Indian National Association

The Indian Association was the first avowed nationalist organization founded in British India by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876. The objectives of this Association were "promoting by every legitimate means the political, intellectual and material advancement of the people". The Association attracted educated Indians and civics leaders from all parts of the country, and became an important forum for India's aspirations for independence. It later merged with the Indian National Congress.
Timeline.
Indian Association formed in 1876 was one of the pioneer political associations with an all India outlook. During the second half of the 19th century, India witnessed marked changes in social and economic life. One of the striking developments of this time was the growth of political consciousness leading to the birth of political associations and national movements for independence. Prior to the Indian Association, Sisir Kumar Ghosh along with Sambhu Charan Mukherjee founded 'The India League' in Calcutta on 25 September 1875. The nationalist leaders like Ananda Mohan Bose, Durga Mohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, Surendranath Banerjee and others were associated with this organisation. The League represented the middle class and worked to stimulate the sense of nationalism among the people and to encourage political education. With a broad vision of an all India outlook, the leaders kept the organisation above narrow provincial and communal politics.
But soon the League foundered and shortly afterwards Surendranath Banerjee founded the Indian Association along with his friend Ananda Mohan Bose on 26 September 1876. The leaders who were associated with this organisation were Sivanath Sastri, Kristodas Pal, Dwarakanath Ganguly, Narendra Kishore, and others. Rev Krishna Mohan Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose were elected the first President and Secretary respectively of the Association. There was not much difference between the India League and the Indian Association in objectives and outlook. Both of them had worked to help the growth of national awakening and political unity among the educated middle class in India. The very name 'Indian Association' implied that national movement was assuming an all India character in outlook and approach.
The Association started its programme with a number of objects: (a) the creation of a strong body of public opinion in the country; (b) the unity of the Indian races and peoples on the basis of common political interest and aspirations; (c) the promotion of friendly feeling between Hindus and Muslims and (d) the inclusion of the masses in the great public movement of the time.
Prior to Indian National Association, there was no political organisation in Bengal that represented the interest of the middle class and the raiyats. The Association gave the young middle-class community a political platform on a more democratic basis. The leaders of the Association were mostly educated young men, lawyers, and journalists. Surprisingly it did not include big business leaders and landlords as members. In the words of Anil Seal, the Indian Association had worked as a pressure group for graduates and professional men, which claimed to represent 'The middle class'.
Being founded by moderate leaders like Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose, who were also at the helm of its affairs, the Association was above extreme and narrow Hindu nationalism and parochialism. As a gesture of friendship and goodwill towards the Muslims, they invited Nawab Mohammad Ali to preside over its second annual conference. Indeed, the Indian Association had laid the foundation for the growth of national awakening and political consciousness that ultimately saw the establishment of the Indian national congress in 1885, and for this Surendranath Banerjea deserves credit. In fact, the Association was the forerunner of the Congress.
Right from its birth, the Association started its work in right earnest. The reduction of age limit (1877) from 21 to 19 years for the candidates of the Indian Civil Service examination gave it an excellent opportunity to start an all India movement. Under the leadership of Surendranath Banerjee, the Association strongly protested against this unjust decision. Surendranath was chosen as a special delegate to visit different parts of India to secure support for the memorial that the Association intended to send to British Parliament. Surendranath's tour of India was a great success. It enkindled a new spirit of nationalism, which helped to create a feeling of national unity on important political issues. He was the first politician to receive all India popularity. Under his able leadership, the Association demanded simultaneous holding of civil service examination in England and India and Indianisation of higher administrative posts. Besides, the Association led the campaign against the repressive arms act (1878), the vernacular press act, and the exemption of duties on cotton goods. Public meetings were held in Calcutta demanding the removal of racial inequality between Indians and Europeans and reduction of the salt tax. The Association gave its support to the Bengal tenancy act of 1885 and demanded self Government in India.
It is true that with the establishment of the Indian National Congress, the Association gradually lost much of its political importance. Yet it must be given the credit for initiating the idea of holding an all India conference with representatives from every province. The first Indian National Conference was accordingly held in Calcutta in 1883. The second National Conference, organised by the Association, held in 1885 in Calcutta. It coincided with that of the National Congress, which was meeting for the first time in Bombay in December 1885. The Indian Association expressed its solidarity and decided its merger with the Congress when the National Congress was organising its second annual conference in Calcutta in December 1886.
It is true that the Indian Association lost its earlier political importance as soon as Congress began to function as an all India organisation. Even then when the partition of Bengal (1905) occurred, the Association under the leadership of Surendranath Banerjea became very active. The Association, under the leadership of Surendranath, organised the Boycott and swadeshi movement against the partition, raised a National Fund, drew up a National Educational Policy and, in 1906, formally inaugurated the National Council of Education. Violent agitation compelled the government to revoke the partition of Bengal in December 1911. After the annulment of the partition, the Indian Association lost much of its political importance and continued its existence being engaged mainly in social works.


Anikanga of Polonnaruwa

Anikanga was King of Polonnaruwa in the thirteenth century, who ruled from 1209 to 1209. He succeeded his son Dharmasoka, who was installed as king of Polonnaruwa, and was succeeded by Queen Lilavati. He reigned for 17 days.


Flag of Voronezh Oblast

The flag of Voronezh Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, was adopted 5 July 2005. The flag is a field of red, with a grouping of yellow rocks on the hoist side. Over the rocks, a liquid (spring waters) pours out of a turned-over white vase. It is also on the . The ratio of the flag is 2:3.
The pile of stones represents the steep right bank of the city of Voronezh, while the water pouring from the jug represents the flowing Don River, more specifically, the Voronezh River tributary. The jug itself, a "creation of skilled human hands", symbolises the diligence of Voronezh's people. It first appeared on the coat of arms of the city of Voronezh approved by the emperor on September 21, 1781 (Old Style).
According to Resolution #292-II adopted by the Voronezh City Duma on September 26, 2008 for the city flag, the argent (silver) of the jug and water is symbolic of nobility, purity, justice, generosity and peace. Gules (red) of the field is the colour for vital force, fortitude, festivity, beauty and labour which characterises the city of Voronezh as an industrially developed centre. The golden of the rocks signifies harvest, exuberance and fertility, symbolising a well developed agrarian sector of economy. At the same time the gold represents nobility, respect, honour, mental power, light and spirituality.


Backergunge District

Backergunge, Backergunje, Bakarganj, or Bakerganj was a former district of British India. It was the southernmost district of the Dacca Division. The district was located in the swampy lowlands of the vast delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers.
Backergunge District was established in 1760 under the Bengal Presidency. In 1947 the district became part of East Pakistan. The area of the former Backergunge district is now covered by the Barisal Division of Bangladesh. The current administrative division also contains a Barisal District and a Bakerganj Upazila.
History.
In 1582, under Rājā Todar Mal, the region was included in the "sarkar" of Bākla, but subsequent Mahammadan rulers placed it in the province of Dacca (Dakha).
In the 17th century, Shāh Shujāh, the brother of Aurangzeb, had built a fort at Shujābād, five miles southwest of Barisāl. Early in the 18th century Aghā Bākar came to possess lands in the region and established a marketplace in Buzurgumedpur "pagana", which came to be known as Bakarganj, literally 'Bakar's market'.
British rule came in 1765. The district was administered by a magistrate from the town of Backergunge near the junction of the Krishnakāti and Khairābād rivers, until 1801 when the headquarters were relocated to Barisāl.
The district was surveyed by Major Rennell in 1770, he described the southern half of it as wilderness devastated by raids of the Maghs.
Backergunge was in the Dacca tax collectorate until 1817, when an independent collector was appointed.
The island of Dakhin Shahbazpur was transferred from Noāhkāli district to Backergunge in 1859, and in 1874 most of Mādāripur was transferred to Faridpur.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the district contained 16 police areas ("thanas"), and there were five main municipalities: Barisal, Nalchiti, Jhalakati, Patuakhali, and Pirojpur.
Geography.
Backergunge District was bound in the north by Faridpur District and in the east by the Meghna and Shahbazpur rivers.
In 1801 the Barisal subdivision was formed within the district, divided in six thanas: Barisal, Jhalakati, Nalchiti, Bakarganj, Mehndiganj and Gaurnadi.
The general aspect of the district was that of a flat even country, dotted with clusters of bamboo and arecanut palms, and intersected by a network of dark-coloured and sluggish streams. There is not a hill or hillock in the whole district, but it derives a certain picturesque beauty from its wide expanses of cultivation, and the greenness and freshness of the vegetation. This was especially true immediately after the rains, although at no time of the year does the district presented a dried-up or burnt appearance. The villages were often surrounded by groves of bamboo, arecanut palms and betel vines.
The level of the country was low with numerous streams, wetlands and shallow lakes around the margins of which, long grasses, reeds and other aquatic plants grow. Towards the north-west, the country was very marshy and nothing was to be seen for miles but swamps and rice fields, with a few huts scattered here and there raised on mounds of earth. In the south of the district, along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, were the forest tracts of the Sundarbans where tigers and leopards used to live.
The main rivers of the district were the Meghna, the Arial Khan and the Haringhata or Baleswar, with their numerous tributaries. The Meghna includes the accumulated waters of the Brahmaputra and Ganges. It flows along the eastern boundary of the district in a southerly direction until it flows into the Bay of Bengal. During the latter part of its course the river expands into a large estuary containing many islands, the largest one being Dakshin Shahbazpur. The islands on the seafront are regularly exposed to devastation by cyclonic storm-waves.
The Arial Khan, a branch of the Ganges, entered the district from the north, flowing generally in a south-easterly direction until it entered the estuary of the Meghna. The main channel of the Arial Khan was about in width in the dry season, and from in the rains. It received a number of tributaries, sending off several offshoots, and used navigable throughout the year by local cargo boats that were often of considerable size.
The Haringhata, Baleswar, Madhumati and Garai are different local names for the same river along various parts of its course and it represent another great offshoot of the Ganges. It entered Backergunge near the north-west corner of the district, forming its western boundary, and running south with great windings in its upper reaches, until it crossed the Sundarbans, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal forming a large and deep estuary, capable of harbouring ships of considerable size.
In the whole of its course through the district, the river used to be navigable by local boats of large tonnage, and by large seagoing ships as high up as Morrellganj, in the neighbouring district of Jessore. Among its many tributaries in Backergunge, the most important is the Kacha, navigable all the year round and flowing in a southerly direction for until it joined the Baleswar. Other rivers of minor importance were the Barisal, Bishkhali, Nihalganj, Khairabad, Ghagar, Kumar, etc.
All the rivers in the district were subject to tidal action from the Meghna on the north, and from the Bay of Bengal on the south, and nearly all of them are navigable at high tide by country boats of all sizes. The rise of the tide was very considerable in the estuary of the Meghna, and many of the creeks and water-courses in the island of Dakshin Shahbazpur, which are almost dry at ebb tide, contain of water at the flood. A very strong tidal bore or wave ran up the estuary of the Meghna at spring tides, and a singular sound like thunder, known as the Barisal guns, was often heard far out at sea, about the time the tidal wave was coming in.
Population.
In 1901, the population was 2,291,752, showing an increase of 6% over the decade. About a 68% of the inhabitants in the region were Muslim, of which a number adhered to the Faraizis or Puritan sect. The Hindu population numbered 713,800, of which the most numerous community were the Namasudras. The Buddhist population consisted of about 7,220 Maghs who originated in Arakan and first settled in Backergunge around the year 1800.
A number of small trading villages existed throughout the district, and each locality has its periodical trading fairs. Local people were mostly small land-holders and cultivated sufficient rice and other products for the support of their families.


Kolachi (port)

Kolachi () was also a port located at modern Karachi and the old name of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. According to legends, it was a port developed when an old fisherwoman by the name of Mai Kolachi settled near the delta of the Indus River to start a community. One of the main Flyover (overpass) in Karachi has been named after "Mai Kolachi". This settlement was also known as "Kolachi jo Goth" or "the village of the Kolachi".


Keraites

The Keraites (also "Kerait, Kereit, Khereid"; ; ) were one of the five dominant Mongol or Turco-Mongol tribal confederations (khanates) in the Altai-Sayan region during the 12th century. They had converted to the Church of the East (Nestorianism) in the early 11th century and are one of the possible sources of the European Prester John legend.
Their original territory was expansive, corresponding to much of what is now Mongolia. Vasily Bartold (1913) located them along the upper Onon and Kherlen rivers and along the Tuul river. They were defeated by Genghis Khan in 1203 and became influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire, and were gradually absorbed into the succeeding Turco-Mongol khanates during the 13th century.
Name.
In modern Mongolian, the confederation is spelled , ("Khereid"). In English, the name is primarily adopted as "Keraites", alternatively "Kerait", or "Kereyit", in some earlier texts also as Karait or Karaites.
One common theory sees the name as a cognate with the Mongolian and Turkic "qarā" for "black, swarthy". There have been various other Mongol and Turkic tribes with names involving the term, which are often conflated.
According to the early 14th-century work "Jami' al-tawarikh" by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Mongol legend traced the clan back to eight brothers with unusually dark faces and the confederation they founded. "Kerait" was the name of the leading brother's clan, while the clans of his brothers are recorded as "Jirkin, Konkant, Sakait, Tumaut, Albat".
Other researchers also suggested that the Mongolian name "Khereid" may be an ancient totem name derived from the root Kheree ("хэрээ") for "raven".
History.
Origins.
The Keraites first enter into history as the ruling faction of the Zubu confederacy, a large alliance of tribes that dominated Mongolia during the 11th and 12th centuries and often fought with the Liao Dynasty of northern China, which controlled much of Mongolia at the time.
It is unclear whether the Keraites should be classified as Turkic
or Mongol in origin. The names and titles of early Keraite leaders suggest that they were speakers of a Turkic language, but coalitions and incorporation of sub-clans may have led to Turco-Mongol amalgamation from an early time.
They consisted of eight Mongolic tribes, including the Khereid, Jirkhin, Khonkhoid, Sukhait, Albat, Tumaut, Dunghaid and the Khirkh.
The Khereid tribe is called both Mongolian and Turkic by different accounts. All of Khereid tribal names being explainable in Mongolian language and all of tribal names
end with Mongolic plural suffix "d" (t; ud, uud, üd, üüd) and singular suffix "n". Plural suffix "d" (t; üd, üüd) and singular suffix "n" being popular among the Mongol tribes.
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318) says in the Jami' al-tawarikh (Section Three, Khereid Tribe):
They are first noted in Syriac Church records which mention them being absorbed into the Church of the East around AD 1000 by Metropolitan Abdisho of Merv.
Khanate.
After the Zubu confederacy broke up, the Keraites retained their dominance on the steppe right up until they were absorbed into the Mongol Empire.
At the height of its power, the Keraites khanate was organized along the same lines as the Naimans and other powerful steppe tribes of the day.
A section is dedicated to the Keraites by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318), the official historian of the Genghisid court in Persia, in his "Jami' al-tawarikh" (c. 1300).
The people was divided into a "central" faction and an "outer" faction. The central faction served as the khan's personal army and was composed of warriors from many different tribes with no loyalties to anyone but the Khan. This made the central faction more of a quasi-feudal state than a genuine tribe. The "outer" faction was composed of tribes that pledged obedience to the khan, but lived on their own tribal pastures and functioned semi-autonomously. The "capital" of the Keraite khanate was a place called Orta Balagasun, which was probably located in an old Uyghur or Khitan fortress.
Markus Buyruk Khan, was a Keraite leader who also led the Zubu confederacy. In 1100, he was killed by the Liao Dynasty.
Kurchakus Buyruk Khan was a son and successor of Bayruk Markus, among whose wives was Toreqaimish Khatun, daughter of Korchi Buiruk Khan of the Naiman.
Kurchakus's younger brother was Gur Khan. Kurchakus Buyruk Khan had many sons. Notable sons included Toghrul, Yula-Mangus, Tai-Timur, Bukha-Timur.
In union with the Khitan they became vassals in the Kara-Khitai state.
After Kurchakus Buyruk Khan died, Ilma's Tatar servant Eljidai became the de facto regent. This upset Toghrul who had his younger brothers killed and then claimed the throne as Toghrul khan (Mongolian:Тоорил хан/Tooril khan) who was the son of Kurchakus by Ilma Khatun, reigned from the 1160s to 1203. His palace was located at present-day Ulan Bator and he became blood-brother (anda) to Yesugei. Genghis Khan called him "khan etseg" ('khan father'). Yesugei, having disposed of all Tughrul's sons, was now the only one in line to inherit the title khan.
The Tatars rebelled against the Jin dynasty in 1195. The Jin commander sent an emissary to Timujin. A fight with the Tatars broke out and the Mongol alliance defeated them. In 1196, the Jin Dynasty awarded Toghrul the title of "Wang" (king). After this, Toghrul was recorded under the title "Wang Khan" (Ван хан/Van khan; ; also "Ong Khan").
When Timujin attacked Jamukha for the title of Khan, Toghrul, fearing Timujin's growing power, plotted with Jamukha to have Timujin assassinated.
In 1203, Timujin defeated the Keraites, who were distracted by the collapse of their own coalition.
Toghrul was killed by Naiman soldiers who failed to recognize him as the former was fleeing from a defeat against Genghis Khan.
Mongol Empire and dispersal.
Genghis Khan married the oldest niece of Toghrul, Ibaqa, and then two years later divorced her and had her remarried to the general Jürchedei. Genghis Khan' son Tolui married another niece, Sorghaghtani Bekhi, and his son Jochi married a third niece, Begtütmish. Tolui and Sorghaghtani Bekhi became the parents of Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. The remaining Keraites submitted to Timujin's rule, but out of distrust, Timujin dispersed them among the other Mongol tribes.
Rinchin protected Christians when Ghazan began to persecute them but he was executed by Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan when fighting against his custodian, Chupan of the Taichiud in 1319.
Keraites arrived in Europe with the Mongol invasion led by Batu Khan and Mongke Khan. Kaidu's troops in the 1270s were likely mostly composed of Keraites and Naimans.
From the 1380s onward, Nestorian Christianity in Mongolia declined and vanished, on the one hand due to the Islamization under Timur and on the other due to the Ming conquest of Karakorum.
The remnants of the Keraits by late 14th century lived along the Kara Irtysh. These remnants were finally dispersed in the 1420s in the Mongol-Oirat wars fought by Uwais Khan.
Nestorian Christianity.
The Keraites were converted to Nestorianism, a sect of Christianity, early in the 11th century.
Other tribes evangelized entirely or to a great extent during the 10th and 11th centuries were the Naiman and the Ongud.
Rashid al-Din, the official historian of the Mongol court in Persia, in his " Jami al-Tawarikh" states that the Keraites were Christians. William of Rubruck, who encountered many Nestorians during his stay at Mongke Khan's court and at Karakorum in 1254–1255, notes that Nestorianism in Mongolia was tainted by shamanism and Manicheism and very confused in terms of liturgy, not following the usual norms of Christian churches elsewhere in the world. He attributes this to the lack of teachers of the faith, power struggles among the clergy and a willingness to make doctrinal concessions in order to win the favour of the Khans.
Contact with the Catholics was lost after the Islamization under Timur (reigned 1370–1405), who effectively destroyed the Church of the East. The Nestorian Church in Karakorum was destroyed by the invading Ming dynasty army in 1380.
The legend of Prester John, otherwise set in India or Ethiopia, was also brought in connection with the Nestorian rulers of the Keraites. In some versions of the legend, Prester John was explicitly identified with Toghril, but Mongolian sources say nothing about his religion.
Conversion account.
An account of the conversion of this people is given in the 12th-century
"Book of the Tower" ("Kitab al-Majdal") by Mari ibn Suleiman, and also by 13th-century Syriac Orthodox historian Bar Hebraeus where he names them with the Syriac word ܟܹܪܝܼܬ ("Keraith").
According to these accounts, shortly before 1007 AD, the Keraite khan lost his way during a snowstorm while hunting in the high mountains of his land. When he had abandoned all hope, a saint, Sergius, appeared in a vision and said, "If you will believe in Christ, I will lead you lest you perish." The king promised to become Christian, and the saint told him to close his eyes and he found himself back home (Bar Hebraeus' version says the saint led him to the open valley where his home was). When he met Christian merchants, he remembered the vision and asked them about the Christian religion, prayer and the book of canon laws. They taught him "the "Lord's Prayer", "Lakhu Mara", and "Qadisha Alaha"." The "Lakhu Mara" is the Syriac of the hymn "Te Deum", and the "Qadisha Alaha" is the Trisagion. At their suggestion, he sent a message to Abdisho, the Metropolitan of Merv, for priests and deacons to baptize him and his tribe. Abdisho sent a letter to Yohannan V, the Catholicos or Patriarch of the Church of the East in Baghdad (63rd Patriarch after Saint Thomas). Abdisho informed Yohannan V that the Keraite khan asked him about fasting, whether they could be exempted from the usual Christian way of fasting, since their diet was mainly meat and milk.
Abdisho also related that the Keraite khan had already "set up a pavilion to take the place of an altar, in which was a cross and a Gospel, and named it after Mar Sergius, and he tethered a mare there and he takes her milk and lays it on the Gospel and the cross, and recites over it the prayers which he has learned, and makes the sign of the cross over it, and he and his people after him take a draft from it." Yohannan replied to Abdisho telling him one priest and one deacon was to be sent with altar paraments to baptize the king and his people. Yohannan also approved the exemption of the Keraites from strict church law, stating that while they had to abstain from meat during the annual Lenten fast like other Christians, they could still drink milk during that period, although they should switch from "sour milk" (fermented mare's milk) to "sweet milk" (normal milk) to remember the suffering of Christ during the Lenten fast.
Yohannan also told Abdisho to endeavor to find wheat and wine for them, so they can celebrate the Paschal Eucharist. As a result of the mission that followed, the king and 200,000 of his people were baptized (both Bar Hebraeus and Mari ibn Suleiman give the same number).
Legacy.
After the final dispersal of the remaining Keraites settling along the Irtysh River by the Oirats in the early 15th century, they disappear as an identifiable group. There are various hypotheses as to which groups may partially have been derived from them during the 16th or 17th centuries.
According to Tynyshbaev (1925), their further fate was closely linked to that of the
Argyn.
The name of the Qarai Turks may be derived from the Keraites, but it may also be connected to the names of various other Central Asian groups involving "qara" "black". Kipchak groups such as the Argyn Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz "Kireis" have been proposed as possibly in part derived from the remnants of the Keraites who sought refuge in Eastern Europe in the early 15th century.


CenterTelecom

CenterTelecom (Open Joint-Stock Company Central Telecommunication Company, ) was a fixed-wire telecommunications service provider and Internet service provider in Russia. It was ranked 5th among Russian telecom companies, after Rostelecom, MTS, Vympelcom and MegaFon. 50.69% of Centertelecom's voting stock was held by the Svyazinvest Holding Company. CenterTelecom was listed on the MICEX and RTS stock exchanges under the symbol ESMO.
History.
The company was established in the late 19th century when the Moscow postal telegraph district was initiated.
From 1922–1926, the Post and Telegraph Offices Division under the Moscow Soviet was reorganized as the Communication Department of Moscow District. In the USSR, the system of communication institutions was repeatedly reformed.
The company steadily grew as equipment and technologies were upgraded, up-to-date communication systems were introduced, and the communication network was modernized to meet the demands of the country's national economy, population and defense.
On 20 June 1994, the Open Joint-Stock Company Elektrosvyaz of Moscow region was established, and in 2001 the company was named OJSC CenterTelecom.
In 2002, 17 regional telecommunication companies merged into CenterTelecom, consolidated on the base of the Moscow region operator. On 1 April 2011, the company merged with Rostelecom.
Operations.
The company had following branches:


Alam Bridge inscriptions

Alam Bridge inscriptions refers to the archaeological inscriptions on the rocks, near the Alam Bridge. The inscriptions are in Kharoshti and Brahmi script, and are mostly animal carvings and Stupas.
Built with a combination of iron rods and wood over the Gilgit River, the Alam Bridge is regarded as one of the scariest bridges in the world. The bridge linking Baltistan region to Gilgit and the rest of the country is about 300 metres in length.
This wooden, wire suspension bridge over the Gilgit River was built by Chinese and Pakistani engineers in 1978. In view of its dangers, regional authorities are deployed at the bridge to ensure vehicles do not exceed the speed limit. In addition, trucks and other loaded vehicles weighing more than 20 tons are not allowed to pass.


Souvanna Phouma

Prince Souvanna Phouma (; 7 October 1901 – 10 January 1984) was the leader of the neutralist faction and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times (1951–1954, 1956–1958, 1960, and 1962–1975).
Early life.
Souvanna Phouma was the son of Bounkhong, the last vice-king of Luang Prabang and a nephew of King Sisavang Vong of Laos, given a French education in Hanoi, Paris and Grenoble, where he obtained his degree in architecture and engineering. He returned to his homeland in 1931, married Aline Claire Allard, the daughter of a French father and a Lao mother, and entered the Public Works Service of French Indochina.
Souvanna Phouma, together with his brother, Prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa (1891–1959) and his half-brother, Prince Souphanouvong (1909–1995), around the end of World War II, joined the Lao Issara (Free Laos) movement established to counter the French occupation and its provisional Vientiane government (1945–46).
When the French reoccupied Laos, Souvanna fled to exile in Bangkok, but returned to Laos in 1949 as France began conceding autonomy to Laos.
Souvanna Phouma and his wife had four children including Mangkra Souvanna Phouma and Princess Moune, who married Perry J. Stieglitz, cultural-affairs attaché of the U.S. embassy.
Prime Ministership.
In 1951, Souvanna became Prime Minister of Laos under the National Progressive Party banner with a landslide victory, winning 15 of the 39 seats in the National Assembly. He was prime minister until 1954.
After elections in December 1955, Souvanna Phouma returned to the prime ministership on a platform of national reconciliation. In August 1956 Souvanna and the Communist Pathet Lao, which his half-brother Souphanouvong headed agreed on broad proposals for a 'government of national union'. Elections for 21 extra assembly seats were finally held in May 1958, with parties aligned with the Pathet Lao acquiring 13. Souphanouvong entered the government as Economic Minister. Another Pathet Lao leader, Phoumi Vongvichit, also acquired a Ministry.
In June 1958 Souvanna was again forced to resign by the rightists. The king accepted the vote as legal the next day when he signed Royal Ordinance No. 282, dismissing Souvanna Phouma's government and giving powers provisionally to the Revolutionary Committee. Royal Ordinance No. 283, approved a provisional government formed by Prince Boun Oum, who acted as front man for Phoui Sananikone. He was one of the Three Princes, whom Sisavang Vatthana appointed to form a coalition government between the rightists and Pathet Lao but it collapsed, and the Laotian Civil War began.
Souvanna Phouma was elected President of National Assembly from May 1960 to August 1960 following the 1960 elections.


Dugit

Dugit (, lit. dinghy) was an Israeli settlement located in the northern tip of the Gaza Strip closest to the shore of the Mediterranean Sea in a mini-settlement bloc including Elei Sinai and Nisanit. While Dugit was under the municipal authority of the Hof Aza Regional Council it was not physically in the Gush Katif bloc where the bulk of the Gush Katif settlements were located.
History.
The non-religious village was founded in May 1990 by a group of three families of fishermen close to the Shikma Beach with the assistance of the Amana settlement organization. These families, and others that joined later on, lived in trailers for about ten years until permanent homes were built. Another building expansion project was already in advanced planning stages.
Economy.
The main source of income was from the sea: fishing, rescue services, fish ponds, tourism, fish restaurants, etc.
Unilateral Disengagement.
Unlike virtually all the other settlements slated for destruction as part of the disengagement plan, whose inhabitants were forcibly evicted by the Israeli Army and Israeli Police, the families of Dugit chose to co-operate with the eviction orders and most had already packed and abandoned their homes before the official date.
Rebuilding attempts.
Avi Farhan from Elei Sinai and a part of his family established a new group including families from Dugit and Nisanit with hope to establish a new community. The government agreed in 2006 to acclimatize this group in Palmachim. The plan was then changed to resettle in the Givat Olga beach neighbourhood of Hadera. As of 2009, Neve Yam is attempting a rejuvenation project by attracting these families by allotting them land adjacent to the sea for permanent housing. The new project would give the evictees a housing and employment solution similar to that of their original homes. The Israel Union for Environmental Defense is struggling to prevent the project it deems is too close to the beach.


Bernard Rawdon Reilly

Sir Bernard Rawdon Reilly (1882-1966) was a senior British diplomat and colonial governor, active in the government of Aden between 1908 and 1940, and the first Governor of Aden between 1937 and 1940.
Biography.
Born on 25 March 1882 in Durrington, Wiltshire, Sir Bernard Reilly was educated at Bedford School and entered the British Indian Army in 1902. He transferred to the political department in 1908 and was sent to Aden, then controlled by the Bombay Presidency.
Reilly was appointed Resident in Aden between 1931 and 1932, Chief Commissioner of Aden (after the administration of Aden was transferred to the Government of India in Delhi) between 1932 and 1937, and Governor of Aden (after Aden became a British colony under the control of the Colonial Office in London) between 1937 and 1940. In 1940, Reilly left Aden to join the Colonial Office, and spent the Second World War in London.
Sir Bernard Reilly died in London on 28 October 1966 and was buried at Winchester.


Dzongpen

Dzongpen (Dzongkha: རྗོང་དཔོན་; Wylie: "rjong-dpon"; also spelled "Dzongpon," "Dzongpön," "Jongpen," "Jongpon," "Jongpön") is a Dzongkha term roughly translated as governor or dzong lord. Bhutanese dzongpens, prior to unification, controlled certain areas of the country, but now hold no administrative office. Rather, dzongpens are now entirely subservient to the House of Wangchuck.
Traditionally, Bhutan comprised nine provinces: Trongsa, Paro, Punakha, Wangdue Phodrang, Daga (also Taka, Tarka, or Taga), Bumthang, Thimphu, Kurtoed (also Kurtoi, Kuru-tod), and Kurmaed (or Kurme, Kuru-mad). The Provinces of Kurtoed and Kurmaed were combined into one local administration, leaving the traditional number of governors at eight. While some lords ruled from dzongs (dzongpens), others held the title of penlop (Dzongkha: དཔོན་སློབ་; Wylie: "dpon-slob"; also "Ponlop"), a title also translated as "governor," though penlops tended to be more powerful.
Dzongpens ruled in Byagha, Dalay, Dalingkote, Ha, Kham, Punakha (the "Punab"), Singhi, Tashichho Dzong, Thimphu (the "Thimphub"), Tuwa, and Wangdue Phodrang (the "Wangzob").
Under the dual system of government, penlops and dzongpens were theoretically masters of their own realms but servants of the Druk Desi. In practice, however, they were under minimal central government control, and the Penlop of Trongsa and Penlop of Paro dominated the rest of the local lords. And while all governor posts were officially appointed by Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, later the Druk Desi, some offices such as the Penlop of Trongsa were "de facto" hereditary and appointed within certain families. Penlops and dzongpens often held other government offices such as Druk Desi, Je Khenpo, governor of other provinces, or a second or third term in the same office.
History.
Under Bhutan's early theocratic dual system of government, decreasingly effective central government control resulted in the "de facto" disintegration of the office of Shabdrung after the death of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal in 1651. Under this system, the Shabdrung reigned over the temporal Druk Desi and religious Je Khenpo. Two successor Shabdrungs – the son (1651) and stepbrother (1680) of Ngawang Namgyal – were effectively controlled by the Druk Desi and Je Khenpo until power was further splintered through the innovation of multiple Shabdrung incarnations, reflecting speech, mind, and body. Increasingly secular regional lords (penlops and dzongpens) competed for power amid a backdrop of civil war over the Shabdrung and invasions from Tibet, and the Mongol Empire. The penlops of Trongsa and Paro, and the dzongpons of Punakha, Thimphu, and Wangdue Phodrang were particularly notable figures in the competition for regional dominance.
Within this political landscape, the Wangchuck family originated in the Bumthang region of central Bhutan. The family belongs to the Nyö clan, and is descended from Pema Lingpa, a Bhutanese Nyingmapa saint. The Nyö clan emerged as a local aristocracy, supplanting many older aristocratic families of Tibetan origin that sided with Tibet during invasions of Bhutan. In doing so, the clan came to occupy the hereditary position of Penlop of Trongsa, as well as significant national and local government positions.
The Penlop of Trongsa controlled central and Bhutan; the rival Penlop of Paro controlled western Bhutan; and dzongpons controlled areas surrounding their respective dzongs. Eastern dzongpens were generally under the control of the Penlop of Trongsa, who was officially endowed with the power to appoint them in 1853. The Penlop of Paro, unlike Trongsa, was an office appointed by the Druk Desi's central government. Because western regions controlled by the Penlop of Paro contained lucrative trade routes, it became the object of competition among aristocratic families.
Punakha Dzongpens.
Below are the Dzongpens of Punakha, also called "Punab."
Thimphu Dzongpens.
Below are the Dzongpens of Thimphu, also called "Thimphub."
Wangdue Dzongpens.
Below are the Dzongpens of Wangdue Phodrang, also called "Wangzob."


Church of Panagia Theoskepasti

Panagia Theoskepasti is a Byzantine Church of Cyprus church at the center of Kato Paphos, Cyprus. It is part of an area inscribed in the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1980.
History.
Its history starts back in the 10th century AD when the island of Cyprus was part of the Byzantine Empire. During the Byzantine times Christianity prospered in the island and many monasteries and churches were built. Among them was Theoskepasti church, which was dedicated to the Virgin Mary (Greek: Panagia). It was built within meters from the sea on a protruding rock, dominating the surrounding scenery.
Legends.
By the end of the 11th century Saracens start attacking Cyprus. Theoskepasti church, due to its position, could easily be discerned by invading Arabs, during their raids. However, according to a legend the church was veiled with dark clouds of fog and rendered invisible as soon as the Saracens approached it. Due to this legend the church got the name "Theoskepasti" from the Greek words "Theos" and "skepazo" which mean "God" and "to veil" respectively. So, the name is 'Veiled by God'. According to another tradition, when once a Saracen managed to enter the church and tried to steal the golden candle, divine power cut off his hands.
The New Church.
The present-day Panagia Theoskepasti church was built on the foundations of the older Byzantine church in 1923. The architecture of the previous church was preserved. A full restoration of the present-day church was completed in March 2009.
Important exhibits.
Precious portable icons are kept at Theoskepasti Church. Among them, a miraculous silver-covered icon, believed to have been one of the seventy icons painted by Evangelist Luke.


Vikramabahu II of Polonnaruwa

Vikramabahu II (died 1196) was King of Polonnaruwa in the twelfth century, who ruled in 1196, for three months. He succeeded his nephew Vira Bahu I as king of Polonnaruwa and was murdered and succeeded by another nephew Chodaganga, a son of his sister. He was the younger brother of Nissanka Malla.


Janet Nguyen

Janet Q. Nguyen (born May 1, 1976) is an American politician who serves in the California State Assembly. A Republican, she represents the 72nd district, encompassing parts of northern coastal Orange County which includes the cities of Huntington Beach, Garden Grove, Westminster, Fountain Valley, Seal Beach, Los Alamitos, and the unincorporated areas of Midway City and Rossmoor.
Previously a member of the California State Senate, she represented the 34th district, encompassing parts of Long Beach and Orange County.
She is the first Vietnamese-American state Senator in the United States and the country's first Vietnamese-American woman state legislator.
Prior to being elected to the state Senate, she was an Orange County Supervisor, representing the First District. At the age of 30, she was the youngest person to be elected to the board of supervisors, the first woman to be elected from the First District, and the first Vietnamese-American county supervisor in the United States.
She won her supervisor seat following a historic special election where two Vietnamese-American candidates received half of the total votes cast in a field of 10, separated from each other by only 7 votes. She was sworn in on March 27, 2007, after a lengthy court battle. She won a full, four-year term in 2008 in another historic election when all three major candidates were Vietnamese Americans. She was reelected to a third term in 2012. In a major upset, she was narrowly defeated by former Assemblyman Tom Umberg in the 2018 elections.
Prior to her election to the Board of Supervisors, she served as a Garden Grove City Council Member and at age 28, was the youngest person ever elected to that body, until Kim Nguyen (no relation) was elected at 25 in 2016.
Personal life.
Nguyen was born in Saigon, South Vietnam, on May 1, 1976, roughly one year after the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. Her family joined millions of others in becoming boat people when she was five, coming to California in 1981. They first lived in San Bernardino, but settled in Garden Grove in early 1990s. She attended the University of California, Irvine, at first to become a doctor but later majored in political science after she was inspired by then-Supervisor Bill Steiner. She is married to Tom Bonikowski, Jr., with whom she has two sons, Thomas III and Timothy.
2007 special election.
The election of Supervisor Lou Correa to the California State Senate in the 2006 election left his supervisorial seat vacant. Ten candidates filed for the seat in the February 6, 2007 special election, including three Vietnamese Americans, who were all Republicans. While the 1st District Supervisorial seat is officially non-partisan, the leading candidate was California State Assemblyman Tom Umberg (who had just left office two months before), a Democrat who had the full support of the labor unions. While the Republican Party did not officially endorse a candidate, most party leaders were backing Santa Ana City Councilman Carlos Bustamante.
With three Vietnamese-American candidates, the large Vietnamese-American community who comprise a quarter of registered voters in the First District was galvanized. Janet Nguyen's main opponent, Garden Grove Unified School District Trustee Trung Nguyen, had the support of State Assemblyman Van Tran. Issues that the candidates discussed included illegal immigration to the United States, one that county supervisors do not have the authority to affect.
The debate was particularly heated within the Vietnamese-American community, with accusations flying back and forth between the two Nguyen camps. Trung Nguyen was insulted as a "fob" and his campaign photoshopped Trung Nguyen in a photo next to Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger while Janet Nguyen was criticized for not being fluent in Vietnamese. Pundits speculated that the three Vietnamese-American candidates would split the Vietnamese-American vote, allowing Umberg to easily win the election.
With high absentee voter turnout among the Vietnamese-American community, it became clear on election night that Janet Nguyen and Trung Nguyen were leading. Umberg and Bustamante were in third and fourth place, respectively, and quickly conceded defeat. At the end of the night, Janet Nguyen was leading by 52 votes. However, when all the votes were counted on the following day, Trung Nguyen was leading by seven votes. Janet Nguyen requested a recount, and the final result was 10,919 votes for Janet Nguyen and 10,912 votes for Trung Nguyen. Janet Nguyen was certified the winner.
However, Trung Nguyen's lawyers filed a lawsuit challenging the recount, alleging that the Registrar of Voters improperly voided votes for him and awarded votes to Janet Nguyen in the recount. The Board of Supervisors postponed inaugurating Janet Nguyen pending the lawsuit. On March 26, she was named the winner, winning by just 3 votes. She was sworn into office on March 27, 2007.
After losing the lawsuit in the Orange County Superior Court, Trung Nguyen's lawyers filed an appeal to the California Court of Appeal for the Fourth District, Division Three. The Court of Appeal ruled against Trung Nguyen and upheld the Superior Court's decision. Refusing to stop there, Trung Nguyen's lawyers filed an appeal to the California Supreme Court. The California Supreme Court denied to hear the appeal.
2008 election.
While special elections for Orange County Supervisor are decided by plurality vote, regular elections for Orange County Supervisor are decided by majority vote. Should no candidate capture a majority of the vote, then the top two candidates advance to a run-off election.
In light of her initial election's closeness in 2007, it was widely expected that Janet Nguyen would be forced into a November 2008 run-off election. However, Janet Nguyen won 56.6% of the vote in the June 2008 election, avoiding a November run-off. Garden Grove Councilwoman Dina Nguyen, a fellow Republican who received the strong support of Assemblyman Van Tran and his machine (including former candidate, Trung Nguyen), won only 27.7% of the vote while Democratic activist Hoa Van Tran won 15.7% of the vote.
2014 State Senate election.
In 2014, incumbent Democratic state Senator Lou Correa was term-limited, creating a vacancy. Republican leaders quickly rallied around Nguyen while the state Democratic establishment rallied around former state Assemblyman Jose Solorio. The ensuing election was the most expensive in the state, and at times featured accusations and aggressive negative advertising. The vote was expected to be close, but Nguyen won the November election by a 58% to 42% margin, surprising even her fellow Republicans. She became the first State Senator of Vietnamese ancestry in American history.
Removal from California Senate floor.
On February 23, 2017, Senator Nguyen was forcibly removed from the Senate floor on Thursday morning during an attempt to criticize the late California Sen. Tom Hayden and called him a communist. She rose to criticize his stance as "an outspoken critic of the Vietnam War [who] made celebrated trips to North Vietnam and Cambodia, offering to help broker a peaceful end." She spoke first in Vietnamese and then in English, all whilst repeatedly being told by presiding Sen. Ricardo Lara, D-Bell Gardens, that she was out of order. After she continued speaking her microphone was turned off. Senator Nguyen continued anyway, and Lara later ordered a sergeant-at-arms to escort her out of the room. The entire episode was caught on video, and elicited serious criticism from the Senate GOP Caucus, particularly in the shadow of a similar censure of U.S. Senator Elizabeth Warren during the confirmation hearings of Jeff Sessions. For her actions the "Los Angeles Times" referred to Nguyen as "a rising Republican star", while the "Huffington Post" supported the actions of the legislative body to stop Nguyen from speaking with an article sourced with an aforementioned Los Angeles Times article.
2018 State Senate election.
In 2018, Nguyen was challenged for re-election by Democratic former state Assemblyman Tom Umberg. In a major upset, Nguyen was narrowly defeated in the general election.
2020 State Assembly election.
In 2020, Nguyen ran for the seat in California State Assembly's 72nd district. She placed first in the primary, helping unseat incumbent Republican Tyler Diep, who placed third and thus could not advance to the general election. In the general election, she defeated the Democrat, Garden Grove City Councilwoman Diedre Nguyen (no relation) by 8%.


Battle of West Hubei

The Battle of West Hubei (), was one of 22 major engagements between the National Revolutionary Army and Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was also one of four major battles that took place in Hubei.
It resulted in a Chinese strategic victory, although they lost more troops than the Japanese Army. Historian Barbara W. Tuchman, however, writes that the "Japanese withdrew without pursuit from what appeared to have been a training and foraging offensive to collect rice and river shipping." However, that states that it ended in a tactical draw.
The Chinese government and Western media reported that the Chinese had scored a major victory.
Combat.
The Japanese first attacked with 40,000 troops in the 2 armies of the 26th Group Army with about 50,000 troops in 3 divisions, then attacked the 2 armies of the 10th Army with about 60,000 men, and finally attacked the upper reaches of the Yangtze River with 70,000 troops. The two armies of the Jiang Fang Army transported the ships they had already captured along the river to Hankou .
The 13th Division of the Japanese Army had more than 20,000 troops . On the night of May 12, it smuggled across the Yangtze River from Shashi and other places in the gap between the Jiangnan defenders and attacked the 87th Army garrisoned from the northwest in the morning of the next morning. At the same time, it had already occupied Anhui. The Japanese 3rd Division and other divisions in the rural area also marched westward to the southeast to attack the 87th Army. The two Japanese troops formed a pincer offensive. As of the 28th, the Japanese troops who had crossed the Qingjiang River had approached the No. 1 national army guarding Shipai Fortress. Road defense line-Nanlinpo position. Chen Cheng of the National Army decided to fight the enemy on the Qingjiang River and on the front line of Shipai Fortress. The decisive battle date is scheduled to be between 31st and June 1. On the other hand, after the main force of the 13th Division of the Japanese Army crossed the Qingjiang River, it was blocked by the 121st Division of the National Army and had to venture over Tianzhu Mountain in the middle of Changyang. The horses lost a lot of weight on the way. The 5th Division of the National Army set up an ambush on the Tianzhushan main road and retreated after killing hundreds of Japanese troops. On May 30, after suffering heavy casualties, the 13th Division broke through the strategically important Muqiao Creek near Shipai and attacked Taishi Bridge. The main force of the 5th Division of the National Army used the dangerous terrain of Taishi Bridge to set up an ambush. When the Japanese army entered the ambush circle, the National Army fired violently at the Japanese army with intensive firepower, and then engaged in hand-to-hand combat. The national army repelled more than 10 consecutive Japanese attacks by virtue of its difficult terrain. The main force of the 13th Division of the Japanese Army was blocked in the area of Taishiqiao and Muqiaoxi, laying the foundation for the subsequent siege of Shipai.
Results.
The Chinese government and Western media reported that the Chinese had scored a major victory. Historian Barbara W. Tuchman had another opinion, however. She wrote that the "Japanese withdrew without pursuit from what appeared to have been a training and foraging offensive to collect rice and river shipping."
Changjiao massacre.
During the period of the Battle of West Hubei, Japanese troops reportedly slaughtered more than 30,000 civilians at a factory in the tiny hamlet of Changjiao, northern Hunan, over a three-day period from 9–12 May 1943.


Kalachuri dynasty

The Kalachuris (IAST: Kalacuri) were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Haihayas or as the "early Kalachuris" to distinguish them from their later namesakes.
The Kalachuri territory included parts of present-day Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Their capital was probably located at Mahishmati. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the earliest of the Ellora and Elephanta cave monuments were built during the Kalachuri rule.
The origin of the dynasty is uncertain. In the 6th century, the Kalachuris gained control of the territories formerly ruled by the Guptas, the Vakatakas and the Vishnukundinas. Only three Kalachuri kings are known from inscriptional evidence: Shankaragana, Krishnaraja, and Buddharaja. The Kalachuris lost their power to the Chalukyas of Vatapi in the 7th century. One theory connects the later Kalachuri dynasties of Tripuri and Kalyani to the Kalachuris of Mahishmati.
Territory.
According to the Kalachuri inscriptions, the dynasty controlled Ujjayini, Vidisha and Anandapura. Literary references suggest that their capital was located at Mahishmati in the Malwa region.
The dynasty also controlled Vidarbha, where they succeeded the Vakataka and the Vishnukundina dynasties.
In addition, the Kalachuris conquered northern Konkan (around Elephanta) by the mid-6th century. Here, they succeeded the Traikutaka dynasty.
History.
The origin of the Kalachuris is uncertain. According to a theory, they were originally from the Abhira clan.
Krishnaraja.
Krishnaraja (r. c. 550-575) is the earliest known ruler of the dynasty. He issued coins featuring Brahmi script legends, imitating the design of earlier coins issued by the Traikutaka and the Gupta kings. His coins featuring a bull are based on the coins issued by Skandagupta. His silver coins were circulated widely for around 150 years after his reign.
Krishnaraja's coins describe him as "Parama-Maheshvara" (devotee of Shiva). An inscription of his son Shankaragana states that he was devoted to Pashupati (Shiva) since his birth. Historical evidence suggests that he may have commissioned the Shaivite monuments at the Elephanta Caves and the earliest of the Brahmanical caves at Ellora, where his coins have been discovered.
Shankaragana.
Shankaragana (r. c. 575-600) is the earliest ruler of the dynasty to be attested by his own inscriptions, which were issued from Ujjain and Nirgundipadraka. His Ujjain grant is the earliest epigraphic record of the dynasty.
Shakaragana's adopted the titles of the Gupta emperor Skandagupta. This suggests that he conquered western Malwa, which was formerly under the Gupta authority. His kingdom probably also included parts of the present-day Gujarat.
Like his father, Shankaragana described himself as a "Parama-Maheshvara" (devotee of Shiva).
Buddharaja.
Buddharaja is the last known ruler of the early Kalachuri dyansty. He was a son of Shankaragana.
Buddharaja conquered eastern Malwa, but he probably lost western Malwa to the ruler of Vallabhi. During his reign, the Chalukya king Mangalesha attacked the Kalachuri kingdom from the south, sometime after 600 CE. The invasion did not result in a complete conquest, as evident by Buddharaja's 609-610 CE (360 KE) Vidisha and 610-611 CE (361 KE) Anandapura grants. Buddharaja probably lost his sovereignty during a second Chalukya invasion, by Mangalesha, or by his nephew Pulakeshin II. The Chalukya inscriptions mention that Mangalesha defeated the Kalachuris, but do not credit Pulakeshin with this achievement; therefore, it is likely that Mangalesha was the Chalukya ruler responsible for ending the Kalachuri power.
Like his father and grandfather, Buddharaja described himself as a "Parama-Maheshvara" (devotee of Shiva). His queen Ananta-Mahayi belonged to the Pashupata sect.
Descendants.
No concrete information is available about the successors of Buddharaja, but it is known that by 687 CE, the Kalachuris had become feudatories of the Chalukyas.
An inscription issued by a prince named Taralasvamin was found at Sankheda (where one of Shankaragana's grants was also found). This inscription describes Taralasvamin as a devotee of Shiva, and his father Maharaja Nanna as a member of the "Katachchuri" family. The inscription is dated to the year 346 of an unspecified era. Assuming the era as Kalachuri era, Taralasvamin would have been a contemporary of Shankaragana. However, Taralasvamin and Nanna are not mentioned in other Kalachuri records. Also, unlike other Kalachuri inscriptions, the date in this inscription is mentioned in decimal numbers. Moreover, some expressions in the inscription appear to have been borrowed from the 7th century Sendraka inscriptions. Because of these evidences, V. V. Mirashi considered Taralasvamin's inscription as a spurious one.
V. V. Mirashi connected the Kalachuris of Tripuri to the early Kalachuri dynasty. He theorizes that the early Kalachuris moved their capital from Mahishmati to Kalanjara, and from there to Tripuri.
Cultural contributions.
Elephanta.
The Elephanta Caves which contain Shaivite monuments are located along the Konkan coast, on the Elephanta Island near Mumbai. Historical evidence suggests that these monuments are associated with Krishnaraja, who was also a Shavite.
The Kalachuris appear to have been the rulers of the Konkan coast, when some of the Elephanta monuments were built. Silver coins of Krishnaraja have been found along the Konkan coast, on the Salsette Island (now part of Mumbai) and in the Nashik district. Around 31 of his copper coins have been found on the Elephanta Island, which suggests that he was the patron of the main cave temple on the island. According to numismatist Shobhana Gokhale, these low-value coins may have been used to pay the wages of the workers involved in the cave excavation.
Ellora.
The earliest of the Hindu caves at Ellora appear to have been built during the Kalachuri reign, and possibly under Kalachuri patronage. For example, the Ellora Cave No. 29 shows architectural and iconographic similarities with the Elephanta Caves. The earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja.
Rulers.
The following are the known rulers of the Kalachuri dynasty of Malwa with their estimated reigns (IAST names in brackets):


Chen Shuozhen

Chen Shuozhen (; died 653) was a Tang dynasty woman from Muzhou (in modern Chun'an, Zhejiang), who led a peasant uprising in 653. During the rebellion, she declared herself Emperor Wenjia (文佳皇帝), becoming the first female rebel leader in Chinese history to assume the title of "Huangdi" (Emperor). Shuozhen rang bells and burnt incense as she marched to war. She was said to have magic powers, and her people said she was a deity.
Biography.
Chen Shuozhen was born from a humble and slave background. She was the sister-in-law of Zhang Shuzeng. In the early years of Tang Gaozong, the Zhejiang area, it went through successive periods of famine. The peasants were living in precarious conditions, due to hunger and also the oppression of the nobles. Because of this, there was an increasing discontent with the feudal lords and the Empire. Chen Shuozhen appears since then, she sympathized with the victims of the famine, robbing the aristocrats to help the people.
In 653 AD, less than four years after the death of Emperor Taizong, a large-scale peasant uprising occurred in Zhejiang during the four years of Tang Gaozong's Yonghui. Chen Shuozhen was the leader of this rebellion, she claimed to return to the world from heaven, and turned into a man. She gathered a large number of believers with enchanting people. In early 653, she started her own army and claimed to be "the Emperor Wenjia"; and appointed her brother-in-law (Zhang Shuzeng) as her prime minister.
Emperor Wenjia's led two thousand people to capture Chenzhou and Yuqian County, she also attacked Zhangzhou but failed. After several battles and bloody battles, the insurgents died and wounded, and finally the whole army was wiped out. She was also killed in November of that year, and tens of thousands of people surrendered.
Emperor Wenjia's reign lasted only two months, with the last of her 14,000 troops surrendering in late 653. Her story survives though as she's said to have inspired the Fang La's uprising at the end of the Northern Song and she rules yet in Zhejiang folktales.


Hitakami

Hitakami () is a country name found in ancient Japanese texts. There are different theories as to which country the word "Hitakami" may have represented. According to , the word "Hitakami" represented the country of Yamato because the full name of Yamato is . However, in works such as the the word "Hitakami" was used to represent the northeastern regions of what is now Japan.
The name of the old Japanese province , which corresponds to modern-day Hidaka Subprefecture in Hokkaido, is derived from the name "Hitakami".


Relationship of the Cholas with the Chinese

The Cholas, the Tamil kings of the Chola dynasty who had ruled most parts of Southeast Asia, maintained a strong relationship with the Chinese.
Relationship during second century BC.
The relationship between the Chinese and Cholas dates back to second century BC. Ancient Chinese scholar Ban Gu had told that China had sent its ambassador to the court of the Cholas.
Ban Gu in his work the Book of Han ("Ch'ien Han Shu") had written that he had seen many unprecedented objects which are unseen at China, at the city of "kuvangtche". Berend, an acoustics expert, annotates that the city named by Ban Gu is analogous with the ancient Chola city "kanchi" (the present day's city of Kancheepuram at Tamil Nadu, India). This proves the relationship of Kanchi with China.
Coins.
Arrays of ancient Chinese coins have been found in recent years at the place which is considered to be the homeland of the Cholas (i.e. the present Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Pudukkottai districts of Tamil Nadu, India), which confirms the trade and the commercial relationship which existed between the Cholas and the Chinese.
Relationship during eleventh century AD.
The later Cholas too continued to maintain a healthy relationship with the Chinese. During the reign of Rajendra Chola I (i.e. 1016–1033 AD) and Kulothunga Chola I (i.e. in 1077 AD), commercial and political diplomats were sent to China.


Gaius Julius Agrippa

Gaius Julius Agrippa (, about 72 – before 150) was a Cilician Prince and the first-born son of King Gaius Julius Alexander and Queen Julia Iotapa of Cetis. He had two younger siblings: a brother called Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus and a sister called Julia Iotapa.
Surviving inscriptions on his family reveal that his family were related to important members of Asian, non-Jewish and Jewish aristocracy. He was of Jewish, Nabataean, Edomite, Greek, Armenian, Medes and Persian origins. His paternal grandparents were King Tigranes VI of Armenia and his wife Opgalli. Through Tigranes, he was a descendant of King Archelaus of Cappadocia, King of Judea Herod the Great and his wife Mariamne. Agrippa along with his family and paternal relatives were among the last known descendants of the Herodian Dynasty. He was an apostate to Judaism. It is unlikely that Agrippa attempted to exert influence on Judean Politics. His name indicates that the family connections from the Herodian Dynasty were not wholly broken. His maternal grandparents were King Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa.
The Kingdom of Cetis was a small client state in the Roman Empire. Cetis was a small region in Cilicia that was previously ruled by his Cappadocian royal ancestors and Antiochus IV. The city in Cilicia Elaiussa Sebaste was a part of the Kingdom. When his parents married in Rome in 58, then Roman Emperor Nero crowned his parents as monarchs and gave them that region to rule. He was born, raised and educated in Cetis.
There is an honorific inscription dedicated to him as a "‘son of King Alexander’". In 94, Agrippa along with his brother Berenicianus entered the Roman Senate. Surviving inscriptions also reveal the career of Agrippa. Agrippa became and served as a Quaestor for the Roman Province of Asia. Before 109, Agrippa served as a Praetorian Guard, before his father reached and served as a consul or suffect consul.
Agrippa married a Roman woman who belonged or was related to the Fabia gens. From this marriage Agrippa had two sons, a younger Gaius Julius Agrippa and Lucius Julius Gainius Fabius Agrippa. A possible descendant from his family was the usurper of the 3rd century Jotapianus.


Plered

Plered (also Pleret) was the location of the palace of Amangkurat I of Mataram (). Amangkurat moved the capital there from the nearby Karta in 1647. During the Trunajaya rebellion, the capital was occupied and sacked by the rebels, and Amangkurat died during the retreat from the capital. His son and successor Amangkurat II later moved the capital to Kartasura. It was twice occupied by Diponegoro, during the Java War (1825–1830) between his forces and the Dutch. The Dutch assaulted the walled complex in June 1826, which was Diponegoro's first major defeat in the war.
Following the Java War, the town's decline accelerated and today it is in ruins. The remains are now located in the Bantul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, close to the banks of the Opak River, and south of Kota Gede. It has been researched for archaeological remains It is located to the east of the site of Sultan Agung's Karta Palace at Karta. It is also the location of extensive irrigation and other water works which occurred at the time of the palace being used.
History.
Construction.
Sultan Agung () built the previous court complex at Karta and moved the capital there in the first decade of his reign. The decision to move to a new capital might have been made during his reign in 1634, when a fire in Karta killed "many people of the court". In 1644, Sultan Agung started building an artificial lake in an area which became known as Plered. He died two years later and was succeeded by his son Amangkurat I. In 1647, shortly after taking the throne, Amagkurat built his royal residence near the lake and moved the court there. In contrast to Karta, which was made of wood, the royal compound at Plered was built of brick. Amangkurat continued to expand this complex up to 1666.
Fall of Plered during Trunajaya rebellion.
In 1677, during the Trunajaya rebellion, Plered was taken by the rebel forces, consisting of Madurese troops, as well as Javanese forces from East Java and central northern coast, led by Raden Kajoran. The defenders, led by Amangkurat's four eldest son, offered an ineffective defense and were defeated. Consequently, Amangkurat and the royal family fled the court, and soon after the rebels entered the complex and plundered it. The rebels also took the royal treasury of at least 300,000 Spanish reals. According to a man claiming to witness the fall of Plered, Sp. Rl. 300,000 was taken to Trunajaya's capital in Kediri, while Amangkurat II (son and successor of Amangkurat I) later said that Sp. Rl. 150,000 was taken to Kediri while Sp. Rl. 200,000 remained in Plered with Trunajaya's local commander.
During the retreat, Amangkurat I died near Tegal and was succeeded by his son, Amangkurat II. Another son, Pangeran Puger occupied Plered after the rebels left, and made a rival claim to the kingdom. Unable to take Plered from his brother, Amangkurat moved his capital to the newly built Kartasura in 1680.
During Diponegoro War.
Although abandoned as a capital, Plered played another role during the Java War or the Diponegoro War (1825–1830) between the Dutch and the Javanese forces under Prince Diponegoro. Diponegoro occupied Plered in 1825 and kept his weapons and livestock there. He used it as a base to attack convoys supplying the nearby Imogiri held by the Dutch. In April 1826, the Dutch under General Van Geen attacked Plered. Diponegoro did not engage in combat and withdrew to the west. Van Geen entered Plered and took the weapons and livestock kept there as booty. Lacking forces to keep the town, he subsequently withdrew to Yogyakarta. Subsequently, Diponegoro reocuppied the town and fortified it. In June 1826, Dutch forces with a strong contingent of Madurese auxiliaries besieged the town. On 9 June, the besiegers detonated a mine under the ramparts, causing a breach through which they attacked. After a day "bloody fighting", the attackers completely occupied Plered. This battle was Diponegoro's first major defeat in the war. The Dutch left a garrison of 700 men, and there was no further attempt from Diponegoro to retake it.
Decline.
Following the Diponegoro War, the town's decline accelerated and when G. P. Rouffaer drew a map in 1889, it was already in ruins.
Layout.
Because of the destruction of the buildings, the layout of Plered could only be approximated from historical reports, such as Van Goens' description of his 1648 visit to the palace, a map by Rouffaers based on his visit to the ruins in 1889, another map by Louw in 1897, and Javanese texts such as the "babads" as well as modern archaeological analysis of the site.
The "kraton" of Plered was a walled structure in a shape that is roughly square but not perfectly symmetrical. Van Goens wrote its circumference was 600 "roede" (2256 meter), while Indonesian archaeologist Widya Nayati estimated it to be 3040 meter. Rouffers' report said that the walls (which was then already destroyed) had been 5–6 meters high and 150-centimeters thick, Van Goens wrote that it was 18–20 feet-high and 12-feet thick, and Indonesian archaeologists Alifah and Hery Priswanto estimated the thickness to be between 220 and 280 centimetres. The walls were made of bricks, tuff, and andesite.
Rouffers' map named some buildings inside the complex, including a mosque, a tiger cage, and names such as "Sitiinggil", "Keben", and "Srimanganti". The tiger cage was the first known permanent tiger cage in Javanese courts. Around the walled complex there were settlements named after their inhabitants, e.g. "Kauman" for the Ulama, "Gerjen" for the tailors ("gerji" in Javanese), and these names are still used today.
Today.
Today ricefields occupied most of the former enclosure. Remains of the town became a cultural heritage site ("Cagar Budaya"), located in Bantul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta.


Peter Khoy Saukam

Peter Khoy Saukam (born Saukam Khoy ; 2 February 1915 – 14 November 2008) was a Cambodian politician who served as Acting President of the Khmer Republic for 12 days in April 1975. He was President of the Senate from 1972 to 1975.
Early life.
Born on 2 February 1915, Saukam Khoy enlisted into the Khmer Royal Army in 1940, when he was 25. He achieved the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1953 and subsequently, lieutenant-general. He became President of the Senate of the Khmer Republic in 1972.
Presidency.
He took office on 1 April 1975, when a tearful Lon Nol left 'temporarily' with his entire family for Bali in Indonesia after an invitation from his friend, Indonesian President Suharto.
Khoy's time in office was short. He left Phnom Penh together with American Ambassador John Gunther Dean aboard a CH-53 helicopter during the evacuation of American embassy staff and civilians, dubbed Operation Eagle Pull on 12 April, just five days before Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge.
Khoy died at the age of 93 in Stockton, California, United States, on 14 November 2008.
References.


Fort Inong Balee

Fort Inong Balee (Indonesian: Benteng Inong Balee) is located on a small hill along Krueng Raya Bay overlooking the Indian Ocean. The fort is built in 1599 by Keumalahayati, an Aceh female Admiral, to accommodate the Inong Balee army. Besides fortification, Fort Inong Balee also served as accommodation for women whose husband were killed in battle, as well as a military training facility were Keumalahayati trained the woman soldiers of Aceh Kingdom, and a military logistic center. With its strategic hill location-approximately 100 meters above sea level - the fort had an unhindered view of all ships coming into the port of Aceh Kingdom. The Inong Balee army could therefore easily attack Portuguese and Dutch warships.
When newly formed, the Inong Balee army only consisted of about 1000 widows whose husbands died in the battle against Portuguese on the Haru Sea. Then this widow's army was expanded by Keumalahayati into about 2000 soldiers, including young girls who wished to fight for Aceh.
According to estimates made by the Medan Archaeological Agency, the fort is a rectangular structure measuring about 60 m x 40 m with an encircling stone wall 2 meters thick and 2.5 meters high. On the wall there were half-circle holes directly facing the bay. At present there are remnants of the west wall with 4 loops, parts of the north wall and parts of the east structure foundation. Although now the remnants are regretfully just unkempt ruins, visitors can still enjoy the impressive view of Krueng Raya Bay and Malahayati Harbor. Beside Fort Inong Balee and the tomb of Admiral Malahayati, another remnant of the Inong Balee army around the fort is Inong Balee village, otherwise known as Village of Widows.


Jayavirahvarman

Jayaviravarman is a king who reigned over the Khmer Empire from 1002 to 1011 AD.
The origin of this prince is uncertain: According Achilles Dauphin-Meunier, he was the rightful successor and brother of Udayadityavarman I, who lives climbing the pretensions of a usurper, Suryavarman I, but managed to stay in Yaçodhapura. George Coedès, who considers him a usurper, believes that Jayaviravarman was the prince of the city of Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat in Thailand), and that he takes power and reigns in Angkor. MJ Boisselier awards him Ta Keo. In any case, Jayaviravarman disappears after a nine-year civil war.


Ali Shah Chak

Ali Shah Chak was a ruler of Kashmir and father of Yousuf Shah Chak. He ruled from 1570 AD to 1578 AD. The origins of the Chaks are unclear, some claim they were originally were Dards, residents of the Gilgit- Hunza area. They successfully resisted the attempts of Babur and Humayun to annex Kashmir. He dethroned Hassan Shah Chak in 1570 AD and became the new king of Kashmir. He died in 1578 AD and was buried in Srinagar, Kashmir.


Sri Lanka leftist parties

During the Donoughmore period of political experimentation (1931–48), several Sri Lanka leftist parties were formed in British colonial Ceylon. Unlike most other Sri Lankan parties, these leftist parties were noncommunal in membership.
History.
Working-class activism, especially trade unionism, became an important political factor during the sustained economic slump between the world wars.
The leftist parties represented the numerically small urban working class and the larger rural working class concentrated in the plantations and mines. Partly because these parties operated through the medium of trade unionism, they lacked the wider mass appeal needed at the national level to provide an effective extra-parliamentary challenge to the central government. Nonetheless, because the leftists occasionally formed temporary political coalitions before national elections, they posed more than just a mere "parliamentary nuisance factor." In 1953 it was the left who summoned the 'Hartal' of 1953 which led to the resignation of the Prime minister, Dudley Senanayake.
The first important leftist party was the Ceylon Labour Party, founded in 1931 by A.E. Goonesinha, but this had drifted into communalist strike-breaking action by 1937.
Marxist oriented parties.
Three Marxist oriented parties—the Ceylon Equal Society Party (Lanka Sama Samaja Party—LSSP), the Bolshevik-Leninist Party, and the Communist Party of Sri Lanka (CPSL)--represented the Left proper.
They grew out of the Youth League movement, the struggle to get funds for Sri Lankan ex-servicemen, volunteer work during the Malaria Epidemic and the anti-colonial struggle of the 1930s, which culminated in the call for full independence (eschewed by D.S. Senanayake and others of the elite). All three were divided on both ideological and personal grounds. The Soviet Union's expulsion of Leon Trotsky from the Communist Party after Lenin's death in 1924 exacerbated these differences, dividing the Communists into Trotskyists and Stalinists.
Lanka Sama Samaja Party—LSSP.
The Lanka Sama Samaja Party−LSSP, formed in 1935 and the oldest of the Sri Lankan Marxist parties, indeed of all existing Sri Lankan parties, took a stance independent of the Soviet Union, becoming affiliated with the Trotskyist Fourth International, which was a rival of the Comintern. Its two representatives in the State Council, Philip Gunawardena and Dr N.M. Perera, were a thorn in the side of the British colonial administration.
Most LSSP leaders were arrested during World War II for their opposition to what they considered to be an "imperialist war." However, they managed to escape and the LSSP's underground work continued throughout the war. The party's propaganda was a vital element in the mutiny of the Ceylon Garrison Artillery on the Cocos Islands in 1942. It was the main opposition party after the general elections of 1936, 1947 and 1956, the second largest party in Parliament after the general elections of 1947, 1956 and 1970.
Although in more recent years, the LSSP has been considered a politically spent force, gaining, for example less than 1% of the vote in the 1982 presidential elections, it has nevertheless been touted as the world's only successful Trotskyist party. This was because it participated in Government and because it has played a role far larger than its electoral success would suggest, having been ideologically hegemonic in the period 1936-1977. The 1972 Republican Constitution was drafted by Dr Colvin R. de Silva, an LSSP Minister and the country's leading lawyer.
Bolshevik-Leninist Party.
The Bolshevik-Leninist Party was formed in 1945 as a breakaway group of the LSSP, which reunited with its parent in 1950.
Communist Party of Sri Lanka−CPSL.
The Communist Party of Sri Lanka−CPSL, which began as a Stalinist faction of the LSSP that was later expelled, formed its own party in 1943, remaining faithful to the dictates of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The Socialist Party of Sri Lanka.
The Socialist Party of Sri Lanka is the first left-wing party in Sri Lanka to nominate a female presidential candidate. Dr. Ajantha Perera, an environmental scientist, who has over 30 years of experience advising multiple Ministries in Sri Lanka and Fiji, will be contesting in the Presidential elections of December 2019. Dr. Ajantha Perera is also the first female Presidential candidate of Sri Lanka this millennium (since 1999).


Tepe Fullol

Tepe Fullol (also known as Khush Tepe) is a village in northern Afghanistan where the treasure of Fullol was found, consisting of twenty vessels in gold and silver dated to the Bronze Age. It was accidentally discovered in 1965 by Afghan farmers in a grave cache and provided the first evidence of the Oxus civilisation (also known as BMAC) in northern Afghanistan.
Tepe Fullol is situated in Baghlan Province at the junction of the Khost and Sai valleys. On the basis of iconographic comparisons, the treasure has been dated to between 2600 and 1700 BC. There is also a mound, covering an area and high.
The area's wealth probably derived from precious materials extracted from the nearby mountains, in particular lapis lazuli from Badakshan, which were widely traded. The vessel's designs include animal imagery, such as a boar, a stag, snakes and bearded bulls (the latter derived from distant Mesopotamia), indicating that at this early date Afghanistan was already part of an extensive network of trade and cultural exchanges.
Three of these vessels were displayed at the British Museum in 2011.


Jayavarman IV

Jeyavarman IV () was an Angkorian king who ruled from 928 to 941 CE. Many early historians thought that he was a usurper. However, recent evidence shows that he had a legitimate claim to the throne. During his reign, the nation had 12 cities or pura.
Early years.
He was the son of king Indravarman I's daughter, Mahendradevi, and was married to his aunt Jayadevi, a half-sister of king Yasovarman I. Because there were no clear rules of succession, his claim for the throne through a maternal line seemed to be valid. He contested the reigns of Yasovarman I's sons at Angkor since the death of their father. In 921 he set up his own capital at Koh Ker: an inscription dated 921 states, "Jayavarman IV left the city of Yashodharapura to reign at "Chok Gargyar" taking the Devaraja with him." The rivalry lasted from 921 until the death of Ishanavarman II in 928, after which Jayavarman IV reigned supreme.
Koh Ker.
Famous for its ancient ruins, Koh Ker can be reached more easily than in the recent past thanks to a toll road. This old capital city of Jayavarman IV remained abandoned for over a thousand years before French scholars, like Louis Delaporte and Étienne Aymonier, had been visiting and studying at the end of 19th century. During his reign the capital city was known as "Chok Gargyar" (the Island of Glory) or "Lingapura". There was a walled city of about 1200 m2, but subsidiary temples are scattered on a surrounding area of 35 square kilometers. The main zone encompasses the "Rahal" baray (1,188 x 548 m) and Prasat Thom complex, with its seven-tiered pyramid 30 metres high. The summit of the temple housed a colossal "linga", now disappeared, probably made of metal casing as high as almost 5 metres. Inscription K.187E designates the Old Khmer name for this linga as "kamrateṅ jagat ta rājya", “the god who is the king”. "Jayavarman IV's inscriptions boasted that his constructions surpassed those of previous kings." A large number of the best and largest Angkorian sculptures were made during his reign, e.g. the Garuda standing in the entrance of National Museum of Cambodia. A royal highway lead to Beng Mealea at south and to Angkor at west.
Tax Collection.
To build a magnificent city in such a short period of about 20 years, it must have required an enormous amount of wealth and labour. The majority of Jayavarman's inscriptions are from Koh Ker, but they had been found also in sites on the borders of khmer dominion, as Nong Pang Puey (near Aranyaprathet)) and Phnom Bayang (Mekong Delta). They shed some lights as to how this was being done. Labor forces were gathered from many provinces and taxes were paid in kind: such as, rice, wax, honey, elephants or cloth. Contrast to many ancient civilizations, Angkor did not mint any coin to use as currency. Tax collection in those days was probably performed by a "tamrvac" (modern: "tamruot", or policeman). A "tamrvac" or “royal inspector” had his real authority in the provinces. Taxes were collected from all the territories that Jayavarman IV had controlled. The tax collection system was very efficient if not brutal. As for those who refused to pay, they will be "caged by the elders and placed before the king for sentence." However, the king, palace functionaries, monks and slaves were exempt from paying taxes.
Posthumous Name.
Jeyavarman IV died in 941 and received the posthumous name of Paramashivapada. His succession was not peaceful and his young son Harshavarman II reigned briefly until 944. Then Rajendravarman, who was both uncle and first cousin of Harshavarman, returned the capital to Yasodharapura.


Khaniyadhana

Khaniyadhana is a tehsil and a Nagar Palika in Shivpuri district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is known for its eight Jain temples.
History.
Before Indian independence in 1947, Khaniyadhana was the capital of a judev maharaj kalgsingh of the same name - Khaniyadhana State.
Geography.
It is located in Shivpuri District at 25º01' N, 78º07' E.
Which is 110 KM away from Shivpuri and 85 Km away from Jhansi(UP).
Basically this is situated on highland.
Demographics.
 India census, Khaniyadhana had a population of 35,595. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Khaniyadhana has an average literacy rate of 78%, male literacy is 88%, and female literacy is 64%. In Khaniyadhana, 19% of the population is under 6 years of age.


Saraikela State

Saraikela State also spelt Seraikela, Saraikella or Seraikella, was an Odia princely state in India during the era of the British Raj, in the region that is now the Jharkhand state. Its capital was at Saraikela.
The state had an area of 1163 km2 which yielded an average revenue of Rs.92,000 in 1901, and was one of the nine Chota Nagpur States under the authority of the governor of Bengal Presidency. The last ruler of the state, Raja Aditya Pratap Singh Deo, signed the merger agreement acceding to the Indian Union on 18 May 1948.
History.
The state was founded in 1620 by Raja Bikram Singh (a forerunner to the ruling family's current nomenclature of Singh Deo). The state came under the influence of the Maratha rulers of Nagpur in the 18th century, and became a princely state of British India in 1803, at the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Maratha War at Deogaon of Orissa. After the war, the East India Company included the Saraikela princely state under the governance of the Chhota Nagpur Commissioner.
In 1912 Saraikela came under the authority of the province of Bihar and Orissa, which was newly created from the eastern districts of Bengal. In 1936 the state was placed under the authority of the Orissa Province. Saraikela, along with 24 other princely states of the Eastern States Agency, acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1948, with a will to merge the princely state with Orissa province of the Indian Republic.
As a result, both Saraikela and Kharsawan princely states were merged with Orissa in 1948. On 1 January 1948 itself, the tribals of these two princely states, who were in a majority, revolted against the merger with Orissa. This was supported by Patayet Sahib Maharajkumar Bhoopendra Narayan Singh Deo, third son of Raja Aditya Pratap Singh Deo, as a result of which he was imprisoned to ensure the popular movement died down. The central government appointed a commission under Mr. Baudkar to look into the matter. On the basis of the Baudkar commission report, Saraikela and Kharsawan princely states were merged with Bihar on 18 May 1948. These two princely states became part of Jharkhand when the state was separated from Bihar on 15 November 2000. From 18 May 1948 onward, many non-tribal Oriyas of the districts of Saraikela Kharsawan, East Singhbhum, and West Singhbhum have migrated and settled permanently in Odisha.
Rulers.
Former rulers bore the title of 'Kunwar' until 1884.


Pakubuwono V

Pakubuwono V (also transliterated Pakubuwana V) (13 December 1784 – 5 September 1823) was the fifth Susuhunan (ruler of Surakarta) . He reigned from 1820 to 1823.
References.
Miksic, John (general ed.), et al. (2006) "Karaton Surakarta. A look into the court of Surakarta Hadiningrat, central Java" (First published: 'By the will of His Serene Highness Paku Buwono XII'. Surakarta: Yayasan Pawiyatan Kabudayan Karaton Surakarta, 2004) Marshall Cavendish Editions Singapore


Alampur, Gujarat

Alampur is a town and former Rajput petty princely state on Saurashtra peninsula, in Gujarat, western India.
History.
The princely state, in Gohelwar "prant", was ruled by Gohel Rajput Chieftains. During the British Raj, it was in the charge of the colonial Eastern Kathiawar Agency.
It comprised only the single village, with a population of 497 in 1901, yielding 4,500 Rupees state revenue (1903-4, mostly from land), paying 1,397 Rupees tribute to the Gaekwar Baroda State and Junagadh State.


Portuguese Timorese pataca

The pataca was a monetary unit of account used in Portuguese Timor between 1894 and 1958, except for the period 1942–1945, when the occupying Japanese forces introduced the Netherlands Indies gulden and the roepiah. As in the case of the Macanese pataca which is still in use today, the East Timor unit was based on the silver Mexican dollar coins which were prolific in the wider region in the 19th century. These Mexican dollar coins were in turn the lineal descendants of the Spanish pieces of eight which had been introduced to the region by the Portuguese through Portuguese Malacca, and by the Spanish through the Manila Galleon trade.
History.
The pataca was first introduced in Portuguese Macau and Portuguese Timor in the year 1894, but only as a unit of account for the silver Mexican dollar coins that circulated widely in the region at that time. In 1894, Macau and Portuguese Timor constituted one single administrative entity, but in 1896 Portuguese Timor became autonomous from Macau. In those days there was no single currency in circulation in Macau and East Timor, and trade was dominated by the silver dollar coins, not only of Mexico, but also of China, as well as the British silver trade dollars that were minted for use in Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements. In East Timor, the 2½ Gulden coin of the neighbouring Netherlands East Indies also corresponded to a silver dollar. In 1901 in Macau, it was decided to create a purely local currency, and the authorities granted the Banco Nacional Ultramarino exclusive rights to print legal tender banknotes. These pataca banknotes were launched in 1906 at a sterling value of 2s 4d (2 shillings and 4 pence) — the same as the new Straits dollar that was issued in that same year. As in the Straits Settlements, all foreign coinage was outlawed, with the intention that the new currencies should establish their own market values. The Chinese were suspicious of these paper patacas, being accustomed to using silver for barter, and so the paper patacas always circulated at a discount in relation to the silver dollar coins. These Macau banknotes also circulated in East Timor, but in 1912 they were supplemented by local Timor issues for the first time. While the pataca continued at a discount to the silver dollars that were used in silver standard countries such as China and Hong Kong, the Straits dollar was pegged to sterling in a gold exchange standard, so the two currencies then floated apart. In 1935, when China and Hong Kong abandoned the silver standard, the pataca was pegged to the Portuguese escudo at a rate of 1 pataca = 5.5 escudos, making it equivalent to the British shilling (since £1 was then equivalent to 110 escudos) and putting it officially at a 3d sterling discount in relation to the Hong Kong unit, and at a 1s 4d discount in relation to the Straits dollar.
In 1942, during the Second World War, the pataca was replaced by Japanese issues of the Netherlands Indies gulden at par. The gulden had been on the gold standard until the 1930s, and had risen in value against the pataca so that the pataca was now closer in value to 1 gulden rather than the 2½ gulden rate that had prevailed around 1900. When the pataca was reintroduced in 1945, it was pegged to the Portuguese escudo at a rate of 5.5 escudos = 1 pataca (changed to 5 escudos = 1 pataca in 1949) and fractional coins denominated in avos (100 avos = 1 pataca) were issued for the first time. In 1951, minting of avo coins ceased, even though in 1952 a full set of pataca coinage, including coins denominated in avos and also a pataca coin, was issued in Macau.
In 1958, the pataca was replaced by the escudo at the rate of 1 pataca = 5.6 escudos.
In 1975, Portuguese Timor was invaded by Indonesia, and Indonesian currency was introduced. When this territory was established as an independent state in 2002, the US dollar was made the official currency. The US dollar was also descended from the Spanish pieces of eight but it broke parity with the silver dollars of south-east Asia and Latin America following the great international silver devaluation of 1873.
Coins.
In 1945, bronze 10 avos, nickel-bronze 20 avos and silver 50 avos coins were introduced. The sizes of these coins matched the Portuguese 20 centavos and 1 and 2½ escudos. Coins were issued until 1951.
Banknotes.
In 1912, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino introduced notes (dated 1910) in denominations of 1, 5, 10 and 20 patacas. 25 patacas notes from Macao also circulated. In 1940, notes of 5, 10 and 50 avos were introduced. Some of these notes were overprints of Macanese notes, as were the 5, 25 and 100 patacas notes introduced in 1945. The same year, specific issues for Timor were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20 and 25 patacas, followed by 20 avos in 1948.


Rodina Cinema, Ufa

The Rodina Cinema () is an historic cinema building in Lenina Street, the main street of Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia. The building was completed and opened in 1953, and was still being used as a cinema.
History.
Concept and construction.
In March 1938, the City of Ufa accepted an initial general development plan stipulating that a two-hall cinema for 600 persons be constructed in the historical center of the city, at the intersection of Lenina and Chernyshevsky Streets. The following year, the Council of People's Commissars of the Bashkir ASSR approved the construction of the cinema, and engineering and geological surveys of the site were carried out. Soon afterwards, however, the government of the Republic issued a decree to construct a new cinema in the northern industrial district of Ufa, and then, following the intervention of World War II, the revised cinema construction plans were cancelled.
In 1944, the central city cinema project was revived, when funds for a two-hall cinema were included the budget of the celebrations for the 25th anniversary of the Bashkir ASSR. Further conceptual and design machinations ensued. Ultimately, the architect Semyon Yakshin designed a new project of a two-hall cinema for 700 persons. Although that design was based on Yakshin's own Udarnik Cinema project in Stalingrad (now Volgograd), it was modified by the transformation of the main façade into an eight-column Corinthian order portico modelled on that of another cinema in Stalingrad. The hybrid design was promptly approved, and in the summer of 1949 the construction plan completed.
A single-storey pre-revolutionary L-shaped house occupying the site was then demolished to make way for the new cinema. As it was assumed that the staff of the nearby old Кинотеатр Октябрь / "Kinoteatr Oktyabr" ('Cinema October') would transition to the new building, the director of the Oktyabr, Gabdrakhman Fattakhutdinov, supervised the construction of the new cinema from the outset, and then became its first director. On his initiative, part of the new cinema's basement was equipped as a documentary film hall with 60 seats.
The construction work was also closely monitored by the architect, who made his final design and construction proposals in March 1953, only three months before the cinema was opened on 30 July 1953.
Operations.
On opening day, thousands of Ufa residents visited the new cinema, and watched the movie "Незабываемый 1919-й год" / "Nezabyvaemyy 1919 god" ("The Unforgettable Year 1919"). The new cinema's two main auditoriums, each with 350 seats, were named "Red" and "Blue", respectively, and the small documentary hall was named "Green".
Initially, the foyer was fitted with a stage on which pre-session jazz or classical concerts were played. Patrons could arrive early and enjoy ice cream at the cafe, “plop” cologne from a vending machine, or admire locally drawn posters depicting new films; parents could leave their child in the children's playroom.
During its early years, the cinema was surrounded by shabby low-rise houses. By the 1970s, the houses had been demolished, but they were replaced by tall buildings that overshadow the cinema.
In the 1990s, the "Green" room was transformed into a music cafe, then a "Yellow Submarine", and later a blues club. It has since reverted to being a cinema. In the 21st century, the foyer has been used for personal appearances by film directors, and for art exhibitions; ice cream is still served there. Meanwhile, the auditoriums have hosted such attractions as theatre performances, film festivals, arthouse film shows, and movie marathons.
Since 1996, the cinema has been a Center for Russian Cinematography. In 2003, a festive program was held to celebrate its 50th anniversary. The cinema now has a Dolby Digital Surround EX format sound system, comfortable soft seating, and, since December 2009, the "Red" room has been equipped to show films in 3D.
The cinema's owner, State Unitary Enterprise "Cinema Rodina RB", was founded in 1992. On 13 March 2018, the Head of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Rustem Khamitov, issued a decree adding the Unitary Enterprise to the list of strategic enterprises of the Republic.