Wilfred Grenfell

Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell (28 February 1865 – 9 October 1940) was a medical missionary to Newfoundland.
Early life and education.
He was born at Parkgate, Cheshire, England, on 28 February 1865, the Son of Rev. Algernon Sidney Grenfell, headmaster of Mostyn House School, and Jane Georgiana Hutchison.
Grenfell moved to London in 1882. He then commenced the study of medicine at the London Hospital Medical College (now part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry) under the tutelage of Sir Frederick Treves. He graduated in 1888.
Career.
Career overview.
The Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen sent Grenfell to Newfoundland in 1892 to improve the plight of coastal inhabitants and fishermen. That mission began in earnest in 1892 when he recruited two nurses and two doctors for hospitals at Indian Harbour, Newfoundland and later opened cottage hospitals along the coast of Labrador. The mission expanded greatly from its initial mandate to one of developing schools, an orphanage, cooperatives, industrial work projects, and social work. Although founded to serve the local area, the mission developed to include the aboriginal peoples and settlers along the coasts of Labrador and the eastern side of the Great Northern Peninsula of northern Newfoundland. One of the children Grenfell assisted was an Inuit girl, Kirkina, for whom he helped secure artificial limbs and later the Grenfell Mission educated her in nursing and midwifery.
In 1907, Grenfell imported a group of 300 reindeer from Norway to provide food and serve as draft animals in Newfoundland. Unbeknownst to him, some of the animals carried a parasitic roundworm, "Elaphostrongylus rangiferi", that then spread to native caribou herds. The reindeer herd eventually disappeared; however, the parasite took hold and causes cerebrospinal elaphostrongylosis (CSE) in caribou, a disease well known in reindeer in Scandinavia.
In 1908, Grenfell was on his way with his dogs to a Newfoundland village for a medical emergency when he got caught in "slob", from which he managed to get onto an ice-pan with the dogs. He was forced to sacrifice some of his dogs to make a warm, fur coat for himself. After drifting for several days without food or fresh water, he was rescued by some villagers in the area. Because of this experience he buried the dogs and put up a plaque saying, "Who gave their lives for me."
He married Anne Elizabeth Caldwell MacClanahan (died 1938) of Chicago, Illinois, in 1909. They had three children and retired to Vermont after his work in NewfoundlandThey were married in 1909 and came to live in the Grenfell House (which they designed together) in St. Anthony, Newfoundland.
Anne gave Dr. Grenfell's life comfort and refinement. She became totally involved in his work. She organized his fundraising tours and lectures, edited his books and helped secure scholarships for the children of the area to continue their education.
Although Anne was ill towards the end of her life, she kept her pain hidden from her husband and took care of him until she died in 1938.
Height of his career.
By 1914 the mission had gained international status. In order to manage its property and affairs, the International Grenfell Association, a non-profit mission society, was founded to support Grenfell's work. The Association operated until 1981, as an NGO. It had responsibility for delivery of healthcare and social services in northern Newfoundland and Labrador. After 1981 a governmental agency, The Grenfell Regional Health Services Board, took over the operational responsibility. The International Grenfell Association, having divested itself of all properties and operational responsibility for health and social services, boarding schools, hospitals then became a supporting association making grants and funding scholarships for medical training. For his years of service on behalf of the people of these communities he was later knighted by the King in 1927. In 1931, Grenfell had a small speaking role in the film, The Viking, in which he narrated the film's prologue and gave a brief statement of the tragic circumstances involving the film's production. During the production of the film, which was filmed on location in Newfoundland, producer Varick Frissell felt that the film needed more action sequences and set out on the ice floes to film them. During filming, the ship, SS "Viking" on which filming was taking place, exploded killing Frissell and 27 others.
Death and legacy.
Grenfell died of a coronary thrombosis at Kinloch House in Charlotte, Vermont on 9 October 1940. His ashes were brought to St Anthony, where they were placed inside a rock face overlooking the harbour.
The Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell Historical Society was formed in 1978. The society purchased Grenfell's home in St. Anthony, Newfoundland and Labrador. The home has been restored as a museum and archives. The Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell Historical Society with the support of Provincial Government and the International Grenfell Association began construction of an interpretation centre in St. Anthony and it was opened in 1997. This facility added to the existing house and serves to promote the legacy to thousands of visitors each year. The Grenfell Interpretation Centre also is used by other organizations for meetings and events. A large interpretive display is housed there and provides historical background surrounding the work of Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell.
Grenfell is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 9 October.
Literary inspiration.
A unique figure, Grenfell served to inspire at least two characters in Canadian literature: Dr. Luke in Norman Duncan's "Doctor Luke of the Labrador" (1904) and Dr. Tocsin in "White Eskimo" by Harold Horwood (1972).
A biography for children (middle-high school) was written in 1942, by Genevieve Fox. Published by Thomas Y. Crowell Co. The book had second and third printings as well.
The following statement has been widely ascribed to him, but cannot be found in any of his books: "The service we render to others is really the rent we pay for our room on this earth. It is obvious that man is himself a traveler; that the purpose of this world is not 'to have and to hold' but 'to give and serve.' There can be no other meaning."
Fashion, Clothing, Fabric.
Mill owner Walter Haythornthwaite of Burnley, Lancashire created a cloth for Sir Wilfred Grenfell after attending a Grenfell lecture. Designed to withstand the conditions of the Labrador coast, it is a 600 thread-per-inch woven cotton gaberdine that became known as 'Grenfell Cloth' from 1923. The cloth became the signature fabric of the Grenfell Clothing brand which is, to this day, manufactured in the United Kingdom. Grenfell specialises in luxury and outdoor outerwear, popular in Japan, the UK and Europe
Awards.
In 1979, the Corner Brook campus of Memorial University of Newfoundland was renamed Sir Wilfred Grenfell College in his honour. In 2010, following a debate to rename this campus, the name Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland was chosen, to reflect the campus' ties to the spirit of Sir Wilfred Grenfell's legacy.
Publications.
Books by Grenfell include:


Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt

Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt is a graduate institution associated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and the Vanderbilt University Divinity School.
History.
Disciples Divinity House grew out the Disciples Foundation at Vanderbilt that was organized in 1927. The first residence was purchased in 1942 and the organization was officially named Disciples Divinity House. A new facility was purchased in 1959 and later expanded. Currently, it is a scholarship foundation and a home for Disciples at the Divinity School at Vanderbilt. It is a place where Disciples students live and gather for worship and meals, for social events and programming, for study groups and support.


Teodosio Lares

Teodosio Lares he was a Mexican lawyer and politician. He studied Philosophy and Jurisprudence in the Seminary of Guadalajara. In 1827 he began his career as a lawyer in the Supreme Court of the State of Jalisco. He returned to Zacatecas, where he was magistrate of the Supreme Court of Justice. In 1836 he was director of the Literary Institute of Zacatecas. In 1848 he was deputy to the General Congress for the state of Zacatecas. In 1850 he was appointed senator of the Tercio by the Chamber of Deputies.
From 1858 to 1860, during the War of Reform, he was Minister of Justice in the presidencies of Félix María Zuloaga and Miguel Miramón. In 1863, during the French intervention, he was Minister of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Regency.
From 1866 to 1867, during the rule of Maximilian of Habsburg, he was president of the Supreme Court of Justice, and president of the Council of Ministers of the Empire. He was decorated as Commander of the Imperial Order of the Mexican Eagle and with the First Class Medal for Civil Merit.


Alpen Club

The Vancouver Alpen Club is an ethnic cultural organization for German Canadians in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Its headquarters, community hall and social centre are on Victoria Drive and 33rd Avenue, near Kingsway in East Vancouver.
History.
The Vancouver Alpen Club was founded by Bavarian immigrant Sebastian Schmidt and other German and Austrian immigrants in 1935, though it did not receive its provincial charter until 1938. The purpose of the club was to preserve the German language and culture, while being non-political. It "owed its early success to the Schuhplattler, a German folk dance which originated in the Bavarian and Tyrolean Alps, thus giving the name Alpen Club to the organization." The club's focus on dance, rather than politics was reflected in its original slogan, "Get away from politics and let's schuhplattle."
Originally, the club met at a house rented by Schmidt on the corner of Robson and Cambie. The organization outgrew the location, and meetings were held at Homer Hall, Winter Garden, English Bay pier, and Hamilton Hall at the corner of Hamilton and Dunsmuir.
Club activities included: folk dancing, concerts, a choir, German language instruction, calisthenics classes, and food and beverage service. In 1936, the club's Schuhplattler dance group won the trophy for best folk dance at the Canadian Folk Festival in Vancouver.
The World War II Period.
The Vancouver Alpen Club was the only German club in North America to stay open during World War II. "This was largely influenced by the Canadian Folk Society who urged members to keep on with their Schuhplattler, and also to the fact they had never been tinged with political influences." During the War, the club's "liquor permit was cancelled, the dances stopped, and all non-naturalized Germans were evacuated from the coastal areas. In 1940 the German language classes ended and in 1941 the shutters were pulled down in the [Hamilton] hall." In January 1945, club members formed a building committee and began fundraising for their own hall.
The Post-War Period.
By the end of 1946, the club was able to purchase the property at Victoria Drive and 33rd Avenue. "Eventually, this property was added to until Club holdings consisted of eight lots." The building was officially opened on October 19, 1950.
The club's membership increased steadily during the post-war period, as there was an influx of German-speaking immigrants to the Vancouver Lower Mainland. During the 1950s, the club produced stage productions, supported soccer teams in the Mainland League, and maintained its choir.
The Current Vancouver Alpen Club.
The Vancouver Alpen Club's restaurant, Deutsches Haus, serves German cuisine and beers. Sub-groups within the club include the Alpen Plattlers, a Schuhplatter dance group, choirs and card players.


Sacred Ridge

Sacred Ridge was a multiple habitation archaeological site about southwest of Durango, Colorado. It covered about and contained the remains of 22 pit structures, which have since been covered by Lake Nighthorse. The site was identified as belonging to the early Pueblo I or Anasazi culture. It was occupied from around 700 CE to around 803 CE, the dendrochronological age of the last tree cutting found near the site. By 810 CE, the buildings had been burned and abandoned.
Site work.
Site work was done between 2002 and 2005 by SWCA Environmental Consultants, which were retained by the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe to do the required archaeological and cultural investigations. Most of the sites covered by this investigation were in the Ridges Basin, which was to be inundated by Lake Nighthorse once the Ridges Basin Dam was complete, but some of the sites covered in this investigation were on Blue Mesa, which was used as borrow area for dam fill. Results of this study were published in a 16 volume report titled "Animas–La Plata Project".
The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe was involved in all aspects of the Animas–La Plata Project, including consulting with other tribes, engaging with the public, and handling archeological issues. By the end of the project, this gave them the confidence to take over management of the cultural resources on their own reservation, resulting in the establishment of a Tribal Historic Preservation Office, the first in Colorado.
Conclusions.
Two of the pit houses contain 14,882 identified human body fragments, belonging to about 35 people, about half the estimated population of the village. The victims show signs of extreme torture and mutilation, including beating on the feet, scalping, and eye gouging. Because of biological and dietary differences between the residents of the village and other villages in the same area, some scientists believe that this provides evidence of ethnic cleansing. The site was apparently abandoned soon after the massacre, and the whole Ridges Basin within about 15 years after the event.
Archaeologists speculate that the village at Sacred Ridge had some form of authority over other settlements in the Ridges Basin area, and that the massacre is part of an uprising following a time of severe food shortages due, in part, to a drier climate. The graphic torture and dismemberment may have been part of a demonstration used to intimidate other elements of the population.
Reburials.
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) requires that any human remains found during excavations of Native American sites, along with all associated funerary objects, be returned to Native American control. In complying with these regulations, SWCA determined that the closest descendants of any human remains found were probably related most closely to the pueblos of Acoma, Laguna, and Zia. These pueblos are closely related and all speak Keresan languages. The Pueblo of Acoma volunteered to take the lead in these efforts, and the other pueblos agreed. Remains were reburied in three ceremonies between 2004 and 2010. A total of 230 individuals from all of the sites involved, as well as the processed remains from the massacre at Sacred Ridge, were reburied.


Timeline of Mexico City

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Mexico City, Mexico.


Quesnel River

The Quesnel River is a major tributary of the Fraser River in the Cariboo District of central British Columbia. It begins at the outflow of Quesnel Lake, at the town of Likely and flows for about northwest to its confluence with the Fraser at the city of Quesnel.
History.
Just downstream from the outlet of Quesnel Lake, at the confluence of the Cariboo River, is the historically important ghost town of Quesnel Forks, "the Forks", which was a junction point of the Quesnel and Cariboo Rivers. Various trails and wagon roads leading to the Cariboo goldfields lay across the low-hill range north of Quesnel Forks in the basin of the Cottonwood River. Both the Lillooet to Fort Alexandria wagon road and the later Cariboo Wagon Road came by Quesnel Forks but preferred to follow the valley of the Quesnel River to Quesnel and then east from there to the gold towns of Barkerville and Wells.
The river took its name from Jules-Maurice Quesnel, who explored this region with Simon Fraser in 1808.
Natural history.
The Quesnel River supports a number of fish species, the most significant of which are Sockeye salmon ("Oncorhynchus nerka"), Rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss"), Largescale sucker ("Catostomus macrocheilus"), Longnose sucker ("Catostomus catostomus"), Redside shiner ("Richardsonius balteatus"), Northern pikeminnow ("Ptychocheilus oregonensis"), Peamouth chub ("Mylocheilus caurinus"), and Lake chub ("Couesius plumbeus").
The salmon run of sockeye salmon experienced a major recovery in the late 20th century, sometimes surpassing the Adams River as the greatest sockeye producer in the Fraser basin. However, the river, wildlife, and nearby water sources is threatened by 10 million cubic meters of contaminated mine waste that escaped in August 2014.


Neiva Province

Neiva Province was one of the provinces of Gran Colombia. With the 1824 changes in the subdivisions of Gran Colombia, it became part of the Cundinamarca Department.


Mary Ann Green

Mary Ann Green (1964 – January 8, 2017) was an American tribal leader and politician who served as the Chairwoman of the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians, a federally recognized Cahuilla band of Native Americans based in Coachella, California, from 1988 until 2016. Under Green, who was first elected chairperson in 1988, the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians established a tribal government in 1994 and resettled their reservation, located in Coachella, in 1996. She also oversaw the development and establishment of the Augustine Casino, which opened in 2002. Through the casino, the small Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians is now one of the largest employers in the Coachella Valley, as of 2017.
Biography.
Green was born Mary Ann Martin in 1964, years after members of the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians had abandoned their reservation and traditional lands surrounding Coachella. (There were only 11 living members of the Augustine Band in 1951, thirteen years before Green's birth). She was raised by her non-Cahuilla grandmother, who was African-American. Green was reportedly unaware of her Native American heritage during her childhood and early adulthood.
In 1981, an executive order recognized and established the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians as a federally recognized tribe. However, in 1986, Roberta Augustine, the last living member of the Augustine Band, as well as Green's other grandmother, died. Green discovered her previously unknown Cahuilla heritage following her grandmother's death. She eventually decided to move with her children to the Coachella Valley surrounding the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians' reservation a few years after the death of her grandmother. Green also gained custody of four of her nieces and nephews following the murder of both her brothers in a gang shooting in Los Angeles. Together, Green, her children, and her extended family comprised the entire Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians.
Mary Ann Green became tribal Chairperson in 1988, a position she held until 2016. Under Green, the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians established a tribal government in 1994. Two years later, Green and her family resettled the Augustine Band's reservation in Coachella in 1996.
During the 1990s, Green and her government began to explore the possibility of opening a tribal-owned casino in an effort to establish a long-term source of income, economic development, and stable employment for its members. Funds from the casino would also be utilized to preserve traditional Cahuilla culture. Green, who lacked the expertise to open a casino, contracted with Paragon Gaming to establish and temporarily operate the proposed casino for its first five years. The Augustine tribal government and Paragon Gaming funded the construction of the $16 million casino entirely through loans offered by Centaur, a finance company based in Indiana.
Due in large part to the casino, the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians is now one of the largest employers in the Coachella Valley.
In addition to the casino, Green also oversaw the creation of other programs designed to provide long-term, economic stability for the small tribe and its members. Her initiatives included the establishment of an organic farm and a 3-megawatt renewable energy project located on the reservation.
On July 18, 2002, the eight member Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians, led by Green, opened its casino in Coachella, California. The $16 million casino included 349 slot machines and only 10 card tables at the time of 2002 opening, less than the original plans had called for. Dignitaries in attendance included the leaders of several California tribes, as well as Tony Andreas, a traditional Cahuilla bird song singer who had been raised on the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians' reservation during the 1930s and 1940s before its abandonment.
Green died on January 8, 2017, at her home in Coachella, California, following a long illness. She was survived by her three children, Amanda Vance, who succeeded her as the Chairperson of the Augustine Band, Ronnie and William Vance, and three grandchildren. Her funeral, an all-night wake, was held at the Torres-Martinez Great Hall and Gymnasium in Thermal, California, on January 20, 2017, with burial at the Augustine Band of Cahuilla Indians' Tribal Cemetery in Coachella.


Sinixt

The Sinixt (also known as the Sin-Aikst or Sin Aikst, "Senjextee", "Arrow Lakes Band", or — less commonly in recent decades — simply as "The Lakes") are a First Nations People. The Sinixt are descended from Indigenous peoples who have lived primarily in what are today known as the West Kootenay region of British Columbia in Canada and the adjacent regions of Eastern Washington in the United States for at least 10,000 years. The Sinixt are of Salishan linguistic extraction, and speak their own dialect (sn-selxcin) of the Colville-Okanagan language.
Today they live primarily on the Colville Indian Reservation in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which is recognized by the United States government as an American Indian Tribe. Many Sinixt continue to live in their traditional territory on the Northern Side of the 49th Parallel, particularly in the Slocan Valley and scattered amongst neighbouring tribes throughout BC, however the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct in 1956.
History.
Traditional territory.
In her anthropological study of the Sinixt in Canada, "Keeping the Lakes Way", Paula Pryce notes that "despite their obscurity in Canada and the scattered documentation of their presence in the area, both archival and published material show that the Sinixt Interior Salish resided along the Columbia River, Arrow Lakes, Slocan Valley, and parts of Kootenay Lake..." Other tribes used the Columbia as a trade route, passing through Sinixt territory to trade with the Sinixt and to trade further south. Parts of the traditional territory of the Sinixt are being claimed by the Westbank Band of the Okanagan people and as shared use and occupancy by the Ktunaxa. There is controversy over their historic claims to the area.
Traditional life.
According to Lawney Reyes, the Sinixt numbered about 3,000 in the early 19th century, divided into several bands of sizes suited to hunting and fishing. He distinguishes the "Upper Sin-Aikst" around the Arrow Lakes, "above Revelstoke and around the Castlegar, Trail, and Slocan Valley area" from the "Lower Sin-Aikst in the Northport, Bossburg, Marcus, and Kettle Falls area in Washington State." The latter constituted "at least eight large bands". Once they obtained horses, they ranged farther east to hunt on the Great Plains.
In prehistoric times, the Sinixt were a semi-sedentary people, living in warm, semi-subterranean houses for the winter months. Summers were spent fishing, hunting, and gathering other food resources in their mountain and lake-dominated homeland. Reyes says that they wintered in the more wind-sheltered valleys, but summered by the Columbia. Scholars have classified the Sinixt as "complex collectors" (as opposed, for example, to "hunter-gatherers").
Sharon Montgomery of the Nakusp Museum, and tribal legend documented by Nancy Perkins Wynecoop and Nettie Wynecoop Clark describe the Sinixt as the "Mother Tribe" of the Pacific Northwest Salish. In a recent interview with the journalist Rex Weyler, Bob Campbell, "Headman" of the Sinixt in British Columbia, notes that, "As the mother nation, we often settled disputes among the (other) bands." Contributors to the article's forum refuted the claims as being without ethnographic or historical foundation. Sinixt mitochondrial DNA can be found at the base of Native American Haplogroup B2. (See GENBANK Accession EF648602.)
Early white explorers reported the Sinixt to be of average height and size, with hazel eyes. They were adept in making suspended bridges over the narrow, swift-flowing Columbia, and skillful at fishing.
Their staples included huckleberry, salmon, and roots (camas, bitterroot), but they also ate black moss, other berries (serviceberry, gooseberry, and foam berry), hazelnuts, wild carrots, peppermint, and various game meats (deer, elk, moose, caribou, rabbit, mountain sheep, mountain goat, and bear; after the coming of the horse, they also ventured east after bison). They chewed pine pitch like gum, and had a range of herbal medicines. Starting in June, mature salmon arrived at Kettle Falls, the farthest downriver that the Sinixt territory extended. The Sinixt caught only the salmon that were not strong enough to clear the falls, ensuring that the strongest went on to spawn. Both bands traveled to Red Mountain near Rossland, B.C. to harvest huckleberries in August. These seasonal events figured prominently in their culture. They hunted in late autumn, but still often were short of food by late winter.
The Upper Sin Aikst trained dogs to drive deer toward the Columbia River, where hunters in canoes shot them with bow and arrow. The Sin Aikst used the distinctive Sturgeon-nosed canoe; about 15–17 feet (4.5–5 meters) long with a cedar frame covered by large slabs of pine bark, riding low in the water with downward-sloping tips to reduce wind resistance.
Reyes says that they often intermarried with the "Swhy-ayl-puh" (Colville), who had a very similar language. The territory of the latter was largely in the Colville Valley and intersected Sinixt territory at Kettle Falls.
Reyes gives an account of various Sinixt customs, especially related to pregnancy, birth, and education, as well as some descriptions of funerary customs. Children were "closely monitored" by elders. Children were sent on "short excursions" to search for protective spirits; they were usually required to bring back an object to prove that they had made the journey. As they grew older, until puberty, these journeys became longer. Each person was expected to acquire multiple spirits, because each had different powers.
At about the age of six, the children began to be instructed in "the legends of the tribe and family history…, tribal ways and tribal laws." At eight or nine, they learned to swim and to run long distances; boys were taught to make and use weapons and fishing gear, while girls started to learn plant lore and tanning, as well as how to care for young children, maintain dwellings, and prepare meals.
Sinixt religion was mainly "for harnessing power." The sun, the stars, the water, and the different animals (especially the salmon and coyote) each had different powers.
The whole tribe was led by one head chief (ilmi wm), but each smaller village of 50-200 had a local chief, whom they called a "thinker". These "thinkers" would come together to form a council.
The Sinixt were a Matrilocal people, with newly married couples living with the wife's family rather than the husband's.
Late Precontact smallpox/instability.
There is historical evidence suggesting that the Sinixt were heavily depopulated by one or two smallpox epidemics that preceded the arrival of Scottish and Métis fur-traders of the North West Company. The epidemic of 1781 was likely the biggest single outbreak, with accounts of that epidemic describing a mortality rate up to 80%. David Thompson and other early traders noticed the pock-marked faces of older Sinixt and heard oral accounts of the epidemic. There is also evidence that the Sinixt were seriously affected by the major political upheavals that preceded the arrival of the Europeans.
The Ktunaxa (Kutenai) people who neighboured the Sinixt to the east were driven further into the mountains by the Blackfoot, who had obtained control of Ktunaxa territory in the foothills and northwestern plains. Ethnographic and historical evidence suggests the Ktunaxa and the Sinixt battled each other over the territory along the lower Kootenay River between the present cities of Nelson and Castlegar, British Columbia. The Ktunaxa were considered the intruders, and the dispute was reportedly ended after the Sinixt mounted a large-scale raid into (Lower) Ktunaxa Territory at the south end of Kootenay Lake. The Sinixt later renewed their historic peace with the Ktunaxa, and took common cause with them, the Kalispel, the Flathead, the Coeur d'Alene, the Spokane, the Nez Perce, and others against the Blackfoot. While the Sinixt never directly fought the Blackfoot as a group, it is very likely that individual Sinixt joined their Salishan neighbours (and the Ktunaxa) in war parties and buffalo hunts to the Western Plains. Reyes says they had ongoing skirmishes with the Blackfoot, from whom, according to him, they stole horses. They also took part with other regional peoples in the punitive expedition in 1838 against the St'at'imc of Seton Lake led by Nicola (Hwistesmexteqen), chief of the Nicola people. They were allied with the interior tribes led by the Nlaka'pamux, who assembled at Lytton (Camchin) during the Fraser Canyon War of 1858.
Fur trade, missionaries, and border dispute.
The Sinixt and their allies had a very close relationship with the Hudson's Bay Company. They wintered near the major trading post at Colville for the first time in 1830-31, led by the Lower Sinixt chief See-Whel-Ken (died 1840). The Sinixt supported the company in its efforts to prevent American trappers and settlers from entering and taking over the territory. As fur traders, the Sinixt were among the most prolific of all the First Nations who traded at Fort Colvile.
In 1837, Jesuit missionaries arrived in the area. St. Paul's Mission at Kettle Falls was constructed with the help of Colville and Sinixt labor. According to Reyes, it was in the 1840s that the Sinixt experienced a major die-off, shrinking from about 3,000 to about 400 during the period of chief Kin-Ka-Nawha, nephew of See-Whel-Ken. In addition to suffering diseases and incursions on their land, they found the salmon runs began to diminish because of the development of commercial fisheries at Astoria, Oregon near the mouth of the Columbia River. Some saw the die-off as a failure of the powers of their traditional religion; Kin-Ka-Nawha was among the eventual converts to Catholicism.
One people, two countries.
When the United States gained formal control of the Oregon Country south of the 49th Parallel in 1846, some Sinixt remained in American territory near Kettle Falls, where Fort Colville continued to operate. Kettle Falls (or just above it) was essentially the southern boundary of Sinixt Territory, and was shared with the Colville people. They were traditionally close to the Colville people, who celebrated the Sinixt arrival at the falls during fishing season with a three-day dance. The tribes had a three-day dance at the end of their season.
In the wake of the partition, the Hudson's Bay Company created Fort Shepherd, British Columbia, just upstream from the confluence of the Pend d'Oreille and Columbia Rivers, which was very near the border, in order to serve their former clients and also maintain a post on British territory. Adjacent Sinixt territory in British Columbia remained in the hands of the Sinixt. As late as the 1860s, Sinixt leaders still equated British title in their Northern territory as signifying Sinixt sovereignty. When Fort Shepherd was abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company, for example, it was left in Sinixt hands.
Gold and silver rushes.
Prospectors began entering Sinixt territory in British Columbia in the 1850s and 1860s. Nevertheless, the Sinixt managed to maintain effective control over their northern traditional territory through the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, despite some conflict. While often accommodating white interests, they continued to claim ownership in British Columbia, and resisted the American miners, sometimes by force. In 1865, Sinixt blocked 200 miners and mining activities at the confluence of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers in an attempt to protect their hunting and fishing rights as promised by the Crown as related by Gold Commissioner J.C Haynes in a letter to the then acting colonial government in Victoria. Haynes reported in colonial correspondence that the local Indian (Sinixt) Chief expressed his grievances to mining in the region on at least two separate occasions and that the Hudson's Bay Company had promised royalties from mining in the area.
However, their reduced numbers resulted in the Sinixt being unable to control development of the area as it was flooded with miners during a second mineral rush in the 1880s and 1890s. Several boomtowns were erected throughout the West Kootenay and Boundary Country regions. The majority of Sinixt continued to live in Washington State on the Colville Reservation. Nevertheless, a number of Sinixt remained permanently in Canada during the first half of the 20th century. Many others also returned to their ancestral land in B.C., to hunt and fish during the summer months, well into the 20th Century.
Kin-Ka-Nawha resigned his role as chief as an old man. He was succeeded by Joseph Cotolegu, with Andrew Aorpaghan (Chief Edwards) and James Bernard (c. 1870–1935) as subchiefs. They would succeed him, in turn, as leaders.
Colville Confederated Tribes.
On the U.S. side, the Colville Confederated Tribes—now the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation — were formally established in 1872. They were forced to become wards of the government on the Colville Reservation. It was at this time that the name "Sinixt" or "Sin Aikst" was dropped in favor of "Lakes", apparently at the behest of the U.S. government.
Initially, the Confederated Tribes were given a reservation east of the Columbia River. Three months later it was taken away because white settlers wanted it, and they were given a comparably large tract on the west side of the river on inferior land. Initially, this reservation extended all the way to the Canada–US border, but the northern half was taken away in 1892, which separated it from Sinixt traditional territory in British Columbia; in addition, as more tribes lost their land, the shrinking reservation had to absorb yet more people. Even then, they had to deal with incursions of miners, homesteaders, and settlers such as the Doukhobors, who arrived from Russia in 1912.
In 1900, Aropaghan, over James Bernard's objection, agreed to have the land divided into individual allotments rather than held in common; he also agreed to include "half breeds" equally in the allocation.
Bernard journeyed three times to Washington, D.C. on behalf of his people: first in 1890 as interpreter for Chief Smitkin of the Colvilles, then in 1900 with Chief Lot and Chief Barnaby to negotiate the reservation boundaries, and finally in 1921 as chair of a delegation of the Confederated Tribes.
Grand Coulee Dam.
Until the construction of Grand Coulee Dam, the Lower Sinixt continued to fish in their traditional manner at Kettle Falls. They continued to elect a Salmon Chief. They fished with baskets on poles that caught the salmon who were not strong enough to clear the falls, and also with spears that had detachable tips, like a harpoon. Reyes sees this as the end of the traditional life of the Colville and Lakes: "After the concrete was poured into the steel framework to form the base of the dam, the great salmon runs ended. … It brought to a close a great tradition that had existed for centuries. From that day on… there was always a shortage of food. The bands dispersed… the great days of the Sin-Aikst were over." A few years later, rising waters from the dam also engulfed the largely Sinixt community of Inchelium, Washington on the banks of the Columbia, which had to be relocated, further disrupting even remnants of their traditional way of life.
Return to Canada.
In her book, "Keeping the Lakes Way", B.C. author Paula Pryce relates stories shared with her by Sinixt elders living in Washington State about visiting "the Northern Territory" from time to time after the extinction, "to pick berries, trade fish and visit sacred sites."
A permanent Sinixt presence was re-established in British Columbia during the late 1980s when, following direction by an Elder, a number of Sinixt descendants returned to the Slocan Valley to protest road building affecting an important village site, now called the "Vallican Heritage Site". A bridge being built at Vallican resulted in a road being placed very near the large pithouse village and ancient burial site. Since 1989, a permanent Sinixt presence continues in the Slocan Valley, with local members overseeing the repatriation of remains and playing an increasing role in local affairs.
Archaeology.
Publication in the early 21st century of archaeological work has suggested the traditional society was complex. This is in line with historic, ethnographic, and contemporary Sinixt accounts of a socially and economically advanced society. Pithouses in the Slocan Valley are among the earliest very large houses of this type, with some having diameters of over 20 metres (66 feet). The Slocan Narrows site also included some of the most recent very large pithouses. This and other evidence of a hierarchical and stratified society has led a leading scholar to state that the Sinixt's society was among the most complex of the entire region. Major hydroelectric projects along the Columbia and Kootenay rivers resulted in the flooding of many graveyards and the majority of Sinixt village sites, preventing excavation and study of these historic areas.
Status today.
The Sinixt today live primarily on the Colville Indian Reservation in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which has governmental recognition as an American Indian Tribe.
Legal extinction in Canada.
Presently, few Sinixt live in their traditional territory on the "Canadian side" of the 49th parallel, and those who do so live in Vallican in the Slocan Valley, or scattered throughout neighbouring lands in the area now known as British Columbia. They are not recognized by the Canadian Government, and were officially declared "extinct" by Canada in 1956 under the provisions of the Indian Act. When asked about this extinction in 1995, Ron Irwin, then Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, stated that "The Arrow Lakes Band ceased to exist as a band for the purpose of the Indian Act... It does not, however, mean that the Sinixt ceased to exist as a tribal group." (August 9, 1995).
There were more than 250 Sinixt in Washington State at the time the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct, along with other self-identifying Sinixt who had relocated with relatives to the Canadian part of the Okanagan region, some Sinixt descendants had joined the Spallumcheen Indian Band (Splats'in First Nation) of the Secwepemc (Shuswap) peoples.
Land claims in Canada.
Members of Sinixt Nation have contested this extinction, and are taking steps to reclaim their land rights in British Columbia, where about 80% of their ancestral territory lies. Further complicating the question of Canadian territory claimed by the Sinixt are the overlapping claims of Ktunaxa traditional territory. The Ktunaxa Nation is currently negotiating a treaty with the Canadian federal government and the British Columbia government in the region, particularly regarding the lower Kootenay River valley around Castlegar and Nelson, and all lands within the curve of the Columbia as far north as Mica Dam and all of the Slocan Valley. In a 1994 presentation to the United Nations, Sinixt Appointed Spokesperson Marilyn James, along with the Official Vallican Heritage Site Caretaker, Robert Watt stated that "Neither our ancestors nor the members of Sinixt Nation have ever relinquished our inherent rights to any individual, any government or any other organization, including other native tribes or native nations.
Similar to the conflicting Ktunaxa land claims, territorial claims shown on maps published by the Okanagan Nation Alliance, of which the Colville Tribes is the American-side member, do not show Sinixt territory, instead showing the region as part of Okanagan traditional territory.
On July 28, 2008, "directors of the Sinixt Nation Society have filed a lawsuit claiming aboriginal title to Crown land in the Kootenays." Their lawyer David Aaron describes the intent of the action as "asserting a right (for the Sinixt) to be consulted, and to consent to all uses or dispositions of Crown land within that territory," and notes that private lands in the area will not be affected by the claim.
Sinixt as "Urban Indians".
Many Lakes (Sinixt) feel that to live ethically one must follow a moral code which maintains a reciprocal relationship between humans, the land, and the realm of spirits in which the ancestors dwell. (Ancestor) Eva Orr called this 'keeping the Lakes' way.' The ideal of keeping the Lakes' way requires that people not take for their own gain but instead give back by following a cultural ethic of egalitarianism, reciprocity and peaceful living. Orr was acknowledged as spiritual leader – a klakwilt. Marilyn James states that Orr got her authority as a klakwilt by being culturally whole, linguistically connected to Sinixt culture, and bringing people to spirit. The Sinixt connection to their traditional territory is underscored by the "wbuplak'n", the highest territorial and cultural legal doctrine of the Sinixt, which sets out their territorial responsibility to all land, water, plant, animal and cultural resources within the Sinixt territory.
Sinixt in the group's northern territory host a bi-weekly radio program, "Sinixt Radio", on Nelson, B.C. Community Radio station CJLY-FM. The northern Sinixt also host an annual Barter Fair every fall in Vallican, B.C. The event features live music and performance, and it is set up to encourage local Bartering of goods and services.
Recognition.
On 27 March 2017, the Provincial Court of British Columbia ruled in favor of Sinixt member Rick DeSautel, a resident of the Colville reservation, over a dispute with Canadian authorities on hunting in Canadian territory. The ruling effectively recognized the Sinixt as having rights in Canada, despite being declared extinct in 1956. On May 2, 2019, the BC Court of Appeal upheld Desautel's hunting rights. The Supreme Court of Canada agreed 24 October 2019, to hear the B.C. government's appeal of this decision. On April 23, 2021, the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed the appeal, upholding Mr. Desautel’s right to exercise Aboriginal rights under section 35 of the Constitution and recognizing the Lakes Tribe, a modern successor of the Sinixt, as an “Aboriginal people of Canada.”
Notable Sinixt people.
In Washington, one particular family of Sinixt have figured prominently among recent-day "urban Indians". Bernie Whitebear (1937–2000), a Seattle Indian rights activist and founder of several "urban Indian" organizations, was declared Washington state's "First Citizen of the Decade" in November 1997; his sister Luana Reyes (1933—2001) was, at the time of her death, deputy director of the U.S.'s 14,000-person Indian Health Services; and their brother Lawney Reyes (b. c.1931) is a Seattle-based sculptor, designer, curator and author. Lawney Luana and Bernie are descendants of Alex Christian, whose family lived at Kp'itl'els (Brilliant, B.C., near present-day Castlegar), a Sinixt village, for generations, until the Canadian Government sold their land to settlers.
Novelist and memoirist Mourning Dove, also known as Christine Quintasket, is described by anthropologist Paula Pryce as being of Sinixt-Skoyelpi descent, and Quintasket described her childhood and youth at "Pia" (now Kelly Hill, Washington) in the late 19th/early 20th century. Quintasket (Humishuma) was one of the first Native American women to publish a novel. Mourning Dove herself identified as Okanogan.
Joe Feddersen is a Sinixt/Okanagan sculptor, painter, photographer and mixed-media artist born in Omak, Washington.


Valsetz, Oregon

Valsetz was an unincorporated community and timber company town in Polk County, Oregon, United States, west of Falls City in the Central Oregon Coast Range. It no longer exists.
History.
"Oregon Geographic Names" says that the William W. Mitchell Company started the town in 1919 and named it as a portmanteau of Valley and Siletz Railroad, whose terminus was at that location. Company town researcher Linda Carlson says the town was founded by the Cobbs & Mitchell company of Cadillac, Michigan during World War I. Valsetz post office was established in 1920.
In 1947, Cobbs & Mitchell sold the town to its sales agent, Herbert Templeton. He operated it as the Valsetz Lumber Company until 1959, when its sawmill and timber stands were sold to the Boise Cascade Corporation.
After the depletion of the old growth timber in the area in the 1970s, the railroad was torn up.
In 1983, Boise Cascade announced that all operations at Valsetz would end early the next year. At that time, the town's population was about 300. In 1984, the town and most of its structures were removed, as everything in the community, property and streets included, was owned by the corporation. The post office closed the same year. The site became part of the Valsetz Tree Farm.
Valsetz Lake, an artificial lake next to the townsite that was formed by damming the South Fork Siletz River, was drained in 1988.
Legacy.
Former residents of Valsetz gather for an annual reunion in Falls City, which is the site of a Valsetz memorial.
The place was nationally known for its record rainfalls and for its newspaper, the "Valsetz Star", which was started in the 1930s by 9-year-old Dorothy Anne Hobson. At one time the population of Valsetz was over one thousand, and served by its own elementary and high school, which fielded championship basketball teams.
Near the site of the former community is the "Valley of the Giants", of Bureau of Land Management-protected old growth Douglas-fir and Western Hemlock forest on the North Fork of the Siletz River. The valley was set aside for protection in 1976.
The Valsetz Dining Hall at Western Oregon University (WOU) in Monmouth, east of Valsetz, was built in 1970 and rededicated in 1991 in tribute to the former community. Between 1926 and 1931, WOU, then known as the Oregon Normal School, sent 16 to 20 student teachers for six-week sessions in the Valsetz elementary school.
Climate.
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Valsetz has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.


Lindsay Applegate

Lindsay Applegate (September 18, 1808 – November 28, 1892) was a pioneer known for his participation in blazing the Applegate Trail, an alternative route of the Oregon Trail. The trail was blazed with his brothers Charles and Jesse in 1846. Charles Applegate was not a member of the party that blazed the Applegate Trail from the Willamette Valley to the Humboldt River. According to an original manuscript written by Lindsay Applegate in 1877, the members of the expedition were: Capt. Levi Scott, John Scott (son of Levi), Henry Boygus, Lindsay Applegate, Jesse Applegate, Benjamin Burch, John Owens, John Jones, Robert Smith, Samuel Goodhue, Moses "Black" Harris, David Goff, Benit Osburn, William Sportsman, and William Parker.
Early life.
Lindsay Applegate was born to Daniel and Rachel Applegate in Kentucky on September 18, 1808. The family moved to the Osage Valley in Missouri in 1820, where they farmed. In 1831, Lindsay married Elizabeth Miller, whose sister Melinda was married to Lindsay's older brother Charles, and they had six sons. He fought in the Black Hawk War against Native Americans in 1832.
Oregon Country.
In 1843, Lindsay and Charles traveled along with their younger brother Jesse after they all sold their farms in Missouri, bought several hundred head of cattle and set out for Oregon at the behest of Jesse's good friend Robert Shortess.
At that time, the final hundred or so miles beyond the Wascopam Mission were by boat through dangerous winds, rapids, and eddies on the Columbia River.
Lindsay's nine-year-old son Warren perished, as did Jesse's ten-year-old son Edward, who did not know how to swim.
Lindsay wrote, "We resolved if we remained in the country, to find a better way for others who might wish to emigrate."
Additional fatalities in the 1844 and 1845 immigration seasons further stirred up settlers and inspired many to search for alternate routes.
Lindsay and fourteen other settlers established the South Emigrant Trail between Fort Hall in Idaho and the Willamette Valley via northern Nevada through southern Oregon where Ashland and Roseburg now lie.
The intents of this route were to be safer than the Columbia River, encourage settlers to western Oregon, avoid the Hudson's Bay Company controlled area, and steer clear of the disputed English territory north of the Columbia, which most settlers expected would become the U.S.-British Columbia border.
Jesse obtained information from Hudson Bay about the California Trail which led from Idaho to northern California along the Humboldt River.
That combined with knowledge of the trapper's trail between the Willamette Valley and California led fifteen men on horseback
to set out in mid-June 1846 to look for a link between the two trails, blessed by the Provisional Government of Oregon.
They traveled due south through the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue valleys.
At the south end of the Rogue Valley—the site of present-day Ashland—they turned east and crossed the Cascade Range, approximately along the present route of Green Springs Highway, Oregon Route 66, and emerged near where Keno, Oregon now lies.
They went around the south end of Klamath Lake and eventually to the future site of Winnemucca, Nevada. The party split, leaving some to rest, while the remainder followed the Humboldt River northeast and along the California Trail to Fort Hall.
The first emigrants to use the Applegate Trail did so in fall 1846 by following the Applegate party on the return trip, a group of perhaps 150 families which were persuaded by Jesse.
Upon their return, the combined party began to blaze a trail for wagons, though they were ill-prepared for such an effort, having few tools, and consisting of mostly weary emigrants. They also faced an early winter—one which set snowfall records and stranded the Donner Party a few hundred miles to the south.
By the time they arrived in the Rogue Valley, winter had set in. Rain, snow, mud, swollen creeks and rivers hampered passage. Low supplies, scarce game, dense brush and trees, and difficulty lighting warming fires slowed progress considerably, separating the emigrants over many miles. They were spared by relief parties from the Willamette Valley when news of their trouble traveled along the trail.
The Applegates were blamed for the hardships the first wagon train faced by Jesse Quinn Thornton, who waged a war of words which nearly led to a duel between him and an Applegate supporter, James Nesmith. Remnants of the hostility survive today among some descendants of those survivors.
Though the Applegate Trail minimized natural dangers, aggressive Indian warriors took the lives of at least 300 emigrants by 1862, even though the trail fell into general disuse by 1847.
Lindsay Applegate and his party were the first white men in what is now the Lava Beds National Monument.
While traveling eastward they were stopped by rough lava around the south end of Tule Lake.
The feature known as Stone Bridge at the north end was the route of hundreds of emigrants.
Lindsay made a donation land claim in Yoncalla (between Eugene and Roseburg) in 1846 and established a grist mill.
As a carpenter, he had built the first river ferry in Polk County in 1844.
He also owned the toll road through the Siskiyous, which he sold in the 1860s.
Lindsay was appointed special agent for the Modoc Indians in 1861. In 1862, he was elected to the Oregon House of Representatives as a Republican representing Jackson County.
In 1865, he was appointed Indian subagent, responsible for treaty negotiations and other U.S. government dealings with the Klamath Indians.
The Modoc War in 1872 was between the Modocs and the U.S. Army, just after Applegate had retired from his post.
In January 1873, along with several other settlers, including Samuel Asahel Clark and R. H. Kincaid, Lindsay successfully proposed a peace commission to stop the war's spread.
Later years and legacy.
Lindsay retired to Ashland in 1869. He died on November 28, 1892, in either Klamath Falls or Ashland,
He was survived by sons Elisha, Jesse A., Oliver, Ivan, and Lucien, and daughters Alice and Rachel. He had five other children who died before he did: Warren (who drowned in the Columbia River), Theresa, Annie, Frank and Jerome.
His wife, Elizabeth, died in 1882.
He wrote "Notes and Reminiscences of Laying Out and Establishing the Old Emigrant Road into Southern Oregon in the Year 1846".
Lindsay Applegate is the namesake to the Applegate River in Oregon.


Horace Sumner Lyman

Horace Sumner Lyman (December 18, 1855 – December 22, 1904) was a prominent journalist, historian, and educator in the U.S. state of Oregon. His father, Horace Lyman, was an Oregon pioneer in 1848.
Lyman served as editor of the "Portland Pacific Express" starting in 1885 and the "Prohibition Star" beginning in 1887. He contributed a number of firsthand accounts of Oregon pioneers to the "Oregon Historical Quarterly", and published a history of the state in four volumes.


First Battle of Tucson

The First Battle of Tucson was a confrontation at Tucson, Arizona on December 6, 1779, as part of the Apache-Mexico Wars. Captain Pedro Allande y Saabedra with a force of only fifteen men defeated an army of around 350 strong.
Battle.
Not much is known about the first battle at Tucson. An Apache force, which Captain Allande estimated as 350 warriors, approached the Spanish post of Fort Tucson itself. The captain formed a command of fifteen men and engaged the enemy. The Spanish lancers defeated the Apaches in a long running battle. Allande cut off and brought back the head of a slain chieftain and carried it on a lance as a trophy. After waving the head at the surviving Apaches they fled the battlefield, abandoning their plunder of stolen livestock. The Spaniards reportedly killed and wounded several Apache men, including a brother of Chief Quilcho. Exact numbers of casualties are unknown.


Philip Roosevelt

Philip James Roosevelt (May 15, 1892 – November 1941) was a World War I captain for the United States Army, Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps (predecessor to the United States Air Force), editor of "Aviation and Aeronautic Engineering" (later known as "Aviation Week", then "Aviation Week & Space Technology"), banker, yachtsman, and a cousin of United States President Theodore Roosevelt. Philip was close to the president's children and accompanied them on trips. He was a 1912 graduate of Harvard University. He served as the 1914 President of "The Harvard Advocate".
Military service.
He was an original member of the Raynal Bolling's 1st Aero Company of the New York National Guard. He did not qualify as a military aviator due to his eyesight, but as a military-aviation journalist he was a prominent aerial warfare expert. Immediately after United States Congress declared war on 6 April 1917, the Signal Corps summoned Roosevelt to Washington to help plan the aviation mobilization. He impressed Benjamin Delahauf Foulois and accompanied him to France. Foulois paired Roosevelt with major Bert Atkinson, but they had the command organization that resulted from the American Expeditionary Force’s inexperience in coalition warfare. They operated under the French Sixth Army, but two different American headquarters (including Colonel Billy Mitchell's 1st Air Brigade headquarters) felt that they held jurisdiction. The two planned America's first-ever air-land battle at a time when the US Army was still learning the nuances of command relationships between the pursuit and observation groups and the corps and armies they supported.
Personal.
The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was certified as ratified on January 29, 1919, and the National Prohibition Act, passed in the United States Congress over United States President Woodrow Wilson's veto on October 28, 1919. In November 1919, during prohibition, Roosevelt served as president of a joint venture with Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., Kermit Roosevelt, Archibald Roosevelt, Ethel Roosevelt Derby and her husband Richard Derby, opening a coffeehouse named the Brazilian Coffeehouse at 108 West 44th Street in Manhattan, New York. The coffeehouse was renamed the Double R, and moved to 112 W. 44th in 1921. It was managed by the Roosevelts until 1928.
In 1925, he married his own cousin Jean S. Roosevelt, daughter of John Ellis Roosevelt. Their common great grandfather Cornelius Van Schaak Roosevelt was Theodore Roosevelt's grandfather. He was the son of William Emlen Roosevelt, grandson of James A. Roosevelt and brother of George Emlen Roosevelt and John Kean Roosevelt.
He died in November 1941 of drowning, presumably after a heart attack, while sailing a dinghy in Oyster Bay, New York.
Family political humor.
He would later become partner in Roosevelt & Son and supposedly became a trustee of the estate of James Roosevelt, Sr. on behalf of distant cousin and United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A "Time" story of a repartee between cousins in a series of written notes about the effects of fiscal policy and estate interests was very humorous, but denied as false.


Fish Carrier (Ojageght)

Fish Carrier (or "Ojageght", which translates to English as "he is carrying a fish by the forehead strap") was an Iroquois chief from the Cayuga people. He supported the Patriot cause in the American Revolution, participating in the Wyoming Valley Massacre on the Patriot side, as well as the Battle of Newtown in 1779.
Service in the Revolutionary War.
During the Revolutionary War Fish Carrier worked to reduce tensions between the Senecas and Oneidas tribes who supported British and American forces respectively. Fish Carrier was one of the signatories of the Tioga Point Treaty witnessed by Samuel Denny Street under Timothy Pickering and received a silver medal from George Washington and a parcel of land in 1792. Details of the negotiations were published in the "The American Museum". He was present at the council that decided the Canandaigua Treaty. He was an adviser to Red Jacket during the council at Buffalo Creek in 1791.
After the war.
Anna Shepard Perkins, in "Early Times on the Susquehanna", writes about Fish Carrier at a ceremony to adopt Robert Morris into the Senecas following his acquisition of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase. The ceremony became tense following dances and songs of battles between the Senecas and the Oneidas, and knives were drawn. Fish Carrier stood up, "striking the post with violence", and shouted "You are all a parcel of boys; when you have all attained my age, and performed the warlike deeds that I have performed, you may boast what you have done; not till then!"
In 1807, his name appears as Hojawgata. It was later preserved amongst Canadian Cayugas.
Family.
Fish Carrier had three children, a daughter and two sons. The ethnographer Lewis H. Morgan bought a conch shell breastplate for $5 from Peter Fish Carrier, Fish Carrier's son.


Mark Roosevelt

Mark Roosevelt (born December 10, 1955) is an American academic administrator and politician serving as the seventh president of the Santa Fe campus of St. John's College. He was the President of Antioch College from January 2011 to December 2015 and superintendent of the Pittsburgh Public Schools, the second largest school district in Pennsylvania, until December 31, 2010. He served as a state legislator in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and was the Democratic nominee for governor in the 1994 Massachusetts gubernatorial election. Roosevelt is the great-grandson of Theodore Roosevelt.
Early life and education.
Roosevelt was born and raised in Washington, D.C. and attended St. Albans School. Roosevelt is the great-grandson of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt and the son of Mary Lowe "Polly" (née Gaddis) and Kermit Roosevelt Jr., who was one of the key figures behind the controversial coup engineered by the CIA that overthrew Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. He was related to his 1994 Massachusetts gubernatorial opponent William Weld through Weld's wife at that time, Susan Roosevelt Weld, the daughter of Quentin Roosevelt II; Susan is Mark's second cousin.
He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Harvard University and a Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School.
Career.
Political career.
In 1977, Roosevelt served as campaign manager for John D. O'Bryant, the first black man elected to Boston's school board.
Roosevelt served in the Massachusetts General Court from 1986 to 1994. In 1990, he was appointed Chairman of the legislature's Education Committee, where he was the co-author and chief sponsor of the Massachusetts Education Reform Act of 1993. He also was chief sponsor of a gay rights bill that had been introduced annually since 1972 but did not pass until 1989. The bill's passage made Massachusetts the second state, after Wisconsin, to pass legislation protecting gay rights.
In 1994, Roosevelt was the Democratic nominee for Governor of Massachusetts and lost the general election to the Republican incumbent, William Weld. Roosevelt and Weld were cousins by Episodeage: Weld's first wife, Susan Roosevelt Weld, is also a great-grandchild of President Theodore Roosevelt.
Following his bid for office, Roosevelt served as CEO of Massachusetts Biomedical Initiatives, Managing Director of the Massachusetts Business Alliance for Education, and as a Professor of Politics and head of the Gordon Public Policy Center at Brandeis University.
Pittsburgh Public Schools.
A graduate of the 2003 Broad Superintendents Academy, Roosevelt was appointed on August 3, 2005, to the position of Pittsburgh Public Schools (PPS) superintendent. He accepted this post under the terms of a performance-based "accountability contract." While in Pittsburgh, he implemented measures intended to ease the district's financial problems and improve academic standards. The plan included the closing of underutilized and under-performing schools, opening of accelerated learning academies with a vigorous academic curriculum and longer school hours, the moving of several programs, and an increase in the number of childhood education programs, K-8 schools and 6-12 schools.
Under his leadership, PPS met federal achievement standards (AYP) for the first time, received a $40-million grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation focused on improving teacher effectiveness, opened several innovative new schools, adopted a more rigorous curriculum, and inaugurated a nationally recognized program to recruit, train and support school principals as instructional leaders.
In 2007, Roosevelt founded The Pittsburgh Promise and secured a $100-million challenge grant from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. The Promise has raised more than $180 million to guarantee college scholarships to PPS graduates who meet certain academic standards and has supported more than 6,500 students.
In October 2010 he became a finalist for the position of President of Antioch College. On October 6, 2010, he held a press conference to announce his resignation as superintendent of Pittsburgh Public Schools effective December 31, 2010. It was reported that he was the only finalist for the Presidency of Antioch College in Ohio.
Antioch College.
Roosevelt served as president of Antioch College from 2011 to 2015. Hired to reestablish the college, which had closed, Roosevelt helped to recruit faculty and students, began a renovation of the campus; and reestablished Antioch's cooperative education program. He also led a process that resulted in "fast-track" accreditation consideration for Antioch from the Higher Learning Commission. The college won accreditation in July 2016. He negotiated an agreement between the College and Antioch University that eliminated any future claims of the university to Antioch College's campus or endowment.
On May 5, 2015, Roosevelt announced his departure from Antioch by the end of the year. Dr. Thomas Manley was hired as his successor, to begin in March 2016. Roosevelt assumed the presidency of St. John's College in Santa Fe, New Mexico, replacing Michael P. Peters.
St. John's College.
Mark Roosevelt is the seventh president of the Santa Fe campus of St. John's College, which also has a campus in Annapolis, Maryland. He took office on January 1, 2016. In June of that year, the St. John's Board of Visitors and Governors voted to make Roosevelt the college-wide president as of July 1, 2016.
Other work.
Roosevelt has also taught graduate level courses on the intersection of American history and public policy at Brandeis University and the Heinz Graduate School of Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University.
Family.
He is married to Dorothy, the former project lead of Antioch College's Wellness Center, which opened to the public on September 6, 2014. Prior to Antioch College, Dorothy worked at Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and as a yoga instructor. They married in January 2005 and have a daughter, Juliana. Mark Roosevelt also has an adopted son, Matthew, born in South Korea and raised in Boston, from a previous marriage.


Monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador

By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, the Canadian monarchy operates in Newfoundland and Labrador as the core of the province's Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. As such, the Crown within Newfoundland and Labrador's jurisdiction is referred to as "the Crown in Right of Newfoundland and Labrador", " Majesty in Right of Newfoundland and Labrador", or "the in Right of Newfoundland and Labrador". The Constitution Act, 1867, however, leaves many royal duties in Newfoundland and Labrador specifically assigned to the sovereign's viceroy, the Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador, whose direct participation in governance is limited by the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy.
Constitutional monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador.
The role of the Crown is both legal and practical; it functions in Newfoundland and Labrador in the same way it does in all of Canada's other provinces, being the centre of a constitutional construct in which the institutions of government acting under the sovereign's authority share the power of the whole. It is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the province's government. The —is represented and duties carried out by the Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador, whose direct participation in governance is limited by the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy, with most related powers entrusted for exercise by the elected parliamentarians, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them, and the judges and justices of the peace. The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. This arrangement began with the granting in 1949 of Royal Assent to the Newfoundland Act and continued an unbroken line of monarchical government extending back to the late 15th century. However, though Newfoundland and Labrador has a separate government headed by the , as a province, Newfoundland and Labrador is not itself a kingdom.
Government House in St. John's is owned by the sovereign in capacity as in Right of Newfoundland and Labrador, and is used as an official residence both by the lieutenant governor and the sovereign and other members of the Canadian Royal Family will reside there when in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Royal associations.
Those in the Royal Family perform ceremonial duties when on a tour of the province; the royal persons do not receive any personal income for their service, only the costs associated with the exercise of these obligations are funded by both the Canadian and Newfoundland and Labrador Crowns in their respective councils. Monuments around Newfoundland and Labrador mark some of those visits, while others honour a royal personage or event. Further, Newfoundland and Labrador's monarchical status is illustrated by royal names applied regions, communities, schools, and buildings, many of which may also have a specific history with a member or members of the Royal Family. Associations also exist between the Crown and many private organizations within the province; these may have been founded by a Royal Charter, received a "royal" prefix, and/or been honoured with the patronage of a member of the Royal Family. Examples include the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary, which received its "royal" prefix from Queen Elizabeth II in 1979, and the Royal St. John's Regatta, which has the Queen as its patron and received its "royal" prefix from her in 1993.
The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign self, image (in portrait or effigy) thus being used to signify government authority. A royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, without referring to any specific monarch. Further, though the monarch does not form a part of the constitutions of Newfoundland and Labrador's honours, they do stem from the Crown as the "fount of honour", and so bear on the insignia symbols of the sovereign.
History.
By commission under the Royal Prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the island of Newfoundland on 5 August 1583. By the mid-1660s, however, the French Crown had also laid claim to nearly half of the same area. Disputes over the island were ended as the French kings ceded "Terre Neuve" to the British Crown via the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and later the Treaty of Paris in 1763, in-between which, in 1729, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was established.
The colony's status was in 1825 elevated to that of a province of the Crown and, in 1907, it was made by King Edward VII, on the advice of his Imperial Privy Council in London, into a Dominion of the British Empire. Following two referendums in 1948, the island joined Canadian Confederation the next year, making it the only province to do so by authority of the Canadian monarch.
Since Confederation, there have been a number of royal visits to the province. Some notable visits have included Princess Mary, Princess Royal, marking in 1964 the 50th anniversary of the departure of the first contingent of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment from St. John's to the battlefields of World War I; Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, along with his wife Diana, Princess of Wales, visiting Newfoundland in 1983 to mark the 400th anniversary of the island becoming an English, and later British, colony; and during her 1997 tour of Canada, Queen Elizabeth II, along with her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, travelling to Bonavista to see the arrival of the "Matthew", as part of the re-enactment of John Cabot's arrival on the island 500 years before.


Dime (United States coin)

The dime, in United States usage, is a ten-cent coin, one tenth of a United States dollar, labeled formally as "one dime". The denomination was first authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792. The dime is the smallest in diameter and is the thinnest of all U.S. coins currently minted for circulation, being in diameter and in thickness. The obverse of the current dime depicts the profile of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the reverse boasts an olive branch, a torch, and an oak branch, from left to right respectively. As of 2011, the dime coin cost 5.65 cents to produce.
The word "dime" comes from the Old French "disme" (now dîme), meaning "tithe" or "tenth part", from the Latin "decima [pars]". In the past prices have occasionally been quoted on signage and other materials in terms of dimes, abbreviated as "d" or a lowercase "d" with a slash through it (₫) as with the cent and mill signs. As of 2019, the dime is the only United States coin in general circulation that is not denominated in terms of dollars or cents.
History.
The Coinage Act of 1792 established the dime (spelled "disme" in the legislation), cent, and mill as subdivisions of the dollar equal to , and dollar respectively.
The first known proposal for a decimal-based coinage system in the United States was made in 1783 by Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and David Rittenhouse. Hamilton, the nation's first Secretary of the Treasury, recommended the issuance of six such coins in 1791, in a report to Congress. Among the six was a silver coin, "which shall be, in weight and value, one-tenth part of a silver unit or dollar".
From 1796 to 1837, dimes were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper, the value of which required the coins to be physically very small to prevent their intrinsic value being worth more than face value. Thus dimes are made small and thin. The silver percentage was increased to 90.0% with the introduction of the Seated Liberty dime; the use of a richer alloy was offset by reducing the diameter from 18.8 millimeters (0.740 inch) to its current figure of 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inch).
With the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the dime's silver content was removed. Dimes from 1965 to the present are struck from a clad metal composed of outer layers of 75% copper and 25% nickel alloy, bonded to a pure copper core. Pre-1965 dimes have followed Gresham's law and vanished from ordinary currency circulation at face value. Most now trade as informal bullion coins known as junk silver, priced at some multiple of face value, which price follows the spot price of silver on commodity markets.
Starting in 1992, the U.S. Mint began issuing Silver Proof Sets annually, which contain dimes composed of the pre-1965 standard of 90% silver and 10% copper, then switched to .999 fine silver from 2019 onward. These sets are intended solely for collectors, and are not meant for general circulation.
Design history.
Since its introduction in 1796, the dime has been issued in six different major types, excluding the 1792 "disme". The name for each type (except for the Barber dime) indicates the design on the coin's obverse.
"Disme" (1792).
The Coinage Act of 1792, passed on April 2, 1792, authorized the mintage of a "disme", one-tenth the silver weight and value of a dollar. The composition of the disme was set at 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper. In 1792, a limited number of dismes were minted but never circulated. Some of these were struck in copper, indicating that the 1792 dismes were in fact pattern coins. The first dimes minted for circulation did not appear until 1796, due to a lack of demand for the coin and production problems at the United States Mint.
Draped Bust (1796–1807).
The first dime to be circulated was the Draped Bust dime, in 1796. It featured the same obverse and reverse as all other circulating coins of the time, the so-called Draped Bust/Small Eagle design. This design was the work of then-Chief Engraver Robert Scot. The portrait of Liberty on the obverse was based on a Gilbert Stuart drawing of prominent Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham, wife of noted American statesman William Bingham. The reverse design is of a small bald eagle surrounded by palm and olive branches, and perched on a cloud. Since the Coinage Act of 1792 required only that the cent and half cent display their denomination, Draped Bust dimes were minted with no indication of their value.
All 1796 dimes have 15 stars on the obverse, representing the number of U.S. states then in the Union. The first 1797 dimes were minted with 16 stars, reflecting Tennessee's admission as the 16th state. Realizing that the practice of adding one star per state could quickly clutter the coin's design, U.S. Mint Director Elias Boudinot ordered a design alteration, to feature just 13 stars (for the original Thirteen Colonies). Therefore, 1797 dimes can be found with either 13 or 16 stars.
Also designed by Robert Scot, the Heraldic Eagle reverse design made its debut in 1798. The obverse continued from the previous series, but the eagle on the reverse was changed from the widely criticized "scrawny" hatchling to a scaled-down version of the Great Seal of the United States. The Draped Bust/Heraldic Eagles series continued through 1807 (although no dimes dated 1799 or 1806 were minted). Both Draped Bust designs were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper.
Capped Bust (1809–1837).
The Draped Bust design was succeeded by the Capped Bust, designed by Mint Assistant Engraver John Reich. Both the obverse and reverse were changed extensively. The new reverse featured a bald eagle grasping three arrows (symbolizing strength) and an olive branch (symbolizing peace). Covering the eagle's breast is a U.S. shield with six horizontal lines and 13 vertical stripes. Also on the reverse is the lettering "10C," making it the only dime minted with the value given in cents (subsequent issues are inscribed with the words "ONE DIME"). The lack of numeric value markings on subsequent dime coins causes some confusion amongst foreign visitors, who may be unaware of the value of the coin. Also, the Capped Bust dime was the first dime to have its value written on the coin. Previous designs of the dime had no indication of its value, the way people determined its value was by its size
Capped Bust dimes minted through 1828 are known as the Large type. This is partially because they were struck without a restraining collar, which gave them a broader appearance. In 1828, Chief Engraver William Kneass introduced the close collar method of coining (which automated the process of placing reeds on a coin's edge). In addition to standardizing the diameter of coins, the new method allowed the Mint to produce thicker coins. To maintain a standard weight and alloy, the diameter of most coins was reduced. In particular, the dime was reduced in diameter from 18.8 to 18.5 millimeters. This new Capped Bust dime, which began production in 1828, is known as the Small type. There are 123 varieties known of Capped Bust Dimes.
Seated Liberty (1837–1891).
Christian Gobrecht completed the design of the Seated Liberty dime, whose obverse was used with every circulating silver U.S. coin of the period. Mint Director Robert Maskell Patterson requested a new coin design, to be reminiscent of the Britannia image found on coinage of the United Kingdom. Chief Engraver William Kneass drew the original sketches, but suffered a stroke and was too ill to finish them or to oversee preparation of the dies. The task then fell to Gobrecht, who was promoted to Second Engraver.
The obverse features an image of Liberty sitting on a rock, wearing a dress and holding a staff with a liberty cap on top. Her right hand is balancing a shield with the inscription "LIBERTY." The reverse featured the inscription "ONE DIME," surrounded by a wreath. All Seated Liberty dimes contain 90% silver and 10% copper, and are 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inch) in diameter. This size and metal composition would continue until 1965, when silver was permanently removed from circulating dimes.
There were several minor varieties during the Seated Liberty's run. The initial design (1837) had no stars on the obverse and, further, the dates were minted in a Large Date and Small Date variety. These two types can be distinguished by noting the "3" and the "7" in the date. In the Large Date variety, the "3" has a pointed serif at top, and the horizontal element of the "7" is straight. In the Small Date variety, the "3" has a rounded serif, and there is small a knob, or bulge, in the "7" horizontal element. Only the Philadelphia Mint made both varieties. The Small Date is slightly rarer. The New Orleans Mint also made the Seated Liberty Dime in this year, but only in the Small Date variety.
Thirteen stars (symbolizing the 13 original colonies) were added to the perimeter of the obverse in 1838. These were replaced with the legend "United States of America," which was moved from the reverse in mid-1860. At the same time, the laurel wreath on the reverse was changed to a wreath of corn, wheat, maple, and oak leaves and expanded nearly to the rim of the coin. This reverse design continued through the end of the series in 1891 and was changed only slightly in 1892, when the Barber dime debuted. Another variety is the 1838–40 dime minted with no drapery underneath the left elbow of Liberty.
Arrows at the date in 1853 and 1873 indicated changes made in the coin's mass (from 2.67 grams to 2.49 grams in 1853, then to 2.50 grams in 1873). The first change was made in response to rising silver prices, while the latter alteration was brought about by the Mint Act of 1873 which, in an attempt to make U.S. coinage the currency of the world, added a small amount of mass to the dime, quarter, and half-dollar to bring their weights in line with fractions of the French 5-franc piece. The change also ensured the quarter dollar (which is valued 2.5 times the dime) weighed 2.5 times the dime (6.25g), and the half dollar (twice the value of the quarter dollar) weighed twice what the quarter dollar weighed (12.5g). In this way, a specific weight of these coins, no matter the mixture of denominations, would always be worth the same. This relation in weight and value continued in the cupronickel coins from 1965 on.
This produced the greatest rarities in the Seated Dime Series, the 1873 & 1874 Carson City Dimes, with arrows and the unique 1873 Carson City Dime without arrows.
Barber (1892–1916).
The Barber dime is named for its designer, Charles E. Barber, who was Chief Engraver of the U.S. Mint from 1879 to 1917. The design was shared with the quarter and half-dollar of the same period. Extensive internal politics surrounded the awarding of the design job, which had initially been opened to the public. A four-member committee (which included Barber), appointed by then-Mint Director James Kimball, accorded only two of more than 300 submissions an honorable mention. Kimball's successor, Edward O. Leech, decided to dispense with the committees and public design competitions and simply instructed Barber to develop a new design. It has been speculated that this is what Barber had wanted all along.
The Barber dime, as with all previous dimes, featured an image of Liberty on the obverse. She is wearing a Phrygian cap, a laurel wreath with a ribbon, and a headband with the inscription "LIBERTY". This inscription is one of the key elements used in determining the condition of Barber dimes. Liberty's portrait was inspired by two sources—French coins and medals of the period, as well as ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. The obverse also contains the long-used 13 stars (for the 13 colonies) design element. The reverse contained a wreath and inscription almost identical to the one used on the final design of the Seated Liberty dime. Dimes were produced at all four of the mints that operated during the period. While circulated coins of the entire series are readily available to collectors there is one outstanding rarity, the 1894-S Barber Dime. Twenty-four were minted, with 9 currently known.
Winged Liberty Head ("Mercury") (1916–1945).
Although most commonly referred to as the "Mercury" dime, the Winged Liberty Head does not depict the Roman messenger god. The obverse figure is a depiction of the mythological goddess Liberty wearing a Phrygian cap, a classic Western symbol of liberty and freedom, with its wings intended to symbolize freedom of thought. Designed by noted sculptor Adolph A. Weinman, the Winged Liberty Head dime is considered by many to be one of the most beautiful U.S. coin designs ever produced. The composition (90% silver, 10% copper) and diameter (17.9 millimeters) of the "Mercury" dime was unchanged from the Barber dime.
Weinman (who had studied under Augustus Saint-Gaudens) won a 1915 competition against two other artists for the design job, and is thought to have modeled his version of Liberty on Elsie Kachel Stevens, wife of noted poet Wallace Stevens. The reverse design, a fasces juxtaposed with an olive branch, was intended to symbolize America's readiness for war, combined with its desire for peace. Although the fasces was later officially adopted by Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party, the symbol was also common in American iconography and has generally avoided any stigma associated with its usage in wartime Italy.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1946–present).
Soon after the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945, legislation was introduced by Virginia Congressman Ralph H. Daughton that called for the replacement of the Mercury dime with one bearing Roosevelt's image. The dime was chosen to honor Roosevelt partly due to his efforts in the founding of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (later renamed the March of Dimes), which originally raised money for polio research and to aid victims of the disease and their families.
Due to the limited amount of time available to design the new coin, the Roosevelt dime was the first regular-issue U.S. coin designed by a Mint employee in more than 40 years. Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock was chosen, as he had already designed a Mint presidential medal of Roosevelt. Sinnock's first design, submitted on October 12, 1945, was rejected, but a subsequent one was accepted on January 6, 1946. The dime was released to the public on January 30, 1946, which would have been Roosevelt's 64th birthday. Sinnock's design placed his initials ("JS") at the base of Roosevelt's neck, on the coin's obverse. His reverse design elements of a torch, olive branch, and oak branch symbolized, respectively, liberty, peace, and strength.
Controversy immediately ensued, as strong anti-Communist sentiment in the United States led to the circulation of rumors that the "JS" engraved on the coin was the initials of Joseph Stalin, placed there by a Soviet agent in the mint. The Mint quickly issued a statement denying this, confirming that the initials were indeed Sinnock's. The same rumor arose after the release of the Sinnock designed Franklin half dollar in April 1948.
Another controversy surrounding Sinnock's design involves his image of Roosevelt. Soon after the coin's release, it was claimed that Sinnock borrowed his design of Roosevelt from a bas relief created by African American sculptor Selma Burke, unveiled at the Recorder of Deeds Building in Washington, D.C. in September 1945. Sinnock denied this and stated that he simply utilized his earlier design on the Roosevelt medal.
With the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the composition of the dime changed from 90% silver and 10% copper to a clad "sandwich" of pure copper inner layer between two outer layers of cupronickel (75% copper, 25% nickel) alloy giving a total composition of 91.67% Cu and 8.33% Ni. This composition was selected because it gave similar mass (now 2.268 grams instead of 2.5 grams) and electrical properties (important in vending machines)—and most importantly, because it contained no precious metal.
Since 1946 the Roosevelt dime has been minted every year. Through 1955, all three mints, Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco produced circulating coinage; production at San Francisco ended in 1955, resuming in 1968 with proof coinage only. Through 1964 "D" and "S" mintmarks can be found to the left of the torch. From 1968, the mintmarks have appeared above the date. None were used in 1965–67, and Philadelphia did not show a mintmark until 1980 (in 1982, an error left the "P" off a small number of dimes, which are now valuable). To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the design, the 1996 mint sets included a "W" mintmarked dime made at the West Point Mint. A total of 1,457,000 dimes were issued in the sets, making it the lowest mintage Roosevelt dime up to that time. Since then, the "P" mint mark 2015 reverse proof dime and "W" mint mark 2015 proof dime, minted at Philadelphia and West Point for inclusion in the March of Dimes collector set, have the lowest mintages with 75,000 pieces struck for each.


Rorick House Museum

The Rorick House Museum, also known as the Malcolm A. Moody House, is a museum located in The Dalles, Oregon, United States. The building was originally built in 1850 as a two-room residence for non-commissioned officers from Fort Dalles, this is the oldest remaining house in The Dalles. It was subsequently occupied by U.S. Representative Malcolm A. Moody, and has ultimately become a museum. The house is the current headquarters for the Wasco County Historical Society.


Bernard Smith (New Jersey politician)

Bernard Smith, (July 5, 1776July 16, 1835) was a Representative from New Jersey.
He was born in Morristown, New Jersey. After completing preparatory studies he was collector of customs in 1809 and 1810. He was postmaster of New Brunswick 1810-1819.
He was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the Sixteenth Congress (March 4, 1819 – March 3, 1821). He did not seek renomination in 1820. He was appointed register of the land office at Little Rock, Arkansas in 1821, and settled in that state. He was secretary to the governor of Arkansas 1825-1828; appointed by Governor George Izard as subagent of the Quapaw in 1825, and served until his death in Little Rock on July 16, 1835. He is interred in Mount Holly Cemetery.
Notes.
"Information found on public domain website of Bioguide of US Congress."


Garifuna Americans

Garifuna Americans or Black Carib Americans are Americans of Garifuna descent with origins from Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. They trace their ancestry to the Garifuna, who were descendents of Arawak, Kalinago (Island Carib), and Afro-Caribbean people living in Saint Vincent.
Cultural events.
, Abrazo Garifuna in New York, an event celebrating the contributions of Garifuna Americans to New York City is in its second year. Abrazo Garifuna in New York continues to be held annually as of 2014.


Welborn Village Archeological Site

Welborn Village Archeological Site (12 Po 19), also known as the Murphy's Landing Site, is an archaeological site of the prehistoric Caborn-Welborn culture variant of the Mississippian culture of indigenous peoples of North America.
Welborn Village Archeological Site is located on Hovey Lake, a backwater lake near the Ohio River close to its confluence with the Wabash River.


Little Sisters of the Poor Home for the Aged (Nashville, Tennessee)

The Little Sisters of the Poor Home for the Aged is a historic building in Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.. It was built in 1916 for the Little Sisters of the Poor, a Roman Catholic order which takes care of the elderly poor. It closed down in 1968, and it was turned into a series of nursing homes until 1998. It was subsequently used by the music industry, including Sony. In 2014, Sony Music sold it to Vanderbilt University for US$12.1 million.
The building has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since July 25, 1985.


Town Destroyer

Conotocaurius (Town Destroyer) was a nickname given to George Washington by Iroquois Native Americans in 1753. The name in its original language(s) has been given variously as "Conotocarius", "Conotocaurious", "Caunotaucarius", "Conotocarious", "Hanodaganears", and "Hanadahguyus". It has also been translated as "Town Taker", "Burner of Towns", "Devourer of Villages", or "he destroys the town".
History.
Washington was given the name in 1753 by the Seneca leader Tanacharison (the "Half-King"). The nickname had previously been given to his great-grandfather John Washington in the late seventeenth century. He had participated in an effort to suppress a Native American uprising in Virginia and Maryland that involved members of both the Susquehannah and the Piscataway, an Algonquian tribe that lived across the Potomac River from Mount Vernon. Following the massacre of five chiefs who had come out to negotiate under a flag of truce to the colonists, the Susquehannahs gave George Washington an Algonquian name that translated to "town taker" or "devourer of villages." The elder Washington's reputation was remembered and when the Native Americans met his great-grandson in 1753 they called George Washington by the same name, "Conotocarious".
Washington referred to himself as "Conotocaurious" in a letter he wrote to Andrew Montour dated October 10, 1755, in which he entreated the Oneida to resettle on the Potomac:
In 1779 during the American Revolutionary War, the Sullivan Expedition, under Washington's orders, destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages in New York, from which the tribe had attacked American settlements. In 1790, the Seneca chief Cornplanter told President Washington: "When your army entered the country of the Six Nations, we called you Town Destroyer."


Pratt Museum

The Pratt Museum is a regional natural history museum located in Homer, Alaska, with exhibits exploring life around Kachemak Bay in South Central Alaska. The museum's mission is to preserve "the stories of the Kachemak Bay region", through "collections, exhibits, and programs in culture, science, and art". Indoor exhibits include early homesteading, Native Alaskan traditions, local contemporary art, and an exploration of the marine and terrestrial life around Kachemak Bay. Outdoor exhibits feature a historic cabin, botanical gardens and a nature trail.
History.
The Pratt Museum had its beginnings in the Homer Society of Natural History, which had incorporated in 1965.
Local artist Sam Pratt had a collection of items that led to the founding of the society. Hazel Heath, the treasurer of the society from 1968–1983 and mayor of Homer from 1968–1976, has been credited with founding the museum, which was established in 1968.
Sam Pratt and his wife Vega donated the land on which the Museum was built, and Sam Pratt served as the first volunteer curator of the Museum.
Exhibits.
The main gallery's exhibit at the Pratt Museum is entitled "Kachemak Bay: An Exploration of People & Place," which explores the cultures that have existed in Kachemak Bay, as well as contemporary life in Kachemak Bay. The gallery has exhibits from early Native Alaskans to the homesteaders of the 1930s and 1940s, to the current fisheries that sustain the Kachemak Bay area, including Homer, Kachemak City, Seldovia, Halibut Cove, Anchor Point, and additional villages around the Bay.
One major attraction for visitors is a live-feed wildlife camera set up to view seabirds such as puffins, cormorants, and murres on Gull Island in Kachemak Bay. The camera is controlled at the museum, with a touchscreen below the main screen for visitor use. The SeeBird Camera (or Gull Cam) is also available online during the summer months, although it is controlled by the visitors at the museum and not the online visitors.
The museum also hosts a number of interactive activities, from fish-feeding on Tuesdays and Fridays to tours of the harbor on the Homer Spit on Fridays and Saturdays during the summer months.
Expansion.
The Pratt Museum has been working to build a new facility on its 9.8 acre property, to increase exhibit space and storage space for its collections. The new building would also be on one level, eliminating the need for staircases and elevators, and would have other efficiencies not possible with the current building. The Pratt Museum's Board of Directors decided to support the creation of a new museum building, and started on the design of this building in 2010.