History of Tarnobrzeg

History of Tarnobrzeg – In the late 16th century, the area of current Tarnobrzeg, Subcarpathian Voivodeship, Poland emerged as a local center of industry, with several bloomeries mentioned here in 1565. The Tarnowski family sold the products of the bloomeries in Sandomierz and Baranów Sandomierski, deciding that the best solution for the family business would be to establish its own independent urban center. On May 28, 1593 King Zygmunt III Waza granted Magdeburg rights to the family village, with permission to stock wine, to make two fairs a year, as well as two markets a week, on Tuesdays and Fridays. Tarnodwor, as the town was called, was located on a plain near the Vistula river, in the middle of the large family estate, near the Dzikow Castle.
The center of the town was marked by a market square, which now is called Bartosz Glowacki Square. No plans were made for a defensive wall or any kind of fortifications, as Tarnodwor was designed to be a trade and craft center. The creation of the town was accelerated in 1620 – 1640, when it belonged to Michał Stanisław Tarnowski, the Castellan of Wojnicz. A town hall was built, the medieval church at Miechocin was expanded, together with the Dzikow Castle. Jewish settlers came to Tarnodwor, and by the 1650s, the town was a well-established urban center of southeastern corner of Lesser Polands Sandomierz Voivodeship. Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660) brought widespread destruction to the area, as the Swedes destroyed Tarnodwor, together with adjacent villages. Most likely, the Dzikow Castle was saved in unknown circumstances.
After the Swedish invasion (1655–1660), Tarnodwor was so devastated that its residents asked King John III Sobieski to confirm privileges granted to the town by King Zygmunt III Waza. On April 14, 1681, Sobieski agreed, furthermore giving permission for additional fair. Tarnodwor however developed very slowly, due to numerous fires, as well as wars, such as the Great Northern War, when armies of the Russian Empire, Swedish Empire and the Kingdom of Saxony caused destruction comparable to that of the Swedish Deluge.
After the death of King Augustus II the Strong, Polish nobility re-elected Stanisław Leszczyński. Powerful neighbors of the Commonwealth disagreed with this decision, promoting their own candidate, Augustus III of Poland. Representatives of the nobility gathered at the Dzikow Castle in October 1734, to call a confederation in order to defend Leszczyński. The choice of Dzikow was purely random, as its owner, Józef Mateusz Tarnowski was not engaged in politics. The confederation failed, and in 1772, following first partition of Poland, Tarnodwor was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, where it remained until 1918.
From 1772 until 1795, Tarnodwor was located near the Polish – Austrian border. Since 1815 (see Congress Poland), the town lay at the Austrian – Russian border. In 1809, the Dzikow Castle was destroyed during the Polish–Austrian War, and in 1815, the area was flooded by the Vistula. After the November Uprising, Waleria and Jan Feliks Tarnowski decided to leave Russian-occupied Warsaw and moved to Dzikowiec. They initiated restoration of the castle, employing Italian architect Francesco Maria Lanci, who worked on the project in 1834 – 1858, turning the complex into a neo-Gothic English style residence. The castle was highly regarded by Polish nobility, who frequently visited it, and since the Tarnowski family was much liked by local peasantry, the Galician slaughter did not take place here.
The January Uprising, which began in 1863, was widely supported by local residents as well as the Tarnowskis. Several volunteers crossed the border, weapons, medicines and food were smuggled, and Dominican nuns from Wielowies opened a hospital for the insurgents. After the failed uprising, a public hospital was opened in 1864, with a new building completed by 1884. Tarnobrzeg slowly developed, because in 1887 a rail connection with Dębica and Rozwadow was opened. On September 8, 1904, Bishop of Przemyśl Sebastian Pelczar crowned the painting of Our Lady of Dzikow, and on the next day, a monument of Bartosz Glowacki was unveiled, with thousands participating in the event. In 1913, a new rail station was opened, and in August 1914, World War I began. Due to Tarnobrzeg's location near the Austrian-Russian border, the town was the area of heavy fighting, and in the autumn 1915, during the offensive of the Russian Imperial Army, Tarnobrzeg was almost completely destroyed. In October 1918, Polish authorities emerged in the town, but beginnings of the Second Polish Republic were marred by violence, as local revolutionaries created the so-called Republic of Tarnobrzeg. In September 1927, meeting of Conservative Movement took place at the Dzikow Castle, with Walery Slawek as one of the guests. In December of the same year, a dangerous fire took place in the castle, in which 9 people died. In 1929, President Ignacy Moscicki visited Tarnobrzeg.
On September 2, 1939, the town was bombed by the Luftwaffe, and on September 13, first Wehrmacht units entered Tarnobrzeg. Soon afterwards, first Polish conspirational organizations emerged, including structures of Union of Armed Struggle, which later turned into the Home Army (AK). The Tarnobrzeg Region of the AK was known by a codename “Twarog”. Jedrusie, the legendary guerilla force, was created by young residents of Tarnobrzeg. German occupation lasted until August 4, 1944, when the town was captured by the Red Army. Soon afterwards, Tarnobrzeg and its county was the area of a civil war, between Soviets and their Communist allies, and patriotic Polish groups, headed by such people as Hieronim Dekutowski and Kazimierz Bogacz. Fighting continued until the early 1950s.
In 1953, rich deposits of sulfur were discovered in the area of Tarnobrzeg by professor Stanisław Pawłowski. This fact brought far-reaching changes for the town, whose population quickly grew. Newly opened mines at Piaseczno, Machow and Jeziorko gave jobs to thousands of newcomers, for whom new districts were built. In 1975 Tarnobrzeg became the seat of a voivodeship, but it had to share its status with three other towns. Tarnobrzeg was administrative capital of the province, Sandomierz had the status of cultural capital, and Stalowa Wola was the region's industrial capital. The Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship ceased to exist in 1999.


Finghin O Mathghamhna

Finghin Ó Mathghamhna () (died 1496) was an Irish clan leader and literary scribe.
A local lord from Fonn Iartharhach in south-west County Cork. In 1475 he produced an Irish translation of "The Buke of John Manderville" for "whomsoever would fain know the best way to wend from every country to Jerusalem and the holy places that are there about". It survives in three manuscripts: Rennes, Bibliothèque Municipale 598, ff.52a2–68b2;
British Library, Egerton 1781, ff.129a–146b and London, British Library, Additional 33,993, ff. 6a–7a (fragment).
The Annals of the Four Masters note his death in 1496, calling him "saoi eccnaidhe illaidin agust i mBerla/a wise man, learned in the Latin and English languages."


Kravjek Castle

Kravjek Castle (, ) is a ruined castle northwest of Muljava, in Lower Carniola, Slovenia.
History.
Kravjek was once one of the more important castles of the Duchy of Carinthia. Its first owners were the Dukes of Spanheim, who managed the castle via their ministeriales. This practice resulted in the castle's first indirect mention in a 1243 record of a legal proceeding, in which a "Friderik castellanus de Weinek" was called as a witness. The castle was next indirectly mentioned in written sources in 1254, when its castellan Rajnboto of Jetrbenšek, ministerialis of Duke Ulrik III, donated two farms and two vineyards to Stična Abbey.
The first direct record of the castle dates from 1256, in an agreement signed by the brothers Ulrik and Phillip of Salzburg, dividing their inheritance. Ulrik received Ljubljana Castle and Kostanjevica Castle, and Phillip took possession of the Carinthian castles at Himmelberg and Wernberg, as well as the castles at Sostro and Kravjek.
Phillip sold Kravjek in 1279 to the Patriarchate of Aquileia. It remained a personal fief of the Dukes of Carinthia until 1335, when it passed among the holdings of the duchy itself.


Zeelandic

Zeelandic (; ; ) is a group of Friso-Franconian language varieties spoken in the southwestern parts of the Netherlands. It is currently considered a Low Franconian dialect of Dutch, but there have been movements to promote the status of Zeelandic from a dialect of Dutch to a separate regional language, which have been denied by the Dutch Ministry of Internal Affairs. More specifically, it is spoken in the southernmost part of South Holland (Goeree-Overflakkee) and large parts of the province of Zeeland, with the notable exception of eastern Zeelandic Flanders.
It has notable differences from Standard Dutch mainly in pronunciation but also in grammar and vocabulary, which separates it clearly from Standard Dutch. This makes mutual intelligibility with speakers of Standard Dutch difficult.
Origin.
In the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Zeeland was claimed by the Count of Holland as well as the Count of Flanders, and the area was exposed to influence from both directions. The dialects clearly show a gradual increase of Hollandic elements as one goes northwards. However, Zeelandic is fairly coherent with clear borders, as the broad sea arms form strong isoglosses.
The name "Zeeuws" is an old Zeelandic word that has been attested since the Middle Ages. An early citation by Jacob van Maerlant in his description of Sint-Francis goes as follows:
The name Zeeuws has been in use for the language spoken in Zeeland ever since, but in addition to this there are various other names. Speakers often refer to their dialect with the name of their own area, such as "Walchers" for Walcheren or "Plat Axels" for Zeelandic-Flanders (named after the town of Axel, but also used in other towns in this region to distinguish it from the West-Zeelandic-Flemish dialects spoken in the region surrounding Breskens), or sometimes with the name of their own village, such as "Wasschappels" for Westkapelle. This practice stems from the idea that each village has their own dialect, which is markedly different even from the dialect in the adjacent village, and that there is no such thing as one homogenous Zeelandic dialect or language. There is a large amount of resistance specifically in Goeree-Overflakkee against calling the local dialect Zeelandic, due to historical animosity between this region which belongs to South Holland, and Zeeland proper. In the past, Zeelandic was also called "boers" (farmer-like), in contrast to Standard Dutch which was known as "op z'n burgers" (like civilians, like the bourgeoisie), but this nomenclature has fallen out of fashion in recent times. The word "plat", which is also used in other dialects to refer to any non-Standard-Dutch dialect, is also frequently used in Zeeland.
Geographic spread and dialect continuum.
Zeelandic is spoken in most areas in Zeeland province, excluding East-Zeelandic-Flanders where, traditionally, more East-Flemish dialects are spoken. North of Zeeland, Zeelandic is still spoken on the island of Goeree-Overflakkee. Traditionally, the Zeelandic language area also extended further north to the island Voorne-Putten, but the dialect has mostly disappeared from that area due to migration from urban areas such as Rotterdam.
In urban areas in Zeeland, the dialect is in decline due to migration from other areas in the Netherlands. In Vlissingen, Goes, Middelburg and, to a lesser extent, Terneuzen, Zeelandic dialect is being mostly replaced by Standard Dutch, although elderly people and people from surrounding rural areas can often still speak Zeelandic.
There are clear differences between Zeelandic and Hollandic, Brabantine and East-Flemish dialects, but there is more of a dialect continuum with West-Flemish language varieties. The dialects spoken more towards the western coastal region of Zeelandic-Flanders, locally referred to as "Bressiaans", resemble the West-Flemish dialects spoken across the border more than the dialects spoken around Terneuzen and Axel, which preserve more Zeelandic features while also exhibiting West-Flemish features. Although these similarities are greater than those between Zeelandic and Hollandic dialects, there are some minor dialectal influences in the dialects spoken in Voorne-Putten, Hoeksche Waard and Rotterdam. There is hardly any dialectal influence from Zeelandic in the neighbouring Brabantine dialects, however, with the exception of the neighbouring villages of Oud-Vossemeer in Tholen and Nieuw-Vossemeer in North-Brabant.
Characteristics.
Zeelandic still has three grammatical genders and the final schwa of feminine words. It has kept the monophthongs and for "ij" and "ui", rather than breaking them into and . It usually umlauts into and renders the old Germanic and as falling diphthongs ( and , respectively, with the exact realisation depending on the dialect. Standard Dutch has merged them with etymological and . Finally, Zeelandic drops .
This table illustrates the differences (note that the orthography is Dutch):
Dialects.
The province of Zeeland consists of several former islands that were difficult to reach until well into the 20th century. As a result, there is roughly one dialect per island. The respective dialects differ clearly but only slightly. The Goeree-Overflakkee dialect, for example, does not drop the "h", and the Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland dialects have umlauted words, unlike the northern dialects (for example: "beuter" as opposed to "boter" . Within the island dialects themselves, dialectal differences also exist, and native speakers can frequently tell the village (at least on their own island) a person is from by the specific dialect that is spoken, even if the differences are inaudible to outsiders. For example within the Tholen dialect, speakers from Poortvliet, a village roughly on the middle of the island, can use widely different words for something than speakers from Sint-Maartensdijk do, which lies only 5 km to the west of Poortvliet.
Geographic distribution and social aspects.
Zeelandic bears the burden of being strongly associated with the rural population, as it is spoken mainly in the countryside. The town dialects of Middelburg and Vlissingen are both much closer to Hollandic than the rural variants and are almost extinct. Surveys held in the 1990s found that at least 60% of Zeeland's population still use Zeelandic as their everyday language. An estimated 250,000 people speak Zeelandic as a mother tongue (West Zeelandic Flemish is included in that count), and although it is in decline, just as other regional languages, it is in no direct danger of extinction since in some villages with strong isolated communities, more than 90% of the youngsters still speak Zeelandic. On the other hand, in several villages with much immigration, the local dialect is spoken only by adults, as children are no longer taught it. A lobby for recognising the Zeelandic regional language under the European Charter for Minority Languages was, as of 2005, unable to achieve that status.


Wegelnburg

The Wegelnburg is a ruined castle near Schönau in the Palatinate Forest in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, near the border with France. Its location is at a height of 572m, making it the highest ruined castle in the Palatinate Forest.
Wegelnburg was founded by the Hohenstaufens in the 12th or 13th century. It had to protect the border of the Hohenstaufens’ territory. In 1272, the castle was destroyed because the castellan had committed a breach of the peace. The von Wegelnburg family rebuilt the castle.
In 1330 the Wegelnburg was pawned to the Palatinate and in 1417 it was given to the Duchy of Zweibrücken through barter. Because of the Treaty of Nijmegen the castle was destroyed by French troops under General Monclar in 1679. Owned by the Palatinate and then by Bavaria, the Wegelnburg was given to Rhineland-Palatinate and has been administered by its Castles Administration since 1963. During the restoration work from 1979 until 1982 the remains of the castle were saved and large amounts of rubble were removed.
Wegelnburg Castle was divided into three wards: a lower, middle and upper bailey, the lower bailey only being established on the western side. The internal gateway has been preserved and restored. Rock staircases, hewn into the sandstone rock, enable access to the upper ward. Niches, various timber holes, another stair and some renewed arches can be seen in the lower and middle wards.
The foundation walls on the sandstone rock are remarkable because of the smooth transition of the wall and the rock. Together with the rock caves they belong to the upper and middle bailey.


Oranje Nassau Mijnen

The Oranje Nassau Mijnen was a coal mine company, established in 1893 by Friedrich Honigmann (1841-1913) and Carl Honigmann (1842-1903) to exploit the rich coal deposits in and around Heerlen. That there were coal deposits around Heerlen was already known for centuries (coal had been dug up since the 13th century around Rolduc), but efficient transportation was lacking. In 1886 Henri Sarolea (January 18, 1844, Maastricht - September 12, 1900, Heerlen) had the idea of building a railroad between Herzogenrath, Heerlen, and Sittard, which was finished in 1896. It was this plan that prompted the building of the first mine (Oranje Nassau I, production from 1899 to 1974).
While Oranje Nassau Mijnen was the public name of the company, the legal name was N.V. Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Limburgsche Steenkolenmijnen. It was the largest private mining company in the Netherlands and is now owned by the French Wendel Investissement group, which acquired the founders' shares in 1908.
Mines.
Total production: 111,016,000 tons
The ON I and ON III are now part of the Minewater Project, ON IV is now the Sigrano a silversand mine, part of Sibelco.


Ruins in North Macedonia

There are possibly more than 100 archaeological or historic ruins in North Macedonia. Civilizations in the past left behind many structures such as castles, fortresses, churches, and aqueducts. Ruins can be seen today all over the Macedonian countryside. Factors such as environmental changes, changes in settlements, populations, migrations, and changes in neighbouring colonies or tribes, all played a key role in the movement of people within the region of Macedonia.
Archaeological sites in North Macedonia.
Below is a list of sites and their locations :
Historic sites in North Macedonia.
Below is a list of sites and their locations :
- Plaosnik located in Ohrid.
- St Panteleimon located in Ohrid.
References.
1^ www.macedonia-timeless.com


Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre (The Tube)

Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre (known informally as 'the Tube') was a piece of modern architecture designed by the architect Wil Alsop for Cardiff Bay, Wales, in 1990. It was finally dismantled in 2010. A panel of architectural experts has said the building "single-handedly put Cardiff on the architectural map".
Design and construction.
Architect Wil Alsop was already involved in the development of the Cardiff Bay Barrage when asked, by the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation (CBDC), to design a visitors' centre. The building was completed during the Summer of 1990, located close to the Victorian Pierhead Building. It cost somewhere between £350,000 and £500,000 and was intended to last only five years.
The new building was in the shape of a long flattened tube, glazed at each end. Alsop liked to compare its shape to a disposable cigarette lighter. It was constructed using a series of oval steel ribs, clad with marine plywood and covered with external skin of PVC sheeting. Ripple-like slots were cut into the plywood, allowing dappled daylight into the interior. It was shortlisted for the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Building of the Year award (forerunner of the Stirling Prize).
The visitor centre was built to house an exhibition about the new Cardiff Bay development. In 1993 the building needed to be moved from its location east of the Pierhead Building. Rather than permanently dismantle it, the structure was put on the back of a low-loader truck and moved to another part of the Bay. It continued to house interactive exhibitions and a scale model of Cardiff.
Because of its distinctive shape, the visitor centre became known locally as 'The Tube'. In 2009 it was listed ninth in the Top Ten free attractions in Wales.
Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre was listed by a panel of experts as one of the Top 50 Buildings of the 1990s, saying the building had "single-handedly put Cardiff on the architectural map".
Later events.
In 2006 the building's operators, Cardiff Initiative, ceased trading and The Tube closed for several weeks, reopening under the management of Cardiff Council.
The Tube was finally dismantled (and put into storage) in Autumn 2010 to make way for a new link road. "I'm surprised it's lasted this long," said original project architect John Lyall.The site is going to be the new home for the Museum of Military Medicine


Kepoi

Kepoi or Cepoi (Ancient Greek: Κῆποι, Russian: Кепы) was an ancient Greek colony situated on the Taman peninsula, three kilometres to the east of Phanagoria, in the present-day Krasnodar Krai of Russia. The colony was established by the Milesians in the 6th century BC. In the Hellenistic period, it was controlled by the kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus, who (according to Aeschines) made a present of a place called "the Gardens" to Gylon, the grandfather of Demosthenes. The town reached its peak in the 1st centuries AD, but the Huns and Goths put an end to its prosperity in the 4th century. Soviet excavations, started in 1957, yielded rich finds, including a marble statue of a Greek goddess ("Aphrodite of Taman"). More than 400 burials were explored at Kepoi in the 1960s and 1970s; the rest of the site has been submerged by the Sea of Azov.


Dogado

The Dogado or Duchy of Venice was the homeland of the Republic of Venice, headed by the Doge. It comprised the city of Venice and the narrow coastal strip from Loreo to Grado, though these borders later extended from Goro to the south, Polesine and Padovano to the west, Trevisano and Friuli to the north and the mouth of the Isonzo to the east.
Apart from Venice, the capital and in practice a city-state of its own, the administration of the Dogado was subdivided in nine districts starting at the north: Grado, Caorle, Torcello, Murano, Malamocco, Chioggia, Loreo, Cavarzere and Gambarare (in Mira). In lieu of the earlier tribunes (elected by the people) and gastalds (corresponding with the Doge), during the Republic each district was led by a patrician with the title of "podestà", with the exception of Grado, headed by a Count.
It was one of the three subdivisions of the Republic's possessions, the other two being the "Stato da Màr" ("Sea State") and the "Domini di Terraferma" ("mainland domains").
"Dogado" was the equivalent of "Ducato" (duchy), the Italian city states that (unlike Venice) had a duke as hereditary head of state.


Royal Militia of the Island of Jersey

Formed in 1337, the Royal Militia of the Island of Jersey can claim to be the oldest sub-unit of the British Army, although, because it is not a regiment, and was disbanded for decades in the late 20th century, it is not the most senior.
History.
A militia force was organised in accordance with the order on 24 July 1203 of King John to provide a "sufficiency of men and money to defend the Island from the enemy". In 1214 Eustace the Monk, a pirate, based in Sark arrived under orders from the King of France to harry the Channel Islands. In Guernsey Eustace met a newly raised and locally armed defence force comprising the whole manhood of the Island. This could be considered to be a militia. Jersey would almost certainly have made the same preparations.
In 1336, the exiled King David II of Scotland, from his base in France, raided the island of Jersey. The following year, in response to the threat of a repeat of this incursion, King Edward III ordered Thomas de Ferrers, Warden of the Isles, to levy and equip a militia of "all men capable of bearing arms, and to form them into companies of thousands, hundreds and twenties, and to lead them well-armed and arrayed for the defence of the islands". This created an organised, compulsory and unpaid, Island militia.
Jersey was invaded by French troops in 1461. They were supporters of the Lancastrian force during the Wars of the Roses, as was the Governor of Mont Orgueil, who had surrendered the castle to the French. The militia was not strong enough to retake the castle and instead controlled half of the Island with their base in Grosnez Castle where they stayed until 1468 when the invaders were expelled by a Yorkist English army led by Richard Harliston, supported by the militia commanded by the Seigneur of Saint Ouen and after a siege of Mont Orgueil that lasted 19 weeks. The help given by the St Ouen militia earned them the honour to parade on the right flank of future militia parades.
In 1545, the Jersey Militia consisted of 12 parochial bands, many of which were called into action in 1549 when a force of French pirates, who had captured Sark as a base for their activities landed at Bouley Bay, advancing inland they met the militia who defeated them and driving them back down to the beach, killing up to a thousand in pursuit. In 1555 Parish Companies were ordered to practice every Sunday, weather permitting, firing Arquebus, Bow and arrow and Crossbow.
17th Century.
A review undertaken in 1617 showed over 3,000 men, although their arms were defective, with only 12 pikes between them, few muskets, and many were armed with just staves. In 1622 they were organized into three regiments, the North, West and East. The use of the title Colonel for the officer in charge of a regiment appears around 1620, prior to this the commander was called a Captain.
During the English Civil War, the Militia had divided loyalties, initially in March 1643 marching on St. Helier to support the arrest of Philippe de Carteret (the Royalist Governor and Bailiff). However, by the end of the year, they rallied to the Royalist cause with the arrival of George Carteret on the Island. The parliamentary supporters were imprisoned or forced to leave the Island and having their property confiscated. In 1646 The future Charles II visited the island and when he returned in 1649, following the execution of his father in London, a ceremony was held in the Royal Square in St. Helier on 17 February 1649 where Charles was publicly proclaimed King (following the first public proclamation in Edinburgh on 5 February 1649).
In October 1651 Cromwell sent a fleet of over 80 ships and military force to capture the Island. The parliamentary ships delayed landing for several days, moving from bay to bay, being followed by the 2,000 militia, until after three nights they started landing at St Ouen's Bay. Opposed by a troop of militia cavalry, the invaders suffered casualties, but the militia infantry were dispersed and tired after three days of marching and could not reinforce the landing point faster than the parliamentarian troops were being landed from the ships. Outnumbered, the militia fell back, 340 retiring into Elizabeth Castle, where they had provisions for 8 months, others to Mont Orgueil which was besieged first and following negotiations surrendered with 40 Royalists supporters, who wanted to continue the fight, being allowed to go to Elizabeth Castle, which was then put under siege and after a week, a lucky shot hit a powder store which exploded, killing 6 and burying 40 under rubble. Charles wrote to the garrison to give them permission to surrender, although they held out until 12 December when, following negotiations, the defenders were permitted to travel to France with their money and possessions and the castle surrendered.
The militia was reorganized and uniformed in scarlet by the Governor of Jersey, Sir Thomas Morgan, in 1678, and in 1685 a Troop of Horse was raised (which later became Dragoons).
18th Century.
Around 1730, the militia was divided into five regiments, based on the Parishes of the island, the 4th Regiment (that of the parishes of Saint Lawrence and Saint Helier) consisting of two battalions. Compulsory military service was introduced in 1771 and the militia was increased to a Regiment of Cavalry, a Regiment of Artillery and five Regiments of Infantry.
On 1 May 1779, a Franco-Dutch force attempted a landing at St Ouen's Bay. Early that morning lookouts sighted five large vessels and a great number of boats some three leagues off the coast, proceeding towards the coast in order by a coup de main to effect a landing. Guns on the cutters and small craft supporting the landing fired grapeshot at the defenders on the coast. The defenders, the 78th Regiment of Foot and the Jersey Militia, together with some field artillery force marched to St Ouens bay, the proposed landing beach, the artillery was dragged through the sand of the beaches, arriving in time to oppose the landing. The defenders were able to prevent the landing, suffering only a few men wounded when a cannon burst. The enemy fleet moved to St. Brelade's bay, only to see more defenders ready for them. The proposed invasion was abandoned.
The invasion was attempted again but the protecting fleet was intercepted and nearly annihilated. A third attempt managed to get most men ashore undetected on the night of 5 January 1781. Several ships were wrecked losing around 200 men. Marching to St. Helier, the French arrived before dawn, taking the Governor prisoner. Messages were sent to alert the Island Regiments and the Militia who mustered outside the town. The Militia, displaying enthusiastic loyalty, fought alongside Regiments of the regular British Army at the Battle of Jersey, when together they defeated an attempted French invasion (intended to remove the threat the island posed to American shipping in the American Revolutionary War). 50 regulars and 30 militia were casualties, very few of the French force escaped.
On 28 May 1778 the Governor of Jersey, Field Marshal Henry Seymour Conway, submitted plans to Lord Weymouth for the construction of 30 coastal towers to forestall, or at least impede French incursions on the island. King George III granted approval and funding on 5 July 1778. To be manned by the militia and known as Conway's towers, 23 were eventually built.
Discontent amongst Methodist militia troopers during the 1780s and 1790s about having to parade on a Sunday was eventually listened to, with the Privy Council agreeing to allow Methodists to drill on weekdays.
19th Century.
Three Martello towers were built, 1808 Portlet, 1811 Icho, La Tour de Vinde was completed in 1814 they were built to aid defence of possible landing places.
In 1831, the Militia was designated the Royal Jersey Militia on the 50th anniversary of this battle. The facings on uniforms were changed from buff to blue. In 1837 there were five regiments, formed into six battalions, each with a company of artillery. Every resident from 19 to 65 bears arms with 16- to 18-year-olds being trained weekly. The whole militia is unpaid. The regiments were re-organized on several occasions between 1870, when the Troop of Dragoons was disbanded, and the end of the century.
Four more Martello towers were built 1835 Lewis, 1834 Kempt, 1837 Victoria and La Collette to further improve Island defences.
In 1844 Arsenals were built in each parish, which enabled the artillery to be relocated from the Parish Churches.
In 1881 under General Order No 130, the 1st (West), 2nd (East) and 3rd (South) Regiments were permitted the honour of ‘Jersey 1781'
A minor mutiny occurred in 1891 at a parade when men in the West Regiment objected to where they were to stand, calling out "N'Bouogi Pas!". A small number of the ringleaders were found guilty, spent a few days in the prison and were then treated to a meal out in the town by their comrades.
20th Century.
In 1905 the militia came under the Army Act and was reorganised to create a regiment of artillery comprising two field and two garrison companies. An engineer company, a medical company and three battalions of infantry.
In 1915, one company was detached to the 7th (Service) Battalion, the Royal Irish Rifles. The militia remained in Jersey throughout the war although many of the men went to serve in British Regiments, 6,292 Jerseymen serving in total, with 862 being killed. In 1917, the 7th Battalion was disbanded and its personnel transferred to 2nd Battalion, The Hampshire Regiment. Other members of the Regiment served as guards at the Blanches Banques Prisoner of War Camp located at St Brélade.
The Militia was reconstituted in 1921 as one infantry battalion, the Royal Militia of the Island of Jersey.
In World War II, the Island was demilitarised, 11 officers and 193 men of the militia left on the SS "Hodder" to England, where they formed the nucleus of the 11th (Royal Militia Island of Jersey) Battalion, The Hampshire Regiment. It was a training battalion, based in the United Kingdom throughout the war until it was disbanded in 1946. Because the National Service Act did not apply in the Channel Islands, the Royal Militia of the Island of Jersey went into suspended animation (sc. it existed on paper, but had no personnel) until it was formally disbanded, along with the other British Militia regiments, in 1953.
Modern.
In 1987, it was re-formed as a Territorial Army regiment, the Jersey Field Squadron (The Royal Militia Island of Jersey), 111th Regiment, Royal Engineers, later 73rd Regiment, Royal Engineers. In 2007, it came under the operational command of the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia).
Battle honours.
The regiment was awarded the following battle honours.
Both these honours are unique to the regiment.


Rybarzowice, Lower Silesian Voivodeship

Rybarzowice () is a former village in the administrative district of Gmina Bogatynia, within Zgorzelec County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland, close to the Czech and German borders. The village ceased to exist after 2000, when the last house was demolished.
It was situated approximately south-west of Bogatynia, south of Zgorzelec, and west of the regional capital Wrocław.
After 1945, the manor was turned into a state-owned farm. After 1956, the palace was displaced and left as a vacancy as part of the "war with the kulaks", gradually devastating according to top-down guidelines. Most of the inhabitants of Rybarzowice worked at the nearby lignite mine and Turów Power Plant. The youth found entertainment in the Village Culture Centre, where there was a common room with a spacious hall and stage. The Volunteer Fire Brigade, the Village Housewives' Circle and many other organizations of the active Rybnik community were active.
Rybarzowice and several other nearby towns fell victim to the lignite mining technology implemented by the Turów coal mine. In 1966, Rybarzowice was inhabited by about 1,500 inhabitants, and then a gradual displacement began, caused by the ongoing expansion of the mine. On July 25, 2000, the last house was demolished. The centuries-old material, cultural and all other achievements of numerous generations of the inhabitants of Reibersdorf and then of Rybarzowice ceased to exist forever. The last buildings in the village were demolished in 2000, as a result of the expansion of lignite mining operations in the area.


List of people from Stuttgart

The following is a list containing people both born in Stuttgart and notable residents of city, ordered chronologically.


HMS Scorpion (D64)

HMS "Scorpion" was a of the British Royal Navy in service from 1947 and scrapped in 1971. Originally named "Centaur", the ship was renamed "Tomahawk" and finally "Scorpion" (in September 1943) before her launch.
Royal Navy service.
On commissioning "Scorpion" was allocated to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla (later squadron) which was made up of the Weapon-class destroyers. In 1953 she took part in the Fleet Review to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. In 1954 "Scorpion" was the only Weapon-class ship fitted with the Limbo depth charge mortar, as a trial to modernise the whole class, replacing the older Squid mortar.
Following Home Service commissions she then undertook a commission in the Mediterranean during 1955 and 1956. After this she was placed in reserve.
In 1957 all of the Weapon-class Destroyers started conversions to Radar pickets, which involved the removal of their torpedo tubes. "Scorpion" underwent her conversion at Devonport Dockyard. She was fitted with an extra mast to carry a large AKE-1 Antennae. She was the last Weapon-class vessel to re-commission in 1959 and was part of the 7th Destroyer Squadron until being placed in reserve in April 1963.
Decommissioning and disposal.
Following decommissioning "Scorpion" was used for underwater explosive trials at Rosyth. She was finally scrapped at Bo'ness in 1971.


Henri of Grandson

Henri de Grandson was the son of Pierre I de Grandson and Agnes, a younger brother of the important friend and envoy of King Edward I of England, Otto de Grandson. Like his cousin Guillaume de Champvent and relative Gérard of Vuippens he pursued a church and diplomatic career in England before becoming taking up an important bishopric within the Holy Roman Empire.
He crossed the channel with his brother, Edward having granted two years protection on 26 May 1276. Henri travelled to the far north of Edward's realm to take up a position as parson of the church in Greystoke,then in the county of Cumberland. The church at Greystoke, Cumbria had been recently built in 1255, some features from Henri's time remain still. The rood beam bridging the chancel arch is oldest item in the Church, and carries floral emblems representing the wounds of Christ.The ancient choir stalls in the chancel have some well preserved misericords (carved shelf underneath the seat). In 1278 Henri moved south once more to take up the role of Bishop of Verdun, from his recently deceased brother, Gerard de Grandson , Verdun then not yet in France but a prestigious Prince Bishopric within the Holy Roman Empire.


Johann Gutslaff

Johann(es) Gutslaff (died 1657 in Tallinn) was a Baltic-German clergyman, scholar, Estonian language enthusiast, Bible translator, and folklore collector.
He studied at Greifswald University (1632) and at Leipzig University (1634).
In 1639 he came to Estonia. There he attended the Faculty of Theology at Tartu University. At the university, he also studied the South Estonian language.
From 1641 to 1656 he was a pastor in Urvaste and there he wrote all his writings.
He died in 1657 in Tallinn, being infected by the plague.
Works.
In 1648 he compiled the first grammar of South Estonian: "Observationes grammaticae circa linguam esthonicam".
Gutslaff wanted to translate whole Bible into South Estonian. He did not finish the translation. Until today, his translations of the Old Testament up to First Book of Kings are preserved. There are also indirect evidences, that some parts of the New Testament were translated by Gutslaff.


Count of Hainaut

The Count of Hainaut (, , ) was the ruler of the county of Hainaut, a historical region in the Low Countries (including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany). In English-language historical sources, the title is often given the archaic spelling Hainault.
List of counts of Hainaut.
10th century.
The County of Hainaut was then divided between the counties of Mons and Valenciennes.
Counts of Mons
Counts and Margraves of Valenciennes
Valenciennes and Mons are once again reunited in a consolidated County of Hainaut.
House of Habsburg.
Charles II proclaimed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 eternally uniting Hainaut with the other lordships of the Low Countries in a personal union. When the Habsburg empire was divided among the heirs of Charles V, the Low Countries, including Hainaut, went to Philip II of Spain, of the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg.
Between 1706 and 1714 the Low Countries were invaded by the English and the Dutch during the War of the Spanish Succession. The fief was claimed by the House of Habsburg and the House of Bourbon. In 1714, the Treaty of Rastatt settled the succession and the County of Hainaut went to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg.
The title was factually abolished in the aftermath of the French revolution and the annexation of Flanders by France in 1795. Although, the title remained officially claimed by the descendants of Leopold I until the reign of Charles I of Austria.
Modern usage.
House of Belgium (formerly House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha).
In the modern Kingdom of Belgium, the title of "Count of Hainaut" was traditionally given to the eldest son of the crown prince, who was himself styled "Duke of Brabant". In 2001, with the birth of Princess Elisabeth of Belgium (now Duchess of Brabant), heir and eldest daughter of Prince Philippe, Duke of Brabant (now Philippe, King of the Belgians), it was decided not to feminize and award her the title of Countess of Hainaut, but to abolish it.


History of Liechtenstein

Political identity came to the territory now occupied by the Principality of Liechtenstein in 814, with the formation of the subcountry of Lower Rhætia. Liechtenstein's borders have remained unchanged since 1434, when the Rhine established the border between the Holy Roman Empire and the Swiss cantons.
Antiquity.
A Roman road crossed the region from south to north, traversing the Alps by the Splügen Pass and, following the right bank of the Rhine at the edge of the floodplain, was uninhabited for long lengths of time because of periodic flooding. Roman villas have been excavated in Schaanwald and Nendeln. The late Roman influx of the Alemanni from the north is memorialized by the remains of a Roman fort at Schaan.
Middle Ages.
The area, part of Raetia, was incorporated into the Carolingian empire, and divided into countships, which became subdivided over the generations. Because the Duchy of Swabia lost its duke in 1268 and was never restored, all vassals of the duchy became immediate vassals of the Imperial Throne (as has happened in much of Westphalia when the duchy of Saxons was divided and partially dissolved in aftermath of the defeat of Henry the Lion). Until about 1100, the predominant language of the area was Romansch, but thereafter German gained ground, and in 1300 an Alemannic population called the Walsers (originating in Valais) entered the region. In the 21st century, the mountain village of Triesenberg still preserves features of Walser dialect.
The medieval county of Vaduz was formed in 1342 as a small subdivision of the Werdenberg county of the dynasty of Montfort of Vorarlberg. The 15th century brought three wars and some devastation.
The Principality takes its name from the Liechtenstein family, rather than vice versa, and the family in turn takes its name from Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria, which it owned from at least 1140 until the 13th century and from 1807 onwards. Over the centuries, the family acquired huge landed estates, mostly in Moravia, Lower Austria and Styria.
All of these rich territories were held in fief under other more senior feudal lords, particularly under various lines of the Habsburg family, to which many Liechtensteins were close advisors. Thus, without holding any land directly under the Holy Roman Emperors, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet the primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial Diet, (German "Reichstag"), although its head was elevated to princely rank in the late 17th century.
Early modern era.
The area that was to become Liechtenstein was invaded by both Austrian and Swedish troops during the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. During the 17th century the country was afflicted by a plague and also by the Liechtenstein witch trials, in which more than 100 persons were persecuted and executed.
Prince Johann Adam Andreas of Liechtenstein bought the domain of Schellenberg in 1699 and the county of Vaduz in 1712. This Prince of Liechtenstein had wide landholdings in Austria, Bohemia and Moravia, but none of his lands were held directly from the Emperor. Thus, the prince was barred from entry to the Council of Princes and the prestige and influence that would entail.
By acquiring the Lordships of Schellenberg and Vaduz, modest areas of mountain villages each of which was directly subordinate to the Emperor because there no longer being a Duke of Swabia, the Prince of Liechtenstein achieved his goal. The territory took the name of the family which now ruled it. On January 23, 1719, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that the counties of Vaduz and Schellenberg be promoted to a principality with the name Liechtenstein for his servant Anton Florian of Liechtenstein whereby he and his successors became Princes of the Holy Roman Empire.
Nineteenth century.
After having narrowly escaped mediatization to Bavaria in 1806, Liechtenstein became a sovereign state later that year when it joined Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
The French under Napoleon occupied the country for a few years, but Liechtenstein retained its independence in 1815. Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 – 24 August 1866, which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria).
Then, in 1818, Johann I granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois. However, the first visit by a sovereign prince would not occur until 1842.
In 1862, a new Constitution was promulgated, which provided for a Diet representative of the people.
During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prince Johann II placed his soldiers at the disposal of the Confederation but only to “defend the German territory of Tyrol”. The Prince refused to have his men fight against other Germans. The Liechtenstein contingent took up position on the Stilfse Joch in the south of Liechtenstein to defend the Liechtenstein/Austrian border against attacks by the Italians under Garibaldi. A reserve of 20 men remained in Liechtenstein. When the war ended on July 22, the army of Liechtenstein marched home to a ceremonial welcome in Vaduz. Popular legend claims that 80 men went to war but 81 came back. Apparently an Italian liaison officer joined up with the contingent on the way back.
In 1868, after the German Confederation dissolved, Liechtenstein disbanded its army of 80 men and declared its permanent neutrality, which was respected during both World Wars.
Liechtenstein during the World Wars.
Liechtenstein did not participate in World War I, claiming neutrality. However, until the end of the war, Liechtenstein was closely tied to Austria. In response, the Allied Powers imposed an economic embargo on the principality. The economic devastation forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. In 1919 Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a treaty under which Switzerland assumes the representation of Liechtenstein interests at the diplomatic and consular level in countries where it maintains a representation and Liechtenstein does not.
In the spring of 1938, just after the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany, eighty-four-year-old Prince Franz I abdicated and was succeeded by his thirty-one-year-old grand nephew, Prince Franz Joseph II. While Prince Franz I claimed that old age was his reason for abdicating, it is believed that he had no desire to be on the throne if Germany were to invade and occupy its new neighbour, Liechtenstein. The Princess of Liechtenstein Elisabeth von Gutmann, whom he married in 1929, was a wealthy Jewish woman from Vienna, and local Liechtenstein Nazis had already singled her out as their anti-Semitic "problem". A Nazi sympathy movement had been simmering for years within its National Union party and there was a national socialist political party - the German National Movement in Liechtenstein.
Prince Franz Josef II became the first Prince of Liechtenstein to take up permanent residence in Liechtenstein.
During World War II, Liechtenstein remained neutral, while family treasures within the war zone were brought to Liechtenstein (and London) for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces. Citizens of Liechtenstein were also forbidden from entering Czechoslovakia during the Cold War.
Liechtenstein gave asylum to approximately five-hundred soldiers of the First Russian National Army (a collaborationist Russian force within the German Wehrmacht) at the close of World War II. This is commemorated by a monument at the border town of Hinterschellenberg which is marked on the country's tourist map. The act of granting asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the side of Germany to the USSR, where they were summarily treated as traitors and most of them executed, including their families.
The Post-War era.
In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait "Ginevra de' Benci" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967. Liechtenstein prospered, however, during the decades following, as its economy modernized with the advantage of low corporate tax rates which drew many companies to the country. Liechtenstein became increasingly important as a financial center.
In 1989, Prince Hans-Adam II succeeded his father to the throne, and in 1996, Russia returned the Liechtenstein family's archives, ending a long-running dispute between the two countries. In 1978, Liechtenstein became a member of the Council of Europe, and then joined the United Nations in 1990, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1991, and both the European Economic Area (EEA) and World Trade Organization in 1995.
Liechtenstein during the 21st century.
In a referendum on March 16, 2003, Prince Hans-Adam, who had threatened to leave the country if he lost, won a large majority (64.3%) in favour of overhauling the constitution to effectively give him more powers than any other European monarch. The new constitution gave the prince the right to dismiss governments and approve judicial nominees and allowed him to veto laws simply by refusing to sign them within a six-month period.
On August 15, 2003, Hans-Adam announced he would step down in one year and hand over the reins to his son Alois. In August 2004, Prince Hans-Adam handed over the practical running of the principality to his son, Crown Prince Alois, although still remaining official head of state.
On July 1, 2007, the first two Consuls in the history of the Principality were appointed to represent Liechtenstein in the United States of America.
In June 2012, the voters decided in the constitutional referendum that Crown Prince Alois should be allowed to retain his power of veto over decisions made in nationwide ballots.


Oskar Hoffmann (painter)

Oskar Georg Adolf Hoffmann (Russian: Оскар Адольфович Гофман; 5 February 1851, Dorpat – 3 March 1912, Saint Petersburg) was a Baltic-German painter from Estonia. He was best known for his landscapes and colorful depictions of Estonian peasants.
Biography.
His father was a master baker and his mother's family was involved in the performing arts. For a few years, he worked in a lithography and photography studio, which is where he first displayed his aptitude for painting. Many of his later works appear to be based on photographs taken during this period, especially the watercolor portraits.
He soon began exhibiting at the local art society and, in 1872, went to Germany, where he enrolled at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. In 1874, he briefly worked in the studios of Eduard von Gebhardt. His next professor was a fellow Baltic-German from Estonia, Eugen Dücker. His primary influences, however, probably came from Gregor von Bochmann, who was only one year older, but had begun his studies in Düsseldorf at the age of eighteen. They also became lifelong friends.
He graduated from the Academy in 1877 and made a visit to Paris, where he worked with Fernand Cormon. The following year, he established his own studio in Düsseldorf and learned etching. In the early 1880s, he briefly returned to Dorpat then, possibly in debt, went to Saint Petersburg where, in 1884, he was granted the status of "Free Artist" by the Imperial Academy of Arts. While there, he continued to participate in international exhibitions in Vienna, Berlin and elsewhere.


Principality of Aschaffenburg

The Principality of Aschaffenburg () was a principality of the Holy Roman Empire created in 1803 and, following the dissolution of the Empire in 1806, of the Confederation of the Rhine, which existed from 1806 to 1810. Its capital was Aschaffenburg.
With the secularization of the Archbishopric of Mainz in 1803, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg was compensated by receiving the newly created principalities of Aschaffenburg and Regensburg and the County of Wetzlar. Along with the city of Aschaffenburg, the Principality of Aschaffenburg also consisted of Klingenberg, Lohr, Aufenau, Stadtprozelten, Orb, and Aura.
The principality became part of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1810 Napoleon granted Dalberg's Principality of Regensburg to the Kingdom of Bavaria and compensated him with Hanau and Fulda. Dalberg merged his remaining territories of Aschaffenburg, Frankfurt, Wetzlar, Hanau, and Fulda into the new Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, with the Principality of Aschaffenburg becoming a department of the new grand duchy. The city of Aschaffenburg remained the residence of Dalberg, however. The region was annexed by Bavaria in 1814.


Ottoman period in the history of the Republic of Macedonia


Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee

The Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee () or BRCC was a Bulgarian revolutionary organisation founded in 1869 among the Bulgarian emigrant circles in Romania. The decisive influence for the establishment of the committee was exerted by the "Svoboda" newspaper which Lyuben Karavelov began to publish in the autumn of 1869. Some of the other revolutionaries who took active part in the formation and work of the BRCK were Panayot Hitov, Vasil Levski and Dimitar Tsenovich.
Karavelov was elected chairman of the BRCK in the spring of 1870. He also prepared the first programme of the organisation (promulgated in Geneva on 1 August 1870), which envisaged the liberation of Bulgaria through a nationwide revolution and the establishment of a democratic republic.
By the end of 1871, both Karavelov and Vasil Levski, the leader of the other Bulgarian revolutionary society–the Internal Revolutionary Organisation–knew that the future success of the armed struggle against the Ottomans depended on the co-operation of both emigration and local committees. To this end, the two organisations prepared and adopted a joint programme and charter and voted on the merger of the two organisations under the name of BRCK at a general meeting held in Bucharest in May 1872. The charter of the joint organisation represented a compromise between the ideas of both Levski and Karavelov.
The committee network of the organisation in Bulgaria expanded considerably after the general meeting and the preparation of the uprising was well advanced, when a faction in BRCK led by Dimitar Obshti attacked a convoy of the Ottoman postal service near Sofia in order to procure money for ammunition. The robbery caused the exposure of a number of committee activists in the region of Sofia and eventually resulted in the capture and hanging of Vasil Levski on 18 February 1873.
The dissolution of the committee network around Sofia and the death of Levski dealt a hard blow to BRCK and its work. The attempt to find a successor to Levski was unsuccessful, the "Svoboda" newspaper was banned by the Romanian authorities and Karavelov was forced to flee Romania for fear of being extradited to the Ottoman Empire. In 1874 Karavelov tried to regain control of the organisation at its second general meeting held in Bucharest but the other delegates passed censure on him and he left the organisation in March 1875.
Karavelov was replaced as chairman of the BRCK by Hristo Botev, a revolutionary, poet and editor of the "Zname" ("Flag") newspaper. In August 1875, the faction around Botev organised a third general meeting of the organisation which took a decision on a general uprising in Bulgaria in September the same year. The time for preparation of the insurrection was, however, insufficient and only the regional committee in Stara Zagora managed to organise a small-scale rebellion, quickly crushed by the Ottoman police. The failure of the uprising and the accusations of misappropriations of money which ensued forced Botev to resign. The organisation disbanded itself shortly afterwards, to assemble again in November 1875 in the town of Giurgiu where a decision on another general uprising was taken (see also April Uprising).


Gauliga Baden

The Gauliga Baden was the highest football league in the German state of Baden from 1933 to 1945. Shortly after the formation of the league, the Nazis reorganised the administrative regions in Germany, and the "Gau Baden" replaced the state "Baden".
Overview.
The league was introduced in 1933 by the Nazi Sports Office, after the Nazi take over of power in Germany and Baden. It replaced the "Bezirksliga" as the highest level of play in German football competitions.
The "Gauliga Baden" was established with ten clubs, all from the state of Baden.
The Gauliga replaced as such the "Bezirksliga Württemberg-Baden" and "Bezirksliga Rhein-Saar", the highest leagues in the region until then.
In its first season, the league had ten clubs, playing each other once at home and once away. The league winner qualified for the German championship while the bottom two teams were relegated. The league remained unchanged until the outbreak of World War II.
In this era, the only success to come for a club from Baden was, when the SV Waldhof Mannheim reached the German cup final in 1939, losing to the 1. FC Nürnberg.
In 1939–40, the league played in four different groups with a finals round at the end to determine the Baden champion. The year after, it returned to its old system.
For the 1941–42 season, the "Gauliga Baden" split into a northern and a southern group with six teams each and a four-team finals round. In 1942–43 it returned to a single, ten-team format. Another change of system for the season after meant 19 clubs in three groups with a three team-finals round.
The imminent collapse of Nazi Germany in 1945 gravely affected all "Gauligas" and football in Baden ceased in January 1945 with none of the groups having absolved their full program.
With the end of the Nazi era, the "Gauligas" ceased to exist and the state of Baden found itself sub divided between two allied occupation zones, the French zone in the south and the US zone in the north.
The northern half soon saw the formation of the Oberliga Süd as the highest football league for the US occupation zone, while the south became part of the Oberliga Südwest.
Founding members of the league.
The ten founding members and their positions in the 1932–33 "Bezirksliga Württemberg/Baden" and "Bezirksliga Rhein/Saar" season were:
Winners and runners-up of the Gauliga Baden.
The winners and runners-up of the league:
Placings in the Gauliga Baden 1933–44.
The complete list of all clubs participating in the league:


Alverstone railway station

Alverstone railway station, was an intermediate station situated on the edge of Alverstone village on the Isle of Wight, off the south coast of England.
History.
Served by the line from Newport to Sandown, the station was incorporated by the Isle of Wight (Newport Junction) Railway in 1868 opened in 1875. Absorbed by the Isle of Wight Central Railway, it became part of the Southern Railway during the Grouping of 1923. Passing on to the Southern Region of British Railways on nationalisation in 1948, it was then closed 81 years after opening by the British Transport Commission.
During a Second World War blackout a train ran through Alverstone and a railwayman had to escort the passengers back to there from Newchurch.
The site today.
The station house is now a private residence. It is a prominent landmark on the walking route and cycle path that runs through Borthwood Copse and into Alverstone Mead.


Cissa (West Saxon)

Cissa was reported as the viceroy of king Centwine of Wessex (reigned c. 676-686). Cissa is sometimes said to have himself been a king of Wessex, but does not feature in the king lists or genealogies. He is said to have constructed Chisbury Camp, and to have founded Abingdon Abbey.


Balthasar Behem Codex

The Balthasar Behem Codex, also known as "Codex Picturatus", is a collection of the charters, privileges and statutes of the burghers of the city of Kraków. Compiled in 1505, the codex was named for the chancellor at the time, Balthasar Behem. The book's text is in German, Latin and Polish. It is now held at the library of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków.
The bylaws of the guilds are featured in twenty-seven illustrations in the codex and depict both biblical subjects and the daily activities of the Kraków burgher guild members, for example that of bakers, titled in Latin: "Pistores", with a subtitle in German: "Das ist der briff und geseccze der becker von Krakow." ("This is the letter and law of the bakers in Cracow", example in color), and the text calligraphed in Latin.
This kind of illustration - showing the practice of trades - was a tradition with an iconographical history going back to late Roman astronomical texts showing the "Labours of the Months", pairing a characteristic activity of rural life with the astrological sign for that month. Historians of culture and art have shown that these illustrations sometimes reflect their iconographical traditions rather than actually depicting contemporary life with accuracy .


Princess Louisa of Great Britain

Princess Louisa Anne of Great Britain (19 March 1749 – 13 May 1768) was a grandchild of King George II and sister of King George III.
Life.
Princess Louisa was born on 19 March 1749, at Leicester House, Westminster, London, and was christened there on 11 April. Her father was Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of George II and Caroline of Ansbach. Her mother was Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. Her godparents were her paternal uncle Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel and aunts the Queen of Denmark and the Princess of Orange, all of whom were represented by proxies. She was reportedly close to her sister Caroline Matilda, who was close in age and was raised with her.
Her health was delicate throughout her life. According to Walpole, she "never appeared more than an unhealthy child of thirteen or fourteen".
In 1764, negotiations were made between the British and Danish royal houses of a marriage between the Danish heir to the throne and a British princess. The marriage was considered suitable in status and welcomed by both houses, as there were few royal Protestant houses to choose between at that point for either party. The preferred choice for a bride was initially Princess Louisa, but after the Danish representative in London, Count Hans Caspar von (1727-1787), was informed of her weak constitution, her two years younger sister Caroline Mathilda was chosen for the match instead. The marriage was announced in Great Britain 10 January 1765.
The same year, 1764, she received a proposal from her brother's brother-in-law, Adolf Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, but negotiations were again deterred due to concerns regarding her health.
Reportedly, by the time her sister Caroline Matilda left Great Britain for Denmark in 1766, Louisa was succumbing to a more and more deteriorating state of health due to an advancing tuberculosis, which eventually turned her into an invalid.
Princess Louisa died, at Carlton House, London, on 13 May 1768, unmarried, and without issue, at the age of 19.


Battle of Tragh-Bhaile

The Battle of Tragh-Bhaile was fought in Ireland in 1399 between the forces of Henry O'Neill's sons and the Anglo-Irish. The Anglo-Irish were victorious.
The O'Neill forces, led by Domhall mac Enri of Tyrone, attacked the English at Tragh-Baile (Dundalk, County Louth), but were repulsed. Domhall was captured and sent to England.


Rosport Castle


5th Parliament of Queen Elizabeth I

The 5th Parliament of Queen Elizabeth I was summoned by Queen Elizabeth I of England on 12 October 1584 and assembled on 23 November 1584. The size of the House of Commons had by now increased further to 460 members, compared with only 402 in her first Parliament of 1558/9.
Like the 4th Parliament of 1572, Elizabeth's 5th Parliament was called in response to a Catholic conspiracy aimed at putting Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots on to the English throne. The Throckmorton plot, as it came to be known, was a foiled conspiracy to assassinate Queen Elizabeth and free Mary Stuart from house arrest. The plan envisaged coordinating the assassination with an invasion of England led by Henry I, Duke of Guise, financed by Spain and the Pope, and a simultaneous revolt of English Roman Catholics, involving both the Jesuits and the English Cardinal Allen. Fears for the safety of Queen and country were amplified by the recent assassination of William of Orange, leader of the Dutch Protestants. John Puckering, a sergeant-at-law, was appointed Speaker of the House of Commons and as in previous Parliaments Elizabeth attempted to prevent the House of Commons from engaging in debate on religious matters.
After two weeks' discussion of national security issues the debate turned inexorably to a proposal to control Jesuits and seminary priests, which was challenged by Dr William Parry, MP for Queenborough. Parry was an inconsistent Government spy, a double agent who had secretly converted to Roman Catholicism. He was interrogated about his motives and released, but denounced by a colleague a short time later. Confessing under further interrogation to plans to kill the Queen, he was himself hanged, drawn and quartered on 2 March 1585.
Further debate on religious matters such as better observance of the Sabbath and clerical abuses was interrupted by a warning from the Queen, although the Sabbath observance bill and several other religion orientated bills passed the third reading, only to be vetoed by Elizabeth at the end of the Parliament.
The usual question of supply (funds voted to the crown for the administration of the realm) was not settled until February 1585. During the session a total of 31 Statutes and 18 private measures received royal assent, including an Act to preserve timber supplies by regulating iron mills. The Parliament was then prorogued (suspended) until 14 November 1586, but dissolved in the prior September to allow a new Parliament to be urgently summoned.


Wignacourt Aqueduct

The Wignacourt Aqueduct () is a 17th-century aqueduct in Malta, which was built by the Order of Saint John to carry water from springs in Dingli and Rabat to the newly built capital city Valletta. The aqueduct was carried through underground pipes and over arched viaducts across depressions in the ground.
The first attempts to build the aqueduct were made by Grand Master Martin Garzez in 1596, but construction was suspended before being continued in 1610. The watercourse was inaugurated five years later on 21 April 1615. Several engineers took part in the project, including Bontadino de Bontadini, Giovanni Attard and Natale Tomasucci. The aqueduct was named after Grand Master Alof de Wignacourt, who partially financed its construction.
The aqueduct remained in use until the 20th century. Most of its arches still survive today, and can still be seen in the localities of Attard, Balzan, Birkirkara, Fleur-de-Lys and Santa Venera. Other remains of the aqueduct include water towers at Santa Venera, Ħamrun and Floriana, and several fountains in Floriana and Valletta.
History.
In 1566, the capital city of Valletta was founded on the Sciberras Peninsula, which did not have a good water supply. Rainwater collected within the city was not enough to meet the needs of its population. Water had to be carted from springs to the city, but this became difficult by the end of the 16th century, when the city had become the largest settlement in Malta. At the time, there were also fears of an Ottoman attack on Malta, so a steady water supply to the capital was a priority for the military authorities in the case of a siege.
The order to build an aqueduct to carry water from springs in Dingli and Rabat to the capital was issued on 19 October 1596. That year, Grand Master Martin Garzez brought in the Jesuit Padre Giacomo to design the watercourse. His design was accepted and work was begun, but construction was suspended soon afterwards due to financial reasons.
On 9 January 1610, works on the aqueduct continued under the direction of another Jesuit called Padre Natale Tomasucci. By this time, Garzez had died and was succeeded as Grand Master by Alof de Wignacourt. In July 1612, the Bolognese hydraulic expert Bontadino de Bontadini took over the project, probably on the recommendation of Inquisitor Evangelista Carbonesi. Bontadini designed a new watercourse with water being carried through underwater pipes, and over stone arches when there were depressions in the ground. Bontadini was assisted by a Maltese "capomastro" Giovanni Attard and two other Sicilian engineers. 600 local workers were employed in the construction of the aqueduct, which was completed in 1614 and inaugurated on 21 April 1615. The aqueduct cost a total of 434,605 scudi, most of which were paid by Grandmaster Wignacourt. The aqueduct was therefore named in his honour.
Upon its completion, the aqueduct supplied of water every day to around 30,000 people. The constant supply of water brought about a rise in the populations of Valletta, Floriana and other towns and villages along the route of the aqueduct.
The aqueduct was improved by Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc in 1781. On 4 September 1798, in the early stages of the Maltese uprising against the French, insurgents ambushed French soldiers near the aqueduct at Mrieħel, in the limits of Birkirkara.
In 1907, there was a proposal to construct buildings on top of the aqueduct, with its arches effectively serving as an arcade. The Office of the Public Works drew up plans for these buildings, but eventually nothing materialized. The aqueduct remained in use until the early 20th century. Parts of the aqueduct, such as in Mosta Road, Attard, were demolished after WII due to the development of housing estates and roads building in the area.
Between 2004 and 2005, the aqueduct's surviving arches were restored and a lighting system was installed, at a total cost of Lm 140,000. Some of the arches are in need of restoration once again, mainly because of pollution since a major road now runs alongside the aqueduct. A section of the aqueduct was extensively damaged in December 2013 due to a car crash, but the damage has since been repaired.
Various sections of the aqueduct are scheduled by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority (MEPA) as grade 1 national monuments and are listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
Architecture.
The aqueduct ran from the springs in Rabat and Dingli to the countryside near Attard through underwater pipes. From Attard onwards, the ground level was irregular so stone arches were constructed where there were depressions. The arches begin at present-day Peter Paul Rubens Street () in Attard, and are initially quite small. They continue through Mdina Road () in Balzan and Birkirkara, and the size of the arches gradually increases as the ground level drops.
At Fleur-de-Lys, the aqueduct crossed the road, and the Wignacourt Arch was built to commemorate the project. The arches then continue through St. Joseph High Road () in Santa Venera, until they stop at a small tower known as the Tower of St. Joseph. From this tower, water continued its journey to Ħamrun, Blata l-Bajda, Floriana and Valletta through underground pipes once again. Water inspection towers were also built at Ħamrun and Floriana.
The aqueduct was built of local limestone. Stones were attached with the use of pozzolana. It was this successful feature that gave most praise to Bontadini. The aqueduct supplied water to cisterns in private and public buildings, to ships in Marsamxett Harbour and Grand Harbour, and to fountains which generally included a water trough.
Wignacourt Arch/Fleur-de-Lys Gate.
The triumphal archway at the boundary between Fleur-de-Lys and Santa Venera is known as the Wignacourt Arch or the Fleur-de-Lys Gate. It has three doorways, and it is adorned with the Wignacourt coat of arms and three sculpted fleurs-de-lis, the heraldic symbols of Wignacourt. The suburb of Fleur-de-Lys got its name from this arch, and fleurs-de-lis are featured on the flags and coat of arms of both Fleur-de-Lys and Santa Venera. One of the original plaques on the arch gave due respect to the engineer Bontadino de Bontadini. The arch together with the aqueduct's water towers and fountains were the first expression of baroque architecture in Malta.
The original arch was demolished in 1944, and a roundabout was later built on its site. The construction of a replica of the arch was approved in 2012. The local councils of Santa Venera and Birkirkara, as well as the Fleur-de-Lys Administrative Committee disagreed on what the arch's name should be, and eventually agreed in 2014 that it should be called "The Wignacourt Arch Known As The Fleur-de-Lys Gate". The arch was reconstructed in 2015, and it was inaugurated on 28 April 2016.
A late eighteenth century coat-of-arm belonging to Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc was probably attached to the arch looking towards Mdina, after the restoration of the aqueduct by de Rohan, but no certainty can be established; this arm still exists and is located few metres away, close to St Joseph Tower (see below), attached to a wall outside the entrance of a police station.
Water inspection towers.
Santa Venera.
The first inspection tower of the Wignacourt Aqueduct is located in present-day Santa Venera. It is called the Tower of St. Joseph (), but it is commonly known as "it-Turretta" in Maltese or the "Torretta" in Italian. The turret is linked to the aqueduct's arches, and it has two floors with a buttressed lower level, giving it the resemblance of a coastal watchtower such as the De Redin towers. It is not clear if the present structure is the original one, since the original designs of the aqueduct show a slightly different tower. The tower had the following inscription (no longer visible):
Ħamrun.
The second water inspection tower was built on the hill of St. Nicholas in Ħamrun, and it is known as "il-Monument tat-Tromba" or "it-Turretta ta' Atoċja". It has a round shape, and water originally flowed through an open tank in the tower. The tower contains the Wignacourt coat of arms and a commemorative inscription which reads:
The tower still exists, but it is in a dilapidated state and it is surrounded by modern houses.
In 1780, when the aqueduct was improved by De Rohan, a commemorative obelisk was erected some distance away from the tower. It is now found in a private backyard. It has a coat of arms which was damaged in World War II, and an inscription which means:
Floriana.
The third and final water inspection tower was built in Floriana, and it became known as the Wignacourt Water Tower. It is located close to Argotti Botanical Gardens and the Sarria Church. It is a round structure supported by pilasters, and it also contains a fountain and a horse trough. The top of the tower contains a sculpted fleur-de-lis, and it is also decorated with the coat of arms of the Order of St. John and the personal arms of Wignacourt. Below the coats of arms is the following inscription:
The tower was included on the Antiquities List of 1925. The tower has been a grade 1 scheduled property since 1994.
The tower was restored between June 2015 and June 2016 by the Ministry for Transport and Infrastructure. The lion relief, pouring water, that is part of the water-trough (which is attached to the fountain) has eroded over the years and was replaced with a replica in 2016. The interior consists of a spiral staircase which was also restored in 2016.
Fountains.
With the completion of the Wignacourt Aqueduct, many fountains supplied by water from the aqueducts were built in Valletta.
Wignacourt fountain and Pinto renovation.
First interpretation.
The "first" fountain which was connected to the aqueduct is the Wignacourt Fountain, then located in St. George's Square in Valletta, facing the Grandmaster's Palace. It was officially inaugurated on 21 April 1625, marking the arrival of water in Valletta. This fountain was symbolic of Wignacourt as, similar to the other monuments of the aqueduct, it had a Fleur-des-Lis on top. There is an early 18th century painting of the square with this fountain included. The inauguration ceremony of the aqueduct on 21 April 1615 was held at this fountain. The original fountain was Baroque but less decorated and was ordered to be demolished on 2 January 1745.
The "Pinto fountain" was inaugurated on 18 January 1746 by Grand Master Pinto. When the square became a parade ground for the British military, the fountain was first relocated close by to the Palace of Justice (later destroyed and replaced) and then to St. Philip's Gardens in Floriana, where it remains today. Architect Said says that the fountain was moved away by the knights, prior British rule, as evidenced with some paintings.
Second interpretation.
Other views say that the fountain was only renovated by Pinto and not destroyed. The missing Fleur-de-lis was removed at some point, and was replaced by an alternative. Originally the fountain had two basins while with the addition it now has three. The third basin was added much before deciding to completely remove the Baroque fountain from the square.
The fountain consists of a large circular basin with three smaller seashell-like basins above it, supported on a pedestal containing sculpted dolphins. It is scheduled as a Grade 1 monument. The fountain has been restored, after years of neglect.
Fountain at the Valletta Marina.
Another fountain was located at Valletta's marina, just outside Del Monte Gate and near the fish market. It was depicted in a landmark view of Valletta in 1664.
It had an ornate basin, a marble cannon barrel-shaped spout, topped by a bronze statue of Neptune holding a trident in one hand, with the other hand resting on an escutcheon containing the Wignacourt coat of arms. The statue is based on the "Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune". Doria was an Italian Admiral of the Order of St John, praised for his role during sea battles against the Ottomans. The marble of the spout has a Latin inscription which says:
The statue was most likely sculpted by Leone Leoni in 1584. Other sources attribute it to Giovanni Bologna, a student of Michelangelo. The fountain supplied excess water from the Wignacourt Fountain to ships anchored at the Grand Harbour.
During the rule of the Order of St. John, the Grand Harbour was not equipped with a main breakwater, and this allowed the creation of strong sea waves in the harbour. A small breakwater was built next to the fountain to safeguard the boats loading water aboard in the 17th century. In 1686 strong waves destroyed the breakwater and caused extensive damage to the whereabouts of the fountain. The damage prevented ships from using the water of the fountain, and consequently Grand Master Gregorio Carafa had to pay for renovation works. A commemorative inscription reads:
The place remained a strategic location for harbouring fishing vessels and selling fish. The fountain remained intact after the departure of the knights in 1798. The fountain is featured in an 1840 water colour painting by Jean Nicholas Henry de Chacaton. By the 19th century it was dismantled and replaced by a closed fishing market. This also became defunct by 1937 marking the end of use of site but moved few metres away.
In 1858, the statue of Neptune was relocated by Governor Le Gaspard to the Grandmaster's Palace lower courtyard, which is now also known as "Neptune's Courtyard". The fountain spout is now located at the Malta Maritime Museum in Birgu.
The statue of Neptune is often described as a giant. The area around the original location of the fountain remained known as "fuq l–iġgant" (on the giant) until well into the 20th century.
The Perellos Fountain was once also at the Valletta Marina and is now found under the loggia of the Palace of the Grand Master.
"Omnibus Idem" fountain.
Another fountain, sometimes also known as the Wignacourt Fountain, was built close to Porta Reale in Valletta attached to the Ferreria building (demolished). It consists of a lion's head pouring out water into a stone basin, topped by the coat of arms of Wignacourt and the Order and surrounded by a garland of flowers and interlocking seashells. Below the coats of arms is a radiating sun with the inscription "Omnibus Idem" (meaning "the same to all"), indicating that the water was freely available to everyone.
This fountain was relocated a number of times throughout its history: first in 1874 when the building near which it was built was demolished to build Palazzo Ferreria, in the 1960s when the City Gate was rebuilt, in 2000 when Saint James Cavalier was renovated and converted into a cultural centre, and again in the early 2010s during the City Gate Project. Due to these relocations and renovations, nothing remains of the original fountain.
Other fountains.
Other fountains built in subsequent centuries, such as the Lion Fountain in Floriana, which was built in 1728 during the magistracy of António Manoel de Vilhena, were also supplied by water from the aqueducts.
Commemorations.
The aqueduct is featured on a ceiling at the Archbishop's Palace in Valletta. At the National Library of Malta is a painting, next to Vilhena's Cabreo, which portrays some of Valleta's engineering water storage technique.
The 400th anniversary of the aqueduct was commemorated on 21 April 2015. A ceremony was held in Valletta, with school children carrying water from City Gate to St. George's Square, where a re-enactment of the inauguration of the aqueduct was held.
The anniversary was also commemorated by a silver coin minted by the Central Bank of Malta. The coin shows the aqueduct on the reverse and Grandmaster Wignacourt on the obverse.
MaltaPost also issued a set of two stamps on 21 April 2015. The stamps show Wignacourt Arch and the Wignacourt Water Tower in Fleur-de-Lys and Floriana respectively.


Custos rotulorum

Custos rotulorum (; plural: custodes rotulorum; Latin for "keeper of the rolls", ) is a civic post which is recognised in the United Kingdom (except Scotland) and in Jamaica.
England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
The "custos rotulorum" is the keeper of an English, Welsh and Northern Irish county's records and, by virtue of that office, the highest civil officer in the county. The position is now largely ceremonial.
The appointment until 1545, lay with the Lord Chancellor, but is now exercised by the Crown, under the Royal sign-manual, and was usually held by a person of rank. The appointment has been united with that of the lord-lieutenancy of the county throughout England since 1836. The "custos rotulorum" of Lancashire was formerly appointed by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and that of County Durham vested in the Bishop of Durham until the abolition of its palatine rights. Traditionally, he was one of the justices of the peace. The custos rotulorum of the Isle of Ely remained the Bishop of Ely until the 'Liberty of Ely Act 1837'.
In practice, the records were in the custody of the clerk of the peace. This latter official was, until 1888, appointed by the "custos rotulorum", but following the passing of the Local Government Act of that year, the appointment was made by the standing joint-committee of the county council. The post of clerk of the peace was abolished by the Courts Act 1971.
William Lambarde (1536–1601) described the "custos rotulorum" as a man chosen for his wisdom, countenance or credit.
Ireland.
The role of "custos rotulorum" was also adopted in the Kingdom of Ireland, usually abbreviated as the post-nominal "CoRo". From 1831 the title passed to the pre-existing Lord Lieutenant of every county as office-holder, and from then the List of Lords Lieutenant of County Dublin corresponded with the Custos Rotulorum of Dublin. "Custodes rotulorum" were abolished by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898. In 1922 the creation of the Irish Free State resulted in the abolition of the by then largely honorific posts, but Lord Lieutenancies are still retained in Northern Ireland.
Jamaica.
History.
The Office of the Custos evolved in Jamaica from its colonial past. It can be traced back to fourteenth-century England when in 1391 King Richard II issued the Grand Commission appointing Custodes and Justices of the Peace to assist in maintaining law and order in the counties.
In Jamaica the first mention of the office appears in Legislative Council Minutes of 28 July 1668 in an ordinance dealing with the 'Orderly Proceedings of the Courts' within the island. The holder of the Office of Custos was described as the first citizen of the parish appointed by the Governor as his representative to assist in the maintenance of good order and discipline in the parish, and upholding the rule of law. The first Custos mentioned by name was Henry Morgan as the Custos of Port Royal during the Governorship of the Earl of Carlisle in 1680.
The Custos Rotulorum or Keeper of the Roll of the Justices of the Peace must be a Justice of the Peace and have dealt with such minor criminal charges as are within his jurisdiction. The duties and powers of the Custos at various times have included:
Appointment and duties.
Ministry Paper Numbered 2, Appendix I, approved by Parliament on the 5th day of July 1959 and gazetted on the 5th day of February 1963 outlined that there shall be a Custos Rotulorum for every parish in Jamaica. The Custos shall be appointed by the Governor-General acting on the advice of the Prime Minister and shall be a resident of the parish to which he is appointed, save in the case of the Corporate Area.
That document also specified the functions and duties of the Custos as:
In addition to the above, Custodes in recent times have served as:
Privileges.
The Custos is entitled to the following:
References.
https://web.archive.org/web/20111109011530/http://www.kingshouse.gov.jm/custodes


Woodford baronets

The Woodford Baronetcy, of Carleby in the County of Lincoln, was a title in the Baronetage of Great Britain. It was created on 28 July 1791 for Ralph Woodford, the former Ambassador to Denmark. The second Baronet was Governor of Trinidad between 1813 and 1828. The title became extinct on his death the latter year.


Angelo I Gozzadini

Angelo I Gozzadini (died between 1468 and 1476) was Lord of Kythnos.
He married in 1429 Caterina Crispo (born 1415, date of death unknown), daughter of Nicholas Crispo, Lord of Syros, and wife Valenza-Eudokia Komnena, and sister of Francesco II, sixteenth Duke of the Archipelago.


Matthias Corvinus House

The Matthias Corvinus House (Romanian: "Casa Matia", ) is one of the oldest buildings in Cluj-Napoca, Transylvania, Romania. It was built in the 15th century, in the gothic style, as a small guesthouse. During its history, the house served as a jail, hospital, and museum; it is now home to a visual arts institute.
Matthias Corvinus (Hungarian: "Hunyadi Mátyás", Romanian: "Matia Corvin"), son of John Hunyadi, later one of the most renowned Kings of Hungary, was born in this building on 23 February 1443. That time the house was owned by Jakab (James) Méhffi, who was a well-to-do wine-grower and merchant in the city. On 28 September 1467, king Matthias gave tax and duty exemption privilege for all descendants of the Méhffi family, the owner of the building.
The house has been owned by the Art and Design University of Cluj-Napoca since 1950.


Obertyn

Obertyn (, , , also Obertin) is an urban-type settlement in Tlumach Raion in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (region) of western Ukraine. Population: .
History.
The Battle of Obertyn took place here on August 22, 1531, fought between Moldavian Prince Petru Rareş and Polish King Zygmunt Stary. The battle ended with a Polish victory and the reconquest of Pokutia.
The town had an important Jewish community before World War II. In June and September 1942 the Nazis transported Jews of the town to the extermination camp in Bełżec. In 1943 the German occupiers killed nearly all the remaining Jews in Obertyn by shooting them or burning them alive in their houses. Only one child, Christina Carmi, survived the massacre.


John Davies (historian)

John Davies (25 April 1938 – 16 February 2015) was a Welsh historian, and a television and radio broadcaster. He attended university at Cardiff and Cambridge and taught Welsh at Aberystwyth. He wrote a number of books on Welsh history.
Education.
Davies was born in the Rhondda, Wales, and studied at both University College, Cardiff, and Trinity College, Cambridge.
Life and work.
Davies was married with four children although in later life he admitted to being bisexual. After teaching Welsh history at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, he retired to Cardiff, and appeared frequently as a presenter and contributor to history programmes on television and radio.
In the mid-1980s, Davies was commissioned to write a concise history of Wales by Penguin Books to add to its Pelican series of the histories of nations. The decision by Penguin to commission the volume "in" Welsh was "unexpected and highly commendable," wrote Davies.
"I seized the opportunity to write of Wales and the Welsh. When I had finished, I had a typescript which was almost three times larger than the original commission," wrote Davies. The original voluminous typescript was first published in hardback under the "Allen Lane" imprint. Davies took a sabbatical from his post at the University College of Wales and wrote most of the chapters while touring Europe. Davies dedicated "Hanes Cymru" to his wife, Janet Mackenzie Davies.
"Hanes Cymru" was translated into English and published in 1993, as there was "a demand among English-speakers to read what was already available to Welsh-speakers," wrote Davies. A revised edition was published (in both languages) in 2007.
In 2005, Davies received the Glyndŵr Award for an Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in Wales during the Machynlleth Festival. He won the 2010 Wales Book of the Year for "Cymru: Y 100 lle i'w gweld cyn marw".
Davies lived in Grangetown, Cardiff. To mark his 75th birthday in 2013, the Welsh language television channel S4C broadcast a programme, "Gwirionedd y Galon: Dr John Davies", about his life and his home and in 2014 published his autobiography in Welsh.
Davies died at the age of 76 in 2015 and, as a tribute to his longstanding friend, Jon Gower republished Davies' autobiography in English.


Francesc de Tamarit

Francesc de Tamarit i de Rifà (1584 – 1653) was a Catalan Marshal and the military deputy of the Principality of Catalonia (1639–1641) voted by the Catalan aristocracy, notable for his service in the Reapers' War, particularly at the Battle of Montjuïc in 1641 where the force of the Catalan army defeated a much larger Spanish army.
He was born in Barcelona, Spain. The son of Pere de Tamarit, he was member of the Consell de Cent.