Willie Barrow

Willie Beatrice Barrow (née Taplin; December 7, 1924 – March 12, 2015) was an American civil rights activist and minister. Barrow was the co-founder of Operation PUSH, which was named Operation Breadbasket at the time of its creation alongside Rev. Jesse Jackson. In 1984, Barrow became the first woman executive director of a civil rights organization, serving as Push's CEO. Barrow was the godmother of President Barack Obama.
Biography.
Born Willie Beatrice Taplin in Burton, Texas, to Nelson, a minister, and Octavia Taplin, one of seven children. When she was 12, she organized a demonstration with fellow students to protest that white students were allowed to ride the bus, but black students had to walk to school. Barrow confronted the bus driver and demanded that he let her fellow students ride. When the bus driver confronted her about it she said "Y'all can kill me if you want to. But I'm tired." When Barrow turned 16, she moved to Portland, Oregon, to study at the Warner Pacific Theological Seminary (now Warner Pacific College). While still a student, Barrow and a group of black residents helped build one of the first black Churches of God in the city; she was ordained as a minister after graduation. She started working as a welder during World War II at the Swan Island Shipyard, where she met Clyde Barrow, whom she married in 1945 in Washington.
The couple moved to Chicago in the early 1940s, and Barrow attended the Moody Bible Institute to further her call to service. They lived on the South Side, and Barrow ran the youth choir at Langley Avenue Church of God. According to Barrow, she was approached by the minister to do some additional organizing for civil rights movement actions. Barrow campaigned for Harold Washington who became the first Black Mayor of Chicago in 1983. In 1984 and 1988 she worked for Jesse Jackson's Presidential campaign.
Organizing.
In the 1950s she worked with Martin Luther King and other Chicago ministers and activists as a field organizer for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In the 1960s she helped organize the Chicago chapter of Operation Breadbasket with Rev. Jesse Jackson. She opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and led a delegation to North Vietnam in 1968. She joined the National Urban League in 1943 and the National Council of Negro Women in 1945. She was the godmother of President Barack Obama. In 1973 she protested social services cuts by the Nixon administration.
Intersectional activism.
Barrow additionally was an activist for the LGBT community, which included fighting for HIV/AIDS victims. She also advocated for fair labor practices, took an anti-Vietnam war stance, and was vocal about women's rights. In a 1987 interview on Chicago Tonight she said, "You see ministers, they would rather have a minister who could not articulate and perhaps may not have even been called ... than to have an articulate woman that knows something about the rebirth of Christ and knows about the natural birth and the new birth. They would rather try to have a man articulate than a woman. ... As Jesse [Jackson] grew, his vision grew. Anytime that there was a committee was formed, it would be all men. I'd say 'Jesse, you haven an unbalanced committee. You've got to have some women.' ... He kept putting women on committees, kept making them managers ... then it became a habit, a part of his vision."
Later years and death.
Each Saturday she would participate in demonstrations and she participated weekly in Rainbow/PUSH's events. She helped many people by writing checks to cover college tuition for them. She mentored over a hundred people in PUSH, helping them to move on to the next stage of the movement. Barrow was co-pastor of the Vernon Park Church of God in Chicago. She helped raise money for assisted living development in the south and to fund after school programs. She had focused on gun violence in Chicago and changes to the Voting Rights Act that were taking away rights that the Selma marches helped create. Barrow died of respiratory failure on March 12, 2015, at age 90 in Chicago. Following her death, A tribute to her life was held at Operation PUSH headquarters ; Her funeral at her church Vernon Park Church of God.


John Allen Gable

John Allen Gable (1943–February 2005) was executive director of the Theodore Roosevelt Association from 1974 to his death in 2005. He was widely considered the world's leading authority on Theodore Roosevelt.
Biography.
Born in Massachusetts in 1943, Gable graduated from Lenox School for Boys in 1961 and Kenyon College in 1965. He received a Ph.D. in History from Brown University in 1972. Thereafter he held adjunct positions in the history departments of C.W. Post/Long Island University, Briarcliff College, Brown University, and Hofstra University.
Gable's publications include "The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Party" (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1978). In 1975 he founded the quarterly "Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal". Gable served as consultant and on-screen commentator for numerous television productions concerning Theodore Roosevelt. He also served on the vestry of Christ Church (Oyster Bay), was a past-trustee of the Oyster Bay Historical Society, held a seat on the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Committee at the American Museum of Natural History, and was a member of the Advisory Board for the Roosevelt Study Center in The Netherlands.
Shortly before his death, Gable was awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Association's Distinguished Service Medal.


Simon Girty

Simon Girty (November 14, 1741 – February 18, 1818) (sometimes referred to as "Katepacomen"), was an American colonial of Irish descent from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, who served as a liaison between the British and their Indian allies during the American Revolution. He was portrayed as a villain, and was also featured this way in 19th and early 20th-century United States fiction.
As children, Girty and his brothers were taken captive in Pennsylvania in a Seneca raid and adopted. He lived with the Seneca for seven years and became fully assimilated, preferring their culture. He was returned to his birth family but retained a sympathy for the Indians.
Early life.
Simon Girty was born to Simon Girty the Elder and Mary Newton near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Simon Girty the Elder arrived in North America in 1730 from Ireland. The accepted spelling of Girty's name was most likely a "colonial derivation of McGearty, Gearty, Garrity, Garrarghty, Geraghty or Girtee" and a corruption and Anglicization of an older native Irish surname Mag Oireachtach.
After establishing a trading post, Simon Girty the Elder and Mary Newton had four sons: Thomas, Simon, James, and George, in 1739–1746.
In May 1750, the Sheriff arrested the entire Girty family, along with other squatters, for building a home on Sherman's Creek on the Susquehanna River, before the British authorities allowed any settlers to build there. The British authorities—specifically, George Croghan—also burned down the Girty home, shed, barn, and corral. All squatters were forced to post bonds of £500 each, and were bound for trial at Cumberland County, Pennsylvania Court.
Simon Girty's father killed.
In December 1750, Simon Girty the Elder and Samuel Sanders (or Saunders) fought, or dueled, which ended with Girty's death. After both men fired a shot and missed, they pulled out their swords. "Girty made a misstep and fell. Sanders treacherously ran him through with his sword, which caused his death". Saunders was either a "convict, an escaped bond servant, a soldier, or a rival trader who competed with Girty and murdered him to steal his trade goods". Samuel Saunders was subsequently arrested, tried in Philadelphia, convicted of manslaughter, and imprisoned.
One source says that Simon Girty the Elder's head was split with a tomahawk by an Indian called "The Fish", and that John Turner, his half-brother, avenged Girty by killing "The Fish".
Thomas McKee and George Gibson applied for Simon Girty the Elder's estate (his house and land) and persuaded William Plumsted, the mayor of Philadelphia, to backdate their application by a full year to make it appear legal. McKee claimed Girty owed him £300 for trade goods he sold to Girty on credit. Plumsted went along with Gibson and McKee's scheme, and McKee was subsequently awarded Girty's estate.
Three years after Simon Girty the Elder was killed, his wife Mary married John Turner, his half-brother (and in some versions of the story, her husband's avenger). They settled near to the land once owned by Simon Girty the Elder.
In 1754, John Turner Jr. was born.
During the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the area where they had their farm became too dangerous, with numerous war parties attacking settlers, so John Turner took his new family to Fort Granville on the Juniata River in western Pennsylvania, along with dozens of other English families looking for safety. At Fort Granville, John Turner joined the local militia under Captain Edward Ward and was promoted to Sergeant, Ward's third in command.
On August 2, 1756, Captain Ward had taken the majority of the militia out on patrol, which was known to the local Lenape tribe. Captain François Coulon de Villiers attacked Fort Granville with 55 French soldiers and about 100 Lenape Indians. Villiers' force snuck along Juniata River and set the stockade on fire. This made a large hole, through which they killed an officer and an enlisted man, and wounded several men who were fighting the fire. Villiers then offered quarter if the fort surrendered, so John Turner, as the ranking living officer, opened the gate. After marching the prisoners away from the fort, the French and Lenape plundered the fort and burned it to the ground. The Lenape then took the prisoners to Kittanning, their village on the Allegheny River.
The torture and death of John Turner.
The Lenape had previously traded with Simon Girty the Elder, and they recognized his wife and children. One tradition says the Lenape sincerely believed that John Turner was the man who had killed Simon Girty the Elder in order to take his house, land, and family. Other traditions say that the Lenape recognized him as Girty's avenger and killer of "The Fish", or that they thought that John Turner had badly beaten an Indian. For whichever reason, Chief Jacobs (Toweah) of the Lenape and his council condemned John Turner to be burned at the stake. The Muncey Lenape pushed red-hot gun barrels into and through John Turner's body. John Turner endured three hours of ritualistic torture before he was scalped, and a young Lenape struck a tomahawk into his brain, killing him, all in front of his wife, stepchildren, and newborn baby.
Thomas Girty escaped his Lenape captivity during the British-led Kittanning Expedition on September 8, 1756.
After the Kittanning Expedition, the Indians split the Girty family up; they were sent to live with different tribes. Thirteen-year-old James Girty was taken by Shawnee warriors, as were Mary and baby John Turner. The Lenape kept 10-year-old George Girty. Fifteen-year-old Simon Girty was given to Guyasuta, Chief of the Ohio Seneca (Mingoes), and lived in a village near Lake Erie's east shore in northwestern Pennsylvania.
Guyasuta, Simon Girty's mentor.
After he gained the respect of the Mingoes by running the gauntlet successfully, the Mingo pulled out all of Simon Girty's hair, leaving just a scalplock on his crown. Later, Simon was given "breechcoth and leggings, a deerskin shirt, and moccasins". Simon Girty lived with Guyasuta for seven years. He was returned to the British in November 1764, during a prisoner exchange after the end of Pontiac's War.
During the period when Simon Girty lived with them (1756–1764), Guyasuta and the Ohio Seneca fought in many battles against the British in the French and Indian War. Guyasuta was instrumental in defeat of Major James Grant at the Battle of Fort Duquesne on September 14, 1758. The French and Indian War officially ended in 1763, but hostilities between the Indians and the British continued in Pontiac's War. Guyasuta and the Ohio Seneca were allied with Pontiac, and fought the British alongside his warriors at the July 1763 Siege of Fort Pitt, the July 31, 1763 Battle of Bloody Run, the August 5–6, 1763 Battle of Bushy Run, and the September 14, 1763 Devil's Hole Massacre (the deadliest engagement for British soldiers during the war). It's unclear if Simon Girty fought along with Guyasuta in this war.
On October 17, 1764, British commander Henry Bouquet demanded that the Ohio Indians return all captives, including those not yet returned from the French and Indian War. Chief Guyasuta and other native leaders reluctantly handed over more than 200 captives, many of whom had been adopted into Indian families. On November 14, 1764, Simon Girty returned to the British after a prisoner exchange, and resurfaced near Fort Pitt. Simon Girty knew 11 languages, had become fully assimilated with the Seneca, and preferred their way of life.
Simon Girty was the principal interpreter at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix between the Iroquois and the British.
Role in American Revolution.
During the American Revolution, Girty first sided with the colonial revolutionaries. He later served with the Loyalists and their Indian allies, including many Seneca and three other Iroquois nations. American rebel frontiersmen considered him a renegade and turncoat.
Lord Dunmore's War.
Simon served alongside, with and for George Rogers Clark, Simon Kenton, Thomas and Edward Cunningham (Rangers), Daniel Boone (Ranger), Colonel William Crawford, Daniel Morgan and William Caldwell, fighting for the British during Lord Dunmore's War. Simon served in the capacity of a spy, scout and intermediary for Lord Dunmore with the Shawnees. The war began with the Yellow Creek Massacre on April 30, 1774, when Virginia frontiersmen led by Daniel Greathouse killed the family of Mingo war-leader Johnny Logan, who had been friendly to Americans.
The Indians were defeated at the Battle of Point Pleasant. After Chief Cornstalk signed the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, Dunmore sent Girty to bring Johnny Logan to the capitulation proceedings. Simon found Logan, but Logan wouldn't come. He told Girty his thoughts and feelings regarding the entire ordeal in "Logan's Lament", which Girty repeated to the British officers. At the conclusion of the war, Simon was a commissioned Lieutenant in the Virginia Militia. This unit was disbanded the following year.
Simon Girty was among the early Virginia Frontiersmen to draft up the Original First Declaration of Independence. They had just returned from a successful campaign under Lord Dunmore and discovered the passage of the Intolerable Acts. This meant they could find themselves under orders to stop an uprising of their own countrymen. If they were to raise any objection, this could be seen as treason.
Instead of keeping quiet, they took matters into their own hands and many settled amid the great danger west of the Alleghenies in open defiance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Among their number were many famous as intrepid frontiersmen and others who were soon to gain fame as officers in the Revolution: Simon Kenton, the notorious Simon Girty, Michael Cresap, Colonel William Crawford, George Rogers Clark, Adam Stephen and Daniel Morgan. These men were not easily intimidated.
The Squaw Campaign.
During the American Revolution, Girty initially served with American forces against Indian allies of the British.
In early 1778, the Americans sent an expedition to destroy Indian stores and supplies along the Cuyahoga River in northeastern Ohio. The force of 500 American volunteers was led by General Edward Hand, Colonel William Crawford (a land speculator and close friend of George Washington), and Colonel Providence Mounts, and included Girty.
They set out on February 8, 1778. They marched out of Fort Pitt, crossed the Allegheny River, and went 22 miles down the Ohio River over the ancient Indian trails called the "Great Path", to the mouth of the Beaver River.
One morning Major James Brenton asked Simon to help him find his horse. After finding the horse, Brenton and Simon were returning to camp, when they heard gunfire near the forks of the Beaver River (the confluence of the Mahoning and Shenango). The Americans had come across Kuskuskee, an old, nearly abandoned Lenape village, and attacked before inquiring about who was residing there. An old man, who was digging up stored corn behind his house, shot one round from his musket at the Americans, wounding Captain David Scott and breaking his arm. Reasin Virgin killed the old man with his tomahawk. A woman ran out of the cabin with her hands up, and she leaned against a tree. Several American volunteers "ran up, fell upon, shot and killed her". Another woman and a group of children ran from a cabin and disappeared into the woods. An old Indian woman came out of a cabin with her hands up, and the Americans fired many shots at her, only being able to shoot one of her fingers off, before Hand and Crawford ordered the troops to cease firing.
The old woman confirmed that the old man that they had shot was her husband, Bull. Bull's brother was Hopocan ("Captain Pipe"), the principal Lenape chief. The dead woman was Captain Pipe's mother. The old woman also mentioned that there were 10 Muncie warriors at a nearby saltlick 10 miles up the Mahoning River (at present day Niles, Ohio). General Hand sent Simon Girty and a dozen American volunteers to scout for these warriors, but they only found five Lenape women (one of whom they kept as a hostage), and a young Indian boy. The Lenape boy, who was hunting birds in a tree by himself with a bow and arrow, was killed. Americans Zach Connell and Squire Forman argued over who got the boy's scalp
On March 3, Hand returned to Fort Pitt with "a few Indian muskets, pots and pans, two Indian women captives, and a pair of scalps". George Morgan apologized to the Lenapes, who at the time were neutral.
Defection, Not Desertion.
Simon Girty talked to Simon Kenton the night before he defected.
In early 1778, when Edward Hand was the Commander of Fort Pitt, Simon Girty discovered the North-Western tribes were uniting against the Americans. This would involve the entire frontier and this was the turning point that would allow the seductive promises of Elliot and McKee to succeed in turning Simon. On March 28, 1778, Alexander McKee (Scots-Irish Loyalist), Matthew Elliott, and Simon Girty all defected on the same night. Along with them was Robert Surphlit (McKee's cousin), a man named Higgins (an employee), and two of McKee's black slaves. Seven men left McKee's house in Pittsburgh, and absconded west into the Ohio country, and towards the British stronghold in Detroit. A few hours later, a party of American soldiers arrived at the house to take McKee to the Pittsburgh prison.
The seven defectors stopped by Coshocton, the capital of the Lenape. After the murders of Captain Pipe's mother and brother, the Lenape's loyalties were split. Captain Pipe wanted war on the Americans, and White Eyes wanted peace. Simon Girty made a pledge for war, and the Lenape agreed.
While in Coshocton, Simon met his brother James Girty, who joined Simon in his defection. George Girty eventually followed in his brothers' footsteps, and also defected. A Pennsylvania court declared Simon, James, and George Girty, along with Alexander McKee and Matthew Elliot, to be outlaws, guilty of treason, and placed an $800 bounty on Simon Girty's head.
On April 20, 1778, Simon Girty, along with Edward Hazel, a British Indian agent, and Leatherlips, a Wyandot chief, reached Detroit, where Henry Hamilton employed Simon at sixteen shillings a day.
On October 1, 1779, Girty and Alexander McKee, leading a large force of Indians, ambushed American forces in present-day Northern Kentucky. The Americans were returning from an expedition to New Orleans. The ambush occurred near Dayton, Kentucky, across the Ohio River from Cincinnati, Ohio. Only a handful of the Americans survived, among them Colonel John Campbell and Captain Robert Benham.
In August 1782, Simon Girty, under the command at William Caldwell, along with about 300 Shawnee natives and British Canadians, attacked Bryan Station. Three days later, they ambushed Daniel Boone at the Battle of Blue Licks.
Girty is credited with saving the lives of many American prisoners of the Indians during the war, often by buying their freedom at his own expense.
Role in Northwest Indian War.
Simon was hired by George Morgan who was serving as the Patriot Commissioner of Indian Affairs Middle District. Simon was to serve as an interpreter and intermediary to the Six Nations. It was Simon that negotiated the first treaty with the Indians. He was sent to represent the United American States and addressed the Grand Council of the Iroquois League at Onondaga, New York. He successfully returned to Pittsburgh. Words were exchanged and Simon was fired.
During the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), Girty fought alongside the Wyandots and other Indians. He fought the Americans at St. Clair's Defeat in 1791, the greatest defeat the United States Army has ever known.
Resettlement in Upper Canada.
After the end of the war, Simon Girty settled in Upper Canada (now Ontario) along with other Loyalists and Indian allies of the British, such as nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. They were granted land by the British Crown in recognition of their service during the war. He retired to his farm near Fort Malden (present-day Amherstburg, Ontario) prior to the outbreak of the War of 1812. Girty's son was killed in that conflict, reportedly while trying to rescue a wounded British officer from the battlefield.
Despite popular myths to the contrary, Simon Girty had no part in that war, except as a refugee when the British retreated from Fort Malden; nor was he killed with Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames, as was widely reported. Then more than sixty years old, he was increasingly infirm with arthritis and failing eyesight. Girty returned to his farm in Canada after the war and died in 1818, completely blind.


Bread and Cheese Day

Bread and Cheese Day is observed by Canada's Six Nations Reserve on Victoria Day. The day is marked with speeches, games, and a gift of bread and cheese to members of the community.
History.
In appreciation of their allegiance to the British Empire during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, Queen Victoria began an annual tradition of giving gifts to the Six Nations community, namely blankets The custom ended with Victoria's death in 1901. In 1924, however, the Grand Council of the Six Nations decided to revive the practice, this time with gifts of bread and cheese, as a commemoration of the close ties between Six Nations and the British Crown.


Horace R. Cayton Sr.

Horace Roscoe Cayton Sr. (1859–1940) was an American journalist and political activist. The son of a slave and a white plantation owner's daughter, Cayton went to Seattle, Washington, in the early 1890s, launching his own newspaper, the "Seattle Republican," in 1894. The paper was the longest-lived of seven African-American newspapers appearing in Seattle between 1891 and 1901, terminating only in 1913.
A second publishing venture was launched by Cayton in 1916, with the launch of the eponymous "Cayton's Weekly." Unlike its predecessor, this four-page tabloid was focused upon national and local news of interest to a black readership. Falling into financial difficulties in 1921, "Cayton's Weekly" briefly altered its production cycle to become "Cayton's Monthly" before folding completely.
Biography.
Early years.
Horace was born in 1859 on a plantation in Mississippi. After Emancipation, he and his family moved to a farm near Port Gibson, Mississippi. He graduated from Alcorn College (now Alcorn State University) and was attending that institution in 1872.
Newspaper publisher.
He headed west, convinced that his education and will to succeed would help him reach his real potential, and ended up in Seattle where he worked as a political reporter for the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer". Horace found employment at the "Seattle Standard", the city’s first newspaper for African Americans, working at that paper until Its failure in 1893.
The following year, Cayton launched a newspaper of his own, the "Seattle Republican," with its first issue seeing print in May 1894. The paper sought to appeal to both white and black readers, achieving some limited success in this regard, although the readership of the paper was modest, never exceeding about 2,000.
By 1896, Cayton married Susie Revels, a young woman he had met in college. Ms. Revels was the daughter of Senator Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Reconstruction-era Republican from the state of Mississippi remembered as the first African-American elected to the United States Senate. After the couple's marriage, Susie Revels Cayton would become associate editor of the "Seattle Republican."
Cayton's "Republican" criticized the corruption of the Yukon Gold Rush-era administration of mayor Thomas J. Humes and, in particular, his police chief William L. Meredith, who proceeded to have Cayton arrested for criminal libel. He was acquitted. The resulting controversy was a factor in escalating scandal that led Meredith to resign and to attempt to gun down another of his accusers, John Considine. Considine ultimately shot Meredith in self-defense.
The Republican Party attracted many black people and Horace was able to win an important position in the party. He was a recurrent delegate to the county and state nominating conventions, secretary of the party’s King County convention in 1902, and for many years a member of the Republican State Central Committee. In Seattle, between 1900 and 1910, the number of blacks had risen by almost 2,000 people causing white prejudice to grow. Politically Horace lost power and after 1910 he never sat on the Republican State Central Committee or attended a Republican convention again.
Horace became a victim of Seattle’s changing racial and political pattern. On May 2, 1913, the "Seattle Republican" ceased operations after Horace lost a court case where he sued a restaurant for telling him not to return after they had served him. He continued his career in publishing and issued "Cayton’s Weekly" from 1916 followed by "Cayton's Monthly" until 1921 when he retired.
Later years.
He sold his home on Capitol Hill and moved to an apartment house, which he owned and produced income. They lost two houses and the apartment building during the depression, but continued to live in the house paying $10 per month rent. Horace and his wife entered into activities of the ever-growing black community. They participated in many social and civic events. He continued his affiliation with the Republican Party through membership in the King County Colored Republican Club.
Death and legacy.
Horace died in 1940 and was followed by Susie in 1943.
Horace's son Horace R. Cayton Jr. (1903–1970) became an educator, researcher, government official, newspaper columnist, and famous sociologist, notable for his anthropological work "Black Metropolis", which he co-authored with St. Clair Drake. Lisa S. Weitzman says on Answers.com: "With the purpose of educating white America, the book further exposed and explained African American conduct, personality, and culture which emerged from the conditions imposed by the white world. Ultimately, Cayton and Drake concluded their book with a call for the government to work more aggressively to help African Americans achieve equality. Like his father, Cayton expressed an ongoing concern for racial equality and civil rights, a theme to which he repeatedly returned in his regular column for the Pittsburgh Courier."
Another son, Revels Cayton, became a labor leader and deputy mayor of San Francisco. Daughter Madge Cayton, like her brother Horace, earned a degree from the University of Washington, in her case a business degree. Another daughter, Lillie Cayton, was a social activist in Seattle and later in San Diego, California.


Drummond Methodist Church

The Drummond Presbyterian Church is a former church building in Bells Corners, a suburban community in College Ward in the city of Ottawa, Canada. The building was constructed in 1898 on the northern side of what is now known as Robertson Road, using stone from the demolished Union Church on Old Richmond Road. In 1925 it became the United Church and was used until 1962 when the new United Church was completed.
After 1962 the building was no longer used as a church gathering place. For a while, the building housed "The Spa", and presently PureLeaf Cannabis store. It is one of the oldest buildings in Bells Corners.
The Union Church on Old Richmond Road was built in 1853 by the Anglicans, Methodists and Presbyterians on land donated by the early Irish settler Hugh Bell, who operated a public house in that area from 1834 to 1863, and who played a prominent role in early government. The land (part of lot 35, concession 1) in Bells Corners is now the present site of the Bells Corners Union Cemetery. It was the only building to survive the great fire of 1870. The Rev. John Lowry Gourlay, writing in his book "The History of the Ottawa Valley", said "The old stone church (Presbyterian) seems to have been all that escaped the fire. The people took refuge in it, and held it some days till they made provision for building again... The church was a union of Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Methodists."


Battle of Wahoo Swamp

The Battle of Wahoo Swamp was an extended military engagement of the Second Seminole War fought in late 1836 in the Wahoo Swamp, approximately 50 miles northeast of Fort Brooke in Tampa and 35 miles south of Fort King in Ocala. An army of militia, Tennessee volunteers, Creek mercenaries and United States Marines and Army Soldiers led by the governor of Florida, General Richard K. Call, encountered Seminole forces led by chiefs Osuchee and Yaholooche in Wahoo Swamp, a large area of wetlands and cypress hammocks in today's Sumter County, Florida.
Background.
The Second Seminole War between the Government of the United States and the Seminole escalated after the Dade Massacre on December 28, 1835, and the killing by Osceola of the Indian agent Wiley Thompson, who was organizing the removal of the Seminoles from Florida, on the same day. The Seminoles and the Maroons (enslaved Africans who had escaped from their bondage), who lived in their own villages or towns near those of the Seminoles and became known as Black Seminoles, found themselves under constant threat by the US Army and territorial militias, who wanted to relocate the Seminoles and return the refugees to the slaveholders who claimed them.
The Black Seminoles occupied many small villages and plantations along the Withlacoochee River where they raised large crops of corn, pumpkins, squash, beans, and sugar cane during the growing season; the whites were aware that they stored provisions in various hammocks surrounded by the swamps along the river, and in the morass called the "Wahoo Swamp". This large swamp was the stronghold of the Indians, where their cattle and their families were hidden, with many Maroon families residing there as well. Consequently, the white soldiers made it a priority to destroy the villages and seize their supplies; the Seminoles had much to lose and could be expected to make a strong defense.
On November 14, Brig. Gen. Robert Armstrong, who was marching with five hundred mounted men toward these settlements, encountered a well-armed force of Indians and Maroons, and heavy gunfire ensued. Eleven of Armstrong's men fell before the allied barrage in less than an hour. Nevertheless, he managed to drive them from the battlefield, but they recovered their dead and wounded, the possession of which the Indians regarded as the only proof of success in battle; they never acknowledged defeat while they had them.
Battle of Wahoo Swamp.
On November 18, 1836, Gen. Call, having left his baggage train under a strong guard, marched again, with 550 Tennesseans, chiefly foot soldiers, to the Wahoo Swamp. At about 3 miles from their camp, they fell upon a large Indian trail, which led through two dense hammocks, and over two creeks, into a large field, surrounded on three sides by hammocks. The Seminoles were retreating to gain securer positions to begin the attack, leaving their houses in flames; at length, making a stand, the Tennesseans formed a line of attack.
The foot soldiers in the regiment under Col. William Trousdale were formed in open order to charge into the hammock, while the horsemen, to the right and left, were thrown back to protect the flank, and to act as a reserve corps. The columns had not received the word to advance, when a tremendous volley of gunfire was opened along their whole front, from a hammock. They began slowly to advance, exchanging shots at short intervals. The order being given to charge, it was quickly obeyed; but the Indians did not break and fly as formerly; they stood and fought hand to hand, while at the same time their wings attacked both flanks of the army, and a small body of about 50 men fell on its rear.
The battle had raged nearly half an hour, when a general charge broke out and dispersed them in every direction, leaving 25 of their number dead on the field, while the whites had but three killed and 18 wounded. Six hundred Seminoles were said to have been engaged in this battle. The hour being late, and the men exhausted, the army retreated to its appointed place for the meeting with Col. Pierce, near Dade's battleground.
On November 21, Gen. Armstrong ordered a combined attack, and the army marched, in three columns, into the swamp with the Tennesseans and regulars, and Col. Warren's mounted men on the right, the center under Col. Pierce, and the Creek regiment on the left, the line extending for a full mile. When they came to the battleground of the 18th, they found it in possession of the Indians. As the Tennesseans and regulars advanced, a heavy fire was opened upon them, but they did not answer it until they got into the midst of the Indians; then charging them, the Seminoles gave way and retreated.
As soon as the direction of their retreat was observed by a party in reserve, Col. Pierce, with his division, and the Creek Indians, were ordered to pursue them; soon afterwards, Col. Trousdale with his regiment, and Col. Warren with the Florida horsemen, were sent to support them. The greater part of the regulars and Tennesseans, however, by taking a trail to the right, were caught in an almost impassable morass, where no horse could move, and where the men were obliged to wade waist-deep in mud and water. A small number of Creek warriors on the left, led by Col. Brown, taking a better path, followed closely upon the enemy and found them strongly positioned in a cypress swamp. The Creeks charged them, and their leader, Major David Moniac, a mix-blooded Creek who was the first Native American to graduate from West Point, was shot and killed while trying to determine how deep the stream was, as also were several other Creek warriors. It was soon discovered that this party would be overpowered, and the struggle was momentarily becoming even more desperate, when two companies of Florida militia under Capt. Groves and Lieut. Myrick, three companies of artillery under Maj. Gardner, Capts. Tompkins, Porter, and Lee, and Col. Waire with his mounted men, coming successively into action, enabled the Creeks to maintain their ground.
It was not until nearly all the force of the Tennesseans was brought to bear on this point that the Indians could be dislodged. Thus ended the second battle of the Wahoo Swamp, in which Gen. Call's army suffered 25 casualties, with nine being killed. The Indians left 10 on the field; but the whites said they lost "50 at least."
Call had pushed the Seminole back through the swampy marsh, consequently they had retreated southward by nightfall and Call chose not to pursue them because of the difficult terrain. The army having consumed all its provisions and made its way out of this hostile region; it accordingly returned to its late encampment at 10 o'clock at night, and the next day marched for Volusia.
Aftermath.
The offensive against the Seminoles began in the fall of 1836 under the leadership of Gen. Call, a protégé of President Jackson and a veteran of previous Indian Wars; however, it failed to achieve its objective of neutralizing the Indian resistance to involuntary removal. Leading a large force of volunteers, regular soldiers, and mercenary Creeks, Call managed to force the Seminole from their strongholds near the Withlacoochee River, but he was thwarted at the Battle of Wahoo Swamp; being unable to advance in the swamp, he fell back to Volusia, allowing the Indians time to escape into the unmapped Florida wilderness, from which they continued to send war parties to attack the whites' plantations.
On December 9, Call was relieved of overall command and replaced by Major Gen. Thomas Jesup, who returned with the federal troops to Fort Brooke. As the short enlistments of the volunteers ended in late December, they went home. Osceola himself led hit-and-run raids against vulnerable Army detachments and outposts until he was captured on October 21, 1837, under a white flag of truce near Fort Peyton a few miles south of St. Augustine, by Gen. Joseph Marion Hernández, per Gen. Jesup's orders.


Nueces Strip

The Nueces Strip or Wild Horse Desert is the area of South Texas between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.
According to the narrative of Mexican missionary Juan Agustín Morfi, there were so many wild horses swarming in the Nueces Strip in 1777 "that their trails make the country, utterly uninhabited by people, look as if it were the most populated in the world".
In the 1830s, the Republic of Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern border; Mexico claimed the Nueces River ( north of the Rio Grande). The area between the two rivers became known as the Nueces Strip. Both countries invaded it, but neither controlled it nor settled it.
It was the scene of the first fighting in the Mexican–American War in 1846. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, Mexico ceded the Nueces Strip to the U.S.
Ever since 1848 the border area has had a reputation for lawlessness and smuggling, and was a main zone of activity of the Texas Rangers. It was also used by enslaved people fleeing on the lesser-known southern route of the Underground Railroad.
Mexican–American War.
U.S. President James K. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, entering the Nueces Strip. The U.S. claimed the land citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. Mexico rejected the treaties and refused to negotiate; it claimed all of Texas. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a makeshift fort (later known as Fort Brown/Fort Texas) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista prepared for war. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. In the Thornton Affair, the Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 American soldiers.


Warren M. Washington

Warren Morton Washington (born August 28, 1936) is an American atmospheric scientist, a former chair of the National Science Board, and currently senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colorado.
Biography.
Washington was born in Portland, Oregon. He graduated from Oregon State University (OSU) with a B. S. in physics and an M.S. in meteorology, and obtained a doctoral degree in meteorology from Pennsylvania State University (PSU) in 1964. He joined the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in 1963 as a scientist and then moved through the ranks to become senior scientist in 1975.
Washington is an internationally recognized expert in atmospheric sciences and climate research specializing in computer modeling of the Earth's climate. In recent years he has served his science in a broad range of capacities. He was appointed to the National Science Board (NSB) in 1994, reappointed in 2000, and became chair from 2002–2006. In 1998 he was appointed to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Science Advisory Board; in 1999 he was elected by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) Board of Trustees as a member of the corporation for a three-year term; in 2000 he was appointed a member of the Advanced Scientific Computing Advisory Committee by the U.S. Secretary of Energy; and in February 2009 he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) "for pioneering the development of coupled climate models, their use on parallel supercomputing architectures, and their interpretation." His scientific and policy papers are archived as the Warren M. Washington Collection at the library of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
He has also garnered numerous awards. Among these, the U.S. Department of Energy awarded Washington the Biological and Environmental Research Program Exceptional Service Award for Atmospheric Science in 1997, for the development and application of advanced coupled atmospheric-ocean general circulation models (GCMs) to study the impacts of human activities on future climate. Also in 1997 he was inducted into the Portrait Collection of African Americans in Science, Engineering, and Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS).
In 1999 Washington received the National Weather Service (NWS) Modernization Award. In January 2000 Washington was given the Charles Anderson Award from the American Meteorological Society (AMS) for pioneering efforts as a mentor and passionate supporter of individuals, educational programs, and outreach initiatives designed to foster a diverse population of atmospheric scientists. Also he is an honorary member and past-President of the AMS. In March 2000 Washington received the Celebrating 20th Century Pioneers in Atmospheric Sciences Award at Howard University and in April 2000 Colorado's Bonfils-Stanton Foundation Award in recognition of significant and unique contributions in the field of science. He is a fellow of the American Philosophical Society (APS), and he has received honorary doctorates from Oregon State University and Bates College. In 2009 he was elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS). On October 15, 2010 President Barack Obama named Washington one of 10 eminent researchers to be awarded the National Medal of Science. In February 2019 Washington was awarded the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, alongside Michael E. Mann. Washington gave the 2019 Ambrose Jearld Jr. sponsored by the Woods Hole Diversity Initiative.
Personal life.
Washington is the grandfather of professional soccer player Reggie Cannon.


List of Puget Sound steamboats

Ths is a list of steamboats and related vessels which operated on Puget Sound and in western Washington state. This should not be considered a complete list. Information for some vessels may be lacking, or sources may be in conflict.
Table codes key.
Vessel type codes are: Prop = propeller-driven; stern = sternwheel-driven; side = side-wheel driven; pddl or paddle = paddle-driven, sternwheel or sidewheel.<br>
Disposition codes used in this list are:
Vessels should not be assumed to have served continuously on Puget Sound during the periods shown on this chart; transfer between service areas was common.


Lake City, Seattle

Lake City is the northeast region of Seattle, centered along Lake City Way NE (SR-522), 7–8 miles (11–13 km) northeast of downtown. A broader definition of the Lake City area includes all the land between 15th Avenue NE and Lake Washington, and between NE 95th and 98th streets to the Seattle city limits at NE 145th Street. Lake City encompasses much of the Thornton Creek watershed, the focus of a long restoration campaign by citizens and Seattle Public Utilities staff to enhance the residential environment of Lake City.
History.
What is now Lake City has been inhabited since the end of the last glacial period (c. 8,000 BCE—10,000 years ago). The "hah-chu-ahbsh" (Lake People), now of the Duwamish tribe, Lushootseed (Skagit-Nisqually) Coast Salish, lived in diffuse permanent settlements along the shore of Lake Washington, dispersing in the summer, and in the winter living in large cedar long houses, each home to a couple dozen or more members of extended family groups. The lake people lost their rights in 1854. The Lake City area was clearcut by crude wagon road or by using Lake Washington, from 1850 to around the start of the 20th century, more rapidly with the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway (c. 1886) providing easy access along what is now the Burke-Gilman Trail adjacent to the lake. Wetlands were drained. A Little Germany neighborhood of several immigrant farmers grew up in the 1870s around where Nathan Hale High School now stands.
The Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway operated a passenger stop near the current location of NE 115th St called simply, "Lake". The area was dubbed Lake City by D.H. and R.H. Lee in 1906 after they purchased and platted the land. With the advent of the automobile, the area developed linearly around major roads rather than centrally around trolley stops, as in older Seattle neighborhoods. The road to Bothell and Everett was made all-weather with brick in 1918 and then the new material asphalt in 1928. The automobile relationship with Seattle would shape Lake City development and neighborhood character. Lake City would remain relatively remote and suburban from Seattle until years after WWII.
Transition to a neighborhood community was marked in 1935 with the start of the Lake City Branch Library of today as a few shelves of books in part of a room in Lake City School, shared with the WPA. Sponsorship was by the Pacific Improvement Club community group. Lake City incorporated as a township in 1949 with more than 40,000 residents; rapid growth was a product of a massive influx of young suburban families after World War II. The City of Seattle annexed Lake City and other communities in 1954 when the city limits were expanded from 85th Street to 145th Street. Scout Troop 240 and other volunteers moved thousands of books into a new library building in 1955.
Lake City relies heavily on retail commerce, and business in the area has risen and fallen based on highway expansion in the Seattle area. The expansion of Aurora Avenue North to Everett, Washington cut into business in the 1920s, but Lake City revived after NE 130th Street was paved. The opening of Northgate Mall in 1950 reduced retail business in Lake City, and the area took another hit after the construction of Interstate 5 in the 1960s. Renovation of the city core along Lake City Way NE near NE 125th Street helped revive the local economy in the late 1970s.
The Jolly Roger and the Coon Chicken Inn.
In 1916, Washington joined Prohibition, and Lake City saw an upswing in commercial activity. Unincorporated areas of King County accessible by auto became popular locations for speakeasies selling illegal liquor and purveying prostitution and gambling, often in clever guises. One remarkable structure among numerous establishments half a mile south of Lake City was the China Castle, later the Jolly Roger, having a unique tower from which a watchman signaled the approach of police, visible from miles away. In the event of a raid, patrons and employees could leave via tunnels such as one under the highway, easily dispersing via the wooded ravine on the other side.
The Jolly Roger continued as a popular dancehall and restaurant. It was designated a Seattle Historic Landmark in 1979. On 19 October 1989, the restaurant, located at 8721 Lake City Way (formerly Bothell Way) burned in an arson fire. The fire was somewhat suspicious, but only relative to its storied past. Police had neither motive nor suspects. Investigators were not able to determine how the arsonist got inside past a burglar alarm, with no signs of forced entry. At the time, the building had just been purchased the week before from the previous owner, with whom the buyer was entangled in legal and financial red tape. The previous owner was in the building removing his possessions the day before the fire. When firefighters arrived hours after the fire had begun in the basement, a man directed them. He seemed so sure of where the fire began that they assumed he was an employee. After the fire was extinguished, the man could not be found. The owners stated that he was not an employee.
One year after the fire, preservation activists sought to have the structure rebuilt. Before their efforts got off the ground, the building was hastily demolished on 11 January 1991, obviating its appeal. A modern oil company-owned convenience store and gas station now stands on the location.
Within view, slightly south of the former Jolly Roger site, on the south side of Lake City Way, Ying's Drive-In sits on the site of a former Coon Chicken Inn. For nearly three decades, beginning in 1929, the Coon Chicken Inn sold southern-style food in a restaurant whose themes drew heavily on light-hearted, overtly racist stereotypes akin to blackface or the iconic Sambo's on Aurora Avenue N.
Lake City today.
In 2006, the newly rebuilt Lake City branch of the Seattle Public Library was re-opened.


Tuscarora Reservation

The Tuscarora Reservation (Nyučirhéʼę in Tuscarora) is an Indian reservation in Niagara County, New York. The population was 1,152 at the 2010 census. The Tuscarora are a federally recognized tribe and the Sixth Nation of the "Haudenosaunee" or Iroquois Confederacy active before the American Revolutionary War.
History.
The Tuscarora tribe had migrated in ancient times from the New York area to the South, where they were based in the Carolinas. After an extended conflict with European settlers and other Native Americans at the beginning of the 18th century and defeat in the Tuscarora War, most of the tribe migrated North, beginning in 1722.
They first located in the territory of the Oneida tribe in central New York. By the early 1800s, they declared their tribe fully relocated and said that remnant Tuscarora who stayed in the South would no longer be considered part of the tribe. The Tuscarora and Oneida became allies of the American Continental cause during the American Revolution, and of the United States during the War of 1812. During both wars, they suffered attacks by British armed forces and their First Nations allies in central New York. The Tuscarora were given land from the Seneca tribe (territory which they had taken from the Neutral Nation) in 1797). In 1803, the US government granted the Tuscarora a reservation in Niagara County.
In 1960, through the efforts of the powerful appointed official, Robert Moses of New York City, New York State seized of the Tuscarora reservation to form a reservoir for the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant operated by the New York Power Authority. New York needed but only received and had to pay $1,500 per acre per a United States Supreme Court Decision. This led to a displacement of tribal members and a serious disruption to their economy. After a lengthy court case and appeals, in 2003, the Power Authority agreed to compensate the tribe financially and return some unused land.
The reservation is a composite holding derived from (1) land given to the Seneca tribe, Land donated by the Holland Land Company, and (3) Trust territory held by the federal government.
Former University at Buffalo head football coach Frank Mount Pleasant was born here.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of 9.3 mi2 (24.0 km2), all land. The reservation is located northeast of Niagara Falls, New York. It is surrounded by the Town of Lewiston.
On October 26, 2019 it was reported that a Niagara Power Project, lost over 600 acres when Robert Moses flooded the land to create a reservoir. From that time on the Reservation experienced and continues to experience a water shortage with the reservation now sitting on top of the highest point in Niagara. " In 2012, 14 out of 15 wells tested positive for lead; 139 wells were tested for harmful bacteria and 69% tested positive for Total Coliforms, while 22% came back positive for E. coli."
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,138 people, 398 households, and 284 families residing in the Indian reservation. The population density was 122.8/mi2 (47.4/km2). There were 398 housing units at an average density of 42.9/mi2 (16.6/km2).
There were 398 households, out of which 43.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.4% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.36.
In the Indian reservation the population was spread out, with 34.3% under the age of 18, 13.7% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 14.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 104.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.4 males.
The median income for a household in the Indian reservation was $32,500, and the median income for a family was $38,333. Males had a median income of $33,281 versus $25,074 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $14,427. About 9.9% of families and 13.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.4% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over.


Abel C. Pepper

Abel Claypole Pepper (April 20, 1793 – March 20, 1860) was an American politician, law enforcement officer, and Indian agent. During his long career in public service, Pepper oversaw the removal of American Indians in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin on behalf of the United States Department of War, signing treaties with Indigenous peoples, which eventually resulted in the Potawatomi Trail of Death. He served in the Indiana House of Representatives three times and was a United States Marshall.
Early life and education.
Abel Claypole Pepper was born in Virginia on April 20, 1793. Pepper moved to Kentucky and served as a private in the War of 1812 with the Kentucky volunteer light dragoons. He was honorably discharged in 1813. Pepper first pursued a career in medicine, interning at a doctor's office. He changed his career path after incorrectly prescribing the wrong medication to a patient. He started studying law and represented, unlicensed, a local farmer in court. Pepper failed to win the case for the client. He stopped pursuing law. In 1816, Pepper moved to Rising Sun, Indiana. In 1820, he married Jane Haff. They had four children together.
Career and life.
After relocating to Rising Sun, Pepper became active in the community. He became the County Commissioner of Dearborn County. He joined the Indiana Militia, in which he earned the rank of colonel and brigadier general. He used the title of colonel, regardless of his higher rank. Pepper served his first term in the Indiana House of Representatives in 1825, followed by a second term in 1826. He ran for Lieutenant-Governor in 1828, running against Milton Stapp. Pepper lost the election by "a few hundred votes."
In 1829, Pepper was appointed by Andrew Jackson in Fort Wayne, Indiana to the United States Department of War as an sub-Indian agent, focused on the removal of American Indians in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and Wisconsin. Eventually, he was named superintendent. During his time as an Indian agent, he negotiated nine treaties between the Potawatomies, with he Potawatomies handing selective land plots over to the state and settlers, including the Treaty of Turkey Creek Prairie. Those Potawatomies that did not leave their land within the two years agreed to in the treaties were forced to evacuate, resulting in the Potawatomi Trail of Death.
In 1836, he returned to the Indiana House of Representatives to serve a third and final term. He resigned from his position with the Department of War in 1839.
Pepper became director of the Bank of Indiana in 1842. Pepper ran for the position against fellow representative William Andrews. The House of Representatives voted five times, with the final vote giving Pepper the majority (51 votes) over Andrews (46 votes). After the one-year term expired, Pepper was voted again, unanimously, as director. In 1844, he served as the sheriff and Sinking Fund Commissioner of Dearborn County, Indiana. After his tenure, he was appointed by President James K. Polk a United States marshal, serving from 1845 until 1849.
Pepper was a freemason, serving as a Grand Master and Grand High Priest. He was also a member of the Knights Templar.
Later life and death.
Pepper was a member of the Indiana Constitutional Commission in 1850. He represented Ohio and Switzerland Counties.
He died at home on March 20, 1860, in Rising Sun. He is buried in Rising Sun.
Legacy.
Pepper's papers are held in the collection of the Indiana State Library.


Foster Bar

Foster Bar, originally known as Foster's Bar, is a gold-bearing sandbar in the Fraser Canyon of British Columbia, Canada as well as the name used for the surrounding locality, which includes Nesikep Indian Reserve 6 and Nesikep Indian Reserve 6A of the Cayoose Creek First Nation of the St'at'imc people and Lytton Indian Reserves Nos. 6A and 5B and Seah Indian Reserve No. 5 of the Lytton First Nation of the Nlaka'pamux people.
History.
Foster Bar is notable for being one of the first places on the Fraser to be mined for gold in the mid-1850s , a few years in advance of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858. Foster Bar remained important during the gold rush as a junction between the River Trail and a route that led through a low pass in the Clear Range via Fountain Valley to Fountain (then called the "Upper Fountain") which was a junction and staging ground and roadhouse on the route of the Old Cariboo Road from Lillooet and Alexandria and also via Marble Canyon to Upper Hat Creek to connect to the Brigade Trail beyond, and at that same junction with the Cariboo Road once it was completed.
The Foster Bar Ranch was founded in 1865 by Frederick Joseph Watkinson and his wife Catherine.


Edward W. Wynkoop

Edward Wanshear Wynkoop (June 19, 1836 – September 11, 1891) was a founder of the city of Denver, Colorado. Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him.
Edward Wanshaer Wynkoop was born in Philadelphia on June 19, 1836, the youngest of eight children. He was the great-grandson of Continental Congress member, Judge Henry Wynkoop. Wynkoop was appointed the first Sheriff of Arapahoe County, Kansas Territory (entire NE quarter of present State of Colorado) on September 21, 1858. Wynkoop served as an officer in the First Colorado Volunteer Cavalry during the American Civil War, attaining the rank of major of volunteers, and was brevetted a lieutenant colonel in May 1865. During a period as post commander at Fort Lyon, Colorado in 1864, Wynkoop encouraged peace efforts with the Cheyenne, but was transferred in November 1864 to Fort Riley, Kansas, where he was posted at the time of the Sand Creek massacre. On behalf of the U.S. Army he investigated Col. John M. Chivington's conduct at Sand Creek, which led to Chivington's condemnation.
In 1866, Wynkoop became an Indian agent for the Southern Cheyennes and Arapaho, resigning in December 1868 in protest of the destruction of Black Kettle's village in the Battle of Washita River. He later became warden of the New Mexico penitentiary and died in Santa Fe on September 11, 1891.


Lillooet Country

The Lillooet Country, also referred to as the Lillooet District, is a region spanning from the central Fraser Canyon town of Lillooet west to the valley of the Lillooet River, and including the valleys in between, in the Southern Interior of British Columbia. Like other historical BC regions, it is sometimes referred to simply as The Lillooet or even Lillooet, (i.e. without meaning the town of the same name).
The meaning of the name has changed since over time. During the gold rush and into the later 19th Century, the term Lillooet District was synonymous with the Lillooet Mining District and also the Lillooet Land District, which spanned east of the Fraser all the way to the North Thompson River. As development of that region proceeded the sense of "Lillooet District" for that area was abandoned, except in terms of reference to the Land District or the similarly shaped electoral district.
The original Lillooet Country, or "Old Lillooet", lies in the valley of the Lillooet River, the name of which is derived from the St'at'imcets-speaking First Nations people who live there, the Lil'wat-ul. This isolated region, long dependent on Lillooet and on the old Douglas Road and Pemberton Trail routes to the outside world, continued being considered part of the Lillooet Country until after the opening of Hwy 99 from Pemberton via Squamish to North Vancouver, since which time it has slowly become more identified with the modern-era Sea to Sky Corridor. Though largely not considered as "part of the Lillooet Country" nowadays, the Lillooet River valley is the namesake and origin of the concept of the Lillooet Country. Its point-of-access in gold rush times was Port Lillooet, British Columbia, at the south end of Lillooet Lake.
Also part of the Lillooet Country are the valleys between those of the Fraser and the Lillooet Rivers, namely the valleys of the Bridge River, Birkenhead River, Cayoosh Creek and Seton Lake-Anderson Lake-Gates River valley, which is the route of the Canadian National Railway (formerly PGE/BCR) through the district. The basin of the Bridge River, plus the communities of D'Arcy, McGillivray Falls, Seton Portage and Shalalth are collectively known as the Bridge River Country, which is a subarea of the Lillooet Country. After the 1930s the term "Bridge River-Lillooet" came into currency as a result of the chosen masthead of the fledgling "Bridge River-Lillooet News", which served the town and environs of Lillooet as well as the mining towns of the upper Bridge River.
The Lillooet Country's boundaries are loosely defined but recognizable to residents of the area. On the northeast, the edge of the Lillooet Country is marked by the summit of the Pavilion Mountain Road and the nearby eastern outlet of Marble Canyon. Down the Fraser Canyon, a spot known as the Big Slide on Highway 12, or the southern outlet of Fountain Valley, form the southwest boundary. On the northwest generally everything north to Churn Creek and Big Bar Ferry is considered to be Lillooet Country. On the west, generally the summit of Cayoosh Pass on Highway 99 near Duffey Lake is recognizable as a "border" of the "modern" meaning of the Lillooet Country. Similarly, Pemberton Pass at Birken Lake is considered to be the outer boundary of the "modern" Lillooet Country, though as noted the Lillooet River valley to its west was the historic core and namesake of the district. Similarly, the entrance to the Bridge River Country via Railroad Pass (aka Railway Pass) between the upper Hurley River and the upper valley of the Lillooet River is a recognizable regional demarcator for locals. A vague distinction is made between the Bridge River Country and "metropolitan Lillooet" such that the lower few miles of the Bridge River, being effectively part of Greater Lillooet, are considered "Lillooet", whereas above that is "in the Bridge River".


Timeline of Nantucket

The following is a timeline of the history of Nantucket, Massachusetts, USA.


Portland and Willamette Valley Railway

The Portland and Willamette Valley Railway was incorporated on 19 January 1885 to continue construction of a narrow-gauge railroad line between Portland and Dundee, Oregon, United States, which had been started a few years earlier by the Oregonian Railway. The line was opened on 31 December 1886 and the first timetables were published the following day; however, the line did not reach Portland until 23 July 1888, due to disputes over the right-of-way. The railroad company ran this line until it fell into receivership on 2 February 1892.
On 5 August 1892, the line was leased to a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the Portland and Yamhill Railroad, which ran the narrow-gauge line for another year. The railroad was later taken over entirely by the Oregon and California Railroad, another Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, on 1 August 1893 and was converted to that same year.
The Willamette Shore Trolley runs on a part of that Dundee–Portland line, between Lake Oswego and Portland.


Westchester Country Club

Westchester Country Club is a country club located in Rye, New York. Founded in 1922, its extensive amenities include a historic residence with three restaurants and two banquet rooms, two 18-hole golf courses, one 9-hole golf course, an indoor swimming pool, squash courts, grass tennis courts and a stand-alone beach, outdoor pool and restaurant facility on Manursing Island.
History.
The Westchester Country Club (or Westchester Biltmore Country Club) was founded in 1922 by John McEntee Bowman, who hired Walter Travis to design two golf courses in the Town of Harrison, New York, as a luxury resort hotel.
The West Course was designed for championship play and has hosted PGA tournaments since 1963. The South Course was originally designed for women and higher handicap golfers. Around 1997, the South Course was reconstructed with longer tees, new sand and grass bunkers, water hazards, and some new greens. The South Course is now more competitive with the West Course to accommodate low handicap golfers.
Tournaments.
Westchester Country Club hosted the U.S. Women's Amateur in 1923, which was won by Edith Cummings. The club hosted its first PGA tournament in 1963 with the Thunderbird Classic, also in 1964 and 1965. There was no tour event at Westchester in 1966, and starting in 1967, the Westchester Classic became an annual stop on the PGA Tour through 2007. Jack Nicklaus won the rain-delayed inaugural event (and $50,000) on a Wednesday, and Steve Stricker the last, the initial event of the first FedEx Cup Playoffs. (The tournament name has changed several times since then due to sponsorship switches, and is now called The Northern Trust.)
On January 14, 2008, an article in the Journal News announced the PGA Tour's desire to terminate its affiliation with Westchester Country Club. The decision was made primarily because of Tiger Woods' absence in the tournament in 2007 (following his consecutive victories in the WGC-Bridgestone and PGA Championship), and the tournament's subsequent low TV ratings and low attendance. On January 26, a compromise agreement was made between the club and the PGA Tour at a town hall meeting at the club; WCC was paid $1.1 million to move the event from Harrison to Ridgewood Country Club in Paramus, New Jersey, for 2008.
In a second compromise agreement, the PGA Tour awarded Westchester a major tournament on the Champions Tour. The Constellation Energy Senior Players Championship was played on the renovated West Course in 2011, won by Fred Couples.
In June 2015, Westchester hosted its first LPGA major, the KPMG Women's PGA Championship, won by Inbee Park.
Westchester will host a second U.S. Women's Amateur in 2021.


Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)

Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) is a leading decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in the areas of constitutional law and administrative law. The Court held that, under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, in most circumstances the government cannot deport someone to a country where they risk being tortured, but refugee claimants can be deported to their homelands if they are a serious security risk to Canadians.
Background.
Manickavasagam Suresh had come to Canada from his native Sri Lanka in 1990, and had been accepted as a refugee under the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees on the basis that his life was in danger in Sri Lanka because of his involvement in the struggle for Tamil independence. In 1995, the government rejected his application for permanent resident status on the basis that he was a security risk, and ordered that he be deported. The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) had claimed that he was a supporter and fundraiser for the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, a terrorist group in Sri Lanka.
The Federal Court of Canada upheld the deportation order. Following this the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration issued an opinion that declared him a danger to the security of Canada under section 53(1)(b) of the "Immigration Act" and consequently should be deported. Suresh had been given an opportunity to present written and documentary evidence to the Minister, however, he was not provided with a copy of the memorandum of the immigration officer and he consequently was not provided with the opportunity to respond to the memorandum.
Due to this inability to respond Suresh applied for judicial review of the decision. He argued that:
The application was dismissed by the Federal Court. On appeal, the Federal Court of Appeal upheld the decision of the Federal Court, Trial Division. The decision was then appealed to the Supreme Court.
Ruling of the Court.
The unanimous decision of the Supreme Court was written "By the Court".
Section 7.
The Court first considered the claim for violation of section 7 of the "Charter". The Court agreed that the words "everyone" within the provision included refugees. It was further held that deportation to a country where there is a risk of torture deprives the refugee of their right to liberty and security of person. The primary issue was whether the deprivation was in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.
The Court found that section 53(1) is constitutional but that it may be unconstitutional in application. The constitutionality of the deportation depends on a balancing of the likelihood of torture and the objective of combating terrorism. The Court identified fundamental justice to be "the basic tenets of our legal system" and are determined by a contextual approach that considers the "nature of the decision to be made." Here, the Court must balance between the government's interests in combating terrorism and the refugee's interest in not being deported to torture. The test proposed by the Court was whether the deprivation would "shock the Canadian conscience". That is, whether "the conduct fundamentally unacceptable to our notions of fair practice and justice" (this test was first developed in "Canada v. Schmidt", 1987). The Court found that the Minister should generally decline to deport refugees if there is a substantial risk of torture but that it may be constitutional in exceptional cases. The law is constitutional but administrative decision makers should exercise discretion and usually weigh in favour of the claimant.
The Court also considers the "international perspective" and finds that it too is incompatible with the practice of deportation where there is a risk of torture.
In conclusion, the Court finds that the deportation order given by the Minister to be unconstitutional but the provisions of the "Immigration Act" are constitutional.
Vagueness.
The second ground of appeal was whether terms "danger to the security of Canada" and "terrorism" were unconstitutionally vague. The Court held that they were not.
Citing "R v Nova Scotia Pharmaceutical Society", the Court observes that a vague law will be unconstitutional where it "fails to give those who might come within the ambit of the provision fair notice of the consequences of their conduct" or where "it fails to adequately limit law enforcement discretion." The phrase "danger to the security of Canada" was found not to be vague. The political nature of the term means that the courts should be careful not to interfere. The Court concludes that "danger to the security of Canada" means:
As well, the Court finds that the word "terrorism" is not unconstitutionally vague. Though the word has no clear definition, it is possible to set boundaries to the meaning. The Court adopts the definition from the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, which defines it as:
Procedural fairness.
The court applied the five-question framework from Baker to determine the level of procedural protection required by s. 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in this case. The court finds that Suresh was not owed "a full oral hearing or a complete judicial process." However, the court finds that Suresh was owed a level of procedural protection greater than that required by the act (no protection whatsoever) and greater than that which Suresh received. Specifically, the court found that a person facing deportation to torture under s. 53(1)(b) of the Immigration Act should receive a copy of the material on which the Minister is basing their decision, subject to valid reasons for reduced disclosure such as safeguarding public security documents, and that an opportunity be provided for the person to respond to the case presented to the Minister. Furthermore, the refugee who is being deported has the right to challenge the information of the Minister, including the right to present evidence.
Remedy.
The court finds that because Suresh made a "prima facie" case that he would be subject to torture upon being returned to Sri Lanka and because he was denied the procedural fairness owed to him by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the case should be returned to the Minister for reconsideration in accordance with proper procedure.


History of the Jews in Alaska

The history of the Jews in Alaska began before the Alaska Purchase in 1867. Jews from Imperial Russia lived there periodically as fur traders, and a Jewish community has existed since the 1880s. The Klondike and Nome gold rushes attracted Jews to Alaska to seek their fortunes as miners and businessmen and resulted in the first organized Jewish communities. In the Nazi period, Jewish refugee resettlement in Alaska was seriously considered by the government, but after facing backlash, never came to be. Alaskan Jews played a significant role in business and politics before and after statehood, and have included mayors, judges, senators and governors. Today, there are Jews living in every urban area of the state.
Early history.
In the 1850s and 1860s, during the time of the Russian America colony in Alaska, Russian Jewish fur traders working for the Russian-American Company had commercial ties with the Jewish community in San Francisco. After the United States purchased the Alaskan Territory from Russia in 1867, some San Francisco Jewish miners, merchants, fur dealers, and traders moved up to Alaska. At the formal transfer of sovereignty in Sitka, Jewish soldier Benjamin Levi (Levy) lowered the Russian flag and raised that of the United States. The following year, two Jews from San Francisco, Louis Sloss and Lewis Gerstle, helped found the Alaska Commercial Company. In 1885, the first permanent Jewish settlers, Robert Gottstein and his wife, moved to Juneau. They were followed by their son Jacob, who settled in Anchorage soon after it was founded. Jacob established a successful business (which would later merge with Carrs), while his wife, Anna, a teacher, helped found Alaska's first Parent-Teacher Association (PTA).
When the Klondike Gold Rush took off in 1897, a number of Jews were among the fortune seekers. At one point, up to 200 Jews were living in Dawson City, where the first Jewish religious services in the territory probably took place. Sid Grauman of Grauman's Chinese Theatre was among the Jews living in Dawson during this period, and spent his youth there with his family. A Jewish cemetery in Dawson that was created during the rush, Bet Chaim, was rediscovered in 1998.
Jews also ventured to the Nome Gold Rush that began in 1899. In 1900, Sam Bayles, brother of prominent Alaskan pioneer businessman Isadore "Ike" Bayles, arrived in Nome with the first Torah in Alaska. After hearing about the discovery of gold, 19 year old Max Hirschberg biked the from Dawson to Nome in ten weeks, despite freezing temperatures and extreme weather.
Frontier lawman Wyatt Earp and his Jewish common-law wife Josephine Earp earned a fortune running their successful Nome-based saloon, The Dexter, during the peak of the rush. In 1900, around 60 Jews attended Rosh Hashanah services in Nome.
The Jewish community in Fairbanks was first organized by immigrant Robert Bloom in 1904. Between 1904 and 1910, during the Fairbanks Gold Rush, there were enough Jews to have regular High Holy Days services. In 1908, the Fairbanks community formally organized Congregation Bikkur Cholim, and the Clay Street cemetery still has a Jewish section dating back from this period. Following the gold rush, there were few Jews remaining in Fairbanks other than Robert Bloom and his wife, Jessie, who came from Ireland in 1912. They continued to be the driving force in the Fairbanks community, Jewish and otherwise, for decades. Jessie Bloom started the first Girl Scouts chapter in Alaska in 1925. Robert Bloom was among those who helped establish the base that became Fort Wainwright, and was among the founders of the University of Alaska. When World War II brought a number of Jewish GIs to the Fairbanks area, the Blooms acted as “unofficial chaplains” and opened their home to many service members.
Leopold David became the first mayor of Anchorage after it was legally incorporated in 1920.
1940s – 2000s.
In 1939, Ernest Gruening was appointed governor of the Alaska Territory, a position he held until 1953. Often called "the father of Alaskan statehood", he lobbied and advocated intensely for Alaska to become a state. When it did, he became its first senator, elected to the United States Senate on November 25, 1958.
In 1906, Russian-Jewish immigrant and Fairbanks resident Abe Spring proposed that Jewish refugees fleeing Russian pogroms be settled in Alaska. Spring's idea was soon rejected by the U.S. Congress and was not seriously considered for decades. Over 30 years later, in the face of Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany, a similar idea was considered. Following Kristallnacht, the Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes proposed a Jewish settlement in Alaska with the aim of both building up Alaska and its industry and creating an opportunity to allow in more German Jewish refugees. The resulting Slattery Report and the introduction of a bill to make the idea possible were roundly rejected by the Alaskan public who did not think that such "aliens" would fit in well. While the bill died in subcommittee in 1940 and the plan never came to fruition, the subject garnered fresh interest in 2007 with the publication of the bestselling novel "The Yiddish Policemen's Union" by Michael Chabon.
During World War II, Jewish GIs were among the tens of thousands of service members who were stationed in Alaska. The Elmendorf Air Force Base near Anchorage retained a Jewish chaplain between the 1940s and 1980s, changing every two years and rotating between Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox leaders. In 1974, Alaska's only mikveh was established at Elmendorf Air Force Base for the Jewish chaplain's wife and the broader community. These chaplains often ended up serving the entire Jewish community in Alaska, travelling to cities, small towns, and outposts for a bar mitzvah or offering a learning opportunity. From the 1940s through the 1970s, Jewish military personnel outnumbered Jewish civilians in Alaska.
Zachariah "Zach" J. Loussac was the mayor of Anchorage from 1948 to 1951. A Jewish immigrant from Russia, he became a local philanthropist after selling his business and contributed greatly to Anchorage's first purpose-built library. While the library building he helped make a reality no longer exists, the main branch of the Anchorage public library system is still named in his honor.
The largest congregation in Alaska, Beth Sholom in Anchorage, was first formed in 1958 and became affiliated with the Reform movement in 1960. The congregation's small first synagogue was built in 1964 and was used for religious school classes and Shabbat services but not for the High Holy Days when larger facilities were required. As membership grew, a new larger synagogue was required and was opened for the congregation's 30th anniversary in 1988.
Jay Rabinowitz was a Justice on the Alaska Supreme Court for over thirty years, from 1965 to 1997, and was Chief Justice for 12 of those years. His tenure began during the first years of statehood when much of Alaska's constitution was untested, and many of the over 1,200 opinions (along with 200 dissents) he wrote while on the court have defined the legal structure governing Alaska. The Rabinowitz Courthouse in Fairbanks is named in his honor.
Avrum Gross served as the Alaska Attorney General from 1974 to 1980 while Jay Hammond was Governor, despite their differing personal politics.
The Jewish Congregation of Fairbanks was incorporated in 1980, started its summer rabbinic intern program in 1989, received a full-size Torah in 1991, and in 1992 purchased a synagogue building and became known as Congregation Or HaTzafon. In 1997, the congregation became officially affiliated with the Reform movement. It is possibly the northernmost permanent synagogue in the world.
Chabad emissaries, or "shlichim", Yosef "Yossi" and Esty Greenberg arrived in Alaska in 1991 to set up a Chabad center in Anchorage and soon started prayer services and a preschool.
In the 1990s, the popular TV show "Northern Exposure" centered on a young Jewish doctor moving from New York to a fictionalized small town in Alaska.
Professor Bernard Reisman of Brandeis University conducted a demographic study of Jewish Alaskans 1994–1999. It found that contrary to popular assumption, the Alaska Jewish community was more, not less, affiliated on average than other Jewish Americans in the "Lower 48".
In 2005, Congregation Sukkat Shalom in Juneau opened its first synagogue after years of meeting in members' homes.
21st century.
Currently, there are an estimated 6,000 Jews living in Alaska, most of whom reside in Anchorage, followed by Fairbanks, Juneau, and several smaller communities such as Sitka and Ketchikan. The Jewish community there often refers to itself as the "Frozen Chosen". There are presently two permanent rabbis in the state, both of whom are in Anchorage, Michael Oblath of Congregation Beth Sholom, and Yossi Greenberg of Chabad.
Anchorage mayor Ethan Berkowitz, who assumed office in July 2015, is the third Jew to serve in this position. Democrat Les Gara and Republican Jay Ramras are two other Jews prominent in state politics.
In 2013, Chabad's Alaska outpost, headed by Yossi and Esty Greenberg, opened a new campus in Anchorage that serves Alaskan Jews as well as visitors. The state's only mikveh is also on the campus, built after the one at Elmendorf Air Force Base was demolished in 1999. In addition, the Chabad center houses a preschool and the Alaska Jewish Museum, which showcases the ways that Jews have made an impact in Alaska and explores Jewish history, culture, and the Holocaust.
In 2016, Captain Michael Bram became the first Jewish chaplain at Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson in 25 years.
Heritage monuments.
There are at least four mountains named for Jews in Alaska: Mount Ripinski after Solomon Ripinski (Ripinsky), Mount Neuberger after Richard L. Neuberger, Mount Applebaum after Samuel Applebaum, and Mount Gruening for Ernest Gruening. Additionally, the Gerstle River was named for Lewis Gerstle.


Pacanne

Pacanne (c. 1737-1816) was a leading Miami chief during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Son of The Turtle (Aquenackqua), he was the brother of Tacumwah, who was the mother of Chief Jean Baptiste Richardville. Their family owned and controlled the Long Portage, an 8-mile strip of land between the Maumee and Wabash Rivers used by traders travelling between Canada and Louisiana. As such, they were one of the most influential families of Kekionga.
Pacanne (P'Koum-Kwa) was probably the nephew of Cold Foot, the Miami Chief of Kekionga until a smallpox epidemic took his life in 1752. One of the earliest references to Pacanne comes from Captain Thomas Morris, who had been sent by the British to secure Kekionga, Ouiatenon, Vincennes, and Kaskaskia following Pontiac's Rebellion. In 1764, at Fort Miamis, near Kekionga, two Miami warriors dragged him to the village and tied him to a pole with the intent of executing him. According to his report, Pacanne, still a minor, rode up and released him. This may have been a staged event, signalling Pacanne's assumption of leadership.
As a chief and businessman, Pacanne travelled extensively, visiting villages as distant as Vincennes, Fort Detroit, Quebec City, and Fort Niagara. While gone, Kekionga was managed by Tacumwah and her son, as well as by nearby chiefs Little Turtle and Le Gris. Pacanne's frequent absence led to some misunderstandings that Le Gris was his superior.
In Autumn of 1778, during the American Revolution, Pacanne accompanied British Lt-Governor Henry Hamilton down the Wabash River to recapture Vincennes. There, he told Piankeshaw chiefs Young Tobacco and Old Tobacco- who had supported the rebelling Americans- to pay attention to Hamilton.
Following a November 1780 raid on Kekionga by a French colonial militia under Augustin de La Balme, he openly declared support for the British. Referring to the colonial French, Pacanne said, "You see our village stained with blood, you can think that we are not going to extend the hand to your friends who are our enemies. You can understand that if we find you with them that we will not make any distinction." Following up on this threat, the Miami of Kekionga requested aid in attacking Vincennes; the attack never occurred because the British aid never came. British commander Arent DePeyster singled out Pacanne's loyalty, saying they shared the same mind regarding the war.
After the American Revolution, Pacanne worked as an emissary between the new United States and the Miami Confederacy. He was a guide for Colonel Josiah Harmar and worked with Major Jean François Hamtramck. In August 1788, however, a band of Kentucky men led by Patrick Brown attacked a Piankeshaw village near Vincennes and escaped. Although Major Hamtramck promised to punish the invaders, he was powerless to actually do so. When Pacanne returned to Vincennes and learned of the attack, he broke off communications with Hamtramck and returned to Kekionga.
The next several years saw many major battles between the United States Army and the native nations in what has become known as the Northwest Indian War. Kekionga was the base of many raids against American settlers. Consequently, it was the target of American expeditions, leading to Hardin's Defeat, Harmar's Defeat, and St. Clair's Defeat. These conflicts ended with the Battle of Fallen Timbers and the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. Miami war chief Little Turtle attended and signed the treaty on behalf of the Miami, but Pacanne did not attend, instead sending his nephew, Chief Richardville. When approached later, Pacane still refused to sign. Even so, the chiefs encouraged compliance with the treaty, and opposed younger leaders- specifically Tecumseh- who continued to lead resistance against the Americans. Pacanne moved to a village near the mouth of the Mississinewa River, near present-day Peru, Indiana.
He actively sought better relations with the new United States, and remained neutral at the onset of the War of 1812. But after American retaliation for the Fort Dearborn Massacre, Pacanne again allied with the British.
Pacanne died in 1816 and was succeeded by his nephew, Jean Baptiste Richardville.


District of California

The District of California was a Union Army command department formed during the American Civil War. The district was part of the Department of the Pacific, the commander of the department also being District commander. The district was created as a separate command on July 1, 1864, after Irvin McDowell took command of the Department of the Pacific, relieving General Wright, who then remained as District of California commander. The District comprised the state of California and the areas of the Rogue River and Umpqua River in Southern Oregon. Its headquarters were in San Francisco, co-located with those of the Department of the Pacific. On March 14, 1865, the District of Oregon was extended to include the entire state of Oregon, removing the Rogue River and Umpqua River areas from the District.
District of California commanders.
On July 27, 1865 the Military Division of the Pacific was created under Major General Henry W. Halleck, replacing the Department of the Pacific. It consisted of the Department of the Columbia replacing the District of Oregon and the Department of California. George Wright, now a U. S. Army Brigadier General, was assigned to command the new Department of the Columbia.
Events, skirmishes, and battles.
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865


Steamboats of the Stikine River

Steamboats operated on the Stikine River in response to gold finds in along that river and in the Cassiar Country of northwestern British Columbia, Canada.
Early activity.
The Stikine River in northern British Columbia and Alaska has had three distinct periods of riverboat activity. The first was during the Stikine Gold Rush of 1862, the second during the Cassiar Gold Rush of the 1870s, and the third was in relation to the Klondike and Atlin Gold Rushes from 1898 onwards.
Captains William Moore and William Irving vied for river traffic and fees during the first gold rush. Both were indomitable pioneers chasing gold rushes up the continent from Oregon to Washington, Idaho and British Columbia. Moore brought his steamer the "Flying Dutchman" up the river in 1862 as an exploratory side trip to the Cariboo Gold Rush. The Collins Overland Telegraph Company steamer "Mumford" ventured up the river in 1866. Another rush in 1874 to Dease Lake brought the Gem, Western Slope and the Gertrude.
Gold rush of 1898.
With the discovery of gold at Dawson City, Yukon on Rabbit Creek in 1897, pandemonium erupted on the Pacific Coast, as unemployed, young, adventurers headed north to seek their fortune. Travelling by boat from Seattle and the 49th Parallel, Sourdoughs embarked for the Lynn Canal and the Chilkoot Pass. Strangely, materials heading north had to be transhipped first into American territory, unloaded on a beach, hauled overland back into Canadian territory, and then by small boat down the Yukon River to Dawson. Canadian Merchants sought an "All Canadian" route whereby goods could travel by river steamer from Vancouver or Victoria, in bond, pass US territory at Wrangell, and churn up the Stikine River to the head of navigation at Glenora, near Telegraph Creek. Some two dozen boats were built or spent a summer or two on the river.
However, the feasibility of the route proved less advantageous than the Lynn Canal route at Skagway. The packers would have to move supplies north along the Collins Overland Telegraph line to Teslin Lake, and thence down the Yukon to their destination. The completion of the White Pass and Yukon Railway finished dreams of the Teslin route and the steamers moved off the Stikine to other routes. The SS Moyie was built in Toronto in sections to run on the Stikine route. As the project never materialized, the Moyie never saw the Stikine but saw service elsewhere for nearly 60 years.
The Hudson's Bay Company maintained a trading post and it needed access. The HBC ran the steamer "Port Simpson" on the Stikine until 1916.
Boats.
The following steamboats and related vessels operated on the Stikine River. Codes for this table are:


Beekman family

The Beekman family is a historic family of New York state, tracing to mid-seventeeth century New Amsterdam in the Dutch province of New Netherlands.
Family tree.
Descendants of the Beekman family of Overijssel include:


Benham Mound

The Benham Mound is a Native American mound in the southwestern part of the U.S. state of Ohio. Located in modern Amberley Village in Hamilton County, the mound is an archaeological site.
A volume of Hamilton County history, published in the nineteenth century, described the Benham Mound, named for a local farmer, as "a fine, large mound," which measured high and with a circumference of approximately . Other dimensions exist that suggest a smaller structure that stood approximately in height and in diameter east and west and north to south. The location of the mound is on a hilltop that overlooks the valley of a tributary creek that flows west into the Mill Creek, which correlates with Section 30 of the original Columbia Township, near the Montgomery turnpike (now U.S. Route 22), that is, near end of present-day Grand Vista Avenue. The Norwood Mound lies approximately to the southwest.
During the late nineteenth century, local residents partially excavated the mound and the ground around it; their diggings revealed significant amounts of mica and divers types of stone tools, including axes, scrapers, chisels, and flint projectile points. These findings, combined with the location of the mound itself, have led archaeologists to conclude that Benham Mound was built by people of the Hopewell tradition. Because of its archaeological value, the Benham Mound was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.