Sithu of Pinya

Sithu of Pinya (, ; also known as Myinsaing Sithu) was regent of Pinya from 1340 to 1344. He is not mentioned in any of the royal chronicles. He only appears in a Pinya era inscription as "King" Myinsaing Sithu. Sithu, who according to the inscription succeeded Uzana I, may have been a caretaker for his nephew and son-in-law Kyawswa I of Pinya. Sithu's elder daughter Saw Gyi was married to Kyawswa I. At least one contemporary inscription donated by Kyawswa I's chief consort on 17 June 1342 disputes Sithu's claim, saying that Kyawswa I was already king.
The king was likely Kyawswa I's maternal uncle since Kyawswa I's father Thihathu had only two brothers, Athinkhaya and Yazathingyan, both of whom had already died.


John Woodburn (civil servant)

Sir John Woodburn (13 July 1843 – 21 November 1902) was an Indian Civil Servant, who later served as Lieutenant Governor of Bengal from 1898 to 1902.
Early life and education.
Woodburn was born at Barrackpore in British India to David Woodburn.
After early education at Arya Academy in Bengal, he went to Scotland to study at Glasgow University and Edinburgh University.
Career.
Woodburn joined the Indian Civil Service in 1863 and arrived in India. He served most of his early career on various positions in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. After early years in Oudh, he was from 1882 secretary to the government of the North Western Provinces, and from 1888–1893 he was Chief Secretary of the province. During these years, he was from 1890 an additional member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. In 1893 he was appointed Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces, serving two years until 1895.
He was in 1895 asked by the new Viceroy, Lord Elgin to become a permanent member of the Viceroy′s Executive Council, with responsibility for the Home department. During his time in this office he had to deal with the severe famine of 1896–98. The famine especially affected the Central provinces ha had just left, and he worked closely with the new governor Sir Sir Charles Lyall to contain the suffering. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) in 1892, and was knighted as a Knight Commander (KCSI) in the order in 1897.
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal.
In April 1898, he was selected the successor of Sir Charles Stevens to the post of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, which position he retained till his death on 21 November 1902. During his years in Calcutta he worked to contain the plague taking hold in the city and presidency, and took an interest in local institutions in the city, which he preferred to his summer capital of Darjeeling. He travelled extensively in the city and throughout the province. In their obituary, "The London Times" described his years in Bengal the following way:
He served as President of The Asiatic Society for the years 1900-01.
Woodburn died after a short illness at Calcutta on 21 November 1902, and was buried at Circular Road Cemetery of Calcutta.
He was succeeded by Sir Andrew Fraser as next Governor of Bengal.
Family.
Woodburn married in 1869 Isabella Cassels Walker, daughter of Mr. John Walker, of Drumgrange, Ayrshire, and they had several daughters.
Works.
Woodburn's published works include his memoirs "Sir John Woodburn, K.C.S.I., Lieut.-Governor of Bengal from 1898 to 1902: a Biographical Retrospect by Sir John Woodburn (K.C.S.I.), Jessy J. Matheson." published in 1926.


List of Bronze Age sites in China

This list of Bronze Age sites in China includes sites dated to either the Chinese Bronze Age, or Shang and Western Zhou according to the dynastic system. It is currently based on China's Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level record.


Ilham Ghali of Kazan

Ilham (Ghali, Ali, Ilham, Aleham, Tatar: İlham, Ğäli) (c. 1449 – c. 1490) was a khan of Kazan Khanate in 1479–1484 and 1485–1487. For more see Möxämmädämin of Kazan.


Vizianagaram

Vizianagaram is a city and the headquarters of Vizianagaram district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is central Eastern Ghats, about west of the Bay of Bengal and north-northeast of Visakhapatnam. The city has a population of 2,28,025 and was established as the capital of Vizianagaram estate by Raja Vijayaram Raj of Pusapati dynasty. The rulers had a notable role in the history of the region in 18th century and were patrons of education and arts.
History.
Vizianagaram was ruled by different Hindu emperors of Kalinga and it was an integral part of Kalinga. The area including Srikakulam in the north was under the domain of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi during the rule of Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624- 641) for short period of time. During this rule the Vengi kingdom had expanded from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south. They patronised Telugu. The area was under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire too. After a brief rule from Golconda, the rule of Nizam state of Hyderabad followed. Nizams ruled for the period 1707 to 1753. Srikakulam to the immediate north was the headquarters for revenue collection of Rajahmundry, Eluru, Kondapalli as well as Srikakulam district. The French defeated and ended the rule of Nizam in 1753, all these districts were thereafter part of French India in 1753. However French imperialists too could not hold their sway over here for a long time, and were soon driven out from here by British imperialists, during 1756 in Anglo-French wars. Thereafter the area was soon a part of British – Northern Circars
An important event in the history of the district which occurred at about this time is the war between the Rajas of Vizianagaram and Bobbili, popularly known as Bobbili Yuddam. The war was fought between the MahaRaja of Vizianagaram and the Rajah of Bobbili on 24 January 1757.
Rulers of this princely state belong to the Pusapati family. The village Pooshpadu in Nandigama Taluq was built by Amala Raju. The village later came to be known as Pusapadu, and the Rajus living there came to be known as Pusapatis.
Excavations at this town revealed copper coins belonging to the remains of 900 B.C. (Kalinga period).
Geography.
Vizianagaram is located at . It has an average elevation of 74 metres (242 feet). The district is bounded on the east by Srikakulam District, on the west and south by Visakhapatnam district, on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and on the northwest by Odisha state. The principal rivers flowing in the district are Nagavali, Vegavathi, Gomukhi, Suvarnamukhi, Champavathi and Gostani. The Nagavali is the main river, which flows in about 112 km in Vizianagaram district. The River Gosthani has its origin in Ananthagiri forest area and flows through Srungavarapukota (S.Kota) and Jami mandals. The Suvarnamukhi River originates in the hills of Saluru mandal, travels in an eastern direction and finally joins the Nagavali at Sangam village in Palakonda mandal of Srikakulam District. Vegavathi originates in pachipenta hills of Pachipenta mandal and flows almost parallel to Suvarnamukhi.
Rivers and irrigation projects
Major Rivers flowing through the city are Nagavali, Vegavathi, Gomukhi, Suvarnamukhi, Champavathi and Gosthani River. Irrigation projects across these rivers include Tatapudi Reservoir across the Gosthani River, Vegavathi project across the river Vegavathi, Vottigedda project across the river Vottigedda, Peda Ankalam Anicut and Vengala Raya Sagaram project across Suvarnamukhi, Seeta Nagaram Anicut, Denkada Anicut, Paradhi at Bobbili, across Suvarnamukhi, a tributary of Nagavali River and Andra Reservoir project across Champavathi River.
Climate.
Vizianagaram has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification "Aw") characterised by high humidity nearly all the year round, with oppressive summers and good seasonal rainfall. The summer season extends from March to May, followed by southwest monsoon season, which continues to September. October and November constitute the post-monsoon or retreating monsoon season. The normal rainfall of the district for the year is 1,131.0 mm, as compared to the actual rainfall of 740.6 mm received during 2002–2003. The district gets the benefit of both the southwest and northeast monsoon. The season extending from December to February is of generally fine weather. The climate of the hill parts of the district is different from that of the plain.
Demographics.
 Census of India, the town had a population of 227,533. The total population constitute, 111,596 males and 115,937 females —a sex ratio of 1039 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 940 per 1000. 20,487 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 10,495 are boys and 9,992 are girls. The average literacy rate stands at 81.85% with 169,461 literates, significantly higher than the national average of 73.00%.
Telugu is the official language.
Governance.
Civic administration.
Vizianagaram municipal corporation is the civic body of the city, constituted as a municipality in the year 1888.
It was upgraded to corporation on 9 December 2015. The jurisdictional area of the corporation is spread over with 38 election wards. During 2010–11, the total expenditure spent by the municipality was and total income generated was .
Utility services.
The utility services include supply of water, sewer connections, drainage systems, parks, grounds, community centres, healthcare etc. The municipality maintains 458 public taps, 749 bore–wells, of roads, of drains, 32 parks, 2 playgrounds, 49 elementary and 3 secondary schools and 1 maternity and child health centre.
Economy.
Vizianagaram is one of the principal towns in Uttarandhra (North of Andhra Pradesh State). There are a number of industries in and around the city. The country's largest ferromanganese plant is situated on the outskirts of Garividi. There are various jute mills in Garividi, including the Hooghly Jute Mills. Vizianagaram is a popular destination for the textile wholesale market.
Maritime resources
Vizianagaram district had a coastal belt of 28 km. Pusapatirega and Bhogapuram are coastal mandals with eight main villages and 16 hamlets. The land of in the coastal villages of these mandals is being used for salt cultivation.
Industries.
There are 22 large- and medium-scale industries established with an investment of 669.09 crores, providing employment to 20,759 people. These industries are primarily engaged in the manufacture of jute twine, ferroalloys, sugar, cement, pharmaceuticals, sponge and iron.
There are 4,653 small-scale units with an investment of 114.20 crores and providing employment to 32,615 people. These SSI units are mainly engaged in general engineering, motor workshops, groundnut oil mills, rolling mills, RCC spun pipes, sawmills, aluminium utensils, and bus, lorry and cycle rickshow body buildings.
Transport.
Roadways.
The city has a total road length of 317.80 km. The Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation operates bus services from Vizianagaram bus station.
Railways.
Vizianagaram railway station is on the Khurda Road-Visakhapatnam section of Howrah-Chennai main line and is the terminus for the Jharsuguda-Vizianagaram line. It is an important station in East Coast Railway and many superfast trains have stoppage here.
Airport.
The nearest airport is in Visakhapatnam located at 62 km.
Educational.
The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools of the "School Education Department" of the state. The medium of instruction followed by different schools are English, Telugu.
Vizianagaram city has many educational institutions and some of the notable are listed below:
Sports.
Dr PVG Raju ACA Sports Complex is a cricket ground in Vizianagram that hosts domestic matches.
Rajiv Gandhi Sports Complex
DSA Indoor Stadium


Kadisoka

Kadisoka (Indonesian: Candi Kadisoka) is a partially excavated temple, thought to be Hindu, in Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is listed as a Cultural Property of Indonesia.
Layout.
Kadikusomo, which measures by , is located on a patch of land. The land is planted with several species, including "Hibiscus tiliaceus" and "Codiaeum variegatum".
The temple is located in Kadisoka hamlet, Kalasan, Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, part of the fertile Kewu Plain. It is surrounded by agricultural fields, with the Kuning River running to the east. The temple is some north of Sambisari and located at an altitude of .
The temple is made of andesite; its stones are in fairly good condition, with little microbial growth. Its architectural style is thought to have been quite similar to that of the numerous other temples found in the Kewu Plain, based on the shape of the bell and half-circle shape of the base. It is oriented to the west, though off by about 10 degrees.
Kadisoka is maintained by two people, tasked with cleaning the site, reporting damage, and receiving visitors (be they tourists or pilgrims). Access to the site is limited by its dirt path, which becomes muddy during the rainy season.
History.
Kadisoka is thought to have been built around the eighth century. According to Véronique Degroot, it was not completed; she writes that only some five layers of the base were completed. It was buried by lahar flows running down the Kuning River on two separate occasions, thought to have been at least a century apart. The temple was eventually under of earth.
The temple at Kadisoka is generally identified as a Hindu temple, based on the layout of the cella: in its centre archaeologists have found a pit, a feature thought only to be found in Hindu temples.
The temple was rediscovered by a sand miner on 7 December 2000 and reported to the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala (Department for the Preservation of Prehistoric Artefacts). After preliminary examinations looked promising, in February 2001 excavation began; it had soon uncovered the entirety of the temple's eastern foundation as well as the temple pit. Within the pit excavators found some semi-precious stones, gold, and a box containing a gold plaque engraved with a lotus flower. As of 2010 the majority of the temple remains buried.


Pshavi

Pshavi () is a small historic region of northern Georgia, nowadays part of the Mtskheta-Mtianeti "mkhare", ("region"), and lying chiefly among the southern foothills of the Greater Caucasus mountains along the Pshavis Aragvi River and the upper reaches of the Iori River in the neighbouring region of Tianeti to the south-east.
Geography.
Pshavi borders upon Khevsureti to the north (the two regions were historically grouped together under the name of Pkhovi); the western fringe of Tusheti and the northernmost tip of the Pankisi Gorge to the east; the Iori Valley and Tianeti to the south-east; the Zhinvali Reservoir and the Georgian Military Road to the south and south-west; and south-eastern Mtiuleti and Gudamakari to the west.
The region can be divided into three main parts (valley systems):
Protected Landscape Status.
In 2016, the Georgian government began investigating the possibility of officially granting the historical region of Pshavi "Protected Landscape" status, which would support conservation efforts while allowing the sustainable use of natural resources and the development of eco-tourism.
Population.
Like many other regions of the world, particularly mountainous ones, the population of Pshavi has dropped significantly as a result of a process of rural exodus which began in the nineteenth century; many former villages nowadays consist of no more than a few houses. An early twentieth-century census of Pshavi counted 210 households in Pshavi "proper" and 368 in Lower Pshavi.
People.
The Pshavs (, "pshaveli", pl. , "pshavlebi") speak a dialect of Georgian close to that spoken by their neighbours, the Khevsurs.
Nominally Georgian Orthodox, the Pshavs have, however, like other mountain tribes preserved some of their pre-Christian beliefs, which a handful of people continue to profess in a syncretic form at the region's numerous shrines. Their history, traditions and customs are also similar to those of their eastern Georgian neighbours.
The popular Georgian poet Luka Razikashvili (1861-1915), best known by his pen name "Vaja-Pshavela" ("a lad from Pshavi"), was born in the village of Chargali, which now houses his "house museum".


Mutasiva of Anuradhapura

Mutasiva was ruler of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, based at the ancient capital of Anuradhapura. He ruled from 367 BC to 307 BC. He had nine sons, some of whom were his successors such Devanampiya Tissa, Uttiya, Mahasiva and Asela. Mutasiva was the son of King Pandukabhaya.
The king ruled for sixty years which was an unbroken peaceful era of the country. He was the creator of Mahamevnāwa Park in Anuradhapura which is the only historical record of his accomplishments.


Anjuk Ladang inscription

Anjuk Ladang inscription is a stone stele inscription dated to the year 859 Saka (L.-C. Damais' version, 937 CE) or 857 Saka (Brandes' version, 935 CE) issued by King Sri Isyana (Pu Sindok) of Kingdom of Medang after moving his capital to the eastern part of Java. The inscription mentioned and honored the commendable deed of the people of Anjuk Ladang village on assisting Pu Sindok on repelling the invading Malay king in the year 937 CE. Thus King Pu Sindok has erected a monument of victory ("jayastambha") to commemorate this heroic event.
This inscription is also called Candi Lor inscription because it was found near the ruins of Candi Lor temple, in Candirejo village, Loceret, Nganjuk Regency, a few kilometers southeast of modern Nganjuk city, East Java. The name "Anjuk Ladang" refer to the place mentioned in this inscription, and then associated with the origin of Nganjuk Regency, since this inscription contains the first mention of its current toponym.
Content.
Some parts of this inscription — especially at the top of the inscription, has eroded and could not be read entirely. Several readable lines states that King Pu Sindok has ordered the rice paddies of "kakatikan" (?) in Anjukladang to be made as "Sima" land, and offered to "Bathara" in "hyang prasada kabhaktyan" in "Sri Jayamerta", as a "dharma" (dedication) of the "Samgat" of Anjukladang. "Sima" land is rice-cultivated land recognized through royal edict, with its yield available for taxation or other purposes, in this case its yield was free from taxation and used to fund a temple instead.
According to J.G. de Casparis, the villagers of Anjuk Ladang was awarded for their service and merit on assisting the king's army — under the leadership of Pu Sindok, to repel the invading Malayu (Sumatran, highly possible referring Srivijaya) army that tried to approach the capital and has reached the area near Nganjuk. For this extraordinary service, Pu Sindok later would ascend to the throne of Medang kingdom. In addition, the inscription also contains the information on the existence of a sacred building. According to de Casparis in his paper "Some Notes on Transfer of Capitals in Ancient Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia", the inscription mentioned that King Pu Sindok has erected a monument of victory ("jayastambha") after successfully repelled the invading Malay king, and in the year 937 CE, the monument was replaced by a temple. Most likely, the sacred building mentioned in this inscription was referring to the Lor temple, a temple ruins made of red bricks located in the Candirejo village.
Quotation of Anjuk Ladang inscription: A. 14-15:
The inscription also mentioning the kingdom's name:
This phrase reveal the kingdom's name. It suggests that the name "Mdaŋ" (read: Mdang or Medang) was already used earlier in Central Java period. The phrase "Mdaŋ i Bhûmi Matarâm" literary means "Medang in the land of Mataram", which means the kingdom name is Medang with its capital in Mataram.
This inscription is now in the collection of the National Museum in Jakarta with inventory number D.59.


HMAS Orara

HMAS "Orara" was a coastal passenger and cargo steamship that was built in Scotland in 1907 and sunk by a mine in China in 1950. She spent most of her career in the fleet of the North Coast Steam Navigation Company (NCSNC) of New South Wales. In the Second World War she was an auxiliary minesweeper and depot ship in the Royal Australian Navy.
This was the second NCSNC ship to be called "Orara". The first was a wooden-hulled cargo steamship that was built in 1898 and wrecked in 1899.
History.
Scott of Kinghorn built "Orara" at Kinghorn on the Firth of Forth, launching her on 5 November 1907. She had capacity for 15 first class and 50 second class passengers. Her regular route was between Byron Bay and Sydney.
In 1934 the call sign VJVD superseded "Orara"s code letters HLTM.
"Orara" was requisitioned in September 1939 and was commissioned on 9 October into the RAN as an auxiliary minesweeper with the pennant number J130. She served in the 20th Minesweeping Flotilla. She also served as a depot ship.
In 1946 "Orara" was returned to owners and laid up in Sydney. In 1947 she was sold to Chinese buyers who took her to Shanghai, renamed her "Pearl River" and registered her in Canton. In 1949 she was renamed "Hong Shan". In 1950 she was renamed "Santos" and registered in Panama City.
On 19 June 1950 "Santos" was steaming from Shanghai to Tsingtao when a mine sank her in the Yangtze River near Woosung, with the loss of a number of lives.


Great Bakkungaan Island

Great Bakkungaan Island (also called Bakungan Island) is a small tropical island surrounded by the Sulu Sea in the province of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. The island is the one of the seven Philippine Turtle Islands.
Geography.
The island is at the very edge of the international treaty limits separating the Philippines from Malaysia. Indeed, the island itself is referred to in the international border treaty concluded in 1930 between the United States (in respect of its then overseas territory, the Philippine Archipelago) and the United Kingdom (in respect of its then protectorate, the State of North Borneo). That treaty sets the international frontier as running in a straight line between Little Bakkungaan Island and Great Bakkungaan Island. Little Bakkungaan Island is one of the three Malaysian Turtle Islands and less than 2km of water separate the two islands. This makes Great Bakkungaan Island the internationally recognized Philippine territory that is closest to Malaysian territory.
Great Bakkungaan is the third largest of the Philippine Turtle Islands at with the highest elevation at .
History.
As one of the Philippine Turtle Islands the island enjoys the historical distinction of being territory that was not under Philippine administration at the time of independence in 1946. The State of North Borneo, a United Kingdom protectorate, administered the Philippine island. The Republic of the Philippines took over the administration of the island from the United Kingdom on 16 October 1947.
Government and ownership.
The island is part of the barangay of Taganak Poblacion which had a population of 2,430 at the time of the 2010 census. It is in the municipality of the Turtle Islands. There is an elementary school on the island which had 266 students in the 2013/2014 academic year.
The island is part of the Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary established on 12 August 1999 by Presidential Proclamation 171. The island is owned by the State.
There was a previous controversy concerning the island's ownership. According to a 2009 report in the "Philippine Daily Inquirer", the island was settled by a certain Sing Kok Tan in 1952. In 1997 his heirs decided to sell the island to the children of a local politician, Sadikul A. Sahali who later served as governor of the province of Tawi-Tawi. By 2007, according to then Governor Sahali, his children were preparing to submit their application to have their ownership of the island registered. However, by then the island had already been declared to be part of the Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary and the Sahali family decided not to pursue their land title claim.
Crime and Piracy.
The Abu Sayyaf criminal terrorist group who specialise in kidnap for ransome is active in the vicinity of the island. In 2017 it was reported they had abducted 3 Indonesian sailors in waters off Great Bakkungaan. The following month it was reported that an alleged Abu Sayyaf terrorist was killed in a fire fight with government forces who were conducting maritime security patrol off the waters of Great Bakkungaan.


Battle of Ctesiphon (263)

The Battle of Ctesiphon took place in 263 between the Sassanid Empire and Palmyrene army under the Palmyrene king Odaenathus (Palmyra was then an allied state of Rome and officially part of the latter Empire). Following the Sasanians' defeat and loss of Syria and Cappadocia to the Roman Empire at the hands of Odaenathus and Balista; The Palmyrene monarch invaded Mesopotamia and stood at the walls of Ctesiphon and devastated the region around it, however he could not conquer it. The logistical problems of fighting in enemy territory forced the Palmyrenes to leave the siege carrying with them numerous prisoners and booty. The prisoners were sent to Rome, enabling the Roman emperor Gallienus to hold a triumph.


Seiwa Club

The Seiwa Club ("Purity and Harmony Club") was a political party in Japan.
History.
The party was established in February 1918 as a breakaway by 28 Shinseikai members. In December 1918 it merged with a group of independent members of the National Diet to form an "Independent Group" that later became the Seikō Club.


Trincomalee

Trincomalee (; ; ) also known as Gokanna/Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee District and major resort port city of Eastern Province, Sri Lanka. Located on the east coast of the island overlooking the Trincomalee Harbour, north-east of Colombo, south-east of Jaffna and miles north of Batticaloa, Trincomalee has been one of the main centres of Sri Lankan Tamil language speaking culture on the island for over two millennia. With a population of 99,135, the city is built on a peninsula of the same name, which divides its inner and outer harbours. People from Trincomalee are known as Trincomalians and the local authority is Trincomalee Urban Council. Trincomalee city is home to the famous Koneswaram temple from where it developed and earned its historic Tamil name "Thirukonamalai". The town is home to other historical monuments such as the Bhadrakali Amman Temple, Trincomalee, the Trincomalee Hindu Cultural Hall and, opened in 1897, the Trincomalee Hindu College. Trincomalee is also the site of the Trincomalee railway station and an ancient ferry service to Jaffna and the south side of the harbour at Muttur.
The recorded history of Trincomalee spans more than two and a half thousand years, beginning with civilian settlement associated with the Koneswaram temple in the pre-modern era. One of the oldest cities in Asia, it has served as a major maritime seaport in the international trading history of the island with South East Asia. From its suburban village of Kankuveli, some of Asia's earliest medical research at the "Agathiyar Thapanam", the Siddhar Tamil medical university established by Agastya, helped spread Tamil Tamraparniyan culture across the continent. In the ancient world, it was successively the capital of eastern kingdoms of the Vanni country, developing under the Anuradhapura Kingdom, Pallava Dynasty, Chola Dynasty, Pandyan Dynasty, the Vannimai chieftaincies and the Jaffna kingdom through the Koneswaram shrine's revenue. Trincomalee's urbanization continued when made into a fortified port town following the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom, changing hands between the Danish in 1620, the Dutch, the French following a battle of the American Revolutionary War and the British in 1795, being absorbed into the British Ceylon state in 1815. The city's architecture shows some of the best examples of interaction between native and European styles. Attacked by the Japanese as part of the Indian Ocean raid during World War II in 1942, the city and district were affected after Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948, when the political relationship between Tamil and Sinhalese people deteriorated, erupting into civil war. It is home to major naval and air force bases at the Trincomalee Garrison. The city also has the largest Dutch fort on the island.
The Trincomalee Bay, bridged by the Mahavilli Ganga River to the south, the historical "Gokarna" in Sanskrit, means "Cow's Ear", akin to other sites of Siva worship across the Indian subcontinent. Uniquely, Trincomalee is a Pancha Ishwaram, a Paadal Petra Sthalam, a Maha Shakti Peetha and Murugan Tiruppadai of Sri Lanka; its sacred status to the Hindus has led to it being declared "Dakshina-Then Kailasam" or "Mount Kailash of the South" and the "Rome of the Pagans of the Orient". The harbour is renowned for its large size and security; unlike any other in the Indian Ocean, it is accessible in all weathers to all craft. It has been described as the "finest harbour in the world" and by the British, "the most valuable colonial possession on the globe, as giving to our Indian Empire a security which it had not enjoyed from elsewhere". Popular tourist destinations include its beaches at Uppuveli, Salli and Nilaveli, used for temple visits, surfing, scuba diving, fishing and whale watching, and the Kanniya Hot Springs. Trincomalee is served by a campus of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka and has been the inspiration of both domestic and international poetry, films, music and literature for many centuries.
Names and etymology.
Trincomalee.
The city has developed from a village settlement on the promontory dedicated to the Hindu shrine. The origin of the term "Ko", "Kone" and "Konatha" lies in the Old Tamil word for the terms "Lord", "King" or "Chief", which allude to the deity that presides here; this term appears in several Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of the 6th century BCE — 2nd century CE. Trincomalee, the coastal peninsula town where Koneswaram is located is an anglicized form of the old Tamil word "Thiru-kona-malai" (), meaning "Lord of the Sacred Hill", its earliest reference in this form found in the "Tevaram" of the 7th century by Sambandhar. "Thiru" is a generally used epithet denoting a "sacred" temple site while "Malai" means mountain or hill; Middle Tamil manuscripts and inscriptions mention the monumental compound shrine as the "Thirukonamalai Konesar Kovil". "Kona" () has other meanings in Old Tamil such as "peak", while another origin for the term "Koneswaram" could come from the Tamil term "Kuna" (East). Therefore, other translators suggest definitions of Trincomalee such as "sacred angular/peaked hill", "sacred eastern hill" or "three peaked hill". The temple was constructed atop Swami Rock, also called Swami Malai or Kona-ma-malai, a cliff on the peninsula that drops 400 feet (120 metres) directly into the sea.
Gokarna Bay, Trincomalee.
The Trincomalee Harbour, a circular natural harbour which the temple crowns towards the north, is referred to as "Ko-Kannam" or "Lord's Cheek", alluding to the cheek shape of Shiva's bull Nandi. The Sanskrit equivalent of the port town's harbour bay is "Go-Karna", meaning "Cow's Ear" or "Gokarna Pattana" and the deity's name "Gokarneswara" or "Go—Natha" in Sanskrit. Pathmanathan offers the etymological link "Thiru-Gokarna-Malai" or "Thiru-Gona-Malai" based on this connection. The ethnographer Megasthenes writing in his "Indica" from 350 — 290 BCE, describes the island as being divided by a long river, productive of a large number of gold and pearls in one half and that the inhabitants of this country are called "Paleogoni", meaning "Old Goni" in Tamil and Greek, who Pliny adds worshipped Hercules and Dionysus (Bacchus) like the Pandyans of Tamilakam. The "Vayu Purana", written in 300 CE specifically mentions the tallest mountain peak of the great gold and silver rich mountain range "Malaya" on the island, and that "to the east of this island at the shore of the sea lies a great Siva temple in a holy place called "Gokarna"." The bay is also referred to as "Gokaranna" according to a Sanskrit inscription in Grantha script excavated on a doorjamb at the Hindu temple dated to Tamil New Years Day 1223 CE. "Gokarna" is also a place name in Karnataka, India, Kalinga, Tamil Nadu and Nepal all associated with ancient Shiva temples. The associated Bhadrakali Amman Temple of Trincomalee, significantly expanded by Rajendra Chola I, stands on Konesar Road before the entrance to Swami Rock.
Kailaas of the South.
Heralded as "Dakshina Kailasam"/"Then Kailasam" (Kailaas of the South) because it lies on exactly the same longitude as the Tibetan mountain Mount Kailash (the primary abode of Shiva), Trincomalee's traditional history and legends were compiled into the Sanskrit treatises "Dakshina Kailasa Puranam — Sthala Puranam of Koneswaram", written in 1380 by Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan, and the "Dakshina Kailasa Manmiam" — three chapters of the "Skanda Puranam" of unknown antiquity — manuscripts of which have been discovered and dated from the 5th — 7th century. It was in the "Puranas" that the shrine first found reference as "Koneiswara Parwatia", motivating Kullakottan Chola who learnt of its sanctity to sail to Trincomalee and develop the three Hindu temples of the Koneswaram compound. The compiler of the Yoga Sutras, Patañjali's place of birth at the temple corroborates Tirumular's "Tirumandhiram", which describes him as hailing from "Then Kailasam" and his self description as a "Gonardiya" from "Gonarda", "a country in the southern and eastern division" of the Indian continent. Both men were ardent disciples of Nandi. The "Konesar Kalvettu" uses the term "Tiri Kayilai", meaning "three Kailasams", "Tiri Kutam" and "Tiri Konam" for Trincomalee, in a number of places, referring to the three pagodas on the promontory of Trincomalee.
As per another legend, Vayu Bhaghvan and Adiseshan had a dispute to find out who is superior, to prove the superiority adiseshan encircled the Kailasam, Vayu tried to remove this encircle by creating santamarutham (Twister). Because of the santamarutham, 8 kodumudigal (parts) fell from kailasam into 8 different places which are Thirugonamalai (Trincomalee), Thirukalahasti, Thiruchiramalai, Thiruenkoimalai, Rajathagiri, Neerthagiri, Ratnagiri, and Suwethagiri Thirupangeeli.
History.
Earliest history.
Trincomalee which is a natural deep-water harbour has attracted seafarers, trader and pilgrims from Europe, Middle East, Africa, China, East Asia and Australasia since ancient times. Trinco, as it is commonly called, has been a seaport and Hindu pilgrimage center since 400 BCE. The earliest epigraphical inscriptions found in Trincomalee city are in the Tamil language. The Tamil settlement at the port of Trincomalee was one of the oldest settlements on the island. One inscription from 900 to 1000 CE belonging to the Chola Dynasty excavated near where the promontory's first temple stood is from a sluice and also concerns Koneswaram, as do the 10th century Nilaveli inscriptions.
Ancient texts, as well as an inscription unearthed by archeologists among its Hindu archaeological remains, call it "Gokarna" in Sanskrit. Over its long history, Trincomalee, and specifically the Swami Rock promontory, has housed several Kovil temples to deities of the Hindu pantheon, as well as a Buddhist vihara and a Christian Catholic church, both introduced following invasions. A descendant of Ellalan of Anuradhapura, Kulakkottan, directed renovations of the Hindu temples and oversaw settlement of Tamils for their upkeep. Sacrificial and other cult practices at the Trincomalee promontory have been documented since the Yakkha period, and were noted during the reigns of Pandukabhaya of Anuradhapura, Maha Naga of Anuradhapura and Manavanna of Anuradhapura until the publication of "The Life of Alexander Alexander" in 1830. The worship of Eiswara is noted to have been the original worship of the island and the deity worshiped by Kuveni, the ancient Yakkha queen; Charles Pridham, Jonathan Forbes and George Turnour state that it is probable there is no more ancient form of worship existing than that of Eiswara upon his sacred promontory.
In the earliest known literary reference to the Siva temple, "Mahabharata", the Hindu epic written between 400 and 100 BCE, the temple of Gokarna bay is in the middle of the ocean and is the island shrine of Uma's consort, known in the three worlds and worshiped by all natives of the island including the Nagas, Yakkhas, Siddhars and Devas, peoples from the subcontinent, the rivers, ocean and mountains. Fasting there for three nights in worship of Siva as Ishana, one acquireth the merit of the horse-sacrifice, and the status of "Ganapatya". By staying there for twelve nights, one's soul is cleansed of all sins. "Mahabharata" continues that the shrine is the next pilgrimage spot for Hindus en route south following Kanyakumari of the early Pandyan kingdom and Tamraparni island (Kudiramalai). In the same time period, the "Ramayana" in written form describes how King Ravana and his mother had worshipped Siva at the shrine, when the former wanted to remove the temple of Koneswaram when his mother was in ailing health around 2000 BCE. This literature continues that as the king was heaving the rock, Lord Siva made him drop his sword. As a result of this a cleft was created on the rock, today called "Ravana Vettu" – meaning "Ravana's Cleft". Upon her death, her last rites were performed at the Kanniya Hot water springs in the Kanniya suburb of Trincomalee city.
The Siva-worshipping Siddhar Patanjali's birth at the city in 180 BCE and its connections to another Siddhar Agastya from at least the 5th–4th century BCE suggests that Yoga Sun Salutation originated on the promontory of Trincomalee. One of Trincomalee's suburbs, Kankuveli is home to ruins of the Tamil Siddhar medical university established by Agastya, the "Agathiyar Thapanam", which alongside his other shrines at Sivan Oli Padam Malai, helped spread Tamraparniyan science across the continent during the pre-classical era. The "Vayu Purana" refers to the Siva temple on "Trikuta" hill on the eastern coast of Lanka once again in the 3rd century.
Another mention is found in the 5th century CE "Mahavamsa" where King Vijaya brought his nephew Panduvasdeva to land at the bay in the 4th century BC. The "Yalpana Vaipava Malai" asserts that Vijaya restored the Koneswaram temple and the other four Eswarams upon arrival. Mahasena of Anuradhapura, according to the "Mahavamsa" and the later "Culavamsa", destroyed the devalaya temple compound in Trincomalee housing Siva lingas in it, and built a Mahayana Buddhist edifice in its stead. He destroyed the Hindu temple to appease monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya who themselves had been antagonized by Mahasen. He worked under the tutelage of Sangamitta, the Tamil Buddhist monk from the early Chola country, who had intervened to avenge the persecution of Vetullavada adherents during the Tamraparniyan Abhayagiri versus Maha Viharaya sectarianism in Anuradhapura. This explains some of the Buddhist archeological remains in the region. By the reign of Silakala Ambosamanera of Anuradhapura, Trincomalee bay again is mentioned as the furthest spot down the river Mahavalli Ganga which must be protected from "the enemy in Rohana"; and Trincomalee is noted as a theatre of magic, where Naga snakes were manifested to foretell the consecration of Maha Naga of Anuradhapura. It was not long before the Siva temple's concurrent re-establishment on the promontory by the 6th century following the rise of the Pallava dynasty. The "Mattakallappu Manmiyam" of Batticaloa confirms Trincomalee's sacred status for all Hindus.
Middle Ages.
Early Tamil dynasties continued to employ the city as the prefectural capital of the Trincomalee District, allowing administrative duties to be handled by elected Vanniar chiefs. Inscriptions of Kassapa IV, Udaya III and Mahinda IV of Anuradhapura, reveal that lands and villages of Tamils in the island's northeast were prospering, particularly following Srimara Srivallabha's intervention against Sena I of Anuradhapura. The Pallava kings, including Simhavishnu and Narasimhavarman I were important in the early history of Trincomalee because of the increased significance of the city to Hinduism and trade in the early centuries of the common era, making sure to contribute elements of their unique style of Dravidian architecture to the city. During the reign of Mahendravarman I in 600, as one Aggabodhi II of Anuradhapura took steps to attack the Vanniar chiefs between Trincomalee and Mannar, "Tevaram" hymns were composed on the two holy cities, one of which, written by Sambandar, lauded the deity of the temples in each and lamented the schemes of other heretical faiths encroaching on Trincomalee. Mahendravarman I gave much assistance and military aid to his friend Manavanna of Anuradhapura, and he proceeded to build a twin temple called Kokarneswarar Temple, Thirukokarnam in Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu.
Following the conquest of Parantaka I in 950, Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I oversaw the city's development when under their empire. A significant expansion of the Bhadrakali Amman Temple, Trincomalee by Rajendra Chola I increased pilgrimage to the city. Trincomalee was used by Chola king Ilankesvarar Tevar as his eastern port in the 11th century and prospered under the Vannimai chieftaincies of the Jaffna kingdom. Two powerful merchant guilds of the time – the Manigramam and the Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu emerged in the region during Chola trade with the far east and conquest of Srivijaya of the Malay archipelago and Indonesia. The Koneswaram temple compounds, the city and its adjacent region, from Periyakulam and Manankerni in the north, Kantalai and Pothankadu in the west, and Verugal in the south, formed a great Saiva Tamil principality of the island's state Mummudi Chola Mandalam. Residents in this collective community were allotted services, which they had to perform at the Koneswaram temple. A Jain sect in Nilaveli had even complained to Gajabahu II about the priests of Koneswaram. Following some benefaction of the shrine by Gajabahu II, his successor King Parakramabahu I used Trincomalee as his eastern port, to launch a successful invasion of Burma in the 12th century. Kalinga Magha used the city as a garrison point during his rule. The city was governed by Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Jatavarman Veera Pandyan I of the Pandyans in the 13th century, despite invasions from and the eventual subduing of Chandrabhanu and Savakanmaindan of Tambralinga of Thailand; it then remained in the Pandyan empire of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I and remnants of Pandyan art and architecture still stand in Trincomalee.
Magha's reign ousted Parakrama Pandyan II and re-consolidated Tamil sovereign power in the island's north, north west and north east in Trincomalee by 1215; during Magha's reign, the temple and city underwent rich development in the name of a Chodaganga Deva on Puthandu, 1223. After the fall of the Pandyans of Tamilakam due to invasions by Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate, Trincomalee rose in status in the Jaffna kingdom, often visited by King Singai Pararasasegaram and his successor King Cankili I in the following centuries. Trincomalee served a similar purpose to its west coast sister city, Mannar. King Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan had the traditional history of the Koneswaram temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, titled "Dakshina Kailasa Puranam", known today as the "Sthala Puranam of Koneswaram Temple". Mariners were particularly excited when observing the massive shrine from afar in the sea. Building blocks from the city were used to expand the Kovil at Rameswaram under the patronage of king Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan. At this time, Trincomalee was trading pearls, precious stones, vessels, elephants, muslins, baqam and cinnamon, and was passed by Chinese voyager Ma Huan by ship, eight days from the Nicobar islands, on his way to Tenavaram temple. The Tamil country had established a strong alliance with Yemen and the Delhi Sultinate under Martanda Cinkaiariyan which attracted seafaring merchants from East Africa and the Middle East to its ports. An inlet of Trincomalee, Nicholson Cove became the site of a small Arab settlement by the 13th and 14th century. The Nicholson Cove Tombstone inscriptions at Trincomalee refer to the deceased as the daughter of the chief Badriddin Husain Bin Ali Al- Halabi, showing that her family hailed from Halab (Aleppo) in Syria. The Tamil Bell of New Zealand assigned to the Pandyan era belonged to sea traders that likely originated from Trincomalee. The city even attracted Arunagirinathar in 1468, who traversed the Pada Yatra pilgrimage route from Nallur Kandaswamy temple to Katirkamam while stopping to pay homage to Koneswaram's Murukan shrine.
By the late 16th century, Portuguese Ceylon was beginning to influence the operations of the now princely Trincomalee district. Despite it being one of the smaller states of the island, given as an appenage to younger sons of royal houses and still being dependent on the Jaffna kingdom, the city had become one of the richest and the most visited place of Hindu worship in the world, declared the "Rome of the Pagans of the Orient" and "Rome of the Gentiles" by the Portuguese. It hosted the Hindu funeral of Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte. The death of one of its kings, Vanniana Raja of Trincomalee, left his young son, the Prince of Trincomalee under the guardianship of his uncle. Trincomalee was annexed by Cankili I to bring it back under Jaffna control, forcing the boy king into exile. He was eventually baptised as Raja Alphonsus of Trincomalee and taken under the wing of the missionary Francis Xavier. The rise of Francis Xavier and the migration of Portuguese soldiers to Trincomalee, conversions to Christianity by some residents and royals in the 1500s saw the erection of churches in the city. Koneswaram is described by Jesuit priests at this time as being a "... massive structure, a singular work of art. It is of great height, constructed with wonderful skill in blackish granite, on a rock projecting into the sea, and occupies a large space on the summit". The Trincomalee and Batticaloa chiefdoms starting paying direct tributes to the Portuguese commander in Mannar from 1582 as Portuguese influence over the entire North east gained momentum. An annual sum of 1280 fanams was levied from the Koneswaram temple, and they collected a duty on areca nuts exported through the Trincomalee and Batticaloa ports. Jaffna had given minimal logistical access to its Trincomalee and Batticaloa seaports to the Kandyan kingdom to secure military advantages against its enemies; this was used by their influential European overlords to consolidate power in the region. In 1603, the first Dutch fleet arrives at Trincomalee and Batticaloa ports. In 1612, D. Hieronymo de Azevedo, after great difficulties due to torrential rains, arrived at Trincomalee with a Portuguese contingent from Kandy. Here de Azevedo "was keen on building a fort" to the scope; he called in aid from King Ethirimana Cinkam of Jaffna but not seeing him, he abandoned the enterprise and he marched towards Jaffna. The early death of Cankili I brought upon by the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom saw all the territory of the kingdom of Jaffna, comprising both Trincomalee and Batticaloa, assigned to the "spiritual cures of the Franciscans". The Jesuits followed the Portuguese soldiers to Trincomalee and Batticaloa when they occupied the two localities.
Early modern.
The buildings of Trincomalee were of masonry, thatched with leaves of bamboo and rattan, although the Pagodas and the Palace of the King were covered with copper, silver and gold. The metropolis had grown with well-built houses and streets that were cleaned regularly and were well adorned. The Danish arrived in Trincomalee to the end of 1619 with a first ship, called "Øresund" under the command of Roelant Crape. This small expedition was the vanguard of another Danish fleet, composed of four vessels and 300 soldiers, commanded by Ove Giedde, that reached the island in May 1620. They wanted to try their fortune in the Asian seas; the Danish expedition occupied Koneswaram temple. It was here that the Danes began the works for the fortification of the peninsula.
Following the destruction of the Koneswaram compound and the "Fort of Triquinimale" built from its ruins, Trincomalee had a Portuguese force during the reign of Rajasinghe II of Kandy. Constantino de Sá de Noronha who destroyed one of the temples had a copy of the oldest inscription in Tamil Brahmi sent to Portugal for the purpose of identification. The Tamil inscription contains a prophecy on the city and its temple, a copy of which was sent and is retained in The Hague. In a 1638 letter to Dutch Colonial Governor Anthony van Diemen, an officer mentions that Trincomalee is a "fort built rather strongly of hard stones from an old pagoda round the hillock. On each side there is a sandy and rocky bay and it is like a peninsula". Rajasinghe finally formed an alliance with the Dutch, who captured the Fort of Triquinimale in 1639 and handed it to the Kandyans for destruction in 1643. In 1660, the Dutch built the present Fort Fredrick at the foot of the promontory which they called Pagoda Hill, and another fort at the mouth of the harbour home to Dutch officers, Fort Ostenburg. An English sea captain and his son, the writer named Robert Knox, came ashore by chance near Trincomalee and were captured and held in captivity by the Kandyan king in 1659. The Kandyans then pursued a scorched earth policy to try and oust the Dutch and take Trincomalee and Batticaloa on the east coast. The French set up base in Trincomalee in the Spring of 1672, and tried to make overtures to the Kandyans, but an alliance was not sealed; by July 1672, Trincomalee was retaken by the Dutch fleet.
The city had rejoined the Coylot Vanni Country by the start of the 18th century, with much of the city's population having moved across the district following the temple's destruction. It was about three centuries after Norochcho and Knox that serious attempts at translating the temple's ancient writings were made. The Dutch ruled the Tamil country with increased focus on districts like the Vannimai, Trincomalee and Batticaloa; the Vanniar chiefs of Trincomalee and the rest of the Vanni became subordinates and were put back under the commandment of Jaffna with a large degree of autonomy, but forced to pay forty elephants a year to the Dutch company. As tributaries, they recovered from Portuguese rule slowly under Dutch rule, and the Batticaloa district served as a dependency of the Fort of Trincomalee until 1782. The state of the region and the Tamils fears for the town and the Kantalai tank is described in considerable detail by the Dutch Governor of Trincomalee, J. F. Van Senden, in the diary of his visit in June 1786 with a view to revitalising agricultural production around the Trincomalee district. The population was a shadow of what it had been in times of prosperity. What he saw were people who had lost much of their traditional skill and often living close to subsistence level. Van Senden made the first record of the Kankuveli Tamil inscription dealing with a large field dedicated to Koneswaram temple. He was struck by the contrast between the prosperity signified by the inscription and what he then saw in the village. Trincomalee town remained under Vanni administration.
Late modern and contemporary.
Jacob Burnand, a Swiss soldier in the service of the Dutch and the Governor of Batticaloa, composed a memoir on his administration there in 1794, noting Trincomalee to be an important fortified town in the Tamil nation. Trincomalee's fort was occupied by the Dutch for most of the 18th century, and subsequently by the French who fought and won the Battle of Trincomalee as part of the American Revolutionary War in 1782 at the city.
On 8 January 1782 the British captured Trincomalee's forts from the Dutch, the first place on the island they captured. The French recaptured it on 29 August of the same year after the Battle of Trincomalee. In 1783 the French ceded it to the British and subsequently, Britain ceded Trincomalee back to the Dutch Republic under the Peace of Paris (1783 Treaty of Versailles). In 1795 the British recaptured the city and held it until Sri Lanka's independence in 1948, with a claimed aim of "preventing Napoleon invading the colony" if left under the Dutch. Their rule is sealed with the Treaty of Amiens, and the last Vanniar, Pandara Vannian is executed by the British – a pension is paid to his widow, the Vannichi, until the late 19th century. The British officer Alexander Johnston discovered a stone epigraph, the oldest of the province of Trincomalee District, in ancient characters concerning the traditional founder of Trincomalee and the temple, Kullakottan Chola. The French admiral Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez, when with his fleet in the city in 1781 had sent a copy of the inscription to Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron of France for translation.
The ship was built during the early 19th century by Indian workers to aid them in the Napoleonic Wars, and named after the city. The importance of Fort Fredrick was due to Trincomalee's natural harbour. Through Trincomalee, it was believed a strong naval force could secure control of India's Coromandel Coast and the rest of the Indian Ocean. The British admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson called Trincomalee "the finest harbour in the world", while the British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger called the city "the most valuable colonial possession on the globe, as giving to our Indian Empire a security which it had not enjoyed from its establishment" and the harbour "the finest and most advantageous Bay in the whole of India". In the 19th century, the Trincomali Channel of British Columbia, Canada was built and named after the city's name. A Tamil press is established in Jaffna in 1820; a report on Trincomalee laments its sorry, poverty-stricken state and recommends 'colonization with intelligent settlers'. By 1827, The "Return of the Population 1824" is published, giving the total population figures for Trincomalee as 19,158 – Tamils and among them 317 Sinhalese. The Vanni, counted under Mannar, has 22,536 inhabitants, among them 517 Sinhalese.
Before the Second World War, the British built a large airfield to house their RAF base, called the RAF China Bay and fuel storage and support facilities for the British fleets there. After the fall of Singapore, Trincomalee became the home port of the Eastern Fleet of the Royal Navy, and submarines of the Dutch Navy. Trincomalee harbour and airfield were attacked by a carrier fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy in April 1942 in the Indian Ocean Raid of the war. However, the installation later served as an important launching point for British naval operations in 1944 and 1945.
One of the places inhabited by the British was Fort Fredrick, now occupied by the Sri Lankan Army. Some of the old buildings in the fort were used as residences, including one previously occupied by the Duke of Wellington. In the early 1950s the British Government built groups of bungalows within the fort specifically for their employees. These bungalows today provide accommodation for the Sri Lankan Army. There was a large Naval Hospital which catered for sick and injured British naval personnel from all over the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf.
With the turn of the modern era, English authors and poets used Trincomalee as inspiration for literature and poetry and became connected with the city. Arthur C. Clarke, who discovered the temple's underwater ruins with photographer Mike Wilson, described the city and the ruins in "Reefs of Taprobane" and would go on to write "" based on his experiences in the city. Trincomalee's Bhadrakali Amman temple provides a setting in Wilbur Smith's novel "Birds of Prey". Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories feature multiple settings in the city, including in "A Scandal in Bohemia" and "A Singular Affair at Trincomalee". Jane Austen's younger brother Charles Austen of the British Royal Navy is buried in Trincomalee.
Post independence.
In 1950, one of the original shrine's gold and copper alloy bronze statues from the 10th century CE of a seated figure of Shiva (in the form of Somaskanda), Shiva as Chandrasekhar, his consort goddess Parvati, a statue of the goddess Mathumai Ambal and later Lord Ganesh were found by the Urban Council of Trincomalee buried 500 yards from the promontory's end while digging for a water well. They were taken in procession around the region before being reinstalled amid opening ceremonies in one of the newly restored shrines of the compound on 3 March 1963. The naval and air bases were taken over by Sri Lanka in 1957. Following independence from Britain, the political relationship between Tamils and Sinhalese deteriorated across the island. Interest surrounding Trincomalee was increased due to its geostrategic position and the discovery of its underwater and land Hindu ruins. In 1968, the unity government of majority Sinhalese dominated United National Party and the minority Tamil dominated ITAK Federal Party collapsed over disagreements about declaring the holy Hindu site a protected area. A committee appointed by a Federal Party Minister to study the viability of declaring the site protected was disbanded without consultation by the Prime Minister at the time, Dudley Senanayake. The Federal Party withdrew its support to the government following that action. According to journalists like T. Sabaratnam, this incident had severe repercussions alongside the contributing factors of the civil war. The city and its district were severely affected by the 30-year civil war that followed.
In the mid 1980s, India became concerned that the US Navy might gain access to Trincomalee. India was suspicious about goodwill visits by the US Navy to the port and Sri Lankan proposals to contract out the refurbishment of oil storage tanks and modernisation of port facilities at Trincomalee.
Today SLNS Tissa and SLN Dockyard are used by the Sri Lankan Navy, while the Sri Lanka Air Force is based at China Bay Airport. The Sri Lanka Army has its Security Forces Headquarters - East in Trincomalee. The Trincomalee War Cemetery is one of the six commonwealth war cemeteries in Sri Lanka. It is maintained by Sri Lankan Ministry of Defence on behalf of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. The base is home to a naval museum called the Hoods Tower Museum. The name refers to a watchtower built on a hill commanding a 360-degree view of the harbor and the bay.
In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Trincomalee was a focal point for relief efforts on the eastern coast of Sri Lanka.
Historical sites.
Trincomalee is sacred to Sri Lankan Tamils and Hindus around the world. The city has many Hindu sites of historical importance. These sites are sacred to the Hindus and some Buddhists also worship at these Hindu sites.
Prominent sites include the Koneswaram temple compound, its Bhadrakali temple on Konesar Road, and the Salli Muthumariamman Kovil of Uppuveli beach in the Trincomalee suburb of Sambalativu.
Hindu historical sites.
The Koneswaram temple, with a recorded history from the 3rd century BCE and legends attesting to classical antiquity attracted pilgrims from all parts of India. The shrine itself was demolished in 1622 by the Portuguese (who called it the Temple of a Thousand Columns), and who fortified the heights with the materials derived from its destruction. Some of the artifacts from the demolished temple were kept in the Lisbon Museum including the stone inscription by Kulakottan (Kunakottan). The site's ruins include an emblem including two fish and is engraved with a prophecy stating that, after the 16th century, westerners with different eye colours will rule the country for 500 years and, at the end of it, rule will revert to the northerners ("Vadukkus". The Hindu temple was also documented in several medieval texts such as the "Konesar Kalvettu" and the "Dakshina Kailasa Puranam".
The Dutch Fort.
The entrance to the roadway leading to Koneswaram is actually the entrance to what used to be Fort Fredrick. The fort was built in 1623 by the Portuguese and captured in 1639 by the Dutch. It then went through a phase of dismantling and reconstruction and was attacked and captured by the British in 1782, during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. The French then took it from the British, and handed it back to the Dutch for a large sum of money. In 1795, when the French had occupied the Dutch Republic during the War of the First Coalition, it was again taken over by the British, who named it Fort Frederick.
Harbour.
Trincomalee's strategic importance has shaped its recent history. The great European powers vied for mastery of the harbour. The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the British, each held it in turn, and there have been many sea battles nearby.
The harbour, the fifth largest natural harbour in the world, is overlooked by terraced highlands, its entrance is guarded by two headlands, and there is a carriage road along its northern and eastern edges.
Trincomalee's location, in a less well developed and sparsely populated area, has in the past hampered its own development. Nevertheless, plans are under way to develop Trincomalee as a commercial seaport.
Oil depot.
In 2015, India and Sri Lanka agreed to develop South Asia's largest oil depot at a port near Trincomalee. Indian Oil Corporation will work with the Ceylon Petroleum Corporation to develop the Upper Tank Farm at the abandoned World War II port, known as China Bay.
Beaches.
Trincomalee has some of the most picturesque and scenic beaches found in Sri Lanka, relatively unspoilt and clean. The area is famous for bathing and swimming, owing to the relative shallowness of the sea, allowing one to walk out over a hundred meters into the sea without the water reaching the chest. Whale watching is a common pastime in the seas off Trincomalee, and successful sightings are on the rise with the increase of tourism in the area. If the weather is fine you may observe the process of fishing right on the beach.
Marble Beach is located in 16 km (10 miles) from Trincomalee.
Hot springs.
There are the seven hot springs of Kanniya (Kan = stone; niya = land), on the road to Trincomalee. A high wall bounds the rectangular enclosure which includes all seven springs. Each is in turn enclosed by a dwarf wall to form a well. The water is warm, the temperature of each spring being slightly different.
Climate.
Trincomalee features a tropical wet and dry climate ("As") under the Köppen climate classification. The city features a dry season from March through June and a wet season for the remainder of the year. The city sees on average roughly of precipitation annually. Average temperatures in Trincomalee range from around in December and January to approximately during the warmest months of the year from April through September. Extreme temperatures in the city range from on 28 February 1947 to on 13 May 1890.
Transport and communications.
Road and rail.
Trincomalee is on the eastern end of the A6 and A12 highways in Sri Lanka, as well as the northern end of the A15.
The city is also served by Sri Lanka Railways. Trincomalee Railway Station is the terminus of Trincomalee-bound rail services, the majority of which originate from Colombo Fort. The station lies close to the northern coast and beaches of the city.
Broadcasting.
German broadcaster Deutsche Welle operated a shortwave and mediumwave relay station in Trincomalee, which was handed over to the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation in 2013. It was not adversely affected by the tsunami of 2004 because of the sea terrain around Trincomalee. Deutsche Welle started broadcasting from Trincomalee Relay Station in 1984.
Education.
The Naval and Maritime Academy of the Sri Lanka Navy and the Air Force Academy of the Sri Lanka Air Force is situated in Trincomalee. It was first established in 1967, and gained university status in 2001. The Eastern University of Sri Lanka, which has its main campus in Batticaloa, also has a campus in Trincomalee.


Seodaemun Prison

Seodaemun Prison History Hall is a museum and former prison in Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea. It was constructed beginning in 1907. The prison was opened on October 21, 1908, under the name Gyeongseong Gamok. During the early part of the Japanese colonial period it was known as Keijo Prison (, the Japanese pronunciation of Gyeongseong Gamok). Its name was changed to Seodaemun Prison in 1923, and it later had several other names.
History.
The prison was used during the Japanese colonial period to imprison Korean liberation activists, and could originally hold around 500 inmates. It had a separate facility for women and young girls. In 1911, Kim Koo was imprisoned. He was one of the more important figures in the Korean liberation movement. In 1919, shortly after the March 1st Movement, the number of imprisoned increased drastically. About three thousand liberation activists were imprisoned, and shortly before the colonization ended in 1945, the number of prisoners was at 2980. Among imprisoned after the March 1st Movement was Ryu Gwansun, who died from the torture inflicted on her.
After the colonial era ended in 1945 as part of the surrender of Japan in World War II, the prison was used by the South Korean government, and was known by various official names, including Seoul Prison until 1961, Seoul Correctional Institute until 1967 and Seoul Detention Center until its closure in 1987. It was replaced by a facility in Uiwang City, Gyeonggi Province.
In 1992, the site was dedicated as the Seodaemun Prison History Hall, part of Seodaemun Independence Park. Seven of the prison complex's original fifteen buildings are preserved as historical monuments. The History Hall showcases all those imprisoned during the Japanese colonial period and continues to serve as a memorial hall.
During a visit to Seodaemun on August 2015, former Japanese prime minister Yukio Hatoyama knelt in front of a memorial stone as an expression of apology for Japanese war crimes in World War II.
Location.
Seodaemun Independence Park, including Seodaemun Prison, is easily accessed from exits 4 or 5 of the Dongnimmun Station on Seoul Subway Line 3.


Esnaf

Esnaf is a Turkish word which means “guild” or “corporation”. During the Early Modern Period belonging to a guild gave people a voice and was an important part of one's identity. Handicraft producers were linked to one another by a range of social, political, and economic ties. Guilds varied among societies, social class, and genders. There were many misconceptions, differences, as well as similarities between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. There were hierarchies within guilds; sometimes they shared tools, worked together, or worked alone.
History.
In the Early Modern Period, collective identity was mainly established by normative framework, but was also a result of the process of interaction itself, and could be manipulated according to the circumstances. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Islamic state created a system, based upon an open- minded interpretation of Islam’s attitude toward rival monotheists that allowed inclusion for the Christians and Jews who populated the conquered lands of Anatolia and the Balkans. The uprising of Istanbul in 1651 was a successful protest against dominant authority. The people marched on the palace and got a powerful religious leader on their side in order to get the vizier to step down. They made their voices heard as a group within their guild, and gave people a sense of pride to belong to a guild. Economic activity within guilds was controlled by political powers.
Misconceptions.
Contrary to general assumption, even in the highly segmented world of the Early Modern Period, trading Diasporas did not simply act as middlemen within dominant societies, but also developed durable commercial ties with other merchant groups outside any institutional structure. Not all workers were equal among guilds; many of them had hierarchies which varied among different regions. “There might be four or five different shoemakers”. Being a part of a guild was a great way for people to create compositions; it became a major part of one's identity. It was assumed that guilds declined due to repressed innovations but in all truth guilds declined mainly due to political issues. Political authorities were very much a part of production within guilds and controlled all economic factors involved. The prosperity and commercial success of merchants were both a cause and consequence of their domination of urban politics. Guilds are often associated with the medieval times in nature but guilds have been along for a long time; even prior the medieval era. Guilds are often associated with Europe only as well, but in fact guilds were a massive part of the Ottoman Empire too. Guilds within the Ottoman Empire and Europe had both their similarities and differences.
Europe.
Metal products created a significant share of the goods handled by European merchants; but their most important commodities were raw and finished cloth. Guilds were mainly male dominated but wives and servants still played an important role in production. In some cases woman could even hold formal positions and widows could inherit. Stocking knitting became a common livelihood for the poor in numerous parts of Europe, because it required more or less no capital investment; knitters would use yearn from their own sheep or yarn given by merchants. All social classes were allowed, but there still was an evident hierarchy within the guilds. Although, religion was more exclusive; therefore Jews were marginalized. Europe was a very spiritual economy meaning people took care of each other and would help when one another when they could. For example, there were charitable services. Around 1560, Antwerp reached its peak of its success just before the revolt of the Netherlands.
The Ottoman Empire.
In the Ottoman Empire many young woman were hired to unwind cocoon, spin silk threads, and weave. Also, there were many woman groups outside of guilds such as cloth makers. Woman would exchange good among each other within female markets. In the late sixteenth century estates of peasant woman living near Konya and owning some jewellery have been stumbled upon, which indicates market links.
Guilds were a major part of an economy that was very state dominated like the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman dynasty, especially along its seaboards and borderlands opportunities of commerce tended to diversify economies and put together sundry people and ideas. The Ottoman society was extremely mixed main due to conquest and immigration; therefore there was a vast number of religion and Jews were very much included. The Ottoman society was a spiritual economy but not as much as Europe. This was mainly because the Ottoman Empire was mixed religiously meaning there were many different religions mixed within guilds.
Guilds were an urban phenomenon. The Ottomans had politics as much as commerce in mind when they negotiated and dispersed capitulations. The Ottoman- Venetian conflicts led to international commerce booms in Dubrovnik, Florence, Ancona, and Genoa. In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries Florence, Genoa, and Venice vied for control of Ottoman markets and merchandises. Primarily in the north and east, Muslim traders dominated several Ottoman exchanges and some international routes. There were links between cities and the countryside; although, direct commercial exchanges were probably the exception rather than the rule. The Empire was separated into zones so that civilians were limited to buying only from the source that they had been assigned to.
Division of labor.
In small towns, craft structures might be reasonably simple, for example, with one type or a few types at the most of tailors who made up fabrics into ready to wear clothing; but large cities producers were highly specialized. Different guilds often produced similar goods. “Collective workshops were considered more desirable by more substantial craftsmen themselves”. This would make collective workshops a suitable means of social control. Every member was monitored very closely; there were influential members but no one completely controlled the productivity of other fellow members. Partnerships existed, although it’s unknown how common partnerships occurred. A more modern type of labor division also existed during the Early Modern Period. During this time bleachers, twisters, and dyers craftsmen not only owned their own equipment but their own shops as well. A compound product such as silk may go through the hands of many different craftsmen prior to reaching the consumer.


John K. Fairbank Prize

The John K. Fairbank Prize in East Asian History is offered annually for an outstanding book in the history of China proper, Vietnam, Chinese Central Asia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, or Japan, substantially after 1800. It honors the late John K. Fairbank, Francis Lee Higginson Professor of History and director of the East Asian Research Center at Harvard University, and president of the American Historical Association in 1968. Only books of high scholarly and literary merit will be considered. Anthologies, edited works, and pamphlets are ineligible for the competition.


Skyluck

The Skyluck was a 3,500-ton Panamanian-registered freighter that carried a cargo of 2,700 Chinese and Vietnamese boat people fleeing Vietnam four years after the fall of Saigon. The ship entered Hong Kong harbour under the cover of darkness on 8 February 1979, but was discovered and ordered to set anchor by the Hong Kong Police. Thus, began a month-long stalemate as the refugees waited on the ship for the Hong Kong government to decide their fate. The event turned into an international humanitarian incident, which was a symbol of a much larger problem: the estimated one million refugees who risked everything to flee Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam in the aftermath of the Vietnam War.
Arrival in Hong Kong.
In the early hours of Wednesday 7 February 1979, "Skyluck" arrived in the then-British colony of Hong Kong unannounced. Hong Kong police did not detect the ship as it entered the territorial waters, until it anchored in the middle of Victoria Harbour. The ship was surrounded by police launches and boarded in the morning hours. Engine parts were removed to prevent escape.
Upon interrogation, the Taiwanese captain claimed, as had been done in previous cases, that on his way from Singapore, the freighter came across several fishing boats in danger of sinking in the high seas, and had decided to rescue the refugees.
In fact, the refugees boats were organized by Vietnamese local bosses in (Bến Tre Province) to allow ethnic Chinese to leave the country as relations between China and Vietnam rapidly deteriorated and war was imminent. Most refugees had paid for passage in gold leaf or bars, in amounts that often represented life savings. Some signed over property to the local government, such as land, house, boat, and personal possessions, in exchange for passage. A few sneaked on-board without any payment at all. Initially, a roster of 900 refugees were to be picked up by the freighter. As the news leaked, thousands swarmed the boat and the refugee count swelled to more than 3,200. The freighter had to pull anchor, and as the freighter was dangerously overloaded, left behind a fleet of small fishing boats loaded with refugees trailing it. Many late arrivals could not get on-board and were left behind.
The gold payment, along with weapons including (M-16s) to guard the gold, were delivered to the captain by the local boss. The gold was never found on-board because it was transferred to another freighter during a rendezvous in mid-sea.
The refugees were not allowed to land; instead, the freighter was towed to the south coast of Lamma Island, several hundred yards off-shore. Refugees were confined to the ship for more than four months (until the freighter was deliberately run aground by refugees) while the Hong Kong government attempted to verify the refugee status of the passengers, and decide whether to allow them into the UNHCR-run refugee camps in the colony.
An act of desperation.
The refugees waited aboard "Skyluck" in squalid conditions, although the Hong Kong government did provide basic necessities such as food and water. On Sunday, 11 March 1979, after 33 days of waiting, a group of about 100 refugees jumped overboard and started to swim the mile to shore. About fifty made it to Lamma Island, where they were promptly rounded up by police. Two were admitted to hospital and treated for exhaustion. While in custody, a group of young men unfurled a banner which read in English "Please Help Us", and tossed a message to the press through the wire fencing, which asked that the refugees be allowed to land. Those who didn't make it to shore were picked up by launches and returned to the freighter. Those reaching shore were also returned to the ship.
An end to the stalemate.
On 29 June 1979, after months of waiting, some of the "Skyluck" refugees cut the anchor chain. The ship drifted into the rocks at Lamma Island and began to sink. The refugees jumped into the water or climbed down the side of the vessel on rope ladders, then scrambled up the rocky shores of the island. By nightfall, about 2,000 people had been rounded up by police. Most, if not all, were taken into custody shortly thereafter. They ended up in the overcrowded camps already burgeoning with 10,000 refugees of the Vietnam War. Many ended up immigrating to the United States, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom or Germany, but had lengthy waits before being accepted.


Nanak Nam Jahaz Hai

Nanak Naam Jahaz Hai is a 1969 National Award winning Punjabi film directed by Ram Maheshwary, starring Prithviraj Kapoor, I. S. Johar, Nishi and Vimi. The film is based on a true incident which took place at Golden Temple, Amritsar. The film was awarded the 1970 National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Punjabi, and National Film Award for Best Music Direction,
Plot.
The film is set Amritsar in 1947, a devout Sikh and prosperous contracting businessman, Gurmukh Singh (Prithviraj Kapoor), lives with his wife, and younger brother, Prem. Trouble starts when Prem marries Ratan Kaur, as her brother, Sukha, creates differences between two brothers, which eventually lead to the closure of the business. However amidst all the difficult times that come Gurmukh never loses faith and in time, because of his sacrifice and quiet suffering, harmony is established in the family.
Music.
The music is composed by S. Mohinder, is noted for the song "Re mann Aiso Karr" and also earned him a 1970 National Film Award for Best Music Direction.
Restoration and re-release.
While the original film was released on 15 April 1969, on the 500th birth anniversary (Guru Nanak Gurpurab) of Sikh Guru Guru Nanak, a digitally-enhanced version is set for release on 27 November 2015, presented by Shemaroo Entertainment and Wave Cinemas. The film is also dubbed in several regional languages, and the first teaser will be unveiled in Mumbai on 17 November at Kapoor family function. Earlier in the months, the film's trailer was launched at the historic Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi.


Unity (Russian political party)

Unity () was a Russian political party that was created in September 1999 and registered on October 15, supported by Russia’s President Boris Yeltsin, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and dozens of Russian governors to counter the threat which the Kremlin perceived from the Fatherland-All Russia alliance. It was also unofficially dubbed "Medved’" (the bear) or "Medvedi" (bears), as "MeDvEd" was an acronym of its full name (Mezhregionalnoye Dvizheniye "Edinstvo"; Interregional movement "Unity"). Later the party adopted a brown bear for its symbol.
History.
The rise of Unity was meteoric given the short time period it had to create an identity, plan its campaign strategy and carry out its ambitious objectives. The establishment of the movement followed a declaration signed by 39 governors expressing their dissatisfaction with the political battles being fought in Russia. The initial meeting of these governors to form a new electoral movement was held on 24 September 1999. It was at this meeting that Minister of Emergency Situations Sergey Shoygu was selected as Unity’s leader.
Prime Minister Putin immediately pledged support for the new bloc, saying it could help stabilize the political situation in Russia. On November 24, 1999 he told reporters that in his capacity as premier, he "should not define his political preferences" with respect to election blocs but "as an ordinary citizen" he will vote for Unity. The party’s leading candidates in 1999 State Duma elections were Sergey Shoygu, nine-times world wrestling champion Alexander Karelin and former senior police official Alexander Gurov. Unity, backed up by popular support for the Second Chechen War, relied on a campaign of verbal attacks to discredit the Fatherland-All Russia alliance. It was also heavily promoted by the ORT TV channel and especially "Sergey Dorenko's Program".
In the 1999 State Duma elections on December 19, Unity received 23.32 percent of the vote and won 72 of 441 seats (second result after the Communist Party of the Russian Federation). Later ten more seats joined the faction. Shoygu remained Emergencies Minister and did not go into the new State Duma. On January 12, 2000 the party elected Boris Gryzlov leader of its faction.
The party supported Vladimir Putin in the 2000 presidential elections.
In April 2001 the Unity party and the Fatherland - All Russia movement took the decision to unite into a single political party, United Russia.


Leon III of Abkhazia

Leon III () was King of the Abkhazia from 957 AD until 967 AD. He was the second son and successor of George II of the Anchabadze dynasty.
Life.
He succeeded in 926 as viceroy of Kartli to his older brother Constantine, the latter was blinded and castrated by George II after Constantine's unsuccessful rebellion. George proceeded to campaign against the easternmost Georgian Principality of Kakheti whose ruler Kvirike II also pretended on parts of Kartli. George and Leon were supported by his brother-in-law prince Shurta, who was also natural brother of Kvirike, who ceded Ujarma fortress to Abkhazians. Kvirike was defeated and imprisoned, and released only after he had submitted to vassalage.
Soon Kvirike returned to offensive and incited also the rebellion in Kartli. In 957, George sent a large army under his son, Leon, but the king died amid the expedition, and Leon had to make peace with Kvirike ending his campaign inconclusively. Kvirike was forced to agree to the marriage of his son David, with the daughter of Leon. Unfortunately, the peace did not last long, as the princess died soon and mistrust returned between the two parties. Leon attacked Kakheti again and sacked Mukhnari, Kherki and Bazaleti; In this last place he became ill and died in 967. He was succeeded by his brother Demetrius III of Abkhazia.
In 964 Leon III extended his influence to Javakheti, during his reign was built Kumurdo Cathedral.
Family.
Leon married an unknown princess:


Karatia Zamindari

Karatia Zamindari () was a zamindari family based in the Tangail District of Bangladesh.
History.
The Keratia Zamindari was founded in the early 1600s by Bayazid Khan Panni of the Panni Family. In the 19th century the head of the zamindari, Sadat Ali Khan Panni, faced legal difficulties in controlling the family asset. He regained control of the property with the help of Khwaja Alimullah of the Dhaka Nawab family. They had a falling out and Khwaja Alimullah sued Sadat Ali Khan Panni. Alimullah got a ruling in his favor but Panni transferred the property to his wife, Jamrudunnesa Khanam. They resolved the dispute mutually and Alimullah received seven anna (seven-sixteenth) of the estate.
Sadat Ali Khan Panni and Jamrudunnesa Khanam donated 50 percent of their property to create Waqf trust that would carry out charitable actions. Their son, Hafez Mahmud Ali Khan Panni, was made the mutawalli (manager) of the Waqf after the death of Sadat Ali Khan Panni. After the death of Hafez Mahmud Ali Khan Panni his son, Wajed Ali Khan Panni, and mother, Jamrudunnesa Khanam, fought in court over the control of the trust. Wajed Ali Khan Panni was awarded the control of the trust by the court.
Wajed Ali Khan Panni was a successful administrator who expanded the estate. In 1901, he established the Hafez Mahmud Ali Institution in Karatia. In 1906, the All Bengal Muslim Education Conference was held in Karatia through his initiative. He served as the Vice-President of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee and the Mymensingh district Congress. In 1921, he was jailed by the British Rsj for criticizing the colonial administration. He donated large sections of the estate and its income to charity and educational institutions. In 1926, he founded Saadat College and Rokeya High Madrasa. He died in 1936. Hafez Mahmud Ali Khan Panni sponsored the Akhbare Islamia, a monthly journal. The estate publication house published a number of books on history. Rokeya Mahal and Daud Mahal are the only estates of the zamindari that survived.


Itchan Kala

Ichan Kala () is the walled inner town of the city of Khiva, Uzbekistan. Since 1990, it has been protected as a World Heritage Site.
The old town retains more than 50 historic monuments and 250 old houses, dating primarily from the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. Djuma Mosque, for instance, was established in the tenth century and rebuilt from 1788 to 1789, although its celebrated hypostyle hall still retains 112 columns taken from ancient structures.
The most spectacular features of Ichan Kala are its crenellated brick walls and four gates, one at each side of the rectangular fortress. Although the foundations are believed to have been laid in the tenth century, present-day walls were erected mostly in the late seventeenth century and later repaired.


Legacies of War

Legacies of War, is a fiscally sponsored project of NEO Philanthropy, Inc (NEO), dedicated to raising awareness about the history of the Vietnam War-era bombing in Laos and advocate for the clearance of unexploded bombs and survivor assistance, to provide space for healing the wounds of war, and to create greater hope for a future of peace.
Organization.
From 1964 to 1973, the U.S. dropped over 2 million tons of ordnance over Laos in 580,000 bombing missions, the equivalent of one planeload every 8 minutes, 24 hours a day, for 9 years. As a result, Laos became the most heavily bombed country, per capita, in history, with about 30 percent of the cluster munitions failing to detonate, diminishing the chance of development in Laos.
Legacies' primary goals are to:
Funding.
Legacies is a fiscally-sponsored project of NEO Philanthropy, a New York-based nonprofit organization that funds a variety of organizations that share a vision of a society that ensures justice, dignity and opportunity for all people.
Legacies receives funding from the contributions of individuals, foundations and corporate supporters. Legacies does not receive any government funding. The government funding which Legacies advocates for goes to on-the-ground organizations such as The HALO Trust, Mines Advisory Group (MAG), Health Leadership International, World Education, and others.
Leadership.
Sera Koulabdara serves as the current Executive Director of Legacies of War. Prior to this role, Koulabdara was a long-time volunteer and served on Legacies’ board in multiple leadership positions, including Vice-Chair of the Board of Directors.
A graduate of Ohio State University with a B.A. in International Finance and Marketing, Koulabdara began her nonprofit career with The United Way of Central Ohio where she served as Sr. Relationship Manager for four years. In this role, she acted as a philanthropic thought partner and trusted advisor to major central Ohio corporations. Koulabdara also has tenure working at national non-profits like the American Heart Association, the Make-A-Wish Foundation, and the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation. Koulabdara first launched her career in Lommel, Belgium, as an International Business Consultant, completing projects in over 10 countries including Kuwait, Ghana, and South Africa. While in Botswana, Koulabdara volunteered with the Clinton Foundation.
Koulabdara is joined by a Board of Directors based across the United States. Serving as Chair of the Board of Directors is Alexandra Hiniker, a lifelong advocate for humanitarian demining projects in Laos.
Additionally, Legacies is assisted by committed volunteers, an Honorary Committee that features three former U.S. ambassadors to Laos, and a broad international Advisory Committee which includes artists, writers, poets laureate, professors, and executive directors.
Channapha Khamvongsa is the founder and executive director of Legacies of War. Previously, she worked at the Ford Foundation and Public Interest Projects, focusing on immigrant and refugee rights, global civil society, civic engagement, capacity building and transformational leadership. She was previously appointed to the Seattle Women’s Commission and served on the boards of the Refugee Women’s Alliance and Conference on Asian Pacific American Leadership (CAPAL).
History.
Following the end of the war in 1975, Lao villagers were left on their own to deal with the UXO in their fields and gardens. In 1994, the Mennonite Central Committee initiated a humanitarian demining program with private funding, in collaboration with the Lao government and the Mines Advisory Group. The national Lao demining group, UXO Lao, was formed in 1996. The U.S. and other governments began to support the demining efforts, with U.S. contributions averaging $2.5-$3.0 million a year, far below the estimated amount required to properly address the problem.
In 2004, while working at the Ford Foundation, Khamvongsa was approached by John Cavanagh, the executive director of the Institute for Policy Studies and grantee of the Ford Foundation. Cavanagh informed Khamvongsa of the Secret War and gave her a collection of drawings created by survivors of the bombings in Laos. It was through these drawings that Khamvongsa was inspired to found Legacies of War.
On April 22, 2010, Legacies’ Executive Director, Channapha Khamvongsa, testified at a House of Representatives hearing entitled “Legacies of War: Unexploded Ordnance in Laos” before the Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment (Committee on Foreign Affairs), led by Representative Eni F.H. Faleomavaega (D-AS). The hearing was held exactly 39 years to the day after a Senate hearing, chaired by Senator Edward M. Kennedy, helped to expose the U.S. secret bombing of Laos and shed light on the destruction of the land as well as the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Lao refugees.
During the summer of 2010, Legacies coordinated a letter from the past five U.S. ambassadors to Laos calling on Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to “significantly increase funding for the removal of unexploded ordnance left behind in Laos during the Vietnam War.” The letter was signed by the following former ambassadors: Theresa A. Tull, Charles B. Salmon, Jr., Victor L. Tomseth, Wendy J. Chamberlin, and Douglas A. Hartwick, who collectively served in Laos between 1983 and 2004. They endorsed Legacies’ recommendation that the U.S. commit $10 million annually over the next ten years for UXO removal in Laos.
In November 2010, Legacies participated in the First Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions, hosted in Vientiane by the Lao government. Signatory countries to the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions decided on a plan of action to be used by all states to complete the legal obligations of the treaty, including support for clearance, stockpile destruction and victim assistance.
Legacies’ 2010 advocacy efforts led to a doubling of U.S. funding for cluster bomb clearance in Laos from $2.7 million in 2009 to $5 million, which was, at the time, the largest annual amount the U.S. had ever provided.
The following year, Legacies advocates met with key allies in the House and Senate, including Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT), to urge for higher funding for UXO removal in Laos from the original request of $5 million. As a result, Congress appropriated $9 million for the clearance of UXO in Laos during fiscal year 2012, tripling the UXO budget for Laos from 2006.
In 2012, Legacies played a significant role in ensuring that Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's visit to Laos, the first visit of a U.S. Secretary of State to Laos in 57 years, would include a strong focus on unexploded ordnance. Legacies proactively reached out to key journalists traveling with Clinton, resulting in unprecedented media coverage of the UXO sector in Laos as well as a successful request of $10 million for fiscal year 2013 from the U.S. Government.
In 2013, Legacies launched its Voices from Laos Speaker tour. The tour, which stopped in twelve different cities, sought to generate dialogue about the impact of the UXO issue in Laos with the goal of raising awareness, inspiration, and funding for the cause. The speakers included Thoummy Silamphan, accident survivor and executive director of a Lao survivor assistance nonprofit; and Manixia Thor, a mother and deputy leader of an all-women's bomb clearance team.
On April 4, 2013, Legacies held a Voices from Laos event at the United Nations (UN) headquarters in New York, NY, followed by a panel in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Lao PDR. Legacies also secured $12 million for fiscal year 2014, with bill language noting a U.S. commitment to support a multi-year strategy for UXO clearance in Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands, where such ordnance was dropped by the United States.
2014 marked the ten-year anniversary of Legacies of War and the 50th anniversary of the start of US bombing in Laos. The U.S. committed to spending $12 million in fiscal year 2014 for UXO clearance, victim assistance, and risk education in Laos. The amount represented the largest annual spending at that time by the U.S. to support various groups in Laos.
In March 2015 — the fiscal year during which U.S. funding reached $15 million — Legacies and then-Executive Director Khamvongsa were featured in the International New York Times for Legacies’ work on UXO and the increase of funding for UXO clearance by the U.S. government. In the article, CSIS expert Murray Hiebert cited Legacies of War as the impetus for the funding increase.
In February 2016, Secretary of State John Kerry visited Laos, only the second such visit by a US Secretary of State since John Foster Dulles in 1955. On the trip, Kerry addressed the U.S. obligation to address the UXO issue in Laos. Around the time of his visit, Legacies worked with congressional allies to secure an unprecedented $19.5 million in funding for fiscal year 2016.
During the summer of 2016, in anticipation of U.S. President Barack Obama's September visit to Laos for the ASEAN summit, Legacies ran a campaign to raise awareness surrounding the UXO issue. Obama’s visit was the first by a sitting U.S. President to Laos. While speaking in Laos, Obama directly acknowledged Khamvongsa for her work to “fix this problem.” In the same speech, Obama made a pledge to increase annual U.S. funding to $30 million for fiscal years 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively, for the cleanup of UXO in Laos.
In 2017, Legacies of War successfully helped to pass the second installment of $30 million that Obama had pledged in 2016. This funding is currently being used for ongoing bomb clearance, victim assistance, and risk education, as well as to conduct a countrywide survey of unexploded ordnance in Laos. The installment was passed with bipartisan support, particularly from Wisconsin Congressman Sean Duffy and Minnesota Congresswoman Betty McCollum.
Programs.
National Traveling Exhibition.
The "National Traveling Exhibition" features illustrations drawn in 1971 in Laos by the survivors of the U.S. bombing, archival and contemporary photographs, original recorded interviews and documentary films depicting the lives of those affected by the bombing and their impact on the Laotian diaspora. The full exhibit includes 30 original historic drawings, a narrated video of the drawings, a display of Laotian artifacts, a community healing arts project, a collection of oral histories from bombing survivors, contemporary photos of surviving victims from renowned photographer Phil Borges, and interactive displays that show the dangers of unexploded cluster munitions. In 2007, Legacies premiered the full exhibition in Massachusetts.
A Peaceful Legacy: Campaign to Remove Bombs from Laos.
Legacies has built a platform for its broader advocacy efforts through the A Peaceful Legacy campaign as well as its active membership in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines and the Cluster Munitions Coalition (CMC). A Peaceful Legacy is a petition campaign, launched by Legacies, to educate the American public and encourage their support for increased U.S. assistance to Laos.
Panel Discussions, Film Screenings, Performances.
Legacies supports community screenings of award-winning films, such as Bombies, Bomb Harvest, and The Betrayal (Nerakhoon). The organization also organizes panel discussions and oral histories, bringing together bombing survivors, war veterans and peace activists from the Laotian-American and other communities. Refugee Nation features live performances of theatre, dance and poetry based on oral histories collected from Laotian community members.
Our Shared Journey.
In its effort to create a space for healing for people who have suffered from the trauma of war and refugee , Legacies created Our Shared Journey – an exhibit piece that connects individual stories (refugees, veterans, community members) to the broader human experience and political context of war. Legacies also formulates and sponsors a school curriculum about the war in Southeast Asia through history, writing and art lessons, which has been instituted in many schools in Minnesota.
Thip Khao Talk Series.
To bring together the international Legacies community, Legacies created the Thip Khao Talk, a series of virtual events streamed on Facebook Live that invites leaders in academia, public policy, and the community to speak on topics relating to the process of recognizing the history of the Vietnam War-era, healing from its wounds, and creating hope for the future. The concept of the talk was derived from the U.S. tradition of “brown bag” lunches, an informal seminar where one would bring a bagged lunch and hold a conversation with a guest attendee over lunch. The Laotian version of a “brown bag” is the “Thip Khao” container, used to carry sticky rice and a staple at every meal.