United States Post Office (Poughkeepsie, New York)

The main U.S. Post Office, Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, is located at the intersection of Market and Mansion Streets downtown (actual address is 55 Mansion Street). The Post Office serves the 12601 ZIP Code, which covers the city of Poughkeepsie, New York and portions of the Town of Poughkeepsie adjacent to the city. It employs a hundred people and handles 300,000 pieces of mail a day and 10 million a year.
History.
The building was the second of five post offices in Dutchess County built during the New Deal by the Works Progress Administration. It was the first for which President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a native of Hyde Park, took a close personal interest in the design. He had written in 1928 of his desire to preserve the stone buildings in the Hudson Valley built by early Dutch settlers of the region, including his ancestors, which he feared was disappearing. The simple and modest style of the stone houses built by all those early settlers regardless of wealth was, to him, an example that should be followed by everyone.
Earlier in the decade, nearby Beacon had gotten a new post office in local fieldstone designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood. When Poughkeepsie's turn came, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau demanded that it be made of irregular fieldstone in the Dutch style, modeled after a demolished county courthouse that had been built in 1809. Architect Eric Kebbon followed the design but originally turned in a building that was to use granite. Roosevelt personally ordered him to redesign it to his specifications and would not let construction proceed until it was.
Roosevelt laid the cornerstone himself at a dedication ceremony during celebrations of the 250th anniversary of Poughkeepsie's settlement on October 13, 1937. Five hundred workers would spend the next two years building the 63,000-square foot (5,670 m²) structure.
The final building included a lobby with murals painted by WPA artists depicting six scenes in local and state history, including the ratification of the United States Constitution by New York. The success of its design inspired Roosevelt to push for similar stone post office buildings in other Dutchess County towns along the river, and it influenced the similar design of new offices built nearby for the "Poughkeepsie Journal" newspaper. The Smithsonian Institution chose it as one of ten New York post offices among the five hundred most beautiful in the country. It has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.
On October 22, 2008, the cupola, undergoing renovation at the time, was damaged by a fire, causing the building to be closed for a few days. The rest of the building remained undamaged. City fire investigators said the likely cause was accidental, from heat guns used by the painters working on it.
See also.
Other Hudson Valley post offices whose design Roosevelt influenced:


Oneida Nation of Wisconsin

The Oneida Nation of Wisconsin is a federally recognized tribe of Oneida people, with a reservation located in parts of two counties on the west side of the Green Bay metropolitan area. The reservation was established by treaty in 1838, and was allotted to individual New York Oneida tribal members as part of an agreement with the U.S. government. The land was individually owned until the tribe was formed under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934.
Under the Dawes Act, the land was allotted in 1892 to individual households. The nation kept control of most of the land until sales were allowed in the early 20th century, when members were often tricked out of their property. They used the land for farming and harvesting timber. They now control about 22% of their former reservation property and are working to reacquire the land.
In 1988 the nation established the state's first modern lottery, known as Big Green. Since the late 20th century, the nation developed the gaming Ashwaubenon Casino on its property, which is generating revenue for economic development and welfare. Of the more than 21,000 members, roughly half live on the reservation.
History.
The Oneida Nation of Wisconsin are descendants of an indigenous Iroquoian-speaking nation that arose in present-day central-western New York. They became one of the original Five Nations of the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. Although many Oneida of what was called the Christian Party had allied with the rebels during the American Revolutionary War, afterward the tribe was under pressure to cede lands in New York to the new federal government. Their territory was encroached on by European-American settlers and the people suffered from harassment by settlers who did not distinguish between former allies and enemies (four of the six Iroquois nations had been allied with the British). Many began to relocate from New York in the 1820s and 1830s to Wisconsin, where they were offered land.
By a treaty in 1838, the Oneida accepted a reservation, and chief Patrick James Brault negotiated to ensure that the land was to be held communally by the tribe. Oneida activists from Wisconsin and New York such as Laura Cornelius Kellogg (1880-1947) would make continual efforts to uphold Indian land claims.
20th century.
Great Depression.
During the Great Depression, the Works Progress Administration organized the Federal Writers Project, which produced state guides and also helped preserve much of Oneida culture. Its Oneida Language and Folklore Project gathered hundreds of stories and material about their culture.
Termination period.
In the period between World War II and The Sixties the US government followed a policy of Indian Termination for its Native citizens. In a series of laws, attempting to mainstream tribal people into the greater society, the government strove to end the U.S. government's recognition of tribal sovereignty, eliminate trusteeship over Indian reservations, and implement state law applicability to native persons. In general the laws were expected to create taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal taxes as well as laws, from which Native people had previously been exempt.
On 13 August 1946 the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the 5-year deadline in August, 1951.
On 1 August 1953, United States Congress issued a formal statement, House Concurrent Resolution 108, which was the formal policy presentation announcing the official federal policy of Indian termination. The resolution called for the "immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas." All federal aid, services, and protection offered to Native people were to cease, and the federal trust relationship and management of reservations would end. Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United States citizens with all the rights, benefits and responsibilities of any other United States citizen. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly identify other tribes who would be ready for termination in the near future.
A 21 January 1954 memo by the Department of the Interior advised that a bill for termination was being prepared including "about 3,600 members of the Oneida Tribe residing in Wisconsin. Another memo of the Department of the Interior memo entitled "Indian Claims Commission Awards Over $38.5 Million to Indian Tribes in 1964," states that the Emigrant Indians of New York are "(now known as the Oneidas, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Brotherton Indians of Wisconsin)".
In an effort to fight termination and force the government into recognizing their outstanding land claims from New York, the three tribes began filing litigation in the 1950s. As a result of a claim filed with the Indian Claims Commission, the group was awarded a settlement of $1,313,472.65 on 11 August 1964. To distribute the funds, Congress passed Public Law 90-93 81 Stat. 229 "Emigrant New York Indians of Wisconsin Judgment Act" and prepared separate rolls of persons in each of the three groups to determine which tribal members had at least one-quarter "Emigrant New York Indian blood." It further directed tribal governing bodies of the Oneidas and Stockbridge-Munsee to apply to the Secretary of the Interior for approval of fund distributions, thereby ending termination efforts for these tribes. With regard to the Brothertown Indians, however, though the law did not specifically state they were terminated, it authorized all payments to be made directly to each enrollee with special provisions for minors to be handled by the Secretary, though the payments were not subject to state of federal taxes.
Geography and population.
The reservation comprises portions of eastern Outagamie and western Brown counties. The shape of the reservation is an angled rectangle directed to the northeast, laid out along the Fox River, which runs in the same direction. The reservation has a land area of and a 2000 census population of 21,321 persons, over half of whom live on reservation land. Some is included within the boundary of the city of Green Bay. The only community entirely on the reservation is Oneida.
Government.
The Oneida reorganized their government in the 1930s under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. In 1936 they adopted the Oneida Constitution. They have an elected government, with a tribal chairman, a nine-person business committee elected to three-year terms by the full membership of the nation, and the Oneida Tribal Judicial System. Additional committees and commissions are appointed or elected as needed. The tribal chair is Tehassi Hill.
Membership.
As a sovereign nation, the people set their rules for membership. They require members to document that they have at least 1/4 Oneida blood (blood quantum). They do not require ancestry through the maternal line, as does the Oneida Indian Nation of New York.
Economy.
The Oneida had a rural economy for many years, based on subsistence farming in the 19th century and timber harvesting. During the New Deal, the tribe benefited from employment related to the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps, which helped build infrastructure for the community.
In the mid to late-1980s the Nation started a bingo game program televised on Green Bay stations. A caller read the numbers on the bottom of the screen, and a lighted number board was shown in the upper part of the screen. Winners could redeem winning cards at the tribe's bingo hall.
In 1988, the Nation sold the first "modern" lottery tickets in the state at their reservation. The state had authorized a state lottery, but it did not begin operations until 1991. The main game offered by the Oneida Nation was Big Green, which began as a pick-6-of-36 jackpot game.
Since that time, the Nation has developed the Ashwaubenon Casino on the reservation for gaming, entertainment, etc. It generates revenues for reinvestment in economic development and welfare. The gaming complex includes related hotel, conference and other facilities. Since developing gaming casinos after 1988, the Oneida tribe has, in a matter of a few decades, gone from being a destitute people to enjoying a fair amount of social prosperity. They have invested a large portion of their profits back into their community, including a sponsorship of the Green Bay Packers.
The issue of Oneida Nation's contributions to the larger community has raised controversy, as has Indian gaming throughout the country. The lottery game Big Green offered on the reservation pre-dates the launch of the statewide Wisconsin Lottery in 1988.
The new wealth generated by the tribe's gaming and other enterprises has enabled the tribe to provide many benefits for its members on the tribal rolls. Oneida members have assistance for dental, medical and optical insurance, and college education. They receive annual per capita payments related to profits from the casino, an amount determined each year.
Many citizens of Green Bay, and many members of the Oneida tribe, have voiced concerns about the potential long-term detrimental effects of relying on casino gaming revenues for the social structure and economy of Green Bay and within the tribe. Similarly, numerous residents have questioned the state's reliance on the Wisconsin Lottery to raise money for state programs. Such systems are considered regressive in terms of tax policy.
In the early 21st century, the Oneida Nation is one of the largest employers in northeastern Wisconsin with over 3,000 employees, including 975 people in tribal government. The Tribe manages more than $16 million in federal and private grant monies, and a wide range of programs, including those authorized by the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act.


Newfoundland National Convention

The Newfoundland National Convention of 1946 to 1948 was a forum established to decide the constitutional future of Newfoundland.
Nominations.
On 11 December 1945 the British Government announced that there would be an election to a national convention, which would debate constitutional options and make a recommendation as to which options would appear on a ballot in a national referendum. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee wanted to ensure that people from St John's, the capital and largest city, did not dominate the seats, so he recommended that delegates would be elected in the former electoral districts and that each delegate would have to have been a resident of the district. Nominations to the National Convention were held on May 31, 1946 and on June 21, 1946, Newfoundlanders elected 45 delegates. Two women offered themselves as candidates, but neither was elected. Lester Burry of Labrador secured a seat, the first time that Labrador had elected representation.
Convening the National Convention.
The National Convention was convened on September 11, 1946. Judge Cyril J. Fox, a Supreme Court of Newfoundland Justice, chaired the proceedings until his death. He was succeeded as chairman by Convention Member Gordon Bradley for most of the rest of the convention's duration, but after Bradley's resignation, the lawyer J.B. McEvoy served in the chair. The Commissioner of Home Affairs issued pay cheques to delegates: $15 a day, with a travelling stipend of $10 per day.
Observers allowed in the gallery and the general public could listen to the debates on radio stations VOCM, VOAR and the state-run Broadcasting Corporation of Newfoundland station, VONF.
Some delegates who were critical of the Commission of Government used the opportunity to demand that Commissioners justify to the convention some of their policies. However, Governor MacDonald explained that delegates were not the Government of Newfoundland, but were convened to debate the constitutional options which would appear on a ballot in a forthcoming referendum.
Proceedings.
Many delegates believed Newfoundland should return to responsible government and self-determination; delegates sympathetic to Confederation with Canada were in a minority in the National Convention. On October 28, 1946, Joseph R. Smallwood moved that a delegation be sent to Ottawa to discuss Terms of Union with Canada. More motions and amendments were passed in the days following, when on October 30 Kenneth M. Brown, the delegate from Bonavista South, collapsed on the floor of the chamber. Tragedy struck again when on November 16, Judge Fox suffered a heart attack and died suddenly. Smallwood's motion revealed that confederation with Canada had only a minority of support in the Convention, but it was now on the agenda and the confederates used the radio broadcasts of the convention to tell the people of Newfoundland and Labrador of the financial advantages that joining Canada would bring. The convention adjourned on December 13 for the Christmas break, but the widespread feeling that Smallwood and the confederates had the upper hand encouraged St. John's businessman F. M. O'Leary and others to form the Responsible Government League. The RGL was dedicated to the resumption of the former (1933) constitution for the Dominion.
The London Delegation.
In 1946, the National Convention dispatched the London Delegation to seek guarantees of continued assistance if Newfoundland were to resume responsible government. The British government favoured Newfoundland joining Canada, so it did not offer any promises of continued financial aid.
The members (with their districts) were:
The Ottawa Delegation.
On June 19, 1947, the National Convention dispatched the Ottawa Delegation to negotiate the Terms of Union for confederation between Newfoundland and Canada. While the British government had offered nothing, the Canadian Government wanted Newfoundland as a province so they were prepared to negotiate support for the new province. There was a limit to that however as it was not possible to offer Newfoundland any special deal that was not allowed other provinces under the British North America Act.
The Ottawa Delegation was supposed to return to Newfoundland after one week. But the negotiations went on longer. Each delegate received a travelling subsidy of $25 per day. The members (with their districts) were:
At least half of the Ottawa Delegates belonged to the Orange Lodge: Joseph Smallwood, P.W. Crummey and F.G. Bradley were Orangemen; and two of them had been grand-masters: P.W. Crummey and F.G. Bradley.
Newfoundland–Canadian negotiations.
Newfoundland–Canadian negotiations were largely a one-way affair, because any union between the two dominions was dictated by the provisions of the British North America Act (BNA), under which Canada had come into being in 1867.
P. W. Crummey had the hardest portfolio. Because the economy of his district was almost exclusively fishery-oriented, he was assigned to negotiate maritime issues. Crummey quickly discovered that after Confederation, Newfoundland would lose control of the Grand Banks because the BNA designated fisheries as under federal jurisdiction. Crummey also sensed that the federal negotiators intended to draw out the negotiations.
Economic Union Party.
A National Delegate named Robert Brown Job suggested economic union with the United States. Another National Delegate named Chesley Crosbie subsequently created the Economic Union Party. On April 11, 1947, David Jackman moved that a delegation be sent to Washington, D.C. to seek terms of union but his motion was not passed by the assembly. Thus, union with the United States was effectively taken off the table.
The confederation debate.
A motion to place confederation with Canada on the ballot was defeated 29 to 16. Joey Smallwood felt slighted by what he called 'twenty-nine dictators'. Smallwood and his Confederates took the matter public. Newfoundland's Governor, Gordon Macdonald announced on March 11, 1948 that confederation with Canada would be on a national referendum ballot along with Dominion government and the Commission.
The referendums.
On June 3, 1948, the first of two Newfoundland referendums was held on the advice of the convention. Voters had three options:
The option for responsible government (dominion status) won a plurality, but not an absolute majority. The Governor and Commissioners called for a second national referendum, one between confederation and dominion status. Anti-Confederates wanted the second national referendum options limited to "responsible government" and "Commission of Government", believing that if responsible government won, it would be in a position to negotiate better terms with Canada.
On July 22, 1948 A second national referendum was held. In the second referendum only two options appeared:
The confederation option won by a narrow margin, and Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province the following year.


Anthony Deydier

Anthony Deydier, was a French priest, missionary and teacher.
Biography.
Early Years in America.
Deydier was born in France on April 30, 1788. He left his native country on June 10, 1810, on the same boat as Simon Bruté, accompanying Benedict Flaget. After his ordination to the diaconate he refused ordination to the priesthood and he taught for four years at Mount St. Mary's in Emmitsburg, Maryland, (which was where Father Bruté spent most of his early years in America), eventually ending up in Albany New York as a private tutor. According to one source, he had received minor orders in France and when he arrived in the United States, he taught music in New York City. Apparently his association with Brute at Mount St. Mary's is what led him eventually to his priestly ordination. Bruté reportedly asked him to come to Indiana. That call obviously struck a chord in Deydier because it was in the missions that he spent the remainder of his life. Bishop Bruté ordained him on March 25, 1837, in the Cathedral of Saint Francis Xavier in Vincennes, Indiana.
Missionary work in Indiana.
After his ordination as a priest he was sent to Evansville, Indiana. He apparently did not find many Catholics. The day after his arrival, on May 4, 1837, he celebrated Mass in a tavern, at the corner of First and Locust. He then returned to Vincennes, but was then sent back to Evansville in November 1838, after conducting a collection tour in September of that year. From then on he is reported to have remained in Evansville. However, it was reported in "Historical Records and Studies" that in 1842, while on a similar mission trip, Deydier was appointed temporary administrator of the new French Parish in New York City, St. Vincent DePaul. Much of his time was taken up ministering to the workers on the Wabash and Erie Canal. Deydier's life in Evansville was not one of leisure. Saint Theodora Guerin, foundress of the Sisters of Providence, St. Mary of the Woods wrote in her journal "So extreme was his poverty and so complete his destitution, that I shall run the risk of being accused of exaggeration in describing it." He founded the parish of the Assumption in Evansville, Vanderburgh County, Indiana. In the "History of Vanderburgh County" it was written:
It was a noticeable feature of the Catholic priesthood in the pioneer days that wherever they found a community, no matter how small or how widely scattered, wherein they could establish a mission, there the cross was erected and the protecting care of the church spread over the inhabitants. No hardship was accounted too severe and no sacrifice too great to stand in the way of the propagation of a religion which they believed to declare the voice and will of God. The first information of any Catholics residing in the vicinity of Evansville, was communicated in the fall of 1836, to the Right Rev. Gabriel Brute, first bishop of Vincennes, by Rev. Father Buteux, and the companions of his journey, who lodged on their arrival here, at the Mansion House, then kept by Francis Linck, a citizen well remembered to this day and esteemed by all the older inhabitants of the city. Mr. Linck, born in 1774, was a native of Stockheim, in Wurtemburg, and in 1836 was the only Catholic in Evansville, except perhaps the late John Walsh. In March, 1837, Very Rev. Father De la Hielandiere, vicar-general of the Rev. Bishop, accompanied by Rev. Father Shawe, visited Evansville with a view of establishing a mission, and on the 3rd day of May, following, Rev. Father Anthony Deydier was dispatched to take charge of the mission. Father Deydier was born in France, April 30, 1788, and was ordained a priest at the cathedral of Vincennes, March 25, 1837. Very few knew that he had reached the full strength of his manhood when he took upon himself holy orders, and was placed in charge of the mission in this city. While here he lived a blameless and well spent life, unobtrusive in his deportment, but with a kind word for all. After almost a year's residence at the house of Mr. Linck, in January, 1838, he built a lodge room, 10x15 feet size, at the corner of Fifth and Chestnut streets. Here he made his abode, using his little room as a dwelling and for chapel purposes for about three years. For Sabbath day services larger rooms at the homes of Catholics were occasionally used. He labored heroically among his people, did much missionary work in the country adjacent to Evansville, and in 1838 made a successful trip to the east to raise funds for the erection of a church building. The history of Catholicism in Evansville since that time is the history of a wonderful growth. The worthy priest who stood by the church in its infancy, lived to see it become rich and powerful with a numerous priesthood within the territory where he once labored alone - lived to see a sturdy oak grown from the acorn planted by his hands. When old age and increasing infirmities had impaired his usefulness, he retired from the active ministry and, returning to Vincennes, passed the evening of his life in comparative rest, greatly beloved by all who knew him. His death occurred February 11, 1864.
Deydier remained until 1859, when he retired to the "Highlands" at Vincennes. He died on February 11, 1864, and was buried in the orphanage cemetery, which is now part of the St. Vincent de Paul Parish.


Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake

The Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake was a skirmish in July 1863 in Dakota Territory between United States army forces and Santee, Yankton, Yanktonai and Teton Sioux. The Indians attempted to capture the pack train of the army and retired from the field when they were unsuccessful.
Background.
The defeat of Little Crow in the Dakota War of 1862 caused the widespread dispersion of the Santee Sioux or Eastern Dakota. More than 4,000 Santee and other Sioux congregated in the summer of 1863 in a large encampment in present-day Kidder County, North Dakota.
In June and July 1863, Brigadier general Henry Hastings Sibley led a military expedition to punish the Santee. Sibley had 2,056 men – 1,436 infantry, 520 cavalry, and 100 artillery and white and Indian scouts. On July 24, Sibley found the Sioux camp and the Battle of Big Mound ensued. The Sioux retired from the battlefield, the warriors fighting a rear guard action to protect their families for about 12 miles (20 km). As the families continued to flee toward safety across the Missouri River, the warriors paused at Dead Buffalo Lake, about two miles (3 km) northwest of present-day Dawson, North Dakota to await Sibley's advance.
Many of the Santee under their leader Standing Buffalo had been reluctant fighters and appear to have avoided further conflict by fleeing northwest and eventually to Canada, rather than halt at Dead Buffalo Lake. The remaining Santee, Yankton, and Yanktonai whose best known leader was Inkpaduta, were joined by about 650 Hunkpapa and Blackfoot (Lakota) Teton warriors. This brought the number of Indian warriors up to 1,600, according to one estimate. Sitting Bull was among the Teton reinforcements.
Battle.
Sibley marched to Dead Buffalo Lake on July 26 and about noon camped near the shores of the small lake. Mounted Sioux appeared shortly on the hills surrounding the lake and Sibley's camp, threatening an attack. Sibley advanced his artillery, two companies of infantry, and his pioneers to a position about 600 yards in advance of his camp and opened fire at long range on the Indians. The Indians withdrew to a safe distance.
The objective of the Sioux seems to have been to capture the army's pack train of horses and mules and immobilize Sibley. They first attempted an assault on Sibley's left flank, but were checked by a company of mounted rangers and two companies of infantry. The Indians then disappeared into the hills. Several muleteers in Sibley's camp assumed the engagement was over and took the livestock out of the defense lines to graze. The Sioux re-appeared in force on the right flank and made another effort to capture the stock, but were repulsed in a brief close-quarter fight by two companies of cavalry and 6 companies of infantry. Sitting Bull, armed with only a whip, was said to have counted coup on a muleteer and captured his mule. Failing in their mission to capture most of the horses and mules, the Indians then retired from the field and the battle was over.
One soldier was killed. The soldiers estimated they had killed 15 Sioux. The number of Indian combatants and Indian casualties were often overestimated by the army.
Aftermath.
Sibley continued his pursuit of the Sioux the following day, attempting to catch them before they could cross the Missouri River. On July 28 he engaged them again at the Battle of Stony Lake.


Karima Baloch

Karima Baloch (8 March 1983 – 20/22 December 2020), also known as Karima Mehrab, was a Pakistani Baloch human rights activist and dissident. She campaigned for the independence of Balochistan from Pakistan, and was included in the "BBC"'s list of 100 inspirational and influential women in 2016.
Activist career.
Baloch started her career as a human rights and independence activist in 2005, when she attended a protest in Turbat over forced disappearances in the Pakistani province of Balochistan, where she carried a picture of one of her missing relatives. She joined the Baloch Students Organization (BSO) in 2006, serving in several different positions and eventually becoming the organization's chairperson in 2015. During these years, Baloch travelled all over Balochistan, organizing outreach programs such as protests and rallies. A 2014 "OZY" article about her states, "In Islamabad, Pakistan's capital, Karima is seen as a dangerous political actor and a threat to the nation’s security. Meanwhile, a thousand kilometers southwest, deep inside Balochistan, she's a local hero and a beacon of hope."
In an interview in 2014, she said,
Exile from Pakistan.
In 2015, Baloch went into self-imposed exile after terrorism charges were filed against her by the Pakistani state, with her younger sister Mahganj Baloch stating that, "She didn't go abroad because she wanted to, but because... open activism in Pakistan had become impossible." A year later, in 2016, she was granted asylum in Canada, where she lived until her disappearance and death in December 2020. In 2016, following Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s public speech on India's Independence Day in which he mentioned the situation in Pakistani Balochistan, Baloch addressed him in a video, where she thanked him for mentioning the issue, adding "We will fight our own war, you just be our voice" .
Baloch was included in the 100 Women List by the "BBC" in 2016, where she was identified as a political activist who "campaigns for independence for Balochistan from Pakistan". Baloch listed Dad Shah and Hatun Bibi—both ethnic Baloch rebels who fought against the Imperial State of Iran in Iranian Balochistan—as the primary inspirations behind her activism. In 2018, she raised issues related to gender inequality in Pakistan at the United Nations Human Rights Council. She also raised issues related to Balochistan in Canada, such as during a meeting in Toronto, where she mentioned Pakistan’s "occupation" of Balochistan.
Personal life and family.
Baloch had two siblings, a brother named Sameer Baloch and a sister named Mahganj Baloch. She married a fellow Baloch activist, Hammal Baloch (also known as Hammal Haider), in Toronto. Several members of her extended family have been linked to the Balochistan insurgency in Iran and Pakistan.
Disappearance and death.
Baloch was last seen alive on 20 December 2020. On 22 December 2020, her dead body was found in the waterfront near Downtown Toronto. The Toronto Police Service initially reported that her body was found near Lake Ontario, although no further details were given. "CBC News" reported that a close friend and fellow Baloch activist, Lateef Johar, said that "officers had told her family she was found drowned in the water". Small-scale protests demanding an investigation into her death occurred in Pakistani Balochistan and Canada. Ethnic Baloch, Pashtun and Sindhi minority groups in Canada issued a joint statement in this regard. Canadian police acknowledged the concerns around Baloch's death, but stated that they had found no evidence of foul play, and concluded that her death was "non-criminal". Chris Alexander, the former Canadian Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship, stated in a tweet: "All of us who knew Karima see the circumstances of her death as deeply suspicious. We must leave no stone unturned in uncovering & confronting the reality of what happened to her."


Salamanca (city), New York

Salamanca (Seneca: "Onë:dagö:h") is a city in Cattaraugus County, New York, United States, inside the Allegany Indian Reservation, one of two governed by the Seneca Nation of New York. The population was 5,815 at the 2010 census. It was named after José de Salamanca, a Spanish nobleman and cabinet minister of the mid-19th century.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and , or 3.88%, is water.
Salamanca is within the Allegany Indian Reservation of the Seneca Nation of New York (one of the six tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy). The city population of about 5,800 is about 17% Native American; this does not include Seneca people living in the nearby hamlets of Jimerson Town (one of the two capitals of the nation) and Kill Buck. The city lies along the Allegany River and is adjacent to Allegany State Park.
Salamanca is one of the two cities in Cattaraugus County, the other being Olean.
History.
What is now known as the city of Salamanca was originally two separate communities, one on Little Valley Creek and the other on Great Valley Creek; the westernmost one of the two was called "Hemlock", a name derived from the numerous hemlock trees throughout the surrounding mountains. The eastern community (from modern-day Conrath Avenue eastward) was Kill Buck's Town; the eastern half of what is now Kill Buck remains an unincorporated hamlet independent of the city of Salamanca. Hemlock was later renamed "West Salamanca" and (although it was marked on road signs as late as the 1990s) was eventually incorporated into the single city of Salamanca. The city was incorporated in 1913.
At one time the city was a thriving railroad hub, with the Erie Railroad (later Conrail), Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway (BR&P) (later Baltimore and Ohio Railroad) all having facilities there. Generations of Salamanca residents worked for the railroads, and much of the housing was originally built for them by the railroads. The city also benefited from the then-thriving lumber industry that dominated much of southwestern Cattaraugus County at the turn of the century, as boomtowns along the Allegheny River such as Elko, South Valley and Red House (all much less populated ghost towns today) all used the railroads to ship their goods upstream. At the time of the city's incorporation, it peaked at under 10,000 residents, not far behind Olean, 19 miles to the east, the major hub of the county; Olean, however, would continue to grow rapidly into the 1950s, while Salamanca's population would begin falling behind almost immediately. The Salamanca Rail Museum was opened in the former BR&P depot in 1984 to house the archives.
The majority of the city, with the exception of a northeastern spur along Great Valley Creek, was constructed on the Allegany Indian Reservation held by the Seneca Nation of New York, as established in various treaties. Under the nation's policy, non-Seneca residents are barred from owning real property on the reservation, and non-Senecas can only lease the property from the Seneca Nation. As arranged by the railroads, the previous leases had nominal payments and covered only the land; improvements (i.e., buildings and houses) were considered to be owned by the non-native citizens.
When the leases expired in the early 1990s, the nation tried to gain more from its leases, raising their costs and asserting not only the land, but the improvements were also subject to the native leases. Numerous people living in the city did not agree on the amount of lease payments or the legitimacy of the Senecas' absolute ownership claim. The controversy aroused bitterness, lawsuits, and appeals to government officials. Congress passed a law explicitly placing the improvements under Seneca jurisdiction, the new leases were put into effect, and fifteen houses were seized and their owners evicted for refusing to sign the leases. The current leases are in effect until 2030, with an option to extend until 2070; proceeds from the lease payments are distributed quarterly to enrolled Seneca Nation members, providing a basic income guarantee.
Despite the lack of ownership, leased land held by non-Senecas is subject to property tax, which the lessee must pay to the city, Cattaraugus County, and the Salamanca City Central School District. Seneca-owned land is exempt under the Treaty of Buffalo Creek. Once a Seneca acquires the land, it is taken off the tax rolls; for this reason, the city of Salamanca does not auction off abandoned properties on the reservation in a property tax auction, for fear Seneca individuals will buy the land, removing it from the tax rolls.
Government.
The city has a council-mayor system, with the mayor elected at-large and five trustees selected from wards, generally numbered from west to east.
"Between 2004-05 and 2009-10, State aid for the City, including casino revenues, increased by an average annual rate of nearly 50 percent (starting at $0.8 million in 2004-05 and peaking at $7.3 million in 2008-09). Salamanca’s average annual expenditure increases on debt service, general government, transportation, utilities and public safety between 2004-05 and 2009-10 were all in the double digits." This was attributable to revenues from the Seneca Allegany Casino.
Casino revenues.
The Seneca Nation opened a gambling casino in Salamanca in May 2004. About 1,000 new jobs were created by the casino operation, resulting in a housing shortage in the small town as new workers entered the city. Under the arrangement with the state, a 25% share of the casino's revenue goes to the city and county, which they can use for needed projects. Revenues for the city increased dramatically (see above).
Significant change did not quickly take place in the city, with new construction in only a few select areas. Main Street and US Route 219 (which runs through the city) remain largely untouched. Redevelopment was delayed when the Nation stopped casino payments in late 2010 in a dispute with the state over its opening racinos elsewhere in the state; payments were resumed in 2013. The state provided the city with emergency funds to help support it until the dispute was settled. The Senecas again announced it would halt payments to the state in 2017, stating a clause in the gaming compact had expired and its obligation to continue paying the state was no longer in effect.
Because of the contentious relations between Seneca and non-Seneca residents, columnist Selena Zito described Salamanca as a "failed American city" in 2011 in a column that soon drew the rebuke of city officials.
Economy.
Retail shops include several Seneca-owned cigarette, tobacco, coffee shops, and gas stations; there are several empty storefronts, especially in the city's central business district on and near Main Street. The Seneca Nation has made efforts to diversify, establishing a tribal holding company in 2009 and an economic development corporation in 2011.
Among the national chains that operate franchises in Salamanca are McDonald's, Burger King, Little Caesars, Holiday Inn Express, Tim Hortons, Subway, RadioShack, NAPA and AutoZone on the west side; and Rite-Aid (owned by Carl Paladino's Ellicott Development Co.), Save-a-Lot and Family Dollar in the center of the city. Save-a-Lot competes with Parkview Supermarket, which is affiliated with Olean Wholesale Grocery and owned by Erie County, Pennsylvania-based Sander's Markets, while Holiday Inn Express competes with the locally owned Hotel Westgate; the Dudley Hotel, which predates both, has sat vacant for several years. Family Dollar is in the city's only shopping mall, Salamanca Mall, in which the regional Worth W. Smith Hardware chain, a local antique shop, and a small café also operate.
Regional banks Five Star Bank, Community Bank, N.A. and Cattaraugus County Bank all have branches in Salamanca, as does the CCSE Federal Credit Union.
A number of industrial factories, among them McHone Industries (a metal fabricating company) and Salamanca Lumber, operate in the center part of the city, and East End Plastics operates a plant on the east side of the city.
Transportation.
The Southern Tier Expressway (Interstate 86 and New York State Route 17) pass south of the city, as do U.S. Route 219 and New York State Route 417.
Salamanca serves as a hub for the area's public bus service. Coach USA, Fullington Trailways, the Seneca Transit System, and the Olean Area Transit System all converge on the city. The city's only active rail depot is on the east side of the city, serviced by the Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad.
In the past, the Erie Railroad and then, the Erie Lackawanna Railroad had operated passenger trains through Salamanca, Into the 1960s, the "Erie Limited" and the "Atlantic Express"/"Pacific Express" made stops there. The last train making stops there was the "Lake Cities" which was discontinued in 1970. The New York and Lake Erie Railroad operated between Salamanca and Gowanda until 1990. Today, the station houses the Salamanca Rail Museum. Two miles to the east, the Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway had an "East Salamanca" station. The successor railroad, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad last had passenger trains at the latter in the mid-1950s. Into the early 1940s Pennsylvania Railroad ran passenger trains into a third station for trains between Olean and Oil City, Pennsylvania.
Religion.
The Catholic Church, Southern Baptist Convention (House of Prayer), Seventh-day Adventists, Free Methodist Church, Jehovah's Witnesses and Lighthouse Baptist Church all have branches in the city bounds. At least two other independent churches also operate; the local United Methodist Church disaffiliated in the late 2010s.
Media.
Radio stations WQRS (98.3) and WGGO (1590) are licensed to Salamanca. WQRS carries an album-oriented classic rock format run by Olean-based Sound Communications; WGGO, whose studios and transmitter are owned by Michael Washington, runs a satellite conservative talk format. WGWE (105.9), while licensed to neighboring Little Valley, has its studios in Salamanca. That station, a Seneca Nation owned-and-operated broadcaster, runs a classic hits format.
The "Salamanca Press" is the local newspaper. A daily paper (publishing Monday through Saturday) for most of the 20th century, the paper reverted to a weekly publication in 2009.
There is no direct television broadcasting in Salamanca; the city is ostensibly part of the Buffalo media market, and local cable and satellite providers carry those stations (as well as some from Erie, Pennsylvania and Toronto, Ontario), but the hilly terrain around the city makes television reception problematic. Two low-powered stations based in Olean can occasionally be received over the air. Atlantic Broadband is the local cable provider.
Demographics.
As of the 2010 United States census, Salamanca had a population of 5,815. The ethnic and racial makeup of the population was 75.5% non-Hispanic white, 0.9% African-American, 16.9% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.8% reporting two or more races, and 3.3% Hispanic or Latino of any race.
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,097 people, 2,469 households, and 1,575 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,015.6 people per square mile (392.3/km2). There were 2,749 housing units at an average density of 457.9 per square mile (176.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 74.26% White, 0.66% Black or African American, 20.74% Native American, 0.33% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.18% from other races, and 1.75% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.82% of the population.
There were 2,469 households, out of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.2% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.0% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 26.9% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $24,579, and the median income for a family was $30,996. Males had a median income of $25,549 versus $19,180 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,812. About 18.0% of families and 22.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.7% of those under age 18 and 15.9% of those age 65 or over.


Utah and Northern Railway

The Utah & Northern Railway is a defunct railroad that was operated in the Utah Territory and later in the Idaho Territory and Montana Territory in the western United States during the 1870s and 1880s. It was the first railroad in Idaho and in Montana.
The original of the Utah Northern Railroad (later named Utah & Northern Railway) was conceived and built by the Mormons. It was a narrow gauge spur off the Union Pacific portion of the transcontinental railroad. The labor for this railroad was largely volunteer Mormon labor as the intent of the railroad was to serve the Mormon communities in the Cache Valley that had been settled almost entirely by the Mormons. It was a case of Mormons forming a company and building their own railroad because existing railroad companies showed no interest in building such a railroad. The northern half of the Cache Valley is in Idaho and, due to claims and disputes by the Shoshone and Bannock Indians, was not settled by the Mormons until after the Bear River Massacre and subsequent Fort Bridger Treaty of 1868 that forced the Shoshone and Bannock onto reservations. The original Mormon plan for the Utah Northern was to build a railroad to the communities in the Cache Valley and about into Idaho to Soda Springs, Idaho that lies in a valley beyond called the Bear River Valley. This was by dictate of Brigham Young as he owned land in Soda Springs and believed that the Bear River Valley had potential for further Mormon settlement. The Mormons also believed they could break the monopoly that the anti-Mormon town of Corinne, Utah had on the wagon freight business on the Montana Trail by extending the railroad into Idaho. There were tentative plans to eventually extend the Utah Northern to Montana. The road was constructed northward from the Union Pacific line at Ogden commencing construction on August 24, 1871. In three years, the largely volunteer railroad company had built of road. It reached Franklin, Idaho, across the Idaho border, in May 1874 where construction was halted. Investors had become hesitant after the panic of 1873 and the railroad was now moving into the northern half of the Cache Valley where there were fewer Mormon volunteers due to this area only recently having been relinquished by the Bannock and Shoshone. Poor decisions by the planners and the lack of business from the frugal residents of the Cache Valley led to the bankruptcy and foreclosure sale of the Utah Northern only a few years later in 1878.
Robber baron Jay Gould transformed the Utah Northern. He and Union Pacific acquired the Utah Northern Railroad, changing the name to the Utah & Northern Railway and infusing the railroad with capital. Big business knew that an electrical age was coming and that the demand for copper products was putting pressure on copper prices. They knew that there were rich copper deposits at the mines near Butte, Montana. Union Pacific quickly resumed construction on the Utah & Northern Railway after purchase in April 1878. Jay Gould invested personal money to get construction started just beyond Franklin in the fall of 1877. The new plan was not to build the road to Soda Springs, but to build a longer road on a direct route through the Cache Valley, then north across eastern Idaho and north across western Montana to Butte, Montana. In the first year of construction, they reached Eagle Rock (now Idaho Falls, Idaho), north of the Utah/Idaho border, where they built a bridge across the Snake River in early 1879. In the second year, they added another of track and crossed the continental divide at the Idaho/Montana border. After three and a half years of construction, before the close of 1881, they completed the additional of road to Butte, Montana. Butte became the largest copper producing city in the world and Butte's population, by some estimates, grew to nearly 100,000. This made Butte, with its "Copper Kings," the second largest city in the West with more influence than Salt Lake City, Denver, Sacramento, Seattle, or Portland. Only San Francisco remained larger and more important. Butte, with its large-scale mining and smelting operations, was dubbed the Pittsburg of the West.
The Utah & Northern was switched from narrow gauge to on July 25, 1887 only six years after completing the line to Butte. The railroad operated successfully for several years and finally became a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad.


6th Parliament of British Columbia

The 6th Legislative Assembly of British Columbia sat from 1891 to 1894. The members were elected in the British Columbia general election held in June 1890. John Robson served as premier until his death in 1892. Theodore Davie succeeded Robson as premier.
There were four sessions of the 6th Legislature:
David Williams Higgins served as speaker.
Members of the 6th General Assembly.
The following members were elected to the assembly in 1891:
Notes:
By-elections.
By-elections were held for the following members appointed to the provincial cabinet, as was required at the time:
By-elections were held to replace members for various other reasons:
Notes:


KPEC-TV


Timeline of New France history

This is a list of the timelines for the history of northern New France beginning with the first exploration of North America by France through being part of the French colonial empire.


Francis B. Cutting

Francis Brockholst Cutting (August 6, 1804 – June 26, 1870) was a U.S. Representative from New York.
Early life.
Cutting was born in New York City to William Cutting (1773–1820) and Gertrude (née Livingston) Cutting (1778–1864). He was the brother of William Leonard Cutting, Henry Livingston Cutting, Charles Grenville Cutting, Julia Gertrude Cutting, Robert Livingston Cutting, Anne Frances Cutting (who married Baron Alfred Ruebell), Robert Fulton Cutting (who married Elise Justine Bayard), and Walter Livingston Cutting.
He was a nephew of U.S. Representative Henry Walter Livingston, and the grandson of Walter Livingston (the first Speaker of the New York State Assembly) and Cornelia (née Schuyler) Livingston. His maternal great-grandfather was Robert Livingston, the third and last Lord of Livingston Manor.
Cutting attended Bensel School and was also tutored privately. He attended Columbia College before studying law at the Litchfield Law School in Connecticut in 1823.
Career.
He was admitted to the bar in 1827 and commenced practice in New York City. As a lawyer, he argued on behalf of Horace Day against Daniel Webster, for Charles Goodyear, in "The Great India Rubber Case" in 1852. He later attended Webster's memorial.
He was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co.) in 1836 and 1837. He served as member of the board of aldermen in 1843.
U.S. House of Representatives.
Cutting was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-third Congress (March 4, 1853 – March 3, 1855). He sat on the House Committee on the Judiciary.
In 1853, President Pierce gave copies of his inaugural address to Cutting, rather than the Postmaster, fearing the latter and trusting the former. In March 1854, during debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act, John C. Breckinridge, also a U.S. Representative, made a statement that incensed Cutting, Cutting demanded that he explain or retract it. Breckinridge interpreted Cutting's demand as a challenge to duel. Under code duello, the individual being challenged retained the right to name the weapons used and the distance between the combatants; Breckinridge chose rifles at 60 paces. He also specified that the duel should be held at Silver Spring, the home of his friend Francis Preston Blair. Cutting, who had not intended his initial remark as a challenge, believed that Breckinridge's naming of terms constituted a challenge; he chose to use pistols at a distance of 10 paces. While the two men attempted to clarify who had issued the challenge and who reserved the right to choose the terms, mutual friends resolved the issue, preventing the duel. However, the event was said to inspire a new generation of gentlemen to engage in honor duels. Breckinridge later was selected as the nominee for Vice President of the United States, and the duel was the only memorable thing he had done up that point. He served in that role under President James Buchanan from March 4, 1857 to March 4, 1861.
Later career.
Afterwards he resumed the practice of law. Upon the nomination of Abraham Lincoln, Cutting aided in his election campaign, and was active in supporting the Union.
On May 28, 1861, Cutting wrote to then President Lincoln advising him that "impressions beneficial to our country will be produced by continuing to communicate with Europe, thro' the medium of the Mssrs. Rothschild." Cutting revealed to Lincoln that in order to assist the North in winning the Civil War, they needed the help, and money, from Europe and couldn't ignore the British and French, who were reliant on Southern Cotton. Through social connections, Cutting knew that the elder Baron James Mayer de Rothschild supported the Union over the financial objections of his younger son, Salomon James de Rothschild, who favored the South and disliked Lincoln.
Cutting invested in Railways, shipping, and real estate, amassing a fortune.
Personal life.
Cutting was married to Anne Markoe Heyward (1807–1885) of South Carolina. She was the daughter of William Heyward (1779–1846) and Sarah Cruger (1787–1868). They were the parents of:
He died at his residence in New York City June 26, 1870. Upon hearing the news, court was adjourned for the day and he was honored by the New York Bar Association. After a funeral at Grace Church in New York, he was buried at the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn. His estate was worth over $4,000,000 upon his death, with personal property totaling $1,230,767.96, and around $1,300,000 in bonds for Wabash Railroad. According to his will, his estate was split up amongst his sons, Gen. William Cutting, Hayward Cutting, his two surviving sons, and Mrs. Cutting, the widow of his son Francis who predeceased him. After allegations of misdeeds, his son was excused as executor, and his estate was finally settled.
Descendants.
Through his son Francis Brockholst Cutting Jr., who prematurely predeceased him, he was the grandfather of William Cutting Jr. and F. Brockholst Cutting (1861–1896), one of the best-known clubmen and one of the most popular bachelors in society. His grandson, who died at the age of thirty-five without having married, was heavily mourned upon his death.
Through his youngest son, he was the grandfather of Anna Cutting who married Baron Raoul de Vriere (1865–1929), and Henry Mason Cutting (1865–1892), who married Angela Mills (1869–1956)
Legacy.
A room was named for him at the Sea Breeze Hospital in New York City. Funds were also given to honor him at the hospital in Newport, Rhode Island.


Chief Masconomet

Masconomet, spelled many different ways in colonial deeds, was "sagamore" of the Agawam tribe among the Algonquian peoples during the time of the English colonization of the Americas. He is known for his quitclaim deed ceding all the tribal land, which extended from Cape Ann to the Merrimack River, as far inland as North Andover, Massachusetts and Middleton, Massachusetts, and as far to the southwest as the Danvers River, to John Winthrop the Younger, his heirs and all the settlers of eastern Essex County for a sum of 20 pounds, about 100 dollars.
Although he could not read or write at the time of the deed, Masconomet understood that he was effecting a union of the remnant of the tribe after decimation by disease (probably smallpox) with the English colonists. He testified to that effect before the General Court of Massachusetts, which was questioning the legality of the younger Winthrop's transactions. Winthrop and his heirs were seeking public reimbursement of the 20 pounds. The tribal members did not take up residence in distinct villages of "praying Indians" as did the other tribes but remained distributed on individual farms adjoining those of the English and became integrated into the settlements. Giving up their native language and other marks and affiliations of native identity, they soon vanished into Essex County. Masconomet, henceforward "John the Sagamore", gave his children English names. Memory of their ancestry persisted throughout the 17th century, a few generations after Masconomet's death in 1658. A memorial stone on Sagamore Hill in northeastern Hamilton marks where Masconomet was buried with his gun and tomahawk. In 1667, nine years later, a man was prosecuted for digging up his bones and carrying his skull on a pole.
The Agawams avoided playing a native role in King Philip's War, the first united effort by the Indians to dislodge the English from New England, obliterating the colony. They were not identified as "praying Indians." Masconomet's deed was at first kept in the Winthrop family. At about the time of King Philip's War eastern Essex County also endured a legal attack by the heirs of Captain John Mason, who, based on the Mason Grant of 1621, were claiming all of former Agawam. Masconomet's quitclaim was then registered and was duplicated in every village of eastern Essex County as the original deed of the rightful owner ceding the land to the English in perpetuity. The Mason claim failed, but the settlements had to pay a fee to be rid of it.
Masconomet Regional High School, serving Topsfield, Boxford and Middleton, Massachusetts, honors the sagamore by taking his name.
Biography.
Masconomet first appears in written history in an entry of the journal of John Winthrop, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, written aboard his flagship, the "Arbella", at anchor off what became Salem, Massachusetts. Winthrop had not yet placed his colony on American shores. He was exploring the region. On June 13, 1630, Winthrop wrote: "In the morning, the sagamore of Agawam and one of his men came aboard our ship and staid with us all day." Winthrop subsequently disembarked at the new settlement that had been prepared at Charlestown, Massachusetts.


Territorial evolution of Idaho

The following chronology traces the territorial evolution of the U.S. State of Idaho.


Aguascalientes Department

The Aguascalientes Department (1865−1867) was a department of the Second Mexican Empire, located in the present-day states of Aguascalientes, Jalisco, and Zacatecas in Central Mexico.
It was established by an imperial decree on March 3, 1865, which specified:
The Aguascalientes Department was one of the fifty departments of the Second Mexican Empire, and was administered by the prefect Francisco R. de Esparza. The population of the department in the year 1865 was 433,151, meaning that it was the fourth-most populous department behind Puebla (3rd), Valle de México (2nd), and Guanajuato (1st).


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Petitcodiac River campaign

The Petitcodiac River campaign was a series of British military operations from June to November 1758, during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), to deport the Acadians that either lived along the Petitcodiac River or had taken refuge there from earlier deportation operations, such as the Ile Saint-Jean campaign. Under the command of George Scott, William Stark's company of Rogers Rangers, Benoni Danks and Gorham's Rangers carried out the operation.
According to one historian, the level of Acadian suffering greatly increased in the late summer of 1758. Along with campaigns in Cape Sable, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the St. John River, the British targeted the Petitcodiac River.
Historical context.
The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour. During the Seven Years' War, the British sought both to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia.
The first wave of these deportations began in 1755 with the Bay of Fundy campaign (1755). Many Acadians fled those operations to present-day New Brunswick and the French colony of Ile Saint-Jean, now known as Prince Edward Island.
After capturing Louisbourg on Ile Royal (present-day Cape Breton, Nova Scotia) in 1758, Acadians left Ile St. Jean for present-day New Brunswick. At this time the second wave of the Expulsion began from Ile Saint Jean and Cape Breton and continued in earnest in New Brunswick. According to one historian, this wave of operations was more brutal and considerably more devastating than the first.
The Petitcodiac is situated between two smaller rivers – the Shepody River (off Shepody Bay) and the Memramcook river (the three bodies of water were often called "Trois-Rivières" by its inhabitants.) Weeks after the Expulsion began with the Bay of Fundy campaign (1755), the British forces raided villages at Chipoudy and Petitcodiac (Hillsborough, New Brunswick). As well, on November 17, 1755, George Scott took seven hundred troops and attacked twenty houses at Memramcook (Dorchester, New Brunswick). They arrested the Acadians that remained and killed two hundred head of livestock. Even after these raids, Acadians returned to these villages and the numbers grew as the deportation from peninsula Nova Scotia continued, followed by the deportation of present-day Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton.
On September 10, 1757, Captain John Knox of the Forty-third Regiment was ordered to take part in an 800 man joint force of rangers and regulars to march against Chipoudy, which seemed to be the originating point for the Acadian and Mi'kmaq raids on Chignecto. Almost seven months later, on March 28, 1758, Gorham's Rangers raided Chipoudy and found only women and children; the men had left for Fort Cumberland, where they attacked a schooner. The Rangers were shocked at how fast the community had re-built after the previous raid.
The campaign.
In June 1758, Lieutenant Meech of Benoni Danks' Rangers along with fifty-five men advanced up the Petitcodiac River, suspecting that this was where the Acadian and Mi'kmaq raids originated. They made contact with 40 Acadians but were unable to catch them.
On July 1, 1758, Danks himself began to pursue the Acadians. They arrived at present day Moncton and Danks' Rangers ambushed about thirty Acadians, who were led by Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). Many were driven into the river, three of them were killed and scalped, and others were captured. Broussard was seriously wounded. Danks reported that the scalps were Mi'kmaq and received payment for them. Thereafter, he went down in local lore as "one of the most reckless and brutal" of the Rangers. (While the French paid Mi'kmaq for British scalps, the British paid New England Rangers for Mi'kmaq scalps.)
In September 1758, Rogers Rangers burned a village of 100 buildings. The Acadians captured five of the British troops and retreated with them to the Miramachi. The Acadians took prisoner William Caesar McCormick of William Stark's rangers and his detachment of three rangers and two light infantry privates from the 35th. They were taken to Miramachi and then Restogouch. (They were kept by Pierre du Calvet who later released them to Halifax.)
November 12, 1758, Danks' Rangers sailed up the river and returned the next day with four men and twelve women and children as prisoners. The prisoners notified Danks about the location of Joseph Broussard's home (present day Boundary Creek). Danks' company sailed immediately up the Petitodiac to attack Broussard's home. By the time Danks arrived the house was vacant. Danks killed the livestock and burned the fields and village.
The Rangers returned to the river. Captain Silvanus Cobb continued to ferry Rangers up and down the river to destroy the houses and crops over two nights, November 13–14. On November 14, Acadian resistance appeared early in the morning. Two of Danks' Rangers were missing. The Rangers overwhelmed the Acadians once Danks' reinforcement of a platoon of Rangers arrived. The Rangers took a dozen women and children hostage. Joseph Gorham reported that he had burned over a hundred homes and Danks reported he destroyed twenty three buildings.
The Rangers then returned to Fort Frederick at the mouth of the St. John River with the prisoners.
Aftermath.
The Acadian refugees from the Petitcodiac River campaign went to the Penobscot River, a region that Preble and Pownall were prepared to sweep in early 1759.
A part of the regulars under Lieutenant-Colonel Andrew Rollo arrested and deported Acadians in the Ile Saint-Jean campaign.
Major General Amherst dispatched Brigadier James Wolfe to the northeast along the coast in the Gulf of St. Lawrence campaign (1758). He sent Wolfe with three entire regiments and seven ships of the line to destroy Acadian fields and settlements. After Wolfe had left the area, the 1760 Battle of Restigouche led to the capture of several hundred Acadians at Boishébert's refugee camp at Petit-Rochelle.


Battle of Las Guasimas

The Battle of Las Guasimas of June 24, 1898 was a Spanish rearguard action by Major General Antero Rubín against advancing columns led by Major General "Fighting Joe" Wheeler and the first land engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle unfolded from Wheeler's attempt to storm Spanish positions at Las Guasimas de Sevilla, in the jungles surrounding Santiago de Cuba, with the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry and the 10th Regular Cavalry.
Approaching on June 24, American reports suggested the Spaniards were digging in with a field gun; however, Cuban scouts contradicted these, revealing the Spaniards were preparing to abandon their position. In fact, the Spanish troops had received orders to fall back on Santiago. Wheeler requested the assistance of the attached Cuban forces in an immediate attack, but their commander, Col. Gonzales Clavel, refused. Wheeler decided to attack anyway, rushing his men forward with two field guns in tow.
During the excitement of the battle, Wheeler, a former Confederate officer, supposedly called out "Let's go, boys! We've got the damn Yankees on the run again!". Wheeler's forces moved to encircle the Spaniards' first battle line, assaulting its front and right flank, but were repulsed. During a pause in the fighting, both sides reinforced their positions. The Spaniards sent forward two companies of the San Fernando Battalion, along with artillery. After midday the U.S. attack was renewed, but the Spanish Provisional de Puerto Rico Battalion once again checked the American assault.
After halting the American advance, the Spanish resumed their withdrawal towards Santiago. The battle had cost U.S. forces seventeen dead and fifty-two wounded, while Spanish forces suffered seven dead and fourteen wounded. The American "yellow" press, unaware of the facts of the ground, described the battle as a rout of the Spaniards; later, historians severely faulted Wheeler for wasting the lives of his men in a frontal assault.
Background.
On June 23, the Spanish garrisons of Sigua, Siboney and Daiquirí, retiring before American landings in their vicinity, clashed with a Cuban advance guard column of 250 men under Colonel Carlos González Clavel near Sevilla, east of Santiago de Cuba. Having lost three dead and 10 wounded in the skirmish and inflicted roughly the same casualties, the Spaniards retired to a lightly entrenched position at Las Guasimas de Sevilla, on the road to Santiago (4 miles northwest of Siboney beach).
Brigadier-General Lawton, commander of the 2nd Infantry Division of the U.S. Volunteers V Corps, had been appointed chief of the landing operation by Major General William Rufus Shafter, Commander-in-Chief of American forces in Cuba. American reports suggested the Spaniards were digging in with a field gun; however, Cuban scouts contradicted these, revealing the Spaniards were preparing to abandon their position.
On the 23rd, Major General Joseph Wheeler, received orders from Shafter to throw pickets to Siboney, but found the enemy in retreat towards Sevilla, with about 100 Cubans engaging their rear. Wheeler decided to attack the new Spanish positions the next day, which were established three miles from Siboney, with the aid of General Castillo. With information supplied by General Castillo, including a map of the Spanish positions, Wheeler and General Young planned an advance along two columns, Col. Wood on the left and the 1st and 10th cavalry on the right.
Battle.
Brigadier General Antero Rubín commanded nearly 1,500 men and 2 guns, distributed as follows:
These forces were deployed in three echelons: 3 companies of "Puerto Rico" and 1 company of "movilizados" covering the crossroads of the Siboney trails, with 2 other companies ("San Fernando") guarding the surrounding heights; 3 companies ("San Fernando"), the engineers, and the artillery holding the Asiento de Sevilla; and 5 companies of "Talavera" and 1 company of "movilizados" at La Redonda under Colonel Bory, covering the trails to Justicí and El Pozo.
The American side included the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, or "Rough Riders", under Leonard Wood, the 1st U.S. Regular Cavalry, and the 10th U.S. Regular Cavalry (this consisted of Afro-American soldiers, then called Buffalo soldiers). Supported by artillery, the American forces numbered 964 men, supported by 800 men from Castillo.
The first sign the Americans had of the enemy's proximity was a Cuban Army soldier lying dead by the road. The engagement began with shots by U.S. artillery. Spanish infantry returned fire, pinning down the advancing American units with rifle volleys. The Spaniards were armed with superior 7mm 1893 model Mauser repetition rifles that fired round after round of smokeless gunpowder, making them exceedingly difficult to target in return.
1st & 10th Cavalry attack Las Guasimas on the right road.
Wheeler's forces moved to encircle the Spaniards' first echelon, assaulting its front and right flank. Brigade commander SMB Young personally supervised the positioning of a battery of one pounder Hotchkiss field guns 900 yards from the Spanish main position on a dominant ridge pointing Southwest. Wanting to be absolutely sure that the troops on the hill were not Spanish, he fired several rounds at the hill. Immediately, two 75mm Spanish Krupp-designed mountain guns returned fire. Satisfied that he was up against the Spanish. Writing in his serialized set of articles (and later book), "The Rough Riders," Theodore Roosevelt described the opening phase of the battle that started on the right road and involved the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry in Chapter III "General Young's Fight." as follows:
The denseness of the jungle and the fact that they used absolutely smokeless powder, made it exceedingly difficult to place exactly where they were, and almost immediately Young, who always liked to get as close as possible to his enemy, began to push his troops forward. They were deployed on both sides of the road in such thick jungle that it was only here and there that they could possibly see ahead, and some confusion, of course, ensued, the support gradually getting mixed with the advance. Captain Beck took A Troop of the Tenth in on the left, next to Captain Galbraith's (K) troop of the First; two other troops of the Tenth were on the extreme right. Through the jungle ran wire fences here and there, and as the troops got to the ridge they encountered precipitous heights. They were led most gallantly, as American regular officers always lead their men; and the men followed their leaders with the splendid courage always shown by the American regular soldier. There was not a single straggler among them, and in not one instance was an attempt made by any trooper to fall out in order to assist the wounded or carry back the dead, while so cool were they and so perfect their fire discipline, that in the entire engagement the expenditure of ammunition was not over ten rounds per man. Major Bell, who commanded the squadron, had his leg broken by a shot as he was leading his men. Captain Wainwright succeeded to the command of the squadron. Captain Knox was shot in the abdomen. He continued for some time giving orders to his troops, and refused to allow a man in the firing-line to assist him to the rear. His First Lieutenant, Byram, was himself shot, but continued to lead his men until the wound and the heat overcame him and he fell in a faint. The advance was pushed forward under General Young's eye with the utmost energy, until the enemy's voices could be heard in the entrenchments. The Spaniards kept up a very heavy firing, but the regulars would not be denied, and as they climbed the ridges (on the right side of the Camino Real road going into the village of Las Guasimas from the southeast) the Spaniards broke and fled."
Spanish claims that they had twice repulsed the American attack were not born by any battlefield reports of Troop commanders that day.
1st Volunteer "Rough Riders" attack Las Guasimas on the left trail.
On the left trail, at approximately 7:20am, the four man point patrol 250 yds ahead of L Troop commanded by Captain Alyn Capron came across the dead Spanish soldier killed by a Cuban attack the previous day and which the Cubans had told Wheeler would indicate the proximity of Spanish lines running left and right across the road. When informed of this by Capron, Leonard Wood, who was about 500 yards back on the bridle path and commanding the Rough Riders ordered "Silence in the Ranks" and immediately deployed several troops to the left under Major Brodie and several troops to the right under Lt. Col. Roosevelt. It was while this deployment was occurring that the point man shot a Spaniard and triggered an immediate return fire by volleys on the part of the Spaniards. Rough Riders on both left and right sides of the trail moved forward and eventually forced the Spaniards back to their second line of trenches. Continuing to advance, the Rough Riders eventually forced the Spanish to withdraw completely from their final positions. Rough Riders from A Troop on the far right linked up with their regular counterparts and helped them seize the Spanish positions on the long finger-like hill to the right of the right road, with both Rough Riders and Regulars meeting at the base of the finger-like hill. By this time it was approximately 9:30. Reinforcements from the regular 9th Cavalry arrived, but it was already 30 minutes after the fight.
After halting the American advance, the Spanish inexplicably resumed their ongoing withdrawal towards Santiago's outer defenses instead of profiting from the sharp reverse inflicted on the Americans, allowing "American observers [to] unanimously but incorrectly assume their attack had forced the enemy to retreat."
Spanish forces suffered 7 dead and 7 wounded, as reported by general Rubin, although these figures are sometimes revised upward. (The discrepancy occurs because the Spaniards at Las Guásimas escorted a convoy carrying wounded troopers, as can be read in the order of retreat sent to General Rubin by Lt. General Arsenio Linares on the afternoon of the 24th.)
Aftermath.
Both sides emerged satisfied with their perceived "little victory." Rubín had conducted a successful rearguard operation while guaranteeing the safety of his forces, moving away from the menacing, large-caliber guns of the U.S. Navy along the coast and connecting with the Spanish defenders of Santiago. After satisfactorily drawing "first blood" at Las Guasimas, Wheeler concentrated the U.S. Volunteer V Corp with General Calixto García's 5,000 Cubans and invested Santiago's first lines of defense. American morale and confidence soared.
The position at Sevilla, briefly occupied by American forces, turned out to be of little value for the aimed advance towards Santiago. General Shafter considered installing his headquarters at La Redonda once the landing was completed, moving it afterwards to El Pozo. The Spanish retreat did unbar the way to the strong points that covered Santiago on the east side, mainly Fort Aguadores, San Juan Hill, Canosa, El Caney, and Fort El Viso, where a set of bloody battles would be waged on July 1. Many of the Spanish officers and soldiers that fought at Las Guasimas de Sevilla were to be in the fight again at the bloody encounter of San Juan Hill.
Although Colonel Gonzalez Clavel was criticized by some U.S. officers for not taking part in the attack, he had in fact acted in accordance with military protocol and his directives from General Lawton, the supreme authority during the landing, the Headquarters' orders being not to advance until the landing was completed. Gonzalez Clavel's actions were warmly approved by General Lawton and General Calixto Garcia. Moreover, historical scrutiny of the operation has suggested the Americans erred badly in pursuing a frontal attack against a Spanish position which might have been turned or enveloped with much less difficulty; had the Spaniards elected to hold their ground, Wheeler may have sustained a very severe defeat. An officer with the Rough Riders reflected: "It is a good thing we are not at war with England or Germany or France, for we should not last a week."
The Spanish deployment around Santiago has likewise been sternly criticized. Observers faulted Linares for failing to challenge the American disembarkation at Siboney altogether and Rubín for yielding the ridges at Las Guasimas—despite orders to this effect—to an American column that had failed to eject him. One historian suggested the Spaniards could not oppose the American advance without exposing themselves to a potentially devastating bombardment from long-range naval guns. The inefficacy of American naval gunfire against shore-based positions throughout the war may cast doubt on this assertion.
In fiction.
This engagement was featured in the miniseries "Rough Riders" starring Tom Berenger as Theodore Roosevelt. The film depicts it as an American success, albeit a costly one. It was also mentioned in "Benjamin's Field: Rescue," the first book of a fictional trilogy by author J. J. Knights. Knights describes the battle as a costly and wasteful venture that had an enduring negative impact on the novel's protagonist, Benjamin Kyner, who fought in the battle as a corporal.
Inaccuracies.
There are several inaccuracies in the movie. The Colt Rapid Firing guns seen in the movie's depiction of the battle were never used in the actual fight as the mules that hauled the disassembled weapons, bolted with the first Spanish fire dumping the guns on the ground and temporarily jamming their firing mechanisms beyond easy field repair. Lieutenant Pershing was not in command of the regular cavalry troops. In the final assault, the commander of the two regular and volunteer regiments were no where near each other. The Rough Riders were on the left flank and the regulars were on the right – exactly the opposite to the movie. Roosevelt was not at the far right end of the Rough Riders line, near the regulars. Instead, he was on the far left end of the Rough Riders, having been ordered to take over the wounded Major Alexander Brodie's squadron of troops D, E and F. Trooper Harry Hefner was not found dying at the old dystellery house. He was left, wounded, prompted up and continuing to fire. He was found dead after the battle. The man shot along with Hamilton Fish was Trooper Ed Culver. He was not the porter to the officers.
Accuracies.
The Spanish Mauser rifles were authentic. The map seen at the final assault is an enlargement of a map drawn by Harpers Monthly War correspondent, Caspar Whitney.


Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head

The Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) is a federally recognized tribe of Wampanoag people based in the town of Aquinnah on the southwest tip of Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts. The tribe hosts an annual Cranberry Day celebration.
The tribe received official recognition in 1987, the same year that their land claim on Martha's Vineyard was settled by an act of Congress, with agreement by the state and the United States Department of Interior. The government took into trust on behalf of the tribe 485 acres of Tribal Lands purchased (160 acres private and approximately 325 acres common lands). In 2011 the state of Massachusetts passed a law allowing legalized gambling, and federally recognized Native American tribes began to develop proposals to develop casinos.
Faced with state opposition to a Class III facility on its land, in 2013 the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head proposed a Class II facility to be developed on its property. The state and town filed suit against it in federal district court, and the judge ruled in their favor. The tribe, together with the Department of Interior, appealed to the US Court of Appeals, First Circuit, defending its case in December 2016.
Government.
The Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head is governed by an elected eleven-member council. The current administration is as follows.
The tribe's honorary tribal chief and the medicine man are hereditary positions held for life.
Economic development.
The Aquinnah Wampanoag tribe operates a shellfish hatchery on Menemsha Pond, cultivating oysters. Tourism is also very important to the tribe. Many tribal members own their own businesses, while others have had to move off island for employment.
History.
Wampanoag people have lived in the area of Aquinnah, Massachusetts, for millennia. Traditionally, they fished, grew crops, and hunted whales. English people began settling in the region in large numbers by the 17th and 18th centuries, encroaching on Wampanoag lands. Over time the Wampanoag were dispossessed of their lands. Some intermarried with English colonists and later European-American generations. As the Wampanoag had a matrilineal kinship system, they considered all children born to their women to be Wampanoag. They carried on their culture this way. Descent and inheritance passed through the women's lines.
In the nineteenth century, most Wampanoag men worked in the whaling industry on board ships. Some advanced in rank; for instance, Amos Hoskins became master of the "Massasoit" in 1851. (See photo above)
20th century.
In 1972, the Wampanoag people on the island formed the Wampanoag Tribal Council of Gay Head, Inc. for cultural preservation and political self-determination. It filed a land claim suit in 1974, seeking to gain title to 3,000 acres of lands lost to the state and town. In the nineteenth century, these bodies had not gained federal approval through the Senate for extinguishment of Wampanoag title, as required under the 1790 Non-Intercourse Act. The Wampanoag claimed part of the public lands in the Town of Gay Head (now Aquinnah). The suit was controversial, clouding title to other lands in the town.
The US federal government formally recognized the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) on April 10, 1987. Under the Massachusetts Indian Land Claim Settlement Act of 1987, the federal government agreed to take into trust on behalf of the tribe approximately 485 acres of Tribal Lands purchased (160 acres private and approximately 325 acres common lands). The Town of Aquinnah contributed some land and the state of Massachusetts contributed up to $2,250,000 to a fund so that the Wampanoag could acquire land to be held for communal purposes. Common lands include the Gay Head Cliffs, Herring Creek, and Lobsterville. The private lands are in several parcels. Other land owned by the Tribe includes parcels in Christiantown and Chappaquiddick, both on the island. The settlement provides details as to responsibilities and jurisdiction.
Since that time, in 1988 the Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, to establish a regulatory framework for gaming on Native American lands within the jurisdiction of federally recognized tribes. As required by law, the Tribe soon submitted its proposed gaming ordinance to the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC).
21st century.
The tribe withdrew its earlier proposed gaming ordinance, submitting an amended form in May 2013. By letter dated 23 August 2013, the Solicitor of the Department of Interior responded to an inquiry by the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) and said that the Wampanoag were not prohibited by the terms of their 1987 Settlement Act from applying for approval of gaming on their lands, in accordance with state laws.
The tribe has pulled back from an earlier proposal to develop a Class III gaming casino on its land, to which the state had objected. The state said the tribe was limited to local zoning on its land based on the 1987 settlement agreement.
The state had been working to license privately developed casinos in three regions of the state. This plan included negotiating with the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe for a casino to be developed in Taunton, Massachusetts, which the tribe had acquired. This project was challenged in federal district court by opponents in February 2016 based on language defining Indian tribes recognized by the government in the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. It has been appealed to the US Court of Appeals, First Circuit, for exploration of the definitions.
The governor and other parties opposed approving a Class III casino to be developed by the Wampanoag tribe on the Vineyard. As of 2014, the Gay Head Wampanoag proposed to adapt an existing building for a Class II boutique casino. It was challenged in federal district court in a suit by the state, joined by the Town of Aquinnah.
In June 2016 the US District Court ruled against the tribe. Judge J. Dennis Saylor IV said that the tribe was subject to state and local regulation of gambling. In addition, he determined that the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) did not have “sufficient governmental control” over its reservation to manage a casino. "Mr. Rappaport explained that this referred to the tribe’s lack of police (they have only conservation rangers), ambulance service, firefighting staff, or any jurisdiction over the behavior of nontribe members on tribal property. Should anything go wrong at the casino, the Town of Aquinnah was neither willing nor able to assume those responsibilities."
The federal government has sided with the tribe, keeping the issue alive. Saying there were "material errors" in the judge's decision, the tribe appealed the ruling to the US Appeals Court, First Circuit in December 2016, with support of the US Department of Interior.
In February 2019, the tribe announced it will begin construction of the Aquinnah Cliffs Casino in March 2019. The Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head is scheduled proceed with construction despite opposition from the towns of Aquinnah and Chilmark, and a request from the Martha’s Vineyard Commission for the Wampanoag tribe to work with the commission to "preserve the unique values of the Vineyard." The Wampanoag tribe says the commission has no jurisdiction over the project.
References.
Notes
Bibliography


Monument City, Huntington County, Indiana

Monument City is a former settlement in Huntington County, Indiana.
Located at the current site of the Salamonie Reservoir in southern Huntington County, the parking area to view the remains of Monument City is located near the coordinates 40°45’49.45″ N 85°35’31.64” W. Monument City was covered by the damming up of the Salamonie River to create Salamonie Lake in 1965. When the reservoir is low, remains are visible. Former residents are now scattered throughout Huntington and the surrounding counties, although many have died since the destruction of the town.
The cemetery (Monument City Memorial Cemetery) that existed in the town was relocated to a different area of Polk township and is still in use and open to those who wish to visit it. The cemetery includes the original monument that the city was named for, listing those from Polk Township who lost their lives in the Civil War.
The site of the former Monument City came into view again during the severe drought of 2012, as reported in an article by Jill Disis in the "Indianapolis Star" for Sunday, July 22, 2012. The article reported that, by late July, the Salamonie Reservoir's water level was so low that tourists and other curious visitors were able to walk among the foundations of houses and a school. Later that same day, Indiana's Department of Natural Resources announced that the site would be closed to further visits.
Literary connection.
The town was memorialized in 1981 with the publication of poet Jared Carter’s prizewinning first book, "Work, for the Night Is Coming," which contained the 28-line poem “Monument City". It is the second in a series of eight poems in Carter’s “reservoir saga” and is preceded in the same volume by “The Undertaker” and followed in Carter’s second book by “Mississinewa Reservoir at Winter Pool".
In such poems, Carter conflates the actual Mississinewa, Salamonie, and Wabash Rivers (and their respective reservoirs) into the imaginary Mississinewa River that flows through his equally imaginary Mississinewa County, in order to create the single reservoir located in that county.
In an interview conducted in 1995, he explains the background of the poems and discusses his visits as a journalist to the actual Monument City and other small towns that were displaced by the three dam-building projects in northeastern Indiana in the early 1960s.