Flag of Amur Oblast

The flag of Amur Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, was adopted on 16 April 1999. The lower part of the flag (1/3 of the width) is blue in colour and is separated from the upper part by a white serpentine belt, reminiscent of a river wave. The width of the belt is 1/15 the width of the flag. The upper part of the flag is red, symbolizing the rich history of the Amur region. The ratio of the flag is 2:3.


Nikolai Kutepov

Nikolai Ivanovich Kutepov (, —/1907) was the author of fundamental "Grand Ducal, Tsarist and Imperial Hunting in Russia". Kutepov has made an extensive research on subject, collecting all known documents from archives and libraries. Kutepov was also entrusted to write the appropriate article for "Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary". In 1893 he published "A Memorable Note on the Matter of Making the Reference Collection for the History of Grand Ducal, Tsarist and Imperial Huntings in Russia" ("Памятная записка о положении дела по составлению "Сбоpника матеpиалов, касающихся истоpии великокняжеской, цаpской и импеpатоpской охот в Pоссии"). In May 1894 Kutepov offered the first sample of his work to Alexander III. His final work Kutepov called "the Tsar's high quality books" ("царские книги высокого качества").


Green Wind

Green Wind was a left-wing political party in Japan. It opposed the Trans-Pacific Partnership and October 2012 Consumption Tax Hike. It was founded as a parliamentary group in July 2012, and as a political party in November 2012 when Representative Makoto Yamazaki left the Democratic Party and joined the group. On November 17, 2012, the party obtained its second member of the lower house, the House of Representatives, when former Democratic Party Representative Eriko Fukuda joined the party. In 2013, Tomoko Abe, the last remaining member of Tomorrow Party of Japan, joined Green Wind. However, on December 31, 2013, the party was dissolved.
Co-leaders.
The party's four co-leaders were its four members of the House of Councillors: Kuniko Koda, Yasue Funayama, Akiko Kamei, and Kuniko Tanioka.


Gunongan Historical Park

Gunongan Historical Park (Jawoë: ڬونوڠن) is located in the Aceh Province of Sumatra, Indonesia. Possibly built by Iskandar Muda, the grounds of the historical park contain a 17th Century palace, garden, and white circular structure whose purpose is unknown, the "Gunongan", after which the park has been named.
History.
The Gunungan Historical Park was then known as Taman Ghairah (Acehnese "pleasure garden"). According to ar-Raniri, a 17th-century Islamic mystic from Gujarat who worked several years for the Sultan, The garden was built by Iskandar Thani in mid 17th-century as part of the court of Aceh Sultanate; not different with Taman Sari to the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. It is possible that the garden has existed way before Iskandar Thani, as it is unlikely that the grand and spacious garden was built in its entirety during the five-year reign of Iskandar Thani. Several parks has existed in the vicinity of the Acehnese palace as mentioned in Hikayat Aceh, e.g. an older 16th-century garden built by the infamous Sultan Zayn al-Abidin.
ar-Raniri, a 17th-century Islamic mystic from Gujarat who worked several years for the Sultan, describe the garden in elaborate detail. The garden is a walled royal pleasure garden about 1,000 fathom (1.82 km) wide. On the side leading towards the palace stood a gate known as "Pintu Biram Indera Bangsa". Inside the garden were several structures e.g. the Gunongan, a mosque known as 'Isyqi Musyahadah, and a number of pavilions e.g. Balai Cermin Perang, Balai Rekaan Cina, Balai Keemasan, and Balai Kumbang Caya. Through the middle of the garden flowed a creek, named Dar al-'Ishqi, which flows north toward the Aceh River. Another structure in the garden was carved stone structures e.g. the Kembang Seroja Berkerawang and the Petarana Kembang Berukir. The garden was also embelisshed with a fountain in the shape of two dragons. Many kind of fruit trees were planted within the garden.
The Gunongan, then known as Gegunungan Menara Permata ("gunungan of jeweled tower") stood in the middle of a marbled square known as Medan Khairani. The Gunongan is basically a gunungan, a typical element of an Indonesian garden found in Java, Bali and Lombok; although there has been an argument that the garden was more similar to the Islamic Persian garden. It is possible that the Gunongan structure was older than the entire extend of the garden. According to Hikayat Malem Dagang and Hikayat Meukuta Alam, the Gunongan was built by Iskandar Muda for his Malay consort, the princess of Pahang. The Hikayat Malem Dagang recounts that two princes of the Malay Peninsula, Raja si Ujut and Raja Radén, brought this lady, Putroe Phang, to Aceh. They sought a judgement from Sultan Iskandar Muda in a quarrel between them. Iskandar found in favor of Raja Radén, and received from him Putroe Phang. For her relaxation he built the Gunongan, because she was homesick for the mountains of her native land.


Nicolasa Dayrit Panlilio

Nicolasa Dayrit–Panlilio (10 September 1874 – 12 April 1945) was a Filipino non-combatant in the Philippine–American War. Her actions not only included helping to minister the sick and wounded Filipino combatants, but also played a major role in appeasing General Antonio Luna during his confrontation with General Tomas Mascardo. This contributed to the collapse of the Bagbag-Quingua-Sta. Maria defense line based on the Pampanga River, which was held against the American forces.
Governor Tiburcio Hilario, at the same time sent three emissaries to convince General Mascardo to submit himself to Luna's authority as Chief of Staff. At first Mascardo was nowhere to be found but later, he appeared in Betis to inform General Luna that he was willing to follow the latter's orders. That afternoon Luna returned to his headquarters, only to learn that his troops had been defeated in the Battle of Quingua.
Early life.
Nicolasa Dayrit was born to Don Florentino Dayrit, a Cabeza de Barangay and Doña Antonina Pamintuan, in San Fernando, on September 10, 1874. She was one of the well-educated women of her time, having studied under Don Modesto Joaquin in Bacolor. Fluent in Spanish, she was also one of the two more accomplished pianists in the province, the other being Doña Josefa Henson.
Activities in the Philippine–American War.
When American forces started bombarding this area, General Luna requested reinforcements from General Tomas Mascardo in Guagua, Pampanga but the latter carried out the order slowly and in protest. As a result, Luna ordered Mascardo arrest. The latter reacted sharply, arguing to Luna's emissary that while President Aguinaldo's decree applied to all troops of the provinces of Pampanga and Nueva Ecija, which were under Luna's jurisdiction, the decree did not apply to general officers of these troops. Mascardo concluded his response with the words, "If General Luna has enough guts to enforce his decree, Mascardo has enough to resist him."
Incensed, General Luna wired Governor Tiburcio Hilario to prepare for his arrival. He also ordered a special train into which all available infantry, cavalry, and artillery forces were loaded. To Luna, Mascardo's non-cooperation was a sign of weakness.
At this moment, the women of the province proved their high sense of patriotism while the men exerted every effort to bind and unite their armed forces. To the revolutionary leaders, the welfare of the Republic was greater than that of any man. Governor Tiburcio Hilario met General Luna first and pleaded with him to restore peace and unity at a crucial moment. He requested a delegation of women led by Nicolasa Dayrit and Pampanga's Red Cross President Praxedes Fajardo, to bring flowers and kneel before General Luna. The women met him on the steps of the convent in Bacolor on April 24, 1899, and successfully dissuaded Luna from violently confronting Mascardo.
Later life.
At the end of the war, perhaps due to the rigors of ministering the sick and the wounded, Nicolasa found herself often ill, unable to leave her bed. Many doctors treated her, to no avail. Someone advised her family to consult a young doctor who had just arrived from Madrid, Dr. Vicente Panlilio. She married Dr. Panlilio, and he built for his bride a two storey house at San Jose Street, near Doña Antonina's house in the center of town. It was an elegant semi-concrete house with a concrete porch and a verandah through which one entered the living room.
The Panlilio's had five children: Luis, the eldest was a Harvard law graduate who became a good corporation lawyer and an industrialist, married Remedios Lazatin, the second was Carlos who seemed to be the tallest young man in town while Teresita who looked much like her mother, married Justice Augusto Luciano of Magalang; Pablo, an American, French educated architect, became successful in his field aside from being an industrialist, married socialite pianist Dolores Arguelles while the youngest is Lourdes.
During the Japanese occupation, like most prominent families in San Fernando, the Panlilios lost their house to the Japanese. General Masaharu Homma occupied it. When Manila was declared an open city, the Panlilios moved in, hoping that they would be more secure there. But in the Battle of Malate, Dr. Panlilio was lost, never to be seen again. Doña Nicolasa became despondent and died of a heart attack on April 12, 1945, possibly due to her depression.
Re-interment and Military Honors.
On September 9, 2004, her remains were transferred from Manila Memorial Park in Sucat, Paranaque to the City of San Fernando, Pampanga with full honors and an overnight vigil with members of the Philippine Marines serving as honor guards. On September 10, 2006, the National Historical Institute placed a marker in her monument, recognizing her contributions to the fight for Philippine Independence.


Kalsia

Kalsia was a princely state in Punjab, British India, one of the former Cis-Sutlej states. It was founded by Maharaja Gurbaksh Singh Sandhu in 1760. After India's independence, it was included in PEPSU and later in the Indian East Punjab after the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. The area of Kalsia is now located in the modern day Indian states of Punjab and Haryana. In 1940 the population of Kalsia was 67,393.
Geography.
The area of Kalsia was 435 km2 (168 sq mi), consisting of 20 detached pieces of territory in the Ambala and Ferozepur districts, lying mainly between 30° 12 and 30° 25 N and 77° 21 and 77° 35 E. It was divided into 3 major parts: two tehsils, Chhachhrauli and Basi, and a sub-tehsil named Chirak, in Ferozepur district. It had contained 181 villages in 1903. The capital of Kalsia state was Chhachhrauli.
History.
The state of Kalsia was founded by Gurbaksh Singh in 1760. He joined the Kroria Misl of the Sikh confederacy. Maharaja Ranjit Singh had granted the estate of Chhachhrauli to Maharaja Gurbaksh Singh, a commander of his troops and a resident of Kalsia village. Maharaja Goorbaksh Singh named the state "Kalsia" and Chhachhrauli became its capital city.
Maharaja Gurbaksh Singh was not famous, but his successor and son, Jodh Singh was an able person. At that time the area of Kalsia state comprised the territory between the Yamuna and the Markanda stream. Jodh Singh captured Dera Basi from Sardar Khajan Singh and also acquired territories of Lohal and Achrak. When Maharaja Ranjit Singh attacked and occupied Naraingarh in the Shivaliks in 1807, Jodh Singh was with him. In recognition of his services, Ranjit Singh presented him territories of Badala, Kameri and Chhabbal.
Jodh Singh died in Multan in 1818. After his death, his son Sobha Singh assumed charge of Kalsia state and held it until his death in 1858. Lahna Singh, his successor sided with the British in crushing the revolt of 1857.
After 1858, a period of peace started. When Lahna Singh assumed power, the Kalsia territory was intact as a British protectorate. The state's annual income was nearly Rs 300,000 per annum, and the population was around 62,000. After Lahna Singh, came Ranjit Singh Kalsia, then his son Ravi Sher Singh, and finally Ravi Karan Singh. Ravisher Singh in 1916 gave himself the title of Raja.
The Kalsia rajas held their estate until 1947, when it was merged with the Indian Union.
Both Ranjit Singh Kalsia and Ravi Sher Singh built several public utility buildings, including a charity hospital and schools. Raja Ravi Sher Kalsia Hospital was inaugurated in 1910 by Lt Governor of the Punjab, Sir Luis William Daney. The old court building still exists at Chhachhrauli. The dewan of the state used to live in an impressive building known as ‘Janak Niwas’. The Kalsias were undoubtedly staunch Nanakpanthis.
In volume XIX (Part 1) of the Census of India 1891, E. D. Maclagan, the Provincial Superintendent of Census Operation, records: "Some eighty years ago (i.e., in 1811 AD) the grandfather of the present Lambardar of Jainpur village was carried off by the Sikh chief of Kalsia, and had all his fingers burnt off, because he refused to acknowledge that Nanak was the true Guru."
The state was under the political control of the commissioner of the Delhi division.
Rulers.
The rulers of Kalsia State bore the title of 'Sardar', and Maharaja although from 1916 they adopted the title of 'Maharaja', including the last head of the state.
Sardar / kings.
(1818 - 14 Feb 1858 Maharaja Sobha Singh (d. 1858)


Kharan (princely state)

The State of Kharan (Urdu: ریاست خاران) was an autonomous princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India, until the departure of the British from the subcontinent in August 1947. it was fully independent, until March 1948, when its ruler signed an Instrument of Accession to Pakistan, retaining the state's internal self-government. In 1955 Kharan was incorporated into Pakistan.
The territory once covered by Kharan is today part of the province of Balochistan, in the southwest of Pakistan.
History.
The state of Kharan was established in about 1697 CE as a vassal state of Kalat, which remained until 1940. It became independent of Kalat in 1940. On 17 March 1948, Kharan acceded to Pakistan and on 3 October 1952 it joined the Baluchistan States Union. Mir Habibullah Nousherwani acceded to Pakistan stating: "Haran was conquered by Nasir Khan in the late 18th century, but his power there was not fixed."
He further said:
Kalat doesn't have legitimacy to decide fate of Kharan. We announce our integration with Pakistan and we shall not tolerate further interference by ruling elite of Kalat.
The ruler of Kharan, Abbas Khan Nushervani, gave the Khan of Kalat part of his income (by the way, extremely irregular), but he ruled his country on his own.
The rulers of Haran achieved relative independence not only from Kalat, but also from Kabul and Tehran, thanks to the remoteness of their possessions. In order to safeguard the trade routes from Iran to India, the Afghan emirs (and before them the Iranian shahs), although they considered the Khans of Kharan their vassals, did not take tribute from them, but rather provided them with regular monetary and other support.
The state was dissolved on 14 October 1955 when most regions of the western wing of Pakistan were merged to form the province of West Pakistan. When that province was dissolved in 1970, the territory of the former state of Kharan was organised as Kharan District of the province of Baluchistan (later Balochistan).
Demographics.
Nausherwani (نوشیروانی) are considered Nawabs of Kharan and Washuk. Most respected family in Balochistan, Nausherwanis are divided into two sub tribes:first the Nawabs of Kharan, and second the sardars of Makran. The population of the state was mainly Baloch tribes, with some Brahui scattered across the area..
Government.
The hereditary rulers of Kharan held the title of Mir
1680–1850, Khan 1850–1909, Khan Sahib 1909–1911, Sardar 1911–1919,
Sardar Bahadur 1919-1921 and Nawab from post 1921 onwards.


Atula Sanda Dewi of Pinya

Atula Sanda Dewi (, ; ) was the chief queen consort of King Kyawswa I of Pinya. The queen, whose personal name was "Nan Lon Me" (နန်းလုံးမယ်), was a granddaughter of King Kyawswa of Pagan. She was the mother of the last three kings of Pinya: Uzana II, Kyawswa II and Narathu.


Bhagabhadra

Bhagabhadra (Brāhmī: 𑀪𑀸𑀕𑀪𑀤𑁆𑀭 , ) was one of the kings of the Indian Shunga dynasty. He ruled in north, central, and eastern India around 110 BCE. Although the capital of the Shungas was at Pataliputra, he was also known to have held court at Vidisha. It is thought that the name Bhagabhadra also appears in the regnal lists of the Shungas in the Puranic records, under the name Bhadraka, fifth ruler of the Shungas.
Heliodorus inscription.
He is best known from an inscription at the site of Vidisha in central India, the Heliodorus pillar, in which contacts with an embassy from the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas is recorded, and where he is named "Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Saviour, son of the princess from Benares":
Translation:
This inscription is important in that it tends to validate that the Shungas ruled in the area of Vidisa around 100 BCE. This is also corroborated by some artistic realization on the nearby Sanchi stupa thought to belong to the period of the Shungas. Altogether, three Shunga pillars have also been found in the area.The Garuda Pillar erected by Heliodorous and the inscription written on this pillar is regarded as the earliest material evidence of Bhagavatism in India.


Brahman dynasty of Sindh

The Brahman dynasty ( CE) was a Hindu power on the Indian subcontinent which originated in the region of Sindh, present-day Pakistan. Most of the information about its existence comes from the "Chach Nama", a historical account of the Chach-Brahman dynasty. The Brahman dynasty were successors of the Rai dynasty.
History.
The dynasty was founded by a Arori Brahman named Chach of Alor in after he married the widow of Rai Sahasi II, the last ruler of the Rai dynasty. His claim was further secured by the killing of Rai Sahasi II's brother.
The rule of Sindh by a Hindu dynasty raised ire in the Umayyad Caliphate. Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan granted a large army to the governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, but no attempt was made to annex Sindh due to the caliph's death. Under his son and successor Al-Walid I, the general Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sindh in 710 and killed the last Brahman ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir, at Indus River, Alor, Sindh.
Rulers.
The known rulers of the Brahman dynasty are:
Under the Umayyad Caliphate:


Bahram Siyavashan

Bahram Siyavashan (Middle Persian: "Wahrām Siyāvakhšan") was an Iranian commander, who supported the distinguished Sasanian military leader Bahram Chobin, and played an active role in the early stages of the Sasanian civil war of 589-591, till he was killed by Bahram Chobin himself in 590 after trying to assassinate the latter.


Minkhaung Medaw

Minkhaung Medaw (, ) was a principal queen of King Taka Yut Pi of Hanthawaddy (Ramanya) from 1535 to 1539, and of King Min Bin of Mrauk U (Arakan) from 1540 to 1554. A daughter of King Bayin Htwe of Prome, the queen is also referred to as Pegu Mibaya and Tanzaung Mibaya in the royal chronicles.
Brief.
Early life.
The future queen was born to Prince Htwe of Prome (Pyay) and his second wife Chit Mi late 1510s. She was descended from a long line of rulers of Prome from both sides, and ultimately from King Narapati I of Ava (r. 1442–1468) from both sides. She was a granddaughter of then King of Prome, Thado Minsaw. The princess had three full siblings—an elder brother Minye Sithu (later known as King Minkhaung of Prome), a younger sister later known as Vicereine Laygyun Mibaya of Toungoo, and a younger brother who died young; and four half-siblings, including King Narapati of Prome and Vicereine Narapati Medaw of Prome. Her personal name is unknown; Minkhaung Medaw was a title (literally, "Minkhaung's Royal Younger Sister").
The princess likely grew up in Prome since her father succeeded in becoming king in 1526. In the 1530s and 1540s, the princess became involved in two marriages of state, courtesy of her two brothers.
Queen of Hanthawaddy Pegu (Ramanya).
Circa 1535, her half brother Narapati, who had succeeded their father as king since 1532, married her off to King Taka Yut Pi of Hanthawaddy Pegu. Narapati also married Taka Yut Pi's sister. The marriages were intended to cement the burgeoning alliance between Prome and Pegu. The two kingdoms had been in a low grade conflict with the upstart kingdom of Toungoo over Tharrawaddy, the southernmost district of Prome, since 1531. Her marriage to Taka Yut Pi came as the conflict had escalated to a full blown war between Toungoo and Pegu. The marriage was one of the three state marriage alliances executed by Narapati. The king of Prome, who was a vassal of Ava, also sent his full sister Narapati Medaw to marry Gov. Sithu Kyawhtin of Salin (a powerful governor and ally of Ava) to further cement the relationship with Ava, and his other half sister, Laygyun Mibaya, to marry King Tabinshwehti of Toungoo with the hope of avoiding an all out war with Toungoo.
If Narapati's marriage alliances kept Prome out of Toungoo's immediate wrath, Minkhaung Medaw's new home, Pegu (Bago), came under repeated Toungoo attacks for the next three years. In late 1538, Taka Yut Pi decided to evacuate Pegu, and the royal family of Pegu retreated to Prome. Because of her stint at Pegu, she is referred to as Pegu Mibaya (ပဲခူး မိဖုရား, ; "Queen of Pegu"). However, soon after their arrival at Prome, her husband and her brother Narapati, king of Prome, both died, one after another.
Queen of Mrauk U (Arakan).
She would not remain a widow for long. Prome was now at war with Toungoo, and the new king of Prome Minkhaung, her elder brother, sent her off to marry King Min Bin of Mrauk U in another marriage alliance 1540. At Mrauk U, she became known as Tanzaung Mibaya (တန်ဆောင်း မိဖုရား, ; "Queen of the Royal Hall").
Ancestry.
The following is the queen's ancestry.


History of Tajikistan

Tajikistan harkens to the Samanid Empire (819–999). The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s. The Basmachi revolt broke out in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and was quelled in the early 1920s during the Russian Civil War. In 1924 Tajikistan became an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union, the Tajik ASSR, within Uzbekistan. In 1929 Tajikistan was made one of the component republics of the Soviet Union – Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR) – and it kept that status until gaining independence 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
It has since experienced three changes in government and the Tajik civil war. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997.
Antiquity (600 BC – 651 AD).
Tajikistan was part of Scythia in Classical Antiquity. Sogdiana, Bactria, Merv and Khorezm were the four principal divisions of Ancient Central Asia inhabited by the ancestors of the present-day Tajikistani Tajiks. Tajiks are now found only in historic Bactria and Sogdiana. Merv is inhabited by the Turkoman and Khorezm by Uzbeks and Kazakhs. Sogdiana was made up of the Zeravshan and Kashka-Darya river valleys. Currently, two of the surviving peoples of Sogdiana who speak a dialect of the Sogdian language are the Yaghnobis and Shugnanis.
Tajikistan was part of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex in the Bronze Age, candidate for Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Iranian culture. Bactria was located in northern Afghanistan (present-day Afghan Turkestan) between the mountain range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (Oxus) River and some areas of current south Tajikistan. During different periods, Bactria was a center of various Kingdoms or Empires, and is probably where Zoroastrianism originated. The "Avesta"—the holy book of Zoroastrianism—was written in the old-Bactrian dialect; it is also thought that Zoroaster was most likely born in Bactria.
Some authors have also suggested that in the 7th and 6th century BCE parts of modern Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of Kambojas, which were referenced in the Mahabharata epic as the Parama Kamboja, before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire.Linguistic evidence, combined with ancient literary and inscriptional evidence suggest the Kambojas originally emigrated from Central Asia.
Achaemenid Period (550 BC – 329 BC).
During the Achaemenid period, Sogdiana and Bactria were part of the Achaemenid empire. Sogdians and Bactrians occupied important positions in the administration and military of the Achaemenid Empire
Hellenistic Period (329 BC – 90 BC).
After the Achaemenid Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great, Bactria, Sogdiana and Merv, being part of Persian Empire, had to defend themselves from new invaders. In fact, the Macedonians faced very stiff resistance under the leadership of Sogdian ruler Spitamenes. Alexander the Great managed to marry Roxana, the daughter of a local ruler, and inherited his land. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area for another 200 years in what is known as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. During the time period from 90 BC to 30 BC, Yuezhi destroyed the last Hellenistic successor states and, together with the Tokhari, (to whom they were closely related) created a Kushan Empire around 30 AD.
Kushan Empire (30 BC – 410 AD).
For another 400 years, until 410 AD, the Kushan Empire was a major power in the region along with the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire and the Han Empire (China). Notable contact was made with local peoples when the envoys of the Han Dynasty journeyed to this area in the 2nd century BC. At the end of the Kushan period, the Empire became much smaller and would have to defend itself from the powerful Sassanid Empire that replaced the Parthian Empire. The famous Kushan king Kanishka promoted Buddhism and during this time Buddhism was exported from Central Asia to China.
The Sassanids, Hephthalites, and Gokturks (224–710).
The Sassanids once controlled much of what is now Tajikistan, but lost the territory to the Hephthalites (possibly also of Iranian descent) during the time of Peroz I.
They created a powerful empire that succeeded in making Iran a tributary state around 483–485. Shah of Persia Peroz fought three wars with Hephthalites. During the first war he was captured by Hephthalite army and later was released after Byzantine emperor paid a ransom for him. During the second war Peroz was captured again and was released after paying a huge contribution to the Hephthalite king. During the third war Peroz was killed. The Hephthalites were subjugated in 565 by a combination of Sassanid and Kök-Turk forces. Subsequently, present Tajikistan was ruled by Göktürks and Sassanids, however when the Sassanid Empire fell the Turks kept control of Tajikistan but they later lost it to the Chinese people, however, they later managed to take control of Tajikistan once again, only to lose it to the Arabs in 710.
Medieval history (710–1506).
Arab Caliphate (710–867).
The Transoxiana principalities never formed a viable confederacy. Beginning in 651, the Arabs organized periodic marauding raids deep into the territory of Transoxania, but it was not until the appointment of Ibn Qutaiba as Governor of Khorasan in 705, during the reign of Walid I, that the Caliphate adopted the policy of annexing the lands beyond the Oxus. In 715, the task of annexation was accomplished. The entire region thus came under the control of the Caliph and of Islam, but the Arabs continued to rule through local Soghdian Kings and "dihqans". The ascension of the Abbasids to rule the Caliphate (750 - 1258) opened a new era in the history of Central Asia. While their predecessors the Umayyads (661 - 750) were little more than leaders of a loose confederation of Arab tribes, the Abbasids set out to build a huge multi-ethnic centralized state that would emulate and perfect the Sassanian government machine. They gave the Near East and Transoxiana a unity, which they had been lacking since the time of Alexander the Great.
Samanid Empire (819–999).
The Samanid dynasty ruled (819–1005) in Khorasan (including Eastern Iran and Transoxiana) and was founded by Saman Khuda. The Samanids were one of the first purely indigenous dynasties to rule in Persia after the Muslim Arab conquest. During the reign (892–907) of Saman Khuda's great-grandson, Ismail I (known as Ismail Samani), Samanids expanded in Khorasan. In 900, Ismail defeated the Saffarids in Khorasan (area of current Northwest Afghanistan and northeastern Iran), while his brother was the governor of Transoxiana. Thus, Samanid rule was acclaimed over the combined regions. The cities of Bukhara (the Samanid capital) and Samarkand became centres of art, science, and literature; industries included pottery making and bronze casting. After 950, Samanid power weakened, but was briefly revitalized under Nuh II, who ruled from 976 to 997. However, with the oncoming encroachment of Muslim Turks, the Samanids lost their domains south of the Oxus river which were taken by Ghaznavids. In 999, Bukhara was taken by the Qarakhanids. The Samanid Isma'il Muntasir (died 1005) tried to restore the dynasty (1000–1005), until he was assassinated by an Arab bedouin chieftain.
The attack of the Qarakhanid Turks ended the Samanid dynasty in 999 and dominance in Transoxiana passed on to Turkic rulers.
Qarakhanids (999–1211) and Khwarezmshahs (1211–1218).
After the collapse of Samanid Dynasty, Central Asia became the battleground of many Asian invaders who came from the north-east.
Mongol rule (1218–1370).
The Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, looting and massacring people everywhere.
Timurid Empire (1370–1506).
Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, was born on 8 April 1336 in Kesh near Samarkand. He was a member of the Turkicized Barlas tribe, a Mongol subgroup that had settled in Transoxiana after taking part in Genghis Khan's son Chagatai's campaigns in that region. Timur began his life as a bandit leader. During this period, he received an arrow-wound in the leg, as a result of which he was nicknamed Timur-e Lang (in Dari) or Timur the Lame. Although the last Timurid ruler of Herat, Badi az Zaman finally fell to the armies of the Uzbek Muhammad Shaibani Khan in 1506, the Timurid ruler of Ferghana, Zahir-ud-Din Babur, survived the collapse of the dynasty and re-established the Timurid dynasty in India in 1526 where they became known as the Mughals.
Early modern history (1506–1868).
Turkic rule (1506–1598).
The Shaybanid state was divided into appanages between all male members (sultans) of the dynasty, who would designate the supreme ruler (Khan), the oldest member of clan. The seat of Khan was first Samarkand, the capital of the Timurids, but some of the Khans preferred to remain in their former appanages. Thus Bukhara became the seat of the khan for the first time under Ubaid Allah Khan (r. 1533–1539).
The period of political expansion and economical prosperity was short-lived. Soon after the death of Abd Allah Khan the Shaibanid dynasty died out and was replaced by the Janid or Astrakhanid (Ashtarkhanid) dynasty, another branch of the descendants of Jöchi, whose founder Jani Khan was related to Abd Allah Khan Through his marriage to Abdullah Khan's Sister. The Astrakhanids are also said to be connected to the Hashemites due to Imam Quli Khan's status as a Sayyid. Their descendants today live in India. In 1709, eastern part of Khanate of Bukhara seceded and formed Khanate of Kokand. Thus, the eastern part of present Tajikistan passed to the Khanate of Kokand, while the western one remained part of the Khanate of Bukhara.
Iranian and Bukharan rule (1740–1868).
In 1740, the Janid khanate was conquered by Nader Shah, the Afsharid ruler of Iran. The Janid khan Abu al Faiz retained his throne, becoming Nadir's vassal.
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, the chief of the Manghit tribe, Muhammad Rahim Biy Azaliq, overcame his rivals from other tribes and consolidated his rule in the Khanate of Bukhara. His successor, however, ruled in the name of puppet khans of Janid origin. In 1785 Shah Murad formalized the family's dynastic rule (Manghit dynasty), and the khanate became the Emirate of Bukhara
Modern History (1868—1991).
Russian Vassalage (1868–1920).
Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire's conquest of Central Asia during the late 19th century's Imperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885 Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand ( from today's border with Kazakhstan in the north to the Caspian Sea in the west and the border with Afghanistan in the south). Tashkent was conquered in 1865 and in 1867 the Turkestan Governor-Generalship was created with Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman as the first Governor-General.
The expansion was motivated by Russia's economic interests and was connected with the American Civil War in the early 1860s, which severely interrupted the supply of cotton fiber to the Russian industry and forced Russia to turn to Central Asia as an alternative source of cotton supply as well as a market for Russian made goods. The Russian regime in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets). By 1885 Tajikistan's territory was either ruled by the Russian Empire or its vassal state, the Emirate of Bukhara, nevertheless Tajiks felt little Russian influence.
Russian Empire, being a much bigger state with a huge population and having an advanced military, had little difficulty in conquering the regions inhabited by Tajiks, meeting fierce resistance only at Jizzakh, Ura-Tyube, and when their garrison in Samarkand was besieged in 1868 by forces from Shahr-e Sabz and the inhabitants of the city. The army of the Emirate of Bukhara was utterly defeated in three battles, and on 18 June 1868 Emir Mozaffar al-Din (r. 1860–1885) signed a peace treaty with the Governor-General of Russian Turkestan Von Kaufman. Samarkand and the Upper Zeravshan were annexed by Russia and the country was opened to Russian merchants. The emir retained his throne as a vassal of Russia and with Russian help he established control over Shahr-e Sabz, the mountainous regions in the upper Zeravshan Valley(1870) and the principalities of the western Pamir (1895).
During the late 19th century the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. Although the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian the Russians viewed the movement as a threat. Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I. Despite Russian troops quickly bringing Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan.
At the end of August 1920 the last emir, Sayyid Alim Khan, was overthrown by Soviet troops. On 6 October 1920 the emirate was abolished and the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed.
Basmachi movement (1916-1924).
The Basmachi movement or Basmachi Revolt was an uprising against Russian Imperial and Soviet rule that arose after the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia.
The movement's roots lay in the anti-conscription violence of 1916 that erupted when the Russian Empire began to draft Muslims for army service during World War I. In the months following the October 1917 Revolution the Bolsheviks seized power in many parts of the Russian Empire and the Russian Civil War began. Turkestani Muslim political movements attempted to form an autonomous government in the city of Kokand, in the Ferghana Valley. The Bolsheviks launched an assault on Kokand in February 1918 and carried out a general massacre of up to 25,000 people. The massacre rallied support to the Basmachi movements who waged a guerrilla war and a conventional war that seized control of large parts of the Ferghana Valley and much of Turkestan.
The fortunes of the decentralized movement fluctuated throughout the early 1920s but by 1923 the Red Army's extensive campaigns dealt the Basmachis many defeats. After major Red Army campaigns and concessions regarding economic and Islamic practices in the mid-1920s, the military fortunes and popular support of the Basmachi declined. Resistance to Soviet/Russian rule did flare up again to a lesser extent in response to collectivization campaigns in the pre-WWII Era.
Soviet Rule (1920–1991).
In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan, but when national borders were drawn in 1928 (during the administrative delimitation) the ancient Tajik cities of Bukhara and Samarkand were placed outside the Tajikistan SSR. As citizens of the newly established Uzbek SSR, many Tajiks came under pressure to conform to their newly ascribed "Uzbek" identity, and under threat of exile, many were forced to change their identity and sign in passports as "Uzbeks". Tajik schools were closed and Tajiks were not appointed to leadership positions simply because of their ethnicity.
Between 1927 and 1934 collectivization of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region. Soviet collectivization policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement. Some small scale industrial development also occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.
Two rounds of Soviet purges directed by Moscow (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan. Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary. Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%. Bobojon Ghafurov, Tajikistan's First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946–1956 was the only Tajikistani politician of significance outside the country during the Soviet Era. He was followed in office by Tursun Uljabayev (1956–61), Jabbor Rasulov (1961–1982), and Rahmon Nabiyev (1982–1985, 1991–1992).
Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000(4%) and 120,000(8%) of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II. Following the war and Stalin's reign attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan. During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics.
In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR, the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups, and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.
Living standards were undermined during the tenure of Kahar Mahkamov as first secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1985. Mahkamov's attempted marketisation of the Tajik economy aggravated the poor living conditions and unemployment. On the eve of the Soviet collapse Tajikistan was suffering from a declining economy and dim prospects for recovery. The glasnost policy of openness initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev offered disgruntled Tajiks a chance to voice their grievances. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence.
Republic of Tajikistan (1991 to present).
The Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was among the last republics of the Soviet Union to declare its independence. On September 9, 1991, following the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Tajikistan declared its independence. During this time, use of the Tajik language, an official language of the Tajikistan SSR next to Russian, was increasingly promoted. Ethnic Russians, who had held many governing posts, lost much of their influence and more Tajiks became politically active.
The nation almost immediately fell into a civil war that involved various factions fighting one another; these factions were often distinguished by clan loyalties. The non-Muslim population, particularly Russians and Jews, fled the country during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics.
Emomali Rahmon came to power in 1994, and continues to rule to this day. Ethnic cleansing was controversial during the civil war in Tajikistan. By the end of the war Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside the country. In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties (United Tajik Opposition).
Peaceful elections were held in 1999, but they were reported by the opposition as unfair, and Rahmon was re-elected by almost unanimous vote. Russian troops were stationed in southern Tajikistan, in order to guard the border with Afghanistan, until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, American, Indian and French troops have also been stationed in the country.
In October 2020, President Emomali Rahmon was re-elected for next seven-year period with 90 per cent of the votes.


Qasim Khan Juvayni

Qasim Khan Juvayni (, ) was a Mughal general and nobleman of the court of Mughal emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan. He also served as the Subahdar of Bengal, succeeding Fidai Khan, from 1628 to 1631. He is most notable for the capture of Hugli off the Portuguese firingis.
Background.
Qasim Khan originated from Sabzevar (in present-day Afghanistan) which was historically part of greater Joveyn. His father was Mir Murad Juwaini, a renowned Syed of the town. Murad spent much of his life in the Deccan (giving rise to the name Mir Murad Dakhini) before being appointed by Akbar as 5-year old Shah Jahan's archery trainer. In 1602, Murad passed away while serving office as "Bakshi" (paymaster) and military administrator of Lahore.
Life.
Qasim Khan first served in Bengal as "Khazanchi" (treasurer) during the reign of Islam Khan Chishti. Chishti was known to have treated Qasim and his brother, Hashim, very well.
Qasim married Princess Manija Begum, the sister of Empress Nur Jahan. This marriage led to Qasim being given the title of Amir and receiving of a drum and flag. Consequently, he was sometimes in jest called by the officers of the court "Qasim Khan Manija". Qasim Khan was an established poet, known to have written a diwan.
Qasim had a good relationship with Jahangir. The Emperor once requested Qasim to give him a glass of freshwater. As the earthen cup was so very fragile, it could not stand the weight of the water and broke. The Emperor looked towards Qasim Khan and said a verse: The cup was delicate, the water could not repose. Qasim Khan immediately spoke out the second half of the verse: He (or she) saw my condition, and could not restrain his (or her) tears. Jahangir later appointed him the Subahdar of Agra. Qasim built a grand house for himself in Agra city, which is now in ruins.
Governor of Bengal.
He became the Subahdar of Bengal in the first year of Shah Jahan's reign in 1628, replacing Fidai Khan. He was promoted to the rank of mansabdar with 5,000 soldiers and horses. At this time, the Portuguese (Firingi) settlers had a provocative hold of the port-town of Hugli, taking part in immoral activities, slavery and forced conversions of Bengalis into Christianity. Shah Jahan wished in restricting the acts of the Portuguese in Bengal. In February 1632, Qasim Khan sent an army led by his son, Inayatullah Khan. The Mughals finally took possession of Hugli in September for three months. They slew about 10,000 Firingi men and women and drove the rest out from the town. This brought about the end of the Portuguese slave trade and forced conversions in Bengal. He died three days afterwards in 1632.


Abdullah I of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Abdullah I Sri Dhanmaru Aadheettha Mahaa Radhun () was the Sultan of the Maldives from 1374 to 1376.
He was vizier to the court before forcing his wife Queen Khadijah to abdicate, and succeeding to the throne. In his third year of reign his wife killed him while he was asleep in bed and reclaimed the throne once again.


Bentenyama Kofun

The is a Kofun period burial mound located in what is now the Kokubo neighborhood of the city of Futtsu, Chiba Prefecture in the Kantō region of Japan. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1929.
Overview.
The Bentenyama Kofun is a , which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above. It is located in the southwestern part of the Bōsō Peninsula, on a low plateau overlooking Tokyo Bay near the mouth of the Iwase and Kokubo river just south of Cape Futtsu. It has an overall length of approximately 87.5 meters and was once surrounded by a wide moat. The tumulus suffered considerable damage at the end of Edo period when Sanuki Domain was transferred to Shimōsa Province, and cut away a portion of the tumulus to make space for the construction of a han school. A Shinto shrine was constructed on top of the circular portion of the tumulus. In 1927, during the construction of ten neighboring elementary school, this shrine and a portion of the circular portion of the tumulus collapsed, and the pit-type burial chamber was revealed. It was found to have megalithic stone walls and ceiling, with a length of 4.9 meters. A stone placed in the center of the ceiling has a lanyard protrusion, and it attracted attention as this feature is rarely seen in "kofun" outside of Yamato Province. This was used to lower the lid stone of the sarcophagus. Grave goods included iron swords and spears, fragments of armor and a helm, and a large number of cylindrical "haniwa". From these relics, the construction period of the tumulus is considered to be in the latter half of the 5th century AD.
A survey for conservation and maintenance to prevent further collapse of the tumulus was conducted in 1971 and in 1975 to 1976. Concrete stairs provide public access to the top of the tumulus, and the stone sarcophagus and its lid are on display at a small adjacent building. The tumulus is about 20 minutes on foot from Onuki Station on the JR East Uchibō Line.


Mystic India

Mystic India is a 2004 large format film (commonly known as the IMAX format) about India's culture, people, and traditions. It is told through the 12,000 km barefoot journey throughout 18th century India undertaken by the Hindu adolescent ascetic Nilkanth, later known in life as Swaminarayan by his followers. The film was directed by Keith Melton and financed and produced by BAPS Charities. The film is available in Hindi, English, French and Spanish.
Plot.
Nilkanth’s Journey.
Nilkanth walked 12,000 kilometers around the Indian subcontinent over a span of 7 years. His journey took him through the "dense jungles, fertile plains, majestic mountains, mighty rivers, and peaceful coastlines" of India. This journey included the exploration of “India’s silent spirituality” and its appropriation as a "mystic land of meditation, contemplation and enlightenment."
Leaving Home.
On June 29, 1792 at the age of 11, Nilkanth left home "to begin his life work of establishing ekantik dharma." Nilkanth took very few possessions with him on his journey. Known articles include a loin cloth, "a rosary, a kerchief, a piece of cloth for filtering water and a small manuscript."
In the Himalayas.
Nilkanth first travelled to the Himalayan Mountains and reached Badrinath during October 1792. Soon thereafter, he reached Nepal and performed austerities by standing on one leg in meditation for four months.
At Jagannath Puri.
"Leaving the Himalayas, Nilkanth went through Bengal to Jagannathpuri in the east." It is here that Nilkanth took part in the Rath Yatra, a festival dedicated to the pulling of Lord Jagannath’s murti on a royal chariot.
In South India.
From Jagannath Puri, Nilkanth traveled to South India. "He visited the sacred places associated with the life of Ramanuja, including his birthplace at Sriperumbudur and the famous pilgrimage temple at Srirangam. Nilkanth’s journey through Kanchipuram, Kumbakonam, Madurai, and Rameshwaram took him to the southern tip of India."
In Gujarat.
On August 21, 1799, Nilkanth’s journey finally ended in the town of Loj, Gujarat. In Loj at the age of 19, Nilkanth met Muktanand Swami, a senior leader of a group of ascetics who followed the Vaishnava teachings of their guru Ramanand Swami.
Soundtrack.
The music for the film was a joint effort between Sam Cardon, Ronu Majumdar, and BAPS musicians. Due to this diverse talent pool, the music for Mystic India covers a wide spectrum, ranging from western symphony to Indian traditional music.
Production.
The film was shot during two different time periods, March to May 2003 and January to February 2004. The shooting was done at over 100 different locations, some as high as 13,000 feet. The most cinematically appealing scene is during the Rath Yatra festival in Jagannathpuri. The shot included chariots over five stories tall and over 8,000 participants.
Reception.
Critical reception.
According to movie review website Rotten Tomatoes, Mystic India received an overall critic approval rating of 86%. Top critic Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel said that the film "utterly fills the screen with wondrous images of a place that few will ever have the chance to explore". Top critic Philip Wuntch of the Dallas Morning News said "the film celebrates India’s diversity and makes a strong and moving plea for unity among the peoples of the world".
Awards.
Mystic India received the Audience’s Choice Award at the 10th International Large Format Film Festival at La Geode in Paris, France. The festival lasted from January 12 to the 31st in 2005. Mystic India was one of nine large format films selected to be screened at the festival. Mystic India was also accredited with the honor of “Most Popular Film” at the San Jose IMAX Film Festival.


Muhammed bin Saud Al Saud

Muhammed bin Saud Al Saud ( "Muḥammed bin Suʿūd Āl Suʿūd"; 21 March 1934 – 8 July 2012) was a member of the House of Saud. He was the only son of King Saud to hold high office after his father's deposition in 1964 until his brother Mishaal bin Saud became the governor of Najran Province in 1997.
Early life.
Prince Muhammed was born in Riyadh on 21 March 1934. He was the son of King Saud and Baraka Al Raziqi Al Alma'i, a woman from Asir in southwest Saudi Arabia. Prince Muhammed had a full brother, Saad bin Saud.
Career.
During the reign of his father, King Saud, Prince Muhammed held many governmental positions. He began his service as the chief of the Royal Court. Then he was appointed the Saudi Royal Guard Regiment in 1953. Later, he was appointed the minister of defense and inspector general in December 1960 succeeding his brother Fahd bin Saud in the post. Prince Muhammed's tenure ended on 31 October 1962. He was named the minister of finance on 11 September 1961 when King Saud fired Talal bin Abdulaziz from the post. However, Prince Muhammed held the post only six days.
Prince Muhammed served as the deputy governor of the Al Bahah province until 1987. Next, he served as the governor of this province from September 1987 to 2010. He resigned from the post due to health-problems. His brother Mishari bin Saud replaced him in the post.
Political rehabilitation.
Prince Muhammed was among King Saud's most important supporters during the latter's reign. Following a power struggle between King Saud and Crown Prince Faisal the latter became the king on 25 November 1964, and Prince Muhammed pledged his allegiance to King Faisal. He was the first of the King Saud's sons to do so, reportedly because he was married to King Faisal’s daughter, Princess Sara. Following his rehabilitation Prince Muhammed held several important positions until 2010.
Other positions.
Prince Muhammed was a member of the Allegiance Council from 2007 to his death on 8 July 2012. He was also a member of King Saud Foundation based in Jeddah. Prince Muhammed had various business activities, too.
Personal life.
One of Prince Muhammed's spouses was Princess Sara bint Faisal, the daughter of King Faisal. They had no children. Prince Muhammed had four children with his other wives: Prince Faisal (born 11 September 1951), Prince Khalid, Prince Mishaal (born 24 August 1956) and Princess Noura.
Prince Faisal bin Muhammed received a PhD degree. He was appointed the deputy governor of Al Bahah province on 31 October 1988.
Death and funeral.
On 8 July 2012 the Saudi Royal Court announced that Prince Muhammed had died in Riyadh. He was 78. Salman bin Abdulaziz performed funeral prayer for him after Maghrib (sunset) prayer on 10 July 2012 at Imam Turki bin Abdullah mosque in Riyadh. Sheikh Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Sheikh led the funeral prayer as Imam.


Leuce (titular see)

Leuce () was a town and episcopal see in the late Roman province of Thracia.
The town.
The town is mentioned as Leuce Acte () by Pseudo-Skylax; he wrote that Leuke Akte is on Propontis (eastern Thrace), and as one sails along the coast, he meets the cities in the sequence Leuke Akte, Teiristasis, Heracleia, Ganos, Neon Teichos, and Selymbria.
The town has not been identified with certainty. Suggestions include the villages of Lefke and Capolova in northern Greece.
The city was also mentioned by Herodotus and Strabo.
The bishopric.
Leuce had a bishop by at latest 381, when a Bishop Symeon of Leuce took part in the First Council of Constantinople. The "Notitiae Episcopatuum" of the 10th to the 13th centuries mention it among the suffragans of Philippopolis, the metropolitan see of Thracia, thus ruling out the identification of Leuce with today's Plovdiv in Bulgaria, although this identification has been proposed.
Leuce is now listed in the "Annuario Pontificio" as a titular see of the Catholic Church.


Min Nemi of Toungoo

Min Nemi (, ) was governor of Toungoo (Taungoo) from 1399 to 1408/09. He was also a military commander, whose regional army consisted of 60 war elephants, and fought in the Forty Years' War. He ruled for nearly ten years.


Burhan Nizam Shah II

Burhan Nizam Shah II (ruled 1591-1595) was the ruler of Ahmadnagar in the Deccan. He was the second son of Hussain Nizam Shah I and Khunza Humayun Begum.
Burhan Nizam Shah's rule was short, as he was a weak and incapable monarch. He was addicted to women and wine, which ultimately led to his fall.
His death in 1595 was followed by a civil war over who should rule. He was eventually succeeded in actual power by his sister Chand Sultan, who ruled in the name of his infant son.


Jonathan Duncan Inverarity

Jonathan Duncan Inverarity (11 August 1812 – 28 April 1882, Rosemount, Angus) was a Scottish civil servant of the Bombay Presidency.
Inverarity was born in Mumbai, to Helen née Gleig and Dr James Inverarity who named him after his friend Jonathan Duncan. Inverarity studied at the Edinburgh Academy from 1824 to 1826 before going to Addiscombe in 1826 and Haileybury from 1828 to 1830. Appointed to the Bombay Service in the East India Company, he studied at Hailebury College before he went to India in May 1831 and served initially in the Revenue Department. He later became a deputy collector of customs and then a deputy opium agent at Bombay. He transferred to become collector and magistrate of Abolapore Zilla. In 1854 he resigned and went on furlough for three years. During this period he explored the South Mahratta Country where he was for sometime a political agent and travelled around Mahabaleshwar and present day Uttara Kanara region. In 1859 he succeeded Sir Bartle Frere as Commissioners of Sind, holding the post till 1862, when he was appointed a Member of the Council in Bombay and sworn in on 24 March 1862. He retired with an annuity in 1865.
Inverarity's 1830 Haileybury notes of the teachings of Thomas Malthus and his interpretations of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" have been an important source for the study of Malthus' teachings and ideas.
Inverarity married Martha Maria, the eldest daughter of Sir John Pollard Willoughby, at Bombay in 1844. Martha died in 1871 and he later married Agnes Anne Spottiswoode, daughter of Capten Donald Oenas Mackay. They had five sons and a daughter. The eldest son John Duncan Inverarity (1847-1923) was an eminent barrister at the Bombay High Court.


List of Chinese imperial consorts

The following is a list of consorts of rulers of China. China has periodically parted in kingdoms as well as united in empires, and there has been consorts with the title Queen as well as Empress. The title Empress could also be given posthumously. Note that this is a list for the main consort of the monarch and holder of the title Empress or Queen.
Empress Consorts.
The title of Empress consort (, "húanghòu") could also be given posthumously. The posthumous Empresses are listed separately by the year they were given the title.
Empress Dowagers.
The title of Empress dowager (, "húangtàihòu") was automatically given to a former Empress consort and widow of an Emperor. The title Empress dowager could be granted a widow of an Emperor even when she had not been the Empress consort during the reign of her spouse. Therefore, a separate list is given of the Empresses dowager, which in some cases equals the list of Empresses consort, and in other cases not.


Bombay Plan

The Bombay Plan is the name commonly given to a World War II-era set of proposals for the development of the post-independence economy of India. The plan, published in 1944/1945 by eight leading Indian industrialists, proposed state intervention in the economic development of the nation after independence from the United Kingdom (which took place in 1947).
Titled "A Brief Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India", the signatories of the plan were J. R. D. Tata, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Ardeshir Dalal, Lala Shri Ram, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, Ardeshir Darabshaw Shroff, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas and John Mathai. The Plan went through two editions: the first was published in January 1944. This first edition became "Part I" of the second edition, published in 2 volumes in 1945 under the editorship of Purushottamdas Thakurdas.
Although Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, did not officially accept the plan, "the Nehruvian era witnessed [what was effectively] the implementation of the Bombay Plan; a substantially interventionist state and an economy with a sizeable public sector." Its perceived influence has given it iconic status, and "it is no exaggeration to say that the Bombay Plan has come to occupy something of a mythic position in Indian historiography. There is scarcely a study of postwar Indian economic history that does not point to it as an indicator of the developmental and nationalistic aspiration of the domestic capitalist class."
The basic objectives were a doubling of the (then current) output of the agricultural sector and a five-fold growth in the industrial sector, both within the framework of a 100 billion Rupee (£72b, $18b) investment (of which 44.8% was slated for industry) over 15 years.
A key principle of the Bombay Plan was that the economy could not grow without government intervention and regulation. Under the assumption that the fledgling Indian industries would not be able to compete in a free-market economy, the Plan proposed that the future government protect indigenous industries against foreign competition in local markets. Other salient points of the Bombay plan were an active role by government in deficit financing and planning equitable growth, a transition from an agrarian to an industrialized society, and—in the event that the private sector could not immediately do so—the establishment of critical industries as public sector enterprises while simultaneously ensuring a market for the output through planned purchases.
Although the Bombay Plan did not itself propose a socialist agenda, "virtually all" commentators acknowledge "that there is a direct line of continuity from the Bombay Plan of 1944-1945 to the First Five-Year Plan in 1950." An alternative line of reasoning is that the Bombay Plan was a reaction to the widespread social discontent of the 1940s (resulting from unprecedented industrial growth during wartime), and a product of the fear that the movement against colonial rule would become a movement against private property.
The Bombay Plan reaped criticism from all quarters: the far left criticized the capitalistic background of the Plan's authors or asserted that the plan did not go far enough. The far right foresaw it as a harbinger of a socialist society, and considered it a violation of the agreements of the United Nations "Bretton Woods Conference" (which Shroff had attended). Economists criticized the plan on technical grounds;"cf." that it did not take into account the fact that creating capital had an inflationary effect, and with that, its authors had overestimated the capacity of the Indian economy to generate further capital. With rising prices, the purchasing power (for investments) would fall. According to one analysis done in September 2004 (sixty years after the Bombay plan was prepared): "public sector corporations served as the personal fiefdoms of politicians and bureaucrats in power — the state thus became the "private" property of the privileged few. At the same time, private corporate groups prospered thanks to a generous infusion of funds from government-controlled banks and financial institutions. Thus, the losses of the public sector became translated into the profits of the private sector. Successive Congress governments (before the P. V. Narasimha Rao regime) set up an excessively bureaucratic economic system that stifled entrepreneurship and private initiative, on the one hand, and failed to provide primary education and basic health-care to the majority of Indians, on the other."