bannu basin has become the favoured choice. David Fleming points out that it is close to Kurram and Tochi rivers and it has four routes to the west, via the Khyber Pass, the Kurram river valley, the Gomal Pass and the Bolan Pass in Balochistan. Magee et al. have reported findings of recent archaeological excavations at Akra, noting that it was a large urban site that existed throughout the Iron Age and had trade relations with Central Asia.
People.
Representatives of Sattagydia are depicted as delegates bringing gifts to the king on the Apadana staircases, and as throne/ dais bearers on the Tripylon and Hall of One Hundred Columns reliefs at Persepolis. The representatives of Sattagydia are characterized by their loincloths, sandals, and exposed upper body, which distinguish them from the representatives of other eastern provinces such as Bactria and Arachosia.
History.
Sattagydia is mentioned for the first time in the Behistun inscription of Darius the Great as one of the provinces in revolt while the king was in Babylon. The revolt was presumably suppressed in 515 BCE. The satrapy disappears from sources after 480 BCE, possible being mentioned by another name or included with other regions.
After being conquered by Alexander the Great, Sattagydia became part of the Seleucid Empire. Under the Seleucids this area was adjacent to Sind, which was itself adjacent to Abiria (corresponding roughly to Rajasthan), with the coastal region being called Syrastrene. The area was taken from the Seleucids by the Mauryans under Chandragupta in 316 BCE.
And, beginning in the 1st century BC, the area was incorporated into the burgeoning Kushan empire, referred to as "Scythia" in the "Periplus".


Political history of the Philippines


Minkhaung II

Minkhaung II ( ; 9 October 1446 – 7 April 1501) was king of Ava from 1480 to 1501. His 20-year reign was the beginning of the decline of Ava's hold on Upper Burma. Yamethin, a region to the east of Ava, revolted upon Minkhaung's accession to the Ava throne and stayed independent throughout Minkhaung's reign. The southern regions of Prome and Tharrawaddy revolted in 1482, and also stayed independent. By the mid-1490s, the Shan states of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Kale (Kalay) had also broken away, and begun raiding northern Ava territories. Minkhaung increasingly came to rely on Mingyi Nyo, the Viceroy of Toungoo, for military assistance. By the end of his reign, Toungoo was equally powerful as its nominal overlord Ava.
Minkhaung II made his eldest son Thihathura II joint-king and co-ruled the kingdom for 15 years. But Thihathura II died a month before his father. Minkhaung II died in April 1501 and was succeeded by his younger son Shwenankyawshin (Narapati II).
Years as Crown Prince.
Minkhaung II was the eldest son of King Thihathura of Ava who made him crown prince during his reign (1468–1480), and was given Dabayin region in fief. His younger brothers also ruled various regions. His uncles Mingyi Swa and Thado Minsaw ruled the southern regions of Prome (Pyay) and Tharrawaddy, respectively.
Reign.
King Thihathura died in 1480, and Minkhaung II ascended the throne with the regnal name of Thirithuddhamma Yaza. As had become customary with the accession of each Ava king, Minkhaung needed to secure the loyalty of the rulers of each region in the kingdom. The new king's uncles in Prome and Tharrawaddy scarcely acknowledged him. But closer to Ava, his younger brothers, the rulers of Salin and Se in the west, and the ruler of Yamethin in the southeast openly revolted.
Rebellions.
Minye Kyawswa of Yamethin, which held the five irrigation districts of all important Kyaukse granary, was the greatest threat to Ava's power. Minkhaung ordered Sithu Kyawhtin, the former general and viceroy of Toungoo (Taungoo), to attack Yamethin, which is midway between Ava and Toungoo, from the south, while he marched from the north. But Yamethin's heavily fortified defenses prevailed. Sithu Kyawhtin died in battle, and Minkhaung called off the attack after a two-month-long siege. He appointed Sithu Kyawhtin's son Min Sithu (or Sithunge) as the new governor of Toungoo. Ava continuously tried to subdue Yamethin in subsequent years but the rebellious province managed to stay independent for the rest of his reign.
His inability to regain control of the Kyaukse granary meant Ava was never strong enough to pacify other regions. In 1482, Mingyi Swa of Prome died, and his brother Thado Minsaw of Tharrawaddy took over Prome, and declared himself independent. His nephew the king sent a force to attack Prome. But the Avan army could not take Prome, and retreated. Prome became an independent kingdom with territories up to Tharrawaddy and Myede. (It would stay independent until 1533, and semi-independent under Ava's rule until 1542.)
Still in 1482, the Shan states of Mohnyin and Momeik in the north also revolted. Minkhaung, still focused on Yamethin, could not do much with the other revolts. By the 1490s, the Shan states previously loyal to Ava--Kale (Kalay), Mogaung along with Mohnyin and Momeik had also escaped Ava's control. Only the Shan state of Hsipaw (Thibaw) remained a steadfast ally of Ava. Mohyin in particular resumed its historic role in raiding Upper Burma towns, especially Myedu.
Alliance with Mingyi Nyo of Toungoo.
In 1485, Mingyi Nyo assassinated his uncle Min Sithu, whom Minkhaung appointed as governor of Toungoo only five years earlier. But Nyo quickly sent tributes to Ava. Minkhaung was not in a position to punish Nyo and accepted Nyo's submission. He formally granted Nyo Toungoo. Nyo remained a loyal ally of Ava for the remainder of Minkhaung's reign. In the 1490s, Toungoo fought against Yamethin and Hanthawaddy Kingdom in the south. In 1492, after the death of King Dhammazedi of Hanthawaddy, Nyo without Minkhaung's permission, sent a probing raid into Hanthawaddy territory. New Hanthawaddy king Binnya Ran II sent a retaliatory raid in 1495. By the end of his reign, Toungoo was equally powerful as its nominal overlord Ava.
Ava and Yamethin were locked in a series of wars until the end. Minye Kyawswa of Yamethin died in August/September 1500 (Tawthalin 862 ME). His brother Minkhaung died shortly after on 7 April 1501 (5th waning of Tagu 862 ME).
Joint rule with his son.
At his accession to the throne, Minkhaung made his seven-year-old eldest son the heir-apparent. In 1485, Minkhaung II made the 12-year-old prince was made joint-king with the title of Maha Thihathura. The co-regent Thihathura II of Ava lived in the same palace with his father, and displayed a white umbrella as a symbol of sovereignty. He co-ruled with his father for 15 years but died in March 1501, a month before his father.


Binnya Kyan (minister)

Binnya Kyan (, ; died 1538) was a senior minister at the court of King Takayutpi of Hanthawaddy. He and Binnya Law, another senior minister, organized and led the coastal kingdom's defenses, which successfully repulsed the upstart Toungoo's three dry season raids between 1534 and 1538. They both were childhood tutors of the young king, and were absolutely devoted to him. Nonetheless, both ministers were executed in 1538 by the young king who believed in Toungoo's misinformation that the ministers were Toungoo moles. After their death, the king found himself helpless. When Toungoo forces came once again in late 1538, he decided to flee rather than fight.


Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society

The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (also JBNHS) is a natural history journal published several times a year by the Bombay Natural History Society. First published in January 1886, and published with only a few interruptions since, the "JBNHS" is one of the best-known journals in the fields of natural history, conservation, and biodiversity research.
Major editors: 1886-1985.
Format: decade. "major" editor(s). (For more details, see .)


High Island Detention Centre

The High Island Detention Centre () was a refugee camp in Hong Kong built near the West Dam of High Island Reservoir for hosting refugees and boat people from Vietnam. The area is now a flat piece of grassland that is grazed by cows. It has a pavilion that leads out of the strip of land.
The Centre was initially managed by Hong Kong Police, and then by the CSD from 1991. The construction of the Centre was delayed by two months after concerned Sai Kung residents staged a sit-in at the site. It opened in 1989 and closed in May 1998. During that period, more than 20,000 boat people passed through its doors.


Kalloori

Kalloori (English: "College") is a 2007 Tamil language coming-of-age drama film by director Balaji Shakthivel. The movie was produced by S. Shankar's banner S Pictures. The story, based on a college campus, featuring debutants Akhil, Tamannaah, and Bharani alongside an ensemble cast including Hemalatha, Maya Reddy, Rajeshwari, Sailatha, Prakaash, Kamakshinathan, and Thisaigal Arunkumar. The audio was released under Shankar's own audio company S Music; Promote by "Softment". The music was scored by Joshua Sridhar, and lyrics were written by Na. Muthukumar. The film released on 7 December 2007.
The film was dubbed in Telugu as "Kalasala". The film received positive reviews from the critics as well as audience and become a superhit.
The film was inspired on a real-life incident of three college girls of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University being burnt alive in the 2000 Dharmapuri bus burning incident.
Plot.
The film begins with a group of students clearing weeds near a roadside tree.
The scene flashes back a few years earlier in a bus with a lot of college students heading towards Government Arts College in a small town. A set of people – Muthuchelvan, Ramesh, Kayalvizhi, Adhilakshmi, Nagarani, Albert, Kamakshinathan, Salima, Ayyanar – are introduced as friends since high school. Muthu is a well-talented athlete. Ramesh is a big flirt and movie buff. Kayal is a strong-willed and courageous woman who hates the idea of falling in love within friends. Adhilakshmi is a food lover. Nagarani is a Telugu-speaking girl who gets fits when she is frightened. Albert is a Christian who always gets abused by his drunkard father. Kamakshinathan is a rich yet timid person who gets very shy to introduce himself to his classmates at the first day of college. Salima is a Muslim girl who is both intelligent in studies and talented in dance. Ayyanar is a quirky guy. All are studying in the same class. They enter into the college for the first time. In the classroom, they see a beautiful girl named Shobhana, who is strikingly different. She looks depressed and aloof. The friends are puzzled by her in the beginning, and they later learn that she recently lost her mother in an accident. The group sympathizes for her and brings her into their fold. Shobhana soon becomes a member of their group and ditches her plans to pursue her course in Delhi simply to be with these friends during college.
The movie goes on to narrate the college life with fun and colour. It shows the strength of the friendship and the backgrounds of the friends; most of them are from poor families. Muthu has an aim in his life. Being an athlete, he wants to excel in sports and get a good job through the sports quota to give his poor family a new lease of life. Shobhana, who is from a wealthy family background, feels sympathy for Muthu after she sees the conditions that he and his family live in. She is moved by his perseverance and helps him achieve his goal by encouraging him in every chance. She even advises him that there is more he has to do and be capable of achieving in life, so he should take her encouragements as a way to improve his career and nothing else. But eventually, her encouraging stance turns into some sort of special attachment with him. Slowly, love develops in the minds of both, but they chose to put it on the back seat for the sake of the larger friendship that they share with the group.
Eventually, the friends take a college trip to Andhra. On the way, they stop at a hotel, but there is only non-vegetarian food being served, so Muthu volunteers to run to the nearest vegetarian restaurant a few kilometers away to bring food for Shobhana, who is a vegetarian. Shobhana confessed her love for Muthu to Kayal, which she accepts it wholeheartedly and says that even though she hates the concept of love between best friends, she does not want to spoil Shobhana's happiness and true love. This conversation was overheard by Adhilakshmi. The latter says this to the rest of the gang, to their surprise and delight. Unfortunately, fate has other plans. The hotel they were initially eating at is urgently closed because some politician or another has been arrested. The group boards the bus urgently and tries to go to a collector's office or police station to keep safe while two classmates wait for Muthu to come back. On the way, however, the bus is stopped by the protestors, and despite pleas to allow them to pass, the protestors light the bus on fire. In a frenzy, everyone tries to evacuate the bus, and Nagarani gets fits. In a scramble to safely get off the bus, the rest of the group fail to realize that some students are still trapped. After the firefighters finish putting out the fire, they bring out the burnt bodies of Kayal, Adhilakshmi and Shobhana, who have embraced each other in their final moments together - Kayal having stayed back to help Shobhana, whose chudi had gotten caught in the bus.
The last scene flashes back to the beginning of the movie, where the group of people were clearing the weeds. It has been eight years since the incident, and every year, the group of friends come to pay respects to their lost friends, and Muthu still keeps Shobhana's handkerchief in remembrance of their love.
Soundtrack.
Reception.
Behindwoods stated that Joshua Sridhar's style evoked the period of the film and said that Na. Muthukumar's lyrics evoked a nostalgic feeling.
Release.
The satellite rights of the film were sold to Kalaignar.
Critical reception.
Behind woods stated that the movie works but its lack of action and dance numbers might affect its prospects at the box office. Indiaglitz said out that the climax scene was credibly portrayed but didn't fit well into the script.
After the film was released, Sakthivel changed the climax because of the negative reaction to a scene in the film which was reminiscent of a real-life incident where girls were burned on a bus.


Wildlife of Kazakhstan

The wildlife of Kazakhstan includes its flora and fauna, and their natural habitats.
Fauna.
Birds.
The avifauna of Kazakhstan includes a total of 513 species, of which 5 are rare or accidental.
Flora.
The diversity of a flora of Kazakhstan considerably varies both by structure and number of various systematic taxa of plants, and by geography, in particular, by nature-climatic zones and high-altitude belts. In Kazakhstan there are more than 6,000 species of highest vascular plants, about 5,000 species of mushrooms, 485 species of lichen, and more than 2,000 species of seaweed.


Andrew MacGregor Marshall

Andrew MacGregor Marshall (born 25 March 1971) is a Scottish journalist and author, focusing mainly on human rights, conflict, politics and crime, mostly in Asia and the Middle East. A noted critic of the Thai monarchy and government, in June 2011, Marshall resigned from Reuters in controversial circumstances after the news agency refused to publish exclusive stories he was writing on the Thai monarchy. His 2014 book "A Kingdom in Crisis" was banned in Thailand and a prominent Thai royalist made a formal complaint to police accusing Marshall of several crimes including "lèse majesté".
Career.
Marshall was a correspondent for Reuters for 17 years, covering political upheaval in Thailand and the conflicts in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan. In 2000, he was named Reuters' Deputy Bureau Chief in Bangkok. He was Reuters' Baghdad bureau chief from 2003 to 2005 as a violent insurgency gripped Iraq, and was Reuters' managing editor for the Middle East from 2006 to 2008. From 2008 he was based in Singapore as a political risk analyst and emerging markets editor. He left Reuters in June 2011 when the agency refused to publish a set of articles about Thailand's monarchy he authored based on his analysis of leaked US diplomatic cables.
"#thaistory" controversy.
In June 2011 Marshall announced he had resigned from Reuters to publish a set of stories about Thailand that the news agency had refused to run. Later the same month he published the material himself. Entitled "Thailand's Moment of Truth", his study analysed the role of the monarchy in Thai politics and included references to hundreds of leaked US diplomatic cables. The cables were also later released by WikiLeaks. Thailand has harsh "lèse majesté" laws that criminalise criticism of the royal family, and journalists covering the country have tended to follow a policy of self-censorship, refraining from any comment on the monarchy that could be deemed critical. Marshall's study, usually referred to by its Twitter hashtag "#thaistory", used evidence from the cables to argue the monarchy played a central political role in Thailand which had never been properly reported.
In an article for the "Independent" newspaper, Marshall noted that his publication of #thaistory meant he may be imprisoned if he returned to Thailand, and that he understood Reuters' refusal to publish the material given the risks to its staff and business in Thailand if it offended the monarchy. Reuters gave a different explanation, telling "The Times" and "The Independent" that the story didn't "work" in the format in which it was delivered, that they had questions regarding length, sourcing, objectivity and legal issues, and that Marshall "was not participating in the normal editing process."
Marshall's #thaistory generated significant comment and debate. Nicholas Farrelly, a fellow at the Australian National University, wrote that the initial instalments published "have quickly become online sensations", adding "his insights will reverberate in Thai analytical circles for many years to come". Joshua Kurlantzick, Southeast Asia fellow at the Council of Foreign Relations, said Marshall's work was "perhaps the biggest bombshell of reportage on Thailand in decades". Graeme Dobell of the Lowy Institute for International Policy described #thaistory as "journalism of the highest order" and Pavin Chachavalpongpun of the Institute of South East Asian Studies wrote: "Marshall has undoubtedly helped push the boundaries much further as one looks at the present state of the Thai monarchy." Richard Lloyd Parry, Asia editor for "The Times" newspaper, said #thaistory was "a profound study, beyond mere journalism".
The Thai authorities have a policy of not officially acknowledging the existence of controversial WikiLeaks cables, and so did not comment on #thaistory, but Thanong Khanthong, managing editor of the generally pro-establishment "Nation" newspaper, claimed it was part of an international plot to destabilise Thailand.
Death of King Ananda Mahidol.
Marshall has done extensive research into the mysterious shooting of Ananda Mahidol, King Rama VIII of Thailand, on 9 June 1946. He argues that the evidence overwhelmingly suggests Bhumibol Adulyadej killed his brother, probably accidentally, and this was covered up to enable Bhumibol to become king.
"A Kingdom in Crisis".
Marshall's book "A Kingdom in Crisis" was published by Zed Books in October 2014. Reviewing the book for the New Mandala website, Patrick Jory, senior lecturer in Southeast Asian History at the University of Queensland, wrote: "Marshall, a former Reuters journalist, has for some years now been the foremost commentator on the taboo subject of the role of the monarchy in Thailand’s politics... Marshall has written a provocative, clearly argued, accessible, timely, and convincing book."
On 11 November 2014 Thai police chief General Somyot Poompanmuang announced that the book had been banned in Thailand. Violators of the ban were liable to a prison term of up to three years and/or a fine of up to 60,000 baht. "The content insults, defames and threatens Thailand's monarchy," Somyot said in a statement. "The book is a danger to national security and peaceful and orderly society."
Accusations of "lèse majesté" and sedition.
On 9 December 2014, Thai royalist Wanthongchai Chamnankit filed a formal complaint with police, accusing Marshall of breaking Article 112 of the Thai criminal code – the "lèse majesté" law. Wanthongchai also accused Marshall of violating Article 116 – a law prohibiting sedition, with a maximum penalty of death – and Article 14 of the Computer Crime Act.
Detention of wife by Thai police.
On 22 July 2016, more than 20 police raided the family home of Marshall's wife Noppawan "Ploy" Bunluesilp in Bangkok while she was visiting Thailand, seizing her phones and computer equipment. She was taken to the headquarters of the Crime Suppression Division in Bangkok along with the couple's three-year-old son, and her father. Noppawan was interrogated for several hours and denied access to a lawyer. Her detention generated widespread international attention and she was released the same day. She subsequently left Thailand.
Death of King Bhumibol.
Marshall reported the death of Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadej on 13 October 2016, several hours before the official announcement by the royal palace. He was the first journalist in the world to break the news.
Thai junta bans online contact.
On 13 April 2017, the ruling Thai junta issued a statement forbidding Thais from any online interaction with Marshall and two other prominent overseas commentators on Thai politics and the monarchy – professors Somsak Jeamteerasakul and Pavin Chachavalpongpun. The Ministry of Digital Economy said Thais should not follow, contact or share content from the trio on the internet or social media. Marshall responded by saying: "“I believe Thais should be free to read information from all sources and make up their own mind about what they believe.”


History of the Iban people

The oral history of the Iban has traditionally been committed to memory in the oral forms of literature i.e. inchantations (timang or pengap) and genealogies (tusut), and some of these are recorded in a system of writing on boards ("papan turai") as pneumonics by the initiated shamans, or lemambang. This includes elaborate genealogical records, which usually go back about fifteen generations, although some purport to go back up to twenty-five. These genealogies ("tusuts") are essentially records of who married who and whom begat whom. Names of individuals with great achievements in life are accompanied by a short description, a praise-name (ensumbar) and the respective narratives of their accomplishments. So, this is how the Iban records their history in the oral form.
Some of the songs of the Iban people's oral history (such as the ritual "pengap" chant, sung during festivals) are mythological or historical accounts composing of key events, major milestones or famous names.
Pre-colonisation.
According to oral histories, the Iban arrived in western Sarawak from Indonesia about 1675. There are three groups of Iban i.e. the original Bejie group who was the first Ibans in Borneo, the People of Panggau and Gelong who migrated from Java and the Raja Durong group originating from Sumatra, whom becomes the People of Tansang Kenyalang under Sengalang Burong. Prior to these secondary migrations, there were two more groups arriving at Borneo during the first migrations to the Borneo Island i.e. the Sebungkok group at Tanjung Datu (Melano Cape) and the group at the Merudu Hill near Brunei. These two groups arrived at about the same time with the arrival of the Bejie group at Ketapang. After initial phase of colonising and settling the river valleys, displacing or absorbing the local populations of Bukitans and Serus, there began a period of total war both inter-tribal and inter-tribal in nature.
Local leaders were forced to resist the tax collectors of the Malay sultans (Brunei).
At the same time, the Iban started to be culturally influenced by the Malay, and Iban leaders begin to be known by Malay titles such as "Orang Kaya" and Panglima. Several of the Malays active on the river-estuaries, such as Indra Lela, Sharif Japar and Sharif Sahap, claimed to be descendants of the prophet. Sharif Ahmit was killed by the Iban.
The Bajau and Illanun, arrived from the Philippines in galleys plundered in Borneo, and were fought by the Iban. Oral tradition recounts such a fight by Unggang "Lebor Menoa" from Entanak near modern Betong.
According to tradition, Unggang or Sunggang "Lebor Menoa" encountered Chinese traders who came in ships to the Saribas in order to sell cooking pots, brass pots, pottery bowls, shell armlets and cowry shells for padi.
During that time, the Ibans were also engaged in conflict with the Orang Ulu of northern Sarawak, the Bidayuh of southern Sarawak, the Kantu and other Indonesian ethnic tribes from eastern Sarawak; the Iban successfully controlled the western coastline of Sarawak.
The start of enmity between Sebuyau, Balau and Undup Ibans against Saribas and Skrang Ibans can be traced back to the incitements by the Malays who collected taxes on behalf of the Brunei Sultanate.
The Malay leader Indra Lela, brother of Lela Wangsa of Lingga and Lela Pelawan, incited the Saribas and Skrang Ibans to war against the Sebuyau Dayaks in order to control them.
Undoubtedly, the Malays did encourage Iban warfare, among Ibans themselves (intratribal war) and against Malay-ruled peoples who evaded contribution (intertribal war).
The Saribas were led by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang" of Padeh, in alliance with Linggir "Mali Lebu" who was the son of Uyut "Bedilang Besi" of Paku, Bunyau Apai Bakir of Entanak and Unal "Bulan" of Ulu Layar.
The Skrang were led by Libau "Rentap", Orang Kaya Gasing and Orang Kaya Rabong. Rentap was later conferred the title of Raja Ulu (Upriver King) by his followers while fighting Rajah Brooke at Mount Sadok and was famous for his battle cry of "AGI IDUP AGI NGELABAN" meaning "STILL ALIVE, STILL FIGHTING".
The Sebuyau Dayaks were led by their chief Ngelambong and later his son Temenggong Jugah of Lundu.
The outbreak of intratribal warfare coincided roughly with the beginnings of friction with Brunei and contacts with the Illanuns and other sea raiders. However, even prior to this, there had been fighting on several occasions, one of which is the story of Beti (Brauh Ngumbang) of Skrang and his quarrel with the Sebuyau warrior named Chagik who had unsuccessfully courted Riti who became Beti's seventh wife.
Two more occasions that led to the intra-tribal wars involved men from the Saribas who had become involved in quarrels in their own home rivers fled to the Sebuyau settlements. They subsequently involved the Sebuyau people in the dispute with the Saribas Ibans.
The first occasion was between two friends by the name of Brayun versus Janang over a lady known as Bremas, in the Ulu Samu during the chieftain of Saing, the son of Tuah. Brayun slashed one of Janang's ears who then fled to Sebuyau and returned with some Sebuyau people to attack Brayun's house.
Another incident of the Saribas-Sebuyau hostility took place as a result of a quarrel over a tapang tree which was a source of honey at a small Bangkit stream that lies between the Paku and Rimbas rivers in Saribas. There were two longhouses here, one under the leadership of Anal and Sana and the other under Senabong who claimed ownership of the same tapang tree.
Both sides agreed to settle the dispute over a diving (kelam ai) contest which Sana and Anal claimed that Senabong had lost but he disagreed. Senabong people then migrated to Telong Semerang from which they first sent a war party back to their old home to fight against Sana and Anal.
After they had migrated to Sebuyau, Senabong’s men again raided Bangkit but this time with the assistance of the Sebuyau people. By now, Sana and Anal were so worried by these attacks that they humbly invited Gerijih (Ai Marang) of Paku to come and live with them in Bangkit. After many more adventures, Gerijih finally defeated Senabong and took his head.
Further clash between the Sebuyau and the people of Saribas took place in the time of Luta who was the son of Unggang (Lebur Menua) of Entanak. According to Saribas oral history, the Sebuyau Dayaks themselves murdered Luta’s brother named Ngadan. It should be remembered that more Sebuyau Dayaks lived at other areas in Sarawak including Lundu and Samarahan.
In retaliation for this incident, Luta led the Saribas people to raid Sebuyau where he killed many of the enemies. After the missing of Luta and his brothers Mulok and Ketit in search of the valuable tuchong shell armlet off Cape Datu, the leadership in the Saribas was passed from his family at Entanak to that of Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana (Bayang) of the Padeh tributary.
While chief Nyanggau and his followers living in his longhouse at Lemas in the Undup river, they were attacked and defeated by Indra Lela and his forces from the Skrang. Due to this defeat, Nyanggau and his people fled away to settle at Dau, in Indonesian Borneo.
About 1834, the Skrang led by Orang Kaya Rabong made a raid on Banting Hill, which was inhabited by Balau Dayaks and Malays, who suffered heavy losses. Before the fight, one Balau shaman (medicine man) by the name of Manang Langgong announced loudly that Indra Lela was the instigator for the quarrel between them as follows:
“Why are we fighting? We have no quarrel with each other. It is all the fault of Indra Lela who has been playing a double game!” shouted Langgong.
When Indra Lela heard this, he jumped into the Lingga River to escape being beheaded by the Dayaks. According to a story, he turned into a crocodile, which for years afterwards caught unwary people swimming and bathing in the region.
However, despite this, the battle continued and the Banting Malays and Balau Dayaks were badly defeated. It was during this attack that Chulo (Tarang) a leading warrior of Linggir (Mali Lebu) made his praise-name or ensumbar "Tarang".
Three years later in 1837, Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana made war on the Undup Ibans who had killed his brother Angkum and utterly defeated them, taking many captives and looting a famous guchi jar that was thought to have magical properties. This war was famously called "Bala Besai" (Great Force) because all people from Skrang and Saribas joined the war or "Ngayau Lus" (Extinct War) because the great force attacked not only one longhouse but all longhouses in the Undup to finish them off.
The surviving Undup Ibans took refuge in the Kapuas valley and Lingga and later settled in the area of Salimbau. Only under the rule of Brooke did they return to Banting hill, which had meanwhile been settled by the Skrang.
In retaliation, the Sebuyau Sea Dayaks under Orang Kaya Temenggong Jugah Anak Ngelambong of Lundu attacked Paku on the Saribas at about the time. He attacked Adir's longhouse at Matop but most inhabitants had fled earlier.
Ca. 1838, the Balau Sea Dayaks raided the Saribas and Kalaka (Krian) which is a place east of the Saribas under the leadership of Ijau "Lang" and his son-in-law Orang Kaya Janting to avenge their previous losses at Banting and revenge for their disturbed peace and harmonious lives. However, Ijau "Lang" was defeated by Unal "Bulan" at the Plassan stream in Saribas while Janting defeated the large longhouse of Orang Kaya Temenggong Tandok at the Melupa stream in Kalaka.
Early in 1839 in revenge for the defeat of his father-in-law Ijau "Lang", Janting and all his bravest warriors of Banting set out to fight the Saribas. They had decided to attack both the Paku and Rimbas tributaries in the Saribas. The combined Rimbas and Paku defenders agreed to fight the attackers in the Rimbas tributary at Nanga Undai stream on the night of the next full moon.
However, the Rimbas force came earlier than the Paku force but later than the Balau force who attacked them and capsized their smaller boats straightaway. Many of the Rimbas Ibans were killed including the sons of Orang Kaya Antau and Gun who had come with the war party.
The battles mentioned above were all between various groups of Ibans who lived at the mouths of different rivers. This intermittent struggle continued after 1839. It was because of these that the newly arrived James Brooke found that he could easily get the support of the Sebuyau, Undup and Balau Dayaks in his warfare against the Saribas and Skrang and later on against the Kanowit and Ulu Rajang.
The quarrel and war between the upper and downriver of Batang Ai resulted in the migration back to Batang Kanyau from which the Iban crossed over to the upper Batang Katibas and proceeded to the upper Batang Baleh, a branch of the Batang Rajang.
Rule by Brooke.
The Iban fell under the rule of Rajah James Brooke in 1841. Notably, Brooke was not colonizing or ruling on behalf of the British Empire; he ruled Sarawak as an absolute monarch, unconnected to any imperial power. After defeating the rebellion led by Datu Patinggi Ali in Kuching (then Sarawak proper), James Brooke was appointed the Rajah of Sarawak. His second biggest battle was against the Iban of Saribas and Skrang region led by Linggi "Mali Lebu" at the battle of Beting Maru. After this, James Brooke tried to sign the Saribas Peace Treaty with Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang".
Charles Brooke, the second rajah, was committed to ending purported headhunting and piracy on the part of the Iban, and made numerous attempts to quell such activities with military force which is mostly made of local inhabitants who were exempted from paying local door taxes and could take any heads and other valuable items like jars and brassware. This often led to organized resistance by the Iban. In one instance, the Iban leader Libau (Rentap) resisted Brooke from his fortress on Mount Sadok and only defeated after 3 successive punitive expeditions. The Ibans of Lingga, the Undup Ibans and the Sebuyau fought for Brooke. After Balang "Balai Nyabung" was executed by the Brooke government, his brother Enjop led a rebellion in the Katibas region which was quelled after 3 punitive expeditions. Bantin "Ijau Lelayang was another rebel leader along with Pengulu Ngumbang "Berauh Langit" in the upper Batang Ai. Lintong "Mua Ari" of Kanowit, Kana of Engkari and Kedu "Lang Ngindang" also once rebelled against the Brooke government. Thereafter, the Iban became vital allies of the Brooke dynasty, with the defeat of both Rentap and later the last rebel leader Asun.
Vyner Brooke was the third rajah of Sarawak. He had to quell rebellions by Tabur, Pengulu Merum and Asun of Entabai. He ceded Sarak to the British government after the second World War after winning a mojority vote in the Sarawak State Assembly and local resistance of the secession idea. However, Sir Edward Ardell who was the British governor in Sarawak gave independence to Sarawak on 22 July 1963. Soon Sarawak formed the Federation of Malaysia with Sabah, Malaya and Singapore (which ceded later).
Warfare between Dayak peoples continued to be an intermittent problem for the regime until the Great Peacemaking in Kapit in 1924, when the Rajah Vyner also consolidated the support of the Iban by appointing one of their great war heroes Koh Anak Jubang (1870–1956) to the position of "Temenggong" or paramount chief. Koh became a member of the advisory council of the state, the Council Negri, and converted to Christianity in 1949. He was awarded the Queen's Medal for Chiefs and the Order of the British Empire.
World War II.
During the Japanese occupation of Sarawak from 1942-5 the Iban also played a role in guerilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division where headhunting was temporarily revived towards the end of the war.
At this time Sarawak came under the temporary military administration of the Australian forces, who were particularly prominent in the liberation of Borneo.
Sarawak got its own independence from the British on 22 July 1963 while Sabah got its independence on 31 August 1963.
On 16 September 1963, the Federation of Malaysia was formed between the Federation of Malaya at that time, Sabah (North Borneo), Sarawak and Singapore.
The Cobbold Commission which surveyed Sarawakians about the formation of Malaysia reported a third favours its formation while another third was against it and the remaining third did not form any opinion.
Brunei refused to join the formation of Malaysia and got its independence in 1984 from the British.
Singapore ceded from Malaysia in 1969 to be independent until today.