History of the Pacific Islands

History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Histories.
Easter Island – Rapanui.
Easter Island is one of the youngest inhabited territories on earth, and for most of the history of Easter Island it was the most isolated inhabited territory on Earth. Its inhabitants, the Rapanui, have endured famines, epidemics, civil war, slave raids and colonialism; have seen their population crash on more than one occasion, and created a cultural legacy that has brought them fame out of proportion to their numbers.
Cook Islands.
In Cook Islands Māori pre-history, Chieftains from present day French Polynesia and their tribes, along with navigators, took their ships in search of unknown or newly found lands, first arriving in the southern island groups around 800 AD or earlier. Many other tribal migrations from French Polynesia, notably Tahiti would continue for centuries forming a unique Māori society.
Similarly, the northern islands were also settled from the east, with some of the northern islands possibly having had later interactions with Western Polynesia. The capital Rarotonga, is known, from various oral histories to have been the launching site of seven waka ship voyagers who settled in New Zealand, becoming the major tribes of the New Zealand Māori. Up until relatively recently there was continuous contact between both lands where back and forth migration and trade took place. The Cook Islands Te Reo Māori language is closely related to the Te Reo Maori indigenous language of New Zealand. Spanish ships visited the islands in the 16th century; the first written record of contact with the islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka by Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595 who called it "San Bernardo" (Saint Bernard). A few years later, a Spanish expedition led by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, calling it "Gente Hermosa" (Beautiful People). The country is named after British captain Captain James Cook who surveyed and landed on some of the islands between 1774 and 1777.
Fiji.
The history of Fiji dates back to ancient times. There are many theories as to how the Fijian race came into existence. Around 1500 BC Fiji was settled by Austronesian seafarers. Around 900–600 BC Moturiki Island was settled. By 500 BC, Melanesian seafarers had reached Fiji and intermarried with the Austronesian inhabitants, giving rise to the modern Fijian people. In 1643 AD, Abel Tasman sighted Vanua Levu Island and northern Taveuni. According to native oral legends Fijians were also descendants of a nomadic tribe from Tanganika (Tanzania).
Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.
The history of Guam involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient Chamorros, the development of "pre-contact" society, Spanish colonization, and the present American rule of the island. Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro) history into three periods: "Pre-Latte" (BC 2000? to AD 1) "Transitional Pre-Latte" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and "Latte" (AD 1000 to AD 1521). Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan's expedition arrived, as latte stones became bigger. The original inhabitants of Guam are believed to be descendants of Indigenous Taiwanese People originating from the high mountains of Taiwan as early as 4,000 BC, having linguistic and cultural similarities to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands and Chamorros are considered one of the oldest mixed race in the Pacific. In 1668 the Spanish formally incorporated the islands to the Spanish East Indies and founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for the west-bound Manila galleons. The territory was ceded by Spain more than two centuries later, when in 1898 the United States took over the islands following the Spanish–American War. The chamorro culture has evolved much since European contact and has been much influenced by Spanish and American colonization. Although the original culture no longer exists, it is now being revived with contemporary alternatives and similarities in styles with all the other pacific islands. Not one unique, but all combined to form a uniqueness in style, to today's modern interpretation of what their culture might have been. It should also be mentioned that the Chamorros on Guam view their culture & language differently than the Chamorros on the Northern Mariana Islands.
Hawaii.
Hawaiian history is inextricably tied into a larger Polynesian phenomenon. Hawaii is the northernmost vertex of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean anchored by three island groups: Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand). The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions, such as religion, social organization, myths, and material culture. Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended from a South Pacific proto-culture created by an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) people that had migrated from Southeast Asia. The seven main Polynesian cultures are Aotearoa, Hawaii, Rapa Nui, Marquesas, Samoa, Tahiti, and Tonga.
The early settlement history of Hawaii is a topic of continuing debate. Estimates for the date of first settlement of the Hawai'ian islands range from the 3rd century C.E. to between 940 and 1130 C.E.
Indonesia.
In the history of Indonesia, Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BC, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet-field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and "ikat" weaving methods. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,
allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century AD.
Japan.
The written history of Japan begins with brief references in the 1st century AD "Twenty-Four Histories", a collection of Chinese historical texts. However, archaeological evidence indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. Following the last ice-age, around 12,000 BC, the rich ecosystem of the Japanese Archipelago fostered human development. The earliest-known pottery belongs to the Jōmon period.
Kiribati.
In the history of Kiribati, the islands which now form the Republic of Kiribati have been inhabited for at least seven hundred years, and possibly much longer. The initial Micronesian population, which remains the overwhelming majority today, was visited by Polynesian and Melanesian invaders before the first European sailors "discovered" the islands in the 16th century. For much of the subsequent period, the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands, was ruled as part of the British Empire. The country gained its independence in 1979 and has since been known as Kiribati.
Malaysia.
History of Malaysia is the written past of a country in South East Asia whose strategic sea-lane position brought trade and foreign influences that fundamentally influenced its history. Hindu India, the Islamic Middle East and Christian Europe to its west, and China and Japan to the north-east were major influences brought by shipping routes passing through the region. Malaysian history is also intertwined with that of neighbouring Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Brunei and Thailand. This trade and foreign cultures brought the area great wealth and diversity, but has also domination and colonialism. The history of Malaysia is one of successive phases of outside influence, followed by the mid-20th century establishment of independence from foreign colonial powers.
New Caledonia.
In the history of New Caledonia, the diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the Lapita. They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands around 1500 BC. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago. Europeans first sighted New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands in the late 18th century. The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it "New Caledonia", Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland. During the same voyage he also named the islands to the north of New Caledonia the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), after the islands north of Scotland.
New Zealand.
The History of New Zealand dates back to at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer, the Dutch Abel Tasman, came to New Zealand in 1642. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori equal rights with British citizens. There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to European ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.
From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place. Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following Britain or the United States, became more independent. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.
Niue Island.
The history of the Niue Island can be traced back to a 1,000 years when the Polynesian settles came here. Traces of Pukapulan dialect are still there in the native language which is based on the Samoan and Tongan language. The Polynesian settlers were raters isolated as there was very little inter island trade and the existence of the limestone island was in itself very difficult due to lack of rivers and cultivable soil.
The modern history of Niue can be traced back to the 1740s with the arrival of Captain James Cook. Cook described the island as "Savage Island" in his records as the natives were not very welcoming to strangers. This was in complete contrast to the Tongans he described as "The Friendly Islands". Captain Cook tried to set his foot thrice on the island but was repulsed each of the three times. The natives at that time were quite hostile to strangers. Christianity was brought to the island by Peniamina in the year 1846 when he got converted during his stay at Samoa. The islanders were completely converted to Christianity by the end of the 19th century. Colonization took place thereafter and the island was declared as a part of the British Empire.
The island country became independent in 1974 but still have a free association agreement with New Zealand and many of its citizens have become citizens of New Zealand. Now the Island country has a democracy and is governed by a legislative assembly consisting of 20 members. Niue is the smallest democracy in the world.
Papua New Guinea.
The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the Australian continent. The written history began when European navigators first sighted New Guinea in the early part of the 16th century. Portuguese explorers first arrived from the west and later Spanish navigators from the east, after crossing the Pacific. The island was given its name "New Guinea" by Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez who sailed its coast in 1545. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see Australia – New Guinea. Although the first arrivals were hunter-gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost. There are indications that gardening was being practised at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Philippines.
In the beginning of the history of the Philippines, the arrival of the first humans via land bridges at least 30,000 years ago. Austronesians actively settled the island from Taiwan from 2500 BCE and displaced Negritoes from the Coastal areas, forcing them into the mountains. Due to influence from the Cholas and states they had cultural influence over, Indianized Hindu kingdoms arose in the early Medieval period and the Islamic Sultanate of Brunei extended its rule over parts of Mindanao by the late 15th century. The first visit from Western explorers is the arrival of a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who arrived on Homonhon Island, southeast of Samar on 16 March 1521. Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi's expedition and permanent settlement in the island of Cebu in 1565, and more settlements continued northward with the Spanish settlers reaching the bay of Manila on the island of Luzon in 1571. In Manila, they established a new town and thus began an era of Spanish colonization that lasted for more than three centuries. The Philippines were conquered by the United States in 1898, occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945 and given independence in 1946.
Samoa.
In the History of Samoa, contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century but did not intensify until the arrival of the English. In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to sight the islands. Missionaries and traders arrived in the 1830s. Halfway through the 19th century, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trade posts. King Malietoa Leaupepe died in 1898 and was succeeded by Malietoa Tooa Mataafa. The US and British consuls supported Malietoa Tanu, Leaupepe's son. US and British warships, including the USS "Philadelphia" shelled Apia on 15 March 1899. After World War I, the League of Nations carved up Samoa. Britain and New Zealand took over the western islands which became 'Western Samoa' and USA claimed the eastern half of the country which became American Samoa. In 1962, Western Samoa became the first Pacific Island nation to gain political independence. In 1997, Samoa officially dropped the 'Western' from its name as it was an appendage from its colonial era.
Solomon Islands.
The human history of the Solomon Islands begins with the first settlement at least 30,000 years ago from New Guinea. They represented the furthest expansion of humans into the Pacific Ocean until the expansion of Austronesian-language speakers through the area around 4000 BCE, bringing new agricultural and maritime technology. Most of the languages spoken today in the Solomon Islands derive from this era, but some thirty languages of the pre-Austronesian settlers survive "(see East Papuan languages)." The first European contact was that of Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira whose expedition first sighted Santa Isabel island on 7 February 1568. Finding signs of alluvial gold on Guadalcanal, Mendaña believed he had found the source of King Solomon's wealth, and consequently named the islands "The Islands of Solomon". Many of the islands were also named by these explorers, including Guadalcanal, the Santa Cruz Islands, San Cristobal, Santa Ana and Santa Isabel. In 1595 and 1605 Spain again sent several expeditions to find the islands and establish a colony, though these were unsuccessful. In 1767 Captain Philip Carteret rediscovered Santa Cruz and Malaita. Later, Dutch, French and British navigators visited the islands; their reception was often hostile.
Tahiti.
In the history of Tahiti, Tahiti is estimated to have been settled by Polynesians between CE 300 and 800 coming from Tonga and Samoa, although some estimates place the date earlier. The fertile island soil combined with fishing provided ample food for the population. Although the first European sighting of the islands was by a Spanish ship in 1606, Spain made no effort to trade with or colonize the island. Samuel Wallis, an English sea captain, sighted Tahiti on 18 June 1767, and is considered the first European visitor to the island. The perceived relaxation and contented nature of the local people and the characterization of the island as a paradise much impressed early European visitors, planting the seed for a romanticization by the West that endures to this day.
Taiwan.
In the history of Taiwan, Aboriginal peoples ancestors are believed to have been living on the islands for approximately 8,000 years before major Han Chinese immigration began in the 17th century. The Taiwanese Aborigines are Austronesian peoples, with linguistic and genetic ties to other Austronesian ethnic groups, such as peoples of the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Oceania. Taiwan's Austronesian speakers were traditionally distributed over much of the island's rugged central mountain range and concentrated in villages along the alluvial plains. Today, the bulk of the contemporary Taiwanese Aborigine population reside in the mountains and the cities. The issue of an ethnic identity unconnected to the Asian mainland has become one thread in the discourse regarding the political identity of Taiwan. The total population of Aborigines on Taiwan is around 458,000 as of January 2006, which is approximately 2% of Taiwan's population.
Tokelau.
Archaeological evidence indicates that history of Tokelau's atol—Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo—were settled about 1,000 years ago, probably by voyages from Samoa, the Cook Islands and Tuvalu. Oral history traces local traditions and genealogies back several hundred years. Inhabitants followed Polynesian mythology with the local god Tui Tokelau; and developed forms of music (see Music of Tokelau) and art. The three atolls functioned largely independently while maintaining social and linguistic cohesion. Tokelauan society was governed by chiefly clans, and there were occasional inter-atoll skirmishes and wars as well as inter-marriage. Fakaofo, the "chiefly island," held some dominance over Atafu and Nukunonu. Life on the atolls was subsistence-based, with reliance on fish and coconut. Commodore John Byron discovered Atafu on 24 June 1765 and named it "Duke of York's Island." Parties onshore reported that there were no signs of current or previous inhabitants.
Tonga.
The history of Tonga stretches back to around roughly 1000 AD, when the Polynesians arrived. Tonga became known as the Tongan Empire through extensive trading and its influence and show of strength and domination over parts of the Pacific (e.g. Samoa, Fiji). The Europeans arrived in the 17th century which was followed after a couple hundred years by a single unified Tongan kingdom. Archaeological evidence shows that the first settlers in Tonga sailed from the Santa Cruz Islands, as part of the original Austronesian-speakers' (Lapita) migration which originated out of southeast Asia some 6,000 years before present. Archaeological dating places Tonga as the oldest known site in Polynesia for the distinctive Lapita ceramic ware, at 2800–2750 years before present.
Tuvalu.
The history of Tuvalu dates back to at least 1,000 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians. the origins of the people of Tuvalu is addressed in the theories regarding the spread of humans out of Southeast Asia, from Taiwan, via Melanesia and across the Pacific islands to create Polynesia.
During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as Polynesian navigation skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.
In 1568 Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the islands and sighted Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. European explorers did not return until two centuries later. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay (1812–1876). The islands came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS "Curacoa", between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.
A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration. As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence. Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978. On 17 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.
Vanuatu.
In the history of Vanuatu, the commonly held theory of Vanuatu's prehistory from archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. Pottery fragments have been found dating back to 1300 BC What little is known of the pre-European contact history of Vanuatu has been gleaned from oral histories and legends. One important early king was Roy Mata, who united several tribes, and was buried in a large mound with several retainers. The first European contact with Vanuatu came in 1606, when a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós discovered Espiritu Santo, naming it "Australia del Espiritu Santo", believing he had arrived in the southern continent. Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands.
Other islands.
History of American Samoa begins with inhabitation as early as 1000 BC, Samoa was not reached by European explorers until the 18th century.
The history of Baker Island began when the United States of America took possession of the island in 1857, and its guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island – as well as on nearby Howland Island – but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle of the west coast.
In the history of Brunei, the Sultanate of "Brunei" was very powerful from the fourteenth to the 16th century AD. Its realm covered the northern part of Borneo and the southwestern Philippines. European influence gradually brought an end to this regional power. Later, there was a brief war with Spain, in which Brunei was victorious. The decline of the Bruneian Empire culminated in the 19th century when Brunei lost much of its territory to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.
Westerners arrived in Caroline Islands in 1525, by the Portuguese Diogo da Rocha and his pilot Gomes de Sequeira, naming them the "Sequeira Islands". At about the same time, in 1526, they were sighted by the Spanish Toribio Alonso de Salazar, he called them "Carolinas" after the emperor Carlos I of Spain, and Charles V of Holy Roman Empire.
Though early Spanish navigators in the area (from 1543) called them the "Nuevas Filipinas" ("New Philippines"), Admiral Francisco Lazeano named them the "Carolinas" after the Spanish King Charles II in 1686.
In the history of French Polynesia, the French Polynesian island groups do not share a common history before the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first French Polynesian islands to be settled by Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800. The Polynesians were organized in petty chieftainships.
European discovery in the History of the Galapagos Islands occurred when Dominican Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the fourth Bishop of Panama, sailed to Peru to settle a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and his lieutenants. De Berlanga's vessel drifted off course when the winds diminished, and his party reached the islands on 10 March 1535. According to a 1956 study by Thor Heyerdahl and Arne Skjølsvold, remains of potsherds and other artifacts from several sites on the islands suggest visitation by South American peoples prior to the arrival of the Spanish.
Historical evidence suggests that Howland Island was the site of prehistoric settlement, which may have extended down to Rawaki, Kanton, Manra and Orona of the Phoenix Islands 500 to 700 km southeast. This settlement might have taken the form of a single community utilising several adjacent islands, but the hard life on these isolated islands, together with the uncertainty of fresh water supplies, led to an extinction of or dereliction by the settled peoples, in such a way that other islands in the area (such as Kiritimati and Pitcairn) were abandoned. Such settlements probably began around 1000 BC, when eastern Melanesians travelled north.
The history of Jarvis Island begins with the island's first known sighting by Europeans was on 21 August 1821 by the British ship "Eliza Francis" (or "Eliza Frances") owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown. In March 1857 the uninhabited island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on 27 February 1858.
In the history of Marquesas Islands, the first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians, who, from archеological evidence, are believed to have arrived before 100 AD. Ethnological and linguistic evidence suggests that they likely arrived from the region of Tonga and Samoa. The islands were given their name by the Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira who reached them on 21 July 1595. He named them after his patron, García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete, who was Viceroy of Peru at the time. Mendaña visited first Fatu Hiva and then Tahuata before continuing on to the Solomon Islands.
In the history of Melanesia, the original inhabitants of the islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present day Papuan-speaking people. These people are thought to have occupied New Guinea tens of millennia ago and reached the islands 35,000 years ago (according to radiocarbon dating). They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands (i.e., including San Cristobal) and perhaps even to the smaller islands farther to the east.
The ancestors of the Micronesians in the history of Micronesia settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on Yap. European explorers – first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish – reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty.
Researchers of the History of the Marshall Islands agree on little more than that successive waves of migratory peoples from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific about 3,000 years ago, and that some of them landed on and remained on these islands. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1529. They were named for English explorer John Marshall, who visited them in 1799. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognized Germany's claim in 1885, which established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration.
In the History of the Society Islands, the archipelago is generally believed to have been named by Captain James Cook in honor of the Royal Society, sponsor of the first British scientific survey of the islands; however, Cook states in his journal that he called the islands Society "as they lay contiguous to one another".
In the history of Tuamotu, the Tuamotus were first discovered by a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. From the Inca Empire, Tupac Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading a nearly 10-month voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1480. None of these visits were of political consequence, the islands being in the sphere of influence of the Pomare dynasty of Tahiti. At the beginning 18th century the first Christian missionaries arrived. The islands' pearls penetrated the European market in the late 19th century, making them a coveted possession. Following the forced abdication of King Pomare V of Tahiti, the islands were annexed as an overseas territory of France.
References.
27. “Reconstructing History: Literature, History, and Anthropology in the Pacific.” Ed. Cynthia Klekar. Special Issue of "The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation" 49, no. 3 (Fall, 2008). Introduction, 193-96.


Timeline of Adelaide history

This is a timeline of Adelaide history.


Malik Sadr al-Din Tabrizi

Malik Sadr al-Din Tabrizi (died 1269/70) was an Iranian statesman from the Malikan family, who served as the governor of his native city of Tabriz after its conquest by the Mongols in 1231. He went to Mongolia in 1251, where he was appointed as the tax-collector of northwestern Iran by the Mongol emperor Möngke Khan (). From there on Malik Sadr al-Din played a key-role in the financial administration of the materializing Ilkhanate, established by Möngke's brother Hulagu Khan (). Malik Sadr al-Din continued to govern Tabriz under the new realm, and was also a patron of Persian literature. He died in 1269 or 1270, and was survived by his son, Imad al-Din Muhammad.


Raymond A. Spruance

Raymond Ames Spruance (July 3, 1886 – December 13, 1969) was a United States Navy admiral during World War II. He commanded U.S. naval forces during one of the most significant naval battles that took place in the Pacific Theatre: the Battle of the Philippine Sea. He also commanded Task Force 16 at the Battle of Midway, comprising the carriers "Enterprise" and "Hornet". At Midway, dive bombers from the Enterprise crippled two carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy, "Kaga" and the flagship "Akagi". Most historians consider Midway the turning point of the Pacific War.
Official Navy historian Samuel Eliot Morison characterized Spruance's performance as "superb", and was nicknamed "electric brain" for his calmness even in moments of supreme crisis, a reputation enhanced by his successful tactics. He emerged from the war one of the greatest admirals in American naval history". After the war, Spruance was appointed President of the Naval War College, and later served as American ambassador to the Philippines.
Early life.
Spruance was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 3, 1886 to Alexander and Annie Hiss Spruance. He was raised in Indianapolis, Indiana. Spruance attended Indianapolis public schools and graduated from Shortridge High School. From there, he went on to graduate from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1906, and received further, hands-on education in electrical engineering a few years later.
Career prior to World War II.
Spruance's first duty assignment was aboard the battleship , an 11,400 ton veteran of the Spanish–American War. In July 1907 he transferred to the battleship and was aboard her during the historic around the world cruise of the Great White Fleet from 1907 to 1909.
Spruance's seagoing career included command of the destroyers from March 1913 to May 1914, , three other destroyers, and the battleship .
In 1916 he aided in the fitting out of the battleship and he served on board her from her commissioning in June 1916 until November 1917. During the last year of World War I he was assigned as Assistant Engineer Officer of the New York Naval Shipyard, and carried out temporary duty in London, England and Edinburgh, Scotland.
Following his return to the United States, Spruance served aboard transport ship USS "Agamemnon", before he was ordered to Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine for duty in connection with fitting out of destroyer USS "Aaron Ward" in March 1919. He commanded that vessel during the patrols with the Atlantic Fleet until January 1920, when he assumed command of newly commissioned destroyer USS "Percival" in San Francisco, California.
He commanded the "Percival" during the sea trials off the California coast and during the patrol cruises with the Destroyer Force, Pacific Fleet until May 1922, when he was ordered to Washington, D.C. for duty in the Bureau of Engineering under Rear admiral John K. Robison. While in that capacity he assumed additional duty as a member of the board on doctrine of aircraft in connection with fleet fire control.
Spruance served in Washington until early 1924, when he was ordered to the headquarters, Commander Naval Force in Europe. He served as Assistant Chief of Staff under Vice admiral Philip Andrews during the period of tensions between Greece and Turkey and was decorated with the Gold Cross of the Order of the Savior by the Government of Greece for his service.
Spruance ran a quiet bridge, without chit-chat; he demanded that orders be given concisely and clearly. In one incident a distraught officer rushed to report, "Captain, we've just dropped a depth charge over the stern!" "Well, pick it up and put it back," was Spruance's measured response.
He began attendance at the Naval War College in 1926, and graduated in 1927. Spruance served as executive officer of USS "Mississippi" from October 1929 to June 1931. He also held several engineering, intelligence, staff and Naval War College positions up to the 1940s. He served as an instructor at the Naval War College from 1935 to 1938. He commanded the battleship USS "Mississippi" from April 1938 to December 1939, when he was promoted to rear admiral. On February 26, 1940, Spruance reported as commandant of the 10th Naval District with headquarters at San Juan, Puerto Rico. On August 1, 1941, he finished his tour in Puerto Rico.
World War II.
Before Midway.
In the first months of World War II in the Pacific, Spruance commanded the four heavy cruisers and support ships of Cruiser Division Five from his flagship, the heavy cruiser . His division was an element of the task force built around the aircraft carrier and commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. Early on, Halsey had led his task force on hit-and-run raids against the Japanese in the western Pacific: striking the Gilbert and Marshall islands in February 1942, Wake Island in March, and projecting the air power of the Doolittle Raid against the Japanese homeland in April. These raids were critical to moralesetting a new tone of aggressiveness by U.S. commanders while providing invaluable battle experience for the commanders and sailors of the U.S. Navy.
Midway.
During the third week of May 1942, U.S. naval intelligence units confirmed that the Japanese would—by early June—invade Midway Island. Capturing and occupying Midway was the brainchild-plan of commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. With it he intended to significantly expand the Imperial Japanese Navy's outer defense perimeter across the central Pacific; and, he believed, this very powerful stroke against Midway would so severely threaten Hawaii and Pearl Harbor that the U.S. government would be induced to sue for peace. On the other hand, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, Admiral Chester Nimitz knew he must intercept the Japanese invasion fleet, and that he must give battle to the enemy aircraft carriers before they could project their overwhelming power against the naval air station at Midway.
Fewer than two days before launch from Pearl Harbor, Nimitz's commander of the fleet carrier force, Admiral Halsey, was hospitalized with severe shingles; Halsey immediately recommended Admiral Spruance to Nimitz as his replacement with Admiral Fletcher receiving overall command. Although Spruance and Fletcher were proven as a cruiser division commanders, they had no experience handling carrier-air combat; Halsey reassured Nimitz, and he told Spruance and Fletcher to rely on their newly inherited staff, particularly Captain Miles Browning, a battle-proven expert in carrier warfare. Spruance assumed command of Task Force 16 with its two carriers, and , under battle command of Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. Fletcher would command Task Force 17, but the task force flag ship, had been badly damaged at the Battle of the Coral Sea and her sister ship "Lexington" had been sunk, but at Nimitz's behest "Yorktown" was patched-repaired in "rush" time purposefully to join the Midway operation.
The U.S. Navy intercept force centered on the three carriers "Enterprise", "Hornet", and "Yorktown," and their air-attack squadrons. It faced a Japanese invasion fleet organized into two groups: the air-attack task force of four carriers with support ships under command of Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, and the surface and occupation forces under Admiral Nobutake Kondō and others. Admiral Yamamoto commanded the combined invasion fleet from aboard his flagship .
At 0530 June 4th, a scout plane from Midway sighted the "Kido Butai", however the scout only reported sighting "Two carriers and battleships", and giving course and speed. Since US intelligence had reported the possibility that the "Kido Butai" would be operating in two separate task forces, that meant that Fletcher only knew the location of half of the carrier force. Armed with this information, Fletcher ordered Spruance to launch a strike at the Japanese with "Enterprise" and "Hornet" while holding "Yorktown" in reserve in case the other Japanese carriers were discovered. Since the Japanese planes were returning from the Midway strike, Spruance ordered that his strike be launched without delay so as to maximize the chances that the Japanese carriers would be caught while landing planes or spotting the next wave. In this state the Japanese carriers would be extremely vulnerable. Furthermore, Spruance ordered that the air squadrons fly directly to their targets before assembling every squadron into a proper formation, gambling that the attacks would leave the enemy carriers in disarry and delay the launching of their own counterstrike. Though this gamble payed off, "Enterprise" air squadrons would pay a heavy price, flying in piece-meal and mostly without fighter escort.
The battle commenced on the morning of June 4; the first several waves of U.S. attack aircraft were badly beaten, both near Midway and at sea around the Japanese task force. Then U.S. dive bombers from Spruance's "Enterprise" flew to Nagumo's fleet of four carriers – which, fatefully, were without air cover. Most of Nagumo's attack planes had just returned from the first strike on Midway and were immobilized on the carrier hangers, while his combat air patrol cover planes were engaged with battling torpedo bombers from "Hornet". "Enterprise" dive bombers critically damaged two Japanese carriers including Nagumo's flagship ; while the "Yorktown" air group, launched after Fletcher was confident that all Japanese carriers were accounted for, crippled the "Soryu". All three were eventually scuttled.
The surviving carrier, , gave the Japanese some brief respite by sending strikes that again damaged "Yorktown". But several hours later—near the end of daylight hours—a U.S. scout plane located "Hiryū" again. Fletcher quickly ordered his dive bombers to strike, which fatally damaged the fourth Japanese carrier; it was scuttled the next day. However a second strike from "Hiryū" would fatally cripple Fletcher's flagship, "Yorktown" and as a result, Fletcher passed command to Spruance, who would command the mop up phase of the battle.
The U.S. Navy counterforce sank all four Japanese carriers while losing one of its own, "Yorktown". The repulse of the Japanese invasion fleet at Midway, and critically the destruction of the "Kido Butai", allowed the U.S. to gain parity in the naval air war. In 1949, naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted that Spruance was subjected to criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese and allowing the surface fleet to escape. But in summing up Spruance's performance in the battle, Morison wrote: "Fletcher did well, but Spruance's performance was superb. Calm, collected, decisive, yet receptive to advice; keeping in his mind the picture of widely disparate forces, yet boldly seizing every opening. Raymond A. Spruance emerged from the battle one of the greatest admirals in American naval history". For his actions at the battle of Midway Rear Admiral Spruance was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and cited as follows: "For exceptionally meritorious service ... as Task Force Commander, United States Pacific Fleet. During the Midway engagement which resulted in the defeat of and heavy losses to the enemy fleet, his seamanship, endurance, and tenacity in handling his task force were of the highest quality." Both Fletcher and Nimitz recommended Spruance for the Distinguished Service Medal for his role in the battle.
The Battle of Midway is considered by many to be a turning point of the war in the Pacific, along with the Guadalcanal campaign. Before Midway, a small and fractional U.S. Navy faced an overwhelmingly larger and battle-hardened Japanese Combined Fleet. After Midway, although the Japanese still held a temporary advantage in vessels and planes, the U.S. Navy and the nation gained confidence and, most critically, time. The setback in the Japanese timetable to encircle the Pacific gave the U.S. industrial machine time to crank up war production, and ultimately, to turn the advantage on Japan in the production of ships, planes, guns, and all the other matériel of war. The Battle of Midway infused the U.S. Pacific Navy with confidence. And with this battle the American forces gained, and afterwards continued to gain, hard combat experience; so the Japanese lost that crucial advantage as well.
Philippine Sea.
Shortly after the Midway battle, Spruance became chief of staff to Admiral Nimitz, and in September 1942 was appointed as Deputy Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet.
In August 1943 Spruance was placed in command of the Central Pacific Force, which, on April 29, 1944, was redesignated as the Fifth Fleet. At that time, Admiral Nimitz instituted a unique arrangement in which the command of the vessels which made up the "Big Blue Fleet" alternated between Admiral William Halsey Jr., at which time it was identified as the Third Fleet and Task Force 38, and Admiral Spruance, when it became the Fifth Fleet and Task Force 58. When not in command of the fleet the admirals, and their staffs, were based at Pearl Harbor and planned future operations.
The two admirals were a contrast in styles. Halsey was aggressive and a risk taker. Spruance was calculating and cautious. Notwithstanding their different personalities, Spruance and Halsey were close friends. In fact, Spruance had a knack for getting along with difficult people, including his friend Admiral Kelly Turner, the hotheaded commander of 5th Fleet's amphibious force. One exception was Admiral John Towers, a constant critic of Spruance, whom Spruance came to despise for his naked ambition.
Most common sailors were proud to serve under Halsey; most higher-ranking officers preferred to serve under Spruance. Captain George C. Dyer of the light cruiser , who served under both Spruance and Halsey, summed up the view of many ship captains:
This gave rise to the description of Spruance as "an Admiral's admiral".
Truk, Saipan, and Iwo Jima.
Spruance directed Operation Hailstone against the Japanese naval base Truk in February 1944 in which twelve Japanese warships, thirty-two merchant ships and 249 aircraft were destroyed. This occurred at the same time that Admiral Turner's forces were attacking Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshalls, about 700 miles to the east. Spruance himself directed a task group of battleships, cruisers and destroyers that left the main body to go after Japanese ships that were fleeing Truk, sinking the light cruiser and destroyer . This was said to be the first time that a four-star admiral took part in a sea action aboard one of the ships engaged. Admiral Spruance commanded with deadly precision, reported an observer.
While screening the American invasion of Saipan in June 1944, Spruance also defeated the Japanese fleet in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Although he broke the back of the Japanese naval airforce by sinking three carriers, two oilers and destroying about 600 enemy airplanes (so many that the remaining Japanese carriers were used solely as decoys in the Battle of Leyte Gulf a few months later due to the lack of aircraft and aircrews to fly them) Spruance has been criticized for not being aggressive enough in exploiting his success in the Philippine Sea. Buell quotes Spruance speaking with Morison:
However, his actions were both praised or understood by the main persons ordering and directly involved in the battle. Admiral Ernest J. King told him that "Spruance, you did a damn fine job there. No matter what other people tell you, your decision was correct". Spruance's fast carrier commander, Marc Mitscher, told his chief of staff Arleigh Burke that:
For most of the war he preferred to use the heavy cruiser , named for his hometown, as his flagship. He shifted his flag to the old battleship of the shore bombardment force after "Indianapolis" was struck by a Kamikaze off Okinawa. When "New Mexico" was struck by two kamikaze on the night of 12 May 1945 a hasty search by Spruance's staff found the Admiral manning a fire hose amidship. Determining that "New Mexico" was not too badly damaged to remain on station Spruance kept her as his flagship for the rest of the campaign. Spruance later chose the battleship as his flagship, as the huge "Iowa" class battleship had both room for his staff and the speed to keep up with the fast carrier task forces.
Spruance received the Navy Cross for his actions at Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
End of Pacific War.
Spruance succeeded Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz as Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas in November 1945.
On October 16, 1946, the former Secretary of War, Robert P. Patterson, presented the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Admiral Spruance, with citation as follows:
Postwar.
Retirement.
At the end of the Second World War Congress created a limited number of five-star ranks for the Army and the Navy, designated General of the Army and Fleet Admiral. The Navy, by law, was limited to four Fleet Admirals; three of these appointments were obvious: Ernest King, Chester Nimitz and William Leahy. The fourth was a choice between Halsey and Spruance, and after much deliberation, eventually Halsey was appointed in December 1945. Spruance's achievements were acknowledged by the unique distinction of a special act of Congress awarding him Admiral's full pay for life. Spruance expressed his personal feelings on this matter as follows:
Spruance was President of the Naval War College from February 1946 until he retired from the Navy in July 1948. He was decorated with Order of Leopold and Croix de guerre with Palm by the Government of Belgium for his service for the Allied cause.
Shortly before his retirement, Spruance received the following Letter of Commendation from the Secretary of the Navy:
Later life.
He was appointed as Ambassador to the Philippines by President Harry S. Truman, and served there from 1952 to 1955.
He received his Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.), honoris causa degree from Central Philippine University in 1955, an institution of higher learning founded by the American Baptist missionary, William Orison Valentine in 1905.
Spruance died in Pebble Beach, California on December 13, 1969 and was buried with full military honors at Golden Gate National Cemetery near San Francisco. His wife, Margaret Dean (1888–1985), is buried alongside him, as are Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, his longtime friend Admiral Richmond K. Turner, and Admiral Charles A. Lockwood, an arrangement made by all of them while living.
Personality.
Spruance was an active man who thought nothing of walking eight or 10 miles a day. He was fond of symphonic music, and his tastes were generally simple. He never smoked, and drank little. He enjoyed hot chocolate and would make it for himself every morning. Besides his family, he loved the companionship of his pet schnauzer, Peter. Fit into his 70s, Spruance spent most of his retirement days wearing old khakis and work shoes and working in his garden and greenhouse; he loved to show them to visitors.
His achievements in the navy were well known, but himself much less. He did not discuss his private life, feelings, prejudices, hopes or fears, except with his family and his closest friends. He was modest and candid about himself. "When I look at myself objectively," he wrote in retirement, "I think that what success I may have achieved through life is largely due to the fact that I am a good judge of men. I am lazy, and I never have done things myself that I could get someone to do for me. I can thank heredity for a sound constitution, and myself for taking care of that constitution." About his intellect he was equally unpretentious: "Some people believe that when I am quiet that I am thinking some deep and important thoughts, when the fact is that I am thinking of nothing at all. My mind is blank."
Legacy.
The destroyers , lead ship of the of destroyers, and , 61st ship of the of destroyers, were named in his honor.
The main auditorium of the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, is Spruance Hall. A bust of Spruance is in the lobby.
The Indiana War Memorial in Indianapolis has a meeting room named for Spruance as well as displays honoring his career and that of the USS "Indianapolis".
Cultural depictions.
Spruance was portrayed by Glenn Ford (a US Naval Reserve officer himself) in the 1976 film "Midway", and by Jake Weber in the 2019 film "Midway".
Spruance is depicted as the controversial victor of Midway by G. D. Spradlin in the 1988 TV miniseries "War and Remembrance". He is shown to be at loggerheads with his staff on numerous occasions and corrected by them once. The series, based on Herman Wouk's book of the same name, shows Spruance's decision to end the battle and retreat rather than confront the rest of the Japanese fleet as having been opposed by his subordinates, and he was mocked behind his back as "lacking the stomach." Yet the decision is hailed by the series's narrator as instrumental in sealing the American victory. Wouk writes in his book that "Spruance escaped [the Japanese fleet admiral] Yamamoto's terrible trap by acting on perfect military instinct. Not till many months later did American intelligence ferret out the facts."


Abu Makhlad Abdallah

Abu Makhlad Abdallah ibn Yahya al-Tabari was an Iranian statesman from Tabaristan, who served the Ziyarid ruler Mardavij (r. 930–935), and later the Buyid ruler of Iraq, Mu'izz al-Dawla (r. 945–967). He may have been the son of Ali Yahya ibn Abdallah al-Tabari, a secretary that served the Baridis of Basra.


Maria Lord

Maria Lord (c. 1780 - 22 July 1859), also known as Maria Risley or Riseley, was an Australian convict and entrepreneur.
Early life and transportation.
Maria Risley was born in England c. 1780 to Robert and Mary Risley. In August 1802 she was sentenced at the Surrey assizes to seven years' transportation for stealing from a dwelling house. She reached Sydney on 24 June 1804 aboard the convict transport the "Experiment".
Almost exactly twelve months later, on 25 June 1805, she gave birth to a daughter, Caroline Maria Risley, whose father was recorded as John Thompson. Contemporary accounts suggest that some time in the second half of 1805 she was chosen from a line-up of women at the Parramatta Female Factory to become the convict servant of the well-to-do marine officer Edward Lord, who had travelled from Hobart to Sydney to 'find a wife'. Maria and baby Caroline arrived in Van Diemen's Land in November 1805. Between 1806 and 1819 she and Edward Lord had eight children together. They married in 1808, after she was granted a free pardon.
Business activities in Van Diemen's Land.
When Maria arrived in Hobart in 1805 she brought with her "a quantity of trading goods" and soon established a shop. After Edward Lord resigned his commission in 1812, he engaged in trading, land acquisition and hotels and became one of the richest people in the colony, while Maria expanded the retail business. During these years she played a "crucial" role in building up the import and export side of the family business and in re-investing their growing capital. She later did business in partnership with her brother John Risley, who arrived in the colony as a free settler in 1819. She acted as Edward Lord's agent and managed his affairs with his power of attorney during his lengthy absences. By 1820, she reputedly controlled over a third of the resources in Van Diemen's Land, controlling the supply of wheat and meat and a portion of the profitable rum trade through monopolies. Historians including Lloyd Robson and Manning Clark have blamed the Lord family business, and the Lords' exploitation of the colonial tendering system, for the corruption of the Van Diemonian economy and the displacement of the earlier small settlers.
Scandal and later years.
From 1816 Edward Lord spent less and less time in Van Diemen's Land, taking frequent trips back to England. During these absences Maria acted as his business agent and played a prominent role in Hobart society. During these years she lived in Ingle Hall, where she hosted dinners and balls. Some time around 1822 she began spending time with Charles Rowcroft (later a well-known writer), a young English magistrate 14 years her junior who had recently arrived in the colony.
In August 1823, Edward Lord placed a notice in the "Hobart Town Gazette" revoking Maria's authority over the family business, and in October Maria left Hobart to live at the family's country estate in New Plains. In 1824 Edward successfully sued Charles Rowcroft for "criminal conversation" and was awarded 100 pounds in damages, in a trial widely covered by the colonial press. After the trial Edward left for England with their youngest daughter, then aged five. Maria returned to Hobart and opened a shop and a butchery; she also managed a boarding house in the 1830s, and eventually a small store in Bothwell. She lived her last years at "The Priory", a property at Bothwell. She died on 22 July 1859 and was buried in a family plot at St Mathew's cemetery, New Norfolk.
Legacy.
The historian Kay Daniels argued that both Maria and Edward Lord had been neglected by historians, and that Maria's life "illuminates a number of narratives which together make up the female convict experience in Australia".
Further reading.
Kay Daniels, "Convict Women". St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1998.
Dianne Snowden, 'Lord, Maria (1780–1859)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lord-maria-13052/text23601, published first in hardcopy 2005, accessed online 24 August 2017.


St. Anna (mission station)

St. Anna was a Roman Catholic mission station during the German colonial period. It contained a plantation of coconut palm and rubber trees for export to Europe. It was located at Berlinhafen, Kaiser-Wilhelmsland (German New Guinea).


Al-Mustanjid

Al-Mustanjid ( (1124 – 20 December 1170) was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 1160 to 1170. He was the son of previous Caliph al-Muqtafi.
Biography.
One of al-Muqtafi's wives, al-Mustanjid's stepmother, wanted her own son to succeed. She gained over many amirs to her side, and had their slave-girls armed with daggers to kill the new caliph. Al-Mustanjid discovered the plot and placed the rebel son and mother in prison.
Around this time, Fatimid dynasty was at last extinguished, having lasted for 260 years. Their conqueror, Saladin, though himself an orthodox Muslim, initially didn't proclaim the Sunni faith in the midst of a people still devoted to the tenets and practice of the Shi'a sect. But he soon found himself able to do so; and thus the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasids again prevailed, not only in Syria, but throughout Egypt and all its dependencies.
There is little else to say than that this caliph continued to occupy a more or less independent position, with a vizier and courtly surroundings, and supported by only a small force sufficient for an occasional local campaign.


Battle of Madang

The Battle of Madang, fought between early February and late April 1944, was the break-out and pursuit phase of the Markham and Ramu Valley – Finisterre Range and Huon Peninsula campaigns, which were part of the wider New Guinea campaign of World War II. After overcoming the Japanese defences around Shaggy Ridge, the Australian forces descended the steep slopes of the Finisterre Range and pursued the withdrawing Japanese towards Bogadjim and then Madang on the north coast of New Guinea. There they linked up with US and Australian forces that had advanced along the coast from the Huon Peninsula, while the remnants of three Japanese divisions withdrew towards Wewak, where further fighting would take place throughout late 1944 and into 1945.
Background.
Geography.
Situated on the north-eastern coast of Papua New Guinea on the Schering Peninsula, which juts out into the northern part of Astrolabe Bay, Madang offers a protected deep-water port open to communication through the Vitiaz Strait and the Bismarck Sea. Established as the capital of German New Guinea prior to World War I, during the German administration of the area, the town of Madang had been known as Friedrich-Wilhelmshafen. Following the war, the area had been placed under Australian administration in 1920 and had subsequently been renamed. The pre-war population of the area was estimated at around 25,000 to 30,000 indigenous inhabitants within the greater Madang area, with under 100 Asians and around 200 Europeans. The European population was largely evacuated from the town in late 1941 and early 1942.
The harbour is landlocked and set in a lagoon that runs between Cape Barschtsch and the Schering Peninsula. Seawards, it is protected by Kranket Island. Bounded by the Adelbert Range to the east and Cape Barschtsch to the north, the town sits on a flat coastal strip that consists of some swampy areas, plantations and grassed areas. Further inland, the vegetation grows more dense, although at the time of the battle it was passable, particularly on foot. The terrain is less rugged than the Finisterre Range to the south and there are no especially high features, although it is more difficult north of the Gogol River, which flows into Astrolabe Bay about halfway along the coast between Bogadjim and Madang. This river, along with several others including the Gori and Palpa, form significant obstacles along the southern approaches to the town.
Strategic situation.
Madang was captured by the Japanese in early March 1942, along with Lae and Salamaua as part of operations to establish a key base at Rabaul. After this, the Japanese had worked to improve various means of communication around the area including roads, port facilities and airfields to utilise Madang's deep-water harbour as part of a forward base, which was established around Madang and Alexishafen, north, to support forces in the Salamaua–Lae area. In 1943–1944, Australian and US forces began offensive actions in New Guinea, having stemmed the tide of the Japanese advance during the fighting in 1942. In September 1943, the Allies had secured Lae and Nadzab. Shortly afterwards, the 9th Division had landed on the Huon Peninsula and had subsequently secured Finschhafen and began clearing inland. By October 1943, the next objective for the Australians was Shaggy Ridge, a series of high positions on the inland route from Dumpu to Madang, which was held by Japanese infantry, supported by artillery and engineers.
After the defeat of the Japanese in the Battle of Shaggy Ridge in late January 1944, the remnants of the Japanese 78th Infantry Regiment, assigned to Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri's 20th Division, part of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi's 18th Army, began a withdrawal from the Finisterre Range and was tasked with reorganising itself around Madang and carrying out delaying actions. Around the same time, Hidemitsu Nakano's 51st Division, began withdrawing west along the coast from the Finschaffen area, undertaking a difficult march to bypass Saidor following the landing there by US troops. These moves were part of a general withdrawal that would see the Japanese move beyond the Sepik River towards Aitape and Wewak, with one division ultimately being sent to Hollandia.
The withdrawal of Japanese troops towards Madang enabled the Australian Army forces to break through the Japanese positions in the Finisterre Mountains, which had been holding up their drive north. After a brief pause to bring up supplies, and to rotate troops as the Australian 11th Division under Major General Allan Boase replaced George Vasey's 7th Division, the Australians slowly advanced down the rugged, densely forested slopes of the Finisterres, pursuing the withdrawing Japanese towards Bogadjim on the northern coast, about away.
For the advance, two infantry battalions from the Australian 15th Infantry Brigade – the 57th/60th and 58th/59th – were given the task of pushing forward from Kankiryo towards Madang via the Mindjim River, Astrolabe Bay and Bogadjim. The brigade's third infantry battalion, the 24th, was held back in reserve maintaining a defensive posture around Shaggy Ridge, while also pushing forward on the Australians' western flank along the Ramu River towards Kesawai and Koropa. At the same time, US troops would advance east from their base around Saidor about . In the final stages of the battle, Australian troops from the 8th Infantry Brigade would be moved up the coast by sea from Saidor.
Battle.
In the early stages of the pursuit, the Australians sent long-range patrols forward from the Finisterres, while two battalions from the US 32nd Infantry Division landed around the Yalau Plantation as US forces advanced east from Saidor. They began patrolling operations around the coast to the east and west, fighting minor skirmishes, and pushed towards Bau Plantation and Yangalum, on the eastern side of the Australian advance with the intention of linking up. Throughout February and March, the Japanese 20th Division withdrew towards Madang, fighting a series of rearguard actions against the Australians that were advancing from Kankiryo. The going was tough for the troops of the Australian 15th Infantry Brigade who advanced slowly towards Bogadjim, using aggressive patrols to advance their position forwards. The Japanese began strengthening their defences around Bogadjim at this time, constructing a series of outposts in a radius to the south of the town; nevertheless, Australian patrols were able to bypass these and penetrate towards Erima Plantation where intelligence received from locals indicated large concentrations of Japanese forces.
After taking over the western drive up the Ramu River from the 24th Infantry Battalion, the 2/2nd Commando Squadron advanced from Kesawai and then to Orgoruna, linking up with the 57th/60th Infantry Battalion around Yaula on 4 April. Advancing along a motor road that had been laid by the Japanese, the Australians moved along an axis bounded by the Nuru River and Kabenau River. The withdrawing Japanese offered stiff resistance, but continued to withdraw, allowing the Australians to link up with US forces around Rimba. Bogadjim was eventually reached on 13 April. Meanwhile, part of the 11th Division's divisional carrier company was flown into Wantoat in response to intelligence of Japanese patrols in the area. The dismounted troops fought a brief engagement with about 20 Japanese soldiers on 14 April during which four Japanese were killed and one Australian wounded. The Australians subsequently expanded their patrols towards the confluence of the Wantoat and Ikwap Rivers. Detecting a small group withdrawing to the north, they returned to Wantoat. A later patrol resulted in four Japanese being taken prisoner.
The 57th/60th and 58th/59th Infantry Battalions continued to patrol heavily across a wide area around the Bogadjim Road, and they subsequently joined up with US troops around Sungum. The Japanese had re-orientated themselves into positions at various locations including Alibu, Rereo, Wenga, Redu and Kaliko. During this time, a number of small unit actions were undertaken as the Japanese attempted to ambush the Australians while the Australians in turn sought to infiltrate the Japanese positions. On 22 April, large amounts of Japanese supplies were found abandoned by a patrol from the 57th/60th as it became clear that the Japanese were withdrawing from the area in a hasty fashion.
At this point, the Australian command determined the need for a rotation of forces. When the commander of the 15th Infantry Brigade, Brigadier Heathcote Hammer learnt that his brigade was to be relieved by Brigadier Claude Cameron's 8th Infantry Brigade, he endeavoured to push towards Madang with all haste, in an effort to secure it before the prize went to Major General Alan Ramsay's 5th Division. On 24 April, the 57th/60th Infantry Battalion was ordered to cross the treacherous Gogol River, a fast-flowing torrent of water teeming with crocodiles. The 57th/60th attempted to outflank the Gogol River, sending a patrol to link up with two US Navy patrol boats. However, they were thwarted in their attempt to reach Madang first when troops from the 8th Infantry Brigade, operating from US landing craft, came ashore around Ort, about south of Madang, effecting a link up between the 11th and 5th Divisions. With the help of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment, the 5th Division had earlier cleared the Rai Coast from Sio to Saidor, which had been secured in January – February 1944 by US forces, who were attempting to cut off the Japanese forces withdrawing from the Huon Peninsula.
Madang was subsequently taken on 24–25 April by troops from the 8th and 15th Infantry Brigades, with the 30th Infantry Battalion leading the way towards the airfield, advancing along the northern part of Astrolabe Bay to secure Madang, which offered the Allies the use of a deep-water harbour, while a platoon from the 57th/60th entered the town. Resistance in the town was almost non existent. Several artillery rounds were fired by the Japanese defenders at the advancing Australians, but the rounds landed well awry of their intended target. They were followed by a short burst of inaccurate machine-gun fire. A small group of Japanese stragglers scattered on sighting the Australian platoon. Shortly afterwards, the 8th Infantry Brigade's headquarters entered Madang Harbour aboard several landing craft, escorted by the destroyer "Vendetta" and the corvette "Bundaberg".
The following day was Anzac Day, which saw the Australians consolidate their position around Madang. A follow up landing was made by the 37th/52nd Infantry Battalion on Karkar Island. Meanwhile, the 35th Infantry Battalion secured a large quantity of abandoned Japanese stores at Hansa Bay, and pushed patrols towards the Sepik River. The "Bundaberg" also landed a party of sailors on Sek Island, firing a heavy bombardment which wiped out the small group of defending Japanese. The 30th pushed on to the deep-water port of Alexishafen the following day, suffering several casualties from improvised explosive devices that were planted along the road by the withdrawing Japanese. In addition, large quantities of Japanese supplies were also discovered.
Aftermath.
With the capture of Madang, the Allies finally effectively secured the Huon Peninsula, bringing both the Huon Peninsula and Markham Valley campaigns to a close. For the Australians, the advance through the Markham, Ramu and Faria Valleys proved to be a hard slog. Casualties for the 7th Division between 18 September 1943 and 8 April 1944 amounted to 204 killed and 464 wounded. Disease took an even greater toll with 13,576 personnel being evacuated. Despite these losses, the campaign was, in the words of historian Eustace Keogh, "an impressive performance, characterised by energy, determination and sound planning". Fought with limited resources, it nevertheless demonstrated the advances that the Australian Army had made tactically and operationally since the fighting around Kokoda and Buna–Gona in 1942 and early 1943. Japanese estimates of their own casualties indicate losses of 800 killed, 400 wounded and 800 dead from disease.
In the aftermath of the campaign the Australian 5th Division was tasked with providing a garrison force for the north-east coast of New Guinea, patrolling the area around Madang, which would be built up as a base with the intention of being able to supply 35,000 troops for subsequent operations. Meanwhile, the bulk of the Australian first line combat troops were withdrawn to Australia for rest and re-organisation. The commitment of US troops from the 32nd Division to the fighting around Saidor – coupled with the dispatch of the US 41st Division to the Salamaua campaign earlier in 1943 – represented a shift in the Allied strategy of giving the Australians autonomy of operations in New Guinea and from early 1944 until the end of the war, the US Army would assume primary responsibility for offensive operations in the Pacific.
The Japanese 18th Army was subsequently ordered to withdraw to Wewak in late March; as the 51st Division withdrew to the Wewak area, the 20th Division held Hansa Bay, and the 41st Division carried out rearguard operations around Madang throughout April. Severely depleted, in all, the three divisions only fielded about 20,000 troops. In late 1944, US troops carried out a landing at Aitape and began operations to isolate the Japanese garrison there as part of the Western New Guinea campaign, later clashing around the Driniumor River. They were subsequently relieved in late 1944 by Australian troops from the 6th Division, which launched the Aitape–Wewak campaign, fighting to secure the airfield and then clear the Japanese from the inland areas, patrolling through the Torricelli and Prince Alexander mountain ranges until the end of the war in August 1945. Meanwhile, troops from the 8th Infantry Brigade remained in the Madang area until the end of the war.
After the war, the Australian Army issued a battle honour for "Madang" to the 30th Infantry Battalion for its advance along the northern part of Astrolabe Bay and its subsequent capture of Madang. It was the only unit to receive that honour.


Qizil Arslan

Muzaffar al-Din Qizil Arslan Uthman (), better known as Qizil Arslan (), was the ruler ("atabeg") of the Eldiguzids from 1186 to 1191. He was the brother and successor of Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan, and was later succeeded by his nephew Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr.
Background.
Qizil Arslan was the son of Eldiguz, a former Kipchak military slave of the Seljuk Empire, who rose to prominence and established the Eldiguzid dynasty, and from 1160 had managed to make the Seljuk Sultan of western Iran his puppet, thus taking control over most of western Iran. However, during the reign of his son and successor, Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan (r. 1175–1186), the dynasty was weakened and lost many of its territories, retaining only control of Azerbaijan and Arran. During this period, Qizil Arslan was in charge of Tabriz and its surroundings.
Reign.
Qizil Arslan ascended the throne in 1186 after Jahan Pahlavan's death, and assumed the title of "al-Malik al-Mu'azzam" ("the respected king"). However, Qizil Arslan immediately came in a conflict with a faction under the leadership of Jahan Pahlavan's widow Inanj Khatun who supported their two sons. Meanwhile, the Seljuk sultan Toghrul III (r. 1176-1194), who had been a mere figurehead under Jahan Pahlavan, freed himself from the grip of the Eldiguzids and withstood them until he was seized by Qizil Arslan's men in 1190, and shortly afterwards imprisoned.
Qizil Arslan initially declared the newborn Seljuk prince Sanjar ibn Suleiman-Shah as sultan, but then chose to declare himself as sultan. The following year, however, he was found murdered on his bed, most likely at the instigation of Inanj Khatun. Qizil Arslan's nephew, Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr, instantly took action after his uncle's death, and ascended the Eldiguzid throne, whilst Inanj Khatun and her two sons were fighting over the control of Persian Iraq with Tughril III, who had managed to escape from imprisonment with the help of Kamal al-Din Abhari.
Court life.
Like the rest of the Eldiguzids, Qizil Arslan was an advocate of Persian culture and literature. The poet Athir al-Din Akhsikati, who played a prominent role in the history of Persian poetry, replaced Mujir al-Din Baylaqani as Qizil Arslan's court poet. The prominent poet Khaqani, who had moved from Shamakhi to Tabriz, also became acquainted with Qizil Arslan, and composed poems appreciating the latter. Another poet, Nizami Ganjavi, who is considered the greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature, dedicated his Khosrow and Shirin first to Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan, and then later to Qizil Arslan.


William Telfer Campbell

William Telfer Campbell (1863 - 1929), born in India, was the second Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands protectorate, from 1895 to 1909.
Campbell had started his career in the Royal Irish Constabulary. He was twice the subject of official enquiries into high-handedness, brutality, and the use of forced labour. In 1901 complaints began to reach the United Kingdom of misgovernment in the Gilbert Islands.
The conduct of Campbell was criticised as to his legislative, judicial and administrative management (including allegations of forced labour exacted from islanders) and became the subject of the 1909 report by Arthur Mahaffy. In 1913, an anonymous correspondent to "The New Age" newspaper described the maladministration of W. Telfer Campbell and questioned the partiality of Arthur Mahaffy, because he was a former colonial official in the Gilberts. The anonymous correspondent, probably John Quayle-Dickson, also criticised the operations of the Pacific Phosphate Company on Ocean Island.
He was then British consul in Tonga from 1909 to 1913. After been "withdrawn from service in the Pacific", he became Colonial Secretary of the Colony of The Gambia.


Epitaph on the tomb of Basil II

The long reign of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II (976–1025) saw continuous warfare in both East (against the Arabs) and West (against the Bulgarians). A true soldier-emperor, Basil led most of these campaigns himself, something reflected in his epitaph. His complete subjugation of the Bulgarian state earned him the epithet "Bulgar-Slayer" by later generations. Initially, he was to be buried in the last sarcophagus available in the rotunda of Constantine I in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. However, Basil later asked his brother and successor Constantine VIII to be buried in the Church of St. John the Theologian (i.e. the Evangelist), at the Hebdomon, a suburb outside the walls of Constantinople which traditionally served as a major army encampment and parade ground. The epitaph on this tomb celebrated Basil's campaigns and victories. but the epitaph is preserved in later manuscripts. The text survives in a number of variants, and its authorship and date are unclear. It is attributed by a 14th-century manuscript to Michael Psellos.


Wallis and Futuna

Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (; or ', Fakauvea and Fakafutuna: ') is a French island collectivity in the South Pacific, situated between Tuvalu to the northwest, Fiji to the southwest, Tonga to the southeast, Samoa to the east, and Tokelau to the northeast.
Its land area is . It had a population of 11,558 at the 2018 census (down from 14,944 at the 2003 census). Matā'Utu is its capital and largest city. The territory is made up of three main volcanic tropical islands and a number of tiny islets. It is divided into two island groups that lie about apart: the Wallis Islands (also known as Uvea) in the northeast; and the Hoorn Islands (also known as the Futuna Islands) in the southwest, including Futuna Island proper and the mostly uninhabited Alofi Island.
Since 28 March 2003, Wallis and Futuna has been a French overseas collectivity ("collectivité d'outre-mer", or "COM"). Between 1961 and 2003, it had the status of a French overseas territory ("territoire d'outre-mer", or "TOM"). Its official name did not change when its status changed.
History.
Early humans.
The earliest signs of human habitation in these islands are artifacts characteristic of the Lapita culture, dating roughly to between 850 and 800 BCE. The islands served as natural stopover points for boat traffic going between Fiji and Samoa. During Tongan invasions in the 15th and 16th centuries, the islands showed varying levels of resistance and accepted varying degrees of assimilation: Futuna retained more of its pre-Tongan cultural features, while Wallis underwent greater fundamental changes in its society, language, and culture. The original inhabitants built forts and other identifiable structures on the islands, many of which are in ruins, but some of which are still partially intact. Oral history and archaeological evidence suggest that the Tongan invaders reoccupied and modified some of these structures. Oral history also preserves a cultural memory of relationships between Samoa and Futuna that are so longstanding that they are described in the islanders' origin stories.
European settlements.
Futuna was first put on European maps by Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire during their circumnavigation of the globe in 1616. They named the islands of Futuna "Hoornse Eylanden" after the Dutch town of Hoorn where they hailed from. This was later translated into French as "Isles de Horne." The Wallis Islands are named after the British explorer Samuel Wallis, who sailed past them in 1767 after discovering Tahiti. The French were the first Europeans to settle in the territory, with the arrival of French missionaries in 1837, who converted the population to Roman Catholicism. Pierre Chanel, canonized in 1954, is a major patron saint of the island of Futuna and of the region.
On 5 April 1842, the missionaries asked for the protection of France after the rebellion of a part of the local population. On 5 April 1887, the queen of Uvea (that is, of the traditional chiefdom that comprised the island of Wallis) signed a treaty officially establishing a French protectorate. The kings of Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi also signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate, on 16 February 1888. At that point, the islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New Caledonia.
In 1917, the three traditional kingdoms of Uvea, Sigave, and Alo were annexed by France and integrated into the colony of Wallis and Futuna, which remained under the authority of the colony of New Caledonia.
World War II.
During World War II, the islands' administration was briefly pro-Vichy until a Free French corvette from New Caledonia deposed the regime on 26 May 1942. Units of the US Marine Corps later landed on Wallis on 29 May 1942.
Overseas territory.
In 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a separate French overseas territory, effective since 29 July 1961, thus ending their subordination to New Caledonia.
In 2005, the 50th king of Uvea, Tomasi Kulimoetoke II, faced being deposed after giving sanctuary to his grandson who was convicted of manslaughter. The king claimed his grandson should be judged by tribal law rather than by the French penal system. As a result, there were riots in the streets involving the king's supporters, who were victorious over attempts to replace the king. Two years later, Tomasi Kulimoetoke died on 7 May 2007. The state was in a six-month period of mourning, during which mentioning a successor was forbidden. On 25 July 2008, Kapiliele Faupala was installed as king despite protests from some of the royal clans. He was deposed in 2014. A new king, Patalione Kanimoa, was eventually installed in Uvea in 2016; Lino Leleivai in Alo on Futuna succeeded after Filipo Katoa had abdicated, and Eufenio Takala succeeded Polikalepo Kolivai in Sigave. The French president at the time, François Hollande, attended the installation ceremony.
Governance and law.
The territory is divided into three traditional kingdoms ("royaumes coutumiers"): Uvea, on the island of Wallis, Sigave, on the western part of the island of Futuna, and Alo, on the eastern part of the island of Futuna and on the uninhabited island of Alofi (only Uvea is further subdivided, into three districts):
The capital of the collectivity is Matāutu on the island of Uvéa, the most populous of the Wallis Islands. As an overseas collectivity of France, it is governed under the French constitution of 28 September 1958, and has universal suffrage for those over 18 years of age. The French president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the high administrator is appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of the Interior; the presidents of the Territorial Government and the Territorial Assembly are elected by the members of the assembly.
As of 2021, the head of state is President Emmanuel Macron of France, as represented by Administrator-Superior Thierry Queffelec. The president of the Territorial Assembly has been Petelo Hanisi since 11 December 2013. The Council of the Territory consists of three kings (monarchs of the three pre-colonial kingdoms) and three members appointed by the high administrator on the advice of the Territorial Assembly.
The legislative branch consists of the unicameral 20-member Territorial Assembly or "Assemblée territoriale". Its members are elected by popular vote, and serve five-year terms. Wallis and Futuna elects one senator to the French Senate and one deputy to the French National Assembly.
Criminal justice is generally governed by French law and administered by a tribunal of first resort in Mata-Utu; appeals from that tribunal are decided by the Court of Appeal in Nouméa, New Caledonia. However, in non-criminal cases (civil-law disputes), the three traditional kingdoms administer justice according to customary law.
The territory participates in the Franc Zone, and is both a permanent member of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and an observer at the Pacific Islands Forum.
Geography.
Wallis and Futuna is located about two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand. It is , ( west of Samoa and northeast of Fiji.
The territory includes the island of Uvéa (also called Wallis), which is the most populous; the island of Futuna; the virtually uninhabited island of Alofi; and 20 uninhabited islets. The total area of the territory is , with of coastline. The highest point in the territory is Mont Puke, on the island of Futuna, at .
The islands have a hot, rainy season from November to April, when tropical cyclones passing over them cause storms. Then they have a cool, dry season from May to October, caused by the southeast trade winds that predominate during those months. The average annual rainfall is between 2,500 and 3,000 millimetres (98–118  in), and rain is likely on at least 260 days per year. The average humidity is 80%. The average annual temperature is , rarely falling below ; during the rainy season, it ranges between and .
Only 5% of the islands' land area consists of arable land; permanent crops cover another 20%. Deforestation is a serious problem: Only small portions of the original forests remain, largely because the inhabitants use wood as their main fuel source, and, as a result, the mountainous terrain of Futuna is particularly susceptible to erosion. The island of Alofi lacks natural freshwater resources; as a result, there are no permanent settlements on it.
Volcanic activity during the mid-Pleistocene created numerous volcanic crater lakes on Uvea (Wallis Island). The names of some of them are: Lalolalo, Lano, Lanutavake, Lanutuli, Lanumaha, Kikila, and Alofivai.
Wallis and Futuna is part of the Fiji tropical moist forests terrestrial ecoregion.
Economy.
The GDP of Wallis and Futuna in 2005 was US$188 million (at market exchange rates).
The territory's economy consists mostly of traditional subsistence agriculture, with about 80% of the labor force earning its livelihood from agriculture (coconuts and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing. About 4% of the population is employed in government. Additional revenue comes from French government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to Japan and South Korea, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate workers in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, and France. Industries include copra, handicrafts, fishing, and lumber. Agricultural products include coconuts, breadfruit, yams, taro, bananas, pigs, and fish.
Exports include copra, chemicals, and fish.
There is a single bank in the territory, Banque de Wallis-et-Futuna, established in 1991. It is a subsidiary of BNP Paribas. There had previously been a branch of Banque Indosuez at Mata-Utu. It had opened in 1977, but was closed in 1989, leaving the territory without any bank for two years.
Demographics.
Population.
The total population of the territory at the July 2018 census was 11,558 (72.1% on the island of Wallis, 27.9% on the island of Futuna), down from 14,944 at the July 2003 census. The vast majority of the population are of Polynesian ethnicity, with a small minority who were born in Metropolitan France or are of French descent.
Lack of economic opportunities has, since the 1950s, been impelling many young Wallisians and Futunians to migrate to the more prosperous French territory of New Caledonia, where, as French citizens, they are legally entitled to settle and work. Since the mid-2000s, emigration has surged in response to political tensions on the main island of Wallis (Uvea), that have arisen from a feud between rival aristocratic clans, who are supporting competing kings. Emigrants have begun settling, not only in New Caledonia, but also much farther away, in Metropolitan France. At the 2014 census, 21,926 residents of New Caledonia (whether born in New Caledonia or in Wallis and Futuna) reported their ethnicity as “Wallisian and Futunian.” This is almost double the total population of Wallis and Futuna.
Languages.
According to the 2018 census, among people 14 and older, 59.1% spoke Wallisian the most at home (down from 60.2% in 2008); for 27.9% it was Futunan (down from 29.9% in 2008); and for 12.7% it was French (up from 9.7% in 2008). On Wallis Island, the languages most spoken at home were Wallisian (82.2%, down from 86.1% in 2008), French (15.6%, up from 12.1% in 2008), and Futunan (1.9%, up from 1.5% in 2008). On Futuna, the languages most spoken at home were Futunan (94.5%, down from 94.9% in 2008), French (5.3%, up from 4.2% in 2008), and Wallisian (0.2%, down from 0.8% in 2008).
Ten years earlier, as of the 2008 census, 88.5% of people 14 or older could speak, read and write either Wallisian or Futunan, and 7.2% had no knowledge of either Wallisian or Futunan. Among those 14 or older, 78.2% could speak, read and write French, and 17.3% had no knowledge of French. On Wallis Island, 81.1% of people 14 or older could speak, read and write French, and 14.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French. On Futuna, 71.6% of people 14 or older could speak, read and write French, and 24.3% had no knowledge of French.
Religion.
The overwhelming majority (99%) of the people in Wallis and Futuna are Roman Catholics. They are served by their own Roman Catholic Diocese of Wallis and Futuna, with a see at Mata-Utu, a suffragan diocese of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nouméa (New Caledonia).
Culture.
The culture of Wallis and Futuna is Polynesian, and is similar to the cultures of its neighbouring nations Samoa and Tonga. The Wallisian and Futunan cultures are very similar to each other in language, dance, cuisine and modes of celebration.
Fishing and agriculture are the traditional occupations, and most people live in traditional oval, thatch "fale" houses. Kava is a popular beverage brewed in the two islands, as in much else of Polynesia. It also serves as a traditional offering in rituals. Highly detailed tapa cloth art is a specialty of Wallis and Futuna.
Transport and communications.
In 1994, the territory had 1,125 telephones in use, one AM radio station, and two television broadcast stations. Communication costs are up to ten times higher than in western countries. The island of Wallis has about of roadways, 16 of which are paved. The island of Futuna has only of roadways, none of which are paved. The territory has two main ports, in the harbours at Mata-Utu and Leava (on the island of Futuna). These ports support its merchant marine fleet, which comprises three ships (two passenger ships and a petroleum tanker), totaling 92,060 GRT or 45,881 tonnes. There are two airports: Hihifo Airport, on Wallis, which has a paved runway; and Pointe Vele Airport, on Futuna, which has a runway. Now the only commercial flights to and from Wallis are operated by Caledonia-based Aircalin, which has an office in Mata-Utu. There are currently no commercial boat operators.
Newspapers.
The French High Commission published a local newspaper in the 1970s, Nouvelles de Wallis et de Futuna. Today, news is available online via a local program broadcast by the French television network La Première.
Education.
There are 18 primary schools in the territory, 12 on Wallis and six on Futuna, with a combined total of over 5200 students.
The territory has six junior high schools and one senior high school/sixth-form college.
There is also an agricultural high school.
Healthcare.
As of 2018, yaws was endemic in the area, but cases were not being reported to the WHO eradication programme.
Healthcare is available free of charge in two hospitals on Uvea and Futuna islands. There are also three dispensaries.
Environment.
Deforestation is a major concern in the region as only small portions of the original forests remain due to the continued use of wood as the main source of fuel. Consequently, the mountainous terrain of Futuna has become prone to erosion. There are no permanent settlements on Alofi due to the lack of natural freshwater resources, and the presence of infertile soil on the islands of Uvea and Futuna further reduces the agricultural productivity.


Kara Arslan

Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan (or Kara Arslan) (r. 1144–1174 CE) was a member of the Artuqid dynasty and son of Rukn al-Daula Dāʾūd, bey of Hasankeyf. Kara Arslan ruled Hasankeyf following Dāʾūd's death on 19 Muharram 539 (22 July 1144). Father of Nur al-Din Muhammad.