James De Lancey (loyalist)

James De Lancey (September 6, 1746 – May 2, 1804) was a colonial American who led one of the best known and most feared of the loyalist units, De Lancey's Brigade, during the American Revolution. He was known as the "Commander of the Cowboys" by the loyalists and by the Patriots he was known as the "Outlaw of the Bronx". He later became a political figure in Nova Scotia. He represented Annapolis township in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1786 to 1794. He has become a controversial figure for unsuccessfully trying to use the courts to retrieve a slave he brought to Nova Scotia.
Early life.
He was born in Westchester County, New York, the son of Peter DeLancey (1705–1770) and Elizabeth (née Colden) DeLancey. Among his siblings was brother Stephen DeLancey, also a member of the Nova Scotia Assembly, and sister Susan DeLancey, who was married to Thomas Henry Barclay, a lawyer who also became one of the United Empire Loyalists in Nova Scotia and served in the colony's government.
His paternal grandparents were French immigrant Etienne DeLancey and Anne (née Van Cortlandt) DeLancey, herself the third child of Gertrude (née Schuyler) Van Cortlandt and Stephanus Van Cortlandt, the Chief Justice of the Province of New York. His maternal grandfather, Cadwallader Colden, and his uncle, James DeLancey served as Colonial Governors of New York.
Career.
He served as sheriff of Westchester County from 1769 to 1776 and as an officer in the militia. Because of his loyalist sympathies, he was forced to leave the area and went to New York City, where he and his uncle, Oliver De Lancey, raised a loyalist unit known as "De Lancey's Brigade", "De Lancey’s Cowboys", and "De Lancey's refugees". De Lancey himself was called the "Outlaw of the Bronx".
Forces under Delancy ambushed and killed Colonel Christopher Greene and Major Ebenezer Flagg of the Rhode Island Regiment of the Continental Army at the Battle of Pine's Bridge on May 14, 1781. From one account of the attack, "his body was found in the woods, about a mile distant from his tent, cut, and mangled in the most shocking way." A common conjecture is that this indignity was retribution for his leading black soldiers against the British Crown.
Nova Scotia.
Around the start of 1783, following the Patriot victory in the American Revolution, he moved to Nova Scotia, settling at Round Hill in Annapolis County. De Lancey was elected to the provincial assembly after his brother Stephen was named to the province's Council; in 1794, James was also named to the Council by Governor Wentworth.
He resigned from his seat on the council in 1801 due to poor health. He was a slave owner and was thwarted by Richard John Uniacke in De Lancey's efforts to have slavery legally recognized in Nova Scotia.
Personal life.
In 1784, he married Martha Tippett (1760–1837), the daughter of William Tippett and Martha (née Hunt) Tippett. Together, they were the parents of 10 children, six sons and four daughters, including:
De Lancey died at Round Hill three years after resigning from the Council on May 2, 1804 at the age of 57. There is a prominent monument marking the burial ground.


William S. Cowles

William Sheffield Cowles (August 1, 1846 – May 1, 1923) was a rear admiral in the United States Navy.
Naval career.
In July 1863 he was appointed an acting midshipman at the United States Naval Academy and graduated in June 1867. He was commissioned as an ensign in December 1868. He rose through the ranks and was commissioned as a commander in June 1898.
Cowles commanded the gunboat, during the Spanish–American War, and served as naval aide to President McKinley. He was in command of the battleship when it collided with the , and when thirty-three men were killed in an explosion (he was cleared of responsibility in both cases).
He served as the Commander-in-Chief, Asiatic Fleet, and retired from the Navy in August 1908 after 45 years in service.
He was a companion of the District of Columbia Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States and an honorary companion of the Connecticut Commandery of the Military Order of Foreign Wars.
On December 2, 1908, Cowles submitted a report, prepared by Lieutenant George C. Sweet, recommending the purchase of aircraft suitable for operating from naval ships on scouting and observation mission to the Secretary of the Navy.
Cowles was an official representative at the coronation of King George V in 1911.
Personal life.
Cowles married Mary Thurman, the oldest daughter of Ohio politician Allen G. Thurman, on Feburary 18, 1873. In November 1889, Thurman divorced Cowles. They did not have any children.
On November 25, 1895, he married Anna "Bamie" Roosevelt, daughter of philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. and socialite Martha Stewart "Mittie" Bulloch and elder sister of President Theodore "T.R." Roosevelt Jr.. William and Bamie had one son, William Jr. (1898–1986), who was a Connecticut State Representative and Mayor of Farmington, Connecticut. William and Bamie are buried at Riverside Cemetery in Farmington, Connecticut.
External links.
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John Leary (politician)

John Leary (November 1, 1837 – February 8, 1905) was an American businessman and politician who was a key civic leader in Seattle, Washington. He made contributions to virtually all civic and business activities during the city's early years.
Leary started as a lumber merchant in New Brunswick, Canada, at 17. A successful entrepreneur, he accumulated "a modest fortune" and traveled to Seattle in 1869 in search of greater opportunities. Leary died one of the richest person in Seattle, with a net worth of $2 million, most of which was acquired through real estate deals in Seattle and vicinity. He participated in many other Seattle projects, including railroads, mining, banking, water and gas works, steamship operations, law, and others. Many of his activities were unprofitable, but served an important public purpose. He was also known for his extensive charitable contributions.
Leary served multiple terms as Seattle councilman and one as Seattle mayor, in 1885. He co-founded the Seattle Chamber of Commerce, Rainier Club, and First National Bank of Seattle, Seattle's first bank. From 1878 to 1890, Leary played one of the most prominent roles in Seattle's battle with the Northern Pacific Railroad for an independent railroad connection—a key element of Seattle's subsequent commercial success and leadership in Washington State.
Leary financed the construction of the steamwheeler "Bailey Gatzert", the finest ship in Puget Sound at the time. His mining operation led to the founding of Ravensdale, Washington (initially named for him). Leary's home, the most expensive residence in the city of the time, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Two Seattle streets, Leary Way and Leary Avenue, bear his name.
East Coast career.
Leary was born on November 1, 1837, to a family of Irish descent, in Saint John, New Brunswick, on the Eastern coast of Canada. He soon demonstrated an "unusual aptitude for business," and at 17, started a successful lumber trading business in St. John. This business soon expanded into the neighboring town of Woodstock. By the age of 30, he had accumulated a "modest fortune" and ran his own lumber camp on the banks of the Meduxnekeag River.
The Meduxnekeag riverbed spans from the confluence of its North and South Branches near Houlton, Maine in the United States to Woodstock in Canada. The 1866 expiration of the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty resulted in substantial losses to Leary's business. Initially, he moved to Houlton in an attempt to run his business from Maine, but soon decided to take his chances on the Western frontier. Leary worked in lumbering until 1867.
West Coast career.
In 1869, Leary arrived in Seattle, then a village with unpaved streets supporting a population of less than 1,000 people. Unlike the typical Washington Territory entrepreneur of the time, Leary didn't limit himself to a particular area of business, but engaged in a panoply of activities. In the words of Samuel L. Crawford, a Washingtonian journalist of the time, "Mr. Leary had an unusually active mind and was a great promoter. His great 'stunt' was to start some big enterprise and, after it was well under way, drop out of it himself. In this manner, he fathered many of the big schemes of the day."
As a result, over the next 20 years, Leary was involved in multiple operations simultaneously. He "touched every line of public progress" of Seattle, often at personal loss. Nevertheless, by the beginning of the 20th century, Leary had accumulated a fortune estimated at $2 million ($53,000,000), mostly from his investments in Seattle real estate. He died one of the richest people in Seattle.
Law practice.
Leary was admitted to the bar in 1871, becoming a "pioneer lawyer" in Washington Territory. That same year, he became a junior partner in McNaught & Leary law firm. In 1872, McNaught & Leary was one of five law firms in Seattle and one of the six most active law firms in Washington Territory. One of Leary's most consistent occupations in Seattle was law; he was active in this area for eleven years.
In 1878, James F. McNaught became an attorney for the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, and the law firm dissolved. Leary initially started his own law practice, but then formed another firm with Henry G. Struve. The Struve & Leary Company was organized in 1878, and in 1880, when J.C. Haines joined the firm, it was renamed Struve, Haines & Leary. Leary stayed with the firm until 1882, when he left to devote himself to business and civic activities.
Mining.
In 1872, Leary opened the Talbot coal mine (located in present-day Renton) with partners John Collins and James F. McNaught. Later, Leary was elected one of the venture's directors.
This operation was the first to deliver coal to Seattle. To expose a vein of coal, the company constructed a tunnel long, wide, and high. To ship the coal to Yesler's Wharf in Seattle, they laid of railroad track towards the Black River. However, as the bed proved to be badly faulted, the mine closed after a few years.
Between 1878 and 1880, Leary financed several geological expeditions in Washington, which normally would have been financed by local governments, to develop the region. The parties explored the West Coast towards Cape Flattery, the Skagit and Similkameen rivers, and parts of Eastern Washington. The expeditions confirmed the presence of rich coal and iron deposits, and the reports were made available to the public.
In 1884, together with J.M. Colman, Leary took part in the opening of the Cedar River mines. He was also an early stockholder in other mines around Renton.
Leary's most substantial mining effort was the creation of the Leary Coal Company, which developed coal mines in Ravensdale. This mining town was founded by Leary, and initially bore his name. Its original output of 48,000 tons in 1900 increased to 185,000 tons by 1905. The large coal shipments were made possible by a dedicated railroad line financed by other railroad projects with Leary's involvement, and connected the mines to the Northern Pacific Railway. After Leary's death, the mine was sold to Northern Pacific, which maintained a yearly output of 120,000+ tons of coal through 1915, when an accident killed 31 miners and prompted the company to abandon the mines.
Utilities.
Leary organized various ventures that helped build Seattle's infrastructure, often without regard for their potential profitability.
In November 1881, Spring Hill Water Company (earlier purchased by Leary with Jacob Furth and Bailey Gatzert because of its insolvency) was the first to lay water pipes along Seattle streets, pumping water from Lake Washington. This created Seattle's first water system, and by 1886, its capacity reached . At some point, Leary served as the president of the сompany. In 1890, he and his partners sold the company to the city for $352,000 ($9,000,000).
Leary also helped organize the city's first gas company, and served as its president until 1878.
Banking.
In September 1882, Leary participated in the founding of Seattle's first bank, the First National Bank of Seattle. (Before 1882, only a loan business founded by Dexter Horton operated in town.) Among Leary's partners in this enterprise were William S. Ladd, a famous banker from Oregon; Henry Yesler, Seattle's richest citizen, C.L. Dingley, G.W. Harris, and J.R. Lewis. The bank opened on November 15, 1882, with $150,000 ($4,000,000) in capital.
The bank's solvency and stability helped the city withstand the Panic of 1893. Leary served as the president of the bank, but later "was obliged to resign … owing to the pressure of his other business interests." First National later merged into Seafirst Bank, which was eventually acquired by the Bank of America.
In 1889, Leary was a member of the board of trustees of the People's Savings Bank in Seattle.
Media.
In 1878, Leary founded the "Seattle Post" journal. He was the principal owner of the journal from 1880 until 1882 when he engineered a merge with the "Seattle Intelligencer". He built the Post building, a new modern office building for the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" at a prime location. By 1884, Leary had sold all interest in the combined paper.
In 1890, together with several partners, Leary purchased "the Seattle Trade Journal", which was established in 1888 by Edmond S. Meany and Alexander Begg. A year later, he sold it to "The Seattle Telegraph".
In 1890, Leary was one of the leading stockholders of the Morning Journal Publishing company. That year, the company made an unsuccessful attempt to publish a Democratic "Morning Journal", which was absorbed by the "Telegraph" the following year.
Real Estate.
Leary's multiple investments in real estate were based on his firm belief in the future of Washington Territory, and in Seattle in particular. These convictions proved accurate, and his real estate investments became the main source of his accumulated fortune.
For example, in 1883, together with Judge Thomas Burke and William R. Ballard, Leary purchased of land on Salmon Bay. Around 1890, it was divided into individual plots and sold to new settlers, forming the city of Ballard (now a suburb of Seattle).
Among Leary's other notable investments were the Cosmopolitan Hotel, the Seattle Post building, and the Yesler-Leary Block. The latter was built in 1883. It was considered the most prestigious piece of commercial real estate and the biggest office building in Seattle at the time. The Yesler-Leary Block had a long facade facing 1st Avenue and a facade facing Yesler Way. Constructed in a joint venture with Henry Yesler in 1883 at a cost of over $100,000 ($3,000,000), this office building was destroyed in the Great Seattle Fire on June 6, 1889.
Politics and civic activism.
Like the majority of Washington Territory settlers of the time, Leary was a Republican. His contemporaries described him as an "outstanding civic leader," a "natural leader," and "a pioneer among pioneers."
Leary served three terms as Seattle councilman, in 1873, 1875, and 1876.
In 1884, receiving 1311 votes, he was elected to serve as mayor of Seattle in 1884–1885. Seattle citizens cheered for him during one of the biggest political meetings ever held in Occidental Square. Leary was elected mayor on a ticket created by businessmen in opposition to the Law and Order League. At the time, the League was led by the "moralistic elements," including recently enfranchised women activists who lobbied for liquor and gambling regulations. Later, Leary damaged the relationship with his conservative supporters by allowing raids on saloons and houses of prostitution in attempt to "placate women's and reform groups."
At the time, the position of mayor wasn't salaried, but was regarded as a civic duty. Leary was the first mayor to hold regular office hours. He worked on improving downtown streets, and pleasantly surprised Seattleites by investing his own money to plank 1st Avenue—Seattle's first street-paving project. Leary ran for re-election, but lost.
In late 1885–early 1886, "anti-Chinese agitation" (a result of race antagonism, business depression, and poor enforcement of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882) occurred in many Western cities. Many white Americans blamed the business depression of 1882–1885 on cheap Chinese labor, which was considered strong competition to white Americans. The racism turned violent in September, when white laborers attacked Chinese workers causing the Rock Springs massacre followed by an attack in Squak Valley (now Issaquah, Washington). As the agitation reached Seattle, Leary attempted to convince the Chinese to leave the city before any violence had occurred, but he was unsuccessful. Intense anti-Chinese riots rocked Seattle (as many other places on the West Coast), and eventually an "anti-Chinese congress" held in Seattle issued a decree to expel all Chinese people from Western Washington.
In 1890, Leary was an incorporating member of the board of trustees of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce. He served as the Chamber's president for two separate terms, the first being in 1890–1891.
In 1892, during an economic downturn, Leary ran for mayor again on a Republican ticket, but lost to Democrat Judge James T. Ronald.
Transportation.
Seattle's first railroads.
The Northern Pacific Railroad was the first transcontinental railroad to reach Puget Sound. After a few years of surveying, in 1873 the railroad unexpectedly decided that Tacoma, not Seattle, would be its western terminus. That decision would direct most commercial traffic to the Port of Tacoma, condemning Seattle to a subservient position in the region. Dependent on commerce, the Seattle population panicked and started planning to relocate their businesses and families to Tacoma.
Leary managed to curtail the panic with a characteristic stunt. He sold one of his hotels for $600 ($16,000) and used the proceedings to purchase a large quantity of piles, sinking them in straight lines along a potential railroad bed leading into Seattle. The resulting illusion of someone building a railroad into Seattle led to multiple rumors that stopped the initial panic, and thus the exodus of people from Seattle.
To resolve the problem in the long term, however, Seattle desperately needed a railroad connection. The situation was exacerbated by the fact that Northern Pacific Railroad had invested massively in Tacoma real estate and was actively luring Seattleites to relocate there.
Leary's stunt led to the establishment of the Seattle and Walla Walla Railroad, which planned to connect Settle to Walla Walla via Snoqualmie Pass and direct at least some commercial traffic into the Port of Seattle. Several prominent citizens backed the project financially, including Arthur Denny, John Collins, Franklin Mathias, Angus Mackintosh, Henry Yesler, James McNaught, J. J. McGilvra, J. M. Colman, and Dexter Horton, but Leary wasn't among the investors. It soon became apparent that Walla Walla had little interest in the project, and Seattleites' resources alone were insufficient (the construction was estimated to cost $4 million ($106,000,000). The construction of the railroad began in 1874, but never went beyond King County.
In 1881, a temporarily leadership change at Northern Pacific led the company to build a connection to Seattle and Walla Walla Railroad at Black River. Service to Seattle began in 1884; however, Northern Pacific continued using its monopoly power in favor of its Tacoma business interests and discriminated against Seattle merchants.
The problem wasn't resolved until Seattle commenced another railroad—Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway (SLS&E)—which would connect Seattle via Snohomish, Sedro-Woolley, and Sumas to the Canadian Pacific Railway, thus circumventing Northern Pacific entirely. Leary was one of the organizers, incorporators, directors, and investors of SLS&E, but the bulk of the investment came from New York bankers.
Leary played a part in the final battle for Seattle's independent railroad connection. As the construction of SLS&E proceeded in 1885 towards Snohomish, a Tacoma judge issued a writ on behalf of Northern Pacific, ordering Snohomish authorities to stop the construction of the essential Snohomish bridge. An ensuing legal battle would have resulted in a delay, leading to the violation of the financial agreement with New York bankers and thus endangering the entire operation. Along with Judge Thomas Burke, another principal investor in SLS&E, Leary commandeered a SLS&E railroad engine and rushed it to Snohomish. They arrived before the writ did, and convinced the local sheriff and deputies to "disappear for a couple of days" so no one could enforce the writ until the matter could be resolved in court. Putting all available personnel to work, SLS&E completed the bridge on time.
In 1882, Leary was also one of the founders of the Baker City Railway.
Maritime transportation.
In 1877, Leary co-owned the "Zephyr" with George Harris and Captain William Ballard. In 1879, Leary and Harris sold their shares and Ballard became the sole owner.
With Seattle railroad connections secured, the Port of Seattle experienced a boom of maritime transportation; about $1 million ($26,000,000) worth of new steamers were added to the fleet of companies operating from Seattle in 1890. Leary contributed by organizing the Seattle Steam Navigation & Transportation Company, incorporated with $500,000 ($13,000,000) of capital stock. Leary served as the company's first president alongside other principal investors: Jacob Furth, Edward Neufelder, W.R. Ballard, and H.G. Struve.
Leary built the steamer "Bailey Gatzert" for SSN&T. One of the finest steamers of her time, it was named after Leary's friend and close business associate Bailey Gatzert, and cost between $100,000 ($2,600,000) and $125,000 ($3,300,000).
In 1891, steamboat operators consolidated into the Columbia River & Puget Sound Navigation Company. The president of the new company was Captain Uriah Bonsor Scott, and Leary became the vice-president. The company owned various steamers, including "The Telephone", "The Fleetwood", "The Flyer" and Leary's "Bailey Gatzert". They operated between Puget Sound and Victoria, British Columbia.
Leary also played a significant role in organizing the first mail route from Seattle to Alaska.
Other activities.
Leary organized and served as president of the West Coast Improvement Company, Seattle Land & Improvement Company, and the Seattle Warehouse & Elevator Company. He was one of the directors and promoters of the James Street & Broadway Cable & Electric line and of the West Street & North End Electric Railway Company.
Leary was an Irish National League of America governing council member and a member of the University of Washington Board of Regents, lobbying for free education and textbooks for all students.
Personal life.
Family.
John Leary was married twice, but had no children from either marriage. He married his first wife, Mary Blanchard, on November 26, 1858, in Littleton, Maine. She died on July 17, 1890 in San Francisco, "after a short illness."
On April 21, 1892, Leary married Governor Elisha P. Ferry's daughter, Eliza P. Ferry.
The family resided on the corner of 2nd Avenue and Madison Street. In 1903, Leary started the construction of a new family home at a prime location in Capitol Hill, overlooking Lake Washington. It was estimated to be the most expensive private residence in Seattle at the time. The architects were John Graham (the founder of John Graham & Company, later credited for many historic Seattle landmarks, including the Space Needle) and Arthur Bodley.
The new house wasn't fully completed before Leary's death, but remained the residence of his widow and a famous place for social and charitable gatherings until Eliza Leary's death in 1935. In 1948, the Episcopal Diocese of Olympia purchased the house which remains its headquarters in 2020. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
At the time of his death, two of Leary's relatives were known to be still living: his sister Margaret (or Maggie) Leary Baker of Philadelphia, and Jane Leary of Fredericton, New Brunswick.
Charitable activities.
Leary was known for a broad spectrum of charitable activities. His associate, Alfred Battle, described Leary as "...the most charitable man I ever knew. He gave money to everybody he thought needed it."
Both of Leary's wives engaged in charitable activities and donated to notable causes. Mary B. Leary was the founder and president of the Ladies Relief Society of Seattle, organized in 1884 to help unfortunate families and individuals. Eliza P. Leary was an active member of Seattle's Sunset Club and a member of the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution.
Organizations.
Leary was among the original founders of the Rainier Club, one of Seattle's most prestigious organizations. He became its president in 1890 and served at least through 1891.
In addition, Leary was an officer in Seattle's chapter of the Royal Arch Masons and a member of a local chapter of Odd Fellows.
Death and legacy.
Leary suffered from liver disease in the last three years of his life. He withdrew from most business activities and spent substantial time in Southern California. He also made two trips to Carlsbad, Germany.
Leary died of heart failure in Riverside, California, on February 8, 1905. His body was transported to Seattle, and his funeral took place on February 15. He was buried at Lake View Cemetery on Capitol Hill.
Leary died one of the wealthiest person in Seattle, leaving a fortune valued at $2 million ($53,000,000). It was left almost entirely to his wife, Eliza. A Seattle street, Leary Way, was named after him.


High Desert Museum

The High Desert Museum is located near Bend, Oregon, United States. Opened in 1982, it brings regional wildlife, culture, art and natural resources together to promote an understanding of natural and cultural heritage of North America's high desert country. The museum includes indoor and outdoor exhibits of wildlife in natural-like habitats along with traveling exhibits and living history demonstrations. The museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums. It is also a Smithsonian Affiliate institution.
History.
The museum was founded by Donald M. Kerr, a native of Portland, Oregon. Kerr had a passion for natural history that inspired the creation of the museum. In 1974, Kerr established the Western Natural History Institute, and the High Desert Museum was an outgrowth of the institute opening in 1982. The museum was originally called the Oregon High Desert Museum; however, the name was later changed to recognize the regional nature of the high desert environment it highlights. Seated on a site, the museum was at first made up mainly of outdoor exhibits and a small building.
In 1989, the main building was expanded with a addition, with the museum's attendance reaching 100,000 per year. The $5 million expansion, a gift from the Chiles Foundation, added the Earle A. Chiles Center on the Spirit of the West. In 1994, a five-year expansion campaign began to increase the size of the museum.
In 1999, the museum was accredited by the American Association of Museums (now the American Alliance of Museums). By 2016, the non-profit museum drew 170,000 visitors per year. In 2017, the High Desert Museum was selected as Smithsonian Affiliate institution. That designation gives the museum access to artifacts from the Smithsonian collection along with Smithsonian sponsored traveling exhibits and education programs. In Oregon there are only three Smithsonian Affiliate institutions. The other two are the Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum in McMinnville and the Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals in Hillsboro.
In 2021, the museum was named as a recipient for the National Medal for Museum and Library Service.
Facilities.
 The High Desert Museum sits on of pine covered forest land in Central Oregon. South of Bend on U.S. Route 97, the museum includes various indoor and outdoor exhibits, a library, a "desertarium", and a cafe. Portland's GHA Architects designed the original museum building. That structure contains slate flooring and walls built from volcanic rocks. The outdoor exhibits and various buildings are connected by a half-mile long paved path.
The entrance lobby is known as "Schnitzer Hall". Visitors passing through the lobby can walk straight ahead into the "Collins Gallery" and museum gift shop or proceed to exhibits down corridors to the right or left. To the right of the main lobby is the "Earle A. Chiles Center on the Spirit of the West" and separate galleries for special traveling exhibits. To the left of the entrance is the "Henry J. Casey Hall of Plateau Indians". The cafeteria is located beyond the Collins Gallery next to the gift shop. There is also a classroom located in this area of the building. Through the Collins Gallery to the left is an indoor desertarium with living desert animals on display. The exit at the far end of the desertarium leads to the "Donald M Kerr Birds of Prey Center" and the museum's outdoor exhibits.
Collections.
The museum has in excess of 18,500 artifacts in its collections. Artwork includes works from Edward Curtis, Edward Borein, Charles Marion Russell, Philip Hyde (photographer) and Alfred Jacob Miller among others. Historical artifacts include those of Native American origin and post Euro-American settlement of the region. Many of the Native American items are from the Doris Swayze Bounds Collection of American Indian Art and Artifacts.
Exhibits.
Exhibits focus on local culture, natural resources, wildlife, and art. The museum's indoor and outdoor exhibits of Native American, pioneer, and animal life are presented on a massive scale. A visitor can actually walk through an early 1860s town complete with blacksmith shop, Chinese mercantile, and stage coach stop. The Native American exhibit covers life on the land before the white man, life on a reservation, and the present day hot topic of Indian Casinos. There is also an impressive exhibit of Native American horse tack used for the Pendleton Round-Up that is unmatched for its craftsmanship, beauty, and individuality of design.
The High Desert Museum has a main building. Exhibits include a Forest Service fire truck, a stage coach, and a number of Native American history displays. The museum's Hall of Exploration and Settlement has displays highlighting a hundred years of high desert history. Scenes include a trapper's camp, survey party's camp, pioneer wagon train, a mining claim, an early western boomtown, and a high desert buckaroo camp.
Outside the museum building a quarter-mile trail follows a forest stream lined with aspens and ponderosa pines. Along the way visitors can stop at a number of exhibits and animal habitats. There is a total of of outdoor exhibits and animal habitats. The popular wildlife exhibits feature three river otters, desert tortoises, a porcupine, and birds of prey. There is also a Native American encampment, a start-of-the-20th-century sawmill, logging equipment, homesteaders cabin, and a forestry pavilion.
Apollo astronaut training.
Between July 6 and November 10, 2019, the museum held an exhibit about how the United States prepared astronauts for lunar landscapes by training in central Oregon, near Bend.


Cameron Whitten

Cameron Whitten (born April 8, 1991) is an American community activist best known for advocacy on affordable housing, racial justice, and LGBT rights.
Early life and education.
Whitten grew up in Sterling, Virginia, outside Washington, D.C. He moved to Portland, Oregon in 2009 and experienced homelessness at the age of eighteen. He later enrolled at Portland Community College.
Political activism.
A Portland resident for three years, Cameron Whitten, 20, joined the Occupy Portland movement from the start, on October 6. He camped in Lownsdale and Chapman squares for the 38 days of the occupation.
Whitten was arrested four times. He helped plan the Jamison Square occupation in October, and was arrested when police cleared it out. He was arrested during some occupiers' last stand in Chapman Square. And then he was arrested during a theatrical occupation of tiny Mill Ends Park downtown. He also has another arrest in January 2012 for actions during an Occupy the Courts rally.
Whitten got his start in politics as a candidate for mayor of Portland, Oregon, in 2012. He campaigned on a platform of diversity and inclusion. Although among the favorites in "The Oregonian" "most intriguing political figure" poll, Whitten was not elected mayor. He was subsequently nominated by the Oregon Progressive Party for the position of state treasurer.
Whitten has served as the Executive Director of Q Center, and is the founder of racial justice nonprofit Brown Hope. He is also co-founder of the Black Resilience Fund and serves on the Board of Directors of local nonprofits such as REACH CDC, Venture Portland, and Pioneer Courthouse Square.
Further community involvement.
Also in 2012, Whitten embarked on a hunger strike on the steps of City Hall to protest the housing crisis in Portland, and to demand immediate action from city leaders. The strike lasted almost two months, eliciting a statement from housing commissioner Nick Fish, and ended after concessions were made by the Portland Mayor's Office. Whitten continued to speak publicly about homelessness.
In 2013, Whitten was in the news again when he participated in the campaign for the legalization of same-sex marriage in Oregon. Also in 2013, Whitten protested the banning of community members who set up 24/7 vigil for the homeless, and their replacement with a fast food cart. The cart was then removed and the furniture put in storage.
In 2014 Whitten was executive director of the organization Know Your City. In this role he conducted history-related walking tours of Portland. That year several of his articles about excessive use of force by police were published in local magazines and news outlets. He served on Portland's Transit Equity Advisory Committee. Also in 2014 Whitten joined cyclists to protest the dangerous state of Portland city infrastructure after a cyclist was killed while riding in a bike lane.
In 2015, by then a student at Portland State University, Whitten was in the news again when he was arrested after complaining about conditions on a Portland streetcar. In 2016, representing Know Your City, he spoke at a Portland City Council meeting about the importance of culturally relevant education.
In 2017, Whitten took part in protests against Donald Trump's executive order banning travelers from specific countries to the US. During one protest he filmed a violent incident and his footage was used in news reports. Whitten was later interviewed about the ban by Fox News; interviewer Tucker Carlson questioned Whitten's knowledge of the text of the order.
In 2018, Whitten founded a racial justice nonprofit named Brown Hope. Later that May, he launched Brow Hope's first event, called Reparations Happy Hour, which garnered significant attention in international news outlets. Whitten was later interviewed about the event by Fox News; interviewer Tucker Carlson questioned Whitten about whether the event was offensive.
LGBT rights activism.
In July 2018, Whitten became the Interim Executive Director of Q Center, a community center serving Portland's LGBTQ+ community, and was hired to help with an unexpected leadership transition. Shortly after, he accepted a Light a Fire award from "Portland Monthly Magazine" on behalf of the organization for its years of advocacy for Portland's LGBTQ+ community. In February 2019, Whitten led the organization of an emergency LGBTQ2SIA+ town hall after a series of reports of physical attacks against LGBT individuals in Portland. In June 2019, Whitten launched a capital campaign that raised of $100,000 to renovate Q Center.
2020 Metro Council campaign.
On January 21, 2020, Whitten announced his campaign for Metro Council, with endorsements from US Representative Elizabeth Furse and several Portland city councilors. He resigned his position with Q Center in order to focus full-time on the campaign.
Personal life.
Whitten identifies as queer.


Mary Ingalls

Mary Amelia Ingalls (January 10, 1865 – October 20, 1928) was born near the town of Pepin, Wisconsin. She was the first child of Caroline and Charles Ingalls and older sister of author Laura Ingalls Wilder, known for her "Little House" book series.
Biography.
At age 14, Ingalls suffered an illness—allegedly scarlet fever— thought at the time to cause her blindness. A 2013 study published in the journal "Pediatrics" concluded that viral meningoencephalitis actually stole her eyesight, based on evidence from firsthand accounts and newspaper reports of her illness as well as relevant school registries and epidemiologic data on blindness and infectious diseases. Between 1881 and 1889, Ingalls attended the Iowa Braille and Sight Saving School in Vinton, Iowa.
The historical record doesn't show why Ingalls did not attend school during one year of that time, but she did finish the seven-year course of study in 1889 and graduated. She then returned home to her parents in De Smet, South Dakota and contributed to the family income by making fly nets for horses. After her father died in 1902, she and her mother rented out a room in their home for extra income. Following her mother's death in April 1924, she lived for a time with her sister, Grace Ingalls Dow in Manchester, South Dakota.
 She then traveled to Keystone, South Dakota to live with her sister Carrie Ingalls Swanzey. There she suffered from a stroke, and on October 20, 1928, she died of pneumonia at age 63. Her body was returned to De Smet, where she was buried in the Ingalls family plot next to her parents at De Smet Cemetery.
In popular culture.
Ingalls was portrayed in the television series "Little House on the Prairie" by actress Melissa Sue Anderson. The television version of Mary Ingalls became a teacher in a school for the blind and married a blind fellow teacher, Adam Kendall, who was portrayed by Linwood Boomer. The real Mary Ingalls never became a teacher nor married but returned to De Smet to live with her parents after graduating from Vinton.


History of rail in Oregon

The history of rail in Oregon predates the transcontinental railroad in 1869.
As Oregon was aligned with the union states during the American Civil War, a railroad connection was proposed to help supply the Union and build morale.
Early proposals.
Byron J. Pengra, the Surveyor General of Oregon from 1862 to 1865, secured a federal land grant in 1864 for the Oregon Central Military Wagon Road from Eugene to Owyhee, and proposed a railroad along this line, then joining the transcontinental railroad near Winnemucca, Nevada. Pengra incorporated a company in 1867 but failed due to lack of financial support.
William Williams Chapman, Surveyor General of Oregon from 1857 to 1861, proposed a railroad along the Oregon Trail from Portland, over the Blue Mountains, along the Snake River, then south to the transcontinental railroad at Salt Lake City. Chapman created the Portland, Dalles and Salt Lake Railroad Company in 1881, then reincorporated it as the Portland, Salt Lake and Salt Pass Railroad Company in 1876. He attempted to raise funds for this company in the eastern United States as well as England.
Both Pengra and Chapman's companies were hampered by the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal in 1872.
Rail routes to follow the Oregon Trail were surveyed by the government, Union Pacific, and others, including James H. Slater and Dan Chapman's Grande Ronde Valley and Columbia River Valley Construction Company in 1874, and the Blue Mountain and Columbia River Rail-Road Company's narrow gauge effort.
The wooden-railed narrow-gauge Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad, established in 1868, involved several overland portages.
Henry Villard.
Henry Villard was sent by German investors to oversee their investments in the Oregon and California Railroad Company, then became the major force in railroading for the region. In 1879, he purchased the Oregon Steam Navigation Company and the Oregon Steamship Company, merging them to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company (OR&N).
Since Union Pacific and Central Pacific had an uneasy agreement due to owning the western and eastern halves of the Transcontinental Railroad, Vilard approached Union Pacific with an alternative to using the Central Pacific line from Salt Lake City to San Francisco. He offered a 50% partnership in the OR&N in 1879. Union was already building an extension from Brigham City, Utah to Butte, Montana that could be extended west. Central Pacific threatened Union Pacific if such an arrangement was made, which ended it immediately.
Northern Pacific had a line reaching from the Dakotas to northern Idaho. Villard reached an agreement with Northern Pacific in 1880, which gave Portland access to transcontinental rail lines. Since activity in the Pacific Northwest had picked up by 1881, Union Pacific was again interested in the 1879 proposal. Union Pacific created the Oregon Short Line from Granger, Wyoming to the OR&N lines at Huntington, Oregon, joined on November 11, 1884. Union Pacific and Northern Pacific were now in direct competition, which led Northern Pacific to build their own line directly to the coast at Tacoma, Washington.
Villard's OR&N lines were leased to Union Pacific's Oregon Short Line from 1887 until Union Pacific purchased OR&N in 1889.
Planned or incomplete railroad lines.
The following railroad lines were surveyed and perhaps graded, but not completed.


Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program

The Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP) is a Government of Canada program that was introduced by the Pearson government in 1966 between Canada and Jamaica but has since expanded to include Mexico and numerous other Caribbean countries. It is intended to allow Canadian farm employers to hire workers from Mexico and the Caribbean on temporary visas during the planting and harvesting seasons when employers are unable to hire local workers to fulfill their labour demands.
The program, administered jointly by Employment and Social Development Canada with Citizenship and Immigration Canada, is available to those who are at least 18 years of age, from one of the participating countries, qualify under the immigration laws and the sending country and agree to the employment contract. Those workers are eligible for the Canada Pension Plan and certain Employment Insurance benefits (excluding "special benefits" such as maternal, parental and compassionate care benefits). Workers are also subject to income tax laws.
History.
The issue of a lack of workers was first recognized in the mid-1960s when there were not enough workers to fill the needs of farms that needed their crop picked as well as planted at the beginning of the season. The government saw a need to form a program to help fill the gap of labor and farms in need of workers. By 1966 the Seasonal Agriculture Workers Program was formed and utilized by Ontario. It began as a partnership between Canada and the Caribbean country of Jamaica and has since grown to many other Caribbean countries and Mexico. As of 2005 there were 18,000 migrant workers coming into the country annually, mainly working in Ontario.


William Cocke

William Cocke (1748August 22, 1828) was an American lawyer, pioneer, and statesman. He has the distinction of having served in the state legislatures of four different states: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Mississippi, and was one of the first two United States senators for Tennessee.
Early life and education.
Cocke was born in Amelia County, Virginia in 1748. He was of English descent. He was the sixth of ten or eleven children of Abraham (c.1695–1760) and Mary (Batte) Cocke. He was educated at home before reading law, and was admitted to the bar in Virginia.
Cocke engaged in a limited law practice, and spent more time on the frontier than he did in a law office. He was involved in exploration in the company of Daniel Boone, seeing much of what was to become eastern Kentucky and East Tennessee.
Political Offices.
Cocke was an elected member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. In 1776, as a colonel of militia, he led four companies of men into North Carolina's Washington District for action against the Indians. Later that year, he left Virginia and moved to what was to become Tennessee. During the organization of the State of Franklin, Cocke was elected as the would-be state's delegate to the Congress of the Confederation.
In 1796, Cocke was chosen as a delegate to the convention that wrote the first Tennessee Constitution. The newly formed government selected Cocke to be one of the new state's initial senators, along with William Blount. Cocke and Blount presented their credentials to the United States Senate on May 9, 1796. The Senate, however, refused to seat Cocke and Blount while the debate regarding the admission of Tennessee into the Union was on. When Tennessee was finally admitted on June 1, the issue of Cocke and Blount's seating was again raised. The Federalist Senate held by a narrow margin (11–10) that Cocke and Blount's election was illegal because it had occurred without congressional authorization. The Tennessee legislature duly re-selected Cocke and Blount on August 2.
Cocke's initial term expired on March 3, 1797. The Tennessee General Assembly, however, neglected to elect a successor to Cocke; he was subsequently appointed to his former seat by Governor John Sevier on April 22, 1797, until the General Assembly belatedly elected his successor, Andrew Jackson. Later, he was elected by the Tennessee Assembly to the other U.S. Senate seat, and served from March 4, 1799 to March 3, 1805.
Later life and death.
Cocke was appointed a judge of the First Judicial Circuit of Tennessee in 1809. He later resigned this position and moved to Mississippi. There, he was elected to the state legislature in 1813. He briefly returned to military duty, serving under Andrew Jackson in the Creek War. In 1814, he was appointed by President James Madison to be an Indian agent to the Chickasaw nation.
Cocke died in Columbus, Lowndes County, Mississippi, in 1828 and is buried there, in Friendship Cemetery.
Legacy.
Cocke County, Tennessee is named in his honor. His son, John Alexander Cocke, was a four-term U.S. Representative from Tennessee; his grandson, William Michael Cocke, was a two-term U.S. Representative from Tennessee.


De Jonge v. Oregon

De Jonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 (1937), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause applies freedom of assembly against the states. The Court found that Dirk De Jonge had the right to speak at a peaceful public meeting held by the Communist Party, even though the party generally advocated an industrial or political change in revolution. However, in the 1950s with the fear of communism on the rise, the Court ruled in "Dennis v. United States" (1951) that Eugene Dennis, who was the leader of the Communist Party, violated the Smith Act by advocating the forcible overthrow of the United States government.
Background.
Oregon's "criminal syndicalism" statute made it a crime to, among other things "assist in conducting any assemblage of persons ... which teaches or advocates ... the doctrine which advocates crime, physical violence, sabotage, or any unlawful acts or methods as a means of accomplishing or effecting industrial or political change or revolution." The statute was similar to state laws the Court had upheld in cases like "Gitlow v. New York" (1925) and "Whitney v. California" (1927).
Dirk De Jonge addressed an audience regarding jail conditions in the county and a maritime strike in progress in Portland at a meeting called by the Portland branch of the Communist Party on July 27, 1934. De Jonge was a member of the Party, but the meeting was open to the public and had been publicly advertised as such. A raid on the meeting was carried out by Portland police. De Jonge was arrested and charged with violating the State's criminal syndicalism statute. Once convicted, De Jonge motioned for an acquittal, arguing that there was insufficient evidence to warrant his conviction, since there was no evidence that either De Jonge nor anyone else at the meeting advocated violent acts or revolution. The Oregon Supreme Court upheld his conviction, ruling that the indictment did not charge De Jonge with criminal syndicalism, but rather that he "presided at, conducted and assisted in conducting an assemblage of persons, organization, society and group called by the Communist Party, which was unlawfully teaching and advocating in Multnomah county the doctrine of criminal syndicalism and sabotage." In other words, De Jonge was convicted for associating with the Communist Party, which at other times, although not at that meeting, had advocated criminal syndicalism. De Jonge took his case to the Supreme Court, arguing that his conviction violated his rights under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Supreme Court decision.
Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes delivered the opinion of the Court, which unanimously reversed De Jonge's conviction. Hughes began by emphasizing the precise questions involved in light of the state court's decision. The Court had to accept the indictment as the state court had defined it, and decide the case on the basis that the law had been properly applied: the Oregon Supreme Court had final authority to interpret Oregon law, and by sustaining the conviction, had held that the indictment was sufficient under the Criminal Syndicalism statute. Given that, the Court could only review the indictment as setting out the substantive offense. It couldn't examine the evidence at trial to determine if De Jonge had done anything more culpable than conduct a public Communist Party meeting, because he wasn't charged with anything else, and "Conviction upon a charge not made would be sheer denial of due process". Thus it was irrelevant that De Jonge was, in fact, a member of the Communist Party, and that he encouraged others to join and help the Party at the meeting, since those acts were not necessary to his conviction and anyone else conducting the meeting, whether or not a Party member, could have been prosecuted under the statute. As Hughes explained, "[De Jonge's] sole offense as charged, and for which he was convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for seven years, was that he had assisted in the conduct of a public meeting, albeit otherwise lawful, which was held under the auspices of the Communist Party... Thus if the Communist Party had called a public meeting in Portland to discuss the tariff, or the foreign policy of the Government, or taxation, or relief, or candidacies for the offices of President, members of Congress, Governor, or state legislators, every speaker who assisted in the conduct of the meeting would be equally guilty" of violating the criminal syndicalism act.
With the scope of the case clarified, Hughes next distinguished decisions like "Gitlow" and "Whitney", which had upheld Criminal Syndicalism laws on their face. He pointed out that in those cases, the defendant was convicted of actually advocating the violent overthrow of the Government, or joining a conspiracy to that end and with that intent. Hughes explained that despite a number of decisions permitting abridgment of free speech, "none of our prior decisions go to the length of sustaining such a curtailment of the right of free speech and assembly as the Oregon statute demands in its present application."
Hughes proceeded to explain why freedom of assembly is such an important right. In poignant and powerful passages, he explained:
[Freedom of assembly] cannot be denied without violating those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all civil and political institutions. ... The greater the importance of safeguarding the community from incitements to the overthrow of our institutions by force and violence, the more imperative is the need to preserve inviolate the constitutional rights of free speech, free press, and free assembly in order to maintain the opportunity for free political discussion, to the end that government may be responsive to the will of the people and that changes, if desired, may be obtained by peaceful means. Therein lies the security of the Republic, the very foundation of constitutional government.
For these reasons, the Court held, "consistently with the Federal Constitution, peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime." When a person was charged with unlawfully assisting a group, even a criminal conspiracy like the Communist Party (as the Court assumed), a court had to inquire whether his specific purpose, and his specific actions, aided that unlawful purpose: "If the persons assembling have committed crimes elsewhere, if they have formed or are engaged in a conspiracy against the public peace and order, they may be prosecuted for their conspiracy or other violation of valid laws." As Hughes emphasized in finishing his opinion, the Court accepted the finding that the Communist Party was constantly engaged in criminal syndicalism and attempting to overthrow the government, in Multnomah County and elsewhere. But De Jonge nevertheless had a constitutional right "to discuss the public issues of the day and thus in a lawful manner, without incitement to violence or crime, to seek redress of alleged grievances. That was of the essence of his guaranteed personal liberty." De Jonge's conviction was consequently reversed as a violation of the Due Process Clause.
Over three decades later, the Supreme Court declared a criminal syndicalism law unconstitutional on its face in "Brandenburg v. Ohio" (1969), overruling "Whitney" and casting serious doubt on "Gitlow". "Brandenburg" reaffirmed the holding of "De Jonge" that peaceful political assembly is a right protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.


Penobscot Indian Island Reservation

Penobscot Indian Island Reservation is an Indian reservation for the Penobscot Tribe of Maine, a federally recognized tribe of the Penobscot in Penobscot County, Maine, United States, near Old Town. The population was 610 at the 2010 census. The reservation extends for many miles alongside 15 towns and two unorganized territories in a thin string along the Penobscot River, from its base at Indian Island, near Old Town and Milford, northward to the vicinity of East Millinocket, almost entirely in Penobscot County. A small, uninhabited part of the reservation is in South Aroostook, Aroostook County, by which it passes along its way northward.
Government.
The Penobscot Tribe of Maine is headquartered in Indian Island, Maine. The tribal chief is Kirk Francis. The vice-chief is Bill Thompson.
History.
The Penobscot people long inhabited the area between present-day Old Town and Bangor, and still occupy tribal land on the nearby Penobscot Indian Island Reservation. The first European to visit the site was probably the Portuguese Estêvão Gomes in 1524, who was working for Spain. He was followed by the French explorer Samuel de Champlain in 1605. Champlain was looking for the mythical city of Norumbega, thought to be where Bangor now lies. French missionary priests settled among the Penobscot. This valley was contested between France and Britain into the 1750s; after Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, the territory became dominated by England. It was one of the last northern regions to become part of New England. One of the most important Penobscot chiefs was Madockawando.
King William's War.
There were tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as reaching the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts (whose charter included the Maine area) had expanded their settlements into Acadia. To secure New France's claim to present-day Maine, New France established Catholic missions among the three largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one farther north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River (Medoctec). For their part, in response to King Philip's War, the five Indian tribes in the region of Acadia created the Wabanaki Confederacy to form a political and military alliance with New France to stop the New England expansion.
On Abbé Petit's advice, Father Louis-Pierre Thury settled at Pentagouet (Castine, Maine) in 1690, near Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin, where he remained eight years. He acquired great influence over the Abenaki and took part in their expeditions. In 1689 he accompanied Saint-Castin on the raid that resulted in the destruction of Pemaquid (1689); he left a detailed account of events. In 1692 Thury accompanied a war party against York (Maine) in what became known as the Candlemas Massacre.
Raid on Penobscot (1692).
Benjamin Church's third expedition to Acadia during the war was in 1692 when he conducted a retaliatory raid with 450 men against the Penobscot village.
Two years later, Thury worked to thwart the actions of Phips, who wanted to keep the Abenaki neutral; Thury played an important role in retaining them under French influence. He took part in the attack against Pescadouet (Oyster Bay) in New Hampshire, and was present with Robinau de Villebon and a party of Abenaki at the capture of Pemaquid by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in 1696. The bishop of Quebec made him his vicar general in 1698 and appointed him to be the superior of the missions in Acadia.
Madockawando and others from Penobscot fought alongside Hertel Portneuf and St. Castin at the Battle of Fort Loyal (May 1690). They were also involved in Raid on Wells (1692). Finally they accompanied Villie in the Raid on Oyster River in 1694. He died during the war in 1697.
Father Rale's War.
Raid on Thomaston (1722).
On 15 July 1722, Father Lauverjat from Penobscot led 500-600 natives from Penobscot and Medunic (Maliseet) to lay siege to Fort St. Georges in Colonel Thomas Westbrook's home town of Thomaston for twelve days. They burned the sawmill, a large sloop, and sundry houses, and killed many of their cattle. Five New Englanders were killed and seven were taken prisoner, while the New Englanders killed twenty Maliseet and Penobscot warriors.
Raid on Penobscot (1723).
During Father Rale's War, Father Lauverjat was established at the mission. On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook from Thomaston led 230 men to the Penobscot River and traveled approximately upstream to the Penobscot village. They found a large Penobscot fort— by , with walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (). The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground.
Starting in 1775, Condeskeag became the site of treaty negotiations by which the Penobscot people were made to give up almost all their ancestral lands, a process complete by about 1820, when Maine became a state. The tribe was eventually left with only their main village on an island upriver from Bangor, called "Indian Old Town" by the settlers. Eventually a white settlement taking the name Old Town was planted on the river bank opposite the Penobscot village, which began to be called "Indian Island." It continues as the base of the federally recognized Penobscot Nation.
Tourism.
The reservation is home to a small museum, as well as Penobscot High Stakes Bingo, which was established in 1973. This was one of the first Native American gambling enterprises operating in the country.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of . of it is land and of it (65.70%) is water.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 562 people, 214 households, and 157 families living in the Indian reservation. The population density was 72.5/mi2 (28.0/km2). There were 263 housing units at an average density of 34.0/mi2 (13.1/km2). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 14.59% White, 84.88% Native American, and 0.53% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.53% of the population. As of the 2009 U.S Census Bureau estimate, there were 541 people living in the reservation.
There were 214 households, out of which 44.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.0% were married couples living together, 25.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.6% were non-families. 22.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 2.97.
In the Indian reservation the population was spread out, with 33.3% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.7 males.
The median income for a household in the Indian reservation was $24,653, and the median income for a family was $24,000. Males had a median income of $34,500 versus $23,194 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $13,704. About 23.5% of families and 22.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.3% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.


William Reid (Scottish businessman)

William Reid was a Scottish businessman who emigrated to the U.S. state of Oregon in 1874 to establish the Oregonian Railway. He made several extensions to the railroad in the western Willamette Valley. The city of Dundee, Oregon was named after Dundee, where Reid had previously lived.


Jonathan Alder

Jonathan Alder (September 17, 1773 – January 30, 1849) was an American pioneer, and the first white settler in Madison County, Ohio. As a young child living in Virginia, Alder was kidnapped by Shawnee Indians, and later adopted by a Mingo chief in the Ohio Country. He lived with the Native Americans for many years before returning to the white community.
Alder settled near present-day Plain City, Ohio, where he became a farmer. He was reunited with his birth family, which moved to Ohio with him, and also had a short career as a military officer during the War of 1812. A middle school, high school, and school district in Plain City all bear his name.
Early life.
Alder was born September 17, 1773, in Gloucester, New Jersey, to Bartholomew Alder and Hannah Worthington. The family moved in 1775 to Wythe County, Virginia, where Alder's father died about a year later. In May 1782, Jonathan, at eight years old, was sent out with his brother David to search for a couple of horses that ran away. They were attacked by a small group of Shawnee Indians from Ohio. David saw the Indians first and tried to escape, but he was chased down, killed, and later scalped. The Indian group also captured Alder's neighbor, Mrs. Martin, and her young child.
The group travelled north, passing present-day Chillicothe, Ohio, on the way to a Mingo village on the north side of the Mad River, somewhere near present-day Logan County, Ohio. During the trip the Indians killed and scalped Martin's child, which they found burdensome. Martin responded by screaming in grief; when the Indians' threats to scalp her did not quiet her screams, they whipped her until she was silent. Alder's life was spared due to his appearance. His captors thought his black hair would allow him to pass as an Indian.
When the group reached the village, Alder learned why his life had been spared. One of the Mingo chiefs, Succohanos, and his wife, Whinecheoh, were an aging couple who had lost their son, and planned to adopt Alder as a replacement. Alder was forced to run the gauntlet, as a rite of passage, and after he exhibited bravery during the trial, he was adopted and cared for by Whinecheoh. The Indian's other prisoner, Mrs. Martin, had been promised to a man in another village, and was taken away during Alder's adoption ceremony.
Native American life.
The first few years that Alder lived with the Indians he was very ill, a condition Alder attributed to the Indians' diet. The other children in the village were friendly towards Alder, and worked together to teach him their language, customs, and traditions. In time, Alder fully adopted the Mingo way of life; he lived, hunted, and fought as an Indian. When he was old enough he was given an English musket, which he used to hunt mud turtles, wild turkeys, and raccoons. He was praised in the village for his hunting skills. He grew attached to his new life and when, in 1783, a trader from Kentucky offered to exchange him for a Shawnee prisoner, Alder refused. Alder was living in the Indian village of Mack-a-chack when it was destroyed by Benjamin Logan during his raid into Ohio Country in 1786, and he accompanied the Indians on raids into Kentucky to steal horses from white settlers.
In 1790, Whinecheoh died at the age of eighty, and Succohanes died in 1792 at the age of ninety. After their deaths, Alder wandered from village to village, and began courting an Indian woman from Upper Sandusky named Barshaw. In the fall of 1793, during the peak of the Northwest Indian War, he joined Shawnee chief Blue Jacket to defend against Anthony Wayne's attacks in the Ohio Country, and also took part in the attack on Fort Recovery on June 30, 1794. Alder was asked for advice on the 1795 Treaty of Greenville on land reservations, and urged by the Indians to attend its signing. Alder, not realizing the treaty's importance, chose not to attend.
Life as settler.
In the summer after the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, which restored peace between Indians and settlers, Alder decided to return to the white community. He married Barshaw, and settled in Pleasant Valley, in the area of Jerome Township, about north of present-day Plain City, Ohio. He built a cabin, took up the lifestyle of a farmer, and raised hogs, cows and horses. He sold milk and butter he made to the Indians, and pork and horses to the whites. Alder began adopting the white community's habits, and learned English from the other white settlers. While living in Pleasant Valley, Barshaw struggled to integrate with settler life. She gave birth to two of Alder's children, but both died in infancy. The couple decided the Great Spirit was opposed to their marriage, and separated. Alder gave Barshaw most of the couple's property, including the cabin, all of the cows, seven horses, and about $200 in silver. Alder kept only two horses and the hogs.
After some time Alder developed interest in his original family in Virginia. A companion, John Moore, learned that Alder had been taken prisoner near Greenbrier, and traveled to Wythe County to search for Alder's family. Initial inquiries were unsuccessful, but one of a series of advertisements Moore placed in the district was seen by Alder's surviving brother Paul. Paul then wrote Jonathan to inform him that the family was still alive.
Alder left for Paul's house, with Moore, in November 1805. He and Moore arrived in Virginia the Sunday after New Year, and Alder was reunited with his biological mother and siblings. Alder stayed with his family in Virginia for over a year, and while visiting his family he met and fell in love with Mary Ann Blont, a woman from Virginia. The couple were married on January 6, 1806, and in August 1806, Alder, Blont, and the rest of Alder's family returned to Pleasant Valley. Alder built another log cabin along the Big Darby Creek in 1806, and he and Mary had 12 children between 1808 and 1830.
Military career.
During the War of 1812, during the summer of 1812 or 1813, Alder was elected captain of a company of 70 men formed in Plain City. With Frederick Loyd as his lieutenant, Alder's company was ordered by the Governor to march about twenty miles north and build a blockhouse at Mill Creek, about three miles north of Marysville, Ohio, to protect the Darby settlements. The company built and garrisoned the blockhouse for a few weeks, but when a false alarm was sounded regarding Indians attacking the settlements, the men returned to their homes. This was the only fort ever constructed in Union County, and some of the foundation is still visible today.
After the war ended, Alder returned to the life of a farmer. He continued to visit the other former captives with whom he had become friends. In the fall of 1818, Alder received a visit from Simon Kenton, to share and compare stories. The two discovered that they had much in common, and had been at many of the same battles, even if they had been on opposite sides. They met several times up until 1828.
Legacy.
Living out the rest of his days as a farmer, Jonathan Alder died on January 30, 1849, in Canaan Township, Madison County, Ohio, at the age of 75. He had become a well-known figure in the region, and is still remembered today with a school district, high school, and middle school named after him. A historical marker was erected by Ohio in front of Foster Chapel Cemetery at , near West Jefferson, where he is buried. The cabin Alder built in 1806 is now located at the Madison County Historical Society Museum in London.


Neighbors Expedition

The Neighbors Expedition, led by Robert Neighbors was one of several expeditions sent by the military to explore the area between San Antonio and El Paso with the purpose of opening a practical road to the west, which could be used by settlers and stages. The Neighbors Expedition, along with that led by Col. John C. Hays of the Texas Rangers in 1848, and that of Lieutenants William Henry Chase Whiting and William F. Smith of the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1849, were the most important of these expeditions.
Of all these expeditions, the one which mapped the route ultimately taken by the stage and most travelers from mid-Texas to El Paso was the route selected and mapped by Robert Neighbors. Indeed, the highway from Austin to El Paso today exactly mirrors the route taken and recommended by Neighbors to the American Military.
Background.
Neighbors had been an officer in the Army of the Republic of Texas from 1839 to 1844. In 1842 he was one of a number of Texas officers and officials, (court and government officials) taken prisoner by Mexican general Adrián Woll at San Antonio during Woll's invasion of Texas in 1842. Taken to Mexico and imprisoned along with dozens of other Texas Government officers and officials, Neighbors was subsequently released in 1844, after negotiations between the Republic of Texas, the United States, and Mexico. Neighbors then became the Indian agent of Texas, supervising the Republic's, and then the United States, agreements with the Lipan Apache, Tonkawa, and Comanche Indians.
Neighbors, who invented the "field system" of Indian Supervision, was one of the few white men who was familiar with the Comancheria, the homeland of the Comanche, and more importantly, could safely travel there. He spoke the language, understood and respected their culture, and was respected by their Chiefs, including the powerful Buffalo Hump.
Expedition to El Paso.
Because of his reputation as a scout, and his reputation for being respected by the Comanche, Major General William J. Worth, the Commander of the United States Army's Eighth Military District, which included Texas, selected him to lead an expedition to find a road to El Paso which both settlers and wagon trains carrying commercial loads could use. Neighbors led a combined military-Ranger force that included his personal friend John Salmon Ford. The party left San Antonio, passed through the state capital at Austin, and finalized its preparations at the Torrey Trading House near what is now Waco, Texas. In addition to Rip Ford, Neighbors selected three other white men, D. C. Sullivan, A. D. Neal, and James Shaw (a celebrated part-Delaware scout and interpreter, and a man with a reputation for being able to talk to, and deal with, Indians). Neighbors also selected four non-Plains Indians, John Harry (Delaware), Joe Ellis and Tom Coshatee (Shawnees), and Patrick Goin (Choctaw). Neighbors put Shaw in charge of the Indians.
Neighbors was able to convince Buffalo Hump to lead the expedition through the Comancheria. Though the Chief later left the party, it remained under his protection, and another Comanche Chief, Guadalope, led the party the remainder of the distance from the Colorado River to El Paso. Neighbors' ability to communicate with the Comanche, and his relationship with them, made the expedition possible. The expedition left the Torrey Trading House on March 23, 1849, and began the journey north. Neighbors had business with the camp of the Comanche chief Old Owl, so he traveled northeast up the eastern bank of the Leon River and spent a week there. The expedition then crossed the Leon River and proceeded south to Sanaco's camp on the upper Colorado River, arriving there April 2, 1849.
At this point, Buffalo Hump left the party, and Neighbors then engaged Guadalupe, the Chief of a Comanche band, to guide the expedition on to El Paso. Leaving the Colorado River, the expedition moved west on April 5, 1849, and managed the Horsehead Crossing over the Pecos River on April 17, 1849. Though they experienced considerable difficulty with the weather and terrain, they were able to cross the far northern end of the Davis Mountains, north of what is today the University of Texas at Austin McDonald Observatory.
They crossed the Rio Grande on April 25, 1849, where they discovered the tracks of shod horses, and determined these were the tracks of Whiting's expedition, which had crossed the Rio Grande at that point on its return to Austin.
The Neighbors expedition then continued up the east bank of the Rio Grande toward El Paso and arrived there on May 2, 1849. Neighbors determined the last hundred or so miles they had traveled were completely unsuitable for a wagon road, so he then returned by a more northern route that had been used by the Mexican army between El Paso and the Pecos River.
The Expedition began its return on May 6, 1849, by way of Hueco Tanks, Ojo del Alamo, and the Guadalupe Mountains en route to the Pecos River, and home.
Return home, and the route to El Paso.
On the return home, the expedition was guided by a Mexican National, Señor Zambrano. Neighbors found, and later reported to the military, that this return route from El Paso to the Pecos could serve as a wagon or stage road, which it became. The expedition entered Fredericksburg, Texas, on May 31 and San Antonio on June 2, only eight days after Whiting, who had left far earlier, and who was unable to provide a good road to El Paso.
Neighbors original trip to El Paso had taken twenty-three days of actual travel time, but he was able to return to San Antonio in only twenty-one days by a far easier route. Neighbors reported to Gen. William Selby Harney, who had replaced General Worth as Commander of the Eighth Army Department or District, and recommended the return route as the trail the Army sought. General Harney then sent out parties to further survey Neighbors's recommended route. They concurred with Neighbors findings, and this came to be known as the Upper or Northern route.
Highways follow the same route today.
Not only settlers, but the Butterfield Overland Mail later ran on this route from the Concho River to El Paso. Today's modern highways and railroads run over roughly the same routes as the Neighbors outbound and returning trails. Neighbors and Ford reported the distance from Austin to El Paso as 598 miles, the same distance shown on modern road maps.


Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency

The presidency of Ronald Reagan began on January 20, 1981 when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20, 1989.


Carrie Ingalls

Caroline "Carrie" Celestia Ingalls Swanzey (; August 3, 1870 – June 2, 1946) was the third child of Charles and Caroline Ingalls, and was born in Montgomery County, Kansas. She was a younger sister of Laura Ingalls Wilder, who is known for her "Little House" books.
Biography.
As a child, Carrie Ingalls Swanzey (according to her sister Laura) had been small, thin and frail, and seemed to have suffered the most of all the Ingalls family members through the deprivations of the hard winter of 1880–81. Wilder remarks in a later book that Carrie "was not recovering from the hard winter as she should" ("Little Town on the Prairie", chapter 12). Carrie was not constantly ill, but she never enjoyed robust physical health during her life. She traveled to several places in her young adulthood seeking a more comfortable climate, but always returned to the harsh winter climate of South Dakota.
During her late-teen years Carrie was a typesetter for the "De Smet News" and, subsequently, other newspapers throughout the state. At age 41 on August 1, 1912, she married widower David N. Swanzey (1854–1938), who is best-remembered for his part in the naming of Mount Rushmore. She became stepmother to Swanzey's two children: Mary Swanzey (1904-1969, married Monroe Harris, 14 children) and Harold Swanzey (1908–1936). Harold was one of the workers who helped carve Mount Rushmore, and his name can be found on the granite walls below the monument. He was later killed in a car accident in Keystone, South Dakota on April 9, 1938.
With her sister Grace's help, Carrie took care of their blind sister Mary after their mother's death in 1924.
Carrie was enthusiastic about her sister's books and helped her by sharing her childhood memories. Like Grace and Laura, she suffered from diabetes, and died of complications from the disease in Keystone on June 2, 1946 at age 75. She was buried in the De Smet Cemetery. She outlived by nearly five years her youngest sibling Grace, who also died of diabetes complications.
In the media.
Carrie was portrayed in the television adaptations of Little House on the Prairie by:


Boleslaus Goral

Boleslaus Goral or Bolesław Góral (March 12, 1876 – 1960) was a Polish-American priest, professor, and newspaper editor.
Biography.
Boleslaus E. Goral was born in Koenigsdorf, West Prussia on March 12, 1876. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1889 and attended SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary in Detroit, Michigan and St. Francis Seminary near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Father Goral was ordained on June 18, 1899 and, as a skilled linguist, originally served as a professor at the seminary. He spoke fluent Polish, German, Latin, and Greek. He wrote a book on punctuation in the Polish language as well as an article on Charles Antoniewicz for the "Catholic Encyclopedia".
At this time, a bitter conflict was taking place between the Milwaukee Archdiocese and the Polish language "Kuryer Polski" daily newspaper which was advocating an ethnic Polish Bishop for the city. In 1906, Father Goral was named to head up the "Nowiny Polskie", an alternative to the "Kuryer" which would have an editorial stance more sympathetic to the official positions of the Archdiocese.
While Archbishop Sebastian Messmer denied direct involvement with the start up of "Nowiny", it was felt by many that the paper was simply a mouthpiece for the official position of the Archdiocese. Following a rather slow start, Father Goral became concerned about the viability of the new paper and asked Archbishop Messmer for more open support from the church hierarchy. Messmer sent a letter to the Milwaukee clergy saying that support for the paper was “absolutely necessary” and asked them to solicit subscriptions from the pulpit. Letters published in "Nowiny" from the Archdiocese made it clear that the Church in Milwaukee fully supported the paper and official endorsements came even from Pope Pius X in Rome. "Nowiny’s" circulation eventually attracted enough readers to become a daily in 1907, and an effective counterpoint to the "Kuryer". The conflict between the two Polish papers became increasingly bitter and very personal. Father Goral's personal morals were attacked by the "Kuryer" and the stress on him became unbearable.
In 1908, in a controversial move, Father Goral was assigned as pastor at St. Vincent de Paul parish on Mitchell St. Fr. Goral had complained that his health had suffered during the press “war” between the "Nowiny" and the "Kuryer". Father Goral stayed at St. Vincent but one year, and was then transferred to St. Hyacinth.
Discord within this parish had previously required the transfer of Father Hyacinth Gulski from St. Hyacinth, which he had founded, to St. Hedwig's parish on Milwaukee's east side. Financial irregularities at Hyacinth had caused a major rift between parishioners and the financial administrators for the parish. Goral stilled the troubled waters at St. Hyacinth and brought the rival factions together. His mixture of kindness tempered with firmness became known as “Jackowo gora” (St. Hyacinth on top). Fr. Goral would eventually become a member of the board of directors of St. Francis Seminary. He would remain as pastor of St. Hyacinth until his death in 1960. He was awarded the title of Right Reverend Monsignor in 1921.


Club Portland

Club Portland, previously known as Club Baths or Continental Club Baths, was a gay bathhouse in Portland, Oregon, United States. In its place now is a hotel and a bar by McMenamins.
Description.
Located at Southwest 12th Avenue, the business operated 24 hours per day, 365 days of the year. Before closing on June 17, 2007, Club Portland was believed to be the largest bathhouse on the West Coast of the United States and was regarded as a "Stark Street icon of sorts". Writing for "Just Out", Stephen Marc Beaudoin describe the final moments of the club as a place that "had become something of a Stark Street eyesore in its waning years".
History.
Sources disagree on the opening year. "The Portland Mercury" has said the business operating as Club Baths in 1971, and later became known as Club Portland. The club's official website mentioned "Continental Club Baths" and "since 1967", as of April 2001. "Willamette Week" has said the club was established by Richard Lawson in 1987.
According to "Willamette Week", the club was "often blamed by public health officials and other community leaders as partly responsible for new waves of HIV and STD infections, though those accusations were near-impossible to prove". "Just Out" magazine and a McMenamins marketing director toured the shuttered club guided by a construction supervisor for the project. After the club closed, construction crew found a file cabinet full of membership and employee records. when the bathhouse called it quits, leaving highly private records—containing members’ and employees’ full contact information and, sometimes, copies of their driver’s licenses, Social Security cards and other identification—vulnerable to theft and duplication.
Additionally, the guide told them his crew found 100–150 hypodermic needles. When "Just Out" reached out to the club's former owner and inquired about the records, the magazine says Dick Lawson claimed, "There is nothing that remains of the bath records at this time." McMenamins retained the record and when Lawson was advised of this, he responded, "That's history. The building was sold a year and a half ago, and I will not comment further."


Beverley Robinson

Beverley Robinson (11 January 1721 – 9 April 1792), was a soldier and wealthy colonist of the Province of New York. Robinson married Susanna Philipse, heiress to a significant share of the roughly Highland Patent on the lower Hudson River in the Province of New York. With the onset of the American Revolutionary War, he sought to remain uninvolved, but in 1777 formed the Loyal American Regiment, which proved a very active Loyalist force in that conflict.
In addition to serving as its commander through the British defeat 1783, Robinson is known for his work with the British secret service during the war, particularly in regards to the betrayal of Continental general Benedict Arnold in the André Affair. At the time of his betrayal, Arnold was using the confiscated Robinson home as his headquarters, with Continental Army commander-in-chief Washington a temporary occupant. It is there André was brought after his capture. Following André's trial and sentencing British commanding general Sir Henry Clinton sent a delegation to Washington that included Robinson as a character witness for Andre, to plead for the Major's life. It is said Washington refused to see or be swayed by his old friend.
During the war, the Philipse Patent lands were confiscated by the Revolutionary government of New York. Following the war the Robinsons retired to Britain with some of their family. In spite of a provision in the 1783 Treaty of Paris advocating restitution for their losses, no compensation was ever paid the Robinson family by the United States. Much later they were awarded a settlement of approximately 25% of their combined family property's £80,000 original value by the British Compensation Commission, ultimately receiving less than 20% in payment.
Early life.
Robinson was born in Middlesex County in the Colony of Virginia on 11 January 1721. He was a son of the Hon. John Robinson, a President of its House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, and Catherine (née Beverley) Robinson, daughter of Robert Beverley, Esq., of Beverley, Yorkshire. His parents were, in property and family, among the leading families in the province. His grand-uncle, Dr. John Robinson, Bishop of London, had gone to America as secretary to government.
Career.
In 1745, he raised in Virginia an independent company and relocated it to New York to defend that state's frontier against Indian attack.
In 1752, his wife, her elder brother Philip, and younger sister Mary, each inherited a one-third share of what then became known at the "Philipse Patent", effectively today's Putnam County, New York. Upon his wife's inheritance, the now wealthy couple settled on a parcel of her land at the foot of Sugarloaf Hill in the Hudson Highlands where they built a family home they called Beverley. George Washington was for a time an irregular guest, developing an attraction to Susanna's younger sister Mary. The Patent itself was only lightly settled by tenant farmers and lacked the commerce and industry of the Manor which had been inherited by her eldest brother.
American Revolution.
With the onset of the American Revolutionary War Robinson sought to remain uninvolved and, reportedly, "desired to remain in the quiet enjoyment of country life and management of his large domain. He was opposed to the measures of the British Ministry, gave up the use of imported merchandise, and clothed himself and his family in fabrics of domestic manufacture." Nevertheless, he entered the military service of the Crown. Due to his standing entitled him to high rank, and upon raising the "Loyal American Regiment" in 1777, principally in New York, he was commissioned its Colonel. He also commanded the corps of Guides and Pioneers, which included black Loyalist soldiers from the Black Company of Pioneers. His sons figured prominently in the selection of officers for the Loyal American Regiment, with Beverley serving as Lieutenant-Colonel and Frederick an ensign. The regiment, which saw much fighting in the course of the war, figured most prominently in the attack on the Hudson River's Fort Montgomery, on 6 October 1777, when British and Loyalist forces overwhelmed the Colonials in the Battle of Fort Montgomery.
Robinson was also heavily involved in the treason of Benedict Arnold, and it is generally believed that he was acquainted with the traitor's purpose before it was known to Sir Henry Clinton, or any other person. And it appears certain that Arnold addressed him a letter on the subject of going over to the Royal side, before soliciting the command of West Point. As the plot matured, he accompanied Major John André, Adjutant General of the British Army in America and head of British Secret Service, to Dobb's Ferry to meet Arnold, according to a previous arrangement; but an accident prevented an interview, and both returned to New York. Subsequently, he went up the Hudson River in , for the purpose of furthering the objects in view; but failed in his most material designs. Arnold now sent Smith on board "Vulture" with a letter, which was delivered to Colonel Robinson, and on the faith of which André went on shore. The treacherous Whig had been expected on the ship in person, and it has been said that Robinson was much opposed to André's trusting himself to the honour "of a man who was seeking to betray his country." But the zealous young officer would not listen to the prudent counsel, and determined to embark upon the duty from which he never returned.
On 23 September 1780, André was captured and on 26 September was conveyed a prisoner to Colonel Robinson's own house, which, with the lands adjacent, had been confiscated by the state, which Arnold had occupied as his headquarters, and of which Washington was then a temporary occupant. After André's trial and conviction, Clinton sent three commissioners to the Whig camp, in the hope of producing a change in the determination of Washington, and of showing André's innocence; to this mission Robinson was attached in the character of a witness. He had previously addressed the Commander-in-Chief on the subject of André's release; and, as he and Washington had been personal friends until political events had produced a separation, he took occasion to speak of their former acquaintance in his letter.
On 6 September 1781, Robinson was not in command of the Loyal American Regiment that accompanied Benedict Arnold in the burning of New London, Connecticut. His son, Lieut. Colonel Beverly Robinson Jr. commanded it in his place.
Post-war life.
In 1779, the inherited Philipse lands and property, including Susanna's share of the Philipse Patent, were forfeited and seized by provincial New York authorities. The property was auctioned off in 1782 by the Commissioners of Forfeiture without compensation to the Robinsons, in spite of assurances of restitution in the 1783 Treaty of Paris that Revolutionary representatives signed with the British.
At the end of the war, Colonel Robinson went to England with a part of his family. Ultimately the British Compensation Commission granted them £24,000 toward the original £80,000 value of his and Susanna's personal estate (reflecting about £16,000 Sterling, plus the 60,000 Philipse Patent acres and some city property valued together at about £64,000), though only about £17,000 was ever paid.
Personal life.
On 7 July 1748, Robinson was married to Susanna Philipse (1727–1822) at Trinity Church, New York City. She was the eldest surviving daughter of Frederick Philipse II, second Lord of Philipsburg Manor, a very prosperous hereditary estate in lower Westchester County, and heiress to an interest in the Highland Patent, a roughly landed estate on the Hudson River spanning fully between the Hudson Highlands and the Connecticut Colony border. The Robinsons had ten children, three of whom died young. The surviving children included four boys and a girl:
Like many loyalists who moved to England, Robinson reportedly felt out of place and unappreciated. He resided at Thornbury, near Bristol in Southwest England, and died there on 9 April 1792, at the age of seventy. He was buried at St Mary the Virgin Parish Churchyard in Thornbury.
Descendants.
Through his son John, who settled in Saint John, New Brunswick after the war, he was a grandfather of five boys and two girls.
Through his son Frederick, he was posthumously a grandfather of four, including Maria Susan Robinson, Frederick Philipse Robinson Jr., Beverley George Robinson, and Jane Robinson.


Yankton Treaty

The Yankton Treaty was a treaty signed in 1858 between the United States government and the Yankton Sioux (Nakota) Native American tribe, ceding most of eastern South Dakota (11 million acres) to the United States government. The treaty was signed in April 1858, and ratified by the United States Congress on February 16, 1859. The agreement immediately opened this territory up for settlement by whites, resulting in the establishment of an unofficial local government not recognized by Washington. The treaty also created the 430,000 acre Yankton Sioux Reservation, located in present-day Charles Mix County in South Dakota.
Smutty Bear ("Ma-to-sa-be-che-a"), a chief within the Yankton Sioux tribe, opposed the treaty because he thought it would only bring further white aggression as they assumed an authority over the land. Strike-the-Ree ("Pa-le-ne-a-pa-pe", also known as "The Man that Struck the Ree"), the elder Yankton Sioux chief, also felt that too many whites were settling there, but decided that opposing them was futile, and he signed the treaty. Charles F. Picotte, a speculator, business venturist, and translator for these meetings was rewarded by the government with a 640-acre land grant in the newly incorporated territory, which would later become a major part of Yankton, South Dakota.


Curlew Bridge

The Curlew Bridge is a one-lane, pin-connected Parker Truss bridge originally built in 1908 at Curlew, Washington, US, to span the Kettle River just downstream from the point where the river turns north. After many years of partial repairs, the bridge was dismantled and rebuilt during 2006-2007, to restore the entire structure.
Original Construction.
This is the second bridge since 1901 to span the Kettle River at this spot. Originally used for a ferry crossing by the native tribes of the area, a cable ferry had been built in 1897 and washed away in the floods of 1898. To replace the ferry, a "Corduroy" bridge constructed from logs was erected in 1901. When the log bridge was destroyed by flood waters, bids were taken to replace the bridge in 1907. The contract was awarded to William Oliver for $7,975, and construction was completed in 1908. This was the No. 165 bridge built by William Oliver.
Refurbishment.
General maintenance over the years involved painting of the bridge in 1935 and complete replacement of the wooden bridge deck several times. A general maintenance inspection in June 2004 revealed that several of the pins in the bridge were showing extreme wear, and the bridge was closed to all but foot-traffic.
Several options for replacement of the bridge had been discussed, but discarded due to the poor reception by the community. Removal of the bridge was also considered but rejected due to overwhelming community sentiment for saving the bridge.
The county applied for funds to rehabilitate the bridge in August 2004 and received funds in September 2004. Bids for the rehabilitation were taken and the job awarded to Wesslen Construction for $1,446,567. Work began in June 2006, with the bridge being entirely dismantled and transported to Spokane. Each part was inspected and repaired or replaced, including sandblasting all the parts and the replacement of the wooden stringers underneath the bridge to increase the load capacity. The parts were then transported back to Curlew on 3 semi-trailers and reassembled. The bridge was officially reopened on February 14, 2007.
See also.
List of Registered Historic Places in Washington