Chickasaw

The Chickasaw ( ) are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. Their language is classified as a member of the Muskogean language family. In the present day, they are organized as the federally recognized Chickasaw Nation.
Sometime prior to the first European contact, the Chickasaw migrated from western regions and moved east of the Mississippi River, where they settled mostly in present-day northeast Mississippi, Alabama, and into Lawrence County, Tennessee, where they encountered European explorers and traders. They had interaction with the French, English, and Spanish during the colonial years. The United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southeast, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Resisting European-American settlers encroaching on their territory, they were forced by the US to sell their country in the 1832 Treaty of Pontotoc Creek and move to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) during the era of Indian Removal in the 1830s.
Most of their descendants remain as residents of what is now Oklahoma. The Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th-largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a common history with them. The Chickasaw are divided into two groups (moieties): the "Impsaktea" and the "Intcutwalipa". They traditionally followed a kinship system of matrilineal descent, in which inheritance and descent are traced through the maternal line. Children are considered born into the mother's family and clan, and gain their social status from her. Women controlled some property and hereditary leadership in the tribe passed through the maternal line.
Etymology.
The name Chickasaw, as noted by anthropologist John Swanton, belonged to a Chickasaw leader. "Chickasaw" is the English spelling of "Chikashsha" (), meaning "rebel" or "comes from Chicsa".
Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto recorded them as "Chicaza" when his expedition came into contact with them in 1540; the Spanish were the first known Europeans to explore the North American Southeast.
History.
The origin of the Chickasaw is uncertain; 20th-century scholars, such as the archaeologist Patricia Galloway, theorize that the Chickasaw and Choctaw split into distinct peoples in the 17th century from the remains of Plaquemine culture and other groups whose ancestors had lived in the lower Mississippi Valley for thousands of years. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaw were living in villages in what is now northeastern Mississippi.
The Chickasaw are believed to have migrated into Mississippi from the west, as their oral history attests. They and the Choctaw were once one people and migrated from west of the Mississippi River into present-day Mississippi in prehistoric times; the Chickasaw and Choctaw split along the way. The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere spanned the Eastern Woodlands. The Mississippian cultures emerged from previous moundbuilding societies by 880 CE. They built complex, dense villages supporting a stratified society, with centers throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys and their tributaries.
In the 15th century, proto-Chickasaw people left the Tombigbee Valley after the collapse of the Moundville chiefdom. They settled into the upper Yazoo and Pearl River valleys in present-day Mississippi. Historian Arrell Gibson and anthropologist John R. Swanton believed the Chickasaw Old Fields were in Madison County, Alabama.
Another version of the Chickasaw creation story is that they arose at "Nanih Waiya," a great earthwork mound built about 300 CE by Woodland peoples. It is also sacred to the Choctaw, who have a similar story about it. The mound was built about 1400 years before the coalescence of each of these peoples as ethnic groups.
The first European contact with the Chickasaw ancestors was in 1540 when Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto encountered them and stayed in one of their towns, most likely near present-day Tupelo, Mississippi. After various disagreements, the Chickasaw attacked the De Soto expedition in a nighttime raid, nearly destroying the force. The Spanish moved on quickly.
The Chickasaw began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670. With British-supplied guns, the Chickasaw raided their neighbors and enemies the Choctaw, capturing some members and selling them into Indian slavery to the British. When the Choctaw acquired guns from the French, power between the tribes became more equalized and the slave raids stopped.
Allied with the British, the Chickasaw were often at war with the French and the Choctaw in the 18th century, such as in the Battle of Ackia on May 26, 1736. Skirmishes continued until France ceded its claims to the region east of the Mississippi River after being defeated by the British in the Seven Years' War (called the French and Indian War in North America).
Following the American Revolutionary War, in 1793-94, Chickasaw fought as allies of the new United States under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians of the old Northwest Territory. The Shawnee and other, allied Northwest Indians were defeated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794.
A 19th-century historian, Horatio Cushman, wrote, "Neither the Choctaws nor Chicksaws ever engaged in war against the American people, but always stood as their faithful allies." Cushman believed the Chickasaw, along with the Choctaw, may have had origins in present-day Mexico and migrated north. That theory does not have consensus; archeological research, as noted above, has revealed the peoples had long histories in the Mississippi area and independently developed complex cultures.
Tribal lands.
In 1797, a general appraisal of the tribe and its territorial bounds was made by Abraham Bishop of New Haven, who wrote:
United States relations.
George Washington (first U.S. President) and Henry Knox (first U.S. Secretary of War) proposed the cultural transformation of Native Americans. Washington believed that Native Americans were equals, but that their society was inferior. He formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process, and Thomas Jefferson continued it. Historian Robert Remini wrote, "They presumed that once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans." Washington's six-point plan included impartial justice toward Indians; regulated buying of Indian lands; promotion of commerce; promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Indian society; presidential authority to give presents; and punishing those who violated Indian rights.
The government-appointed Indian agents, such as Benjamin Hawkins, who became Superintendent of Indian Affairs for all the territory south of the Ohio River. He and other agents lived among the Indians to teach them, through example and instruction, how to live like whites. Hawkins married a Muscogee Creek woman and lived with her people for decades. In the 19th century, the Chickasaw increasingly adopted European-American practices, as they established schools, adopted yeoman farming practices, converted to Christianity, and built homes in styles like their European-American neighbors.
Treaty of Hopewell (1786).
The Chickasaw signed the Treaty of Hopewell in 1786. Article 11 of that treaty states: "The hatchet shall be forever buried, and the peace given by the United States of America, and friendship re-established between the said States on the one part, and the Chickasaw nation on the other part, shall be universal, and the contracting parties shall use their utmost endeavors to maintain the peace given as aforesaid, and friendship re-established." Benjamin Hawkins attended this signing.
Treaty of 1818.
In 1818, leaders of the Chickasaw signed several treaties, including the Treaty of Tuscaloosa, which ceded all claims to land north of the southern border of Tennessee up to the Ohio River (the southern border of Indiana and the Illinois Territory). This was known as the "Jackson Purchase." The Chickasaw were allowed to retain a four-square-mile reservation but were required to lease the land to European immigrants.
Colbert legacy (19th century).
In the mid-18th century, an American-born trader of Scots and Chickasaw ancestry by the name of James Logan Colbert settled in the Muscle Shoals area of Mississippi. He lived there for the next 40 years, where he married three high-ranking Chickasaw women in succession. Chickasaw chiefs and high-status women found such marriages of strategic benefit to the tribe, as it gave them advantages with traders over other groups. Colbert and his wives had numerous children, including seven sons: William, Jonathan, George, Levi, Samuel, Joseph, and Pittman (or James). Six survived to adulthood (Jonathan died young.)
The Chickasaw had a matrilineal system, in which children were considered born into the mother's clan; and they gained their status in the tribe from her family. Property and hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line, and the mother's eldest brother was the main male mentor of the children, especially of boys. Because of the status of their mothers, for nearly a century, the Colbert-Chickasaw sons and their descendants provided critical leadership during the tribe's greatest challenges. They had the advantage of growing up bilingual.
Of these six sons, William "Chooshemataha" Colbert (named after James Logan's father, Chief/Major William d'Blainville "Piomingo" Colbert) served with General Andrew Jackson during the Creek Wars of 1813-14. He also had served during the Revolutionary wars and received a commission from President George Washington in 1786 along with his namesake grandfather. His brothers Levi ("Itawamba Mingo") and George Colbert ("Tootesmastube") also had military service in support of the United States. In addition, the two each served as interpreters and negotiators for chiefs of the tribe during the period of removal. Levi Colbert served as principal chief, which may have been a designation by the Americans, who did not understand the decentralized nature of the chiefs' council, based on the tribe reaching broad consensus for major decisions. An example is that more than 40 chiefs from the Chickasaw Council, representing clans and villages, signed a letter in November 1832 by Levi Colbert to President Andrew Jackson, complaining about treaty negotiations with his appointee General John Coffee. After Levi's death in 1834, the Chickasaw people were forced upon the Trail of Tears. His brother, George Colbert, reluctantly succeeded him as chief and principal negotiator, because he was bilingual and bicultural. George "Tootesmastube" Colbert never reached the Chickasaw's "Oka Homa" (red waters); he died on Choctaw territory, Fort Towson, en route.
Treaty of Pontotoc Creek and Removal (1832-1837).
In 1832 after the state of Mississippi declared its jurisdiction over the Chickasaw Indians, outlawing tribal self-governance, Chickasaw chiefs assembled at the national council house on October 20, 1832 and signed the Treaty of Pontotoc Creek, ceding their remaining Mississippi territory to the U.S. and agreeing to find land and relocate west of the Mississippi River. Between 1832 and 1837, the Chickasaw would make further negotiations and arrangements for their removal.
Unlike other tribes who received land grants in exchange for ceding territory, the Chickasaw held out for financial compensation: they were to receive $3 million U.S. dollars from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River.
In 1836 after a bitter five-year debate within the tribe, the Chickasaw had reached an agreement to purchase land in Indian Territory from the previously removed Choctaw. They paid the Choctaw $530,000 for the westernmost part of their land. The first group of Chickasaw moved in 1837. For nearly 30 years, the US did not pay the Chickasaw the $3 million it owed them for their historic territory in the Southeast.
The Chickasaw gathered at Memphis, Tennessee, on July 4, 1837, with all of their portable assets: belongings, livestock, and enslaved African Americans. Three thousand and one Chickasaw crossed the Mississippi River, following routes established by the Choctaw and Creek. During the journey, often called the Trail of Tears by all the Southeast tribes that had to make it, more than 500 Chickasaw died of dysentery and smallpox.
When the Chickasaw reached Indian Territory, the United States began to administer to them through the Choctaw Nation, and later merged them for administrative reasons. The Chickasaw wrote their own constitution in the 1850s, an effort contributed to by Holmes Colbert.
After several decades of mistrust between the two peoples, in the twentieth century, the Chickasaw re-established their independent government. They are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. The government is headquartered in Ada, Oklahoma.
American Civil War (1861).
The Chickasaw Nation was the first of the Five Civilized Tribes to become allies of the Confederate States of America. In addition, they resented the United States government, which had forced them off their lands and failed to protect them against the Plains tribes in the West. In 1861, as tensions rose related to the sectional conflict, the US Army abandoned Fort Washita, leaving the Chickasaw Nation defenseless against the Plains tribes. Confederate officials recruited the American Indian tribes with suggestions of an Indian state if they were victorious in the Civil War.
The Chickasaw passed a resolution allying with the Confederacy, which was signed by Governor Cyrus Harris on May 25, 1861.
At the beginning of the American Civil War, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity, he negotiated several treaties, including the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty-four terms, covering many subjects such as Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty, Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. Because the Chickasaw sided with the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War, they had to forfeit some of their land afterward. In addition, the US renegotiated their treaty, insisting on their emancipation of slaves and offering citizenship to those who wanted to stay in the Chickasaw Nation. If they returned to the United States, they would have US citizenship.
Government.
The Chickasaws were first combined with the Choctaw Nation and their area was called the Chickasaw District. Although originally the western boundary of the Choctaw Nation extended to the 100th meridian, virtually no Chickasaw lived west of the Cross Timbers. The area was subject to continual raiding by the Indians on the Southern Plains. The United States eventually leased the area between the 100th and 98th meridians for the use of the Plains tribes. The area was referred to as the "Leased District".
Post–Civil War.
Because the Chickasaw allied with the Confederacy, after the Civil War the United States government required the nation to make a new peace treaty in 1866. It included the provision that they emancipate the enslaved African Americans and provide full citizenship to those who wanted to stay in the Chickasaw Nation.
These people and their descendants became known as the Chickasaw Freedmen. Descendants of the Freedmen continue to live in Oklahoma. Today, the Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen Association of Oklahoma represents the interests of freedmen descendants in both of these tribes.
But the Chickasaw Nation never granted citizenship to the Chickasaw freedmen. The only way that African Americans could become citizens at that time was to have one or more Chickasaw parents or to petition for citizenship and go through the process available to other non-Natives, even if they were of known partial Chickasaw descent in an earlier generation. Because the Chickasaw Nation did not provide citizenship to their freedmen after the Civil War (it would have been akin to formal adoption of individuals into the tribe), they were penalized by the U.S. Government. It took more than half of their territory, with no compensation. They lost territory that had been negotiated in treaties in exchange for their use after removal from the Southeast.
State-recognized tribes.
The Chaloklowa Chickasaw Indian People, made up of descendants of Chickasaw who did not leave the Southeast, were recognized as a "state-recognized group" in 2005 by South Carolina. They are headquartered in Hemingway, South Carolina. In 2003, they unsuccessfully petitioned the US Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs to try to gain federal recognition as an Indian tribe.
Culture.
The suffix "-mingo" (Chickasaw: "minko") is used to identify a chief. For example, "Tishomingo" was the name of a famous Chickasaw chief. The towns of Tishomingo in Mississippi and Oklahoma were named for him, as was Tishomingo County in Mississippi. South Carolina's Black Mingo Creek was named after a colonial Chickasaw chief, who controlled the lands around it as a hunting ground. Sometimes the suffix is spelled "minko", but this most often occurs in older literary references.
In 2010, the tribe opened the Chickasaw Cultural Center in Sulphur, Oklahoma. It includes the "Chikasha Inchokka’" Traditional Village, Honor Garden, Sky and Water pavilion, and several in-depth exhibits about the diverse culture of the Chickasaw.


Andrew Arnold Lambing

Monsignor Andrew Arnold Lambing or Rev. A. A. Lambing (1842–1918) was an American Roman Catholic priest and historian. He was one of the nation's foremost priest-historians, having founded the first Catholic historical society in the United States (The Ohio Valley Catholic Historical Society, in February 1884) as well as the first Catholic historical quarterly.
Born in a hamlet that became Manorville, Armstrong County, Pennsylvania, adjacent to Ford City, he worked as a boy on his family's farm. As an adolescent he labored in a brick yard and in the pioneering oil business of Samuel Kier on the Allegheny River. At age 21 Lambing entered St. Michael's Preparatory and Theological Seminary in Pittsburgh, was ordained in 1869 by Bishop Michael Domenec, and was briefly assigned to teach history at St. Francis College, Loretto. Thereafter, during forty years of Pittsburgh's post-Civil War, industrial and population boom, he ministered to thousands of the city's Catholic immigrants from Europe. During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, he was credited with calming some strikers intent on destroying a freight depot of the Pennsylvania Railroad in the city's rail yards.
Lambing was among the first academically-trained historians of Western Pennsylvania and the first to document the beginnings of the Catholic Church there. Two of his most important contributions were the first English translation, from the French, of the 1749 journal of Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville and the publication of the register of baptisms at Fort Duquesne. He wrote numerous articles for newspapers and magazines on historical and religious subjects, including a majority of two early and significant regional histories: "History of Allegheny County" and the "Standard History of Pittsburgh". He served as president of the Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania. Andrew Carnegie appointed Lambing a trustee of both the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh and the Carnegie School of Technology. In 1883 the University of Notre Dame conferred on him the honorary degree of Master of Arts and in 1886 the Doctor of Laws. He died Christmas Eve, 1918, and is buried in the priest’s section at St. Mary Cemetery in the city's Lawrenceville neighborhood. His headstone is in the shape of a large open book.


William Nicoll (speaker)

William Nicoll (1657 – November 20, 1723) was an English-born colonial American merchant and politician who served as the Speaker of the New York General Assembly.
Early life.
Nicoll was born in the village of Islip, Northamptonshire, in 1657. He was the son of Abigail (née Johns) Nicoll and Matthias Nicoll, who served as the 6th Mayor of New York City from 1672 to 1673. His sister, Margaret Nicoll, was married to Col. Richard Floyd Jr., the colonel of provincial troops of Suffolk County and judge of the Court of Common Pleas and grandfather of William Floyd.
Nicoll came to America in 1664 with his father and Richard Nicolls, the 1st Colonial governor of the Province of New York. His father, Richard's secretary and reportedly also his nephew, was present for the Peter Stuyvesant's surrender of Dutch New Amsterdam to the English.
William was educated by his father and studied law with him. When Edmund Andros returned to England in 1681 to receive a knighthood, William went with him, served in the English Army and saw active service in Flanders.
Career.
After returning to America, Nicoll was admitted to the bar and was appointed Clerk of Queens County and in 1683, he became Register of the Court of Admiralty.
On April 11, 1687, he was appointed Attorney General of the Province of New York. He held this office for only a year due to James II annexation of New York to the Dominion of New England on May 7, 1688. Nicoll was vehemently opposed the Leisler Rebellion (May 1689 to March 1691) and refused to surrender his commission as Justice of the Peace, therefore, Jacob Leisler imprisoned him. Nicoll was jailed for 14 months until March 1691 when Governor Henry Sloughter arrived from New York and squashed the rebellion. Upon his release from prison, Nicoll was appointed to the Governor's Council and named King's Counsel during Leisler's Treason Trial.
In 1695, the Assembly sent Nicoll and Chidley Brooke, a fellow Council member, to London to urge the English government to require the other English colonies to help pay for a force to defend against the French. While traveling, Nicoll and Brooke were captured by French privateers, robbed, and he was again imprisoned, this time in St. Malo.
He was eventually released and in 1701, he was elected as a member of the New York General Assembly, representing Suffolk County, serving until his death in 1723. From October 20, 1702 until May 27, 1718, when he resigned due to ill health, he also served as the Speaker of the Assembly.
Personal life.
On November 29, 1683, Governor Thomas Dongan granted Nicoll a royal patent of 50,000 acres on the Long Island. In later years, received further land grants and his manor became the largest on Long Island totaling . In 1701, he built a mansion on the Great South Bay in present-day Islip, New York in honor of his birthplace in England. In 1718, Nicoll sold his father's estate, Plandome Manor, then over 1,000 acres. The manor house on his father's estate was torn down in 1998 by its new owner.
Nicoll was married to Anna van Rensselaer (1665-1723). She was the widow of the patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer, and the daughter of Jeremias van Rensselaer and Maria (née Van Cortlandt) Van Rensselaer. Among her large family were uncles Stephanus Van Cortlandt and Jacobus Van Cortlandt, both of whom served as mayor of New York City. Together, William and Anna were the parents of:
Nicoll died at his home, the manor of Islip Grange, on November 20, 1723.
Descendants.
As William Nicoll Jr. died unmarried and without issue, the Nicoll estate was inherited by William's grandson, William Nicoll III (d. 1778), the eldest son of Benjamin, who became the third family member to be elected to the General Assembly where he served from 1768 until 1769.
Through his daughter Mary, he was the grandfather of John Watts, himself the father of U.S. Representative John Watts. Through his daughter Catherine, he was the grandfather of Nicoll Havens (1733–1783), who married Sarah Fosdick (1730–1767), parents of Yale graduate and U.S. Representative Jonathan Nicoll Havens.


Theodore Roosevelt Award

The Theodore Roosevelt Award is the highest honor the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) may confer on an individual. The award is awarded annually to a graduate from an NCAA member institution who earned a varsity letter in college for participation in intercollegiate athletics, and who ultimately became a distinguished citizen of national reputation based on outstanding life accomplishment. Each awardee, by personal example, is said to exemplify the ideals and purposes to which collegiate athletics are dedicated.
The award, nicknamed "The Teddy," is named after U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, whose concern for the conduct of intercollegiate athletes and athletic programs led to the formation of the NCAA in 1906. Past winners include four former Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower (1967), Gerald R. Ford (1975), George H.W. Bush (1986), and Ronald Reagan (1990).


Cortlandt V. R. Schuyler

Cortlandt Van Rensselaer Schuyler (December 22, 1900 – December 4, 1993) was a United States Army four-star general who served as Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (COFS SHAPE) from 1953 to 1959.
Early life.
Schuyler was born in Mount Arlington, New Jersey on December 22, 1900. He was the son of Frank Herbert Schuyler (1865–1942) and Harriette Jarvis Ferris (née Fosdick) Schuyler (1865–1919). His father was the president of the Federal Bridge Company for a decade before his death in 1942.
Schuyler was a descendant of the prominent Schuyler, Van Cortlandt, and Van Rensselaer families of upstate New York. His fifth great grandparents were Kiliaen Van Rensselaer and Maria Van Cortlandt, the daughter of Stephanus van Cortlandt and Gertrude Schuyler, a daughter of Schuyler family progenitor Philip Pieterse Schuyler.
He attended Columbia High School in Maplewood, New Jersey. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1922, where he finished 11th in a class of 102, and was commissioned in the Coast Artillery Corps.
Career.
His first assignment was at Fort Monroe, Virginia, where he was assigned to the 61st Antiaircraft Battalion, at the time the only anti-aircraft unit in the army. Later he served with the 60th Coast Artillery (antiaircraft) in the Philippines and the 4th Coast Artillery (Antiaircraft) at Fort Amador in the Panama Canal Zone. He graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College in 1937.
In 1939, while a member of the Antiaircraft section of the Coast Artillery Board, he participated actively in the development of the first multiple, power-operated antiaircraft machine gun mount.(Quadmount), He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his work in this field.
In 1942, Schuyler was assigned to the Antiaircraft Command in Richmond, Virginia in 1942. He was promoted to brigadier general and assigned as chief of staff of the Antiaircraft Command. The Antiaircraft Command had the task of organizing and training all antiaircraft units of a rapidly expanding Army and controlled eight large training centers from Massachusetts to California.
In the fall of 1944, General Schuyler was assigned to Bucharest, Romania, as the U.S. Military Representative to the Allied Control Commission. The agency was created by the three interested allied governments (British, U.S. and Russian) to administer the terms of the Romanian armistice.
Return to Washington.
In 1947, General Schuyler returned to Washington and was assigned as the Chief of the Plans and Policy Group, Army General Staff. It was in this position that he became heavily involved in the fast developing concept of the North Atlantic alliance. He assisted in the preparation of policy papers and participated in the discussions which, in 1949, culminated in the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). When General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed as the Supreme Commander of all NATO forces in Europe, General Schuyler was part of Eisenhower's staff as the special assistant to the chief of staff.
In 1952, Schuyler was promoted to major general and given command of the 28th Infantry Division in 1953.
In 1954, he was promoted to lieutenant general and assigned to SHAPE headquarters in Paris as the Chief of Staff to Supreme Allied Commander General Alfred M. Gruenther. Schuyler was promoted to general in 1956 and remained as the chief of staff for the new Supreme Commander, General Lauris Norstad, until his retirement from the Army in November 1959.
Post military career.
After retiring from the army in 1959, Schuyler served as Commissioner of the New York State Office of General Services from 1960 to 1971, and was an executive aide to New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller.
In 1962, Rockefeller appointed Schuyler chairman of his Emergency Staff committee and ordered it to meet as needed in support of President John F. Kennedy's administration during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1963, he was appointed chairman of the State Civil Defense Commission.
Personal life.
Schuyler was married twice, first to Wynona Coykendall (1902–1981), the daughter of Electra (née Heaton) Coykendall and Louis T. Coykendall, a vice-president of Presbrey-Leland, Inc. Together, they had a daughter and a son:
After his first wife's death, he married Helen Van Rensselaer (née Stillman) Honnen (1905–1994), who was previously married to Major General George Honnen.
Schuyler died on December 4, 1993 in San Antonio, Texas. He was buried at West Point Cemetery, Section 8, Row C, Site 172. At his death, he was survived by his wife, two children, and two stepchildren.
Awards.


Maynard Geiger

Maynard J. Geiger, O.F.M., Ph.D. (August 24, 1901 – May 13, 1977) was an American Friar Minor and Roman Catholic priest, who was a major historian of the Spanish missions in California founded by the Franciscan Order.
Life.
He was born Joseph Geiger Jr. in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1901 to Joseph Geiger and Katherine Kray. Twelve years later the family moved to Los Angeles. After graduating from Loyola High School there in 1919, he entered the seminary of the Friars Minor of California. He was received into the novitiate of the Order in 1923, and given the religious name of Maynard, keeping his birth name as a middle name. He received Holy Orders on June 9, 1929, at Mission Santa Barbara.
Geiger wrote extensively on various aspects of the mission system, and is best known for his biography of Junípero Serra, the first "Father Presidente" of the Alta California missions. He was a tireless apologist for the mission system and the evangelization of the native populations, choosing to highlight through his scholarship the achievements and dedication of the friars of California.


Gueudecourt

Gueudecourt is a commune in the Somme department in Hauts-de-France in northern France.
History.
During the Battle of the Somme, the town of Gueudecourt had represented one of the most distant objectives for the British drive that opened on 15 September 1916, a drive that has come to be known as the Battle of Flers-Courcelette.
Although the British had not been able to take Gueudecourt during the battle’s commencement, continual fighting had brought the town within reach by 25 September, when the Battle of Morval opened. The primary trench-lines that guarded the town, and through which the 21st Division of the XV Corps had to assault, were Goat Trench, Gird Trench, and Gird Support. The 10th King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry and the 1st East Yorks (64th Brigade) attacked Gird Trench, but could make no headway, while the 1st Lincolns were stopped by shellfire in the British frontline. The 8th and 9th Leicesters (110th Brigade) had greater success, taking Goat Trench, but machine-gun fire prevented them from taking Gird.
On the morning of 26 September, at 6:30 am, a tank came up Pilgrim’s way to assist in the capture of Gird trench—the Battle of Morval marked only the second use of tanks in war. Behind the tank, bombers of the 7th Leicesters followed, driving the Germans from Gird Trench. The tank moved towards the Southeast of Gueudecourt before retiring from the scene. A combined thrust of infantry (6th Leicesters) and cavalry (19th Lancers and South Irish Horse) occupied the town that evening. The final position in this sector, as of 26 September, was a little short of the Gueudecourt—Le Transloy road.
For the next phase of the Somme Offensive, the Battle of Le Transloy, men of the 88th Brigade including the Royal Newfoundland Regiment and 1st Essex Battalion were brought into the lines that ran through and around the northern edge of the village on 10 October 1916. From there, on 12 October the two battalions attacked the German front line 'Hilt Trench' behind a "creeping barrage" and engaged in hand-to-hand fighting, successfully taking the position. Moving on from Hilt, their final objective, 'Grease Trench' lay 750 metres from their jumping off point. However, a withering machine gun fire denied the 88th Brigade attackers this position and forced them back into Hilt Trench and a German counter-attack drove the 1st Essex off of the left flank and back into the original Allied position. The Newfoundlanders, however, hung on to their positions and fought to secure their flank. Using Mills Bombs they repelled the German counter-attackers from the 1st Essex' stretch of Hilt and re-took the trench, effectively doubling the length of their defensive line. Anticipating further German counter-attacks the Newfoundlanders frantically dug a fire step and piled a parapet on the reverse side of the German trench. When the expected counter-attacks through the afternoon and night came the Newfoundlander's rifle and Lewis Gun fire turned back all attacks and the Hilt Trench was held.
Today the Newfoundlanders actions at Gueudecourt are commemorated with the Gueudecourt Newfoundland Memorial which sits beside the D574 road, about one kilometre northeast of the village. The location of the Memorial marks the furthest point of advance of British units during the Battle of the Somme.


Logan County, Idaho

Logan County was a county in Idaho Territory and later the state of Idaho from 1889 to 1895.
Logan County was the subject of multiple controversies during its six-year existence. Alturas County, Logan County's parent county, was Idaho Territory's most politically powerful county in 1889, with 1/6th of all legislators residing within the county to include the lower House Chairman, Mr. H.Z. Burkhart of Hailey. Burkhart naturally opposed an effort to create Logan and Elmore counties from the southern and western portion of Alturas County. Other members of the legislature ultimately were successful in passing the counties' organic legislation on February 7, 1889. Burkhart and J.P. Clough, Legislative Council President from Lemhi County, separately challenged the legality of the act creating Logan County, contending that a group of legislators from both houses reconvened after adjournment in an effort to pass the legislation. Their opponents contended that the gentlemen vacated their positions prior to adjournment, resulting in the selection of new leaders for both the House and Legislative Council. The Supreme Court of Idaho Territory ruled against the gentlemen and the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the ruling on appeal.
The creation of Logan County clearly marked a significant transition of political power going into the Statehood era. In the 1890 census, Logan County had an enumerated population of 4,169 across 16 precincts and Elmore County had 1,870 residents across 11 precincts, leaving Alturas with 2,620 residents across 15 precincts. Had the 1889 controversy been settled in favor of Alturas, it would have had 8,659 residents across 42 precincts and would have ranked as the 3rd most populous county behind Bingham and Latah counties.
Shoshone, in present day Lincoln County was established as the temporary county seat by the 1889 statute. Later, Bellevue was selected as the county seat with only a majority of votes at the October 1, 1890 general election. County residents in Shoshone unsuccessfully challenged the validity of the election to the Idaho Supreme Court, claiming a 2/3 majority was required by the Idaho Constitution.
The legislature again furthered the controversy on March 7, 1891 when it abolished Alturas and Logan counties, created Lincoln and Alta counties, and established Hailey and Shoshone as county seats. The Idaho Supreme Court ruled the act unconstitutional on June 3, 1891. This effectively restored Alturas and Logan counties with county seats at Bellevue and Hailey.
Finally, on March 5, 1895, the legislature succeeded at what it attempted to do in 1891 by combining Logan and Alturas Counties into a new county called Blaine with its county seat at Hailey. Two weeks later on March 18, Lincoln County was created from the southern portion of Blaine County, containing the exact boundary and county seat established in 1891. The Idaho Supreme Court again weighed in on the matter in 1896. This time, it held the creation of Blaine County to be constitutional, finalizing the abolishment of Logan County effective from the creation date of Blaine County.


Pomona (sternwheeler)

Pomona was a steamboat which operated on the Willamette, Columbia and Cowlitz rivers from 1898 to 1940. "Pomona" was specially designed to operate in low water conditions such as typically prevailed in the summer months in Oregon. "Pomona" was one of the few steamers that could regularly navigate to Corvallis, Oregon which was the practical head of navigation on the Willamette. In 1926, "Pomona" was substantially rebuilt, and served afterwards as a towboat. In 1940, "Pomona" was converted into an unpowered floating storehouse.
Design, construction and dimensions.
"Pomona" was built for the Oregon City Transportation Company ("O.C.T.C."), which had been organized by the Graham family in 1889.
O.C.T.C. owned two other boats at the time, the "Ramona" and the "Altona". The "Pomona" was larger than both. "Pomona" was built especially for the summer season on the Willamette River, when the water would be at its lowest. "Pomona" drew only and was said to have been "an ideal boat for the low water season." The boat was intended to carry passengers and handle the large freight business of the O.C.T.C.
"Pomona" was built by the Portland Shipbuilding Company at its yard at the foot of Meade Street. According to a contemporaneous report, the steamer was 130 feet long "Pomona" had a beam of 26 feet and a depth of hold of 4.5 feet. Passenger accommodations consisted of a day cabin and five staterooms.
According to the 1899 official steamboat registry, "Pomona" was long, with a beam of and depth of hold of . Typical vessel dimensions given in sources did not include the deck extension over the stern on which the sternwheel was mounted, nor did they measure the beam (width) of the vessel over the often wide overhanging heavy timbers, called "guards" that were installed along the top of the hull to protect it from damage.
The official steamboat registry number was 150782.
Engineering.
"Pomona"’s sternwheel was turned by twin horizontally-mounted steam engines, each with a and stroke of . The boiler was to generate steam at the pressure of 200 pounds per square inch. All the machinery was installed in the vessel prior to launch.
Wood fuel.
The boiler was wood-fired, at least until 1911. "Pomona" used one cord of wood on a round trip to Oregon City. In 1911, this was comparable to the cost of oil fueled steamers.
There were different kinds of wood used to fuel steamboats. Split wood was generally considered the best, but it was the most expensive. Slab wood was the remains from the squaring-off of logs at saw mills. It tended to have a lot of bark and was considered inferior to split wood.
However, because wood other than mill products was too expensive in 1911 in the Portland area, O.C.T.C. ordered 500 cords of slab wood, to be burned by "Pomona" and the company’s other boats on the Portland-Oregon City route. "Pomona" had not burned slab wood before, and it was unknown how the vessel would steam with it.
Split wood was cheaper on the upper Willamette, available at $2.50 a cord, compared to $4.50 a cord in the Portland area. In July 1911, Capt. Arthur W. Graham, one of the owners of O.C.T.C., was traveling along the upper Willamette to arrange for the positioning of 1000 cords of split wood along the river for use by the company’s steamboats.
Conversion to oil fuel would not work for "Pomona", because on the Corvallis run, they would have to fill the tanks with sufficient fuel to make the round trip, and this would sink the boat down in the water, making it more difficult to reach points on the upper river, particularly during low water.
The Willamette River route.
The Willamette River runs south from its juncture with the Columbia River through the Willamette Valley. The most populous cities of the state of Oregon, as well as its most successful farming regions, are along the Willamette.
Service on the Willamette.
"Pomona" made its initial trip on Saturday, July 16, 1898, arriving at Salem before 7:00 p.m., and returning to Portland the following morning. The steamer proceeded further downriver to Independence, where its arrival was met by a brass band and many citizens. At this time, the level of the water in the Willamette was 1.2 feet above the low water mark. Pomona encountered no difficulties in the initial trip.
By August 17, 1898, "Pomona" was making regular runs from Salem north to Portland, departing every Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 7:45 a.m. from Salem at the dock between State and Court Streets. M.P. Baldwin was the agent in Salem.
The schedule was quickly changed, so that "Pomona" would leave Salem for Portland every day except Sundays at 7:00 a.m. On Tuesday, August 23, 1898, "Pomona" carried the first hop pickers of the season upriver from Portland to the Willamette Valley. Pickers in that season were to be paid 40 cents for every nine-bushel box picked.
Rising waters in the Willamette in the fall permitted "Pomona" to navigate further upriver, and by November 7, 1898, "Pomona" was running to Independence.
Drowned passenger.
On February 20, 1899, a woman, identified as Mrs. Howe, of Gresham, Oregon, fell overboard from "Pomona" and drowned. The incident occurred before dawn, when the steamers "Lurline", "Undine", and "Pomona" were rafted together at Portland, with "Pomona" on the outside and "Undine" in the middle. Just before "Pomona" was to depart for Salem, Mrs. Howe, who was intended to visit a son in Salem, crossed over Lurline, then went on to Undine.
The bow of "Pomona" was a considerable distance away from the "Undine", but at the stern the two vessels were still in contact at the wide heavy timbers along the edges of the hulls called "guards". Mrs. Howe safely crossed onto "Pomona", but then stepped back to speak with a companion, took one step too far, and fell into the water and disappeared, despite efforts to save her. Her body was found about half an hour later under the wheel of the Undine. By then, "Pomona" had already departed for Salem.
Race with "Elmore".
On Monday, July 4, 1899, "Pomona" departed for Portland from Salem at 7:00 a.m. "Elmore", a rival vessel belonging to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company then immediately cast off. "Elmore", decorated with flags and bunting to mark Independence Day, carried a small saluting cannon on the forward deck, and as "Elmore" entered the channel, the cannon was fired off. The two vessels raced out of Salem and were neck and neck as they departed the city. "Pomona" was the first to reach the locks at Oregon City. "Pomona" however was delayed at the locks, and "Elmore" was able to pass through first. With this advantage, "Elmore" was able to beat "Pomona" into Portland.
Landing at Eola on the Rickreall.
On December 13, 1899, "Pomona" ran up the Rickreall River (now known as the Rickreall Creek) to Eola, Oregon, where 293 bales of hops were loaded on board. Eola once had been a potentially important steamboat landing, although its use was largely restricted to times of high water when the boats could reach the town. The town however had been languishing since the 1880s, and riverfront facilities were mostly destroyed in the flood of 1890.
"Pomona" made its December 1899 landing at the former Wm. Jones warehouse, from which 25 years previously all the wheat from the surrounding area had been shipped to market. It was reported that all the people at Eola came out to see the steamer and that "many an old timer, who had in the early days built great air castles for the future greatness of Eola, dropped a silent tear in contemplation of what might have been."
Excursion to Champoeg memorial.
On May 2, 1901, "Pomona" transported people from Salem to the site of the former provisional territorial capital at Champoeg for the dedication of a monument to the pioneers of 1843 who had set up the provisional government. "Pomona" left Salem just after 3:00 p.m. bound for Champoeg with 200 passengers on board. Among the passengers were a large number of notable persons, including Supreme Court Justices Robert S. Bean and Charles E. Wolverton, State Treasurer Charles S. Moore, Secretary of State Frank L. Dunbar, and others.
Struck snag and sank.
On Monday, December 28, 1903, while en route on the Willamette River from Corvallis to Portland, near a place called Carey's Bend, "Pomona" struck a submerged snag and sank. Carey's Bend was located about 45 miles south of Portland.
"Pomona" had been coming downriver from Corvallis with Captain Spong in command. A good number of passengers were on board and a good list of cargo. At 2:30 pm, the steamer reached Carey's Bend and there ran into the snag, which pierced the hull, sinking the vessel. Fortunately the water was shallow at that point in the river, and the steamer was only submerged up to the lower deck. All passengers simply moved to the upper deck without even getting wet.
About two hours later, the sternwheeler "Leona", also owned by the O.C.T.C., came along, and after standing by a while, took off the passengers from "Pomona" and brought them downriver to Portland. Damage to the steamer was estimated at $500. Damage to cargo was reported to have been $100.
Salvage arrangements.
Arrangements were made the day after the sinking to dispatch wrecking barges with pumps and other salvage apparatus upriver to raise the Pomona and bring it down to Portland for repairs. Corvallis could only be reached by two shallow draft steamboats, "Pomona" and "Altona", both owned by O.C.T.C.
"Altona" however had been damaged the previous Wednesday in a collision with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company’s steamer "Modoc". "Altona" had been taken to Portland Shipbuilding Co. for repairs, and was not expected to be returned to service until Saturday, January 2, 1904.
With both "Altona" and "Pomona" out of service, O.C.T.C was required to suspend service to Corvallis. The smaller "Latona" had to carry all the company's business upriver from Portland, and was not expected to proceed further south than Salem. It turned out however that "Latona" was able to proceed as far south as Independence.
On Sunday, January 3, 1904, at about 1:30 p.m., "Pomona" was refloated. "Pomona" was able to raise steam and proceed down river under its own power to the Portland Shipbuilding Company's yard for repairs, arriving at 7:00 p.m. that evening. There turned out to have been two holes in the hull, one of which was about 15 feet long. To refloat the boat, the holes had been covered with canvas, and the hull pumped out.
Saved from fire in Portland.
On October 4, 1905, "Pomona" and "Altona" were moored in Portland when a large fire broke out nearby along the waterfront. The apparent origin of the fire was a pile of oiled rags in the basement of the New Era Paint and Varnish Works. Fueled by the varnish works, the fire destroyed an entire block of the city. "Pomona" and "Altona" were able to escape damage by being moved out into the river. As soon as this was done, the Portland fireboat moved in and was able to save from destruction the docks of the O.C.T.C and the Joseph Kellogg Transportation Company.
Grounding at the mouth of the Santiam.
On Saturday night, June 1, 1907, while en route from Corvallis to Portland, "Pomona" ran aground at the mouth of the Santiam River. "Pomona" remained grounded until Monday, June 3, 1907, when it was pulled off into deeper water by the government snag boat "Mathloma". Damage to "Pomona" was only slight, and consisted of a broken capstan and some minor damage to the hull.
The water in the Willamette at the time of the grounding was low, and boats were having a difficult time reaching landings upriver from Salem. They often had to "line" over shallow spots. Lining consisted of running a strong cable out from the bow of the steamboat to a large rock or tree along the riverbank, and then, using the steam-powered capstan, cranking the cable in, thus dragging the steamer across sand bars and similar shallow sections of the river. Lining over a rocky riverbed could damage the hull.
In these conditions, O.C.T.C. decided to put "Oregona" on the Portland-Corvallis route, in place of "Pomona", running on a "three-day" schedule. "Oregona" would run south from Portland on Tuesdays and Saturdays and depart downriver on Wednesdays and Mondays.
Struck rock and sank.
Early in the morning on March 25, 1909, in heavy fog, "Pomona" struck a rock near Milwaukie, Oregon and sank. "Pomona" was then under the command of Captain Chris Pihum. The boat had been proceeding slowly, when a fog completely blocked off vision and then hit the obstruction known as "Milwaukie Reef", sinking in 15 feet of water. There were no passengers on board at the time.
There had not been a sinking of a river vessel on the Willamette for several years, and it was considered surprising as both the crew and the captain of "Pomona" were highly experienced. The damage was limited to a tear i the hull, and O.C.T.C. planned to raise the vessel. No one was injured, and there was no damage to the cargo. The estimated damage to the steamer was $1,000.
Service suspended for lock work.
On June 20, 1911, the O.C.T.C. announced that it would suspend steamboat service to points above the Willamette falls from August 1 (or late July) to October 1. The reason for the suspension was that the Willamette Falls Locks would be closed for improvement works during that time. The lock work was intended to deepen the channel.
Normally water transport to Corvallis was suspended by June 6 because of low water, but the company had kept "Pomona" on the Portland-Corvallis run until June 24 to meet increased business. While the locks were closed, "Pomona" would run between Portland and Oregon City, making two trips daily, leaving Portland at 8 a.m. and 2 p.m., and Oregon City at 11:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., and making three trips on Sunday.
It was anticipated that suspension of steamboat service would harm the hops growers along the river. Hop-picking would be at its height during the suspension, and pickers, who had used the steamboat for transportation, would have to use the train and then walk or be driven to fields that were distant from land transportation lines.
Damaged in locks.
On the afternoon of Friday, November 15, 1912, "Pomona" was seriously damaged while passing through the Willamette Falls Locks heading downriver. As the steamer was passing through the locks, it became hung up on a bolt projecting from the lock wall. The vessel broke free as the water receded, but there was serious damage to the deck beams, guards and other components.
The locks and been sold to the government by the Portland Railway, Light & Power Company, and O.C.T.C. blamed the incident of poor maintenance of the locks by the government since the sale. "Pomona" was taken to the Joseph Supple yard in Portland for repairs.
Government takes over the locks.
According to a non-contemporaneous account, the government took over the locks in 1915, in response to a demand for a toll-free passage around Willamette Falls. Although the toll-free river was promoted as being a stimulus to river traffic, this is not turn out to be the case. The principal users of the locks continued to be O.C.T.C, with its boats Pomona, Grahamona, and Oregona, and barges carrying cord wood fuel down to Portland.
Business falls off.
By 1914, business on the Willamette River had fallen off sharply. Only 5 percent of the freight shipped from the region went by water. There was little support among the business community for proposed expensive dredging operations on the Willamette. However, the government was then in the process of purchasing the Willamette Falls Locks.
Captain A.B. Graham of O.C.T.C. was quoted in February 1914:
Operations on the Yamhill River.
"Pomona"’s shallow draft allowed it to navigate the Yamhill River. Under Capt. Clyde Raabe (b.1878) "Pomona" hauled the last freight cargo out of McMinnville, Oregon, a town located on the Yamhill. Similarly, Captain Raabe also was in charge of "Pomona" when the last load of oats was shipped by water transport out of Toledo, Washington, on the Cowlitz River.
Transfer to the Columbia.
On March 20, 1917, it was reported that "Pomona" had been chartered by the People's Transportation Company to operate out of The Dalles on the Columbia River as a temporary replacement for the "Tahoma", which had recently struck a rock and sank. Salvage operations were then under way for the "Tahoma".
As of November 29, 1917, a proposal had been made, but never acted upon, that Salem merchants should purchase the "Pomona" and the "Oregona", to operate them as an independent steamboat line.
Night boat service.
On January 4, 1918, O.C.T.C. announced that it would start a night steamboat service from Portland to Salem. This was based upon a request from Salem businessmen, who promised to support the new operation. The planned start was to be about January 15, 1918, depending on water conditions. The plan was to put "Pomona" on the route, leaving Portland at 8:00 p.m. for Salem, and departing the next morning from Salem at 8:30 a.m. on the return. Unlike the schedule up until then, which included calls numerous landings, there would be no stops along the way except at the locks. The night service by "Pomona" would be supplemented by the continuation of "Grahamona" on the route to Corvallis every other day from Portland.
End of the Yellow Stack Line.
On Thursday, May 2, 1918, it was announced that the Oregon City Transportation Company would cease operations. High costs and lack of business forced the business to close, which ended all steamboat service on the upper Willamette. The company was also unable to complete with haulage of freight overland by trucks on highways.
The company had been in business for 32 years. The final trip of the line was to be made by the "Grahamona", departing Portland on Saturday, May 4, 1918 and returning from Corvallis the following Monday. Captain A.B. Graham would wrap up the company's affairs. After the shut-down, Pomona and Oregona were laid up, while Grahamona was refitted for work on the upper Columbia.
Lease to Capital Navigation Company.
On March 13, 1919, it was reported that the recently formed Capital Navigation Company would take over operation of "Pomona" from the Willamette Navigation Company. The Capital Navigation Company had been formed by several steamboat men formerly employed by O.C.T.C. The new company chartered "Pomona". The plan was to take the "Pomona" upriver to Independence every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, with runs back down river every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The reported reason for the Willamette Navigation company giving up these runs was that they had too much other business to address.
W.E. Pratt, an experienced river businessman, was to be the agent for the new concern, which would use the Ash Street and the Busch docks in Portland as its headquarters. An earlier report was that the new concern had leased, rather than purchased, the "Pomona", and intended to inaugurate service with "Pomona" on Tuesday, February 4, 1919. The new company intended to charge $3.50 per ton for freight transported from Portland to Salem, and $4.00 per ton for freight going to Independence. Captain Chris Bluhm would be in charge of "Pomona". As it turned out, there was not enough business to sustain the new company, and "Pomona" was taken off the run.
Proposed sale to City of Salem.
After the failure of the Capital Navigation Company, Captain A.B. Graham, of O.C.T.C. wrote, in July 1919, to the Salem Commercial Club, proposing that the city of Salem set up its own steamboat line by constructing a municipal dock and purchasing one or more of the company's steamers, "Grahamona", "Pomona", or "Oregona".
A municipal dock had been proposed previously for Salem, but never acted upon by the city. Captain Graham's letter to the Commercial Club read in part:
Sale to Inland Empire Boat & Truck Line.
On February 17, 1920, it was reported that the three O.C.T.C. steamers, "Pomona", "Grahamona", and "Oregona", had been sold to a newly formed concern, the Inland Empire Boat & Truck Line. The new line had been organized by M.E. Lee, who announced that the boats would be converted from wood to oil fuel, and they would begin operations by March 1, 1920. Captain Graham was also an organizer of the new company.
"Pomona" was to be placed on the Upper Willamette and Grahamona would go the upper Columbia. The plan for both vessels was to use auto trucks to gather freight shipments and bring them to points on the river where they would be loaded onto the river boats. Freight shipped by boat to the landings would also be distributed by truck.
This strategy was to be very successful on Puget Sound, but it did not work out on the Willamette River. "Pomona" ran for a while to Independence, but then it and the company's other boats were taken out of service on the Willamette.
Service on the Cowlitz River.
As of December 9, 1922, "Pomona" was owned by the Cowlitz Towing Company, which on that date purchased the towboat "Wilavis" from Captain Mattson of Portland. Stockholders of the Cowlitz Towing Company were then listed as E.S. Collins, J.A. Eyerly, Captain Hosford of Portland, and Frank Wagner, who was captain of Pomona and also local manager for the company.
Allen Street bridge disaster.
When the Allen Street bridge collapsed at Kelso on January 3, 1923, the crew of Pomona, which was operating on the Cowlitz River at the time, trained the steamer's searchlight on the bridge to attempt to find the bodies of victims.
Assistance to Madeline.
On Monday, March 23, 1925, the steamer "Madeline", owned by the Harkins line, struck ground in shallow water at the mouth of the Cowlitz River. Although the damage was reported to have been "minor", the hull still filled with water. "Madeline" had been carrying an excursion consisting of members of the band of the Oregon Agricultural College. "Pomona" took off the band members and carried them to Rainier, Oregon.
Reconstructed.
"Pomona" was reconstructed in 1926. The reconstructed boat was much smaller, rated at 216 gross tons and 120 net tons. The new boat was designed to pass under the draw of the Kelso bridge on the Cowlitz river. While the Kelso bridge was a lifting span, the rebuilt "Pomona" was intended to be able to pass under the bridge without having to raise it. The length was reduced from 134 feet to 120 feet.
The reconstruction work was done in Portland at the yard of the Portland Shipbuilding Company. The reconstruction gave "Pomona" the look of a completely different vessel. The pilot house, texas, and the name appeared to be among the main remaining features. To clear the Kelso bridge, the king post, hog posts and smokestack were all cut down. New engines and a new boiler were installed.
In November 1926, the rebuilt "Pomona" was owned by the Cowlitz Towing Company. Captain Frank Wagner was the manager and captain of the new "Pomona". Another, non-contemporaneous source states that the owner after the rebuild was the Knappton Towboat Company of Astoria, Oregon.
Last years.
"Pomona" was still in operation in 1940, under the ownership of the Knappton Towing Company. The Knappton Towing Company allowed the vessel to be sent to Champoeg, Oregon on Sunday, June 30, 1940, for the annual meeting of the Veteran Steamboatmen of the West. Traditionally the members of the association, which at that time was headed by Capt. Arthur Riggs, rode a steamboat to the annual meeting at Champoeg. However, at that time the water in the Oregon City locks was too shallow to allow any passenger-carrying steamboat to pass through, and only the "Pomona" could make the transit.
Later in 1940, the engines were removed from "Pomona" and the vessel was converted to a floating workshop. Pomona's machinery was scrapped at the time as other sternwheelers on the Columbia, Willamette and Coquille rivers, owing to the high value at the time of scrap metal and the very successful competition from diesel-powered, propeller driven vessels.
As of 1947, the unpowered "Pomona" was still in existence, on the Willamette River.


Sacred Heart Church (Bowie, Maryland)

Sacred Heart Church in Bowie, Maryland is a Catholic Church established in 1729.
Historical background.
Sacred Heart Church had been better known as "White Marsh" after the long stretch of sandy loam between the church and the Patuxent River and marsh. This soil contains a significant amount of mica which appears sparkling white.
Beginning with the Protestant Revolution in Maryland in 1689, Catholics were prohibited to worship publicly and the Catholic Church was not allowed to own land.
The original patent to the "White Marsh" property was granted by the authority of Charles Calvert II in 1722 to James Carroll. On February 12, 1728, Carroll bequeathed of White Marsh, then known as "Carroll's Burgh", to the Jesuits at St. Thomas Manor in the vicinity of Port Tobacco, Maryland.
During this time, while Catholics could not worship publicly, they could do so privately and were able to build private chapels on privately held land. To facilitate the construction of a church, Carroll left the land to the individual Jesuits. That allowed them to construct the "Mission of Saint Francis Borgia" in 1722 on the property, which is considered the founding of Sacred Heart Church. George Thorold assumed ownership of the property in 1729 at the bequest of James Carroll. The property on which Sacred Heart Church would be built was then designated White Marsh Plantation. Jesuits lived on the plantation as private citizens and engaged in missionary work in the surrounding area. Jesuits living at the White Marsh Plantation, including Reverend John Lewis and John Ashton, brought enslaved persons to operate the plantation.
The Jesuits did not take up permanent residence at White Marsh until about 1741, when a chapel was constructed.
The old chapel.
The old chapel is the only Catholic church built before the American revolution in Prince George's County.
The current chapel building was built on the hill circa 1827 at the east end of the original chapel and is constructed of undressed stone, with a gable roof. In 1853, a fire destroyed the interior of the building but left the stone walls standing. The interior was rebuilt by 1855. In 1876 a wood-frame bell tower was added to the church at the east end of the gable.
Surrounding land.
Adjoining the chapel is a large cemetery with gravestones dating from 1830.
Elm Street Development has a contract to purchase 154 acres of land surrounding the chapel from the Corporation of Roman Catholic Clergymen, which has owned the property since the 1728 land grant of "Carroll's Burgh" from John Carroll. The developer seeks to change zoning on the parcel and construct 440 single-family homes, but faces local opposition.
New church.
A much larger, modern brick church, was built at the foot of the hill, fronting Maryland Route 450 and dedicated in 1969 to accommodate the growth of Bowie due to the Levitt and Sons development, "Belair at Bowie", where most of its current congregants live.
General Chapters organizing the Catholic Church in the US.
After the American revolution, Catholics in the newly created United States enjoyed freedom to worship. The Jesuit Fathers, led by John Carroll and five other priests, began a series of meetings at White Marsh beginning on 27 June 1783 called the General Chapters that organized the Catholic Church in the United States.
They held a second meeting 6 November 1783, and a third on 11 October 1784, at the same place, when they formulated the draft of the regulations binding all the clergy of Maryland. It was decided at these meetings every priest was maintained and given thirty pounds a year, and each priest agreed to offer ten Masses for every priest who died there. It was at this same meeting that those assembled voted John Carroll's name to be included in a petition sent to the Pope requesting Carroll's appointment to an office that ultimately resulted in Carroll becoming the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States. On May 18, 1789, during a meeting at White Marsh, he would be confirmed as the first American bishop.


Eastern Huetar Kingdom

The Eastern Huetar Kingdom, also known as Lordship of el Guarco, is one of the two great kingdoms in which the domain of the Huetar ethnic group was divided in the Central Valley of Costa Rica and at the time of the conquest the king was Correque, son of the feared chieftain El Guarco. Although smaller than the fellow Huetar nation, the Western Huetar Kingdom ruled by Garabito as part of its larger empire. The eastern Huetar territory extended from the banks of the Virilla River to the slopes of the Chirripó in the Tierradentro. The area of the modern Paraiso Canton was governed by the vassal chiefs Abituri and Turichiqui, in addition there were aboriginal settlements in Ujarrás and Orosi that were visited by the Spaniard Ignacio Cota in 1561.
In the illegal distribution carried out by Perafán de Ribera in 1569, two geographical areas were described in which the eastern orchard tribes were grouped; Big Turriarva and Small Turriarva. The first included the current towns of Aquiares, Colorado, Santa Cruz, with their main chiefs Tabaco and Hurrea; and the second constituted the present towns of Margot, Azul, Jesús María, Alto Varal, Cimarrones and Lajas.


History of the Catholic Church in Cuba

Christopher Columbus, on his first Spanish-sponsored voyage to the Americas in 1492, sailed south from what is now the Bahamas to explore the northeast coast of Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola. Columbus, who was searching for a route to India, believed the island to be a peninsula of the Asian mainland. The first sighting of a Spanish ship approaching the island was on 28 October 1492, probably at Bariay, Holguín Province, on the eastern point of the island.
During a second voyage in 1494, Columbus passed along the south coast of the island, landing at various inlets including what was to become Guantánamo Bay. With the Papal Bull of 1493, Pope Alexander VI commanded Spain to conquer, colonize and convert the pagans of the New World to Catholicism.
Fidel Castro.
After the 1959 revolution, Cuba officially embraced atheism. Practicing Catholics and other believers were viewed with suspicion and discriminated. Fidel Castro succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party. The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.
In 1992, Cuba declared itself a secular state and permitted Catholics and others to join the Communist Party. However, religious schools have remained closed since the early 1960s.


Grand Army of the Republic Cemetery (Portland, Oregon)

The Grand Army of the Republic Cemetery is a cemetery for American Civil War veterans in the U.S. city of Portland, Oregon. It is located at S.W. Palatine Hill Road and S.W. Boones Ferry Road, next to River View Cemetery.
Fourteen Union Civil War veterans, members of the Grand Army of the Republic, formed the Grand Army Cemetery Association and purchased the cemetery in 1882. The Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War took over the management and administration of the cemetery at that time.
Ownership of the cemetery eventually passed to the State of Oregon in 1961 then to Multnomah County, Oregon in 1971. In 1996 ownership was granted to Metro Regional Parks and Greenspaces. The oldest marker is dated October 15, 1889.
Salmon Brown, son of John Brown (of the song "John Brown's Body") is buried here, as is Hartwell B. Compson, who received the Medal of Honor for heroism in the Civil War.


Bartlett Regional Hospital

Bartlett Regional Hospital (BRH) is a hospital serving Juneau, Alaska, the capital city of Alaska and the largest city in Southeast Alaska. The hospital is owned by the City and Borough of Juneau. BRH is the only hospital in Juneau, and provides the only emergency department in the city. In addition, BRH operates the adjacent Rainforest Recovery Center, an inpatient and outpatient drug and alcohol treatment center.
Bartlett Regional Hospital has 45 beds, and 76 doctors on staff. The hospital is located at 3260 Hospital Drive, in the Twin Lakes area of Juneau, adjacent to Egan Drive.
History.
Bartlett Regional Hospital was originally known as St. Ann's Hospital, and opened in 1886 in downtown Juneau. The hospital was run by the Sisters of Saint Ann until the 1960s. In 1965, control of the hospital was turned over to the City and Borough of Juneau, which built a new hospital on its current location in the Twin Lakes area.
The current hospital was named for Edward Lewis "Bob" Bartlett, an Alaskan politician who served as Alaska's first United States Senator.
Hospital rating data.
The HealthGrades website contains the clinical quality data for Bartlett Regional Hospital, as of 2017. For this rating section three different types of data from HealthGrades are presented: clinical quality ratings for nine inpatient conditions and procedures, nine patient safety indicators and the percentage of patients giving the hospital as a 9 or 10 (the two highest possible ratings).
For inpatient conditions and procedures, there are three possible ratings: worse than expected, as expected, better than expected. For this hospital the data for this category is:
For patient safety indicators, there are the same three possible ratings. For this hospital safety indicators were rated as:
Percentage of patients rating this hospital as a 9 or 10 – 68%
Percentage of patients who on average rank hospitals as a 9 or 10 – 69%


Marymoor Prehistoric Indian Site

The Marymoor Prehistoric Indian Site is the site of an archaeological dig in Marymoor Park, Redmond, Washington. After King County bought the property in 1962, the site was one of four sites in the park considered for excavation. The dig began in 1964, and continued for four years.
The dig revealed two separate periods of occupation of the site, which is adjacent to the Sammamish River. The first period was around 4,000 B.C.E., and is thought to have been a seasonal camp. In this layer, researchers found stone tools, including spear/arrow points. The second period of occupation was around 1,000 BCE, and appears to have been a more permanent camp. The stone tools found in this layer are from a more varied array of stone than the basalt of the older layer. Much of the stone had to have been traded from the Eastern side of the Cascade Mountains, as they do not occur naturally on the Western side.
Many of the items were exhibited in the Marymoor Museum, which was at the park until King County evicted it 2002. Other items were sent to the Burke Museum at the University of Washington.
Redmond Town Center site.
In 2008, during a routine archaeological survey conducted as part of a stream restoration project, stone artifacts were discovered at Bear Creek, between Marymoor Park and nearby Redmond Town Center shopping mall. In 2009–2014, more artifacts were discovered beneath a layer of peat, including stone flakes, scrapers, awls and spear points. An announcement was made in 2015 that they were the oldest stone tools discovered in Western Washington, after the peat was determined by Carbon-14 dating to have been deposited 10,000 years ago.


Redonda

Redonda is an uninhabited Caribbean island that is a part of Antigua and Barbuda, in the Leeward Islands, West Indies. The island is about long, wide, and is high at its highest point.
This small island lies between the islands of Nevis and Montserrat, southwest of Antigua. Redonda is closer to Montserrat than to any other island; it is located at northwest of Montserrat, and southeast of Nevis.
Redonda is home to vast numbers of sea birds, and the island was an important source of guano before artificial fertilisers started to be mass-produced. Guano-mining operations started in the 1860s and ceased after the start of World War I. During these mining operations a few buildings and other installations were put in place on the island, and some physical remnants of that phase in its history are still visible.
"Redonda" is the female form of the Spanish language adjective meaning "round". In 1493, on his second voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus discovered the island and named it "Santa María la Redonda" (the Spanish language meaning "Saint Mary the Round").
The island of Redonda became part of Antigua and Barbuda in 1967.
Description.
At a distance, Redonda appears as if it were one very large rock. It is the remnant of an ancient extinct volcano. The land rises from sea level mostly as sheer cliffs, especially on the leeward (west) side. At the top of the island there is a relatively flat but tilted area of grassland which slopes to the east. There is no source of fresh water other than rain.
Judging by the name he gave the island, to Columbus the island appeared to be rounded, at least in profile. In reality the island is long and narrow, and reaches a height of almost 1,000 feet. The actual land area of the island is hard to estimate because of the extreme steepness of the slopes, but it is calculated to be somewhere between and .
Redonda is uninhabited. The difficult topography, the lack of a safe place to land a boat, and the absence of any freshwater source other than rainfall makes the island inhospitable to humans.
A herd of feral goats and thousands of rats were cleared from the island in 2017.
History.
In 1493, Christopher Columbus and his crew became the first known Europeans to see Redonda, on his second journey. He claimed it for the Crown of Castile, but did not land there. He named the island "Santa María la Redonda", meaning Saint Mary the Round, reflecting the island's apparent profile when viewed from the side.
Because the island is a rock of just over a square kilometre, it did not represent any interest for the powers involved in the colonisation of the Americas and, for centuries, it was a refuge for pirates.
In the 1860s, the island became a British possession.
During the decades after the 1860s, the rich guano deposits of Redonda were mined for fertiliser, with an annual yield of up to 7,000 tons. Only during this time was the island inhabited by workers; the population was 120 in 1901. After the guano mining, aluminium phosphate for gunpowder production was discovered and mined. A cableway was constructed to transport material down to the loading pier on the coast.
In 1914, during the First World War, the mining operations ceased, and most workers left the island. Maintenance workers remained on the island until 1929, when a hurricane destroyed almost all the remaining facilities. The island has remained uninhabited since then. Two stone huts still stand from the time when the island was occupied. Although the closest island to Redonda is Montserrat, and the second closest is Nevis, in 1967 Redonda became a dependency of the more distant Antigua, now part of Antigua and Barbuda.
Scientists from the Montserrat Volcano Observatory visit the island in a helicopter periodically; they are using Redonda as an observation point from which to take measurements of the Soufrière Hills, an active volcano on Montserrat.
Fauna.
Animals endemic to the island include the Redonda ground dragon, the Redonda anole and an unnamed species of dwarf gecko.
The island is a breeding colony for multiple species of seabirds.
Micronation.
Redonda is the setting of the myth of the "Kingdom of Redonda". M. P. Shiel, an author of fantasy novels, claimed that in the year of his birth, 1865, his father Matthew Dowdy Shiell, from Montserrat, decided to celebrate his first male child by arranging for the boy to be crowned King of Redonda at the age of 15, in a ceremony purportedly carried out on the small island by a bishop.
Shiel first mentioned the idea of the "Kingdom of Redonda" in a promotional leaflet for his books. Since then, the title has been "passed down", and continues to the present day. For a period of time the "Royal" lineage of Redonda had a more or less solely literary theme, with the title being given to writers, such as John Gawsworth and Jon Wynne-Tyson. Wynne-Tyson (King Juan II), his successor the Spanish novelist Javier Marías (King Xavier), and rival contenders for the Redondan title, such as Gawsworth, William L. Gates and Bob Williamson, were featured in a BBC Radio 4 documentary, "Redonda: The Island with Too Many Kings", which was broadcast in May 2007.


Abraham G. Lansing

Abraham Gerritse Lansing (December 12, 1756 Albany, New York – May 15, 1834 Albany, New York) was an American politician.
Early life.
Lansing was born on December 12, 1756, in Albany, New York. He was the son of Gerrit Jacobse Lansing (b. 1711) and his second wife Jannetje "Jane" (née Waters) Lansing (1728–1810). His brother was Chancellor John Lansing, Jr. (1754–1829). Another brother, Sanders G. Lansing (1766–1850) married Catherine Ten Eyck (1769–1850), daughter of Abraham Ten Eyck (1744–1824) and Annatje (née Lansing) Ten Eyck (1746–1823).
Through his brother Sanders, he was the uncle of Robert Lansing (1799–1878), a New York State Senator and the grandfather of U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing. His ancestor, Gerrit Frederickse Lansing, came to America in 1640 from Hasselt, Overijssel, the Netherlands.
Career.
During the American Revolutionary War, Lansing served in the Albany militia. In 1776, he was appointed firemaster. Similar to his older brother, his abilities as a clerk made him more useful in an office than on the battlefield. During his service in War, he was involved in the payment of accounts for New York State. Following the War, he was accorded a land bounty right for service in conjunction with his militia regiment.
After his marriage to Susanna Yates, he was closely associated with his father-in-law, Abraham Yates Jr., serving in 1780 as his deputy in the Loan Office.
Public office.
He was Surrogate of Albany County from 1787 to 1808, and New York State Treasurer from 1803 to 1808, and from 1810 to 1812. Lansing also served on the New York State Board of Regents and was the private secretary to Governor Morgan Lewis.
Personal life.
On April 9, 1779, he married Susanna Yates (1762–1840), the daughter of Abraham Yates (1724–1796), in Albany. They lived at the house built by his father-in-law at what became 358 North Market Street, in Albany. Together, they had fourteen children, including:
Lansing died on May 15, 1834, in Albany, New York. He was buried at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, New York.
Descendants.
Through his son Christopher, he was the grandfather of Abraham Lansing (1835–1899), acting New York State Treasurer and a member of the New York State Senate from 1882 to 1883.


Lifespan timeline of prime ministers of Canada

This is a graphical lifespan timeline of prime ministers of Canada. Twenty-three people have served as Prime Minister of Canada since the office came into existence in 1867. They are listed in order of office. (Prime Ministers leading multiple ministries are listed in the order of their first premiership).


Four Mohawk Kings

The Four Indian Kings or Four Kings of the New World were three Mohawk chiefs from one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy and a Mahican of the Algonquian peoples, whose portraits were painted by Jan Verelst in London to commemorate their travel from New York in 1710 to meet the Queen of Great Britain. The three Mohawk were: "Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow" of the Bear Clan, called King of Maquas, with the Christian name Peter Brant (grandfather of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant); "Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row" of the Wolf Clan, called King of "Canajoharie" ("Great Boiling Pot"), or John of Canajoharie; and "Tee Yee Ho Ga Row", meaning "Double Life", of the Wolf Clan, also called "Hendrick Tejonihokarawa" or King Hendrick. The Mahican chief was "Etow Oh Koam" of the Turtle Clan, mistakenly identified in his portrait as "Emperor of the Six Nations". The Algonquian-speaking Mahican people were not part of the Iroquois Confederacy. Five chiefs set out on the journey, but one died in mid-Atlantic.
The four Native American leaders visited Queen Anne in 1710 as part of a diplomatic visit organised by Pieter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, New York. They were received in London as diplomats, being transported through the streets of the city in Royal carriages, and received by Queen Anne at the Court of St. James Palace. They also visited the Tower of London and St. Paul's Cathedral.
In addition to requesting military aid for defence against the French, the chiefs asked for missionaries to offset the influence of French Jesuits, who had converted numerous Mohawk to Catholicism. Queen Anne informed the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Tenison. A mission was authorized, and Mayor Schuyler had a chapel built the next year at Fort Hunter (located near the Mohawk "Lower Castle" village) along the Mohawk River. Queen Anne sent a gift of a silver Communion set and a reed organ. The Mohawk village known as the "Lower Castle" became mostly Christianized in the early 18th century, unlike the "Upper Castle" at "Canajoharie" further upriver. No mission at the latter was founded until 1769, when William Johnson, the British agent to the Iroquois, built the Indian Castle Church. It still stands.
To commemorate the diplomatic visit to London, the Crown commissioned Jan Verelst to paint the portraits of the Four Kings. These paintings hung in Kensington Palace until 1977, when Queen Elizabeth II had them relocated to the National Archives of Canada. She unveiled them in Ottawa.
During their visit to London, they lodged at The Crown and Cushion, in King Street, Covent Garden. Thomas Arne was their host, he was an inn keep and an upholsterer, he was very kind and considerate to his visitors. Because of this, the Indians renamed him Cataraqui in a Mohawk christening ceremony. Cataraqui was the fort that has now become the city of Kingston, Ontario. Here they slept on beds for the first time and became accustomed to them.
The four kings were quite a spectacle in London, they were all described in a contemporary pamphlet as being in shape, muscular and within an inch or two of being six feet tall. Their complexions were described as being brown and their hair long and black."Their visages are very awful and majestick, and their features regular enough, though something of the austere and sullen." Their faces are covered in art, probably meant to inspire terror during battle. They are described as polite, they will not refuse any drink or food that is offered to them. They loved English beef more than any other kind of food offered to them. The people of London also described them as healthy. "Their health is good, as is proper for primitives; they know no gout, dropsy, gravel, or fevers."
When they met with Queen Anne the court was mourning for the death of the Prince of Denmark, so the four Indian Kings were dressed in all black attire when they met with her. Their address to her was read, they asked for military assistance and missionaries to lead them to "true religion." After the reading, the chiefs presented the queen with several belts of wampum to signify their meeting. Queen Anne was moved by the address and had it referred to her Ministry. The queen also engaged the four men in conversation through their interpreter, Peter Schuyler's brother John. The chiefs offered to show the queen their abilities by hunting down a deer and capturing it without a weapon, although there is no proof they were put to the test. In return for the gifts of the wampum, the queen gave them a set of communion plates, with the royal cipher and coat of arms, for a future Mohawk chapel. (These are now divided between the Mohawk reservations at Brantford, Ontario, and Tyendinaga, near Kingston.) The Archbishop of Canterbury gave each of the chiefs a Bible bound in Turkey-red leather.
The four Chiefs also got to tour and do things all over London to honor their visit. They watched a review of the Guards in Hyde Park; they visited the Banqueting House and Chapel at Whitehall; they were taken on the Queen's barge to Greenwich Hospital and the Woolwich Arsenal, where they heard a saluting cannonade. They listened to sermons in the city's churches. They were guests of honor at a dinner hosted by the Board of Trade and were privately entertained by William Penn at the Taverne du Diable at Charing Cross. They attended a performance of Powell's Marionettes at Punch's Theater; a presentation of "Macbeth" where they got to sit on the stage.
The Kings, with Peter Schuyler, sailed for home in May 1710. Their mission had consequences. It encouraged the Court to war against French Canada. "It helped to bind the Mohawk to the English side in the century of conflict that was to follow. And it inspired a notable missionary effort. By royal order a combination military stronghold and missionary center was erected in the heart of the Mohawk country. This was Fort Hunter, near Amsterdam, New York."
None of the four Indian King's recollections of their experience in London, England has survived, as it was told in the Mohawk tradition of verbal story telling. A contemporary editor (Spectator 27/04/1711) provided a translated specimen of their ostensible observations
Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow (King of Maquas) (Peter Brant).
Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow was one of the three Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) chiefs who traveled to Great Britain to meet the Queen. He is a Mohawk Chief and a member of the Bear clan. During his visit, Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow was baptized and from then on called Peter Brant. He was the grandfather of famous Iroquois leader Joseph Brant. This portrait of Peter Brant is some of the best records of 18th-century Aboriginal tattooing in existence. The tattoos were created by first stenciling on the skin and then stabbed into the flesh with needles or little bones until it bled. Although the exact meaning of his tattoos is unknown it can be assumed that his detailed tattoos are because of his status as a leader and a warrior. Brant died soon after he returned from London. Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow was the brother of the "Emperor" Tee Yee Ho Ga Row.
Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row (King of Canajoharie) (John of Canajoharie).
Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row was born in what is now Upstate New York. He was one of the three Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) chiefs who traveled to Great Britain to meet the Queen. Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row was baptized and then called John. Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row was a part of the Wolf Clan, and that is why a wolf is depicted with him in his portrait by Jan Verelst. Just like the other chiefs the symbolic skin markings, clothing, and beautiful or unique items were all ways that Native diplomats demonstrated their values and status.
Etow Oh Koam (Nicholas).
Etow Oh Koam was a Mahican and not a Haudenosaunee chief, but he also traveled with the other chiefs to Great Britain to meet the queen. In Etow Oh Koam's portrait by Verelst, he is holding a carved wooden ball-headed club, which shows his status as a warrior. Etow Oh Koam has a Thunderbird tattooed on his face, the Thunderbird was thought to be a powerful sky spirit and it was a symbol of spiritual support for a warrior to wear it.
Tee Yee Ho Ga Row (Hendrick Tejonihokarawa) (King Hendrick).
Tee Yee Ho Ga Row (baptized Hendrick) was the third of the three Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) chiefs who traveled to Great Britain to meet the Queen. He is called the "Emperor of the Six Nations." Tee Yee Ho Ga Row is depicted in his portrait by Verelst as holding a wampum belt. The wampum belt was a significant item to the Iroquois people that serves to remember the meeting and to represent an alliance that cannot be broken unless the belt is returned. The people of London described Tee Yee Ho Ga Row as tall and handsome, his complexion showed "the shadowed livery of the burnished sun." He was about thirty years old, and a powerful man among his people, he was described as a good friend to the English. Tee Yee Ga Row traveled to England with his brother Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow. King Hendrick remained a powerful and devoted friend of the English, campaigning their cause in tribal councils and promoting the Indians’ welfare in dealings with the Albany government. In the French and Indian War Hendrick, in his mid-seventies, captained a force of his people. In the Battle of Lake George, on September 8, 1755, he led his tribesmen against the French. He fell in the battle. The need for revenge from his followers helped to turn the tide of battle. His death was widely and deeply felt, even in Great Britain.