Idakwo Ameh Oboni II

Idakwo Michael Ameh Oboni II (1948 – August 27, 2020) was the 27th Attah Igala (paramount ruler) of the Igala Kingdom in Nigeria.
Life and education.
Oboni II was born in 1948. In 1960, he completed his primary school education at Saint Boniface in Idah. He then advanced to Saint Augustine College, Kabba, where he graduated in 1967. He proceeded to Kaduna Polytechnic afterwards and graduated with a certificate in Estate Management in 1980.
Working career.
He then joined the Nigerian Air Force in 1968 and voluntarily left service in 1974. He later worked as land inspection officer in the Ministry of Lands in the then old Kwara State and left in 1975 in pursuit of education. In 1981, he joined the Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA) and over the years, rose to the position of Deputy Director, retiring in 2006.
Kingship.
After the demise of the 26th Attah Igala in 2012, Ameh was unanimously selected by the four ruling houses in Igalaland as successor to the throne. He confessed to be the first Attah to be married to a single wife in the history of Igala land.
With the coming of the Buhari administration in Nigeria, HRM Ameh Oboni II in 2016 in Idah, during the celebration of his third anniversary on the throne, tasked the president "to begin his change mantra in Kogi State".
After the 2019 electoral polls ensued by violence, the Attah Igala placed ancestral curse on those who perpetrated those electoral violent acts in the state.
Legacy.
He was described as a man of peace and one who gave wise counsels and with a reputation for honesty. His son, Prince Ocholi Idakwo described him as "a man of action and one who was passionate about upholding the rich culture of Igala".
Demise.
He reportedly died on Thursday morning on 27 August, 2020 after a brief reign of about eight years, which began after the death of his predecessor who reigned for 52 years. Oboni II died in an Abuja hospital after undergoing a pile operation.
References.


Richard Lussick

Richard Lussick (born 1940) is a Samoan judge. Lussick was the Presiding judge in the trial of Charles Taylor by the Special Court for Sierra Leone.
Lussick was born in Sydney, Australia in 1940. Lussick is the current and sixth President of the United Nations Appeals Tribunal. He is also a judge of the Residual Special Court for Sierra Leone. Justice Lussick served as a judge of the Special Court for Sierra Leone from November 2004 to May 2012, finishing his tenure as Presiding Judge of Trial Chamber II. From 2005 to 2006 he also sat as the Staff Appeals Judge for the Special Court.
From 1995 to 2000, he served as the Chief Justice of the Republic of Kiribati. Prior to that he was appointed to the bench in Samoa in 1987 and during his tenure held appointments to the District Court, Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, Land and Titles Court and as Acting Chief Justice. He also served as Chairman of the Public Service Board of Appeal from 1988 to 1995. He was Vice President of the Commonwealth Magistrates’ and Judges’ Association (Pacific Region) from 1997 to 2000. He was called to the Bar in 1973 and has practiced as a barrister in both Samoa and Australia. He is fluent in English and has a basic knowledge of French.


Orders, decorations, and medals of Rhodesia

The Rhodesian honours system was established at the time that Rhodesia unilaterally declared itself a republic in March 1970, when a system of military and civil decorations and awards was instituted by Presidential Warrant in November 1970.
Prior to 2 March 1970, Rhodesians were conferred awards in the British Honours System.
List of honours.
The list of Rhodesian honours and decorations, in order of precedence, is as follows:
In addition, the General Service Medal was awarded for military and police service; the Prison General Service Medal for prison service, and the Rhodesian District Service Medal for the Department of Internal Affairs (INTAF).
Details and recipients.
Around 12,000 awards were given out between 1970 and 1981. The last Rhodesian gallantry awards were awarded in June 1980, three months after Zimbabwe's independence. However, Rhodesian long-service decorations continued to be given to police officers and service personnel until June 1982.
The most highly decorated soldier in the Rhodesian Army was Major Grahame Wilson, second-in-command of the Rhodesian SAS, who was awarded the Grand Cross of Valour, Silver Cross of Rhodesia and Bronze Cross of Rhodesia.


Muhammed Bello

Muhammadu Bello () was the second Sultan of Sokoto and reigned from 1817 until 1837. He was also an active writer of history, poetry, and Islamic studies. He was the son and primary aide to Usman dan Fodio, the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate and the first Sultan. During his reign, he encouraged the spread of Islam throughout the region, increasing education for both men and women, and the establishment of Islamic courts. He died on October 25, 1837 and was succeeded by his brother Abu Bakr Atiku and then his son, Aliyu Babba.
Early life.
Muhammed Bello was born to the fourth wife of Usman dan Fodio, known as Hauwa or Inna Garka, in 1781 Similar to all his siblings, he was involved in studies directed by his father in Degel until the family and some followers were exiled in 1804. In 1809, Bello was responsible for the founding of Sokoto which would become the key capital for his father's conquest of Hausa lands in the Fulani War (1804-1810).
Many of his siblings dedicated significant time to scholastic efforts and became well known in this regard. Notable amongst these were his sister Nana Asma’u, a poet and teacher, and Abu Bakr Atiku, who would become his successor as Sultan.
Sultan.
Following the Fulani War, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest states in Africa and included large populations of both Fulani and Hausa. Usman dan Fodio tried to largely suppress Hausa systems, including traditional leadership, education, and language. Usman retired from administration of the state in 1815 and put Muhammed Bello in charge of some of the western Emirates of the Caliphate. Bello Presided over this Emirates from the city of Wurno close to Sokoto.
Upon the Death of Dan-Fodio, the Caliphate was thrown into disarray when the supporters of Bello encircled and sealed the gates of Sokoto, preventing other notable contenders to the office of Caliph ( including Bello's uncle Abdullahi Ibn Fodio ) from entering the city. The Caliphate eventually fractured into four Self-governing parts of which only the parts ruled by Bello's uncle; Abdullahi Ibn Fodio were to recognize and pay allegiance to Bello.
Sultan Bello faced early challenges from dissident leaders and the aristocracy of both Fulani and Hausa populations. In contrast with his father, his administration was more permissive of many Hausa systems that had existed prior to the caliphate. For Fulani populations, who had been largely pastoral prior to this point, Bello encourages permanent settlement around designed ribats with schools, mosques, fortifications, and other buildings. Although these moves ended much opposition, some dissident leaders such as 'Abd al-Salam and Dan Tunku continued to cause early resistance to his rule. Dan Tunku remained a significant dissident leader as the head of the Emirate of Kazaure. Although Dan Tunku had fought on the side of his father in the Fulani War, when Bello named Ibrahim Dado the Emir of Kano in 1819, Dan Tunku organized oppositional forces in revolution. Bello assisted Ibrahim Dado in defeating the forces of Dan Tunku and building significant fortresses throughout the region where Dan Tunku had drawn his power.
After ending some early opposition, the Sultan focused on consolidating his administration throughout the empire with significant construction, settlement, and uniform systems of justice. One significant aspect that he expanded from his father was greatly expanded education of both men and women. His sister, Nana Asma’u, became a crucial part of expanding education to women becoming an important teacher and liaison to rural women to encourage education.
During Muhammad Bello's rule, El Hadj Umar Tall, future founder of the Toucouleur empire, settled in Sokoto on his return from Mecca in 1822. Umar Tall was greatly influenced by Sultan Muhammad Bello as evidenced by the praise Tall lavished upon the Sultan in his own writings. To affirm a permanent alliance, Sultan Bello married one of his daughters to Hajj Umar who remained in Sokoto as a judge (qadi), and as a commanding officer in the Sultan's infantry until Bello's death.
Hugh Clapperton visited the court of Bello in 1824 and wrote a lot about the generosity and intelligence of the Sultan. Clapperton was very impressed at the writing works by Bello and his exhaustive knowledge regarding British exploration in India. In 1826, Clapperton returned for a second visit, but Bello would not let him cross the border because of warfare with the Bornu Empire and Clapperton became ill and died.
In 1836, the kingdom of Gobir revolted against Sokoto rule. Sultan Muhammed Bello gathered his forces and crushed the rebellion on 9 March 1836 at the Battle of Gawakuke.
While ruling, he continued with significant educational pursuits, mainly history and poetry. His "Infaku'l Maisuri" ("The Wages of the Fortunate") is often considered a definitive history of the Fulani Wars and his father's empire. He wrote hundreds of texts on history, Islamic studies, and poetry during his lifetime.
He died of natural causes, at the age of 58, on October 25, 1837 in Wurno and was succeeded by his brother Abu Bakr Atiku as Sultan.


James Adedokun Adegoke Akunraaledoye II

James Adedokun Adegoke (1934–2017) was a teacher and football referee who became Apetumodu of Ipetumodu in 1992. He is from Asalu compound of Fagbemokun ruling house of Ipetumodu.
Background.
Adegoke was born into the Asalu branch of the Fagbemokun ruling house of Ipetumodu in 1934. His parents were Prince Emmanuel Akanni Adegoke and Madam Elizabeth Olasunkanmi Oni Adegoke.
He spent the early part of his childhood with his maternal grandmother at Oke-Osin, Yakoyo. He moved to Ipetumodu when he reached school age and attended several primary schools until he finished his primary school education at Christ School in 1951.
He worked as a store clerk at Ipetumodu, Edunabon and Sekona until 1955 when he taught for one year at Christ Apostolic Church School, Ifetedo. From there, he gained admission into the Divisional Teacher Training College, Ile-lfe, where he obtained the Grade 3 Teachers' Certificate in 1957.
He taught for the next two years until he went to St. Andrew's College, Oyo where he obtained his Grade 2 Teachers' Certificate in December, 1961. He went back to teaching and ended up at CAC. School, Ikire, as the headmaster in 1966. He remained in Ikire Area for the rest of his working career, working in Ikire and Ikoyi as a teacher and headmaster in many primary, modern and secondary schools until he retired in 1989. Except for the one year he spent at the University of Lagos in 1972 on a teacher's diploma course in Yoruba Studies, Adegoke spent all his adult working life in and around Ikire.
Adegoke developed a keen interest in sports very early in life. Everywhere he taught from 1955 until he retired in 1989, he was popular as a games master, leading many of his schools' teams to victory not only in athletics but also in football. It was in football that he became well recognised, not only as a technical Adviser to the Oyo State Sports Council, but also as a member of the Nigerian Referees' Association, of which he became the National Vice President from 1988 to 1989. He was a member of the 1st Osun State Sports Council and handled many important national and international football matches.
An avid student of Yoruba culture, Adegoke was interested in the cultural life of the people. His achievements in this field date back to the old days of the Western Region Festival of the Arts which used to take place in Ibadan. In 1964, his dancing group represented Ife Division at the Festival. The group presented Oluro dance and came second in the Cultural Dance category.
Reign.
Adegoke's journey to the throne began in 1970 when he unsuccessfully contested for the vacant stool of Apetumodu. He was not discouraged, and when the stool became vacant again in 1986, he made his interest known. This time he was successful. His candidature was agreed upon by the kingmakers on 20 October 1988. After a successful court case, His Royal Eminence Oba Okunade Sijuwade Olubuse II, Oluaye and Ooni of Ife, consented to Adegoke's appointment on 4 March 1992. The then Executive Governor of Osun State, Alhaji Isiaka Adetunji Adeleke, gave the formal approval of the Osun State Government on 10 April 1992. Adegoke was installed as the 25th Apetumodu of Ipetumodu on 17 April 1992, from which date he was confined to Ilofi where he was prepared for traditional roles. He remained in Ilofi until 17 July 1992, when he moved to the Aafin.
During his reign, Ipetumodu was peaceful and witnessed appreciable development. Federal Government Girls College, Oduduwa University and Akinola International Market, Magistrates Court, District Customary Court, and Immigration Office were established.
Personal life.
Adegoke had children and grandchildren.
He died in November 2017.


Olateru Olagbegi I

Olagbegi Atanneye I was a paramount ruler of Owo Kingdom, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria who reigned between 1913 and 1938. He was the brother of Olowo Ajike Ogunoye and son of Olowo Olagbegi Atanneye II


Eugene Sharrer

Eugene Charles Albert Sharrer was a British subject by naturalisation but of German descent, who was a leading entrepreneur in what is now Malawi for around fifteen years between his arrival in 1888 and his departure. He rapidly built-up commercial operations including wholesale and retail trading, considerable holdings of land, cotton and coffee plantations and a fleet of steamers on the Zambezi and Shire rivers. Sharrer was prominent in pressure groups that represented the interests of European planters and their businesses to the colonial authorities, and was responsible for the development of the first railway in what had become the British Central Africa Protectorate, whose construction was agreed in 1902. In 1902, Sharrer consolidate all his business interests into the British Central Africa Company Ltd and became its principal shareholder Shortly after this he left British Central Africa permanently for London, although he retained his financial interests in the territory. Very little is known of his history before he arrived in Central Africa but he died in London during the First World War.
Arrival in Central Africa.
Very little is known about the early life of Eugene Sharrer, and his date or even year of birth is unknown. It is recorded that he was by origin a German from Hamburg and claimed to be a British subject by naturalisation. He was described as of Jewish appearance, if not of Jewish origin, by a colonial official and became an archetypal colonial outsider, financially successful but disliked by officials because of his national and ethnic origins. He arrived in what is today Malawi in 1888, before the country had become a British protectorate, with a consignment of trade goods and he initially joined forces with John Buchanan who had been trading there since 1881, but soon started trading on his own account. Sharrer was involved in the trade in ivory, until 1893 the main export product of the area, and from this trading venture there developed the wholesale and retail Kubula Stores Ltd. When the ivory trade declined as the elephants were killed off, he diversified, acquiring considerable landholdings and building up a successful transport and agricultural concern. Kubula Stores Ltd failed to compete with the rural network of "Mandala" village stores of the African Lakes Company and was sold to this rival in the 1920s.
Although a British consul was resident in Central Africa from 1883, as late as 1888 the British Foreign Office declined to accept responsibility to protect the tiny British settlements there. Sharrer claimed to have purchased 363,034 acres in the area, and had attempted to induce chiefs to give up all their rights to their land. He may have intended to form his own Chartered company, or as Harry Johnston who was appointed as British consul in 1891 suspected, to acquire a form of sovereignty over the Shire Highlands and sell his rights either to Britain or Germany. Johnston rejected the suggestion that any treaties made before the British Central Africa Protectorate was established in 1891 could transfer sovereignty to Sharrer, but he accepted that these treaties were evidence of sales of land to him.
Development and Consolidation.
The declaration of the protectorate left Sharrer in possession of three large and two smaller estates, initially largely undeveloped. Unlike other large landowners, whose holdings were concentrated in the Shire Highlands, about half of Sharrer's land was in the Shire valley. Sharrer sold off some land near the main settlement of Blantyre and also experimented with a variety of crops. He first tried coffee, and by 1891 he had the greatest area of coffee planted in the protectorate. He soon followed this up with tobacco, and was the first settler to grow cotton in the Middle Shire valley from 1901. By 1902 when Sharrer's landholdings were transferred to the British Central Africa Company Ltd, only a few thousand acres were being cultivated, although his estates had more land under cultivation than any other European landowner. Sharrer was one of the leading estate owners and formed the Shire Highland Planters Association in November 1891, becoming its Chairman. In 1895, it joined with its rival, the Nyasaland Planters Association, to form the British Central Africa Chamber of Agriculture and Commerce, a powerful pressure group for European planters and their businesses.
Perhaps because three of his estates were in the Shire River, in the 1890s Sharrer also built up and operated a fleet of steamers on the Zambezi and Shire rivers through a company named Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company Ltd. In 1890, the Portuguese government had granted the British government a Concession to establish a port Chinde on the Zambezi River delta. At the end of the 19th century, ocean-going ships were met at Chinde by small river steamers which took passengers and goods up the Zambezi and Shire rivers to British Central Africa, a journey of around seven days. The African Lakes Company maintained around six steamers on the rivers, and Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company had three more of 20 to 30 tons on this route. The business of Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company Ltd was transferred to the British Central Africa Company Ltd in 1902 and the company was liquidated in 1903.
Transport from the economic centre of Shire Highlands to river ports was by inefficient and costly head porter, and low water levels in the rivers made water transport difficult. Sharrer took the initiative in proposing the construction of a railway to the most suitable river port, Chiromo and the prospectus for the Shire Highlands Railway Company Ltd was published in December 1895. As Sharrer had acquired much of the land over which the proposed railway was to run, there was disagreement over the route, particularly from the African Lakes Company. Because of this and delays over raising capital and loans for construction, and it was not until early 1903 that construction work began. Sharrer became a director of the Shire Highlands Railway Company Ltd and continued as such after he left the protectorate, and was also a director of the Central Africa Railway Company Ltd which was built after his departure.
Departure.
In 1902, Sharrer formed the British Central Africa Company Ltd to consolidate his interests in the Shire Highlands Railway Company Ltd, his estates, Kubula Stores Ltd and Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company. He became a director and the principal shareholder of the British Central Africa Company Ltd, and Harry Johnston also became one of its directors. Shortly after this he left British Central Africa permanently for London, although retaining his financial interests in the territory. Eugene Sharrer died in London during the First World War when under confinement as a German by the Custodian of Enemy Property. His heirs could not be traced.


Togolese people in Italy

The presence of Togolese people in Italy dates back to the 1980s.
Numbers.
In 2006, there were 2,695 legal residents from Togo residing in Italy, rising to 4,422 by 2010 and 5,090 by 2015. The three cities with the largest number of Togolese people are Rome, Lodi, and Milan.


Provinces of Nigeria

The Provinces of Nigeria are a former administrative division in Nigeria, which were in use in Colonial Nigeria and shortly after independence; from 1900 to 1967. They were altered many times through their history. They were divided into divisions, some of these were further subdivided into native authorities. Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were also sometimes known as the Northern Provinces or Southern Provinces respectively. Currently, Nigeria is a federation of 36 states.
The first use of provinces was in Northern Nigeria after Britain took over administration of the area from the Royal Niger Company in 1900. The British originally divided the area into eleven provinces which were:
In 1903 six more provinces were added; five following the Sokoto-Kano campaign, and also Gwandu province, making a total of 17. The number of provinces was reduced to 13 in 1911, and 12 after World War I. In 1926 Adamawa and Plateau became new provinces. The provinces and divisions in 1945, with the names or number of Native Authorities in each division:
There were thirteen provinces in Northern Nigeria in 1966 which were abolished in May 1967:


Comarit

Comarit (Compagnie Maritime Maroco-Norvegiènne) was a Moroccan ferry operator. Comarit operated a freight and passenger ferry service between Morocco and Spain, France and Italy from 1984 to 2012. The company suspended operations in January 2012.
History.
Comarit was formed in 1984.
In June 2008, Ganger Rolf and Bonheur sold their 55% stake to their Moroccan partner for MAD 700 million (approximately NOK 490 million).
Routes.
Comarit operated five routes between Spain, France and Morocco.


Francis Irvine

Francis Irvine (16 March 1899 – 16 December 1969) was a South African sprinter. He competed in the men's 200 metres at the 1920 Summer Olympics.


Busiki

"See also Namutumba District for Busiki District."
Busiki is one of the six traditional chiefdoms of the kingdom of Busoga in Uganda.
It was founded around 1683 and became a part of the British protectorate in Busoga in 1896. Its ruler is known as the Kisiki.


Kingsley Holgate

Kingsley Holgate (born 28 February 1946 in Natal) is a South African explorer, humanitarian and author. A fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, he has been described by Getaway Magazine as "the most travelled man in Africa" and has modelled himself on David Livingstone. Holgate has also written several books about his expeditions and fronted several National Geographic documentaries.
He also worked on the TV series "Shaka Zulu".
Expeditions.
Holgate's expeditions are rarely completed on his own, notably they usually involve him travelling with other members of his family including his partner Sheelagh and son Ross.
Humanitarian Work.
Holgate has founded the 'Kingsley Holgate Foundation' which aims to "save and improve lives through adventure" through "humanitarian expeditions that make a difference". This has been the focus of his more recent expeditions such as the 'Africa Rainbow Expedition' and 'The Outside Edge Expedition'. This aim has been implemented through programmes such as the 'One Net, One Life' campaign which aims to give out thousands of mosquito nets to help prevent malaria simply and cheaply. The 'Right to Sight' campaign provides glasses to assist the hard of sight, allowing them to resume simple tasks such as sewing, reading and beadwork to help them contribute to their community. The third campaign 'Teaching on the Edge', a scheme supported by Centurus Colleges and Rotary International, aims to provide teaching resources and mobile libraries to remote communities to provide education and improve literacy.


Mwanga I of Buganda

Mwanga I Sebanakitta was Kabaka of the Kingdom of Buganda from 1740 until 1741. He was the twenty third (23rd) Kabaka of Buganda.
Claim to the throne.
He was the eldest son of Prince Musanje Golooba. His mother was Nabulya Naluggwa of the Ndiga clan, the second wife of his father. He ascended to the throne after the death of his uncle, Kabaka Mawanda Sebanakitta, in 1740.
Married life.
He is recorded to have married five (5) wives:
Issue.
He is recorded to have fathered three (3) sons:
The final years.
Kabaka Mwanga I Sebanakitta was killed by Nkunnumbi, in revenge for the murder of his son, around 1741. He was initially buried at Meerera. In 1860, his remains were exhumed and re-buried at Kavumba, Busiro. He was succeeded by his brother, Prince Namuggala Kagali.


Watson Commission

The Watson commission was a commission of enquiry appointed by Sir Gerald Hallen Creasy, governor of Gold Coast (1948–1949) to investigate the disturbances in the Gold Coast that occurred in February and March 1948. The Commission was chaired by Aiken Watson.
Background.
On 28 February 1948 the shooting of protesting ex-service men lead to looting and rioting in major towns in Gold Coast. The leadership of the United Gold Coast Convention sent a telegram to the Secretary of State of the Colonies Arthur Creech Jones in London blaming Governor Creasey as the cause of the disturbance. These leaders were arrested and detained; they become known as the Big Six. The disturbance lasted for five days and the colonial government commissioned the Watson Commission to probe the cause of the disturbance.
The reference of the commission was "To enquire into and report on the recent disturbances in the Gold Coast and their underlying causes; and to make recommendations on any matter arising from the enquiry." The commission was made up of Aiken Watson (chairman), Andrew Dalgleish and Keith A. H. Murray.
Findings and recommendation.
The commission submitted its report on 26 April 1948 to the Governor of the Gold Coast and Secretary of State of the Colonies. It found the shooting of the ex-serviceman and the detaining of the Big Six as the immediate cause of the disturbance.


Diospyros revaughanii

Diospyros revaughanii is a rare species of tree in the family Ebenaceae (ebony).
The tree is one of several species of ebony tree which are endemic to the island of Mauritius, in the western Indian Ocean.
Description.
A short, evergreen, shrubby tree, which reaches 4 meters in height. The large, thick leaves have a circular to slightly rectangular shape. They are densely packed along the stems, and attach directly to the tree without any leaf stalks. This is the distinctive feature which can be used to distinguish this tree from the other ebony species of Mauritius.
Like many Mauritian plants, it is heterophyllous and the foliage of juvenile plants is entirely different to that of adult plants. This adaptation is due to the grazing of the (now extinct) giant tortoises of the island. The leaves of young "D. revaughanii" are therefore longer, thinner, oblong and have petioles (stalks).
Its trunk is thin and it branches from quite low down. Branches and twigs form at an almost perpendicular angle and are quite thick compared to the trunk. The grey bark is often covered in lichens and sometimes even orchids.
Like its relatives, it produces bunches of small, white, fragrant flowers and sweet-smelling, fleshy, sticky, oval fruits (3–5 cm long).
Distribution.
This species is endemic to the island of Mauritius - occurring nowhere else in the world. It was formerly common across the island - especially in the sub-humid and wet forest areas, including lowland forests (where it becomes a tall tree) and swampy areas in the highlands (where it stays shorter). It is now restricted to only a few spots in the south west of Mauritius.
Due to its aesthetic appeal however, it is currently sometimes propagated in Mauritius, as an ornamental landscaping tree, for gardens and public spaces.
Conservation.
Like other species of ebony, this tree yields a dark black ebony wood. Consequently, it was severely exploited for wood and was decimated from much of its former range. It is now a threatened species and only survives in a few spots in the south-west of the island - around Bel Ombre, Mt Lion, and Perrier Nature Reserve - on exposed ridges and wet highland forest where it has escaped felling. The last patches of this tree's habitat are still threatened.
Although it produces large amounts of fruit with fertile seed, these do not often germinate. The fruits were formerly eaten by the island's (now extinct) species of giant tortoise - and possible also by the dodo - which dispersed the seeds. The absence of these natural seed dispersers could be the reason for the poor seed germination in habitat today.
Related species.
This species is one of eleven surviving species of ebony tree which naturally occur on Mauritius - all of them endemic. Several additional species are now extinct.


Chikulamayembe Dynasty

The Chikulamayembe are a dynasty of chiefs established among the Tumbuka people in the Nkhamanga-Henga area of Northern Malawi. The Chikulamayembe originally ruled from around 1805, becoming weaker from the 1830s and losing power by the 1870s and their dynasty was re-established in 1907.
The origin of the Chikulamayembe.
The Tumbuka people.
The Tumbuka people probably entered the area between the Luangwa valley and northern Lake Malawi in the 15th century. At the start of the 18th century, they formed a number of groups, most of which lived in homesteads growing Finger millet and herding goats and sheep. These were thinly scattered over the plateau between the Luangwa valley and Lake Malawi, in small, independent communities with limited central organisation. One group, the Henga, occupied the Henga Valley north of Rumphi; another, the Phoka lived south of the Nyika Plateau. In the 18th century, the Luangwa valley, the plains south of the Nyika Plateau and the Henga valley had significant elephant populations and the Henga, and Phoka people of these areas had local chiefs with status but limited authority.
The arrival of Mlowoka.
In the 18th century, increasing demand for ivory in Europe led to the expansion of the ivory trade in East and Central Africa, financed by merchants based in Kilwa Kisiwani and Zanzibar. By the mid-18th century, traders dressed as Arabs although coming from the Unyamwezi region of what is now Tanzania were involved in trading for ivory as far inland as the Luangwa valley. One such group, consisting of traders and possibly elephant hunters under a leader named Mlowoka, meaning "he who has crossed (the lake)" arrived looking for ivory among people for whom ivory had little value. Mlowoka was traditionally supposed to have landed at Chilumba on the lakeshore and moved inland to an area west of the Nyika Plateau.
It is not certain whether these traders intended to settle, but their control of the trade goods exchanged for ivory gave them economic power. They formed marriage alliances with local Henga chiefs and, in order to secure a monopoly over local ivory trading, Mlowoka established his leading followers at strategic points on the routes from the elephant-rich areas among the Henga and Phoka to the shore of Lake Malawi. Today the Mlowoka have blended with the Tumbuka such that they are indistinguishable as a separate tribe, however clan names from the original Mlowoka have survived such as 'Gondwe'.
The 19th century dynasty.
A son of Mlowoka, named Gonapamuhanya who was also (on his mother's side) the nephew of a leading Tumbuka clan head, is said to have become a paramount chief or king of the areas west and south of the Nyika Plateau around 1805 and founded the Chikulamayembe dynasty. This, however, only had a loose control over a federation of small subordinate chiefdoms and what it controlled was less a territorial state than a trade route for ivory. Even the chiefdoms established by Mlowoka's followers from Unyamwezi were practically independent. By the 1830s, this Chikuramaybe dynasty was in decline as Swahili traders in slaves and ivory entered the area and took over its trading system, reducing it to a state of political disorganisation, and its existence was ended by the Ngoni invasions in the 1860s and 1870s on. When the Chikulamayembe state ceased to exist, its people either fled or remained as unfree agricultural workers or enrolled in Ngoni regiments.
Revival.
Choosing a Themba.
The Northern Ngoni finally accepted British rule in 1904 and the Tumbuka people ceased to be their vassals or returned from where they had taken refuge. European missionaries found the Tumbuka ready to accept western education and supported their wish to have a paramount chief of their own. The Chikulamayembe claim to chieftainship over a wide area was supported by a history of the Tumbuka written in 1909 by Saulos Nyirenda and translated in 1931 by a missionary, which greatly exaggerated the power of the Chikulamayembe in the 19th century. This version of Tumbuka history was accepted by the colonial authorities.
There were several candidates wishing to become paramount chief, all descendants of Gonapamuhanya, but the colonial administration chose Mbawuwo Mgonanjerwa Gondwe, who was westernised, and gave him the title Themba (chief) Chikulamayembe in 1907. This made him paramount chief of the Tumbuka people, and other chiefs in the area were subordinated to him.
The Themba’s powers.
At first, the role of the Themba Chikulamayembe was largely ceremonial, but in 1913 he was given a role in assisting the local District Commissioner. However, in the 1920s the colonial administration favoured the introduction of Indirect rule and proposed that the north of Malawi should be divided into three districts, each with one predominant ethnic group, each one having a paramount chief.
When the Native Authority Ordinance was passed in 1933, Themba Chikulamayembe was made Native Authority over all Tumbukaland, with his own budget. Native Courts were also introduced following the passing of the Native Courts Ordinance, 1933, giving the Themba appellate jurisdiction over cases from his sub-chiefs.
The first Themba died in 1931, being succeeded by his son Ziwange, generally known as John Hardy Gondwe, who ruled from 1932 until his death in 1977, when he was succeeded by his son Walter Gondwe. In late November 2018 Walter Gondwe died after a two-week illness and has been succeeded as Themba by his son.


Buzaaya

Buzaaya was a Basoga chiefdom in what is today Uganda. It was founded around 1720 and lasted until 1906, when it was incorporated into the united Busoga protectorate and its royal line was terminated.


Ijaw people

Ijaw people (also known by the subgroups "Ijo" or "Izon") are people in Niger Delta in Nigeria, inhabiting regions of the states of Ondo, Bayelsa (their original Homeland), Delta, Edo, Akwa Ibom and Rivers state. Many are found as migrant fishermen in camps as far west as Sierra Leone and as far east as Gabon. Population figures for the Ijaws vary greatly, 15 million . They have long lived in locations near many sea trade routes, and they were well connected to other areas by trade as early as the 15th century.
Language.
The Ijaw speak nine closely related Niger–Congo languages, all of which belong to the Ijoid branch of the Niger–Congo tree. The primary division between the Ijo languages is that between Eastern Ijo and Western Ijo, the most important of the former group of languages being Izon, which is spoken by about five million people.
There are two prominent groupings of the Izon language. The first, termed either Western or Central Izon (Ijaw) consists of Western Ijaw speakers: Tuomo Clan, Egbema, Ekeremor, Sagbama (Mein), Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma (Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei), Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma. Nembe, Brass and Akassa (Akaha) dialects represent Southeast Ijo (Izon). Buseni and Okordia dialects are considered Inland Ijo.
The other major Ijaw linguistic group is Kalabari. Kalabari is considered an Eastern Ijaw language but the term "Eastern Ijaw" is not the normal nomenclature. Kalabari is the name of one of the Ijaw clans that reside on the eastern side of the Niger-Delta (Abonnema, Buguma, Bakana, Degema etc.) who form a major group in Rivers State, Other "Eastern" Ijaw clans are the Abua, Andoni, Okrika, Ibani (the natives of Bonny, Finima and Opobo), and Nkoroo. They are neighbours to the Kalabari people in present-day Rivers State, Nigeria.
Other related Ijaw subgroups which have distinct languages but very close kinship, cultural and territorial ties with the rest of the Ijaw are the Epie-Atissa, Engenni (also known as Ẹgẹnẹ), and Degema (also called Udekama or Udekaama). The Ogbia clan, as well as residents of Bukuma and Abuloma (Obulom).
It was discovered in the 1980s that a now extinct Berbice Creole Dutch, spoken in Guyana, is partly based on Ijo lexicon and grammar. Its nearest relative seems to be Eastern Ijo, most likely Kalabari.
Clans.
The Ijaw ethnic group consists of 51 closely affiliated clans. Membership of these clans is based on kinship lines, shared cultural and religious traditions, and acculturation.
Traditional occupations.
The Ijaws were one of the first of Nigeria's peoples to have contact with Westerners, and were active as go-betweens in the slave trade between visiting Europeans and the peoples of the interior, particularly in the era before the discovery of quinine, when West Africa was still known as the "White Man's Graveyard" because of the endemic presence of malaria. Some of the kin-based trading lineages that arose among the Ijaws developed into substantial corporations which were known as "houses"; each house had an elected leader as well as a fleet of war canoes for use in protecting trade and fighting rivals. The other main occupation common among the Ijaws has traditionally been fishing and farming.
Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the civil service of the Nigerian states of Bayelsa and Rivers where they are predominant.
Extensive state-government sponsored overseas scholarship programs in the 1970s and 1980s have also led to a significant presence of Ijaw professionals in Europe and North America (the so-called Ijaw diaspora). Another contributing factor to this human capital flight is the abject poverty in their homeland of the Niger Delta, resulting from decades of neglect by the Nigerian government and oil companies in spite of continuous petroleum prospecting in this region since the 1950s.
Lifestyle.
The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice, plantains, Cassava, yams, cocoyams, bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava, mangoes and pineapples; and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans (those to the east- Akassa, Nembe, Kalabari, Okrika and Bonny) had powerful kings and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level.
Marriages are completed by the payment of a bridal dowry, which increases in size if the bride is from another village (so as to make up for that village's loss of her children). Funeral ceremonies, particularly for those who have accumulated wealth and respect, are often very dramatic. Traditional religious practices center around "Water spirits" in the Niger river, and around tribute to ancestors.
Religion and cultural practices.
Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (65% profess to be), with Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism and Pentecostal being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, they also have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as "Owuamapu" figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination called "Igbadai", in which recently deceased individuals are interrogated on the causes of their death.
Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations in honor the spirits lasting for several days. Central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the particular spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.
The Ijaw are also known to practice ritual acculturation (enculturation), whereby an individual from a different, unrelated group undergoes rites to become Ijaw. An example of this is Jaja of Opobo, the Igbo slave who rose to become a powerful Ibani king in the 19th century.
There are also a small number of Converts to Islam, the most notable being the founder of the Delta People Volunteer Force, Mujahid Dokubo-Asari. Jeremiah Omoto Fufeyin and Edwin K. Clarke come from the Ijaw ethnic group. Other notable leaders from the Ijaw ethnic group are the former President of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan and Heineken Lokpobiri amongst others.
Food customs.
Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:
Ethnic identity.
Formerly organized into several loose clusters of villages (confederacies) which cooperated to defend themselves against outsiders, the Ijaw increasingly view themselves as belonging to a single coherent nation, bound together by ties of language and culture. This tendency has been encouraged in large part by what are considered to be environmental degradations that have accompanied the exploitation of oil in the Niger delta region which the Ijaw call home, as well as by a revenue sharing formula with the Nigerian Federal government that is viewed by the Ijaw as manifestly unfair. The resulting sense of grievance has led to several high-profile clashes with the Nigerian Federal authorities, including kidnappings and in the course of which many lives have been lost. The Ijaw people are resilient and proud. Long before after the colonial era, the Ijaw people traveled by wooded boats and canoes to Cameroun, Ghana and other West African countries. They traveled up the River Niger from River Nun.
Ijaw-Itsekiri conflicts.
One manifestation of ethnic violence on the part of the Ijaw has been an increase in the number and severity of clashes between Ijaw militants and those of Itsekiri origin, particularly in the town of Warri.
Deadly conflicts had rocked the South-South region, especially in Delta State, where intertribal killings had resulted in death in both sides.
In July 2013, local police discovered mutilated corpses of 13 Itsekiris killed by Ijaws, over dispute over the candidate for a local council chairman. Several Itsekiri villages, including Gbokoda, Udo, Ajamita, Obaghoro and Ayerode-Zion on the Benin river axis, were razed down while several Itsekiris lost their lives.
Oil conflict.
The December 1998 All Ijaw Youths Conference crystallized the struggle with the formation of the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) and the issuing of the Kaiama Declaration. In it, long-held Ijaw concerns about the loss of control of their homeland and their own lives to the oil companies were joined with a commitment to direct action. In the declaration, and in a letter to the companies, the Ijaws called for oil companies to suspend operations and withdraw from Ijaw territory. The IYM pledged “to struggle peacefully for freedom, self-determination and ecological justice,” and prepared a campaign of celebration, prayer, and direct action 'Operation Climate Change' beginning December 28, 1998.
In December 1998, two warships and 10–15,000 Nigerian troops occupied Bayelsa and Delta states as the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) mobilized for Operation Climate Change. Soldiers entering the Bayelsa state capital of Yenagoa announced they had come to attack the youths trying to stop the oil companies. On the morning of December 30, 1998, two thousand young people processed through Yenagoa, dressed in black, singing and dancing. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. After a march demanding the release of those detained was turned back by soldiers, three more protesters were shot dead. The head of Yenagoa rebels- Chief Oweikuro Ibe- was burned alive in his mansion on December 28, 1998. Amongst his family members to flee the premises before complete ruins was his only son, Desmond Ibe. The military declared a state of emergency throughout Bayelsa state, imposed a dusk-to-dawn curfew, and banned meetings. At military roadblocks, local residents were severely beaten or detained. At night, soldiers invaded private homes, terrorizing residents with beatings and women and girls with rape.
On January 4, 1999 about one hundred soldiers from the military base at Chevron’s Escravos facility attacked Opia and Ikiyan, two Ijaw communities in Delta State. Bright Pablogba, the traditional leader of Ikiyan, who came to the river to negotiate with the soldiers, was shot along with a seven-year-old girl and possibly dozens of others. Of the approximately 1,000 people living in the two villages, four people were found dead and sixty-two were still missing months after the attack. The same soldiers set the villages ablaze, destroyed canoes and fishing equipment, killed livestock, and destroyed churches and religious shrines.
Nonetheless, Operation Climate Change continued, and disrupted Nigerian oil supplies through much of 1999 by turning off valves through Ijaw territory. In the context of high conflict between the Ijaw and the Nigerian Federal Government (and its police and army), the military carried out the Odi massacre, killing scores if not hundreds of Ijaws.
Recent actions by Ijaws against the oil industry have included both renewed efforts at nonviolent action and militarized attacks on oil installations but with no human casualties to foreign oil workers despite hostage-takings. These attacks are usually in response to non-fulfilment by oil companies of memoranda of understanding with their host communities.


Olagbegi Atanneye II

Olagbegi Atanneye II was a paramount ruler of Owo Kingdom, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria and the father of Olagbegi Atanneye I and Olowo Ajike Ogunoye.


Governor of Northern Rhodesia

The Governor of Northern Rhodesia was the representative of the British Monarch in the self-governing colony of Northern Rhodesia from 1924 to 1964. The Governor was appointed by The Crown and acted as the local head of state, receiving instructions from the British Government.
Establishment of the office.
The office of the Governor of Northern Rhodesia was established on 20 February 1924, when the "Northern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1924" was adopted. It provided that:
List of governors of Northern Rhodesia.
For continuation after independence, "see: "President of Zambia


Olu Akengboye

Olu Akengboye was the 13th Olu of Warri who ruled over the Kingdom of Warri. He succeeded his father, Olu Omagboye (Miguel) as the 13th Olu of Warri. He took the title, Ogiame Akengboye. His Portuguese name was Agostinho Sabastiao Octobia. His son Olu Atogbuwa succeeded him around 1734.


Bir II of Kanem

Kashim Biri was the "mai" or King of Kanem during the middle of the thirteenth century. During his reign the Maliki school of Law was firmly established and he constructed a Madrashah in the kingdom.


Rukidi III of Toro

Rukirabasaija Sir George David Matthew Kamurasi Rukidi III was Omukama of the Kingdom of Toro from 1928 until 1965. He was the eleventh (11th) Omukama of Toro.
Claim to the throne.
He was the eldest son of Rukirabasaija Daudi Kasagama Kyebambe III, the tenth Omukama of Toro, who reigned between 1891 and 1928. He was born at the Royal Palace, Kabarole, on 6 March 1904. His mother was Adyeri Damali Tibaitwa. He was educated at Nyakasura School, Kabarole, Mengo High School and King's College, Budo. He served as Inspector in the Uganda Police Force in 1926. He ascended to the throne upon the death of his father on 31 December 1928. He was crowned at St John's Cathedral, Kabarole, on 29 January 1929.
Married life.
He is reported to have married five (5) wives, including:
Offspring.
The children of Omukama Kamurasi Rukidi III included:
His reign.
Omukama Kamurasi Rukidi III attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II at Westminster Abbey in London in 1953. He was made an Honorary Lieutenant in the 4th Battalion (based in Uganda), of the King's African Rifles, from 1928 until 1930. He founded and was the Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Lion, Crown and Shield of Toro. He was knighted on 2 June 1962 and received several medals and commendations from the British government, Ugandan government and from the Government of Buganda.
The final years.
He died at the Royal Palace, Kabarole, on 21 December 1965. He was buried at Karambi Gasani, Toro.


Chumburung

Chumburung is a kingdom and traditional area in the western part of Kpandae District in the Northern Region of Ghana. It is the homeland of the Chumburu, but Bassari, Gonjas, Kokombas and Nawuri(s) are also indigenous in the area. Land, however, can only be acquired with the permission of the village chief and the king, who are both natives and officials of the Chumburung kingdom. Chumburung is also the name of the language of the Chumburu.
The kingdom of Chumburung encompasses a number of villages at both sides of the Dakar River, from Kojobonipe in the North to Lonto in the South-West and Wiae in the East, both on the shores of Lake Volta. Other towns and villages in the kingdom, roughly from North to South, are Ekumdepe (Kumdi for short), Ba(n)kamba, Chakori, Nanjiro, Tori, Jamboae and Kachanka.
Chumburung is remote from the modern world in many senses. The few roads that exist in the area can only be plied by heavy vehicles, such as lorries, Benz buses in good condition, strong pick-ups and 4WD vehicles. Since few inhabitants can afford such means of transport for private use, the most popular vehicle is the motorcycle. Public transport consists of one Benz daily between Kpandae and Salaga (leaving Kpandae at dawn, arriving in Salaga around 10 a.m., and returning in the afternoon) and one Benz bus daily between Banda and Salaga, serving almost all the villages of Chumburung (leaving Banda at dawn and also returning in the afternoon).
Up to now (April, 2014), Chumburung is not connected to any electricity network and few inhabitants have their own generators, but Volta River Authority is in the process of connecting some of the towns to its grid. The only telephone company that is active in the area is MTN, but inhabitants of Wiae may get coverage from the Airtel Africa pole in Banda.
The first schools in Chumburung were set up by Ashanti teachers in the 1980s; they were later followed by others who started to teach in the local languages including Chumburung.


Charles George Edward Patey

Admiral Charles George Edward Patey (27 February 1811 – 25 March 1881) was a British Royal Navy officer.
Born at Chivelstone in Devon, England, Patey was the eldest son of Commander Charles Patey. The young Charles followed his father into the navy at the age of 13, passing through every commissioned rank in the service to eventually be made an Admiral of the Royal Navy.
In addition to his distinguished naval record, Admiral Patey was also appointed Administrator of Lagos, and of the Gambia, as well as serving as Governor of Saint Helena between 1869 and 1873. In recognition of his services Admiral Patey was awarded the Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1874.
Admiral Patey died in 1881 at Newton St Loe, a small village just outside Bath. Six officers acted as pallbearers at the funeral, among them three admirals.


Mersha Nahusenay

Mersha Nahusenay (c.1850 – c.1937) was a reformist and pioneer of change who made important contributions to the modernization and independence of Ethiopia. One of the closest advisors to Emperor Menelik II, he went on to become the first governor of Dire Dawa, and surrounding areas (1902–1905). Prior to that he was governor of the strategic and frontier district of Jaldessa (Gildessa) and its environ where he also held the position of head of customs. His public career lasted over three decades from the era of Menelik II until the reign of Haile Selassie. He was one of the most recognized Ethiopians of his time. He knew the French language and was open to European ideas and way of life earning him admiration abroad. His most enduring legacy was the construction, maintenance and security of the first railway which he oversaw at the request of Menilek. Mersha belongs to a generation who took advantage of the relative stability of the late 19th – early 20th century to implement a series of wide-ranging political, economic and social reforms which put the country on the path to modernization ushering in a new era.
Early life.
Childhood and Formative Years.
Ato (Mr.) Mersha Nahusenay (አቶ መርሻ ናሁሠናይ) was born about 1850 near the town of Ankober, the former capital of Shewa.
According to oral history, Mersha came from a family of priests. His parents were strict followers of the Ethiopian Orthodox faith and religion played a central role in their life. Mersha's childhood was hence heavily influenced by events involving the Church where he was also baptized. Family lore further indicates that his father possessed a land given to him in return for the service he rendered to the church. In addition to holding lands, churches at the time received considerable assistance from the royal palace which they then used to provide key services to their members and communities, including the education of children. Thus Mersha was taught reading and writing at an early age and received traditional church education. Whether or not he had any siblings remains unknown although the name Mersha in the Amharic language implies a desire to forget a traumatic experience such as the loss of a previous child.
Growing up, Mersha spent a great deal of time on the farm with his parents. He traveled to various places within Shewa and beyond allowing him to interact with a diverse group of people and explore opportunities which existed for a career in a secular field. For example, early on he learned to appreciate the importance local as well as foreign languages. Beyond these sketchy details, little is known about Mersha's early life at this point. It is unclear, for example, if he had royal ancestry. The fact that he was later married to the daughter of one of Menilek's trusted servants suggests, however, that the family had close ties to the palace.
Overall there is little doubt that Mersha's formative and early adulthood experiences helped him prepare for his long and illustrious public career. It's worth noting that today Ankober is one of many districts (woredas) of Ethiopia. But back then, it was the capital of one of several powerful kingdoms. The following quote encapsulates the vitality of the Ankober area at the time:
The early nineteenth-century Shawan royal capital of Ankober was a spectacular sight, ‘perched at 2400 meters atop a volcanic cone above the steep escarpment of the eastern highlands’. It commanded a prosperous, cosmopolitan and culturally diverse polity. Founded as a frontier outpost in the late-eighteenth century, fifty years later Ankober stood amidst a rich agricultural area and controlled the Red Sea trade through regional markets such as Aliyu Amba. Visited by Muslim merchants and traders from the Mediterranean, and a busy ecclesiastical base of Orthodox theology, Ankober was a lively commercial and intellectual center.
By mid-19th century, Ankober had established trade and diplomatic ties with the outside world. As a result, there was strong public interest in international affairs, foreign languages, history, geography and medicine, as well as the design, manufacturing and function of machines and tools as documented by missionaries.
Under Menilek, the last ruler of Shewa (1865–1889), Ankober rapidly evolved into a vibrant political and economic center. Trade was expanded to the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea via Harar.
Mersha also grew up in one of the most consequential periods in the nation's history. The second half of the nineteenth century was a turning point in the sense that it marked the end a long period of deep divisions within and between the various kingdoms located in the northern part of the country known as the Era of Princes or Zemene Mesafint (1769–1855). Emperor Tewodros (Tewodros II) was the first ruler (1855–1868) in the modern era to try and unify the northern kingdoms. Included in Tewodros' vision also was the introduction of European-style civilization. His efforts were cut short however by internal resistance and external challenges as well as his untimely death. Emperor Yohannes (Yohannes IV) further pursued the unification agenda during his reign (1872–1889), but he was unfortunately killed in a war with Mahdist Sudan. Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913), his successor, the fortunate one to realize the dreams of his predecessors and much more. He succeeded in bringing together, under a cental authority, northern and southern territories. Through a combination of diplomacy and military campaigns, he was able to create a new empire paving the way for the emergence of modern Ethiopia.
Menilek's extraordinary achievements, including his leadership in the decisive victory over Italy at Adwa, in 1896, enabled him to put the country on the path to stability and modernization. According to the prominent Ethiopian historian Tekletsadiq Mekuria, Menilek's top priorities included: negotiating Ethiopia's borders with the three European colonial powers (i.e., France, Britain and Italy) who controlled much of Eastern Africa; securing access to the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea as a way of improving trade relations with Europe and beyond; maintaining security and stability across the vast empire; implementing wide-ranging political, economic and social reforms; and building Ethiopia's image abroad.
As will be seen below, Mersha was at the forefront of most, if not all, of these undertakings. He answered repeated calls for public service and rose to the occasion by taking on challenging tasks. More importantly, he was a strong advocate for reform and European-style modernization. The renowned Ethiopian historian Tekletsadiq Mekuria wrote in his book "Atse Menilek and the Unity of Ethiopia":
ስለዚህ ዐፄ ምኒልክ የነዚህንና የውጭ አገር ተወላጅ አማካሪዎች ምክር በመስማት እውጭ አገር ደርሰው መጠነኛ እውቀት እየቀሰሙ የተመለሱትን የነግራዝማች ዬሴፍን፤ የነነጋድራስ ዘውገን፤ የእነ አቶ አጥሜን፤ የነ አቶ መርሻ ናሁ ሠናይን፤ የነ ብላታ ገብረ እግዚአብሔርን፤ የነ ከንቲባ ገብሩን፤ የነአለቃ ታየን፤ የነነጋድራስ ገብረ ሕይወት ባይከዳኝን፤ የነአቶ ኃይለማርያም ስራብዮንን፤ አስተያየት በማዳመጥ በአገራቸው የአውሮፓን ሥልጣኔ ለማስገባት ታጥቀው ተነሡ።
English translation:
Thus, after listening to the advice of these and other personal foreign advisors and taking into account the views of those who had travelled abroad and returned with limited knowledge such as Grazmach Yosef, Negaddras Zewge, Ato Atsme, Ato Mersha Nahusenay, Blata Gebre Egziabher, Kentiba Gebru, Aleqa Taye, Negadras Gebre Hiwot Baykedagn and Ato Hailemariam Serabyo, Atse Menilek decided to introduce European civilization to his country.
Later life.
Whether Mersha Nahusenay held any official government positions before Menilek II became Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889 remains unknown. What is evident from historical records is sometime in the early 1890s, at the age of about 40, he left his birthplace and settled in the Harar province. By then, Ankober had declined in part due to the rise of Addis Abeba (Addis Ababa), as the new capital of Ethiopia founded in 1886 by Menilek and his influential wife Empress Taytu Betul (1851–1918).
Governor of Jaldessa and Head of Imperial Customs.
Mersha's relocation to Harar marked the beginning of his long and distinguished career. By some accounts as early as 1892, but surely by 1895, he was appointed governor of Jaldessa (Gildessa, Jildessa, Guildessa, Gheldessa), a historic and strategic district near the present city of Harar. According to one source., at the time, Jaldessa had approximately 6,000 inhabitants at the time compared to 8,000 in the port city of Djibouti and 30,000 in Harar. Not only was Jaldessa a frontier town to Menilek's empire, but it was also located along an important caravan route connecting Ethiopia with the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coast. As a result, all visitors were required to pass through an armed and customs post established there by the Ethiopian authority and administered by Mersha. As chief of customs, Jaldessa Mersha oversaw the import of all goods. Caravans were stopped and inspected. Import duty of 10 per cent was levied on merchandise generating important revenue for the empire. The economic value of Jaldessa grew considerably after the port of Djibouti became operational. However, it sharply declined following the founding of Dire Dawa, in 1902.
As governor, Mersha controlled and administered a vast area between Ethiopian borders with the French and British Somalilands and the Awash River. The territory was inhabited by Somalis, Oromos, Afars and other ethnic groups. He served under Ras Mekonnen Woldemichael (Makonnen Wolde Mikael), who was governor of Harar Province until his untimely death in 1906. The Armenian Sarkis Terzian (1868–1915) served as governor of Jaldessa before him. Terzian, a personality well known to scholars of Ethiopian history, served Menilek in various capacities, including the import of arms and ammunition. Apparently, there was confusion at times about who owned what. On one occasion, Mersha confiscated arms claimed by Terzian, according to distinguished historian Richard Pankhurst. Lord Hindlip, a British businessman and adventurer and a member of an Anglo-American expedition, described his visit to Mersha's residence as follows:
He received us in his official residence, a small circular hut with the usual pointed roof, built on a conical hill. His furniture consisted of a table, chair, two beds, a photograph of an Abyssinian priest, and a coloured Crucification, while his rifle, shield, and revolver were hung on the walls.
Furthermore, Jaldessa was at the center of international negotiations between Menilek and the three colonial powers. Article 3 of the 1897 treaty signed between Britain and Ethiopia, for example, stated that the route between Zeyla (Zeila) and Harar via Gildessa should remain open for the commercial interests of the two countries. Mersha was regularly consulted on relevant matters. He was also directly responsible for implementation of agreements. For instance, in 1896, he hosted Cyrille Macaire (Kyrillos Makarios), a coptic Egyptian bishop who came as a special envoy of Pope Leo XIII to plead with Menilek to free the Italian prisoners from the battle of Adwa. When the prisoners were freed ultimately, they were brought to an area near Gildessa to meet with an Italian Red Cross team before being transported to Harar for safe return to Italy. Mersha visited Djibouti on several occasions, including at the request of Emperor Menilek. His knowledge of French was invaluable during his foreign trips.
Promoter of the progressive image of Ethiopia.
Following the victory at Adwa (1896), there was a heightened global interest in strengthening diplomatic and trade relations with Ethiopia. A large number of foreign nationals, including diplomats, journalists, writers, scientists and explorers visited the empire. The visitors were intrigued by Menilek's wisdom and accomplishments. Realizing the significance of the moment for the future, the emperor was equally determined to build a progressive image of his nation. What better place to create a good first impression than the frontier town of Jaldessa? Lord Edward Gleichen, the British courtier, officer and author who visited Ethiopia in 1897 and who was a member of Sir Rennell Rodd's diplomatic mission wrote the following:
Next day we made a long march of twenty-four miles over stony country to Garasle, a pretty little river, three inches deep, running between high banks, and a three hours' march on the following morning brought us to Gildessa. Here we were received in great state by the governor, one Aito Merzha (i.e., Ato Mersha), who, to impress on us that we were now on Abyssinian territory, had turned out a guard of about a dozen men, all armed with rifles and carrying the Abyssinian flag. The latter, I fear, did not impress us much, as it only consisted of triangular yellow, red, and green pennons nailed on a thin and crooked stick; but the guard of honour was very beautiful.
Most visitors came to the country through the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea and many camped at Jaldessa for at least a day before traveling further to Addis Abeba, Harar or other parts of the new empire. Thus, Mersha was tasked with providing logistical and other forms of assistance to the guests. He was uniquely positioned to meet and interact with a large number of Europeans and other foreign nationals. In an article published in "Le Figaro" (April 1901), the French journalist and author Hughes Le Roux noted the following after a long discussion with Mersha.
"Je ne sais si ce sage a lu Candide, mais depuis les années déjà longues que le Roi des rois lui a confié la clef de la première poterne de l'empire, il a vu défiler beaucoup d'hommes de toutes couleurs, de tous pays, de toutes langues".
English translation:
I do not know if this wise man read Candide, but since for many years the King of Kings has given him the key to the first gate of the empire, he had seen people of all colors, all countries, and all languages.
The following is a partial list of notables who have either interacted with or hosted by Mersha at Gildessa or Dire Dawa:
Despite robust diplomatic efforts by Menilek and his domestic as well as foreign advisors, there was a great deal of skepticism initially among many Europeans that Ethiopia was ready to embrace modernization. In an article titled "The Menelik Myth", published in 1899, for example, vicomte Edmond de Poncins, the wealthy French naturalist and explorer, concluded:
The history of Ethiopia, then, may be summed up thus: a country in which communications are difficult, peopled by a multiplicity of races; its internal life presents ever the same cycle of wars, victories, defeats, its external life the same blank. A real civilization is impossible in that black chaos, and the products of civilization, such as agriculture, invention, commerce, do not exist.
In contrast, there were those who offered unwavering support for the expansion of trade and investment in Ethiopia. Menilek's closest European advisors such as the Swiss engineer [[Alfred Ilg]] and the French trader Leon Chefneux (“chief commerce advisor”) were incontestably at the top of the list. Mersha worked closely with both of them. But there were others as well. Casimir Mondon-Vidailhet, the French journalist and contributor to the "[[Le Temps]]", was another important figure who played a major role in advancing Ethio-French relations. Due to his passion for horticulture, Mondon-Vidailhet may have also played a role in popularizing the eucalyptus tree (የባሕር ዛፍ). He also studied local languages (e.g. Amharic, Guraghe, Harari, etc.) and wrote books about them. More relevantly, Mondon-Vidailhet helped advance the progressive image of Menilek and Ethiopia in Europe and the United States. He did this primarily through his speeches and writings. In an interview that he gave to "[[The New York Times]]", in 1898, Mondon defended Ethiopia's records and potential:
The country lends itself easily to civilization, and its organization, still encumbered by feudal relations, tends more and more to become modelled on the lines of European constitutional monarchies. Menelek, powerful and respected, an enlightened reformer and administrator, who abolished slavery in his dominions, and dislikes fanatics to whatever sect they belong, has revealed himself as a really great sovereign, worthy of admiration by his conduct, as well as by the dignity of his character.
Mersha was a strong proponent of opening Ethiopia to the world. He encouraged 'modern' education and supported missionary schools in Harar. He encouraged trade ties with Europe, particularly France, Ethiopia's major strategic ally at the time. The French government awarded Mersha the El-Anouar Nishan in April 1905.
[[File:French Government award to Mersha - April 1905.jpg|300px|thumbnail|The "Legion d'Honneur" order given to Mersha in April 1905]]
Head of the first railway construction.
The first and most significant example of European direct investment in Ethiopia was the construction of Ethiopia's first railway. The agreement to create a company for the construction of the railroad was first signed in 1894 between Menilek and [[Alfred Ilg]]. The primary European stakeholder was obviously France although British investors also owned shares and bonds at least until 1902 which is when the line reached Addis-Harar, later renamed Dire Dawa.
[[File:The first Ethiopian train Anbessa.gif|thumbnail|Ethiopia's first train Anbessa]]
Mersha was a key figure in the negotiations, construction and security of the railway during the initial phases of the project (1897–1911). When the Djibouti railroad reached the Ethiopian border town of [[Dewele]] (Dawale), in July 1900, he represented the emperor at the inaugural ceremony attended by a delegation of the French government led by [[:fr:Gabriel Angoulvant|Gabriel Louis Angoulvant]], acting governor-general of the [[French Somaliland]] as well representatives of shareholders and other domestic and foreign diplomats, including Ato Yosef Zagalan, the Ethiopian consul in Djibouti and a dear friend of Mersha. According to one source, emperor Menilek himself was to be present, but he changed his mind later in protest of the growing interference by the French government in the affairs of the Compagnie Imperiale d'Ethiopie to which he granted concession. Things became worse and the construction was interrupted for several years following the completion of the Djibouti-Dire Dawa line. When the work resumed in 1909, Mersha was once again called to serve. The task given to him and other local officials was to oversee the extension of the meter-gauge line up to Awash. The railway reached Addis Abeba only in 1917. By then emperor Menilek had died and his daughter Zewditu was head of the empire.
[[File:Menilek letter to Mersha.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Emperor Menilek's letter to Mersha, written in December 1908]]
English translation of Menilek's letter to Mersha:
Dear Ato Mersha. How have you been? I, thank God, am well. Since the French railway companies informed me that they would resume construction, I would like you to manage the work in consultation with Negadras Yigezu. Written in the city of Debre Libanos on the 2nd day of Tahsas 1901.
(*The above letter has been included in the recent book titled 'Emperor Menilek's Domestic Letters' as letter #1898 (Paulos Gnogno collections); Aster Nega Publishers; 2010 p. 517).
The historian Richard Pankhurst called the first railway “the country’s greatest technological achievement of the period.” It led to rapid expansion of domestic and foreign trade. By cutting the amount of travel time to the coast in half, for example, the railroad increased the import and export of commodities drastically. It accelerated the process of urbanization as it paved the way to the rise of new settlements and villages and transformation of towns such as Harar and Addis Abeba. The movement of people from south to north and vice versa grew considerably. In short, the railway made life better for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of Ethiopians. More importantly, it connected the country to the sea. Robert P Skinner, the diplomat who led the first US mission, in 1903–04, noted the following about the importance of the railway to the economy
The custom-house figures show a movement of importations and exportations in 1902 amounting $1,659,800, but, having in mind the methods of appraisement and the possibility of entering goods in contraband, it may be conservatively stated that the total trade under present conditions amounts to $3,000,000 per annum. Henceforth, this trade will grow rapidly, although the full power of the country will not be appreciated until the railroad is extended to the capital, 300 miles distant from its present terminus.
Spinner further observed:
When the railroad connecting the Empire and the sea was projected, a route was naturally selected which should give the greatest advantages to commerce...A town was created at this point, to which was given the name Dire Douah, and it has already become an important business center...
Pioneer and the first governor of Dire Dawa.
The conclusion of the Djibouti-Dire Dawa railway, in 1902, marked the birth of [[Dire Dawa]], the second largest city in Ethiopia. Shortly after, Mersha was ordered to move the [[Jaldessa]] custom house and his residence to the new terminus making him the first governor of the railway city. Not only he was at the right place at the right time, but this was a natural extension of his administrative responsibilities. Getahun Mesfin Haile, an expert on the history of Dire Dawa wrote:
Before the foundation of the town, the whole frontier region up to Dawale including the great environ of Dire Dawa used to be administered by a governor whose seat normally was at Jeldessa, a few km to the east of Dire Dawa. In 1902 the Governor was one Mersha Nahusenay, an educated and also French speaking personality, who took a considerable part in the foundation of the station and eventually of the town.
He went on to say;
The earliest town quarters of Käzira and Mägala, which sprang up following the establishment by the railway company of a station and its main workshop, soon evolved into the two most important nodes of economic, social and administrative activities of the new town. Käzira was built according to a regular plan and well provided with modern amenities. In the meantime, Ato Märsha Nahusänay, the first governor, and his followers, cleared and settled an area of land across from Käzira on the opposite side of the Dächatu that was largely covered with dense brush and cacti then. Growing out of this nucleus the larger quarter of Mägala took shape by degrees. In fact, the present quarter of Dächatu used to be known as Gändä-Märsha in the past in honor of its illustrious resident and founder.
Thus, it didn't take long before residential communities appeared and roads, offices and workshops as well as other critical facilities were built under the leadership of Leon Chefneux and Mersha. In the first several years of its founding, residents of the new town and the Franco-Ethiopian railway company were able to lay the foundation for what later became a French-style, cosmopolitan city. Sadly, unlike other towns, foreigners and locals did not live in the same area. Kezira or Gezira became a European quarter while Megala was inhabited by natives.
Richard Pankhurst called Dire Dawa “Ethiopia’s first modern town". Not only Dire Dawa was built differently than other towns of the time, but its administration was also unique. Historian Shiferaw Bekele noted:
The officials shared certain important characteristics which sharply set them apart from the general run of Ethiopian officialdom at the time… Almost in every province, one would meet one or two men who belonged to this category. However, in no other much concentration as in Dire Dawa.
Shiferaw, who is an expert on the early history of Dire Dawa, went on to say:
The Dire Dawan officialdom invariably spoke at least one European language. Even the earliest, Mersha, spoke French. A good number of them were highly educated. Afework Gebre Yesus and Gebre Hiwot Baykedagn who were the directors of Customs had had long years of stay in Europe where they had attained a tertiary level education. Beshah Wured was educated in the United States. The rest had gone to Mission schools.
Mersha served as governor from 1902 until 1906. He was in charge of administrative as well as judicial affairs. He even held courts "under a tree" in the early years of his tenure. He was succeeded by Ato Negatu Gugsa. The Dire Dawa municipality did not emerge until sometime between 1915 and 1920.
Chief of railway security.
The agreements signed by the Ethiopian government and the railway company required Ethiopia to deploy a police force to safeguard the line and safety of employees. The mission was extremely dangerous due to local hostilities. Mersha became head of railway security full-time in 1906. His strategy for success included working with local chiefs and leaders. In fact he also assumed the position of chief of the Issa territory which much of the opposition to the construction came from. Shiferaw Bekele wrote:
As the governor of the province through with the line passed, he (i.e. Ato Mersha) was responsible for the peace and security of the line. He posted detachments of troops all along the line. He carried out negotiations with all the important chiefs of the Afar and Somali tribes in the region. He received orders from Ras Mekonnen and from Menilek.
He was in charge of the recruitment, training of the security personnel; negotiated their wage with the company; and settled disputes. He had always been the middle man between the railway company and Ethiopians. That involved making sure that the company honored its contractual obligations as well. As early as September 1900, for example, Mr. J. Gerolimato, the British consul agent in Harar, sent the following message to his boss, James Hayes Sadler, the Consul-General of the British-Somaliland:
Dear Sir: BEFORE yesterday, Atto Marcha, Governor of Jildessa, who was in Jibuti arrived here. There were in Daranli (i.e., Dawale) 200 Abyssinians to protect the line against the Essa (i.e., Issa), the Company paying 12 dollars per month for each Abyssinian soldier; now the Company paid them 8 dollars, instead of 12 dollars, and the Abyssinians have withdrawn these 200 men.
His prior experience as chief of Harar police must have prepared him for the challenges of the position The railway police was in charge of stability and peace Dire Dawa and its surroundings as well. which he held until the mid-1920s with the exception of his brief dismissal by Lij Iyasu in 1916.
The Dawn of Modernization.
The desire to introduce European style modernization was not unique to Emperor [[Menelik II]]. However, it was under him that the country took important practical steps in terms of establishing modern institutions and structure of governance. Transport and communication got a huge boost. The first telephone and telegraph were introduced following the first railway. Major roads were built and bicycles and automobiles appeared for the first time. The tax system was restructured. A modern monetary system was created. The first bank (Bank of Abyssinia) was established. A national currency was launched. The governance system underwent significant reorganization. The first cabinet of ministers was formed. Each of the six districts had two judges appointed by Menilek himself. The position of a supreme judge was created. The first public schools; the first newspaper, the first hotels, the first hospitals and post offices emerged. The list goes on. Although Mersha was principally involved in the construction of the railway and establishment of "modern" customs, he also participated in other important reforms such as the creation of postal and telegraph services.
After Menilek died in 1913, following a long illness, his grandson [[Iyasu V]] became the de facto ruler. Mersha was about sixty years of age at the time.
During his brief reign (1913–1916), Iyasu seems to have continued some of the reforms that he inherited. However, he also made political miscalculations resulting in his removal from power. In 1915, for example, Iyasu appointed Hasib Ydlibi (Idlibi), a Turk of Syrian origin with business experience, governor of Dire Dawa and Neggadras of Harar. The appointment was kept secret from Dejazmach Teferi (Tafari) Mekonnen, his cousin and governor of Harar Province.
But then in July 1916, a few months before his ouster, Iyasu took the unprecedented step of deposing Teferi from his governorship creating further tensions between them and leading to anger in a province traditionally governed by that family.
Iyasu also seem to have chosen a foreign policy which sought to alienate traditional allies such as France and strengthen relations with Germany and Turkey (then Ottoman Empire). Perhaps because of that, he went on to remove Mersha from his post at the railway and replace him with Abubakar Mahammad, another important historic figure in Ethiopian history. Ironically, just months before their dismissal, both Dejach Teferi and Mersha had accompanied Iyasu during his trip to the region along with a number of other notables, including Mikael Berru (a German educated, British agency interpreter and father of the Sorbonne graduate Lij [[Seifu Mikael]]) and Tesemma Eshete. The radical changes were quickly picked up by foreign media.
The sudden change was picked up by international media and largely interpreted as a plan to favor Muslims over Christians, a sentiment shared by many in the country.
Suddenly, at the end of last July, Yasu left Adis Abeba for Harrar and came on to Jibuti on August 8th, where he renewed his protestations of friendship to M. Simoni, Governor of French Somaliland ... He was found to have deposed Prince Taffari, son of Ras Makonnen, from the Governorship of Harrar and substituted a Muhammadan... Intrigue was rampant at Harrar under the Turk Ydlibi; and finally the chief of the Issas, Ato Marcha, was deposed in favour of a Muhammadan. These events caused a stir at Adis Abeba. The legations of the Entente Powers also sent in a protest. And on September 27th...Lij Yasu was formally deposed.
The situation, however, was much more complex than what the reports claimed. There is no doubt that Iyasu tried to nurture close relations with the Muslim community and was married Fatima, the daughter of Abubakar, raising questions about his intentions and vision. Abubakar came from a family of rich Muslim Afar traders who made enormous contributions to Menilek commercially, administratively and diplomatically. His father, Mahammad (also Negaddras) was the governor of the historic town of Aliyu Amba (Shoa Province) while he himself served as the governor of Shenno, another commercial center. His grandfather, Abubakar Ibrahim Chehem, was a notable statesman and Sultan or Pasha of Somalia's port city of Zeila (Zeyla) before it became part of the British Somaliland.
In contrast, some scholars argue today that the new policies were all part of Iyasu's efforts to consolidate the imperial power such as by integrating marginal territories such as the Afar land.
From the end of the XIXth century, the members of this family lost their role as obligatory intermediaries in favour of European traders supported by their respective states. However, one of them, Naggadras Mahammad Abubakar, continued to enjoy the trust of Menelik, who was unwilling to rely solely on the Europeans.
 Furthermore, although Mersha was Christian, he did not adhere to the historically dominant Orthodox faith. Rather he was one of the first to convert to Catholicism and subjected to mistreament like many of his fellow worshippers.
Mersha's absence was a source of great concern to the railway company in part due to his long and dedicated service and reputation. This was obvious from one of the letters that Emperor Menilek wrote to him. The following comment made by Mr. de Mazérieux, the company's administrator, captures that sentiment:
"Avec Ato Marcha, qui était au courant des usages et des méthodes de la Cie, et qui lui était surtout absolumment dévoué, les difficultés etaient rapidement aplanies. Abou-Baker est trop connu en Abyssinie et à la Cie, pour qu’on puisse espérer, qu’il en sera de même avec lui."
English translation:
With Ato Marcha, who was very knowledgeable of the practices and methods of CIE (i.e., Compagnie Imperiale d’Ethiopie), and who was absolutely devoted, difficulties were quickly resolved. Abu-Baker is very well known in Abyssinia and Cie, so we hope that things will be the same with him.
Mersha was restored to his position under [[Empress Zewditu]], Menilek's daughter, who ruled Ethiopia from 1916 until 1930. Teferi Mekonnen was regent to the throne during this period and went on to rule Ethiopia as Emperor Haile Selassie I(1930–1974) when the empress died.
A prominent Catholic.
Mersha was a well-known Catholic. He played an important role in the spread of the faith in Harar region and beyond. His wife Tedeneqyalesh was the daughter of Ato Mekbeb (also Mekev, Makeb and Makbeb) who was converted to Catholicism in the late 1860s by the Italian missionary Cardinal Guglielmo Massaja or Abba Messias as he was known in Ethiopia. Martial De Salviac, the French missionary who lived in Ethiopia at the end of the 19th century, wrote the following:
The one which Menelik called 'a man of my confidence', that was Ato Makeb, officer of the royal house. He soon earned the confidence of missionaries by becoming an edified Catholic. Later he gave his daughter in marriage to one of the better students of the mission, Ato Marsha, who was a police chief in Harar, and actually directed the customs at Jaldessa.
It is not surprising that Mersha's children were brought up Catholics. [[:fr:Benito Sylvain|Benito Sylvain]], the Haitian lawyer, author and anti-slavery activist who visited Ethiopia a few times during the late 19th and early 20th century wrote:
"En l'absence de Ras Makonnen, retenu par l'Empereur à Addis-Abeba, pour la conclusion du traité de paix avec l'Italie, était le Ghérazmatch Banti qui remplissait les délicates fonctions de gouverneur. Il manifesté de cordiale faҫon sa joie de me voir et après avoir vidé le tedj ou hydromel de l'amitié, il me fit donner l'hospitalité chez Ato Marcha, chef des douanes de Guieldessa, dont tous les enfants sont élevés à la Mission catholique française que dirige actuellement le sympathique Mgr André, récemment promu Evèque".
English translation:
In the absence of Ras Mekonnen, kept by the Emperor in Addis Ababa, for the conclusion of the peace treaty with Italy was the Gerazmatch Banti who filled the delicate functions of governor. He expressed in a cordial way his joy to see me, and after emptying the tedj or mead of friendship, he offered me hospitality at the residence of Ato Marcha, Chief of Customs of Gildessa, with all the children raised in the French Catholic Mission currently headed by the friendly Mgr André who was recently promoted Bishop.
Mission schools such as those founded by the French missionary Andre Jarosseau (Abba Endryas) trained a generation of young Ethiopians. Recent biographies (e.g. Ras Emru Haile Selassie) shed light on the importance of these schools. In his autobiography, Captain Alemayehu Abebe, one of the pioneers of Ethiopian aviation and the first black African pilot of a commercial jet airliner, wrote:
አቶ መርሻ ከነቤተሰቦቻቸው በሐረር ከተማ የታወቁና የተከበሩ የካቶሊክ ሃይማኖት ተከታይ ስለነበሩ ምንሴኘር አንድሬ ዣሩሶ በሚያስተዳድሩት የካቶሊክ ሚሲዮን ገብቼ በአዳሪነት እንድማር ተደረገ
English translation:
Since Ato Mersha, along with his family, was a well-known and respected follower of the Catholic faith in the city Harar, I was allowed to attend the mission school headed by Mgr Andre Jarousseau.
Another important biography by Mickael Bethe-Selassié describes in detail the historic contributions of Catholic Ethiopians during the first half of the 20th century. Many, including Mersha Nahusenay and the author's uncle Berhane-Marqos Welde-Tsadiq, played a role in the modernization efforts of Emperors Menilek and Haile Selassié. The biographer argues that these Catholics form a distinct sub-group within the larger community of educated men also known as "La Jeune Ethiopie". However, the historic ties between Catholic and Orthodox Christian intellectuals have also been stressed by Mickael as well other scholars.
The Ethiopian Roman Catholic community, the first of whose members were converted in the late 19th century by Italian or French missionaries, such as Guglielmo Massaia and André Jarosseau, included Zäwgä Haylu, who attended the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1900, and Märsha Nahu Sänay, who represented Menilek at the ceremony marking the completion of the Jibuti railway as far as the Ethiopian frontier in 1902. The community thus came into existence at the very same time as the emergence of the Young Ethiopians as a whole. The Catholic community was moreover influenced by the same factors - missionary education, travel to France or Italy, employment by foreigners, service on the railway, etc. -which gave birth, as we have seen, more generally to Young Ethiopianism.
Death and legacy.
Mersha retired in the mid-1920s, but he maintained contact with friends such as the missionary A. Jarousseau, according to historian Bahru Zewde. His retirement comes after a long public service of important contributions in four key areas: border and railway security, public administration, economic development and diplomacy. Mersha soon fell ill and was confined to bed for almost a decade. He died in his mid-eighties, during the Italian occupation, and was laid to rest in the city of Harar.
[[File:Mersha during retirement.jpg|thumbnail|Mersha Nahusenay during retirement]]
Mersha nurtured a large family. He and his wife Tedeneqyalesh were blessed with eleven children: Beyene, Negest, Zewditu, Alemu, Worqe, Desta, Yosef, Marqos, Negatu, Zegeye, and Medemdemya. He encouraged his children to attend school and appreciate foreign languages. Beyene Mersha, his eldest child, spoke French fluently. Even his daughter (probably Zewditu) knew French. She read a welcome speech to Colonel [[Jean-Baptiste Marchand]] (1863–1934), the French officer and explorer who traveled through [[Harar]] in 1899, according to the missionary Martial de Salviac. Mersha loved take his family to important public events. Martial describes how Mersha, a proud father, attended the opening ceremony of the Dawale railway station in 1900 surrounded by "a beautiful crowd of eight children."
The young Beyene Mersha traveled to France and Italy with Andre Jarosseau. In 1903, on behalf of his father, he met in Dire Dawa with R.P. Skinner, the American diplomat sent by Theodore Roosevelt to sign a trade treaty with Menilek. Mersha himself was present, however, when the first ever US diplomatic mission was ready to return home. He was the one who conveyed the farewell message from the Emperor delivered over the phone. Beyene was active in many areas of public service. He was later appointed by Menilek as head of the postal and telephone office established in the frontier town of Dawale. He went on to become "balambaras" and even took part in the campaign to remove Iyasu under the leadership of [[Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam|Fitawrari Tekle Hawaryat]]. In 1931, during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, he was appointed director of the first Ethiopian School for Girls founded in Addis Abeba by Empress Menen. He also served as head of the Dessie-Asseb road construction project undertaken by a team of Dutch engineers, according to a recently published book by the renowned Blata Merse Hazen Wolde Qirqos.
Ato Denqu, husband of Negest, was appointed in 1907 as the first head of Dire Dawa's Post Office. He traveled to Europe (e.g. Switzerland and Italy) to attend meetings of the International Postal Union after Ethiopia became a member in 1908. Many grandchildren and great-grandchildren live and work in Ethiopia and around the world. The most notable descendant today, Ato Abinet Gebremeskel, is a successful businessman and philanthropist in Ethiopia. The author of this short biography (click [[:am:መርሻ ናሁሰናይ|here]] for Amharic version of the Bio), is the grandson of Zegeye Mersha and great-grandson of Mersha.
[[File:Mersha Nahusenay Street in Dire Dawa.jpg|thumbnail|Mersha Nahusenay Street (Kezira, Dire Dawa)]]
Mersha's legacy includes a street named after him in Kezira (Gezira), a subsection of Dire Dawa during the reign of Emperor [[Haile Selassie]]. He was remembered and honored when the railway city celebrated its 105th anniversary in December 2007.
However, Mersha is still very much a forgotten hero. His biography remains unwritten and his distinguished service is poorly known by many scholars and students of Ethiopian history. In his book titled "Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The reformist Intellectuals of the early twentieth century", Professor [[:fr:Bahru Zewde|Bahru Zewde]] describes the contributions of many historic personalities of that dynamic era. The book does not mention Mersha as a pioneer. However, some of the reformist intellectuals discussed had either administered the offices he helped establish or occupied the positions he held before. Neggadras [[Gebrehiwot Baykedagn]] (c.1885-1918), arguably the foremost intellectual of the time, for example, was director of the Dire Dawa customs administration.
Fitawrari Tekle Hawariat Tekle-Mariam (1884–1977), who later became governor of Jigjiga; credited for founding Asebe Teferi; and is best known for playing a prominent role in the drafting of the 1931 constitution, was chief of the railway station briefly during Lij Iyasu. He was also among the first Ethiopians to travel abroad for education. As a matter of fact, shortly before the young Tekle Hawaryat departed for Russia, in 1896, Mersha gave him his blessings. We find the following interesting account in his autobiography,:
ጄልዴሳ ላይ ስንደርስ አቶ መርሻ ናሁ ሰናይ ከቤታቸው ወስደው ጋበዙኝ። ያስቀሩኛል ብዬ ፈርቼ በቶሎ ወጣሁና ወደ ሰፈሬ ሮጥኩ። ፀሀይ እንዳይጎዳኝ አስበው አቶ መርሻ ጥላ ገዝተው ሰጡኝ። (ከወንድሜ ከሟቹ ገብረ ጻድቅ ጋር በጣም ይፋቀሩ ነበር) (p. 78)
English translation:
When we arrived at Jaldessa, Ato Mersha invited me for lunch at his residence. Because I was afraid that he might not let me travel overseas, I ran away as soon as I finished. Ato Mersha, however, bought me an umbrella so I could protect myself from the scorching sun. (He and my deceased brother Gebre Tsadiq were dear friends).
The last few decades of the 19th century marked the beginning of a long period of modernization in Ethiopian history in the sense that they opened the door to new ways and better conditions of life and work. Significant achievements were recorded during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie in areas such as manufacturing, transportation (e.g. aviation) and education. Trade and foreign direct investment continued to play a key role in the young economy. Despite some serious setbacks in the two decades after the 1974 popular revolution, primarily due to severe droughts and civil war but also bad policies, the country underwent a radical transformation. The revolution has ended the feudal (ባላባት) system paving the way for greater participation of people in political and economic activities. During the past several decades, Ethiopia has witnessed unprecedented economic development characterized by a strong government sector, expanding private sector and major development of critical infrastructure (e.g. roads, new Djibouti-Addis railway, etc.). Whether or this momentum will be maintained, time will tell. When all is said and done, however, there is general consensus that much of the progress made over the last century is deeply rooted in the historic events and reforms of the late 19th - early 20th century.
References.
[[Category:History of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:19th-century Ethiopian people]]
[[Category:19th century in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:20th century in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:1850s births]]
[[Category:1930 deaths]]


United Nations Security Council Resolution 2054

United Nations Security Council Resolution 2054 was unanimously adopted on 29 June 2012.