Efremov Atamans Palace

Efremov Atamans Palace () is a mansion in Starocherkasskaya, Rostov Oblast, Russia, which was constructed in 1761. It belonged to Efremov family.
Architecture.
The facade of the Ataman Palace in Starocherkassk was designed in Classicist style in the manner of the mansions of Moscow and St. Petersburg nobility. The triangular pediment of the central rizalite is supported by four single and two pairs of doubled smooth half-columns. The colonnade rests on the relief belt between the first and second floors. Straight sandricks adorn the windows of the first and the second floor. The windows of the palace are quite diverse in size: the one that of the lower floor are small, flattened in shape, and the blind platens built of keystone resemble the windows of the house of merchant and cossacks Zhuchenkovs; the windows of the second floor are larger, lighter, have a light frame, and overall bring the appearance of a palace. The Efremov Palace was built at the same time as the house church near it.
Numerous reconstructions, especially after the fire of 1848, greatly altered the building. The original appearance was preserved on a sketch of the panorama of Cherkassk made in 1803 by architect Nikolay Lvov, whom Emperor Alexander I sent to the Caucasus and the Crimea "for the arrangement and description of various necessities in the warm waters there." Judging by the plan made by Lvov, the building stretched horizontally and preserved the symmetry of the composition and the pilaster parting of the wall. Yet the classic portico uniting the two floors was lost, and, probably, in the 19th century the location of the main entrance, which was on the south side, changed. Later, with the construction here in 1836 of a monastery enclosed by a new stone wall, the front façade of the building moved to the courtyard. At the same time, the central part was distinguished with a risalite with a colonnade of the second floor, completed with a triangular pediment.
History.
Efremov family was one of the most distinguished and richest dynasty on the Don. Its founder, the son of Moscow merchant Efrem Petrov, moved to Cherkassk in 1670 (now Starocherkasskaya), where he successfully engaged in trade and rose to the rank of foreman. In 1756-1761, Efremov built a house church consecrated in the name of the Don Icon of Mother of God in their courtyard. According to legend, its prototype was the church, located in the Middle Caves of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Indeed, there are some similarities: among them there is a technique of Ukrainian masters: a combination of vertical rectangular and faceted forms, a harmony of rectilinear and curvilinear outlines, a fusion of baroque and classical decor elements.
On 27 December 1831, Yevdokiya Ioakimovna, the widow of Efrem Petrov, Ulyana Alekseevna and her son, captain Nikolai Stepanovich, petitioned Don Archbishop Athanasius and asked to build a convent in Starocherkassk. In the petition, the main and the only motive that prompted the members of Efremov family to take such a step, was their faith and desire to perpetuate the memory of relatives buried in Cherkassk land. The decree of Emperor Nicholas I "On the establishment of Efremov Convent in the Starocherkasskaya stanitsa of the Novocherkassk Eparchy" was issues on 25 January 1837.
Museum.
The Efremov Palace is the main object of the Starocherkassk Museum-Reserve. The extensive apartments of the mansion house various exhibitions about the history of Cherkassy and Don Cossacks. Among the exhibits are marble sundials of the 16th century brought by Cossacks from Constantinople, Azov trophies of the 17th century, and the various weapons of Don Cossacks. After reconstruction in 2014, the second floor of the palace was opened for visitors: now there is an exhibition dedicated to Efremov family and Cossack culture. In 2015, the Ministry of Property and Land Relations of Rostov Oblast intended to transfer the building of the Ataman Palace to the Russian Orthodox Church, but the regional court declared the intention of the transfer illegal, and so the museum complex still remains a secular institution.


Jinsha site

The Jinsha Site () is an archaeological site located in the Qinyang District of Chendu, the capital of China’s Sichuan Province. After its accidental discovery in February 2001 by a real-estate company constructing a highway, the Chendu Municipal Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology have been responsible for its excavation and conservation. Its features and artifacts share commonalities with the Sanxingdui site located 50 kilometers away. In 2007, the Jinsha Museum was constructed. The museum preserves features such as buildings, burial pits and kilns. It also preserves gold, ivory, bronze, stone and porcelain artifacts – this includes the kneeling stone figures, the smiling gold mask and the golden sunbird leaf. It is believed to be the capital of the Shu kingdom after the decline of the Sanxingdui civilization. The site ended abruptly between 500BCE to 200BCE – reasons speculated include earthquake, floods, and political revolution.
In 2013, History Channel Asia produced a one-hour English language documentary called ‘The Lost City at Jinsha’. It was co-produced with China International Communication Centre (CICC). Dr. Agnes Hsu, a Chinese American archaeologist, hosts the episode. The episode is part of the documentary series Mysteries of China.
The site is listed on the "UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Tentative List" and "Major Sites Protected at the National Level". Its artifacts have been claimed to be a national symbol by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage.
Discovery.
The Jinsha site was discovered by accident on 8 February 2001. The Chinese Real Estate Development Group unearthed bronze, gold, jade, stone and ivory artifacts in a drain, five kilometres northwest of the centre of Chengdu. Subsequently, the Chengdu Municipal Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology dispatched a team to investigate and secure the region. Excavation surrounding the initial ditch began on 9 February 2001.
The term ‘Jinsha Site’ was coined after 2001. It refers to the excavation sites in the Jinsha region that occupy three square kilometres – it is separated into different archaeological loci. Before 2001, the Chengdu Municipal Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology had conducted field surveys and investigations in Huangzhongcun. In Huangzhongcun, excavations were conducted in Locus Sanhe Huayuan and Locus Jindu Huayuan from 1995 to 2000. It is recognised that these archaeological loci are remnants of a large-scale civilisation in the late Shang and early Western Zhou periods. After the decline of the Sanxingdui settlement, the Jinsha Site was believed to be the capital of the Shu kingdom.
Site information.
Jinsha Site is located in east Chengdu Plains in the Chengdu Basin. It is commonly compared to the Sanxingdui settlement due to its similarities in artifacts and features. Sanxingdui is situated fourty kilometres east-west from Jinsha. Shuhan, Qinyang, Sanhuan and Qinjiang Road enclose the Jinsha Site, while the Modihe River separates the site into the north and the south side. The nature of the site is even with little fluctuations in its elevation.
Dating and cultural classification.
Pottery found in the Huangzhongcun region of the Jinsha Site has been dated to the late Shang and Western Zhou periods in pre-Qin China. An analysis of the chronology and artifacts found suggests that the Jinsha civilisation represents the Shi’erqiao Culture. Distinct features included the pointed-bottom cups, ring-foot jars and tall-necked vessel lids.
Organisation and localities.
The Jinsha Site is divided into different localities that have been identified to possess unique functions in society. The main archaeological loci include Mei Yuan, Lan Yuan, Tiyu Gongyuan and Huangzhongcun.
Mei Yuan.
At Locus Mei Yuan, 3000 cultural artifacts made of gold, bronze, jade, stone, ivory and bone were unearthed. Main findings included a pit full of Asian elephant tusks, a pit containing discs and weapons made of stone and a pit containing tusks from a variety of animals. The Institute suggests that this locality was an area of cultural and religious practice.
Lan Yuan.
At Locus Lan Yuan, excavations revealed buildings, tombs, graves, kilns, refuse pits and cellar pits. Before it became a burial site, the locality was believed to be a residential area for its people. Jade, pottery and stone artifacts were found in the tombs.
Tiyu Gongyuan.
At Locus Tiyu Gongyuan, larger palace-like structures and numerous burial pits were found concentrated together. It is thought that this was a residential area for wealthy people before it became a burial site.
Artifacts.
Noticeable artifacts found include the golden sunbird, gold mask and kneeling stone figures.
Golden leaf sunbird.
The gold artifact is circular with a 12-point sun in the middle. With a concentration of 94.2% gold, the gold leaf was made with natural gold dust followed by a series of craftsmanship. On the perimeters of the leaf, four birds flying towards the left have been carved out using advanced, precise craftsmanship. In 2005, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage stated that the artifact represented a symbol in Chinese history. The artifact is believed to represent the story written in "Classic in Mountains and Seas". In this legend, the sun was set by four birds pulling it down from the sky. It is the symbol for the Jinsha Museum and located on the second floor. The golden sunbird is believed to symbolise authority. According to Hua (2013), that the Jinsha people maintained a strong emotional connection to the sun and its worship (p. 162).
Smiling gold mask.
The gold mask appears to be smiling due to its crescent-shaped eyes and half-opened mouth. It is 3.7 centimetres in height and 4.7 centimetres in width. It is made by beating a gold sheet on a special mold. Jinsha Site is the only place where masks of this nature and style have been uncovered in China. Its small size makes archaeologist Zhangyi believe that it was bonded onto figures and sculptures instead of being put on humans.
Kneeling stone human figures.
12 human figures made of stone were discovered. These figures were kneeling with their hands tied – their hair was braided with a parting in the middle. The faces were angular with high nose bridges. The bodies were naked with no decoration or markings on them. Skilful stone craftsmanship is indicated through precise cutting, polishing, carving and hollowing found on these figures.
While these characteristics indicate the figures to represents slaves or prisoners or wars, Shi (2014) argues that the figures represented shamans, ritual performers or human sacrifices to the deities. Similar figures were found in Sanxingdui, where short hairstyle mimics the identity of shamans and ritual specialists. Along with the human figures, ritual artifacts were found – these included jade sceptres, stone tigers, stone snakes, bronze and pottery. Founded in Locus Mei Yuan, scholars believe that rituals, sacrifices, ceremonies and feasts occurred in this area. In ancient China, snakes were viewed as the intermediate species between deity and humans, while tigers were feared by the people. Those who commanded snakes and tigers were held as superior and special in status for conducting religious activities.
Features.
Noticeable features at the site include burials, buildings and the elephant tusk pit.
Buildings.
An estimated number of 50 residential buildings were located. All buildings faced north-west or south-west. Two types of flooring were found. For smaller buildings, the floors were filled with small post-holes only. In large buildings, there was the addition of large post-holes spaced one meter apart. Walls were made using the wattle and daub method. It was constructed with mud on the inside, supported by wood or bamboo on the exterior.
Burial pits and tombs.
An estimated number of 1000 burial sites were found between Locus Lan Yuan and Locus Tiyu Gongyuan. Most burials faced south-west, but some faced north-west. Skeletons were found to be lying upwards with their hands covering their chest. Contrary to the burials found in Sanxingdui, half of the burials only contained the body. The other half had burial goods but were limited to pottery. Only in five burials were jade and bronze artifacts also found. Burial chambers were found to include either single bodies or bodies of couples.
The layout of burials did not indicate a social hierarchy in the Jinsha civilisation. Generally, where people are buried depended on their socio-economic status in society. However, the evenly spaced burials at the Jinsha Site indicated that the society was not a top-down one.
Pit filled with elephant tusks.
At Locus Mei Yuan, a pit filled with Asian elephant tusks were found in the eastern corner. The longest tusk was 150 meters long. This pit was severely disturbed by construction equipment upon unearthing. Two layers were found in the pit. The top layer was filled with brown fill, while the bottom layer was sand filled with the elephant tusks.
Conservation.
The conservation of the Jinsha Site has been through the construction of the Jinsha Museum – a museum constructed in 2007 that functions as a shelter across 6 hectares of the site. It aims to provide detailed information to tourist and conserve the site. Before its construction, no efforts were made to conserve the archaeological site. Jinsha Site is listed on "UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Tentative List" and "Major Site Protected at the National Level".
Jinsha site has been conserved through the Jinsha Museum. It was constructed in 2007 and functions as a shelter across 6 hectares of the site. Its aims are to provide detailed information to tourist on the Shu kingdom and to maintain its status as the most-preserved sacrificial remains found in China. Before its construction, no efforts were made to conserve the archaeological site. It is listed on "UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Tentative List" and "Major Site Protected at the National Level."
Conservation methods.
Conservation methods at the museum include temperature control, transparent curtain walls against ultra-violet rays and a controllable glass panel for air ventilation. Additionally, the conservation department of the Jinsha Museum is responsible for security, surveillance and general maintenance – this is an attempt to prevent vandalism and destruction by the public. The Chengdu Museum communicates scientific advancements on conservation that could be beneficial for the site.
A combined team from Jinsha Museum and Chengdu Museum implemented conservation strategies that targeted the moss and cracks forming on the site in 2007. After an analysis on the most effective biocide, the team distributed germall across the site in 2009. This removed mosses from the surface. Additionally, finely milled sand was used to fill in the cracks – this prevented them from enlarging. The difference in colour between the original surface and the sand was later evened for aesthetic purposes.
Problems with conservation.
The environment and temperature at Jinsha encourage the growth of bacteria, moss and cracks. A high concentration of illite was found in its soil which makes the site features and objects prone to cracking. There are concerns that the excavation grids and unprotected artifacts are vulnerable to sunlight, birds and wet weather. Despite the temperature control system, they remain unstable. Poor stabilisation aids the development of pathologies, harming the preservation of the Jinsha Site. Ceasing daily water sprinkling around the site has been recommended to reduce the humidity and moisture.
The collapse of the Jinsha civilisation.
Around 500BCE to 200BCE, the Jinsha settlement ended abruptly. While the reasons remain unclear, experts have proposed political revolution, catastrophic floods and earthquakes as a potential reason for its collapse. Political conflict as a reason has been criticised due to its unrealistic ability to cause an entire settlement to disappear.
Earthquake theory.
Some argue that the collapse of the Jinsha civilisation was due to a great earthquake similar in nature to the 2008 Sichuan Earthquake. An analysis of the sediment layers and radiocarbons showed that the Chengdu Plains experienced large earthquakes over the past 5000 years. These occurred in 1000-year intervals, with the dates aligning with the disappearance of the Jinsha civilisation. In addition to the destruction of the people’s residents and buildings, the secondary effects of an earthquake include floods, diseases and landslides. A change in environment would have required the remaining people at Jinsha to relocate.
Flood theory.
Others have argued that catastrophic floods led to the collapse and sudden disappearance of the Jinsha civilisation. Field studies and sediment sampling showed that sediment remains from ancient nearby rivers were transported to the site. With the high concentration of large grain sizes, it is believed that flooding occurred in the region.


Nihar Mukherjee

Nihar Mukherjee was an Indian politician who served as General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist) (SUCI (C)). He was a founding member of the party in 1948 and became the General Secretary after the death of Shibdas Ghosh in 1976. He was also the Editor-in-Chief of the "Proletarian Era", the official newspaper of the organization.
During Mukherjee's early political career, he was a leader of the Anushilan Samiti. He was jailed during the Quit India movement. Nihar Mukherjee died of cardiac arrest on 18 February 2010 in Kolkata. The party held a massive memorial meeting on 3 March 2010 to mourn the death of Nihar Mukherjee in the Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata.


Binnya Law

Binnya Law (, ; died 1538) was a senior minister at the court of King Takayutpi of Hanthawaddy. He and Binnya Kyan, another senior minister, organized and led the coastal kingdom's defenses, which successfully repulsed the upstart Toungoo's three dry season raids between 1534 and 1538. They both were childhood tutors of the young king, and were absolutely devoted to him. Nonetheless, both ministers were executed in 1538 by the young king who believed in Toungoo's misinformation that the ministers were Toungoo moles. After their death, the king found himself helpless. When Toungoo forces came once again in late 1538, he decided to flee rather than fight.


Gomburza

Gomburza, alternatively stylized as GOMBURZA or GomBurZa, refers to three Filipino Catholic priests, Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, who were executed by garrote in 17 February 1872 in Bagumbayan, Philippines by Spanish colonial authorities on charges of subversion arising from the 1872 Cavite mutiny. The name is a portmanteau of the priests' surnames.
Mariano Gomes de los Angeles was a well-known Roman Catholic priest during their time, part of the trio accused of mutiny by Spanish colonial authorities in the Philippines in the 19th century. Gomez was the child of Alejandro Francisco Gomez and Martina Custodia. He was born in the suburb of Santa Cruz, Manila on 2 August 1799. He was a "Tornatras", one born from mixed native (Filipino), Chinese, and Spanish ancestries. He studied at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and later studied theology at the University of Santo Tomas, preparing himself for the priesthood in the Seminary of Manila. Gomez was designated as the head priest of Bacoor, Cavite on 2 June 1824. He also taught for the agriculture and cottage industries aside from taking care of spiritual necessities. He fought for the rights of his fellow native priests against Spanish abuses. He was also active in the publication of the newspaper "La Verdad". On 17 February 1872, he was one of the priests executed due to the false accusations of treason and sedition, taking a supposed active role in the Cavite Mutiny. He was later on sentenced to death by garrote in a military court at Bagumbayan field.
José Apolonio Burgos y García was born in Vigan, Ilocos Sur on 9 February 1837 and was baptized on the 12th of the same month. His parents were Jose Burgos, a Spanish lieutenant in the Spanish militia of Ilocos, and Florencia Garcia, a native of Vigan. During his early teenage years, he studied at the Colegio San Juan de Letran and later went to the University of Santo Tomas, receiving a Bachelor of Philosophy in 1855, Bachelor of Theology in 1859, Licentiate in Philosophy in 1860, Licentiate in Theology in 1862, Doctor of Theology, and Doctor of Canon Law in 1868.
Jacinto Zamora y del Rosario was born on 14 August 1835 in Pandacan, Manila. His parents were Venancio Zamora and Hilario del Rosario. He studied at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and graduated with a degree of Bachelor of Arts. He later transferred to the University of Santo Tomas and obtained a degree of Bachelor of Canon and Civil Laws. He prepared for priesthood in the Seminary of Manila. He had dreamt of becoming a priest at a young age. After being given ministerial and priestly authority, Zamora was able to establish parishes in Marikina, Pasig, and Batangas and was assigned to also oversee Manila Cathedral on 3 December 1864.
Gomburza incurred the hatred of Spanish authorities for fighting for equal rights among priests and leading the campaign against the Spanish friars. They fought on the issues of secularization in the Philippines that led to the conflict of religious and church seculars.
Their execution had a profound effect on many late 19th-century Filipinos; José Rizal, later to become the country's national hero, would dedicate his novel "El filibusterismo" to their memory. Mutiny by workers in the Cavite Naval Yard was the pretext needed by the authorities to redress a perceived humiliation from the principal objective, José Burgos, who threatened the established order.
During the Spanish colonial period, four social class distinctions were observed in the islands: Spaniards who were born in Spain, "peninsulares"; Spaniards born in the colonies of Spain (Latin America or the Philippines), "insulares" or "creoles"; Spanish "mestizos", Chinese or 'Indios' (natives) dwelling within or near the city (or town), and the church; and Chinese, Sangley, and rural "Indios".
Burgos was a Doctor of Philosophy and Arts whose prominence extended even to Spain, such that when the new Governor and Captain-General Carlos María de la Torre arrived from Spain to assume his duties, he invited Burgos to sit beside him in his carriage during the inaugural procession, a place traditionally reserved for the archbishop and who was a peninsular Spaniard. The arrival of the liberal de la Torre was opposed by the ruling minority of friars, regular priests who belonged to an order (Dominicans, Augustinians, Recollects, and Franciscans) and their aliens in civil government. It was supported by the secular priests, most of whom were "mestizos" and "darnas" assigned to parishes and far flung communities, who believed that the reforms and the equality that they wanted with peninsular Spaniards were finally coming. In less than two years, de la Torre was replaced by Rafael de Izquierdo.
Gomburza's death influenced the novel of Rizal "El Filibusterismo".
Martyrdom.
The execution of Gomburza remains as one of the most controversial issues deeply embedded in Philippine history. However, their tragic end led to the dawn of the Philippine Nationalism in the 19th century, intensified by Dr. Jose P. Rizal, in dedicating his second novel entitled "El Filibusterismo" which condemned the Spanish rule and the elite Filipinos. In his novel, Rizal wrote "To the memory of the priests, Don Mariano Gomez (89 years old), Don Jose Burgos (40 years old), and Don Jacinto Zamora (55 years old). Executed in Bagumbayan Field on 25th of February, 1897. The church, by refusing to degrade you, has placed in doubt the crime that has been imputed to you; the government, by surrounding your trials with mystery and shadows causes the belief that there was some error, committed in fatal moments; and all the Philippines, by worshiping your memory and calling you martyrs, in no sense recognizes your capability. In so far, therefore, as your complicity in the Cavite Mutiny is not clearly proved, as you may or may not have been patriots, and as you may or may not cherish sentiments for justice and for liberty, I have the right to dedicate my work to you as victims of the evil which I undertake in combat." It must be noted, however, that Rizal's account was erroneous in detail as the execution took place on 17 February 1872, not on 28 February 1872, as Rizal mistakenly mentions. Additionally, the ages of the priests were listed down inaccurately. At the time of the execution, Gomez was 72 years old, Burgos was 35 years old, and Zamora was 36 years old.
Their deaths were facilitated in a public execution at Bagumbayan (Luzon) using a garrote due to false accusations charged against them by Spanish authorities. Their alleged crimes included treason and sedition for being the supposed masterminds of the insurrection of Indios (native Filipinos) working in the Cavite arsenal. Furthermore, according to the Spanish military tribunal, they were believed to have been a part of a clandestine movement aimed to overthrow the Spanish government, making them a threat to the Spanish Clergy. The execution has since been labeled the Terror of 1872, and is recognized as a pivotal event contributing to the later Philippine Revolution from 1896 to 1898.
Historical accounts.
The Execution was documented by a Spanish historian named Jose Montero y Vidal who wrote a book entitled Historia General de Filipinas that centers on a Spaniard's perspective of the Cavite Mutiny. The inclusion of biased story-telling of the reasons for the execution of Gomburza later gained widespread criticisms.
Vidal's account was corroborated by the then Governor-General Rafael Izquierdo y Gutiérrez. In his report, he narrated that the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the workers of Cavite arsenals caused the "revolution". He also blamed the media, specifically the Spanish press, regardless of democratic, liberal or republican affiliation, for the circulation of unrestrained media. The latter is said to have featured propaganda such as overthrowing a secular throne, which allegedly inspired the Indios (native Filipinos) to organize the mutiny. General Izquierdo also mentioned the native clergy being a part of the rebels who were against the Spanish friars. The clergy supposedly wanted to end the hold of Spain over the Philippines in order to elect a new "hari" who would rule the land and named Fathers Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora to be the ones responsible. The accounts of these two Spaniards supported one another, thus pointing to a planned conspiracy among educated leaders, mestizos, abogadillos, Manila and Cavite residents, and native clergy. Furthermore, on 20 June 1872, the feast of the Virgin Loreto was celebrated in the district of Sampaloc, involving a fireworks display as a normal tradition. However, according to Izquierdo and Vidal, the fireworks mislead those in Cavite, causing them to attack Spanish officers, fulfilling republican wishes to eradicate the Spanish presence. There was also a mass murder of friars, which made the arrest of Gomburza legal. Through a quick court trial, they were sentenced to death by strangulation.
However, speculate arise with their swift end that stirred the public, with some of the controversies published by Philippine News Agency. The reports stated that the Spanish prosecutors bribed a witness to testify against the three priests who were charged with sedition and treason, which led to their death by garrote. Moreover, according to Edmund Plauchut, as quoted by Jaime Veneracion, late on the night of 15 February 1872, the three priests were found guilty of treason as instigators of mutiny in the Cavite Navy-yard and were sentenced to death by Spanish Court martial. The judgement of the court was read to the priest in Fort Santiago the next morning, and they were told that they would be executed the following day (17 February 1872). After they heard the sentence, Burgos broke into sobs, Zamora lost his mind and never recovered it, and only Gomez listened impassively.
Almost forty thousand of Filipinos, who were at different places surrounding the platform, witnessed the execution of the Filipino priest and saw Saldua (the artilleryman who testified for the conviction of the priest). When Gomez's confessor, a Recollect friar, exhorted him loudly to accept his fate, he replied: “Father, I know that not a leaf falls to the ground but by the will of God. Since He wills that I should die here, His holy will be done.”
Nonetheless, Dr. Trinidad Hermenigildo Pardo de Tavera, a Filipino scholar and researcher, informed the world of the Filipino side of the controversy. According to him, it was a mere mutiny by the laborers of the cavite arsenal for their dissatisfaction from the abolition of their privileges due to the orders of General Izquierdo on 20 January 1872. About 200 men, including soldiers, laborers, and residents of Cavite, headed by Sergeant Lamadrid, assassinated all Spanish officers in sight, including the commanding officer. But then, Gen. Izquierdo, along with the friars, exaggerated the event to alarm the Spanish Government in order to delay installing reforms for the native Filipinos. Such reforms included the establishment of a school of arts and trades, which aimed to improve the education of Filipinos but would mean that the friars would lose their power in the government. Gen. Izquierdo took advantage of the event to instill fear in the minds of native Filipinos. Unfortunately, the Spanish Government in Spain relied on the report of Gen. Izquierdo and made no more attempts to investigate the issue. They believed that the said movement was indeed a big and well planned conspiracy to dissolute the Spanish Sovereignty in the Philippines.
Cavite mutiny.
The so-called Cavite Mutiny of workers in the arsenal of the naval shipyard over a pay reduction produced a witness willing to implicate the three priests, each of whom were summarily tried and sentenced to death by garrote on 17 February 1872. The bodies of the three priests were buried in a common, unmarked grave in the Paco Cemetery, in keeping with the practice of burying enemies of the state. Notably, in the archives of Spain, there is no record of how Izquierdo, a liberal, could have been influenced to authorize these executions. Gregorio Meliton Martinez, the Archbishop of Manila, refused to defrock the priests, as they did not break any canon law. He ordered the bells of every church to be rung in honor of the executed priests. The aftermath of the investigation produced scores of suspects, most of whom were exiled to Guam in the Marianas.
Recovery of remains.
In 1998, the remains, believed to belong to the trio, were discovered at the Paco Park Cemetery by the Manila City Engineers Office.


Ratchasakun

Ratchasakun () refers to the surnames indicating royal descent from a Thai monarch of the Chakri Dynasty, first established in 1912 after King Rama VI enacted a series of laws granting surnames to the Thai people, with the laws expressly stating that all Thai citizens must have a "surname" indicating who they are related to, or whom they are descended from with those who are direct members of the royal bloodlines to be called "ratchasakun", those who have marital ties to the royal family to be referred to as "ratchanikun" (ราชนิกุล), and those descended from a Chakri Front Palace to be called "bowon ratchasakun" (บวรราชสกุล).
Ratchatrakul.
Ratchatrakul (ราชตระกูล) are the royal houses which are descended directly from the siblings of King Rama I .
Ratchasakun.
Ratchasakun (ราชสกุล) refers to those who are directly descended from a Thai monarch. This refers to those not of the immediate royal family, meaning those of the rank of Serene Highness (Mom Chao) or below. Untitled ratchasakun or spouses of ratchasakun shall take the suffix of Na Ayudhya (modern alternatives: Na Ayudhaya/Na Ayutthaya) behind the surname as well, to signify royal heritage.
Royal Houses descended from Rama IV.
Gaganānga: No surviving male descendants at the time of granting.
Navavongsa: Not counted by Rama VI in his specific order, but granted as the 226th surname.
Supratishtha: Not counted by Rama VI in his specific order, granted as the 1403rd surname.
Sources.
This is a direct translation of the Thai language Wikipedia page.


Arsames II

Arsames II was the King of Sophene, a province of the Roman Empire and ancient Armenian, who offered asylum to Antiochus Hierax. Prince Cyril Toumanoff considers Arsames II to be the same person as Arsames I.


Kesar Ordin

Kesar Filippovich Ordin (1835—1892) was a 19th-century Russian mathematician and historian.
He was a graduate in mathematics of St. Petersburg University and author of a number of articles on Finland, opposing Finnish separatism.
Ordin is perhaps most known of his work in which he tried to disprove the claims published by Finnish (also part of Russia at that time) Leo Mechelin about the 1809 Diet of Porvoo. Whereas Mechelin thought that Finland and Russia had made a treaty which resulted the two countries to form a so-called "permanent union", Ordin's version was that Finland had simply been merged to the motherland.


Mausoleum of Amir Khamza Khasti Podshoh

The Mausoleum of Amir Khamza Khasti Podshoh is located in the Sughd province of northern Tajikistan.
Site Description.
Built on the grave of a saint, the mausoleum is a unique testament to Islamic Central Asian architecture. The Middle Ages period structure includes intricately carved ceilings, Koranic inscriptions, and mud-brick construction.
World Heritage Status.
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on November 9, 1999 in the Cultural category.
References.
Mausoleum of "Amir Khamza Khasti Podshoh" - UNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved 2009-03-04.


Sara bint Ahmed Al Sudairi

Sara bint Ahmed Al Sudairi ( "Sara bint Aḥmed Al Sudairī"; died 1910) was a Saudi royal. She was a member of the Al Sudairi family and the wife of Abdul Rahman bin Faisal who was the last ruler of the Second Saudi State. Sara was the mother of King Abdulaziz or Ibn Saud who was the founder of Saudi Arabia.
Biography.
Sara bint Ahmed was a member of the Al Sudairi family who are part of the Dawasir tribe settled in Al Ghat that is an oasis town located in central Arabia nearly 250 kilometers northwest of Riyadh.
Her mother was Hessa bint Muhanna bin Saleh Al Nuwairan. The father of Sara was Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Turki bin Suleiman Al Sudairi who was nicknamed Ahmed Al Kabeer (The Great). He was assigned by Faisal bin Turki, the ruler of the Second Saudi State, to different regions as an administrator, including Al Ahsa where Sara was born. He also served in Al Ghat and Buraimi, and died in 1860. Sara's uncle, Abdullah bin Muhammad, also served as the governor of Al Ahsa under Faisal bin Turki.
Sara had six brothers, Muhammad, Turki, Abdul Mohsen, Abdulaziz, Saad, and Abdul Rahman, and two sisters, Falwa and Noura. Falwa married Muhammad bin Faisal bin Turki and Noura was the spouse of Jiluwi bin Turki bin Abdullah. Noura and Jiluwi were the paternal grandparents of Al Jawhara bint Musaed who was the mother of King Khalid and Prince Muhammad.
Sara's first husband, Abdullah bin Hamad bin Abdul Jabbar, died, and they did not have any child. Then she married to Abdul Rahman bin Faisal. Her children from this second marriage were Faisal, Noura, Abdulaziz, Bazza, Haya and Saad. She accompanied her husband and children when they were forced to leave Riyadh.
Sara was a tall woman like her son, Abdulaziz. She died in Riyadh in the late 1910. However, there is another report giving her death year as 1908. She was buried in Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh.


Manthal Buddha Rock

Manthal Buddha Rock () is a large granite rock on which picture of Buddha has engraved which probably dates back to 8 century. This rock is located in Manthal village of Skardu Town, in Pakistan. Buddha Rock is one of the most important relics of Buddhism in Skardu. It is about 3 kilometers from Sadpara Road. Sadpara road will lead to Satpara Lake.
History.
Before arrival of Islam in the region of Gilgit-Baltistan, the majority of the people were Buddhist and they had engraved the Buddha on many rock pieces. This Buddha carving was not known to the world until the beginning of the 20th century due to its remote location. In 1906 the Scottish traveller Ella Christie wrote a book on her journey to Western Tibet and featured the carving in her book which gave it international attention. Since then the government has taken many steps to preserve this monument and it is visited by tourists who visit the Skardu city.


Marthand Rao Holkar

Maharajadhiraj Raja Rajeshwar Sawai Shri Marthand Rao Holkar VIII Bahadur or Marthand Rao Holkar (1830–1849) belonging to the Holkar dynasty of the Marathas was briefly the Maharaja of Indore (Holkar State) (1833–1834).
He was born in 1830, the eldest son of Shrimant Sardar Bapu Sahib Holkar. He was adopted in October 1833 by Gautama Bai Holkar and Krishna Bai Holkar, who were, respectively, the widow and mother of the deceased Maharaja Malhar Rao Holkar III.
Gaddi.
Marthand Rao was installed on the throne ("gaddi") at Indore on 17 January 1834. The adoption, however, was not acceptable to the people, who regarded it as Gautama Bai's device for retaining power. The strong opposition of the public on 2 February 1834, led to the succession of Hari Rao Holkar. Subsequently, Marthand Rao was sent to the Deccan Plateau, where he was confined until his death at Poona on 2 June 1849.


Azai Sukemasa

 built Odani Castle for the Azai clan, including his son Azai Hisamasa, to rule. Was said to be talented in command of troops


Daimyo

 were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the "shōgun" and nominally to the emperor and the kuge. In the term, means "large", and "myō" stands for , meaning "private land".
From the "shugo" of the Muromachi period through the Sengoku to the daimyo of the Edo period, the rank had a long and varied history. The backgrounds of daimyo also varied considerably; while some daimyo clans, notably the Mōri, Shimazu and Hosokawa, were cadet branches of the Imperial family or were descended from the "kuge", other daimyo were promoted from the ranks of the samurai, notably during the Edo period.
Daimyo often hired samurai to guard their land, and they paid the samurai in land or food as relatively few could afford to pay samurai in money. The daimyo era ended soon after the Meiji Restoration with the adoption of the prefecture system in 1871.
"Shugo-daimyo".
The were the first group of men to hold the title daimyo. They arose from among the "shugo" during the Muromachi period. The "shugo-daimyo" held not only military and police powers, but also economic power within a province. They accumulated these powers throughout the first decades of the Muromachi period.
Major "shugo-daimyo" came from the Shiba, Hatakeyama, and Hosokawa clans, as well as the tozama clans of Yamana, Ōuchi, Takeda and Akamatsu. The greatest ruled multiple provinces.
The Ashikaga shogunate required the "shugo-daimyo" to reside in Kyoto, so they appointed relatives or retainers, called "shugodai", to represent them in their home provinces. Eventually some of these in turn came to reside in Kyoto, appointing deputies in the provinces.
The Ōnin War was a major uprising in which "shugo-daimyo" fought each other. During this and other wars of the time, "kuni ikki", or provincial uprisings, took place as locally powerful warriors sought independence from the "shugo-daimyo". The deputies of the "shugo-daimyo", living in the provinces, seized the opportunity to strengthen their position. At the end of the fifteenth century, those "shugo-daimyo" who succeeded remained in power. Those who had failed to exert control over their deputies fell from power and were replaced by a new class, the "sengoku-daimyo", who arose from the ranks of the "shugodai" and "jizamurai".
"Sengoku-daimyo".
Among the were many who had been "shugo-daimyo", such as the Satake, Imagawa, Takeda, Toki, Rokkaku, Ōuchi, and Shimazu. New to the ranks of the daimyo were the Asakura, Amago, Nagao, Miyoshi, Chōsokabe, Hatano, and Oda. These came from the ranks of the "shugodai" and their deputies. Additional "sengoku-daimyo" such as the Mōri, Tamura, and Ryūzōji arose from the "jizamurai". The lower officials of the shogunate and rōnin (Late Hōjō, Saitō), provincial officials (Kitabatake), and "kuge" (Tosa Ichijō) also gave rise to "sengoku-daimyo".
Edo period.
The Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 marked the beginning of the Edo period. "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu reorganized roughly 200 daimyo and their territories into "han," which were assessed by rice production. Those heading "han" assessed at 10,000 "koku" (50,000 bushels) or more were considered daimyo. Ieyasu also categorized the daimyo according to their relation to the ruling Tokugawa family: the "shinpan" were related to the Tokugawa; the "fudai" had been vassals of the Tokugawa or allies in battle; and the "tozama" had not allied with the Tokugawa before the battle (did not necessarily fight against the Tokugawa).
The "shinpan" were collaterals of Ieyasu, such as the Matsudaira, or descendants of Ieyasu other than in the main line of succession. Several "shinpan", including the Tokugawa of Owari (Nagoya), Kii (Wakayama), and Mito, as well as the Matsudaira of Fukui and Aizu, held large "han".
A few "fudai daimyo", such as the Ii of Hikone, held large "han," but many were small. The shogunate placed many "fudai" at strategic locations to guard the trade routes and the approaches to Edo. Also, many "fudai daimyo" took positions in the Edo shogunate, some rising to the position of "rōjū." The fact that "fudai daimyo" could hold government positions, while "tozama" in general could not, was a main difference between the two.
"Tozama daimyo" held mostly large fiefs far away from the capital, with e.g. the Kaga "han" of Ishikawa Prefecture, headed by the Maeda clan, assessed at 1,000,000 "koku". Other famous "tozama" clans included the Mori of Chōshū, the Shimazu of Satsuma, the Date of Sendai, the Uesugi of Yonezawa, and the Hachisuka of Awa. Initially, the Tokugawa regarded them as potentially rebellious, but for most of the Edo period, marriages between the Tokugawa and the "tozama", as well as control policies such as "sankin-kōtai", resulted in peaceful relations.
Daimyo were required to maintain residences in Edo as well as their fiefs, and to move periodically between Edo and their fiefs, typically spending alternate years in each place, in a practice called "sankin-kōtai".
After the Meiji Restoration.
In 1869, the year after the Meiji Restoration, the daimyo, together with the "kuge," formed a new aristocracy, the "kazoku". In 1871, the han were abolished, and prefectures were established. In this year, around 200 daimyo returned their titles to the emperor, who consolidated their han into 75 prefectures. Their military forces were also demobilized, with the daimyo and their samurai followers pensioned into retirement. The move to abolish the feudal domains effectively ended the daimyo era in Japan. This was effectively carried out through the financial collapse of the feudal-domain governments, hampering their capability for resistance.
In the wake of the changes, many daimyo remained in control of their lands, being appointed as prefectural governors; however, they were soon relieved of this duty and called en masse to Tokyo, thereby cutting off any independent base of power from which to potentially rebel. Despite this, members of former daimyo families remained prominent in government and society, and in some cases continue to remain prominent to the present day. For example, Morihiro Hosokawa, the former Prime Minister of Japan, is a descendant of the daimyo of Kumamoto.


Mauk Moruk

Mauk Moruk, born Paulino Gama, (22 June 1955 - 8 August 2015) was an East Timorese former Falintil guerrilla commander, opposition figure, and rebel leader of the Maubere Revolutionary Council (KRM). Moruk was a critic of the policies of the independent government of East Timor, advocating that the government do more to alleviate widespread unemployment and poverty in the country. Moruk was particularly critical of the policies of former President Xanana Gusmão, who is also a former guerilla leader, during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor.
Moruk was born Paulino Gama in Laga, Portuguese Timor. Moruk's brother is Cornelio Gama, a former FALINTIL commander, former member of the National Parliament, and leader of the National Unity of Timorese Resistance (UNDERTIM) political party since its founding in 2005.
Mauk Moruk was a senior commander in the Falintil, the military wing of the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN) during the war for independence against Indonesia. In 1984, Moruk was one of four Falintil officers who staged an internal coup attempt against the Commander of Falintil, Xanana Gusmão. The coup against Gusmão failed. In the aftermath of the failed coup, Maruk surrendered to Indonesian authorities and eventually went into exile in the Netherlands.
Moruk eventually returned to East Timor from exile in the Netherlands. He founded the Maubere Revolutionary Council (KRM), also called the Revolutionary Council (KR), a paramilitary group. Under Maruk, the KRM sought popular support against the government through grassroots (known as maubere locally) appeals.
In March 2015, Moruk's rebel group, the Maubere Revolutionary Council (KRM), began a series of attacks on police. Members of the KRM attacked a police compound using explosives and guns, in one of the March 2015 attacks, injuring four security personnel.
The East Timorese government launched a military campaign against the KRM in March, announcing that the joint operation to "prevent and suppress criminal actions from illegal groups" in a May 2015 statement. According to the government, a number of KRM members had surrendered as a result.
Mauk Moruk, the head of the KRM, was killed in a joint police and military operation against the group in the suco (village) of Fatulia on Saturday, August 8, 2015. He died at the age of 60. The government of East Timor released a statement on the operation following Moruk's death, stating, "Every effort was made during the operation to avoid this outcome," a government spokesman said in a statement, calling for calm. Regrettably the operation was unable to avoid a confrontation resulting in an exchange of gunfire."
Moruk's death raised concerns that there could be an escalation of unrest in East Timor.


Darian Dam Archaeological Salvage Program

Darian Dam was constructed on the Sirwan River between 2009 and 2015. The Dam is located in the Hawrāmān region of Kurdistan and Kermanshah. The Darian Dam Archeological Salvage Program (DDASP) was planned by Iranian Center for Archaeological Research before flooding the reservoir. This archaeological program, under the general direction of Fereidoun Biglari, has conducted several seasons of archaeological surveys and excavations within the area of the reservoir that led to the discovery of a number of important Paleolithic and more later sites. The Main excavated sites were Dārāi Rockshelter (Middle Paleolithic), Kenācheh Cave (Upper Paleolithic), Ruwār tomb (Iron Age), Sar Cham (Chalcolithic and Iron Age), and Barda Mār (19th century). Except for Ruwar sites, all other excavated sites were flooded in 2015-2016.
The results of these salvage excavations were presented at the First National Congress on Archaeology of Hawraman: Archaeological Salvage Excavations at the Darian Dam Reservoir in May 2018 at Kurdistan University.


Battle of Ali Masjid

The Battle of Ali Masjid, which took place on 21 November 1878, was the opening battle in the Second Anglo-Afghan War between the British forces, under Lieutenant-General Sir Samuel James Browne, and the Afghan forces, under Ghulam Haider Khan. The perceived offence of an Afghan general's refusal to allow a British envoy entrance to the country was used as an excuse to attack the fortress of Ali Masjid, as the opening battle in the war. Despite numerous setbacks, including half the troops getting lost or delayed and missing the battle entirely, the British were lucky that the Afghans abandoned their position overnight.
Context.
Following the 1837 Battle of Jamrud, Dost Muhammad Khan had built the fortress of Ali Masjid to assert his sovereignty over the Khyber region. However, the fortress was captured only two years later by 11,000 troops commanded by Lt. Col. Claude Martin Wade on 26 July 1839.
On 21 September, two months before the battle, British envoy General Neville Chamberlain had tried to enter Kabul, but had been ordered to withdraw by Faiz Muhammad, the commander of Ali Masjid. Britain issued an ultimatum demanding that Sher Ali apologise for the incident.
On 23 October, a group of scouts was sent to reconnoitre the fortress, and assess Afghan defences in preparation for an invasion.
Battle.
Preparation.
The First Brigade had started training for the attack during the summer while they were stationed in the Miree Hills.
At sunset on 20 November 1878 an estimated 1,700 men of the Second Brigade of the Peshawar Valley Field Force began their flank march to assist Browne in his attack on the Ali Masjid fort which guarded the Khyber pass. The darkness created confusion and led to men and animals wandering off, it was 10 pm before the troops all reached Lahore settlement, which was only 5.5 km away from Ali Masjid.
The First Brigade brought an approximated 1,900 men, most of whom were hampered by the puttees they wore in place of gaiters, which tightened around their legs due to the climate and caused leg cramps. This battalion did not reach the Lahore settlement until 6 am on 21 November, just as the first battalion was preparing to leave, nevertheless they did their best to keep up. Colonel Jenkins led the scouts in this brigade.
Due to the heat, insufficient water supplies, and lack of shaded areas, Brigadier-General J. A. Tytler had to call for a halt at Pani Pal. While the men rested Tytler decided to check whether their left flank and rear were in danger. As Jenkins led a party out to scout the hills, a reverberation filled the air which Jenkins claimed was the firing of heavy guns. Tytler decided the best course of action would be if he stayed behind in Pani Pal with some men and Jenkins led the rest onward; that way Tytler was able to defend rear flank of Jenkins' troops should the need arise.
Afghan defence.
The Afghans had 24 cannon. When Browne's troops were first spotted on the Shagai ridge there were already 8 cannon mounted to defend that, the southern face, of the fort; upon the arrival of troops on the Shagai ridge two more cannon were brought out to defend this side. A single gun was placed to protect the fort against an attack from the direction of the Khyber River. Facing the Rotas Heights, five guns were set up by the men of Ali Masjid.
Shooting begins.
Afghan horsemen held the top of the Shagai ridge, so Browne ordered opening skirmish fire at 10 am, which led to a brief return of gunfire from the Afghans before they rode off the ridge, leading the 81st Foot, 14th Sikhs and a battery of mountain artillery to advance to within sight of Ali Masjid. Major. H. B. Pearson led signallers to hold the Sarkai ridge and set up heliographs to communicate with the troops left in Jamrud.
Artillery opened fire at noon, with sources disagreeing which side began the formal hostilities. As the British rushed to bring their own heavy guns up to the ridge, MacPherson's troops opened fire from the right flank of the fortress. Within an hour, the British had both 40 lb and 9 lb cannon replacing their horse artillery, while the Afghans were underequipped with only round shot ammunition, rather than proper shells. Around 2 pm, two British 40 lb shot hit and collapsed the central bastion of the fortress, silencing a "stubborn" Afghan 7 lb gun.
This minor coup led the infantry to begin advancing on the fort. The Third Brigade approached from the right, while the Fourth Brigade approached from the slopes of the left. However, while the Third Brigade had come within "storming distance" of the fortress, operations were ordered suspended at nightfall to wait until the following morning's light. This had a devastating effect on the Third Brigade, who tried to withdraw, but a number of troops did not receive the order and kept advancing without their comrades.
Captain J. G. Maclean took the right of the ridge, and Major Henry Holwell Birch the left with his band of Sikhs from the 27th Bengal Native Infantry which he commanded. They soon found themselves under heavy fire from the Afghans and Maclean fell injured with a shot through his shoulder. Birch and a few men went to carry him to safety but they all were shot and killed. Lt. Thomas Otho Fitzgerald took 15 men from the 27th Punjab and ran forward to help Birch, but was "twice wounded in the rush, was struck for the third time and killed outright", while four of his men were killed and six wounded. In addition to Birch and Fitzgerald, Captain Maclean was wounded, as were four gunners and 20 sepoys.
Finally, as the British were retreating for the night, Jenkins brought his scouts up to the top of the Turhai ridge.
When the British arose in the morning to continue the battle, Lt. J. J. S. Chisholme from the 9th Lancers reported that the Afghans had deserted the fortress during the night. The retreating Afghans left behind approximately 40 wounded men, 21 cannon and food seized upon the British. Unbeknownst to Browne, 300 of the fleeing Afghans had accidentally stumbled upon the First Brigade, who were just arriving in position overnight, and were taken prisoner. Browne had orders not to operate in the country to the south of the Khyber so he was not able to follow the retreating Afghans as they made their way through the Bazar Valley.
Throughout the battle, the British fired 639 artillery rounds, and 11,250 rounds of small arms ammunition. The bodies of the dead British troops were buried in a small cemetery which remains today as a reminder of the battle, while the officers were carried back to Peshawar for burial.
Aftermath.
The British victory meant that the northern approach to Kabul was left virtually undefended by Afghan troops. Browne was able to reach Dakkah with relative ease, and spent the winter camped safely in Jalalabad.
Eight of the native troops fighting with the British were awarded the Indian Order of Merit.
After the battle, Sher Ali still refused to ask the Russians for military assistance, despite their insistence that he should seek terms of surrender from the British.
British Forces Order of Battle.
Lieutenant-General Sir Samuel J. Browne (Overall Command of the Peshawar Valley Field Force)


Calcutta Thesis

Calcutta Thesis is the popular name for the resolution adopted by 2nd Congress of the Communist Party of India held at Kolkata in 1948.
Overview.
The Communist Party of India's second congress at Calcutta on 28 February 1948, the Zhdanov line of insurrection was adopted on the premise that 'free' India was only a "semi-colony of British imperialism". Open call for taking up arms, known as 'Calcutta thesis' and was closely identified with its main proponent and the then General Secretary, B. T. Ranadive. As a result, insurgencies took place in Tripura, Telangana and Travancore.
A new revolutionary mass upsurge—a veritable People's Democratic Revolution—was thus envisaged throwing itself up, just round the corner. It only remained for the party to come forward and take up the leadership of that 'revolution.' The elemental force of postwar mass-upsurge as evidenced by the INA movement, naval mutiny & worker's strikes, the 'Tebhaga' movement etc., had by no means diminished or become exhausted. The masses were thoroughly disillusioned. "Never was there", it was asserted in the Calcutta Thesis, "so much understanding of the main slogans of the democratic movement." Out of the disillusionment of the masses the demand for an alternative Government was bound to arise soon; and it was the duty of the Communist Party to consciously guide the people in fighting for that demand boldly and decisively. The call was therefore given for the formation of a "Democratic Front" based on the alliance of the workers, peasants and the oppressed petty-bourgeoisie under the leadership of the working class and the communist Party. This "Democratic Front" was to form the basis of the new state-power of the toiling people and the new government after the overthrow of the present bureaucratic system.
Armed Resistance.
Decked with properly couched official People's Democratic terminology of international Stalinism, a call was thus given in effect for the immediate launching of revolutionary mass struggles against the Congress Governments all over the country. Under the impact of the crisis and as the result of growing disillusionment amongst the masses with the Congress Government "larger and larger sections of masses will be set in motion" it was confidently hoped. The party rank and file were, therefore, straight away ordered to throw themselves at the head of this imaginary mass upsurge. We need hardly enter into the detailed history of these "revolutionary" mass-actions under the leadership of the Communist Party and their outcomes. Working class and peasant detachments in isolated areas, widely separated from each other, were thrown into the firing line to face rifle and machine-gun bullets of the armed forces of the Government.
The armed rising of the peasants in the Telangana area of Hyderabad against feudal Jagirdars there, were held up as a sort of fore-runner of the coming all-national uprising. The peculiar correlationship of forces in the unsettled conditions of Hyderabad after 'transfer of power' and the withdrawal of British Government from the formal position of suzerainty over the Native States, were not taken into account. The tussle between the feudal Nizam Government and the Central Government of the Indian Union under the national bourgeois leadership of the Congress, the democratic struggle of the Hyderabad people against the absolutism of Nizam, the struggle of the Communal Fascist Razakars both against the democratic, State-people's movement and against any encroachment of the Nizam's dominions by the Indian Union, and the simultaneous anti-Deshmukh (as the big feudal lords were called in this area) struggle of the Telangana peasants—all these going on simultaneously, often merging, often cutting across each other, created a general confusion which enabled the peasant revolt in the outlying Telangana area to take on an armed character with comparative ease than might be possible elsewhere. But without any reference to the specific features of the Telangana movement and to the feasibility of creating favourable conditions for armed insurrection elsewhere in the country outside Telangana, the entire party was called upon by the Party leadership to go the "Telangana way."


Yajvapala dynasty

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The Yajvapala (IAST: Yajvapāla) dynasty ruled parts of central India during the 13th century CE. Their capital was located at Nalapura (present-day Narwar in Shivpuri district). They are also known as "Jajapella" or "Jajpella". The Yajvapalas carved out a kingdom in northern Madhya Pradesh during the first half of the 13th century, and successfully resisted invasions by the Chandelas and the Delhi Sultanate over the next few decades. It is not certain how their rule ended, but they probably fell to the Delhi Sultanate by the end of the century.
History.
A 1339 VS (c. 1282 CE) Yajvapala inscription, issued during the reign of Gopala, names the dynasty's progenitor as Jayapala (called Jajapella in vernacular language). It names the dynasty's place of origin as Ratnagiri (unidentified), and attributes the rise of Jayapala to the blessings of the goddess Maharunda (probably a family deity).
The next known member of the family is Ya[pa]ramadi-raja, whose son Chahadadeva conquered the Narwar area. Chahadadeva is mentioned as Chahar-i-Ajari in the writings of the Delhi Sultanate writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani. The Delhi Sultan Iltutmish had appointed Nusrat al-Din Taisi (Tayasi) as the governor of Gwalior region. In 1235 CE, Nusrat al-Din led an expedition against the neighbouring Chandela kingdom. While he was returning to Gwalior, Chahadadeva ambushed his army. According to Minhaj-i-Siraj, Taisi's army managed to defend itself with considerable difficulty. In 1251, the Sultanate general Balban defeated Chahadadeva during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, but he could not capture Narwar.
Chahadadeva was succeeded by Asalladeva. The next ruler Gopaladeva faced an invasion from the Chandela king Viravarman in 1281-82 CE (1338 VS). The Bangla and Narwar inscriptions of the Yajvapalas claim that Gopala defeated Viravarman. According to the Bangla inscription, a battle was fought on the banks of the Valuva river (near modern Baruwa near Narwar) on 28 March 1281 CE (assuming Karttikadi year). The Narwar inscription states that Gopala defeated Viravarman and king Lakshmana of Chandragiri on the banks of the Sikata river. However, the Dahi copper-plate inscription of the Chandelas claims that the Chandela general Mallaya defeated the lord of Nalapura (that is, Gopala). It is possible that the Chandelas achieved some initial successes, but ultimately, they were forced to retreat.
The last known ruler of the dynasty is Ganapatideva. It is known that the Yajvapalas ruled Narwar until 1298 CE, but the end of the dynasty is not certain. Historians generally assume that the Yajvapalas fell to an invasion by the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji.
Rulers.
Following rulers of the dynasty are attested by inscriptions and coins:


Meherbanu Khanam

Meherbanu Khanam (1885 – 3 October 1925) was a Bengali artist and noblewoman. She was the daughter of Nawab Ahsanullah Khwaja and his wife Nawab Begum Kamrunnesa.
Early life.
Khanam was born on 1885 in Ahsan Manzil, Dhaka, Bengal Presidency, British Raj to the Dhaka Nawab family. Her father was the Nawab of Dhaka Khwaja Ahsanullah and her brother was Nawab Khwaja Salimullah was the next Nawab of Dhaka. She was home schooled like most nobility in Bengal. In 1902 she was married to Khwaja Mohammad Azam.
Career.
Khanam send her paintings to The Moslem Bharat, a monthly magazine, where it was seen by Kazi Nazrul Islam, the future national poet of Bangladesh. Kazi Nazrul Islam being inspired by the painting wrote a poem, Kheyaparer Tarani. The paintings was published by the magazine along with the poem in the July–August 1920 edition. It was the first time a painting of a Bengali woman was published. Khanam opened Kamrunnessa Girls' High School in Dhaka with her sisters Akhtarbanu and Paribanu. The school was named after her mother. She patronized Jadu, a monthly Urdu magazine.
Death.
Khanam died on 3 October 1925 in Dhaka, East Bengal, British Raj.


Two domes of Kukherd

The Two domes of Kukherd in Kukherd District (from , in ), date back from the time of the Qajar dynasty (1785–1925). The tombs were discovered in 1145 Islamic calendar.
The tombs have, because of the beauty of their decoration, been a major attraction for visitors of (Kukherd) city in and the capital of Kukherd District, in Bastak County, Hormozgan Province,Southern Iran .
Geography.
The " Two domes of Kukherd " The Tomb and ruins are located in the Kukherd District (), in Hormozgan Province. They are under the administration of the city of Kukherd in Bastak County.
History.
The Two domes of Kukherd In (dehestan): Kukherd Rural District southern Iran, situated to the west of the Kukherd city. This Tomb was built between 1145 and 1151, during the Qajar period.


Cherchen Man

Cherchen Man or Chärchän Man or Ur-David is the modern name given to a mummy found in the town Cherchen, located in current Xinjiang region of China. The mummy is a member of the group known as Tarim mummies. His naturally-mummified remains were discovered in "Tomb 2" at the Zaghunluq cemetery, near the town of Qiemo (Chärchän) in the Taklamakan Desert of north-west China.
Like the rest of the Tarim Mummies, he is famous for European-like facial features and clothing.
It is believed that the Cherchen man like the other Tarim mummies are evidence of the Afanasievo culture's descent from the Indo-European language speakers who migrated into the Russian steppes around 3300 BCE.
Other such remains have also been recovered at sites throughout the Tarim basin, including Qäwrighul, Yanghai, Shengjindian, Shanpula (Sampul), and Qizilchoqa.
Description.
The mummy is an adult male who is believed to have died around 1000 BCE and is likely to have been aged around fifty years at the time of his death.
His height is estimated at 176–178 cm. His hair was "reddish brown flecked with grey, framing high cheekbones", he had an "aquiline" "long nose, full lips and a ginger beard", and was wearing "a red twill tunic" and leggings with a pattern resembling "tartan". Yellow and purple spiral and sun patterns on the mummies face have been misidentified as tattoos in some sources; they are actually an ochre paint.
The name "Cherchen Man" was popularized by a musician from the same region.
Mummification.
Like other mummies from the Tarim, Cherchen Man was buried in a tomb made of mud bricks topped with reeds and brush. The Cherchen man and the other female mummy were placed on multiple branches, with small mats underneath them that reduced the moisture in the tomb, adding to their preservation. The Cherchen man also appears to have a had a piece of wood holding his legs up in the bent position which would have increased the amount of air circulation, slowing the rate of decomposition.
The Cherchen man and his companions were natural mummies meaning that unlike the well known Egyptian mummies, they became mummies from exposure to their ambient environment, as opposed to intentional human practices.


Baba-Dervish settlement

Baba-Dervish (azərb. Baba-Dərviş) is an ancient settlement in the western part of Gazakh district in Azerbaijan, on the left bank of the Agstafachay river Baba-dervish near the Khanlyglar village. Archaeological excavations conducted from 1958 to 1966 revealed three cultural layers here. This settlement is included in the list of archaeological monuments of world significance by the government of Azerbaijan.
As a rule, the Baba-Dervish settlement consists of a series of 5 hills. According to the results of research conducted  by the Institute of History, this settlement existed at the beginning of the III Millennium BC.
Archaeological excavations.
In 1958, the Gazakh archaeological expedition of the Institute of History started to carry out research in the area Baba-Dervish settlement for the first time. In the autumn of 1960, the excavation area was 60 sq.m; in 1961–1962 – 600 sq.m.
Archaeological artefacts found in 1965 were handed over to the Archaeological fund for permanent protection in 1977 (Act Number 1-10; 77–133).
As a result of archaeological excavations, there were several residential buildings belonging to the Khojaly-Gadabay archaeological culture of the 12th-7th centuries BC discovered on the territory of the settlement.
Moreover, there were human and animal figures, the remains of wheels made of clay, and a large quantity of ceramic items dating from 2300 to 2200 BC found in this area.
In 1966 there was a catacomb-type grave discovered here. There were clay pots, an iron knife, part of a wooden loom, bronze needles and et cetera along with the corpse in the grave.
Cultural layers.
The lower cultural layer dates back to the V Millennium BC. There were round semi-underground houses, grain-grinding stones, needle, awl, bones of various animals, etc. were found in this layer during the archaeological excavations.
There were round houses built of raw brick, pottery with geometric patterns and patterns in the shape of birds, mangals, animal figures, hearths for melting metal, the remains of barley and wheat, significant construction remains, pieces of plaster etc found in the middle layer which dates back to the III Millennium BC.
Furthermore, there was a stone stele embroidered with a double spiral found in the central part of the excavation area. There is a possibility that this stele used to be a part of a single complex with a ritual hearth which played the role of a sanctuary.
The upper layer dates from the end of the II to the beginning of the I Millennium BC and is represented by quadrangular houses, household wells and jugs, various household utensils, clay seals, mangals, bronze arrowheads, bull sculptures, iron objects, etc.
The bottom layer is represented by monuments of Shulaveri-Samu culture, medium one — Kura-Araxes culture and the upper one — Khojaly-Gadabay culture. The results of archaeological excavations have shown that the population of the Baba-Dervish settlement was engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture, pottery, sewing, and metalworking.


Sobraon

Sobraon is a village in Punjab, India. It is located west to Harike village in Tarn Taran district. The Sutlej river is to the south of this village. The village is located at 31°10'39N 74°51'10E with an altitude of 192 metres (633 feet).
In history.
It is famous for being the site of the Battle of Sobraon.


Tshering Pem

Queen Mother Tshering Pem (born 22 December 1957) is one of the four wives and queens of Bhutanese king Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who ruled until his abdication in 2006. She is the Queen Mother (Gyalyum Kude, literally meaning "Queen Mother") of Bhutan.
Biography.
Her father, "Yab Dasho" Ugyen Dorji (1925–2019), was the Founder and Proprietor of Ugyen Academy (03/04/2002). Her mother is "Yum" Thuiji Zam (b. 1932).
She was educated at St. Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, and St. Helen's School, Kurseong, India.
Children.
She had, with the former king, the following children:


Ina clan

 was a Japanese samurai family which descended from Minamoto no Tsunemoto (894-961) of the Seiwa-Genji.
History.
The original surname of the family was "Arakawa", but the clan began calling itself "Ina" when it moved to the Ina region in Shinano Province in modern-day Nagano Prefecture. This move was ordered by the Ashikaga shogunate in the 15th century.
In 1590, Ina Tadatsugu was established in Musashi Province at Komoro Domain with 13,000 "koku" revenues. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the "han" was increased to 20,000 "koku". However, the clan was dispossessed in 1613 because of Ina Tadamasa's part in a plot organized by Okubo Nagayasu.
The clan were "hatamoto" until the Meiji period.


Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee

Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali: যোগেশ চন্দ্র চ্যাটার্জি) (1895 – 2 April 1960) was an Indian freedom fighter, revolutionary and member of Rajya Sabha.
Short biography.
Jogesh Chandra became a member of the Anushilan Samiti. He was one of the founder members of Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (in 1924) that later became Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. He was arrested several times for revolutionary activities. He was tried in the Kakori conspiracy case in 1926 and received rigorous imprisonment for life.
He wrote two books 1) Indian Revolutionaries In Conference 2) In Search Of Freedom (as biography)
In 1937, Jogesh Chandra joined Congress Socialist party but left it very shortly and formed a new party in 1940 with the name of "Revolutionary Socialist Party" of which he remained the General Secretary from 1940 to 1953. He was the Vice-President of United Trades Union Congress (the trade union wing of RSP) from 1949 to 1953 and United Socialist Organisation for the year 1949 only.
After independence, however, he returned to the Congress and became a member of the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh in 1956 and remained its member till his death on 2 April 1960.


Maddad Khan Tanoli

Maddad Khan Tanoli was the younger brother of Mir Painde Khan. He played a considerable part in fighting with Sikh empire and Hindu Jats with his brother Painde khan. His brother Painde khan gifted him land as Jagirdar.
His one of descendant Atta Muhammad Khan Tanoli who was the grandson of Abdullah Khan Tanoli make a princely state as the name of Phulra in 1919. One of his grandson Safiullah khan Tanoli who was the son of Hussain Khan Tanoli played a ministry role in Amb state as with Nawab Khan zaman Khan Tanoli and then his successor Muhammad Farid Khan Tanoli.


Abhiyaza

Abhiyaza ( ; d. 825 BCE) was the legendary founder of the Kingdom of Tagaung, and that of Burmese monarchy, according to the 19th century chronicle "Hmannan Yazawin". He reportedly belonged to the same Sakya clan of the Buddha. However, prior Burmese chronicles down to the 18th century trace the origin of the monarchy to another legendary figure Pyusawhti, a descendant of a solar spirit and a dragon princess. Scholars view the Abhiyaza story as an attempt by the chroniclers of "Hmannan" to move away from then prevailing pre-Buddhist origin narrative of the monarchy.
Legend.
According to "Hmannan", the origins of the Burmese monarchy trace back to the 9th century BCE India, more than three centuries before the Buddha was born. Abhiyaza (Abhiraja) was a prince of an ancient kingdom of Kosala () in present-day northern India. He belonged to the Sakya clan ()—the clan of the Buddha—and descended from the first Buddhist king Maha Sammata () who reigned ages ago. (In Buddhist tradition, Gautama Buddha was only the latest in a line of 28 Buddhas.) Indeed, Prince Abhiyaza was lord of the Kapilavastu () region of Kosala—the very birthplace of the historical Buddha three centuries later.
Around the mid-9th century BCE, Kosala went to war with the neighboring kingdom of Panchala (). The cause of war was that the king of Panchala had asked the king of Kosala for his daughter's hand in marriage, and was rudely refused. The Panchala king conquered the Kosala kingdom, and the ruling clan of Kosala dispersed in three directions. One of them was Abhiyaza who with a group of his loyal followers trekked a long mountainous route all the way to present-day northern Burma, and founded a kingdom at Tagaung in 850 BCE.
"Hmannan" does not claim that he had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the first king. Abhiyaza had two sons.
When he died, the elder son Kanyaza Gyi () ventured south, and founded his own kingdom at Arakan in 825 BCE. The younger son Kanyaza Nge () succeeded his father, and was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings. Some three and a half centuries later, in 483 BCE, scions of Tagaung founded yet another kingdom much farther down the Irrawaddy at Sri Ksetra, near modern Pyay (Prome). Sri Ksetra lasted nearly six centuries, and was succeeded in turn by the kingdom of Pagan. "Hmannan" continues that around 107 CE, Thamoddarit (), nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city of Pagan (Bagan) (formally, Arimaddana-pura (), lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651 years after his death. Thamoddarit was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167 CE.
"Hmannan's" narrative then merge with those of prior chronicles, and continues that a dynasty of kings followed Pyusawhti until the historical king Anawrahta ascended the throne in 1017 CE [sic]. (Anawrahta's inscriptionally verified date of accession is 1044 CE.)
Historicity and significance.
Rise of the legend.
The Abhiyaza story first appeared in "Hmannan Yazawin" (the Glass Palace Chronicle), completed in 1832. The Burmese chronicles down to the early 18th century, including "Maha Yazawin" (the Great Chronicle) of 1724, upon which Hmannan is heavily based, do not mention Abhiyaza. Instead, the pre-"Hmannan" origin story of the Burmese monarchy speaks of one Pyusawhti, son of a solar spirit and a dragon princess, who later founded the Pagan Dynasty.
Historians trace the rise of Abhiyaza story to the 1770s, part of the early Konbaung kings' efforts to promote a more orthodox version of Theravada Buddhism. The trend gained ground under King Bodawpaya (r. 1782–1819) who, like his father Alaungpaya, believed that he was the next Buddha, Maitreya. Though the king would later reluctantly gave up his claim and acceded to his late father's claim, his purification drive devalued "local sources of sanctity" in favor of "universal textual forms endorsed by the crown and the monkhood", and "outlawed animal sacrifices atop Mt. Popa and other sacred sites while female and transvestite shamans lost status." In the reign of his successor Bagyidaw in 1832, the pre-Buddhist origin story of Pyusawhti was officially superseded with the Abhiyaza story's "claims of royal descent from the clan of Gotama Buddha and thence the first Buddhist king of the world, Maha Sammata".
The Abhiyaza story was part of a region-wide phenomenon where, in addition to the Burmese Monarchs, various Buddhist states from as far afield as Dali Kingdom (present-day Yunnan) to Lan Na (Chiang Mai) and Nan (present-day northern Thailand) linked their royalty to the Buddha or the Buddhist Emperor Asoka. Various Shan chronicles, like the "Hmannan", also claim their "sawbwas"' descent from the Buddha. (It is not clear when the similar linkages first appeared in Dali or Lan Na chronicles.)
Significance.
The story of Abhiyaza had a devastating effect on the credibility of the Burmese chronicles in general, and the early history narratives in particular during the British colonial period. European scholars of the era outright dismissed the chronicle tradition of early Burmese history as "copies of Indian legends taken from Sanskrit or Pali originals". They highly doubted the antiquity of the chronicle tradition and dismissed the possibility that any sort of civilization in Burma could be much older than 500 CE. (Phayre 1883) puts Abhiyaza and his Tagaung dynasty under the List of Legendary Kings. (Harvey 1925) does not even include Abhiyaza and the Tagaung line in his list of monarchs; Harvey's list starts with the older origin story: Pyusawhti. One prominent historian on Burma, Than Tun, lamented the inclusion of the legend into the official chronicle in 1832 and bluntly criticized the chroniclers for giving colonial-era historians, who he felt had written heavily biased histories, ammunition to denigrate Burmese history.
Modern research has rehabilitated the credibility of the chronicles' early history to a degree. The Abhiyaza myth notwithstanding, recent research does indicate that many of the places mentioned in the royal records have indeed been inhabited continuously for at least 3500 years. Archaeological evidence indicates the states of Tagaung, Sri Ksetra, and Pagan all existed though not in the linear order portrayed in the chronicles.


Waulpane

Wavula Pane is a cave located in Bulutota Rakwana range, northwest of Embilipitiya one of the archeological site located in Sri Lanka.
The cave is located in the Ratnapura District, in the Kolonne Korale, about above sea level. The meaning of Wavul Pane (Sinhalese name) is Cave of Bats. Approximately more than 250,000 bats inhabit it.
External links.
ABSTRACT


Syarif Hamid II of Pontianak

Sultan Hamid II (born Syarif Abdul Hamid Alkadrie; ""; 12 July 1913 – 30 March 1978) was the eighth Sultan of Pontianak and the only President of the State of West Kalimantan from 1946 to its disestablishment in 1950. He was the eldest son of Sultan Syarif Muhammad Alkadrie. He was of mixed Malay-Arab ancestry and was raised by two British nationals— Salome Catherine Fox and Edith Maud Curteis.
His wife Didie van Delden was a young Dutch woman who bore him two children – both reside in the Netherlands. During the Indonesian National Revolution, he was sympathetic to the returning Dutch and their attempts to implement a federal Republic of the United States of Indonesia, viewing the unitary Republic of Indonesia as an extension of Javanese domination. He was also a colonel in the Royal Dutch East Indies Army and designed the Indonesian national emblem—Garuda Pancasila.
Childhood and education.
Until the age of 12, Hamid was raised by Scottish foster-mother Salome Catherine Fox and fellow British expatriate Edith Maud Curteis. Salome Fox was the sister of the head of a British trading firm based in Singapore. Under their tutelage, Hamid became fluent in English. In 1933, Miss Fox died but he still remained in touch with her companion Curteis.
Syarif was educated at several "Europeesche Lagere School" (European Primary Schools) in Sukabumi, Pontianak, Yogyakarta and Bandung. He studied for one year at a Hogere Burgerschool (Senior High School) in Bandung but did not graduate from THS Bandung. Syarif completed his studies at the Koninklijke Militaire Academie in Breda, Holland; graduating as a lieutenant in the Royal Dutch East Indies Army.
Japanese Occupation and the Indonesian Revolution.
Following the Japanese occupation of Indonesia on 10 March 1942, he was interned by the Japanese for three years in a Javanese prison camp due to close ties with the Dutch. Hamid's resentment towards the Japanese occupiers was affected by the murders of 28 relatives and his mentor Miss Curteis. Hamid's father and two of his brothers along with many of the Malay elite of Kalimantan were executed by the Japanese in the Pontianak incidents. Following the Japanese surrender and defeat on 15 August 1945, Hamid was liberated by the returning Allied Powers that landed in Indonesia. He was subsequently promoted to the rank of colonel by the returning Dutch.
On 29 October 1945, he succeeded his father as the Sultan of Pontianak, adopting the title Sultan Hamid II. During the Indonesian National Revolution, Sultan Hamid II acquired an important position as a delegate for the State of West Kalimantan and always participated in negotiations at Malino, Denpasar, the Federal Consultative Assembly (BFO) and the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference in Indonesia and the Netherlands. As an active leader in the BFO, he was a firm supporter of federalism and opposed President Sukarno's concept of a unitary Indonesian Republic due to its domination by the Javanese.
Sultan Hamid II quickly ascended to the position of Adjudant in Buitengewone Dienst bij HM de Koningin der Nederlanden (Adjutant in the Extraordinary Service of Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands), which is the highest position as assistant to the Dutch Queen. As a colonel, he was the first Indonesian to acquire a significant military position in the colonial army. Due to international opposition to Dutch attempts to reinstate control over Indonesia in the United Nations, the Dutch were forced to recognise Sukarno's Republic as the de facto government of Java and Sumatra and to grant independence to a Republic of the United States of Indonesia on 27 December 1949.
The APRA Coup and Unitarianism.
On 17 December 1949, Hamid II was appointed by Sukarno to the RUSI Cabinet but held no portfolio. This Cabinet was headed by Prime Minister Mohammad Hatta and included 11 Republicans and five Federalists. This federal government was short-lived due to conflicting differences between the Republicans and the Federalists as well as growing popular support for a unitary state.
Hamid II would subsequently conspire with the former KNIL Captain Raymond Westerling to organise an anti-Republican coup in Bandung and Jakarta. Westerling's Angkatan Perang Ratu Adil (APRA, Legion of Ratu Adil) comprised elements of the KNIL, the Regiment Special Forces, the Royal Netherlands Army and several Dutch nationals including two police inspectors. On 23 January 1950, APRA overwhelmed the small RUSI garrison and occupied parts of Bandung until they were driven away by reinforcements under Major General Engels.
On 26 January 1950, elements of Westerling's forces infiltrated Jakarta as part of a coup d'état to overthrow the RUSI Cabinet. They also planned to assassinate several prominent Republican figures including the Defense Minister Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX and Secretary-General Ali Budiardjo. However, they were intercepted and forced to flee by Indonesian military forces. Meanwhile, Westerling was forced to flee to Singapore and APRA had ceased to function by February 1950.
Evidence from arrested co-conspirators led to the incarceration of Hamid II on 5 April. By 19 April, Hamid II had confessed to his involvement in the botched Jakarta coup and to planning an abortive second attack on Parliament scheduled for 15 February. Due to the presence of RUSI troops, the attack was aborted. The role of the Pasundan government in the coup led to its dissolution by 10 February, further undermining the federal structure. By late March 1950, Hamid's West Kalimantan was one of the four remaining federal states in the United States of Indonesia.
Hamid's role in the coup led to increased agitation in West Kalimantan for its integration into the Republic of Indonesia. Following a fact-finding mission by the Government Commission, the RUSI House of Representatives voted by fifty votes to one to merge West Kalimantan into the Republic of Indonesia. Following clashes with demobilised KNIL troops in Makassar and the attempted secession of an Ambonese Republic of South Moluccas, the federal United States of Indonesia was dissolved on 17 August 1950, turning Indonesia into a unitary state dominated by the central government in Jakarta.
Family.
Sultan Hamid II's Dutch wife Didie van Delden was styled as Sultana Maharatu Mas Makhota and they had two children, a son and a daughter. Their surviving son is styled as Pangeran (Prince) Syarif Max Yusuf Alkadrie, who currently lives in the Netherlands. Sultana Maharatu died on 19 June 2010.


USS Decker

USS "Decker" (DE-47) was an Evarts class destroyer escort constructed for the United States Navy during World War II. She was sent off into dangerous North Atlantic Ocean waters to protect convoys and other ships from German submarines and fighter aircraft. She performed escort and antisubmarine operations in battle areas before sailing home victorious at the end of the conflict.
Originally intended for transfer to Great Britain as BDE-47, "Decker" was launched on 24 July 1942 by the Philadelphia Navy Yard; retained for use in the USN; redesignated "Decker" (DE-47) on 4 March 1943; and commissioned on 3 May 1943, Lieutenant Commander A. B. Adams, Jr. in command.
Namesake.
Ernest Elden Decker was born on 15 September 1913 in Portland, Maine He enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve on 14 September 1940. Lieutenant (junior grade) Decker was killed in action in the Solomon Islands on 5 September 1942 when his ship was sunk in an engagement with Imperial Japanese Navy ships.
Service history.
World War II.
After escorting two oilers from Newport, Rhode Island to Galveston, Texas from 9–24 July 1943, "Decker" reported at Norfolk, Virginia on 20 August for convoy duty. From 26 August 1943 – 26 April 1945, she gave vital support to operations in North Africa, Italy, and Southern France by guarding the passage of nine supply convoys to Casablanca, French Morocco; Bizerte, Tunisia; Palermo, Sicily; and Oran, Algeria. On 11 May 1944, at sea as part of the screen of UGS-40 bound for Tunisia, she aided in repelling a heavy torpedo attack by enemy planes.
After overhaul at Charleston, South Carolina, "Decker" operated in the Florida Keys as a training vessel until the end of the war.
"Decker" received one battle star for World War II service.
Post-War.
On 28 August 1945, she was leased to the Republic of China. "Decker" was returned from Lend-Lease and transferred permanently to China on 7 February 1948 and renamed ROCS "Tai Ping" (F-22; ). ROCS "Tai-ping" was one of the four warships sent by the Republic of China Navy on 6 November 1946 to claim islands within the South China Sea region. On 12 December 1946 "Tai Ping" arrived at Itu Aba island, becoming the first Chinese government ship ever to visit the Spratly Islands. (An American force had landed on Itu Aba in November 1945 and discovered that the wartime Japanese garrison had departed. A French warship, the FR "Chevreuil" had landed a team on Itu Aba in October 1946, two months before the Tai-ping arrived.) The Chinese government gave Itu Aba the Chinese name of Taiping Island in honour of the ship.
On 13 February 1951, She joined the blockade fleet under the direct order of ROC President Chiang Kai-shek to capture and confiscate the Norwegian civilian freighter "Hoi Houw" at "" within the Japanese territory of Yaeyama Islands. On 14 November 1954, four Communist Chinese motor torpedo boat sank "Tai Ping" north of the Tachen Islands. All but 28 of the 200 officers and crew were reported rescued by ships and seaplanes.


Jayavarman VI

Jayavarman VI () was king of the Khmer Empire from about 1080 to 1107 AD.
During the reigns of Udayadityavarman II and Harshavarman III there were some internal rebellions and an unsuccessful war with Champa. Maybe the last one continued to reign in Angkor during a revolt which finally brought to power the following official King, Jayavarman VI, probably a vassal prince.
Coming from Phimai area, in Mun River Valley, he appears as an usurper and the founder of a new dynasty, the Mahidharapura, from the name of his family's ancestral home. In inscriptions at the beginning of his reign, he claimed to be a descendant of the mythical couple of prince Sage Kambu Swayambhuva and his sister (and wife) "Mera", rather than having real ancestors of royal lineage.
Jayavarman VI was probably engaged for several years in strife against those who remained loyal to the legitimate line of Harshavarman III and his heir Nripatindravarman which may have reigned in Angkor until 1113.
However, he is generally given credit for the construction of Phimai temple. He was succeeded by his elder brother, Dharanindravarman I, and received as posthumous name "Paramakaivalyapada".


Vega Ancestral House

The Vega Ancestral House is one of the 1st Transition Bahay na Bato inspired houses that has been standing through times and witnessed the different colonial periods of the Philippines in its 200 (estimated) years of existence. Sculpted wooden Atlases are perhaps the most interesting feature of this house located in Poblacion, Balingasag, Misamis Oriental. Sculpted wooden atlases or, also known as, "Oti-ot" in Visayan language, provides support to the second floor protrusion of the house. This house is one important built structure in the locality that tourists usually come to visit. In fact, notable personalities like Emilio Aguinaldo and Sergio Osmeña had visited this house.
History.
In the 1800s, a young merchant from San Nicolas in Cebu by the name of Ignacio Juan Vega settled in Northern Mindanao at a small town, then named Galas, today Balingasag (Vega 1999, 11). It was through Vega that the Cebuano devotion to the Sto. Nino was introduced to the townsfolk of Balingasag. Aside from this cultural practice he imparted, he also left behind a heritage house that is considered these days as one of the important landmarks that can be found in Misamis Oriental.
The house also witnessed the political endeavor of its owners. The first town executive came from the Vega Clan in the person of Faustino Vega. He was known that time as presidente local, under the short-lived First Philippine Republic (1898-1903). Melquiades Vega, the son of Faustino Vega, served as the first presidente local under the American Regime (1903-1928).
Though there are no existing documents that would trace back a specific period of time when this house was constructed, several attempts by heritage advocates to document this house and as well as bloggers and the local townsfolk unanimously say that this house was built in the 1800s.
House features.
It is noteworthy to mention that the house is designed with sculpted wooden men structures that act as support to the protruding second floor of the house. Unlike what other feature writers would say, there are only three (3) wooden men structures that exist, hence, out of the 4 corners of the house there is one corner where no wooden men structure can be seen. In other words, each corner of the house is not represented by an atlas as what other travel bloggers would state in their blogs and articles.
There are also misconceptions regarding the 3 sculpted wooden structures of men. Others say that this is a paradigm of slavery while others would say that this is inspired by the atlas icon that symbolizes the man carrying the world. The true account on this, according to Dr. Antonio J. Montalvan II and with reference to the genealogy of the Vega Clan, is that the 3 sculptures represents the three (3) sons of Ignacio Juan Vega, namely Santos (married to Valentina Roa, Juana Valmores), Pedro (married to Benita Salvacion), and Gregorio.
The house uses "molave" tree and "balayong" as primary material in building the house. It can also be observed that the house has large beams or pillars that act as support to the overall stability of the house structure. Each pillar is placed alongside the corners, in between the corners and along the center of the house. Its walls are designed like woven abaca or also knows in visayan as "Uway" (English: rattan) that is colored in yellow. The house still uses the traditional "Banggera" (English:Sink) which is used as window shelf for kitchen wares and utensils and tub for washing at present.
Another notable feature of the house is its uppermost portion which still uses the classical cogon for the roof. It further classifies the house under the 1st Transition of Bahay na bato aside from its emerging stone works at the bottom part of the house.
Another feature of the house can also be observed in its support beams that are decorated with the chambered nautilus motif.
One can somehow conclude that the owner of the house used the best quality of materials during its construction as it is evidenced by the house itself which has been withstanding the tests of time through centuries. Consequently, this heritage structure became one of the primary attractions to tourists and outsiders who come to visit the rich historical center (Poblacion) of Balingasag.
Tourism.
The coffee table books and glossy calendars (the latest one being the 2006 Shell calendar ["Homes of our Heritage"] help in the provision of a constant stream of onlookers and curio watchers which somehow improve the local tourism statistics of the municipality.
According to Ms. Nanette Vega, the local tourism wishes to acquire the house through legal processes so as to maintain and preserve the house and open it as a tourism hotspot. Unwillingly, Ms. Nanette and the Vega clan decline the proposal for sentimental reasons. While they admit that they find it hard to maintain the house especially the cost incurred for the maintenance, they prefer to take care of the house than lose ownership over the local tourism authority. However, the house is still open for walk-in tourists, and those who wish to have a documentation of the house may do so by appointment basis.
One highlight of this house that adds more to its fame is its association with the late Maria Clara Vega Jimenez - mother of the famous television personality Inday Badiday and Philippine Daily Inquirer editor-in-chief Letty Jimenez Magsanoc. However, it is wrong to refer to it as the "Jimenez House" because the Jimenez was just one branch of the Vega Clan. It is locally known by its correct name, "Vega House".
Common misconception also regarding this house is its connection with the late and famous bygone child star Julie Vega because of her "Vega" stage surname which is in reality is Julie Pearl Apostol Postigo. This widespread rumor among those who are not familiar enough with the house is still erroneously passed up to these present times.
Present Times.
As of the present days, the first floor of the house is being utilized as a restaurant/carinderia. The store opens as early as 6:00 in the morning and closes at 7:00 in the evening. Part of the income from the store is used for the maintenance of the house.


Central Committee elected by the 6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)

The Central Committee (CC) composition was elected by the 6th Congress, and sat from 3 August 1917 until 8 March 1918. The CC 1st Plenary Session established the Narrow Composition (abolished October 1917), the Politburo (abolished November 1917) and the Bureau (established in November 1917), while sanctioning the establishment of the Secretariat on the orders of the Narrow Composition.
References.
General.
Plenary sessions, apparatus heads, ethnicity (by clicking on the individual names on "The Central Committee elected by the VIth Party Congress (b) 3 (16) .8.1917 members" reference), the Central Committee full- and candidate membership, Bureau membership, Secretariat membership and Orgburo membership were taken from these sources: