Operation Formation Star

Operation Formation Star was the code name for the emergency re-deployment of U.S. Seventh Fleet warships to the Sea of Japan off the eastern coast of North Korea following that country's seizure of the in international waters on 23 January 1968.
This surge deployment was the largest build-up of U.S. naval forces around the Korean Peninsula since the end of the Korean War, but Operation Formation Star placed considerable strain on the Seventh Fleet's support for the Vietnam War during the Tet Offensive, particularly its aircraft carrier operations at Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin.
Operation Formation Star was executed in conjunction with Operation Combat Fox, a surge deployment of additional land-based combat aircraft squadrons to the U.S. Fifth Air Force in the Far East. Additionally, the "Pueblo" Crisis saw a limited presidential-authorized call-up of U.S.-based units of the Naval Reserve, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard to active duty, the first such call-up since the Berlin Crisis of 1961.
Although a wide range of military options were considered, the Johnson Administration elected to resolve the "Pueblo" crisis diplomatically, with Operation Formation Star helping to provide a "measured show of force" during the "Pueblo" crisis.
Background.
Tensions along the Korean demilitarized zone (DMZ).
Also referred to as a Second Korean War, the Korean DMZ Conflict was a series of low-level armed clashes between North Korean forces and the forces of South Korea and the United States, largely occurring between 1966 and 1969 at the Korean DMZ. The number of incidents along the DMZ jumped from 37 in 1966 to 435 in 1967, with a combined 1967 total of 371 fatalities involving North Korea, South Korea, and United Nations forces while there were no fatalities in 1966 ("see chart"). Also, during 1967, there were two sabotage attempts to disrupt South Korea railroad operations, the first such attempts since the end of the Korean War. Additionally, in 1967, a South Korean patrol vessel was sunk by North Korea shore batteries over a fishing dispute, with thirty-nine of the 79-man crew killed.
Finally, in the most overt incident to date, North Korean commandos from Unit 124 unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate the South Korea president Park Chung-hee at the presidential residence Blue House in Seoul, South Korea, on 21 January 1968.
Operation Clickbeetle.
Operation Clickbeetle was the code-name for United States electronic and radio intelligence-gathering operations by small converted coastal cargo ships that operated close to potential enemies' coastline in international waters. The first vessel in this program was and the second was the "Pueblo". Beginning in 1965, the "Banner" completed fifteen intelligence missions involving the Soviet Union and China, with only three missions that also included North Korea. While both China and the Soviet Union in particular challenged "Banner"s presence off their coasts, the North Koreans virtually ignored the U.S. vessel. "Banner" and "Pueblo" were under the direct operational control of the Commander, Naval Forces Japan Rear Admiral Frank L. Johnson through the Task Force 96 command staff.
Operational summary.
On 11 January 1968, USS "Pueblo" left Sasebo, Japan, and headed northward through the Tsushima Strait into the Sea of Japan. "Pueblo"s specific orders were to intercept and conduct surveillance of Soviet Pacific Fleet activity in the Tsushima Strait and to gather signal and electronic intelligence from North Korea. To maintain a low profile, no naval escort was provided nor were any land-based interceptor jets on stand-by alert for "Pueblo"s mission. After an uneventful mission to date, "Pueblo" was observed by a North Korea sub-chaser on 21 January 1968 in international waters off Wonsan. On 23 January 1968, the "Pueblo" was shadowed by two North Korea fishing trawlers before being intercepted and boarded by a North Korean SO1 class submarine chaser and three P 4-class torpedo boats, all outside North Korea's territorial waters.
Initial response.
On the day of the "Pueblo"s seizure, 23 January 1968, the closest U.S. naval force was Task Group 77.5 under the command of Rear Admiral Horace H. Epes, Jr., consisting of the nuclear-powered attack aircraft carrier , the nuclear-powered guided-missile frigate , and the guided-missile frigate . At the time of the initial alert, the task group was steaming in the East China Sea en route to Yankee Station off North Vietnam; it was approximately from the last reported position of the "Pueblo" or from Wonsan, the nearest North Korean seaport to "Pueblo". Now re-designated Task Group 70.6, the "Enterprise" task group was ordered to proceed "at best speed" to the southern entrance of the Tsushima Strait. Also, the "Pueblo"s sister-ship, "Banner", was ordered to suspend its intelligence-gathering mission and return to Yokosuka, Japan, immediately.
A number of factors prevented an immediate response from the "Enterprise"s embarked Carrier Air Wing Nine of 85 aircraft. The air wing's aircraft had sustained damage from a recent typhoon and those remaining 35 operational strike aircraft had to be re-spotted on the flight deck and armed with air-to-surface ordnance. Additionally, the ship could not stage replacement aircraft through Japan due to the status of forces agreement that prohibited the combat use of U.S. military aircraft re-deployed from a neutral nation. Another factor was that Wonsan was protected by 14 anti-aircraft batteries, two surface-to-air missile sites, and up to 75 MiG fighters.
Later on 23 January 1968, CINCPAC Admiral Ulysses S. Grant Sharp, Jr., requested authorization from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff for Task Group 70.6 to carry out photographic reconnaissance of Wonsan to determine the location of the "Pueblo". Upon hearing about the seizure of the "Pueblo", Admiral John J. Hyland, Jr., recognized the possibility of sending a warship into Wonsan harbor to board and recapture the "Pueblo". Accordingly, Hyland directed his U.S. Pacific Fleet headquarters staff to order the U.S. Seventh Fleet to divert a destroyer and "prepare to engage in operations that may include towing "Pueblo" and/or retrieval of "Pueblo" crew/provide air cover as appropriate." Vice Admiral William F. Bringle ordered his Seventh Fleet staff to deploy the destroyer ("pictured") to Wonsan as a contingency for such an operation, with a second destroyer to be sent as a back-up. Additionally, on that same date, Lieutenant General Seth J. McKee, of the Fifth Air Force ordered a strike force of twelve F-105 fighter-bombers to Osan Air Base in South Korea with orders to sink the "Pueblo" in Wonsan harbor.
Early on 24 January 1968, the U.S. Pacific Fleet headquarters ordered Task Group 70.6 to remain below the 36th parallel North (Defender Station) and take "no overt action until further informed." Subsequent orders directed the "Enterprise" task group to the Korea Strait, and to gain additional sea room, the task group temporarily withdrew to the East China Sea. Land-based anti-submarine patrols in support of Task Group 70.6 were limited to a two-plane barrier patrol. Additionally, all signal intelligence-gathering flights over the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan were temporarily suspended until further notice. Finally, the "Higbee" was recalled from the Wonsan area.
On the evening of 25 January 1968, a high-altitude A-12 reconnaissance aircraft overflew Wonsan harbor and confirmed that the "Pueblo" was anchored there and surrounded by North Korean naval vessels ("pictured above").
Crisis management.
The U.S. Pacific Command and U.S. Pacific Fleet planning staffs offered a number of military options in response to the "Pueblo" crisis. These options were forwarded to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff and the rest of the National Command Authority apparatus while the U.S Seventh Fleet and U.S. Fifth Air Force command staffs developed contingency plans. On Friday, 26 January 1968, the inter-agency Korea Working Group met to discuss the "Pueblo" crisis, which included consideration of the following military, diplomatic, and economic options:
On 29 January 1968, a senior advisory panel reviewed the working group's list of options and recommended a diplomatic, non-military approach to ending the "Pueblo" crisis. To support this diplomatic effort, Operation Formation Star was initiated, with the "Enterprise"-led Task Group 70.6 serving initially as its centerpiece.
Naval build-up.
Effective 25 January 1968, in conjunction with Operation Combat Fox, Operation Formation Star was initiated. Both operations represented a major surge deployment of U.S. naval and air forces into the Sea of Japan region off the eastern coast of North Korea, the largest since the end of the Korean War. Concurrently with Operation Formation Star and Operation Combat Fox, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Executive Order 11392 ordering certain units of the Ready Reserve of the Naval Reserve, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard of the United States to active duty. For the U.S. Naval Reserve, this call-up involved six naval air reserve (NAR) squadrons totaling 72 aircraft (A-4 and F-8) as well as two Seabee construction battalions for an overall total of 1621 naval reservists activated. This was the first time that the Reserves had been called up since the Berlin Crisis of 1961. Taken together, the purpose of this build-up/call-up was to provide a "measured show of force" in support of the diplomatic effort to resolve the "Pueblo" crisis peacefully.
Although not directly related to Operation Formation Star, the Republic of Korea Navy also dispatched nineteen ships and two fast patrol boats to sixteen patrol zones around South Korea. Also, at the United Nations Command in South Korea, General Charles H. Bonesteel III was concerned about border security and recommended two U.S. destroyers and maritime patrol aircraft reinforce the South Korean naval and air units conducting maritime patrol and interdiction.
Task Force 71.
On 25 January 1968, the newly augmented "Enterprise"-led Task Group 70.6 sailed through Tsushima Strait and into the Sea of Japan. The task group would operate below 36th parallel North during Operation Formation Star. Between 24 and 26 January 1968, the destroyers "Higbee", "Collett", , and "Ozbourn" joined Task Group 70.6.
On 27 January 1968, Task Group 77.7 led by the attack aircraft carrier was detached from duty with Task Force 77 at Yankee Station off North Vietnam and ordered to the Sea of Japan as part of Operation Formation Star, arriving at Defender Station on 31 January 1968. In order to do so, the tour of duty for the attack aircraft carrier with the U.S. Seventh Fleet was extended by another month. Likewise, the support aircraft carrier and its Task Group 70.0 were ordered to forego a scheduled port-call in Japan and was diverted to the Sea of Japan. By 1 February 1968, "Yorktown", "Ranger" and "Enterprise" were operating in the Sea of Japan as Task Force 71 under the command of Rear Admiral Horace H. Epes, Jr., with the "Enterprise" as his flagship.
Task Force 71 was organized into a two-carrier strike group ("Enterprise" and "Ranger"), a surface action group, and an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) unit centered around the "Yorktown" and her escorts. As the surface sub-surface surveillance operations coordinator (SSSC) for Task Force 71, the "Yorktown" and its embarked Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 55 (CVSG-55) provided near-continuous anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and anti-shipping air operations throughout February 1968, with the exception of a single period of nine hours when flight operations were suspended owing to inclement winter weather conditions ("pictured").
Additional ASW assets for Operation Formation Star included land-based Lockheed SP-2H Neptune and Lockheed P-3A/B Orion maritime patrol aircraft from patrol squadrons VP-2, VP-17, VP-19, and VP-48. Between 24 and 31 January 1968, Neptune and Orion patrol aircraft flew over 50 ASW barrier patrols over the Sea of Japan and subsequently flew an additional 238 mission in February. This operational tempo placed such a burden on patrol aircraft based in Japan that additional aircraft from Okinawa and the Philippines were used to augment the barrier patrols.
The area air defense for Task Force 71 was greatly enhanced when the guided-missile cruiser ("pictured") was detached from PIRAZ duty off Vietnam for operations in the Sea of Japan on 28 January 1968. Equipped with modernized electronic systems, an improved combat information center using the Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS), and long-range RIM-8 Talos anti-aircraft missiles, "Chicago" coordinated air activities for the TF-71 aircraft carriers. The and were the other two guided-missile cruisers assigned to Task Force 71, joining the guided-missile frigates "Bainbridge", "Halsey", and .
To support Task Force 71, Task Force 73 created an underway replenishment group that included the fast combat support ship ; the fleet oilers and , the combat stores ship ; and the ammunition ship . To service TF-71's flotilla of destroyers, the destroyer tender
 was deployed to Sasebo, Japan.
USS "Banner" re-deployment.
In conjunction with the naval build-up in the Sea of Japan under Operations Formation Star, USS "Banner" ("pictured") was deployed to the Sea of Japan off the east coast of North Korea. The objective of this re-deployment was to reassert the right to carry out intelligence-gathering operations in international waters, with the "Banner" joining Task Force 71 on 31 January 1968. Unlike the "Pueblo", the command-and-control apparatus during "Banner"s deployment was under the direct control of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff via Admiral Ulysses S. Grant Sharp, Jr., the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Pacific Command. Also, a surface action group consisting of the heavy cruiser "Canberra" and destroyers "Ozbourn" and "Higbee" served as a covering force for the "Banner", operating in the immediate vicinity while providing anti-submarine coverage.
Submarine operations.
Of the seventeen U.S. submarine then deployed in the Far East, nine nuclear and non-nuclear submarines were ordered on 27 January 1968 to re-deploy to the Sea of Japan for up to three months of operations off the Korean Peninsula. At the direction of Rear Admiral Walter L. Small, the Commander Submarine Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC), the out-chop (release from current assignment) orders were cancelled for the following submarines, causing them to remain with the U.S. Seventh Fleet:
Also, Admiral Small ordered the following submarines to deployed from Naval Station Pearl Harbor, chopping to (joining) the U.S. Seventh Fleet no later than 8 February 1968:
The "Swordfish" ("pictured") sustained significant damage to her masts from an ice block in the Sea and Japan on 3 March 1968 and had withdrew to United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka in Japan for repairs. More seriously was the alleged two-day, non-stop depth-charging of the "Segundo" ("pictured") by the North Korean Navy off Wonsan harbor, which damaged the submarine's forward decking and ruptured a fuel tank. Shipboard classified materials and equipment were prepared for destruction in case the "Segundo" was forced to the surface and boarded. As a potential consequence of this alleged incident, in July 1970, a U.S. Navy Board of Inspection and Survey survey team determined that the "Segundo" was unfit for further service, and she was decommissioned on 1 August 1970 and subsequently sunk as a target by on 8 August 1970.
Finally, the GUPPY IIA diesel-electric submarine ("pictured") was specifically tasked for cover and search-and rescue operations during the "Pueblo" crisis that conceivable could have included special operation missions.
Contingency operations.
Boarding and rescue mission.
While the inter-agency Korea Working Group in Washington, D.C., met to consider military options, Seventh Fleet planners were likewise considering contingency operations. One proposed option was a cutting-out operation wherein a destroyer would enter Wonson harbor, board and re-take the docked "Pueblo", and tow the ship out to the open water, with a second destroyer providing support. Pacific Fleet commander Admiral John J. Hyland, Jr. initially directed the Seventh Fleet to divert the destroyer "Higbee" to Wonsan and "prepare to engage in operations that may include towing "Pueblo" and/or retrieval of "Pueblo" crew/provide air cover as appropriate." The "Higbee" was eventually recalled and the boarding operation was not initially undertaken.
After his ship joined Task Force 71 on 24 January 1968, Commander John G. Denham volunteered USS "Ozbourn" for this mission, citing the ship's success in supporting Operation Sea Dragon off the coast of South Vietnam ("pictured"). Admiral Epes approved Denham's request, and the "Ozbourn"s crew began drilling in preparation for the mission. The plan called for a 10-man boarding party to retake the moored "Pueblo" in Wonsan harbor and then lash that ship to the "Ozbourn" which would back out and exit the harbor. While confident, Commander Denham noted: "I didn't know what this would cost us, but I couldn't see us getting out there free."
During part of this time, "Ozbourn" operated with the surface action group providing cover for the spy ship off the east coast of North Korea, with the other destroyer being the . Had this later boarding option been executed, it was likely "Higgins" would have provided support to "Ozbourn" in Wonsan harbor while the guided-missile heavy cruiser provided long-range naval gunfire support by bombarding the harbor as well as offering anti-aircraft missile defense against North Korea aircraft.
Although the "Ozbourn" was on alert for the next 30 days after joining Task Force 71, the boarding-rescue mission was never executed, and the "Ozbourn" was released from duty with Task Force 71 on 4 March 1968.
Air strikes.
CINCPAC planners proposed three options for quick-reaction air strikes against North Korea, with the first option supported by carrier-based aircraft from Task Force 71 while the third option involved a joint strike operation by carrier-based and land-based aircraft. A fourth separate option recommended by CINCPAC was code-named Fresh Storm. This massive combined air campaign was designed "to eliminate without delay the North Korean order of battle by striking all North Korean airfield" ("see map") using various combinations of bombers and attack aircraft from Task Force 71, the U.S. Fifth Air Force, and the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF).
The air-strike contingencies under consideration required sufficient ordnance to support such operations. Currently available ammunition reserves for the U.S. Navy totaled some stored in Japan, and planners estimated that potentially an additional of naval ordnance were needed for Task Force 71. Accordingly, the U.S. Navy's Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) diverted the chartered cargo ship "Clearwater Victory" to the U.S. naval base at Sasebo, Japan, for the Navy ammo supply depot there. From Sasebo, the ammunition ship would distribute the munitions to Task Force 71 operating at Point Defender off the east coast of North Korea in the Sea of Japan. All additional stocks of munitions for the Navy and the Air Force were completely available by 10 February 1968.
The two-carrier strike group for Task Force 71 consisted of the and with their embarked carrier air wings, Carrier Air Wing Nine and Carrier Air Wing Two respectively. Initially, the principal naval aircraft for any air strikes against North Korea were the 12 Grumman A-6A Intruder attack aircraft ("pictured") embarked on board the "Enterprise" as part of Attack Squadron 35 under the command of Commander Glenn E. Kollmann. By 1 February 1968, Task Force 71 gained an additional 10 A-6 aircraft embarked on board the "Ranger" as part of Attack Squadron 165 under the command of Commander William S. Jett III.
The A-6 was an all-weather medium-size attack bomber that was capable of carrying up to of ordnance, both conventional and nuclear, in one centerline and four wing strongpoints. What set the A-6 apart was its inter-connected digital system used for its bombing missions which prompted the official U.S. Navy history of Operation Rolling Thunder to note:
A key feature of the early Intruders was the digital integrated attack system (DIANE) that combined search and track radars; navigation, communications, and identication equipment; a cockpit display system; and a high-speed digital computer. DIANE enabled the pilot to preselect a target, guide the aircraft, release the weapons, and leave the target area automatically. From the time an Intruder catapulted from a carrier’s flight deck to its return from a mission over Vietnam the pilot had no need for visual references.
Other TF-71 strike aircraft included 32 Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and 28 LTV A-7 Corsair II sub-sonic light attack aircraft supported by 57 McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II supersonic fighter-bombers and 15 converted Douglas A-3 Skywarrior heavy attack aircraft serving as aerial tankers and electronic warfare platforms. With the exception of the F-4 Phantom II, all TF-71 strike aircraft were capable of both nuclear and non-nuclear missions. Additionally, 6 converted North American A-5 Vigilante supersonic attack bombers provided reconnaissance support while 8 Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye aircraft provided all-weather airborne early warning (AEW) support.
Several factors that undoubtedly influenced the decision not to go ahead with air strikes against North Korea was that by 5 February 1968 a picket line of Soviet warships had formed along the 38th parallel North that could provide advanced warning to North Korea of any carrier aircraft being launched by Task Force 71. Likewise the Soviet intelligence-gathering vessel "Gidrofon" was directly monitoring Task Force 71 operations in the Sea of Japan and could also provide advanced warning of any carrier air strikes. Finally, winter weather conditions affected flight operations:
Bitter winter weather plagued the ships and their men throughout the confrontation. Slightly modified continental polar air dominated the weather over the Sea of Japan into February. Rain and snow showers repeatedly pounded the region during the mornings, followed by partly cloudy skies into the afternoons and clouds overnight. Snow fell onto "Enterprise"s flight deck and slush sometimes gathered to a thickness of a half inch, and the wind chill repeatedly fell below freezing.
Special operations.
At the United Nations Command in South Korea, General Charles H. Bonesteel III recommended that American and South Korean ground forces engage in secret hit-and-run attacks against North Korea. The GUPPY IIA diesel-electric submarine was specifically tasked for cover and search-and rescue operations during the "Pueblo" crisis that conceivable could have included special operation missions.
Mining, naval blockade, and maritime interdiction.
Consideration was given to mining nine North Korean seaports, with four harbors mined from the air while the other five would by mined from the air and submarines. CINCPAC assured the Joint Chiefs of Staff that the Seventh Fleet has sufficient mines available to carry out this mission while having ample stocks in reserve for any potential mining operations against North Vietnam. For comparison, the inter-agency Korea Working Group determined that 17 sorties of A-6 aircraft from the carrier would be needed to drop 83 naval mines just to close Wonsan harbor. Likewise, a naval blockade or the interception and seizure of North Korean merchant marine or fishing vessels on the high seas were also examined by the inter-agency Korea Working Group, and pursuant to either objective, the Central Intelligence Agency compiled a very detailed list of both DPRK-flagged ships either underway or in port, as well as noting foreign-flagged ships anchored in North Korean ports.
Soviet reaction.
Naval activity.
Beginning in the mid-1950s, the United States Navy took note of the use of Soviet fishing trawlers as intelligence-gathering vessels operating near the United States. Often such trawlers interfered with the navigation of U.S. naval vessels, particularly surfaced submarines. Likewise, starting in early 1963, long-range land-based Soviet bombers began overflying U.S. aircraft carriers, often resulting in the disruption of flight operations ("pictured"). For example, on 23 January 1968, the Soviet intelligence-gathering vessel "Gidrofon" ("pictured") repeatedly crossed the bow of the aircraft carrier as it was departing the U.S. naval base at Sasebo, Japan, causing the carrier to stop and reverse engines in order to avoid a collision. This Soviet spy vessel subsequently monitored Task Force 71 operations in the Sea of Japan until 5 March 1968.
As the "Pueblo" crisis unfolded, the presence of such a large U.S. naval force in the Sea of Japan prompted the Soviet Union to deploy its own warships and naval aircraft to the area in response. The USSR's Red Banner Pacific Fleet initially deployed a Kildin-class destroyer, a Kotlin-class destroyer, a Riga-class frigate, two intelligence-gathering trawlers, four fleet tankers, and a water tender in response to the U.S. naval force in the Sea of Japan. Likewise, "considerable" naval activity by the Chinese Navy in the Yellow Sea was also duly noted.
On 25 January 1968, the "Enterprise"-led Task Group 70.6 sailed past the Riga-class frigate and Uda-class oiler patrolling the entrance of Tsushima Strait. Later that same day, a Kashin-class destroyer began trailing TG-70.6 in the Sea of Japan. A Kotlin-class destroyer subsequently joined in shadowing the now-activated Task Force 71. By 5 February 1968, a picket line of Soviet warships formed along the 38th parallel North that included two Kynda-class cruisers and three Kashin-class destroyers. Also, on that date, another six Soviet destroyers steamed into the Sea of Japan, as well as at least two Soviet submarines were also operating in Sea of Japan. Ultimately, the Soviet fleet commander, Admiral Nikolay N. Amelko, committed fully half of his cruiser-destroyer forces based in Vladivostok to monitor U.S. naval forces during the "Pueblo" crisis. Likewise, Pacific-based Soviet Naval Aviation maritime patrol bombers were also flying multiple daily missions to monitor Task Force 71. On 7 February 1968 alone, ten Tupolev Tu-16 Badger bombers approached U.S. naval forces at altitudes between and .
As the surface and sub-surface surveillance operations coordinator (SSSC) for Task Force 71, the "Yorktown" and its embarked Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 55 (CVSG-55) provided near-continuous anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and anti-shipping air operations throughout February 1968, with the exception of a single period of nine hours when flight operations were suspended owing to inclement winter weather conditions. This air coverage included surveillance of Soviet naval activity in the Sea of Japan. After relieving "Yorktown" on 1 March 1968, the ASW support aircraft carrier "Kearsarge" and its embarked Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 53 (CVSG-53) monitored Soviet naval activity throughout the month of March. Soviet warships identified during that time period included a "Sverdlov"-class cruiser, a "Krupny"-class guided-missile destroyer, a "Kashin"-class guided-missile destroyer ("pictured"), a modified "Kotlin"-class destroyer, and two "Riga"-class frigates.
Between 23 January and 21 February 1968, the U.S. Seventh Fleet reported 14 cases of harassment by Soviet naval vessels, with the most damaging occurring on 1 February 1968 when the U.S. destroyer and the 10,000-dwt Soviet freighter "Kapitan Vislobokov" punched above-the-waterline holes in their hulls during a collision. This latter incident prompted a formal Soviet protest on 2 February 1968 and a counter-protest from the United States on 4 February. On 22 February 1968, Admiral John J. Hyland, Jr., transmitted a detailed U.S. Pacific Fleet communique to CINCPAC Admiral Ulysses S. Grant Sharp, Jr., detailing the increased number of at-sea incidents between Soviet and American naval vessels in the Sea of Japan. The Hyland communique cited 14 specific incidents, with "many of all deliberately intended" to be harassing U.S. naval operations. On 1 March 1968, Admiral Sharp forwarded the Hyland communique to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. The JSC formed a panel to examine the subject and adopted the OPNAV position on negotiating a diplomatic agreement to reduce at-sea incidents with the USSR.
Diplomatic activity.
Publicly, in addition to deploying Soviet naval forces to the Sea of Japan, on 3 February 1968, the Soviet government sent a letter to the President Lyndon B. Johnson demanding that the United States scale back its naval build-up off North Korea. Later, on 4 February 1968, in private negotiations at the Joint Security Area on the Korean Demilitarized Zone, DPRK Major General Pak Chung-kuku specifically demanded that the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier be moved out of the Sea of Japan to his American counterpart, Rear Admiral John Victor Smith, in order to "eliminate the atmosphere of compulsion" being imposed upon North Korea. Likewise, on 4 February 1968, Korean Task Force chairman Samuel D. Berger recommended to President Johnson via Secretary of State Dean Rusk that moving the carrier "Enterprise" was the "simplest and safest gesture" at the start of negotiations with North Korea for the release of the "Pueblo"s crew.
In his response to the Kosygin letter, on 5 February 1968, President Johnson stated that “on the assumption that . . . we (i.e., Washington and Moscow) want peace in that area and that we will both work to that end” and promised to move carrier task group "somewhat southward" as a goodwill gesture. President Johnson then personally ordered Captain Kent L. Lee to move the "Enterprise" south of its then-current position, passing through the Tsushima Strait while staying within 12 hours steaming distance from North Korea. Privately, on 6 February 1968, Premier Alexei Kosygin assured U.S. Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson that the Soviet Union had no intention of going to war over Kim Il Sung's provocation caused by the seizure of the "Pueblo" in recognized international waters.
This movement of the "Enterprise" drew a private rebuke by the President of South Korea Park Chung-hee to U.S. Ambassador William J. Porter on 8 February 1968. However, this Kosygin-Johnson exchange enabled General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev to make a subsequent face-saving statement to the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union that the United States had responded to the Soviet letter by withdrawing the "Enterprise".
On 16 February 1968, Rear Admiral Horace H. Epes, Jr., transferred his flag to the attack aircraft carrier , and the "Enterprise" departed the Sea of Japan for duty with Task Force 77 at Yankee Station off North Vietnam in response to the unfolding Tet Offensive ("pictured").
Stand-down.
Operational considerations.
Operation Formation Star placed a considerable strain on the United States Seventh Fleet's support for the Vietnam War, particularly aircraft carrier operations with Task Force 77 at Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin ("picture"). Two days before the capture of the "Pueblo", 21 January 1968, North Vietnamese Army began its siege against Khe Sanh Combat Base near the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Seven days after the "Pueblo" crisis started, the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam launched the Tet Offensive, a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam. Concurrent with both events, Task Force 77's support of Operation Rolling Thunder was greatly hampered by poor weather conditions over North Vietnam.
At a briefing held 29 January 1968, Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Thomas H. Moorer advised the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff that Task Force 71 as constituted could operate for up to six weeks before the Seventh Fleet's carrier operations off Vietnam would start showing signs of degrading, necessitating a reduction in the operational tempo there. As an interim solution, a scheduled rest and recreation period for the attack aircraft carrier was cancelled in order to stay at Yankee Station. Also, the tour of duty for the attack carrier "Coral Sea" was extended by an additional month, and extending the deployment of the attack carrier was also considered.
Diplomatic considerations.
With the "Pueblo" crisis evolving towards an eventual diplomatic conclusion, U.S. naval operations in the Sea of Japan began to wind down. Starting on 2 February 1968, the first of 29 "private" meetings between the American and North Korean representatives to the United Nations Command, Military Armistice Commission, Korea (UNCMAC) took place to start the negotiations for the release of the "Pueblo"s crew. By 4 March 1968, the inter-departmental Korea Task Force concluded that “available military action would be mere pin-pricks unlikely to move North Koreans, and would probably prejudice chances of getting men back.” This viewpoint as not shared by the U.S. Ambassador to South Korea William J. Porter who in a 12 March 1968 cable to the U.S. Department of State stated that the "withdrawal [of] CVAs (i.e., attack aircraft carriers) will not advance matters at Panmunjom and might probably retard progress there" for a diplomatic resolution to the "Pueblo" crisis.
Redeployment.
The "Yorktown" departed Defender Station for North Vietnam after being relieved by the "Kearsarge" on 1 March 1968. The "Ranger" was relieved by the attack aircraft carrier on 4 March 1968, allowing "Ranger" to return to air combat operations off North Vietnam starting 19 March 1968. Although not directly related to Operation Formation Star, on 5 March 1968, the Soviet intelligence-gathering vessel "Gidrofon" was relieved by the "Dnepr"-class intelligence-gathering vessel "Protraktor" of its monitoring of Task Force 71. Likewise, on 6 March 1968, "Coral Sea"s extended combat air patrol intercepted and escorted the only Tupolev Tu-16 Badger bomber to approach Task Force 71 during "Coral Sea"s deployment to Defender Station. Finally, on 22 March 1968, the remaining task groups led by the carriers , , and departed Defender Station off the east coast of North Korea, formally ending Operation Formation Star.
Aftermath.
Although a wide range of military options were considered, the Johnson administration elected to resolve the "Pueblo" crisis diplomatically. However, the periodic rotation of U.S. aircraft carrier task forces to Defender Station off the North Korean coast provided additional leverage to American negotiators in talks to repatriate the crew of the "Pueblo". For example, the early December 1968 deployment of the attack aircraft carrier ("pictured") and its escorts to the Sea of Japan was timed to remind the North Korean government of the prospect of increased U.S. naval operations in the region following the bombing ceasefire over North Vietnam on 1 November 1968. This deployment of the "Hancock" task group was also prompted by the Uljin–Samcheok landings, the unsuccessful North Korean attempt to establish anti-government guerrilla camps in the Taebaek Mountains that took place on 30 October 1968.
Following an apology, a written admission by the United States that "Pueblo" had been spying, and an assurance that the U.S. would not spy on North Korea in the future, the North Korean government released the 82 remaining "Pueblo" crew members at the North Korean border with South Korea on 23 December 1968, just over 11 months after the "Pueblo" had been initially seized.
Although unrelated to Operation Formation Star, the six U.S. Naval Air Reserve (NAR) combat squadrons called up during the "Pueblo" crisis remained on active duty through September 1968. This "Pueblo" Incident reserve call-up revealed pervasive readiness and systemic short-comings within the NAR command infrastructure. This situation prompted sweeping reforms of the Naval Air Reserve to better reflect the operational and readiness requirements of the active-duty naval aviation arm of the United States Navy. In 1970, the NAR initiated a major re-organization that integrated existing NAR carrier-based combat squadrons into two reserve carrier air wings (CVWR-20 and CVWR-30) and two reserve anti-submarine carrier air wings (CVSGR-70 and CVSGR-80), as well as comparable re-grouping of existing land-based NAR patrol (VP) and transport (VR) squadrons.
Legacy.
Contemporaneously, the immediate American military build-up generated by Operation Formation Star and Operation Combat Fox did achieve "a measured show of force" following the seizure of the USS "Pueblo", prompting diplomatic engagement from the governments of North Korea and the Soviet Union. U.S. Ambassador William J. Porter was particularly supportive of carrier task forces operating at Defender Station in support of U.S. diplomatic efforts to resolve the "Pueblo" crisis. Consequently, over the balance of 1968, the periodic deployment of U.S. carrier task groups to Defender Station off the east coast of North Korea provided additional leverage to U.S. diplomatic efforts to gain the release of the "Pueblo"s crew from North Korean captivity. That said, the United States Navy's initial response to the "Pueblo" Incident drew a sharp Congressional rebuke.
From an historical perspective, the ultimate effectiveness of Operation Formation Star and Operation Combat Fox remains a matter of debate, with military historian Daniel P. Bolger noting that "the contingency deployments did their job" while naval analyst Norman Polmar characterized Task Force 71 as being a "meaningless assembly of U.S. warships in the Sea of Japan following the North Korean seizure of the U.S. spy ship "Pueblo"." Historian Robert A. Mobley summarized the impact of Operation Formation Star, Operation Combat Fox, and the call-up of state-side military reserves during the "Pueblo" Incident by noting:
Thus the United States girded for war while seeking to avoid it. . . The United States, then, never abandoned the option of force, but the most visible and frenetic military efforts were over. In more ways than were then publicly apparent, the U.S. military had handled a daunting array of planning, deployment, and logistical tasks smoothly and in a remarkably short period. The incident remains painful to recall, even so long after the fact. The [archival] material now available, however, makes much clearer how military commanders and national decision makers responded to an unprecedented and challenging situation. Analogous problems would later arise in Tehran and Lebanon, when concern for American lives and the limitations of military force would compel U.S. leaders to use diplomatic means to free Americans held hostage.
Less than four months after the release of the "Puelbo"s crew, Task Force 71 ("pictured") was reconstituted following the 15 April 1969 shoot-down of an EC-121 reconnaissance aircraft in international airspace by the North Korean Air Force, with the nuclear-powered attack aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" once again serving as its flagship.


Chastel Blanc

Chastel Blanc (, Burj Safita or Safita Tower) is a medieval structure in Safita, western Syria. It was built by the Knights Templar during the Crusades upon prior fortifications. Located on the middle hill of Safita's three hills, it offers a commanding view of the surrounding countryside, and was a major part of the network of Crusader fortifications in the area. From the roof, a view ranging see from the Mediterranean Sea to the snow-covered mountains of Lebanon, and County of Tripoli, is offered. From Chastel Blanc it would have been possible to see the Templar strongholds at Tartus and Ruad Island to the northwest, Chastel Rouge on the coastline to the southwest, Akkar to the south, and Krak des Chevaliers (the headquarters of the Syrian Knights Hospitallers) to the southeast.
History.
The region was initially controlled by the Crusaders by 1110, and was mentioned the first time in an Arab chronicle in 1112. The Knights Templar built a dungeon after 1117, then they possessed the tower by 1152. Later on, the tower was attacked by Nur ad-Din in 1167, to be recaptured by the Templars in the same year, and was rebuilt after the 1170 earthquake, then in 1188 after Saladin's invasion, and after the 1202 earthquake. The tower was eventually captured and destroyed by Baibars in 1271.
The tower served both as a chapel and a fortress, with thick walls constructed of massive and carefully fitted limestone blocks. The ground floor still contains a chapel, dedicated to St. Michael and used by the Greek Orthodox community of Safita. The second floor, which can be reached by a flight of partially destroyed stairs, served as a dormitory, and contains many small angled windows that were used by archers to defend the tower. Cut into the rock below the tower is a water cistern and a former weapons cache, essential elements in case of siege.
From the other fortifications of the castle, only a portal at to the east of the keep can still be seen today. During the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, efforts were made to restore the tower, causing great discomfort to the villagers that lived very close to it.
In 1946, when the castle's keep threatened to collapse, architect Pierre Coupel undertook an intensive programme of repairs.
Structure.
The structure base dates back to the Phoenician era. However, the tower visible today is the remaining keep of the original castle. It has a height of , a width of , and a length of . A large bell is on the western wall, and its sound can be heard up to from Safita. The castle had to be restored in 1170 and 1202 following damages due to earthquakes. The keep in its current shape probably dates from the reconstruction after 1202.


McNair Barracks

The McNair Barracks was a US Army installation in Lichterfelde, a locality in southwest Berlin, Germany. The barracks were named after Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair, an American Army officer who served in World War I and World War II and was killed in an infamous friendly fire incident on 25 July 1944 in the Battle of Normandy. The barracks housed the Infantry and Artillery units of the U.S. Army Berlin Brigade.
History.
Built in the 1930s, the structure originally housed the Telefunken headquarters and factory, until 1941 a joint venture of Siemens & Halske (S & H) and Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft. During the years of National Socialism, the buildings were mainly used for development and production of military equipment, and the radar-guided flak system was perfected there. In 1945 the Telefunken plant was converted into barracks for occupation soldiers, for which the German government paid the owners of the site a yearly rent for its use as an army barracks.
Use as barracks.
The US Army maintained four large military installations in Steglitz-Zehlendorf, Berlin: McNair, Andrews, Roosevelt and Turner. Members of the Berlin Brigade were stationed there from 1945 until 1994, including more than 100,000 male and female GIs. In addition to three infantry battalions, these installations accommodated several other smaller units, such as an Artillery Battery, motor pools, stockade, snack bar, theater, a church and a few other places. Many veterans from the Berlin Brigade view the McNair Barracks as the “nicest barracks” with spacious living quarters and public spaces.
In addition to housing for soldiers, the McNair Barracks had a church, barber shop, movie theater, service club, and a restaurant for soldiers' use. The barracks' mess hall walls had murals depicting military scenes and regimental insignia. American soldiers remembered eating at tables which the civilian waitresses had decorated with flowers. A former veteran of the Berlin Brigade commented that it as one of the "nicest" mess halls; "there were white walls and painted on them were the most beautiful murals I ever saw."
Closure.
In the early 1990s, the Berlin Command “drew down” its presence in the city. Over the succeeding four years, elements of the Berlin Brigade were either reassigned or deactivated. In the four years between the inactivation of the air group at Berlin Tempelhof Airport and fall 1994, 31 installations were closed, including the Andrews and McNair barracks, the American military hospital, and the General Lucius D. Clay Headquarters. The 27th "annual" Allied Forces Day Parade, held on 18 June 1994, which had been suspended in 1989, was reinstated for the occasion. That was the last parade of the "protecting powers"—France, the United States, and Great Britain—as the Berliners had called them.
On 12 July 1994, United States President Bill Clinton visited Berlin; after a speech at the Brandenburg gate he attended a ceremony at the Barracks, where the 4,000 troops of the Berlin Brigade paraded and the Color Guard furled the Brigade colors, prior to closing the installation.
Repurposing.
The barracks are being converted into upscale apartments, designed by the Berlin architects firm Tchoban, for eventual sale by S+P Real Estate GmbH, and named after the American movie actress Marilyn Monroe. Upscale flats will range in size from 60 to 260 square meters in size, with designer kitchens, parquet floors, and other quality features. A portion of the complex has been converted into a shopping mall.
Another section of the McNair Barracks has been converted into a museum, featuring soldiers' uniforms and signs from the borders of the different sectors of divided Berlin. Reunions for American veterans who served in Berlin are held every 4 July at the McNair Barracks.
Legacy.
From telecommunications factory to testing center to barracks to condominiums, the building has seen many uses. Within the context of Germany's 20th century, of all the buildings in Berlin, possibly this one reflects Berlin's many identities, the longest one being the western European city surrounded by the Eastern bloc, and occupied by foreign armies. The men and women who lived there were entitled to the Army of Occupation Medal with Germany clasp; technically, Berlin had remained occupied territory. (See Berlin Brigade.)


Siege of Nisibis (235)

In 224 AD, Ardashir defeated the Parthian empire and replaced it with the Sasanian Empire. He began to raid Roman territory almost immediately after he had taken power at Ctesiphon. When Severus Alexander launched a massive invasion of Persian empire in the early 230s, the Persian forces drove it back inflicting heavy casualties on the Roman army. The Sasanians then besieged the Roman city of Nisibis in 235 or 237 and eventually conquered it.


Antoni de Villarroel

Antonio de Villarroel y Pelaez (1656, Barcelona – 1726, A Coruña) was a Spanish military commander in the service of Philip V until 1710 in the War of the Spanish Succession. After the disgrace of the Duke of Orléans, he switched to the Habsburg cause of Charles VI, keeping his rank. In 1713 he was appointed general commander of the Army of Catalonia.
Military career.
He joined the army at a very young age, and in 1697, he defended Barcelona against a French army. At the beginning of the War of Spanish Succession, he fought with the army of Philip V, but the fall from grace of the Duke of Orléans forced him to Galicia where he joined the Allied anti-Borbón league. He was there appointed a deputy marshal for the Archduke Charles VI.
Once in the service of the Habsburgs, he distinguished himself in the Battle of Villaviciosa and in the thankless task of evacuation of Aragon in 1711. In recognition of his accomplishments, he was appointed supreme commander of the forces of Catalonia and was charged with organizing city defenses in the 1713-14 Siege of Barcelona. With just over 5,000 men, of whom about 3,500 were members of the guild militia, Villarroel was forced to defend the city against some 40,000 mixed French and Spanish supporters of Phillip V. As the summer of 1714 passed, desperate times in Barcelona forced Villarroel to attempt to force an exit of the city. The attempted exit was repulsed by the Duke of Berwick who had replaced the Duke of Popoli as commander of the besiegers. By September, the Franco-Spanish forces had opened a sizable breach in the walls and the city counselors pleaded with Villarroel to capitulate the city to the Duke of Berwick. Refusing to surrender the city, Villarroel continued defending the city until he was injured, whereupon the city was officially surrendered to the forces of Phillip V. Despite assurances given contrary to the fact, the 25 military commanders of Barcelona's defenses, including Villarroel, were all imprisoned.
Imprisonment and death.
Villarroel was imprisoned first in the castle of Alicante and later (1715) in A Coruña, where he died (22 February 1726). He spent his last years confined in a cell that flooded with the rising tide, circumstance that caused a total paralysis of his two legs. The actual date of his death was discovered by Josep Catà and Antoni Muñoz in 2009. Until then, it was considered that Villarroel had been released from the Alcazar of Segovia following the peace of Vienna and had lived in the pension that would have granted, until his death, the Archduke Charles Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
Legacy.
A street in the l'Eixample district of modern Barcelona is named after Villarroel.
In the historical novel "Victus" of the Catalan writer Albert Sánchez Piñol, about the war of the Spanish succession and specially the Siege of Barcelona, Villarroel is portrayed as the true hero of the Barcelona defense.


Landestrost Castle

Landestrost Castle () is a castle in the Weser Renaissance style that was built between 1573–84 in Neustadt am Rübenberge in the north German state of Lower Saxony. Integrated into fortifications, together with the town, it developed into an urban fortress typical of the 16th century. The castle was the representative residence and administrative headquarters of its master, Duke Eric II of Brunswick-Lüneburg. During the construction period from 1574 he renamed the town of Neustadt as Landestrost, something which was reverted after his death in 1584.


2d Day Bombardment Group

The 2d Day Bombardment Group was a United States Army Air Service unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I as part of the Air Service, Second United States Army. It was demobilized in France on 15 April 1919. There is no modern United States Air Force unit that shares its lineage and history.
History.
The 2d Day Bombardment Group was organized at Ourches Aerodrome, near Toul, France on 1 November 1918. The Group consisted of a Headquarters staff, and the 100th and 163d Aero Squadrons. Previous to this date, the Aero Squadrons were assigned to the Second Army Air Service, after arriving at the front on 26 October.
By 7 November after several days of organization, supply and the development of operations plans, all of the groups Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft were made ready for combat service over the lines. Also and adequate supply of bombs, munitions and aviation gasoline had been received from the 1st Air Depot.
On 8 November orders to engage in combat operations were received from Second Army, together with a list of objectives assigned to the group in enemy territory. Then followed a period of poor flying weather which made any sort of operation extremely futile. However, on the morning of 11 November, all planes were on the line, ready to proceed with a mission to bomb Conflant. However at 11:00am, the armistice with Germany took effect and all raids were called off.
After the Armistice, the squadrons continued with proficiency flying on a limited basis to keep the pilots proficient in their skills. The Group remained at Ourches Airdrome until 15 April 1919 when, with the inactivation of the Second Army Air Service, the unit was ordered demobilized, and all equipment was ordered returned to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Aerodrome.
Personnel were subsequently assigned to the Commanding General, Services of Supply and ordered to report to one of several staging camps in France. There, personnel awaited scheduling to report to one of the Base Ports in France for transport to the United States and subsequent demobilization.


Battle of Ginnis

The Battle of Ginnis (also known as the Battle of Gennis) was a minor battle of the Mahdist War that was fought on December 30, 1885, between soldiers of the Anglo-Egyptian Army and Mahdist Sudanese warriors of the Dervish State. The battle was caused by the Mahdist blockade of the Ginnis-Kosha Fort, which British commanders hoped to relieve.
The fighting resulted in a British victory that is principally remarkable as the last battle that was certainly fought by the British Army in red coats, although a Maxim battery from the Connaught Rangers may have fought in red at the Battle of Ferkeh in 1896.
Background.
Situation.
In 1884, a Sudanese Islamic religious leader, Muhammad Ahmed, also known as "The Mahdi", planned and executed a series of attacks that left a British general, William Hicks, and thousands of ill-trained Egyptian soldiers dead at the hands of angry Arab rebels called Dervishes or, more accurately, Mahdists. The Sudan was controlled by an Anglo-Egyptian administration. After it was decided that something must be done, General Charles Gordon was sent by the British government to be the Egyptian Army's Governor-General there. Gordon and his aide, Colonel John Donald Hamill Stewart, carried orders from both governments to evacuate the town from the Mahdi. Instead, Gordon built up the town's defenses and prepared for a siege. The British government sent two relief columns, the slow River Column and the mobile Desert Column, to rescue Gordon, Stewart and the Egyptian garrison. After both columns won hard-fought battles in Kirbekan and Abu Klea, respectively, Stewart was found to have bee been murdered by wandering Arabs north of Khartoum after his steamboat ran aground, and the treachery of an Egyptian deputy commander had allowed Khartoum to have been fallen. Gordon was killed, and the columns retreated, leaving behind a series of forts.
One of the forts was near the towns of Kosha and Ginnis, in northern Sudan, where a detachment of Cameron Highlanders and Egyptian-Sudanese troops from the Ninth Sudanese Battalion were stationed. Thousands of Mahdist warriors, led by their provincial amirs, began raiding in the vicinity of Ginnis. They besieged the fort, the garrison's Gardner gun was once dismounted by a Mahdist artillery barrage. General Evelyn Wood, the British commander in Egypt and the sirdar (commander) of the Egyptian Army, became concerned about the siege and the raids and ordered Major General Francis Grenfell, with a force of two infantry brigades and a cavalry brigade, to rid the area of Mahdists.
Grenfell's force.
The First Brigade consisted of the First Berkshires, the West Kent Regiment, the Second Durham Light Infantry, an Egyptian artillery battery escorted by 60 Egyptian troops and a Royal Engineer detachment. The brigade was commanded by Brigadier General Butler. Colonel Huyshe's Second Brigade was composed of the Yorkshire Regiment, six companies of the Cameron Highlanders, 152 Sudanese soldiers, 278 men of the 1st Egyptian Battalion, a mule battery of the Royal Artillery and detachments from both the British Camel Corps and its Egyptian counterpart. Three Gardner guns were also brought along by the Second Brigade. The cavalry brigade, led by Colonel Blake, was formed by another detachment of the Egyptian Camel Corps, a British Mounted Infantry company and 57 Egyptian cavalrymen. Some of the British troops were dressed in scarlet coats, but the Durham Light Infantry had left their red coats in Cairo before they headed south and were wearing khaki. The Egyptians were dressed in white or khaki. Some Egyptian officers preferred their traditional blue coat. British soldiers and officers wore white sun helmets, and the Egyptians wore red fezes.
Battle.
Opening clashes.
At 5:00 on the morning of December 30, 1885, General Grenfell and his troops marched out of their bivouack, which was between the Ginnis-Kosha fort and a smaller fort further south on the Nile. The First Brigade was at the head of the column, and the Camel Corps and Second Brigade followed. The Second Brigade took up positions overlooking Kosha, and the fort garrison, seizing the opportunity, sortied and stormed the town. On the Nile, the steamer "Lotus", which had mounted a Gardner gun, reported that a large body of Dervishes was moving out of Ginnis in the direction of Grenfell's column. The Camerons and Sudanese, followed by the Second Brigade and covered by the "Lotus", moved to investigate and counter the threat.
Main battle.
As the Second Brigade fought through the palm groves near Ginnis, Dervish riflemen fired several volleys at the First Brigade. Although the firing was inaccurate, the smoke that it created allowed spearmen to surprise the Camel Corps. In the ensuing skirmish, that detachment was forced to withdraw, but the Durham Light Infantry moved forward and repulsed the Dervish attack.
As the First Brigade prepared to attack the main Dervish camp near Ginnis, the Second Brigade entered the town itself. Fighting its way through the streets, it took control of it. Nearby, the First Brigade's attack forced the Dervishes to retreat from their camp and pull back into the Atab Defile. Grenfell then ordered Colonel Blake's cavalry brigade to dislodge the Arabs in the Defile. After the Mounted Infantry took the Atab Defile with a bayonet charge, a general pursuit began, but Blake halted his men and the Dervishes fled to the desert.
As the Firsst Egyptian Battalion marched through Kosha, the men noticed that some Dervishes, probably seeking shelter during the retreat from the town, had holed up, with their weapons, in a house. With a screw gun from the Mule Battery covering them, the Egyptians stormed the house. That encounter marked the end of the battle.
Aftermath.
The Anglo-Egyptian victory at Ginnis effectively ended the First Sudan Campaign and the first third of the Mahdist War, which had begun with the destruction of an Egyptian force near [[Fashoda]] in 1881. A few more campaigns, mainly defensive or relief operations, were fought until a large Anglo-Egyptian army, commanded by both Sirdar Sir [[Herbert Kitchener]], a former intelligence officer, and General Sir [[Reginald Wingate]] reconquered the Sudan in a massive campaign from 1896 to 1898. Most Mahdist resistance ended in the large-scale [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898.
External links.
[[Category:1885 in Sudan]]
[[Category:Battles of the Mahdist War]]
[[Category:Battles involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles involving Sudan]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1885]]
[[Category:December 1885 events]]


Paxton Boys

The Paxton Boys were frontiersman from along the Susquehanna River in central Pennsylvania who formed a vigilante group in 1763 to terrorize local American Indians in the aftermath of the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War. They are widely known for murdering 20 Susquehannock men, women, and children in events collectively called the Conestoga Massacre. The creation of the Paxton Boys stemmed from colonial anger at Pontiac's rebellion, and perceived lack of action taken by the Pennsylvania government. The Paxton Boys were violent and hostile, contrasting the Quaker pacifist worldview for which Pennsylvania is known.
Following attacks on the Conestoga, in January 1764 about 250 Paxton Boys marched on Philadelphia to demonstrate their anger at the legislator. Met by leaders in Germantown, they agreed to disperse on the promise by Benjamin Franklin to provide their grievances a hearing in the legislature.
Attack on Susquehannock.
In the aftermath of the French and Indian War, no Europeans had yet settled in the frontier of Pennsylvania. A new wave of Scots-Irish immigrants encroached on Native American land in the backcountry often in blatant violation of previously signed treaties. These settlers claimed that Indians often raided their homes. Reverend John Elder, who was the parson at Paxtang, became a leader of the settlers. He was known as the "Fighting Parson" and kept his rifle in the pulpit while he delivered his sermons. Elder helped organize the settlers into a mounted militia and was named captain of the group, known as the "Pextony boys."
Despite no provocation from the local native community, the Paxton Boys made unsubstantiated claims that the Conestoga secretly provided aid and intelligence to rebellious tribes. At daybreak on December 14, 1763, a vigilante group of drunken Scots-Irish frontiersmen attacked Conestoga homes at Conestoga Town (near present-day Millersville), murdered six, and burned their cabins.
The Susquehannock tribe had lived on the land which was ceded by William Penn to their ancestors in the 1690s. Many Conestoga were Christian, and they had lived peacefully with their European neighbors for decades. They lived by bartering handicrafts, hunting, and from subsistence food given to them by the Pennsylvania government. Because of a snowstorm, most of the Conestogas had been unable to reach home the previous evening and spent the night with neighbors. Those at the camp were scalped, or otherwise mutilated, and their huts were set on fire. Most of the camp burned down.
The colonial government held an inquest and determined that the killings were murder. The new governor, John Penn offered a reward for capture of the Paxton Boys. Penn placed the remaining sixteen Conestoga in protective custody in Lancaster but the Paxton Boys broke in on December 27, 1763. They killed, scalped and dismembered six adults and eight children. The government of Pennsylvania offered a new reward after this second attack, this time $600, for the capture of anyone involved. The attackers were never identified. Many of the residents of where they lived had sympathy towards the Paxton Boys and their efforts, therefore no prosecutions were put into act.
The Rev. Elder, who was not directly implicated in either attack, wrote to Governor Penn, on January 27, 1764:
March on Philadelphia.
In January 1764, the Paxton Boys marched toward Philadelphia with about 250 men to challenge the government for failing to protect them. Benjamin Franklin led a group of civic leaders to meet them in Germantown, then a separate settlement northwest of the city, and hear their grievances. After the leaders agreed to read the men's pamphlet of issues before the colonial legislature, the mob agreed to disperse.
Many colonists were outraged about the December killings of innocent Conestoga, describing the murders as more savage than those committed by Indians. Benjamin Franklin's "Narrative of the Late Massacres" concluded with noting that the Conestoga would have been safe among any other people on earth, no matter how primitive, except "'white savages' from Peckstang and Donegall!"
Lazarus Stewart, a former leader of the Paxton Boys, was killed by Iroquois warriors in the Wyoming Massacre in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. In the Wyoming Valley event, one of three famous massacres during many scattered Tory-Amerindian staged attacks on colonial settlements that year in Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania, Mohawk chief Joseph Brant led a group of Loyalists, Mohawk and other warriors against rebel colonial settlers in the area along the North Branch Susquehanna River. The raids resulted in the Sullivan Expedition the next year which effectively broke the power of the Six Nations of the Iroquois below Canada; and forced the British administration in Canada to shelter the Amerindians who fled from the devastation caused by the expedition.
In fiction.
Each of these novels references the Paxton Boys:


Battle of Sidi Bou Zid

The Battle of Sidi Bou Zid /Operation Spring Breeze) took place during the Tunisia Campaign from 14–17 February 1943, in World War II. The battle was fought around Sidi Bou Zid, where a large number of US Army units were mauled by German and Italian forces. It resulted in the Axis forces recapturing the strategically important town of Sbeitla in central Tunisia.
The battle was planned by the Germans to be a two-part offensive-defensive operation against US positions in western Tunisia. "Generaloberst" Hans-Jürgen von Arnim commanded several experienced combat units, including the 10th Panzer Division and the 21st Panzer Division of the 5th Panzer Army, which were to sweep north and west towards the Kasserine Pass, while another battle group attacked Sidi Bou Zid from the south. Facing the attack was the II US Corps under Major General Lloyd Fredendall.
In a few days, the Axis attack forced the II US Corps to take up new defensive positions outside Sbiba. Axis troops were then given time to consolidate their new front line west of Sbeitla. The success of the offensive led the German High Command to conclude that despite being well equipped, American forces were no match for experienced Axis combat troops.
Background.
The Allied attempt to capture Tunis, in late 1942 after Operation Torch, had failed, and since the year end a lull had settled on the theatre, as both sides paused to rebuild their strength. Hans-Jürgen von Arnim had been given command of the Axis forces defending Tunisia and reinforcements led to the force being named the 5th Panzer Army . Arnim chose to maintain the initiative gained when the Allies had been driven back the previous year by making spoiling attacks to keep his intentions hidden.
In January 1943, the German-Italian Panzer Army commanded by General Erwin Rommel, had retreated to the Mareth Line, a line of defensive fortifications near the coastal town of Medenine in southern Tunisia, built by the French before the war. The Axis forces joined and in the Sidi Bou Zid area there were elements from both armies, among them the 21st Panzer Division of the "Afrika Korps," transferred from German-Italian Panzer Army, and the 10th Panzer Division from the 5th Panzer Army.
Most of Tunisia was under Axis occupation but in November 1942, the Eastern Dorsale of the Atlas Mountains had been captured by the Allies. The Eastern Dorsale was held by elements of the inexperienced II US Corps (Lieutenant-General Lloyd Fredendall) and the poorly equipped French XIX Corps (Alphonse Juin). Fredendall made Tebessa, over back, his headquarters and rarely visited the front. In the absence of intelligence as to Axis intentions, Fredendall dispersed his forces to cover all eventualities, which left his units too far apart for mutual support. At Sidi Bou Zid, he had overruled his divisional commanders and ordered the defensive dispositions without studying the ground. Sidi Bou Zid was defended by the 34th US Infantry Division 168th Regimental Combat Team (RCT) (Colonel Thomas Drake) and the tanks of the 1st US Armored Division Combat Command A (CC A). Fredendall had caused most of this force to be placed in defensive "islands" on high ground, which risked defeat in detail.
Rommel was conscious of the danger of an attack by the Allies on the Eastern Dorsale towards the coast, about to the east, which could divide the Axis forces and isolate the German-Italian Panzer Army from its line of supply from Tunis. On 30 January, Arnim had sent the 21st Panzer Division to attack the Faid Pass, held by the French XIX Corps. Fredendall had reacted slowly, and Arnim's troops had overcome fierce French resistance and achieved their objectives while inflicting heavy casualties.
Prelude.
German plan.
Two offensive-defensive operations were planned, with to be conducted by the 10th and 21st Panzer divisions against US positions at Sidi Bou Zid, west of Faïd, after which the 21st Panzer Division would join a battlegroup of the 1st Italian Army to attack Gafsa in and the 10th Panzer Division moved north for an attack west of Kairouan. was to begin from 12–14 February.
Battle.
At 04:00 on 14 February four battle groups totalling 140 German tanks drawn from 10th and 21st Panzer divisions (Lieutenant General Heinz Ziegler), advanced through Faïd and Maizila passes, sites that General Dwight D. Eisenhower had inspected three hours earlier, to attack Sidi Bou Zid. The attack started with tanks of the 10th Panzer Division under the cover of a sandstorm advancing westward from Faïd in two battle groups (the Reimann and Gerhardt groups). Elements of CC A tried to delay the German advance by firing a 105 mm M101 howitzer mounted on an M4 Sherman tank. The Germans responded by shelling the American battle positions with 88mm guns. By 10 a.m. the Germans had circled Djebel Lessouda (defended by Lessouda Force, an armoured battalion group commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John K. Waters, George S. Patton's son-in-law) and joined up north of Sidi Bou Zid.
 and of the 21st Panzer Division had secured the Maizila Pass to the south and headed north to engage two battalions of the 168th RCT on Djebel Ksaira while headed north-west to Bir el Hafey in order to swing round and make the approach to Sidi Bou Zid from the west during the afternoon. Under heavy shelling from the , Colonel Thomas Drake requested permission to retreat, which was denied by Fredendall, who ordered him to hold his positions and wait for reinforcements, which never arrived. By 5 p.m. and the 10th Panzer Division had attacked CC A which had been driven nearly west to Djebel Hamra, with the loss of 44 tanks and many guns. The infantry were marooned on the high ground at Djebel Lessouda, Djebel Ksaira and Djebel Garet Hadid.
During the night the 1st US Armored Division commander Orlando Ward moved up Combat Command C (CC C) to Djebel Hamra, to counter-attack Sidi Bou Zid on 15 February but the attack was over flat exposed country and was bombed and strafed early in the move, then found itself between the two Panzer divisions, with more than 80 Panzer IV, Panzer III and Tiger I tanks. CC C retreated, losing 46 medium tanks, 130 vehicles and 9 self-propelled guns, narrowly regaining the position at Djebel Hamra. By the evening, Arnim had ordered three of the battle groups to head towards Sbeitla and were engaged by the remnants of CC A and CC C which were forced back. On 16 February, helped by intensive air support, they drove back the fresh Combat Command B (CC B) and entered Sbeitla.
Aftermath.
The experienced Germans performed well and caused many US losses before General Anderson, who had been appointed to co-ordinate Allied operations in Tunisia, ordered an Allied withdrawal on 17 February. The left (northern) flank of the First Army retreated from a line from Fondouk to Faïd and Gafsa to better defensive positions in front of Sbiba and Tebessa. Eisenhower blamed himself for trying to do too much and the sudden French collapse in the central mountains. Confusing and overlapping command arrangements made things worse. When the II US Corps was forced out of Sbeitla on 17 February and Axis forces converged on Kasserine, the Axis lack of unity of command and unclear objectives had a similar effect on Axis operations.
The poor performance of the Allies during the actions of late January and the first half of February, as well as at the later Battle of the Kasserine Pass led the Axis commanders to conclude that, while US units were well equipped, they were inferior in leadership and tactics. This became received wisdom among the Axis forces and resulted in a later underestimation of Allied capabilities as they gained experience and replaced poor commanders.


Battle of Lapua

The Battle of Lapua was fought between Swedish and Russian troops on 14 July 1808 at Lapua, Finland. The Russians had set up defences around Lapua. The Swedes tried to outflank and surround the defending Russians. The Björneborg Regiment under Georg Carl von Döbeln distinguished itself during the battle.
In the end the Russians managed to retreat, but the victory was an important one for the Swedish as it allowed them to continue their offensive.


Utuado uprising

The Utuado uprising, also known as the Utuado revolt or El Grito de Utuado, refers to the revolt against the United States government in Puerto Rico which occurred on October 30, 1950 in various localities in Puerto Rico.
Events leading to the revolt.
On September 17, 1922, the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was formed. José Coll y Cuchí, a former member of the Union Party, was elected its first president. He wanted radical changes within the economy and social welfare programs of Puerto Rico. In 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos, a lawyer, joined the party and was named its vice president.
Albizu Campos was the first Puerto Rican graduate of Harvard Law School. He served as a Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army during World War I, and believed that Puerto Rico should be an independent nation - even if that required an armed confrontation. By 1930, Coll y Cuchi departed from the party because of his disagreements with Albizu Campos as to how the party should be run. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party.
In the 1930s, the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Blanton Winship, and police colonel Riggs applied harsh repressive measures against the Nationalist Party. In 1936, Albizu Campos and the leaders of the party were arrested and jailed at the "La Princesa" prison in San Juan, and later sent to the Federal Prison at Atlanta.
On March 21, 1937, the Nationalists held a parade in Ponce and the police opened fire on the crowd, in what was to become known as the Ponce massacre. 19 people were killed, including two police officers and 17 unarmed Puerto Ricans - including a 7-year-old girl, who was shot in the back. Although "the police" shot the 18 people, Albizu Campos was arrested, and sentenced to ten years in a U.S. federal prison. Campos finally returned to Puerto Rico on December 15, 1947 after completing his ten-year sentence.
On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the island. The Senate, controlled by the "Partido Popular Democrático" (PPD) and presided by Luis Muñoz Marín, approved the bill that day. This bill, which resembled the anti-communist Smith Act passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, signed it into law on June 10, 1948.
Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the Flag of Puerto Rico, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (), or both.
According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, member of the "Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño" (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who did not belong to the PPD, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution which guarantees Freedom of Speech.
On June 21, 1948, Albizu Campos gave a speech in the town of Manatí, which explained how this Gag Law violated the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Nationalists from all over the island had gathered - to hear Campos's speech, and to prevent the police from arresting him.
Uprisings.
From 1949 to 1950, the Nationalists began to prepare for an armed revolution. The revolution was to take place in 1952, on the date the United States Congress was to approve the creation of the political status of Free Associated State "(Estado Libre Associado)" for Puerto Rico.
Albizu Campos called for an armed revolution because he considered the "new political status" a colonial farce. Campos picked the town of Jayuya as the headquarters of the revolution because of its location, and weapons were stored in the home of Blanca Canales.
On October 26, 1950, Albizu Campos was holding a meeting in Fajardo when he received word that his house in San Juan was surrounded by police waiting to arrest him. He was also told that the police had already arrested other Nationalist leaders. He escaped from Fajardo and ordered the revolution to start.
On October 27, in the town of Peñuelas, the police surrounded and fired on a caravan of Nationalists, killing four. On October 30, the Nationalists staged uprisings in the towns of Ponce, Mayagüez, Naranjito, Arecibo, Utuado (Utuado Uprising), San Juan (San Juan Nationalist revolt), and Jayuya.
The first incident of the Nationalist uprisings occurred in the pre-dawn hours of October 29. The Insular Police surrounded the house of the mother of Melitón Muñiz Santos, the president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party in the "barrio" Macaná, under the pretext that he was storing weapons for the Nationalist revolt. Without warning, the police fired on the house and a gunfight ensued. Two Nationalists were killed and six police officers were wounded. Nationalists Meliton Muñoz Santos, Roberto Jaume Rodriguez, Estanislao Lugo Santiago, Marcelino Turell, William Gutirrez and Marcelino Berrios were arrested and accused of participating in an ambush against the local Insular Police."
US response.
The United States declared martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the Puerto Rico National Guard, commanded by the Puerto Rico Adjutant General Major General Luis R. Esteves and under the orders of Gov. Luis Muñoz Marín, to attack the various towns involved in the Nationalist uprisings. In the case of Jayuya, the town was attacked by air by U.S. bomber planes. However, there is no evidence that actual bombing, as opposed to strafing, took place, the only media report being that in El Imparcial, which states that "reports were being received" about the alleged bombing. These reports were not independently verified after the insurrection . Therefore, the claim of aerial bombing remains unsubstantiated.
The Nationalist leaders in Utuado were the Captain of the Utuado branch of the Cadets of the Republic Heriberto Castro and Damián Torres. According to the plans of Albizu Campos, the Nationalists were to put up an armed resistance in their respective towns and then retreat to Utuado. Once in Utuado, the Nationalists were to continue fighting against the Armed Forces of the United States, until the United Nations Security Council took notice and intervened in their favor.
In Utuado a group of 32 Nationalists fought against the local police. The group was reduced to 12 men, and retreated to the house of Damián Torres - which was allegedly strafed by .50-caliber machine guns fire from P-47 Thunderbolt planes. The National Guard arrived later that day and ordered the nine men who survived the attack to surrender. In addition to the three men allegedly killed by the P-47 Thunderbolt plane(s). The number of airplanes involved in the response has never been adequately documented by the press nor has anyone brought documents from the PR National Guard to light.
United States law mandated that U.S. President Harry Truman take direct charge in all matters concerning Puerto Rico. In addition, the Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Muñoz Marín was required to consult directly with the White House. But this did not occur.
Aftermath.
The top leaders of the Nationalist party were arrested, including Albizu Campos and the leader of the Jayuya Uprising, Blanca Canales. All of them were imprisoned, and served long jail terms.
On November 1, 1950, Nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attacked the Blair House with the intention of assassinating U.S. President Truman. Torresola and White House police officer Leslie Coffelt lost their lives in the failed attempt. Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman, and he eventually received a presidential pardon.
The last major attempt by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to draw world attention to Puerto Rico's colonial situation occurred on March 1, 1954. On that day, Nationalist leader Lolita Lebrón and fellow Nationalists Rafael Cancel Miranda, Irvin Flores and Andres Figueroa Cordero attacked the United States House of Representatives. Lebrón and her comrades were charged with attempted murder and other crimes. Gilberto Martínez, one of the last survivors of the Utuado Uprising, died on January 1, 2009.
Incarcerated Nationalists.
The following is an FBI list of the Utuado Nationalists who were incarcerated in 1950 and who were still in prison as of 1954.:


Ramesuan (prince of Ayutthaya)

Prince Ramesuan (; ; d. November 1564) was a Siamese prince and military commander during the Ayutthaya period in the 16th century. He was a son of Prince Thianracha (later King Maha Chakkraphat) and Suriyothai, thus he was a member of the Suphannaphum Dynasty. He was the first of five children: his younger brother Mahin (later King Mahinthrathirat) and three sisters Sawatdirat (who married Maha Thammaracha of Phitsanulok), Boromdilok and Thepkassatri. After the Second Siege of Ayutthaya War of 1563, he and his father were sent to Pegu (Bago) in March 1564. He later became a commander in the Royal Burmese Army, and died in November 1564 of illness during a military campaign to Lan Na.
First war.
In 1548 his father ascended the throne as King of Ayutthaya, he immediately became heir and Uparaja of Siam. During the First Siege of Ayutthaya war with Toungoo Dynasty, Prince Ramesuan together with the King, the Queen, Prince Mahin and Princess Boromdhilok left the walls of the city on their war elephants to engage the Burmese forces led by King Tabinshwehti of Pegu in battle. In the combat with the Thado Dhamma Yaza, the Viceroy of Prome both his mother and his sister lost their lives. It was recorded in Siamese history that it was Prince Ramesuan who returned his mother's lifeless body to the capital. After a failed siege of the capital city, Tabinshwehti and his forces decided to retreat northward near Mae Sot.
Prince Ramesuan and Maha Thammaracha was ordered to pursue the retreating forces, costing many Burmese lives. Soon the Burmese decided to stand ground and ambush the Siamese forces near Kamphaeng Phet, by dividing their forces on two sides of the road and outflanking Prince Ramesuan's forces. As a result, Prince Ramesuan and Maha Thammaracha was captured by the Burmese. This prompted Maha Chakkraphat to negotiate a peace with Tabinshwehti, which resulted in the turning over of two great war elephants and a cease fire. Prince Ramesuan and Thammaracha was released and the Burmese was allowed to retreat unmolested. After the war, the Prince was part of the party inside the Royal court that favoured the dismantling of the walls of the cities of Suphanburi, Lopburi and Nakhon Nayok, this was implemented as a way of depriving a future Burmese invasion with a fortified stronghold, only a day's march from the capital.
Second war.
Maha Chakkraphat after the war of 1548, led a massive hunt for wild elephants (for use in future conflicts), which led to the discovery of seven white elephant. A symbol of prestige as well as honour, their discovery was celebrated by the kingdom, as a sign of the king's righteousness and power. In 1563, Bayinnaung (who succeeded Tabinshwehti in 1551) upon hearing of this news, decided to use the elephants as a pretext for an invasion, by requesting for two of Maha Chakkraphat's white elephants. The 'war party' led by Prince Ramesuan urged the king not to fulfill the request and face certain invasion instead.
Following the advice of his heir, Maha Chakkarphat refused and soon enough Bayinnaung invaded Siam. The towns of Sawankhalok, Sukhothai and Phichai fell to the invading forces. After holding out for many months the city of Phitsanulok surrendered to the Burmese forces, Prince Ramesuan's brother-in-law, Maha Thammaracha decided to swear his allegiance to Bayinnaung.
The city of Ayutthaya was able to withstand the siege by Burmese forces for many months. However, with the help of Portuguese mercenaries, Bayinnaung was able to constantly bombard the city with cannon fire and flaming projectiles. The inhabitants of the city fearful of the noise and exhausted by the war, petitioned the king to surrender to the enemy and end their suffering. By this time Prince Ramesuan and the war party had lost all credibility within the war council, seeing no other choice the king obliged.
Thus Siam became a vassal of Burma on 18 February 1564. With this submission, Bayinnaung was able to create the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia.
Later life.
As part of the peace settlement, the prince along with his father the fallen king and thousands of people were taken to Pegu in Burma on 28 March 1564, arriving there on 15 May 1564. His wife and immediate family also came. The Siamese royal family were given quarters befitting their former status in Pegu. In October 1564, the prince, who was in poor health, nonetheless agreed to march to Lan Na along with the main Burmese army to put down the ongoing rebellion by King Mekuti of Lan Na. The ailing prince died en route to Lan Na in November 1564.


Avonmouth Docks

The Avonmouth Docks are part of the Port of Bristol, in England. They are situated on the northern side of the mouth of the River Avon, opposite the Royal Portbury Dock on the southern side, where the river joins the Severn estuary, within Avonmouth.
Accessible via a long and wide lock, today the docks are one of the UK's major ports for chilled foods, especially fruit and vegetables. Land-side freight access and distribution is via either the M5 motorway or the Henbury Loop Line, whilst rail-passenger access is via Avonmouth railway station on the Severn Beach Line.
Background.
Bristol Harbour had always been a major centre of trade within the wider UK economy, due to its strategic location to the west of the country, allowing access to both the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. Coastal trade was also important, with the area called "Welsh Back" concentrating on trows with cargoes from the Slate industry in Wales, stone, timber and coal.
However, by the 18th century the docks in Liverpool grew larger and so increased competition with Bristol for the tobacco trade. The limitations of Bristol's docks were causing problems to business, so in 1802 William Jessop proposed installing a dam and lock at Hotwells to create the floating harbour. Construction of the £530,000 scheme began in May 1804, including the construction of the Cumberland Basin, the tidal new cut and a feeder canal to Temple Meads. Entrance was via locks, which had a maximum width of . The harbour was officially opened on 1 May 1809.
However, the harbour improvements cost more than anticipated, requiring increased levies to pay back the required loans, and hence reducing the competitive advantage to Liverpool. By 1867, ships were getting larger and the meanders in the river Avon prevented boats over from reaching the harbour. A scheme was proposed to install a much larger lock at Avonmouth to make the entire river a floating harbour, and to straighten the sharper bends, was but was dropped after work began on the much cheaper docks at Avonmouth and Portishead. The present entrance lock was designed by Thomas Howard and opened in July 1873, with a width of .
History.
Development.
Due to numerous geographic and tidal restrictions along the River Avon, the Avonmouth Docks Co. was formed to build the new docks at Avonmouth. The new docks, now called Avonmouth Old Dock, were opened in 1877, together with the supporting Bristol Port Railway and Pier. The BPRP was built and held via a separate sister company, running north for from Hotwells (originally called Clifton), northwards to west of Bristol city centre between the Clifton Suspension Bridge and Bridge Valley Road along the Avon Gorge, to a pier terminus at Avonmouth.
Transport.
As built, the BPRP was isolated from the rest of the national railway network, having not been intended for anything more than local traffic distribution - a docks railway. However, due to the position of Clifton station and the large amount of developed land in the Hotwells area, an extension towards the city's main station at , would have been prohibitively expensive. Instead, a link was proposed from the BPRP at Sneyd Park, running under Clifton Down and through the suburbs to connect to the main lines of the Midland Railway and the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway.
The connection was authorised in 1867, but the BPRP was in financial difficulties, and so unable to complete the line. It entered into negotiations with the MR and Great Western Railway, the latter now the owner of the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway. However, fierce competition between the GWR and the MR posed a threat to the Port of Bristol. The MR had no access over the GWR routes into either Bristol Harbour or Avonmouth docks, and so drew up options to either acquire the Avonmouth Docks Co., or build new docks on the opposite bank at Portbury. The result was that in 1884, the Bristol Corporation bought Avonmouth Docks and the BPRP to control port facilities in the area.
The Clifton Extension Railway initially ran from to Narroways Hill Junction north through Bristol, then part of the GWR; and over a viaduct from Narroways Hill to the MR's Bristol to Gloucester Line near . The line was managed by the Clifton Extension Railway Joint Committee, a triumvirate of the Port Authority, City Council plus the GWR and MR; but in 1894 responsibility was passed to the Great Western & Midland Railways Joint Committee. Services began to Clifton Down on 1 October 1874.
Royal Edward Dock.
The Royal Edward Dock was designed by consulting engineers Benjamin Baker and John Wolfe-Barry, who had worked together on several dock projects, together with Baker’s partner A.C. Hurtzig, and C.A. Brereton. The docks run south to north along the banks of the River Severn, closer to that river than the existing Avonmouth Docks, and is the northernmost and largest of the three docks that form the Port of Bristol. Work began in 1902, when the then Prince of Wales cut the first sod, which included the construction of a dry dock. The complex was opened by the then King Edward VII in 1908.
Throughout its life, the shore side dock facilities have been redeveloped to keep the docks operational. By 1911, 27 storage tanks for oil had been added on the north west quay, and new grain silos were built in 1928. During World War II the docks were enlarged from 1941, adding more facilities for unloading oil and petrol, plus a new oil products supply pipeline to London via the Government Pipelines and Storage System.
By the 1960s, the larger container ships could not navigate the River Avon to enter the Royal Edward, necessitating the need for the planning of the construction of the Royal Portbury Dock on the south bank. Whilst much of the former warehousing was redeveloped as residential housing, the residual quays were redeveloped for new cargos. Today these range from the export of scrap-metals, dredged aggregates, vegetable oil and domestic coal; with regional container services from and to Ireland, Europe and Scandinavia, all linked to the rail network via the Henbury Loop Line.
Mustard gas.
During the later part of World War I, it was proposed to make Avonmouth the UK centre of production of dichloroethyl sulphide, also known as mustard gas. However, its production was against the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which explicitly forbade the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare. Under the cover of the Official Secrets Act, the Ministry of Munitions under its then Minister Winston Churchill nationalised many small smelting works under the new National Smelting Company (NSC). Before the outbreak of WW1, much of Britain's zinc had originated in Australia, but had been smelted in Germany. The NSC was therefore publicly commissioned to build a new zinc smelting works and sulphuric acid plant at Merebank, Avonmouth.
With the nearby No.23 Filling Factory at Chittening, plus the main plant at Banbury and a third plant at Hereford, construction of the chemical plant began at Avonmouth in 1917, but did not finish until 1923, costing £800,000. The plant came into operation from spring 1918, producing of dichloroethyl sulphide using the Despretz–Niemann–Guthrie process; the chemical agent was then placed into shells on site. Although the first product did not arrive in France until September 1918, two months before the Armistice, it was used that same month during the breaking of the Hindenburg Line within the Hundred Days' Offensive. By November 1918, Chittening had produced 85,424 mustard gas shells.
The human cost of producing mustard gas was high. In December 1918 the chemical plant's medical officer reported that in the six months it was operational, there were 1,400 illnesses reported by its 1,100 mostly female workers - all medically attributable to their work. Three people died because of accidents, four died from associated illnesses, and there were 160 accidents resulting in over 1,000 burns. At Chittening there were reported 1,213 cases of associated illness, including two deaths which were later attributed to influenza.
Britannia smelting works.
After World War I, demand for zinc and for sulphuric acid greatly fell, and after running into commercial difficulties it was taken over by a group of British industrialists with interests in metals and chemicals, under whom it was revived. In 1929 the NSC was bought by Australia's Imperial Smelting Corporation, which in 1949 merged with Zinc Corporation to become Consolidated Zinc. After the consolidation, the smaller NSC plants were closed down to concentrate production on Avonmouth - now known as the Britannia smelting works - where the famous Imperial Smelting Process was developed. From 1967, the Avonmouth Works was home to the largest and most efficient zinc blast furnace in the world.
Consolidated Zinc, having failed to develop suitable new mining projects, merged from 1962 with the Rio Tinto Company, a mining company. The resulting company, known as the Rio Tinto - Zinc Corporation (RTZ), and its main subsidiary, Conzinc Riotinto of Australia (CRA), would eventually become today's Rio Tinto Group. With smelting cheaper elsewhere in the world, the site ceased production in the 1970s, but remained open as a stock-holding and distribution centre until 2003.
In 2012 SITA UK started redevelopment of the site, but after construction workers were affected by mustard-gas type symptoms, the Ministry of Defence were called in to test and approve the site. However, after MoD approval, a few months later construction workers found a mustard gas shell, which was disposed of by the 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC at Porton Down. The site was closed off for a year while experts from the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory conducted a series of tests. In late 2013 MoD clearance was given, allowing the site to be redeveloped as a supermarket distribution centre for Asda, and a recycling plant for SITA UK.
Operations.
The docks were operated by the Port of Bristol Authority, part of Bristol City Council, until 1991, when the council granted a 150-year lease to the Bristol Port Company, who now operate the docks together with Royal Portbury Dock.
Bulk Coal Terminal.
The bulk coal terminal discharges imported coal from both the Royal Edward and Royal Portbury docks, via a rail-loading system managed by DB Cargo UK, located just south of St Andrews Road railway station on the Severn Beach line. At the Royal Edward, a Gottwald HSK 260 Harbour Crane can unload up to 10,000 tonnes of coal per day; whilst two 2,500 tonne rapid bulk-handling conveyors at Royal Portbury discharge into a conveyor system which runs under the River Avon in a tunnel. Freight trains are moved automatically under the bunkers at , allowing a train to be fully and automatically loaded in under 36 minutes.


First Battle of Lawdar

The First Battle of Lawdar refers to the Yemeni army offensive, launched between 19 and 25 August 2010 on the city of Lawdar, that at the time was controlled by Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. Several activists, including local leaders of Al Qaeda, were killed during the clashes. On 25 August, Yemeni authorities claimed to regain control.