Siege of Fort Recovery

The Siege of Fort Recovery, 30 June – 1 July 1794, was a battle of the Northwest Indian War, fought at the present-day village of Fort Recovery, Ohio. A large force of warriors in the Western Confederacy attacked a fort held by United States soldiers deep in Ohio Country. The United States suffered heavy losses, but maintained control of the fort. The battle exposed a division in the Western Confederacy's military strategy at a time when they seemed to hold the advantage, and the United States pressed farther into the Northwest Territory.
Background.
At the end of the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain ceded control to the United States the territories northwest of the Ohio River and south of the Great Lakes. The United States wanted to capitalize on the lands to pay debts, but the Western Confederacy of Native American nations united to maintain the border with the United States at the Ohio River. This initiated the Northwest Indian War. In St. Clair's Defeat of 1791, United States forces were decisively defeated by a combined army of Delaware, Miami, and Shawnee warriors. In response, the nascent United States created a large professional army, called the Legion of the United States. The Legion's commander, Major General Anthony Wayne, ordered construction of a series of forts to secure the supply route north from Fort Washington. He deliberately ordered Fort Recovery to be built on the grounds of St. Clair's 1791 defeat. In January 1794, Wayne reported to Knox that 8 companies and a detachment of artillery under Major Henry Burbeck had claimed St. Clair's battleground and had already built a small fort. By June 1794, Fort Recovery had been reinforced by a detachment of 250 soldiers, and the Legion had recovered four copper cannons (two six-pound and two three-pound), two copper howitzers, and one iron carronade from St. Clair's defeat in 1791.
That same month, a large gathering of the Western Confederacy departed their encampments on the Auglaize River. They were acting on news that the British could soon be at war with the United States, and Blue Jacket took the opportunity to secure the support of British agents and traders in the region. Blue Jacket was convinced that another decisive battle would secure a final victory in the war, and he gained support from the Shawnee, Odawa, Potawatomi, Lenape, and Ojibwe. The Miami war chief Little Turtle did not want to engage the Legion without artillery, and dissuaded most of the Miami from joining this expedition. Blue Jacket did not intend to strike Fort Recovery specifically, using scouts to locate the best opportunity. By 25 June, the combined force had encamped within 20 miles of Fort Recovery, and moved towards the fort in a mass formation that was so large that the warriors outnumbered the available firearms. This army hunted as it traveled, using up available ammunition along the way.
Reconnaissance patrols were sent to find the locations of United States forces. On 27 June, a scout detachment of Odawas and Ojibwe met a U.S. detachment of Choctaws and rangers from the Legion. CPT Bobb Sallad of the rangers was killed, while the rest escaped. They arrived at Fort Greenville the next day and reported a "great force" of Native Americans advancing with "a great number of white men." Wayne received a follow-up report that a large hostile force was about to attack the Legion's supply lines, and that Fort Recovery had only three days of provisions.
On 28 June, the confederation force encamped along the road between Fort Recovery and Fort Greenville. Here a debate arose on their next move. Blue Jacket wanted to attack the Legion's road south of Fort Greenville, cutting off supplies and reinforcements to the Legion's forts. Reconnaissance had noted movement near Fort Recovery, however, and the majority argued that it would be easier to attack the fort at the farthest reaches of the supply line. According to William Wells, the head of the Legion's reconnaissance companies, the entire Native American army was placed under the nominal command of an Odawa called Bear Chief, perhaps due to the large numbers of northern tribes who had journeyed south to join the campaign. An estimated 1,200 warriors of the confederacy encamped just south of Fort Recovery and prepared an ambush.
Battle.
Early on 30 June, a company of Choctaws and Chickasaws under CPT James Underwood arrived at Fort Recovery. Although none of them could speak English, they were able to communicate a large enemy presence and many shots fired. CPT Gibson sent a reconnaissance patrol around Fort Recovery, but finding nothing abnormal, the fort resumed normal operations and the farm animals were released to graze freely.
Later that morning, a supply column left Fort Recovery for Fort Greenville, while the security detail finished breakfast at the fort. The column had gone about a quarter-mile when a small party of confederate warriors attacked the supply column and drove them back to the fort, while the rest of the army remained in position. At the sounds of gunfire and fleeing herd animals, the Legion quickly sent a reaction force of dragoons along the road and riflemen in the woods. The main body of the confederate force waiting until the dragoons were at close range, then fired a mass volley which killed several of the dragoons and horses, including the officer in charge, Major William McMahon. The riflemen under Captain Asa Hartshorn were flanked by small parties and cut off from the fort, then attacked by the main body. An injured Hartshorn was confronted by Thomas McKee, who demanded his surrender. CPT Hartshorn swung his pike at McKee and was quickly killed by McKee's slave and a Native American warrior.
CPT Gibson sent a detachment under LT Drake to cover the retreat to the fort. They advanced to the edge of the forest with bayonets and momentarily slowed the confederacy's advance, but were soon forced to retreat. LT Drake had to be dragged back to the fort after being shot.
The Legion's dragoons cut a retreat back to the fort, losing thirty-two killed (including Cornet Daniel Torrey) and thirty wounded, while inflicting an unknown number of casualties on their attackers. Some of the dragoons took shelter at a detached blockhouse by a stream, but most were forced to retreat again to the main fort. Many confederate warriors tried to capture the horses during the dragoon's retreat. The blockhouse itself remained under Corporal White and 6 privates, who may have killed more confederate warriors than the rest of the Legion inside the main fort. The Native Americans captured or scattered several hundred pack horses used for supply convoys. The Native Americans had only suffered 3 killed in the coordinated ambush, but Odawa and Ojibwa forces attacked the fort directly. A party of British officers under CPT Matthew Elliott argued against the attack, since they had already inflicted great damage on the Legion but had little chance of success against the fort. The attack was quickly neutralized by defenders from within the safety of the fort, including infantry, dragoons, and Chickasaw scouts. CPT Gibson also brought up the recovered artillery to defend the fort. The cannons did not seem to have a significant direct effect on the confederate force, but caused some warriors to flee. They refused to retreat, however, keeping the fort closed while a British artillery crew searched for the cannon's buried after St. Clair's defeat in 1791. Blue Jacket had no choice but to support the futile attack, which lasted until nightfall.
The Chickasaw and Choctaw scouts managed to get behind the confederate line and shot some Ojibwe and Odawa warriors in the back. This spawned accusations by the northern nations that they had been fired upon by rival Shawnee. The scouts also observed a crowd of commanders, which included at least three British officers in red uniforms, a large number of white men, and Simon Girty. One officer, Captain Jean Baptiste Beaubien, was seen near the wood line just out of musket range. A Chickasaw rifleman finally shot him with a double charge of powder; he was carried into the forest but later died.
Inflicting few casualties while taking on many, the confederacy decided to retire to the forest. That night, they attempted a surprise attack on the fort. It lasted nearly two hours, but accomplished little. Shots continued through the night, as soldiers from within the fort fired upon Native Americans who were gathering their dead and wounded. During the night, a scouting company under Captain William Wells reported that there were British officers behind the Indian lines, and that they had brought powder and cannonballs, but no cannons. They were looking for U.S. cannons that had been buried after St. Clair's defeat, not knowing that these had already been recovered by the Legion of the United States. The British officers recovered one cannon, but were unable to utilize it; one later stated that "had we two barrels of powder, Fort Recovery would have been in our possession with the help of St. Clair's cannon."
The next day, 1 July, some among the confederate forces attacked the fort again, but they began to withdraw by noon, and they were gone by nightfall.
Aftermath.
On 2 July, the CPT Gibson sent burial details. They were fired on by a few remaining Native Americans, but the two sides did little more than exchange angry words from a distance. CPT Gibson counted 35 dead, 43 wounded, 20 captured or missing. In addition, 46 horses were killed and 9 wounded, while the confederacy captured 204 horses and 30 cattle. Wayne sent an emergency resupply train to the fort, fearful that the confederacy may regroup. Wayne finally arrived at Fort Recovery a month later, calling the garrison the "bravest boys in the world."
Estimates of confederate casualties varied significantly, from 17 in earlier reports to an inflated number of 130 in later reports. William Wells concluded over the years that between 40-50 had died, and nearly 100 wounded, some of whom later died. The leaders of the Western Confederacy were sharply divided after the battle. The Odawa accused Blue Jacket of cowardice for not fully supporting the direct assault on Fort Recovery. Blue Jacket was angry that his plan to attack Fort Greenville was rejected, and that the Odawa had directly attacked Fort Recovery after their initial success. The Odawa and Ojibwa departed for their homes to bury their dead, determined that they had done their part for the Confederacy.
British MAJ William Campbell, commandant of Fort Miami, requested reinforcements when he received word of the battle. Governor John Graves Simcoe received the report and wrote on 10 July "I conceive war inevitable." Little Turtle identified Wayne as a "black snake who never sleeps,", and insisted that the British provide 20 soldiers and 2 cannons for a renewed attack on Fort Recovery. When the commandant of Detroit, COL Richard England declined to promise this support, Little Turtle warned him that they could not continue to resist Wayne's Legion.
Because the fort remained secure, Wayne's army was able to advance north and extend the line of forts. Fort Defiance was built in August, and became the Legion's main staging ground before it met and defeated a combined force under Blue Jacket at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The following year, representatives from the Western Confederacy and the United States met to negotiate the Treaty of Greenville. This treaty ceded most of the modern state of Ohio to the United States, and used Fort Recovery as a landmark to draw the boundary with Native American lands.
Tecumseh was among the Shawnee at Fort Recovery. He would later fight at Fallen Timbers and would form a new pan-tribal confederation in 1808.


Mompox Province

Mompox Province was the name of different provinces of Colombia.
In 1855 it was a province of the Republic of New Granada.
Later it was a province of Bolívar State (Colombia).


Museum of Indian Arts and Culture

The Museum of Indian Arts and Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology is a museum of Native American art and culture located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. It is one of eight museums in the state operated by the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums as part of the Museum of New Mexico system. The museum and its programs are financially supported by the Museum of New Mexico Foundation.
The Museum of Indian Arts and Culture is dedicated to the accurate and culturally sensitive presentation of southwestern Native American cultures. Its mission statement emphasizes its intention to work closely with the Native communities of the region. Their director is Della Warrior (Otoe-Missouria).
The Museum of Indian Arts & Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology, through close collaboration with Native Communities, commits to respect Indigenous traditions and to inspire appreciation of the unique cultures of the Southwest.
The museum pursues collection development and preservation; conducts public education and outreach; facilitates research; and creates interpretive exhibitions of the arts, cultures, and histories of the American Southwest.
History.
The following description of the museum's history is from the museum's Web site: :
In response to unsystematic collecting by Eastern museums, anthropologist Edgar Lee Hewett founded the Museum of New Mexico in 1909 with a mission to collect and preserve Southwestern Native American material culture. Several years later, in 1927, John D. Rockefeller founded the renowned Laboratory of Anthropology with a mission to study the Southwest's indigenous cultures. In 1947 the two institutions merged, bringing together the most inclusive and systematically acquired collection of New Mexican and Southwestern anthropological artifacts in the country.
The Laboratory's collection continued to expand but was largely unavailable to the general public for lack of adequate exhibition facilities. In 1977, the New Mexico legislature appropriated $2.7 million for the design of a new Museum of Indian Arts & Culture. The MIAC opened ten years later in 1987, immediately adjacent to the Laboratory, as the exhibition facility for the Lab's extensive collections.
In the following years, planning began for additional exhibition and collections storage space in the Amy Rose Bloch Wing and the revolutionary new exhibition Here, Now & Always, which opened in August, 1997. This groundbreaking permanent exhibition, developed by a core curatorial team composed of Southwest Indian peoples and museum professionals, incorporates the voices of more than 75 Native Americans. Here, Now & Always tells the rich, complex and diverse stories of Native Americans in the Southwest through their own words and some 1,300 objects drawn from the Museum's collections.
In January 1930, Secretary of the Interior Ray Lyman Wilbur approved the appointment of archeologist Jesse L. Nusbaum, Director of the Mesa Verde National Park, as the first Acting Director of the new Laboratory of Anthropology. Jesse L. Nusbaum has already worked on several projects under archeologist Edgar Lee Hewett, particularly on Mesa Verde National Park.
Collections.
Object collections at the Museum of Indian Arts & Culture are divided administratively into "Individually Catalogued Collections," which include typological collections of Southwestern textiles, pottery, baskets, jewelry, contemporary art, and artifacts chronicling the everyday life of New Mexico's long period of human habitation.
As the state repository for archaeological materials, the Museum has the responsibility to care for and maintain all artifacts excavated on state-owned land. Its Archaeological Research Collection contains artifacts numbering between 5 and 10 million. (As these artifacts are stored as "bulk" collections, and not catalogued individually, an exact count is unknown.
Exhibitions.
The Museum has a regularly changing schedule of temporary exhibitions, which draw on the strengths of its collection. Long-term exhibitions on view at the museum include:
The Buchsbaum Gallery of Southwestern Pottery, which contains nearly 300 ceramic vessels created by artists of the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona. Objects on display range from those created near the inception of pottery-making in the Southwest up to the present.
Here, Now & Always, a major exhibition that documents the Southwest's indigenous communities and their challenging landscapes. Here, Now and Always includes more than 1,300 objects from the Museum's collection accompanied by poetry, story, song and scholarly discussion.


Ho-Chunk

The Ho-Chunk, also known as Hoocągra or Winnebago, are a Siouan-speaking Native American people whose historic territory includes parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois. Today, Ho-Chunk people are enrolled in two federally recognized tribes, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska.
The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska have an Indian reservation in Nebraska. While related, the two tribes are distinct federally recognized sovereign nations and peoples, each having its own constitutionally formed government and completely separate governing and business interests. Since the late 20th century, both tribal councils have authorized the development of casinos to generate revenue to support economic development, infrastructure, health care and education.
The Ho-Chunk Nation is working on language restoration and has developed a Hoocąk-language iOS app. Since 1988, it has pursued a claim to the Badger Army Ammunition Plant as traditional territory; the area has since been declared surplus, but the Ho-Chunk have struggled with changes in policy at the Department of the Interior. The department supported the Ho-Chunk claim in 1998, but in 2011 refused to accept the property on their behalf.
In 1994, to build on its revenues from casinos, the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska created an economic development corporation; this has since grown and has received awards as a model of entrepreneurial small business. With a number of subsidiaries, it employs more than 1400 people. It has also contributed to housing construction on the reservation. Like more than 60% of federally recognized tribes, the Winnebago Tribe has legalized alcohol sales on the reservation to secure revenues that previously went to the state in retail taxes.
The Ho-Chunk was the dominant tribe in its territory in the 16th century, with a population estimated at several thousand. Ethnologists have speculated that, like some other Siouan peoples, the Ho-Chunk may have originated along the East Coast and migrated west in pre-colonial times. Nicolas Perrot wrote that the names given to them by neighboring Algonquian peoples may have referred to their origin near a salt water sea.
The Ho-Chunk suffered severe population losses in the 17th century, to a low of perhaps as few as 500 individuals. This has been attributed to the loss of hundreds of warriors in a lake storm, epidemics of infectious disease, and competition for resources from migrating Algonquian tribes. By the early 1800s, their population had increased to 2,900, but they suffered further losses in the smallpox epidemic of 1836. In 1990 they numbered 7,000; current estimates of total population of the two tribes are 12,000.
Name.
The Ho-Chunk speak a Siouan language, which they believe to be given to them by their Creator, Mą’ųna (Earthmaker). Their native name is "Ho-Chunk" (or Hoocạk), which has been variously translated as "sacred voice" or "People of the Big Voice," meaning mother tongue, as in they originated the Siouan language family. They usually refer to themselves as meaning "sacred voice people of the Pines".
The term "Winnebago" is a term used by the Potawatomi, pronounced as "Winnipego."
The Jesuit Relations of 1659–1660 said:
Nicolas Perrot was a 17th-century French trader who believed that the Algonquian terms referred to salt-water seas, as these have a distinctive aroma compared with fresh-water lakes. An early Jesuit record says that the name refers to the origin of "Le Puans" near the salt water seas to the north. Algonquins also called the Winnebago, "the people of the sea." (A Native people who lived on the shores of Hudson Bay were called by the same name.)
When the explorers Jean Nicolet and Samuel de Champlain learned of the "sea" connection to the tribe's name, they were optimistic that it meant "Les Puans" were from or had lived near the Pacific Ocean. They hoped it indicated a passage to China via the great rivers of the Midwest.
In recent studies, ethnologists have speculated that the Hoocągra, like the other Siouan-speaking peoples, originated on the east coast of North America and gradually migrated west. Recently, several Hoocąk elders have claimed that they originated in the Midwest and that they predated the last ice age. The early 20th-century researcher H.R. Holand claimed they originated in Mexico, where they had contact with the Spanish and gained a knowledge of horses. David Lee contends the Hoocąk were once akin to the Olmec there. His evidence derived from a culture based on corn growing, civilization type, and mound building. This followed the receding ice shield. However, Holand cites the records of Jonathan Carver, who lived with the Hoocągra in 1766–1768. But, contact with the Spanish could have occurred along the Gulf of Mexico or the south Atlantic coast, where other Hoocąk type tribes originated and lived for centuries. Others suggested that the Hoocągra originated near saltwater, to explain how mid-western tribes had a knowledge of the Pacific Ocean, which they described as being located where the earth ends and the sun sets into the sea. Oral histories from a past Hoocąk orator, Wakąhaga, or Snake Skin, say that they migrated to Wisconsin from the Pacific southwest, where their endonym originally meant "People of the Big Fish", or more accurately "People of the Whale". Generally, however, the Hoocągra today claim that their people have always lived in what is now the north central United States. Linguistic and ethnographic studies have generated other deep histories of the various American Indian peoples.
History.
Ho-Chunk oral history states that, "We have always been here" in their current homelands of Wisconsin, but also in surrounding parts of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois. Their Siouan language indicates common origin with the other peoples of this language group. They state their ancestors built the thousands of effigy mounds through Wisconsin and surrounding states during the Late Woodland period.
The tribe historically adopted corn agriculture at the end of the Late Woodland period as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. They cultivated wild rice ("Zizania" spp.), gathered sugar from sugar maple trees.
European contact came in 1634 with the arrival of French explorer Jean Nicolet. He wrote that the Winnebago/Ho-Chunk occupied the area around Green Bay of Lake Michigan in Wisconsin, reaching beyond Lake Winnebago to the Wisconsin River and to the Rock River in Illinois.
The oral history also indicates that in the mid-16th century, the influx of Ojibwe peoples in the northern portion of their lands caused the Ho-Chunk to move to the south of their territory. They had some friction with the tribes of the Illinois Confederacy, as well as fellow Chiwere-speaking peoples splitting from the Ho-Chunk. These groups, who became the Iowa, Missouria, and Otoe tribes, moved south and west because the reduced range made it difficult for such a large population to be sustained.
Nicolet reported a gathering of approximately 5,000 warriors as the Ho-Chunk entertained him. Historians estimate that the population in 1634 may have ranged from 8,000 to more than 20,000. Between that time and the first return of French trappers and traders in the late 1650s, the population was reduced drastically. Later reports were that the Ho-Chunk numbered only about 500 people. They lost their dominance in the region. When numerous Algonquian tribes migrated west to escape the problems caused by the powerful Iroquois tribes' aggressiveness in the Beaver Wars, they competed with the Ho-Chunk for game and resources, who had to yield to their greater numbers.
The reasons given by historians for the reduction in population vary, but they agree on three major causes: the loss of several hundred warriors in a storm on a lake, infectious disease epidemics after contact with Europeans, and attacks by the Illinois Confederacy.
The warriors were said to be lost on Lake Michigan after they had repulsed the first attack by invading the Potawatomi from what is now Door County, Wisconsin. Another says the number was 600. Another claim is that the 500 were lost in a storm on Lake Winnebago during a failed campaign against the Meskwaki, while yet another says it was in a battle against the Sauk.
Even with such a serious loss of warriors, the historian R. David Edmunds notes that it was not enough to cause the near elimination of an entire people. He suggests two additional causes. The Winnebago apparently suffered from a widespread disease, perhaps an epidemic of one of the European infectious diseases. They had no immunity to the new diseases and suffered high rates of fatalities. Ho-Chunk accounts said the victims turned yellow, which is not a trait of smallpox, however. Historians have rated disease as the major reason for the losses in all American Indian populations.
Edmunds notes as a third cause of losses the following historic account: that many of the Ho-Chunk's enemies, the Illinois Confederacy, came to help the tribe at their time of suffering and famine, aggravated by the loss of their hunters. The Winnebago then attacked the Illinois Confederacy. Enraged, additional Illinois warriors retaliated and killed nearly all the Ho-Chunk.
After peace was established between the French and Iroquois in 1701, many of the Algonquian peoples returned to their homelands to the east. The Ho-Chunk were relieved of the pressure on their territory. After 1741, while some remained in the Green Bay area, most returned inland. From a low of perhaps less than 500, the population of the people gradually recovered, aided by intermarriage with neighboring tribes, and with some of the French traders and trappers. A count from 1736 gives a population of 700. In 1806, they numbered 2,900 or more. A census in 1846 reported 4,400, but in 1848 the number given is only 2,500. Like other American Indian tribes, the Ho-Chunk suffered great losses during the smallpox epidemics of 1757–58 and 1836. In the 19th-century epidemic, they lost nearly one-quarter of their population. Today the total population of the Ho-Chunk people is about 12,000.
Through a series of forced moves imposed by the U.S. government in the 19th century, the tribe was relocated to reservations increasingly further west: in Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, and finally Nebraska. There are 13 recorded removals of the Hoocągra on file in Washington, D.C. Following the forced relocations, many tribe members returned to previous homes, especially in Wisconsin, despite the U.S. Army's repeated roundups and removals. The U.S. government finally allowed the Wisconsin Winnebago to settle land in the state, where they have achieved federal recognition as a tribe. The Ho-Chunk in Nebraska have gained independent federal recognition as a tribe and have a reservation in Thurston County. The Ho-Chunk Nation now has a constitution that reinforces its sovereign abilities to negotiate with the U.S. government.
Waukon and Decorah, county seats of Allamakee and Winneshiek County, Iowa, respectively, were named after the 19th-century Ho-Chunk chief Waukon Decorah.
Culture.
Before Europeans ventured into Ho-Chunk territory, the Ho-Chunk were known to hunt, farm and gather food from local sources, including nuts, berries, roots and edible leaves. They knew what the forest and river's edge had to give, and both genders had a role in making best use of resources. With the changing seasons, Ho-Chunk families would move from area to area to find food. For example, many families would return to Black River Falls, Wisconsin to pick berries in the summer.
Women of Ho-Chunk society were responsible for growing, gathering and processing food for their families, including the cultivation of varieties of corn and squash, in order to have different types through the growing season; and gathering a wide variety of roots, nuts and berries, as well as sap from maple trees. In addition, women learned to recognize and use a wide range of roots and leaves for medicinal and herbal purposes. The maple sap was used to make syrup and candy. Women also processed and cooked game, making dried meats combined with berries, which could sustain the people and hunters when traveling. They tanned the hides to make clothing and storage bags. They used most parts of the game for tools, binding, clothing, and coverings for dwellings. They were responsible for the survival of the families, caring for the children as well as elders.
The main role of the Ho-Chunk man was as a hunter, in addition to a warrior when needed. Leaders among the men acted in political relations with other tribes or peoples. As hunters, they would catch fish by spearing them and clubbing the fish to death. The men would also hunt game such as muskrat, mink, otter, beaver, and deer. Some men learned to create jewelry and other body decorations out of silver and copper, for both men and women. To become men, boys would go through a rite of passage at puberty: they fasted for a period, during which they were expected to acquire a guardian spirit for, without it, their lives would be miserable.
Besides having a guardian spirit, men would also try to acquire protection and powers from specific spirits, which was done by making offerings along with tobacco. For example, a man could not go on the warpath without first performing the "war-bundle feast," which contained two parts. The first part honored the night-spirits and the second part honored the Thunderbird spirit. The blessings that these spirits gave the men were embodied in objects that together made the war-bundle. These objects could include feathers, bones, skins, flutes, and paints.
Ho-Chunk clans.
Before the United States government removed the Ho-Chunk from their native land of Wisconsin, the tribe made up of 12 different clans. These clans are listed below.
The clans were associated with animal spirits that represented the traditional responsibilities within the nation; each clan had a role in the survival of the people. Like other Native Americans, the Ho-Chunk had rules generally requiring people to marry outside their clans. The kinship system was based in the family, and gave structure to descent and inheritance rules. Although the tribe is patrilineal today, anthropologists believe they may have had a matrilineal kinship system in the 17th century, before their major losses. At that time, the matriarchs of a clan would name its chief, and they could reclaim the position if they disapproved of his actions. The Ho-Chunk may have shifted to the patrilineal system due to marriage into other tribes, or under the influence of the male-oriented fur trade.
Today there are two federally recognized tribes of Ho-Chunk people, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska.
Ho-Chunk Nation.
This tribe is headquartered in Black River Falls, Wisconsin. Formerly known as the "Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe", they changed their name to "Ho-Chunk Nation" to take back their traditional Siouan name for themselves. They are the larger of the two tribes. They also call themselves "Wonkshieks" – "First People of the Old Island".
The Ho-Chunk have established the "Hoocąk Waaziija Haci" Language and Culture Division, which has developed materials to teach and restore use of the "Hocąk" language, as well as other elements of the traditional culture. Among its recent innovations are developing a Hocąk-language app for the iPhone. The Ho-Chunk have about 200 native speakers among its elders and are working to develop more.
Of the 7,192 tribe members as of 23 May 2011; 5,042 lived in Wisconsin, and 2,150 lived elsewhere. They include 3,158 males and 3,674 females; 1,972 are minors; 4,619 are adults; and 601 are elders. The tribe owns 4,602 acres (18.625 km²) scattered across parts of 12 counties in Wisconsin and one county in Minnesota. The largest concentrations are in Jackson, Clark, and Monroe counties in Wisconsin. Smaller areas lie in Adams, Crawford, Dane, Juneau, La Crosse, Marathon, Rock, Sauk, Shawano, and Wood counties in Wisconsin. The Ho-Chunk Nation also owns land in Lynwood, Illinois.
Government.
The Ho-Chunk Nation established a written constitution. It is governed by an elected council. , the current president is Marlon WhiteEagle.
Since the late 20th-century, the tribe has developed and operates six casinos in Wisconsin to generate revenues for its people and provide employment:
In February 2013, the Beloit Common Council sold land adjacent to that owned by the Ho-Chunk Nation in Beloit, Wisconsin to the Ho-Chunk Nation for a proposed casino.
The council has used revenues to develop infrastructure, healthcare and educational support for its people.
In 1988, the Ho-Chunk Nation filed a timely claim for transfer of the Badger Army Ammunition Plant (BAAP), which was to be declared surplus under federal regulations. As part of their former traditional territory, the property holds historical, archeological, sacred and cultural resources important to their people. It is a 1500-acre parcel in Sauk County, Wisconsin. In 1998 the Secretary of the Interior had issued a letter to claim the land on behalf of the Ho-Chunk but, in 2011, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) refused to accept the property. It said it was unwilling to spend monies to conduct the environmental assessment.
The Ho-Chunk are continuing to pursue the case, as they note that, between 1998 and 2011, the Army spent millions of dollars in environmental assessment and cleanup to prepare the property for transfer. In 2012 the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) passed a resolution in support of the Ho-Chunk and encouraging the BIA as a policy matter to accept surplus lands as trust lands on behalf of tribes.
Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska.
The tribe has a reservation in northeastern Nebraska and western Iowa. The Winnebago Indian Reservation lies primarily in the northern part of Thurston and a small part of Dixon counties in Nebraska, with an additional portion in Woodbury County, Iowa. A small plot of off-reservation land of is in southern Craig Township in Burt County, Nebraska. The total land area is 457.857 km² (176.78 sq mi).
They also call themselves "Hochungra" – "People of the Parent Speech", which resembles the "Ho-Chunk" of the Nebraska branch of the Winnebago.
The Iowa portion was originally west of the Missouri River and within Nebraska boundaries. But, after the United States Army Corps of Engineers changed the course of the river, some of the reservation land was redefined as falling within the boundaries of Iowa. The tribe successfully argued that the land belonged to them under the terms of the deed prior to diversion of the river. This land has a postal address of Sloan, Iowa, as rural addresses are normally covered by the nearest post office.
The 2000 census reported a population of 2,588 people living on these lands. The largest community is the village of Winnebago, with other communities in Emerson and Thurston, Nebraska. In 2006 their enrolled population was estimated at 4,000.
The federally recognized Omaha also have a reservation in Thurston County. Together, the Native American tribes occupy the entire land area of Thurston County.
Government.
The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska established a written constitution. It is governed by an elected nine-person council.
Since 1992 the Winnebago tribe has owned and operated the WinnaVegas Casino in the Iowa portion of its reservation. The tribe has legalized alcohol sales on the reservation in order to retain revenues that formerly went to the state through liquor taxes paid to retailers off the reservation. The tribe now has the authority to directly regulate alcohol sales. It is earning revenues to provide medical and other treatment for individuals and families affected by alcoholism. More than 60% of federally recognized tribes in the lower 48 states have legalized alcohol sales for the same reason – to derive the economic benefit and better regulate the issue.
In 1994 the tribe established Ho-Chunk, Inc., an economic development corporation that now employs 1400 people and has provided revenues to the tribe for improvements to the quality of life of its members. Its success has gained awards for small business, and it has a number of subsidiaries. It has initiated a strong housing construction program in collaboration with federal programs. Its leaders were featured on "Native American Entrepreneurs", airing in 2009 on PBS.
Land claims.
According to Gordon Thunder (Wakąja), the Ho-Chunk have been systematically removed from their homelands, with other tribes now occupying many of those places. The Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin, which at one time consisted primarily of tribal members spread over 13 counties of Wisconsin, have a historical territorial claim in an area encompassed by a line from Green Bay to Long Prairie to St. Louis to Chicago. Some in the federal and state governments have undermined the Ho-Chunk land claims; however, repatriation activities document where many villages once stood.


Geiger v. Kitzhaber

Geiger v. Kitzhaber is a decision by the U.S. District Court for the District of Oregon that requires Oregon to allow same-sex couples to marry and to recognize same-sex marriages established in other jurisdictions. The decision arose from two consolidated cases that alleged that Oregon's constitutional ban on same-sex marriage, , and all related marriage statutes, violate the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution. Among the several defendants, Attorney General Ellen Rosenblum filed appearances in the case to defend Oregon's position, but declined to defend the constitutionality of the bans and ordered state agencies to recognize the validity of same-sex marriages established elsewhere.
U.S. District Judge Michael J. McShane ruled on May 19, 2014, that Oregon's constitution and statutes restricting marriage rights for same-sex couples violate the U.S. Constitution and ordered an immediate end to their enforcement.
The National Organization for Marriage, an organization opposed to same-sex marriage, tried without success to intervene in the suit, to stay enforcement of the district court decision, and to appeal that decision.
Filing.
"Geiger v. Kitzhaber" was filed on October 15, 2013, by Deanna Geiger and Janine Nelson, a lesbian couple wanting to marry in Oregon, and by William Griesar and Robert Duehmig, a gay male couple together for 25 years who had married in Canada. The case was filed in the United States District Court of Oregon. The case claims that Oregon's constitutional ban on same gender marriage, , and all Oregon marriage statutes referring to husband and wife that government officials interpreted in a way that excluded full and equal marriage rights for gay and lesbian couples, violate the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution.
The couples named as defendants Governor John Kitzhaber, Attorney General Ellen Rosenblum, Jennifer Woodward, State Registrar, and Randy Walruff, Multnomah County Assessor.
Recognition of out-of-state marriages.
The next day, October 16, the state's Chief Operating Officer Michael Jordan directed state agencies to "recognize all out-of-state marriages for the purposes of administering state programs. That includes legal, same-sex marriages performed in other states and countries." He cited an opinion by the Oregon Department of Justice dated the same day. According to that opinion, Jordan had inquired whether, in the light of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "United States v. Windsor" and the fact that California and Washington were recognizing same-sex marriages, Oregon could recognize same-sex marriages established in other jurisdictions. Deputy Attorney General Mary H. Williams, writing on behalf of the Department of Justice, replied to his inquiry saying: "We cannot identify any legitimate (much less compelling) state interest in requiring that each marriage recognized in Oregon contain one partner of each sex. We conclude that state agencies can recognize these marriages as valid. To do otherwise would likely violate the federal constitution."
Consolidation.
The case was assigned to U.S. District Judge Michael J. McShane. Two months after "Geiger" was filed, two additional couples and the Basic Rights Education Fund filed another lawsuit, "Rummell v. Kitzhaber", again alleging that Oregon's ban on same-sex marriages was unconstitutional. The "Rummell" plaintiffs asked the court to consolidate their case with the "Geiger" case. The "Geiger" plaintiffs objected to the consolidation because it would cause a delay in the ruling. On January 22, 2014, Judge McShane consolidated the two cases. The plaintiffs in both "Geiger" and "Rummell" filed motions asking for summary judgment, since no facts were in dispute.
Attorney General's response.
On February 20, 2014, Attorney General Ellen Rosenblum filed an answer to the "Rummell" plaintiffs' complaint in which she conceded that Oregon's laws excluding same-sex couples from marriage were unconstitutional. She told the court that she believed "that performing same-sex marriages in Oregon would have no adverse effect on existing marriages, and that sexual orientation does not determine an individual's capacity to establish a loving and enduring relationship." She found it impossible to defend the state's "under any standard of review" and her office would no longer defend the ban in court. Speaking publicly, she announced that the "Oregon Department of Justice will not defend the prohibition in our state's constitution against marriages between people of the same sex."
Oral arguments.
On April 23, 2014, Judge Michael McShane heard oral arguments on the motions for summary judgment in the consolidated lawsuit. While all parties present supported same-sex marriage, Judge McShane questioned whether there was a role for Oregon voters who had approved the amendment defining marriage in 2004 and considered whether to implement his ruling immediately or stay his ruling and await guidance from related cases pending in the U.S. courts of appeal. The court scheduled another session of oral arguments for May 14, where the National Organization for Marriage ("NOM"), an organization that opposes same-sex marriage, tried without success to qualify for intervention in the case. McShane ruled that the group was unreasonably late in filing its request to intervene and that it failed to convincingly demonstrate that it should be allowed to intervene on behalf of three anonymous Oregon-based members of NOM.
Ruling.
The court granted the plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment on May 19, resulting in the immediate legalization of same-sex marriage in Oregon.
Judge McShane departed from the common descriptor of "same-sex" throughout his opinion, using instead the terms "same-gender marriage" and "same-gender couples". His opinion included several paragraphs designed for the public:
Minutes after the decision was announced at noon, officials in at least four counties were fulfilling requests for marriage licenses from same-sex couples. Multnomah County issued 96 licenses the first day, and judges officiated at wedding ceremonies at six altars set up in a Portland ballroom. Deanna Geiger and Janine Nelson were the first to marry after Judge McShane's ruling.
Appeals.
On May 4, 2014, while the "Geiger" case was still pending in district court, the National Organization for Marriage (NOM) filed an appeal of the district court's denial of intervenor status in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Once Judge McShane released his May 19, 2014, order, NOM immediately sought a stay of that order from the Ninth Circuit, which denied that emergency motion that same day. The state defendants, including Governor Kitzhaber, joined by the plaintiffs, moved the next day to dismiss NOM's appeal as moot. They argued that Judge McShane was correct in denying NOM intervenor status, and that therefore NOM lacked standing and its appeal was moot. On August 27, a three-judge panel of the Court of Appeals, consisting of U.S. Circuit Judges Schroeder, Thomas, and N.R. Smith, agreed and granted the motion dismissing the appeal.
On May 27, 2014, NOM filed an application for an emergency stay with Justice Anthony Kennedy, the Circuit Justice for the Ninth Circuit. On June 4, Justice Kennedy referred the application to the full U.S. Supreme Court, which rejected the request for a stay without comment or recorded dissent on June 4.
On November 24, 2014, the Ninth Circuit denied NOM's request for an initial hearing "en banc." On December 3, 2014, the Ninth Circuit issued the mandate finalizing its August 27 decision to dismiss NOM's appeal.
On April 20, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court denied another NOM petition for review.
Attorneys.
Lake Perriguey of Law Works LLC began working on the case in July 2013. He and Lea Ann Easton of Dorsay & Easton LLP filed "Geiger" in October 2013.
Tom Johnson and Misha Isaak of Perkins Coie LLP, and Jennifer Middleton of Johnson Johnson & Schaller PC, together with ACLU staff attorneys Kevin Diaz, Amanda Goad, and Rose Saxe, filed "Rummell" in December 2013 on behalf of Basic Rights Education Fund and two other plaintiff couples. In addition to litigating a challenge to Oregon's marriage laws on behalf of their clients, the Rummell attorneys represented the plaintiffs in both consolidated cases in opposing the National Organization for Marriage's motion to intervene and motions to stay at the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. Supreme Court.
The Oregon Attorney General's office represented Governor Kitzhaber and the state registrar. The lawyers were Sheila Potter, Anna Joyce, and Mary Williams. The Office of Multnomah County Attorney represented the Multnomah County defendant. The lawyers were Jenny Morf Madkour and Kate von Ter Stegge.


Wishram village

Wishram Village, referred to as nixlúidix by its residents, was a summer and winter village on the Columbia River, Washington, United States occupied by Upper Chinook people. It is considered the largest prehistoric Chinook village site. The site is now part of Columbia Hills State Park.
History.
Located near Five Mile Rapids, the village was located at the far eastern reach of Chinookan lands. Archaeologists believe the site was occupied for about 10,000 years. The village was a common trading site for Indians in the surrounding areas, acting as a link between tribes from the Pacific Coast, and the interior Northwest. The site was visited by nearby Yakamas, as well as those from as far away as the Nez Perce, who would come to trade fish, berries, skins, buffalo, amongst many other items.
The village was visited during the westward journey by Lewis and Clark, and again on their eastward return journey, though by the time of the second visit, the village was at a site about downstream from the site visited the previous fall. Lewis and Clark estimated that there were about 600 people living at the site during the first visit (October 1805), and around 1,000 during the second visit (April 1806). Clark noted in his journals that there were about 20 wooden houses at the site, near a man-made earthen mound called Wakemup (or Wakamup) Mound.
By the time of the July 1841 visit by the United States Exploring Expedition, United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes described the village as having forty lodges, and 400 inhabitants.
In 1854, the village was struck by an epidemic of smallpox, which killed 257 residents. Survivors of the epidemic blamed a "medicine-man" for failure to cure the disease, and killed him by putting him on a horse with a noose around his neck.
Around 1860, residents of Wishram began moving to the Yakama Indian Reservation, under treaties signed in 1855, but Indians continued to be allowed to use the site for fishing. Until 1957, the village located at the site was referred to as Spearfish, which was flooded by the creation of The Dalles Dam.
Wakemap Mound.
Wakemap Mound is a mound at the site that measures roughly long, by wide, and deep. The site is now surrounded by water caused by the construction of The Dalles Dam.


Timeline of Monterrey, Mexico

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.


Oneida Nation of the Thames

The Oneida Nation of the Thames is an Onyota'a:ka (Oneida) First Nations band government located in southwestern Ontario on what is commonly referred to as the "Oneida Settlement", located about a 30-minute drive from London, Ontario, Canada. The Oneida Nation reports a total of 6,108 members, including 2,159 residents.
The Oneida Settlement.
The Oneida, Haudenosaunee people, an Iroquoian people, had a traditional territory that once covered a large section of the eastern part of North America. The territory of the Oneida Settlement is part of the traditional hunting area known as the Beaver Hunting Grounds, which was recognized in 1701 Nanfan Treaty. The people who live there are descendants of many later migrants, a small group of assimilated/Christian Oneidas who relocated to Southwold, Ontario, Canada from New York state in 1840. The original settlers of the Oneida community were associated with two Christian denominations, Methodist and Anglican. One of the leaders in the migration was an ordained Methodist minister. Soon after their arrival in Ontario, the settlers built Methodist and Anglican churches. Since those early days, these two churches have had over half of the population as members. By 1877, some people began to join the Baptists. Old Methodist records show some families and individuals shifting from the Methodist to the Baptist church, and the reverse.
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada designates the settlement as Oneida 41 Indian Reserve or simply as Oneida 41. The Oneida people who live or are descendants of people at the "Oneida Settlement" always insist that their lands be called a "settlement" because Oneida people purchased the relocation lands in Ontario. This is a distinction from having the lands "set aside" or "reserved" for them. Many other lands inhabited by indigenous people in North America are called "Indian reserves".
Prior to selling their New York lands, the Oneida requested assurance from the Crown that should they remove to Canada, they would be protected and treated in every respect as their brethren who had always resided within the precincts of the province. Having received such assurance, they sold their lands in New York and selected the Thames River tract. They expressed a wish that their tenure to these lands should be precisely the same as that held by the resident tribes; the parties from whom the lands were purchased should surrender them to Her Majesty in trust for the sole use and benefit of the tribe and their posterity. In this way, the people of the Oneida Settlement would be put on a footing with other tribes in the province, and be exempt from the taxation to which the non-native inhabitants of the country were liable by law.
The circumstances of purchase and subsequent surrender of the land have led some present-day Oneidas to hold an equivocal position regarding the status of the communal lands. A number of Oneidas object to the term “reserve” in reference to the Oneida community. They prefer to call it the “Oneida Settlement” or "Oneida Community", claiming that the land is private property, having been purchased by their ancestors rather than given by treaty. They also contend that the Oneida have never surrendered the land to the Crown, therefore the government should not have jurisdiction over them. Nevertheless, the government treats Oneida as a reserve. The Oneidas recognize, though often with protest, this "de facto" status of the community. Those who claim the land is still privately owned rather than held in trust do not press to establish this claim with the government.
Several reasons are stated for letting the issue ride: the impossibility of getting all the special interest groups in the community to work together to prove their claim; lack of funds to fight such a case; and fear of losing certain advantages which reserve status owes them (Indian Act Governments). This latter is perhaps the most important reason. Those who deny that Oneida is Crown land held in trust for the Indians, fear that should the government accept their claim to its being privately owned land, then the Oneida might have to pay taxes. These would be delinquent since 1840.
Governance.
The current Indian Act Band Council consists of Chief Randall Phillips and twelve (12) councillors: Carol Antone, Clinton Cornelius, Brandon Doxtator, Charity Doxtator, Gloria Doxtator, H.Grant Doxtator, Harry Doxtator, Kathleen Doxtator, Ursula Doxtator and Olive Elm, Justin Kechego-Doxtator and Stacey Phillips. The council, in turn, is a member of the Southern First Nation Secretariat, a Regional Chiefs' Council. On a larger political scale, the First Nation is a member of the Association of Iroquois and Allied Indians, a Tribal Political Organization representing eight Iroquoian and Anishinaabe First Nation governments in Ontario.
This community also has a hereditary government structure in place.
Community.
The community contains three sub-divisions, a community centre, and three parks. Bingo and radio bingo are very popular, and sports are important. The people attend longhouse and the annual ceremonies. They teach the Oneida language to all children in school.
The Community Centre has been the centre of controversy related to its construction, funding, and operations. Envisioned as a central facility for community use, it was envisioned to be self-sustaining by renting meeting rooms for special events (e.g., birthday parties and other celebrations). Without a strong revenue base, the Community Centre has always operated in a deficit position.
Facilities.
The Oneida people who live in this reserve also have a traditional longhouse and government. There are two factions: the River Road Longhouse follows the Code of Handsome Lake as well as the Great Law, and the other, the Elijah Road Longhouse, follows only the Great Law, not recognizing the other teachings.
A number of Oneida own independent businesses, including several craft shops, variety stores, gas bars, and a great number of smoke shops. Two elementary schools have been built: "Standing Stone" and "The Log School" (Tsi ni yu kwali ho:tu')'. A health clinic is located in downtown Oneida. This area includes a community-owned radio station, administration building, senior rest home, a volunteer fire hall/ambulance station, water treatment facility, sewage treatment facilities, public works building, community centre, police station, and a training centre.
Annual events.
The Oneida Nation of the Thames holds an annual Oneida Fair, the third weekend in the month of September. The Oneida Fair was once an occasion for the people to celebrate and compete in agricultural events and other competitions associated with their historical rural lifestyle.
Today most Oneida people do not rely on an agricultural lifestyle. Their lives do not depend on a rural garden, home canning, baking, sewing, arts and crafts, and the raising of livestock. They have become more urbanized just as have other populations in Canada. But, people do participate every year and enter the various agricultural and home arts competitions, albeit on a smaller scale than in the past. Since the early 21st century, the Oneida Fairboard has sponsored a fireworks show at the Fair. It also has featured musicians such as Joanne Shenendoah (Oneida Indian Tribe of New York) and local acts such as Robbie Antone (blues performer).
The Oneida Fair has likely gained more importance for those members who no longer live at the settlement. It is an occasion for homecoming and a chance to renew tribal ties. Many people feel welcome at the fair because it is generally a secular and non-political event.
Neighbours.
The closest tribal or First Nation neighbours to the Oneida are the Munsee-Delaware Nation and the Chippewas of the Thames.
Recent successes.
In the summer of 2007, the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care approved the Oneida Nation of the Thames for the licensing and funding of 64 long-term care beds, as well as $2.8 million in capital. The First Nation continues to negotiate with other governments and partners to participate in this opportunity for family care. The facility will employ 70-80 people and will bring in 70 million dollars over a 20-year span. It will also allow First Nations people to return to their families, and partake in cultural activities.
Media.
A First Nations/community radio station in Oneida Nation of the Thames operates at 89.5 FM. This unlicensed station is branded as Oneida Radio 89.5 FM The Eagle or Eagle Radio 89.5, etc. and has no call sign.


Geoffrey FitzClarence, 3rd Earl of Munster

Geoffrey George Gordon FitzClarence, 3rd Earl of Munster, DSO (18 July 1859 – 2 February 1902), known as Lord Tewkesbury 1870–1901, was a British peer, and the great-grandson of King William IV by his mistress Dorothea Jordan.
Family.
Born Geoffrey George Gordon FitzClarence, he was the son of William FitzClarence, 2nd Earl of Munster (19 May 1824 – 30 April 1901) and Wilhelmina Kennedy-Erskine (27 June 1830 – 9 October 1906). His parents were first cousins, thus making Geoffrey a great-grandson of William IV twice over. His grandfather on his paternal side was Lord George Augustus FitzClarence and his grandmother on his maternal side was Lady Augusta FitzClarence, who were brother and sister.
Geoffrey was the third son of nine children. His elder brothers, Edward and Lionel, both died before reaching their majority. Edward died at the age of 14, Lionel as a young child.
Military career.
Lord Tewkesbury was commissioned into the British Army as a subaltern of the 2nd Battalion King's Royal Rifle Corps (then the 60th Rifles). He served in the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1879–1880 at the age of 19, was present at the engagement at Ahmed Kheyl, and Uraco, near Ghaznee, and accompanied Lord Roberts in the march to Kandahar, and was present at the battle of that name. He also saw some service with the third battalion of his regiment in the First Boer War in 1881. He became captain in 1888 and resigned his commission in the Regular Forces in 1895.
After his retirement he joined the part-time 3rd (Militia) Battalion, Royal Scots (Lothian Regiment) as a captain on 25 March 1896, and after some years' service in command of a company was promoted to the honorary rank of major. The battalion was embodied in December 1899 to serve in the Second Boer War, and in early March 1900 left Queenstown on the "SS Oriental" for South Africa. Lord Tewkesbury was mentioned in dispatches and received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his service.
Peerage.
It was during his last military engagement in South Africa that Lord Tewkesbury received notice of his father's death and his own succession to the Munster earldom and other titles. He never returned to the United Kingdom, dying in South Africa at the age of 42 from an accident at Lace Mines, just nine months after becoming 3rd Earl of Munster.
The 3rd Earl was unmarried and had no children. The earldom and other titles therefore passed to his next brother Aubrey.


List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union

A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term "commonwealth" rather than "state" in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States. They possess all powers not granted to the federal government, nor prohibited to them by the Constitution of the United States. In general, state governments have the power to regulate issues of local concern, such as: regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, public school policy, and non-federal road construction and maintenance. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while the size of a state's House delegation depends on its total population, as determined by the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution and joined the others in the new (and current) federal government. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
Articles of Confederation ratification dates.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.


Evangeline Atwood

Evangeline Atwood (1906–1987) was an American historian, activist, and philanthropist. She was the co-founder of numerous organizations in Alaska, including the Alaska Statehood Association, the Anchorage League of Voters, the Alaska World Affairs Council, Parent-Teacher Council of Anchorage, and the Cook Inlet Historical Society. In 2009, she was named to the Alaska Women's Hall of Fame. Her husband was Robert Atwood and was the co-owner, alongside him, of the "Anchorage Times".
Early life and work.
Maud "Evangeline" Rasmuson was born in 1906 in Sitka, Alaska. Her parents were Edward Anton Rasmuson and Jenny Olsen. She had one brother, Elmer. She attended the University of Washington and the University of Chicago, where she received her Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts, respectively. After graduation, she worked as a social worker in Springfield, Illinois.
She married Robert Atwood on April 2, 1932, whom she met while working in Springfield. They moved to Anchorage, Alaska in 1935. She became a historian focusing on Alaskan history. She would write six books about the history of Alaska and its culture, including one about James Wickersham. She also wrote for the "Anchorage Times", in which she had two columns, "Alaska Women in Politics" and "Historically Speaking." She founded the Alaska World Affairs Council. She would serve as a board member and event planner for the organization. In 1935, she gave birth to Marilyn Jeanette Atwood. In 1940, she had another daughter, Sara "Elaine" Atwood. In 1947, she and Robert bought the Anchorage Hotel.
In the mid-1940s, she founded the Alaska Statehood Association, to support Ernest Gruening to gain statehood for Alaska. She became president of the organization, which had representation in ten cities in the state. The organization funded George Sundborg to produce a research study that would be used to explain to voters why they should make Alaska a state. It was used in the Alaska statehood elections of 1946, and the referendum was approved.
Atwood started the Anchorage League of Voters in 1950. Atwood stored the majority of her documents and papers at home, including documents related to her work at the "Anchorage Times". The majority of her papers and the family archives were destroyed during the 1964 Alaska earthquake.
Later life and legacy.
She was named Alaskan of the Year in 1981. Atwood died in November 1987.
A manuscript about the history of Alaska's newspapers was started by Atwood, and completed by journalist Lew M. Williams, Jr., upon her death. In 2009, Atwood was inaugurated into the Alaska Women's Hall of Fame. The Anchorage Museum named the Bob and Evangeline Atwood Alaska Resource Center after her and her husband. The Atwood family papers are held in the collection of the University of Alaska Anchorage. The Atwood Concert Hall at the Alaska Center for the Performing Arts is named after Atwood. The Alaska Historical Society awards the Evangeline Atwood Award for excellence in Alaska history.


Our Lady Help of Christians

Our Lady Help of Christians (German) is a historic Catholic church at the corner of East Allegheny Avenue and Gaul Street in the Port Richmond section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and serves the German-speaking population in the area.
The parish was founded in 1885 and the church was constructed in 1898.
Parish boundary.
All German-speaking people: east, Delaware River; south, Lehigh Ave.; west, Kensington Ave. and E St.; north, Wheatsheaf La.
Masses conducted.
Vigil Mass, Saturdays, 5 PM. Sundays, 10 AM. Holydays, 9 AM; 7 PM.
Related school.
Students Attend: Our Lady of Port Richmond Regional School, 3233 E. Thompson St. 19134.


Ruth Shorts

Ruth Shorts was pioneer Captain Thomas Shorts' first boat on Okanagan Lake in British Columbia, Canada and starting with her, Shorts was the first boater on the lake, beginning a long history of ships and steam transportation that enabled the development of the Okanagan. In the early 1880s, Shorts thought of beginning a freight business on the lake and had Pringle and Hamill of Lansdowne build a rowboat with a capacity of 2.5 tons. The boat was long and had a small sail. Shorts named the boat "Ruth Shorts" after his mother and he began service in 1883. There was no set schedule, but the round trip generally took nine days and Shorts rowed in all weather for three years, averaging a passenger a month. He made about CAD$6000 rowing before venturing into steam with "Mary Victoria Greenhow" in 1886, only to lose his earnings.


Hyde Park, New York

Hyde Park is a town in Dutchess County, New York, bordering the Hudson River north of Poughkeepsie. Within the town are the hamlets of Hyde Park, East Park, Staatsburg, and Haviland. Hyde Park is known as the hometown of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president of the United States. His house there, now the Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, as are the homes of Eleanor Roosevelt, Isaac Roosevelt, and Frederick William Vanderbilt, along with Haviland Middle School (formerly Franklin D. Roosevelt High School).
Hyde Park is home to the main campus of the Culinary Institute of America, a four-year college for culinary and baking and pastry arts, and the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, the first presidential library in the United States.
Hyde Park's population was 21,571 at the 2010 United States Census. In 2016, it was estimated 21,048 people lived in Hyde Park. U.S. Route 9 passes through the town near the Hudson River.
History.
Settlement of the region officially began around 1742, but may have begun as early as 1710.
The name of the area was changed to "Hyde Park" around 1810. Previously, it was part of the Fauconnier Patent and was named "Stoutenburgh", after the town's first settler, Jacobus Stoughtenburg. Part of the town was from the Great Nine Partners Patent of 1697.
Doctor John Bard had called his estate "Hyde Park" in honor of Edward Hyde, who was Lord Cornbury and governor of New York from 1702 to 1708. In 1697, Hyde granted nine close friends of his a large swatch of land "south of Albany" in the Great Nine Partners Patent, which would eventually make up much of Hyde Park. In 1804 a tavern keeper named Miller, seeking new guests, renamed the tavern "the Hyde Park Inn", much to the annoyance of Doctor Bard. He then applied for a post office to be located at his inn, common among tavern keepers. The request was granted as the "Hyde Park Post Office". The settlement gradually came to be known not as Stoutenburgh but as Hyde Park, which it officially became in 1812.
Hyde Park was a part of Clinton, New York until 1821, when it was incorporated as a separate town. The Hyde Park Railroad Station, located at the mouth of Crum Elbow Creek along the Hudson River, was used by the town's residents, including the Roosevelts.
The town includes Frederick William Vanderbilt's spring and autumn mansion, now maintained as the Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site.
The Roosevelt family.
Hyde Park is the hometown of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945), who served as president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. His estate, Springwood, is the site of the Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site maintained by the National Park Service. Also on the site are his presidential library and museum. Roosevelt used this residence throughout his life. FDR's historical house is now a museum that can be visited.
Val-Kill was the home of Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt. It is located about east of the home of FDR.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt are both buried in the rose garden at "Springwood".
President Roosevelt's father, James Roosevelt, Sr., served a term as supervisor of the town of Hyde Park.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Hyde Park has a total area of , of which is land and , or 8.02%, is water.
The Hudson River defines the west town line, which is the border with Ulster County. Hyde Park is bordered by the town of Poughkeepsie to the south, Rhinebeck to the north, and Clinton and Pleasant Valley to the east.
NY Route 9G was overlaid with asphalt in 2006 from St. Andrew Road to Crum Elbow Road. A. Colarusso & Son Inc., based in Hudson, New York was the contractor.
Demographics.
As of the 2010 census, the town's population was 21,571. The racial makeup was 87.1% white, 6.0% African American, 0.2% Native American, 2.5% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 1.8% other races, 2.4% two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 5.6% of the population.
As of the U.S. Census of 2000, there were 20,851 people, 7,395 households, and 5,220 families residing in the town. The population density was 564.2 people per square mile (217.8/km2). There were 7,704 housing units at an average density of 208.5 per square mile (80.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 91.02% White, 4.25% African American, 0.20% Native American, 1.39% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 1.19% from other races, and 1.86% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.23% of the population.
There were 7,395 households, out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.7% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.4% were non-families. 23.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.10.
In the town, the age distribution of the population shows 24.7% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $50,870, and the median income for a family was $58,047. Males had a median income of $42,251 versus $28,176 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,260. About 4.4% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under age 18 and 6.0% of those age 65 or over.


Battle of Canyon de Chelly

The Battle of Canyon de Chelly was fought in 1864 as part of the Navajo Wars. It was a successful operation for the United States Army which precipitated the Long Walk and was the final major military engagement between the Navajo and the Americans. The battle ended with the fall of the main Navajo settlements of Canyon de Chelly in present-day northern Arizona.
Background.
By the time of the American Civil War the Navajo was the largest nation in the Southwest and one of the largest remaining Native American nations within the United States. Colonel Christopher H. "Kit" Carson had been waging a successful campaign against the Navajos employing a scorched earth policy, destroying homes, food and supplies. It was Carson's policy to capture the Navajo instead of killing them. However, by November 1863 Carson had only sent 200 people on to the reservation at Bosque Redondo. Brigadier General James H. Carleton ordered Carson into the Navajo stronghold in Canyon de Chelly. The canyon had been explored once before in 1858 by Colonel Dixon S. Miles. Miles had recommended no command should re-enter it.
The Navajo in Canyon de Chelly were members of the bands led by Manuelito, Barboncito and his brother Delgado. By the time Carson's men came into their lands, these Navajo groups had already suffered attacks from Ute warriors. The raids by the Utes and soldiers had taken its toll on some of the Navajos. Delgado's followers concluded they would not be able to survive the winter and surrendered at Fort Defiance. Barboncito vowed never to surrender and continued fighting the army.
Battle.
When Carson was ready to move against Canyon de Chelly, Barboncito's men ran off all the army mules. Carson's men had to return to Fort Defiance and delay the attack. By 6 January, Carson was re-equipped and ready to move against Canyon de Chelly despite heavy snow.
Carson had with him 389 troopers from the 1st New Mexico Cavalry. He divided his command, sending Captain Albert H. Pfeiffer into the east end of the canyon with 100 men, while Carson led the remaining 289 to the west end of the canyon. Carson traversed the entire canyon, occasionally engaging in skirmishes and destroying every abandoned native camp he found until reaching the opposite end without encountering the main Navajo band or Captain Pfeiffer. Pfeiffer had missed the entrance to the canyon in a snowstorm and was instead traversing through a northern branch called Canyon del Muerto. Carson meanwhile retraced his route back to the west entrance and waited for Pfeiffer to arrive. Pfeiffer arrived having been harassed by natives along the cliffs but, like Carson, had only engaged in light skirmishing. The army set up camp near Chinle, Arizona.
Barboncito and Manuelito had both vowed not to surrender. The two led their followers to a rocky butte known as Fortress Rock, at the confluence of the two canyons. Here the Navajos had stockpiled food and were able to hold out against the army's incursions into the canyon. However, this isolated position left the Navajo without many necessities for the coming winter. Many decided to turn themselves in. In the meantime, Carson sent Captain Asa B. Carey through the canyon one last time before the entire command returned to Fort Canby.
Aftermath.
Although the battle itself had been somewhat anticlimactic, the operation as a whole proved to be a great success to the United States. The destruction of the Navajo camps, crops and supplies came at a crucial time for the Navajo. Cold, hungry and tired, many realized they would not be killed or captured by the soldiers if they came in peacefully. Delgado tried to convince others to surrender by reminding them of food, blankets and protection at the army forts. Manuelito was one of a few who never surrendered and fled into Hopi lands. By the summer of 1864 Carson had accepted the largest Native American surrender in history. Nearly 8,000 people had surrendered and were soon moved to the Bosque Redondo reservation. The deadly journey became known as the Long Walk of the Navajo.
In 1868, after four years of exile, the Navajo were allowed to return to their homeland. The site is operated by the National Park Service as the Canyon de Chelly National Monument. The Visitor Center is three miles from Route 191 in Chinle, Arizona.


Erie people

The Erie people (also Eriechronon, Riquéronon, Erielhonan, Eriez, Nation du Chat) were a Native American people historically living on the south shore of Lake Erie. An Iroquoian group, they lived in what is now western New York, northwestern Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio before 1658. Their nation was decimated in the mid-17th century by five years of prolonged warfare with the powerful neighboring Iroquois for helping the Huron in the Beaver Wars for control of the fur trade."
Their villages were burned as a lesson to those who dared oppose the Iroquois. This destroyed their stored maize and other foods, added to their loss of life, and threatened their future, as they had no way to survive the winter. The attacks likely forced their emigration. The Iroquois League was known for adopting captives and refugees into their tribes. The surviving Erie are believed to have been largely absorbed by other Iroquoian tribes, particularly families of the Seneca, the westernmost of the Five Nations. Susquehannock families may also have adopted some Erie, as the tribes had shared the hunting grounds of the Allegheny Plateau and Amerindian paths that passed through the gaps of the Allegheny. The members of remnant tribes living among the Iroquois gradually assimilated to the majority cultures, losing their independent tribal identities.
The Erie were also called the "Chat" ("Cat" in French) or "Long Tail" (referring, possibly, to the raccoon tails worn on clothing or the Eastern Panther which played a role in Erie cosmology), see the Underwater Panther. Like all the Iroquoian stock, they lived in multi-family long houses in villages enclosed in palisades. These defensive works often encompassed their fields for crops. They cultivated the "Three Sisters": varieties of corn, beans, and squash, during the warm season. In winter, tribal members lived off the stored crops and animals taken in hunts.
History.
While indigenous peoples lived along the Great Lakes for thousands of years in succeeding cultures, historic tribes known at the time of European encounter began to coalesce by the 15th and 16th centuries. The Erie were among the several Iroquoian peoples sharing a similar culture, tribal organization, and speaking an Iroquoian language which emerged around the Great Lakes, but with elements that may have originated in the south. Traditional rivalries and habitual competition among Amerindian tribes for resources (especially fire arms) and power was escalated by the lucrative returns of the fur trade with French and Dutch colonists beginning settlements in the greater area before 1611. Violence to control the fur-bearing territories, the beginnings of the long-running Beaver Wars, began early in the 17th century so the normal peace and trading activity decreased between the tribes, who had responded to demand for beaver and other furs by over-hunting some areas.
The Erie encroached on territory which other tribes considered theirs. During 1651, they'd angered their eastern neighbors, the Iroquois League, by accepting Huron refugees from villages which had been destroyed by the Iroquois. Though reported as using poison-tipped arrows ("Jesuit Relations" 41:43, 1655–58 chap. XI), the Erie were disadvantaged in armed conflict with the Iroquois because they had few firearms. Beginning in 1653 the Erie launched a preemptive attack on western tribes of the Iroquois, and did well in the first year of a five-year war.
Consequently, in 1654 the whole Iroquois Confederacy went to war against the Erie and neighboring tribes such as the Neutral people along the northern shores of Lake Erie and across the Niagara River, the Tabacco people between the Erie and Iroquois, neighbors to all three groups. As a result, over five years of war they destroyed the Erie confederacy, the Neutrals, the Tobacco, with the tribes surviving in remnants. By the mid-1650s, the Erie had become a broken tribe. Dispersed groups survived a few more decades before being absorbed into the Iroquois, especially the westernmost Seneca nation.
Historically the Monacan and Erie were trade allies, especially copper, but years later that relationship fell apart due to growing colonial pressure.
Anthropologist Marvin T. Smith (1987:131–32) theorized that some Erie fled to Virginia, where they were known as Rechahecrian and then South Carolina, where they became known as the "Westo". Some were said to flee to Canada. Members of other tribes claimed later to be descended from refugees of this defunct culture, who intermarried with other peoples. Among those are members of the Seneca people in Oklahoma and Kansas.
Because the Erie were located further from the coastal areas of early European exploration, they had little direct contact with Europeans. Only the Dutch fur traders from Fort Orange (now Albany, New York) and Jesuit missionaries in Canada referred to them in historic records. The Jesuits learned more about them during the Beaver Wars, but most of what they learned, aside from a single in-person encounter, was learned from the Huron who suffered much reduction before the Erie did. What little is known about them has been derived from oral history of other Native American tribes, archaeology, and comparisons with other Iroquoian peoples.
Language.
The Erie spoke an Iroquoian language said to have been similar to Wyandot.


Second Magdalena massacre

The Second Magdalena massacre was an attack by Apaches against the Spanish mission village of Magdalena de Kino, in the present day northern Mexico. The attack occurred sometime in mid November 1776, most or all of Magdalena de Kino's inhabitants were killed so an exact date will never be known.
Massacre.
It was the second massacre on the town, in November 1757, Seri natives attacked and killed thirty-one civilians. Captain Francisco Ignacio de Trespalacios, who replaced the fallen commander, Francisco Tovar, after the First Battle of Terrenate, discovered the massacred colonists during a campaign from Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate with eighty-three cavalry men. The Spanish Army found that around forty Apaches had looted the settlement, murdered the inhabitants and burned the church.


British Columbia New Democratic Party leadership elections

This page covers the results of leadership elections in the British Columbia New Democratic Party (known as the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation before 1961).
Early developments.
On July 5, 1936, CCF parliamentary leader Robert Connell survived a leadership challenge, 138 votes to 76. It was also determined, at this meeting, that the party's future leadership would be decided by delegated conventions.
Leadership convention, 1969.
First ballot:
Second ballot:
Berger stepped down as party leader after the NDP lost the provincial election of 1969. Barrett was subsequently chosen as interim party leader.
Leadership convention, 1984.
First ballot:
Lea was eliminated, and endorsed Stupich.
Second ballot:
Birrell was eliminated. She initially declined to endorse another candidate, but later supported Robert Skelly.
Third ballot:
Stupich was eliminated. He declined to endorse another candidate.
Fourth ballot:
King was eliminated, and endorsed Skelly.
Fifth ballot:
Leadership convention, 2003.
First ballot:
Second ballot:
Leadership convention, 2011.
"See 2011 British Columbia New Democratic Party leadership election"
Leadership convention, 2014.
"See 2014 British Columbia New Democratic Party leadership election"
John Horgan acclaimed leader on May 1, 2014, when the nomination deadline passes with no other candidate registering. He officially took over as party leader May 4, 2014.


Abraham Nimham

Abraham Nimham (1745-1778), son of warrior and emissary Daniel Nimham, was a leader of the Wappinger tribe. During the Revolutionary War he served with his father in the Stockbridge Militia, often accompanying Daniel Nimham on diplomatic and recruiting missions.
Abraham was commissioned a captain, and was given command of a detachment of sixty Stockbridge and River Indian soldiers. On April 28th, 1778, Abraham and his father joined the Continental Army at White Plains, NY.
On August 31, 1778, both Abraham and Daniel Nimham were ambushed and killed by a ranger patrol under the command of John Graves Simcoe during the Battle of Kingsbridge at Cortlandt Ridge.


SS Jubilee

SS "Jubilee" was the second steamship on Okanagan Lake in British Columbia, Canada, owned and operated by Captain Thomas Shorts. She was built by Shorts and carpenter John Hamilton in 1887 while they were waiting for a new boiler to come in for their first steamship, , which needed new machinery. When it arrived, they decided to put the new boiler in the new by "Jubilee" instead and they put "Mary Victoria Greenhow's" engine in "Jubilee" as well. She was launched at the Okanagan Landing shipyard at 3:30 p.m. on September 22, 1887. "Jubilee" took about two weeks per round trip on the lake. A gold strike on Granite Creek in the Similkameen River in 1889 created business for "Jubilee" and Shorts built a barge to help her. However, the strike didn't last long and the barge was beached. "Jubilee" was also short-lived, as she froze in ice at Okanagan Landing during a cold spell in the winter of 1889–1890. She sank and in the spring, her machinery was put in Shorts' new barge, "City of Vernon". The engine was reinstalled in several more ships, and the retired engine was used in a shingle mill for cutting firewood at Trinity Valley starting in 1906. Finally, Mr. and Mrs. G. H. Worth of Vernon, British Columbia, who had owned and used it for many years, donated it to the Vernon Museum and Archives in November 1957.


Theodore Roosevelt Association

The Theodore Roosevelt Association (TRA) is a historical and cultural organization dedicated to honoring the life and work of Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), the 26th President of the United States.
The group is based in Oyster Bay, New York, where Roosevelt spent summers in his youth and would relocate in his adulthood.
History.
The organization was founded in 1919 by friends and supporters of the president originally as the Permanent Memorial National Committee. Soon renamed the Roosevelt Memorial Association (RMA), it was chartered under Title 36 of the United States Code in 1920.
In parallel with the RMA was an organization for women, The Women's Theodore Roosevelt Association, that had been founded in 1919 by an act of the New York State Assembly. The organizations merged in 1956 under the current name.
The two ancestor organizations that eventually combined to form the modern TRA established four public sites: the reconstructed Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site in New York City, dedicated in 1923 and donated to the National Park Service in 1963; Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park in Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York, dedicated in 1928 and given to the people of Oyster Bay; Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., given to the federal government in 1932; and Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's Oyster Bay home, which opened to the public in 1953 and, together with nearby "Old Orchard", home to Theodore Roosevelt Jr., was donated to the National Park Service in 1963.
Along with the 1963 gifts of the Birthplace and Sagamore Hill properties, the TRA donated an endowment to help support both sites. The TRA currently owns Theodore Roosevelt's simple cabin, "Pine Knot", near Charlottesville, Virginia, which is managed by the Edith and Theodore Roosevelt Pine Knot Foundation.
Theodore Roosevelt Collection.
One of the two TRA ancestor organizations, the Roosevelt Memorial Association (RMA), collected manuscripts, diaries, correspondence and other items relating to Roosevelt's personal and professional life. In 1923, the RMA opened a research library at the Birthplace in New York City and continued to build its archive. During 1943, the organization presented the entire collection of materials to Harvard University, Roosevelt's alma mater. Today the Theodore Roosevelt Collection is housed in Harvard's Houghton Library. The collection continues to be a major resource for the study of the life and times of the 26th president of the United States.
The only larger Theodore Roosevelt Collection is that at the Library of Congress, which includes Roosevelt's Presidential Papers, donated personally by Roosevelt.
Theodore Roosevelt Film Collection.
The compilation of the film collection was originally embarked upon by the RMA in January 1919. Later, during 1924, the RMA formally established the Roosevelt Motion Picture Library housed at the Birthplace. The TRA donated the Roosevelt Motion Picture Library to the Library of Congress in 1962.
Leadership of the TRA.
Led in the years 1919-1957 by Secretary and Director Hermann Hagedorn (1882-1964), the Association engaged in a wide spectrum of programs and activities to preserve Roosevelt's memory. Dr. John Allen Gable served as executive director from 1974 until his sudden death in early 2005.
Activities.
In recent years, the organization's endeavors included creation and maintenance of About Theodore Roosevelt, the TRA web site at http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org, which has been criticized by scholars as hagiographic and hard to navigate. The organization also conducts the Theodore RooseveltR Police Awards (given in New York, Dallas, Boston, and Nashville to police officers who have overcome handicaps), and the Theodore Roosevelt Teddy Bear program, which each year gives teddy bears to hospitalized children in New York City and Nashville during the December Holiday season. The TRA also publishes a quarterly journal, conducts occasional historical and educational conferences, and sponsors public speaking contests for high school students in New York.
Annual Dinner/Meetings.
Annual meetings of the Theodore Roosevelt Association - held near TR's October 27 birthday - occur generally in places that are somehow associated with TR, such as Boston/Cambridge, where he attended college and met his first wife; New York/Oyster Bay, where he lived most of his life; Norfolk, around the USS "Theodore Roosevelt"; Washington, where he worked as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Vice President and President; Atlanta, where his mother grew up; and even the Netherlands, where the Roosevelts originated. The annual dinner frequently includes the awarding of the Theodore Roosevelt Distinguished Service Medal. Annual meetings often include lectures on TR, visits to Roosevelt-related sites, and silent auctions and bartering/selling of TR collectibles by collector members of the association.
Proposed Presidential Center/Museum.
Press announcements in March 2007 concerning the appointment of James Bruns as president of the TRA noted a plan to build a museum and research center dedicated to the 26th president. In Oyster Bay, where the project was proposed to be built on a site popularly known as "Firemens Field", local debate was strenuous. A citizens group, the Coalition to Save Firemen's Field, was formed to defend the proposed site of the new museum from development. Many residents cited grave concerns over increased traffic to the museum over two-lane roads for a five-mile perimeter around the proposed site; roads that were already frequently choked with traffic jams. Others noted redundancy with the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site, former home of the President, and the adjacent Old Orchard Museum, housing an impressive multimedia museum dedicated to TR. After failing to gain the necessary political and financial support, the Theodore Roosevelt Association abandoned the project in 2009.
Another attempt is being made in North Dakota.
Members of the TRA board.
TR's great-grandson Tweed Roosevelt serves as the organization's president as of 2010. He is joined on the board and in the association by members from a wide variety of walks of life, and numerous members of the Roosevelt family, including great-grandson Mark Ames, great-granddaughter Susan Roosevelt Weld, great-great-grandson Simon Roosevelt, great-grandson Theodore Roosevelt IV, and several cousins. Other members include but are not limited to those in finance, the judicial/legal arenas, the military, and teaching.
Membership.
Interests of the membership are as varied as were Theodore Roosevelt's own interests. Members include Rough Rider fans, political memorabilia collectors, and Theodore Roosevelt impersonators. Some members join simply because they enjoy Teddy bears.
Membership in the Association includes a subscription to the quarterly TRA Journal, and invitations to association functions. Members also receive free admission to Sagamore Hill in Oyster Bay and the Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace in Manhattan, upon presentation of their membership cards.


Occupy Vanderbilt

Occupy Vanderbilt was a collaboration that included demonstrations and an occupation located at Alumni Circle Lawn at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. Occupy Vanderbilt engaged in organized meetings, events and actions through March 2012. The occupation was in solidarity with the global occupy movement and Occupy Nashville, and is notable as the first protest encampment at Vanderbilt, the spread of which in countries like Argentina, Greece and Spain originally inspired the Occupy movement.
Timeline.
The following is a timeline of Occupy Vanderbilt events and activity.