Battle of Nyborg

The Battle of Nyborg was a battle fought between Sweden and the combined forces of Denmark, Dutch naval forces under Michiel de Ruyter, troops of Brandenburg-Prussia, and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth forces under Stefan Czarniecki. The battle was engaged on 14 November 1659 at Nyborg on the Danish island of Funen. Nyborg was the final major battle of the Dano-Swedish War of 1658 to 1660.
Swedish Imperial Field Marshal Philip Florinus of Sulzbach, leading the vanquished Swedish forces, was forced to save his own life by fleeing under cover of night. The battle is considered one of the most important Danish victories of the war.
Prelude.
After the disastrous Assault on Copenhagen, Charles X Gustav divided his army into bigger parts to move over to Funen, in order to rest. In Copenhagen it was decided that in september, the next decisive battle would take place on Funen under the command of the Dano-German commander and Field Marshal Hans Schack. Schack's corps would move from Copenhagen and Schleswig to Funen, while another corps under the command of Saxon Field Marshal Ernst Albrecht von Eberstein would move up through Jutland. In Eckernförde on 20 October, Schack and Eberstein agreed that they would land at Funen around 1 November. On Funen, Nyborg was the only important fortification for the Swedes. However it was not in a good condition, and the Swedes began working to improve its defenses.
Schack attempted first on 28 October to initiate a direct landing at Nyborg. However it failed, due to the bad weather. Instead he completed a landing at Kerteminde with his corps three days later. In the meantime, Eberstein was still moving his troops through Jutland, and on 4 November he moved over the Little Belt between Frederiksodde (now Fredericia) and Middelfart. During the crossing, small boats were used to get to Funen, and it took 5 days to land all of Eberstein's troops on the island. The Swedes had a chance to defeat the two allied corps before they could unite, but this opportunity was not used due to the hesitation of the commander of the Swedish forces Philip Florinus of Sulzbach, who had pulled back to Nyborg. This did not please Charles X Gustav who sent Gustav Otto Stenbock to relieve him of his command. But when he arrived at Nyborg, its defenses were not as great as the Swedes had anticipated. Stenbock sent a letter to the king, informing him that defending the city would be in vain.
Eberstein suggested that a war council would be held, but this was denied by Schack. There were disputes between the two commanders regarding the command of the allied forces. The two eventually decided to lead their own troops, and would switch the main command of the forces with each other in the coming days. The Swedes under the command of Sulzbach knew of the allied movement, and decided to engage the allied forces near the city.
The Battle.
Early in the morning of 14 November, Eberstein reached the Swedes 3-4 km northwest from Nyborg. Sulzbach had positioned his forces between the Hjulby Sø, a small lake on the left and a big forest on the right near the hamlet of Skaboshuse. Sulzbach would use the forest as cover, if retreating was necessary. For the allies, it was agreed that Eberstein would lead the northern left flank, while Schack would lead the southern right. The Swedes had a force of 5,000 experienced but battle-weary men against the allied combined force of 9,000. The allied force was divided into two, and consisted mostly of Danish troops, but also Prussian and Polish troops, lead by famed Polish general and nobleman Stefan Czarniecki.
At 11 AM. the battle began. Schack saw the manoeuvre of Eberstein and went into a similar battle formation. Before Schack could advance, Eberstein launched three attacks against the Swedes, but they were repelled. Sulzbach ordered a cavalry counterattack against Eberstein’s flank. Eberstein himself was almost captured but managed to escape. Schack wanted to prevent Eberstein’s corps from breaking, and mounted an attack on the Swedish left flank and center. This led to a long and bloody engagement between the two sides.
Unbeknownst to the Swedes, allied Colonel Ditlev Ahlefeldt had intended to move through the Hjulby Sø with his cavalry, and attack the Swedish southern flank from there. He reached the lake and found out, that it would take some time to move all of the horses to the other side over the bog. Nevertheless, he began to penetrate through the bog with his cavalry. Once it was done, Ahlefeldt ordered the attack, which caught the Swedes off guard, and made them retreat back to Nyborg. During the retreat, many of the fleeing Swedes were cut down by the allied cavalry.
On the 15 November the allies had reached Nyborg, where they began bombarding the city with artillery. After a Dutch naval landing by Michiel de Ruyter, the remaining 3,000 Swedish troops had no choice but to surrender. The battle lasted 5 hours.
Aftermath.
The Swedish king Charles X Gustav, attended the battle from Korsør. After he admitted defeat, he returned to Sweden. It became the last major battle of the war. Whether this battle or the Assault on Copenhagen was a turning point for the Danes, is discussed between historians. After the battle, the Swedes had not enough men to be to able to win another major battle.


Francis Chamberlain (governor)

Sir Francis Chamberlain (1561–1570) was Governor of Guernsey.


Governor of Cork

The Governor of Cork was a military officer who commanded the garrison at Cork in Ireland. The office became a sinecure and in 1833 was abolished from the next vacancy.


Popular Front of Tajikistan

The Popular Front of Tajikistan (; ) was a politicized paramilitary movement composed of volunteers that fought for the government during the Tajik Civil War. Up to 8,000 fighters served as part of the front.
History.
It emerged in June 1992, during which it began fighting against the United Tajik Opposition. The founders of the movement were Sangak Safarov and Safarali Kenjayev. It quickly gained popularity among rulers of Tajikistan, and by the fall of 1992, veterans of the Soviet Army and KGB, local militiamen, as well as law enforcement personnel joined the Popular Front. The leadership of the front subsequently became known as the “Yurchiki”, named after Yuri Andropov due to the large presence of former KGB employees. Subsequently, by the end of 1992, most of the supporters of former President Rahmon Nabiyev joined the Popular Front. In December 1992, a new government under Emomali Rahmon (the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Tajikistan) signed a resolution "On the Establishment of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan" on the basis of the Popular Front and the forces supporting the constitutional government. On 27 June 1997, the People's Front of Tajikistan movement was disbanded. Following the 1997 peace treaty, several units of the front became part of the Tajik National Army.
Operations.
With the aid of the Russian 201st Motor Rifle Division and the Uzbek army, the Leninabadi-Kulobi Popular Front forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. In Kulob, Safarov's units put the biggest pressure on the opposition. In early October, the forces of the Popular Front, acting under communist slogans, tried to seize the capital, which was then controlled by the Islamist forces.
Allegations of war crimes.
According to Human Rights Watch, after the Popular Front entered Dushanbe, 'they conducted a campaign of summary executions" as well as "disappearances" of people who originate from the Pamiri and Garmi regions. Their actions resulted in the deaths of more than 300. According to eyewitnesses, Popular Front soldiers stopped buses and trolley buses, as well as deployed forces at Dushanbe International Airport to check peoples passports for people from these regions.


Muralla urbana de Marbella

The Muralla urbana is a fort in Marbella, southern Spain. It was built in the 11th century.


Battle of Kollum

The Battle of Kollum was a military engagement that took place on 16 July 1581 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The battle was fought between an English and Dutch force under John Norreys and Diederik Sonoy respectively, and a Spanish force under George van Lalaing, the Count of Rennenberg. The Dutch and English were victorious, and as a result of the defeat Rennenberg, already ill, died two days later.
In March 1580 George van Lalaing, the Count Rennenberg had turned against William the Silent, and then declared for Spain. This caused outrage amongst the Dutch with many even coming over to the side of the rebels. Rennenberg led an army to lay siege at Steenwijk but was defeated when an Anglo-Dutch relief army under John Norreys arrived.
Many of Rennenberg's army were sick and in a mutinous mood; they fled east towards Groningen and with Norreys in pursuit not too far behind. Rennenberg, hoping to catch his pursuers off guard, turned and faced them at Kollum. Norreys attacked almost at once sweeping away the Spanish forces from the field who then fled all the way to Groningen itself. The battle was one sided and a heavy defeat; Spanish casualties were heavy with 700 killed, wounded, or captured and in addition the loss of all their military baggage and all four of their field guns. Rennenberg, who had been too ill to take command, died four days later at Groningen.
Rennenberg's successor Francisco Verdugo soon attacked again at Noordhorn; this time Norreys was defeated in the pitched battle.


Battle of Welfesholz

The Battle of Welfesholz was fought on 11 February 1115 between the Imperial army of the Emperor Henry V and a rebellious Saxon force.
Background.
Henry V, scion of the Frankish Salian dynasty and uncontested King of the Romans since 1106, had inherited both the Investiture Controversy and the Saxon conflict from his father Henry IV. In 1110 he moved to Italy and, after negotiation failed, captured Pope Paschal II and several cardinals to enforce his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor. Having returned from Rome he was immediately excommunicated by the papal legate in Germany Cuno of Praeneste and again by Archbishop Guy de Vienne, the later Pope Callixtus II, which encouraged the Imperial princes in their rising against the emperor—most of all the Saxon Duke Lothair of Supplinburg and Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, Henry's long-time supporter who after his investiture had deserted him.
Henry entrusted the Saxon affairs to his field marshal Count Henry of Mansfeld, a Saxon noble himself. However, though he had Adalbert imprisoned at Trifels Castle and forced Lothair to submit himself after a court hearing at the Imperial Palace of Goslar, the smouldering Saxon conflict broke out again in March 1113 over the succession in the Thuringian territories left by late Count Ulric II of Weimar and Orlamünde. In order to create a base of power of his own, Henry had made attempts to confiscate the county as a ceased fief but met obstinate resistance by Ulric's heir, the Count Palatine of the Rhine Siegfried, son of the Ascanian count Adalbert II of Ballenstedt. The insurgents gathered under the lead of the Osterland count Wiprecht of Groitzsch and the Thuringian count Louis the Springer, but were repulsed by Henry's troops under Mansfeld in a battle at Warnstedt near Thale. Wiprecht was captured and at first sentenced to death for high treason. Later he was reprieved, imprisoned at Trifels and divested of his possessions, which passed to the House of Mansfeld.
The next year Duke Lothair had to attend Henry's wedding with Matilda of England in a hairshirt. Subdued though not deposed, he had continued intriguing against Henry, who saw himself confronted with the increasing opposition of the Imperial princes. In October 1114 the conflict again culmulated in violent fights, when Rhenish insurgents led by Archbishop Frederick I of Cologne had attacked the Imperial troops in October 1114 at Andernach.
Battle.
Meanwhile, several nobles like the deposed Duke Henry of Lower Lorraine and the Saxon bishop Reinhard of Halberstadt, disgusted by Henry's haughty behaviour, had joined the insurgents. According to the chronicles of Pegau Abbey, on 10 February 1115 the Imperial forces gathered at the "Kaiserpfalz" of Wallhausen and moved about towards Welfesholz (today part of Gerbstedt in Saxony-Anhalt) to meet the united Saxon troops led by Duke Lothair, with first skirmish occurring already on the same evening.
The next day Henry's commander Hoyer of Mansfeld started an offensive whereby he was killed in a sword combat by the young robber knight Wiprecht II, son of the arrested Count Wiprecht of Groitzsch. The incident decided the battle: the tackling Saxon armies of Lothair were victorious, forcing Henry's troops to take flight. In his 12th century "Chronica Slavorum" the Saxon chronicler Helmold described the battle as "the largest encounter in our time".
Aftermath.
The emperor's power to rule Saxony was denied, the Bishop of Halberstadt even refused a Christian burial of the killed enemies. In November, the Mainz citizens enforced the release of Archbishop Adalbert. However, Henry could still rely on the loyal support by his Hohenstaufen nephew Duke Frederick II of Swabia and his brother Conrad III. When the emperor again moved to Italy for the inheritance of Countess Matilda of Tuscany the next year, Duke Frederick was appointed regent, which laid the grounds for the rise of the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
Contemporaneously, Lothair's position in Saxony was stabled. Count Wiprecht of Groitzsch was released in 1117, he was appointed burgrave of the Magdeburg archbishop the next year. When Emperor Henry V vested him with the marches of Meissen and Lusatia in 1123, Duke Lothair opposed his former ally, expelled him and granted the marches to Conrad of Wettin and the Ascanian count Albert the Bear. When the Salian dynasty became extinct with Henry's death in 1125, Lothair, strongly backed by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, was elected King of the Romans against the Hohenstaufen duke Frederick of Swabia.
The fate of Count Hoyer of Mansfeld was perpetuated in a poem by Theodor Körner (1791–1813).


Battle of Savitaipal

The Battle of Savitaipal took place on June 3, 1790 during the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), between Sweden and the Russian Empire. The Swedes lost the battle and had to withdraw with a loss of 372 men killed, wounded and captured or 750 according to Russian sources. The Russians estimated their casualties at 60 men killed and wounded, whereas the Swedes claimed to have killed 800.


Battle of Falun

The Battle of Falun () was the first battle of the Swedish War of Liberation that took place in Falun, Sweden on February 5, 1521. Swedish rebels under Gustav Vasa, who had just days earlier been proclaimed leader of the Dalecarlians against the Danes, raided Falun. The rebels, consisting of a few hundred poorly armed peasants and some noble officers, took the Danish forces in the town completely by surprise. The local fogde Kristoffer Olsson and a few others labelled as "traitors" were captured. Local shops run by German merchants were plundered, and the population taxed.
The rebels continued onwards through the region, gaining many new recruits. Shortly after they returned to Falun, and the locals pledged allegiance to Gustav Vasa and his cause. The rebellion continued until the Treaty of Malmö in 1524. A year earlier, in 1523, Vasa was crowned King of Sweden.


Boonpong Sirivejjabhandu

Boonpong Sirivejjabhandu GC, MBE (; , 21 April 190629 January 1982) widely known as Boon Pong was a Thai merchant and member of the underground "V" organization during the Japanese occupation of Thailand during World War II.
World War II.
Boon Pong, using as cover his contract with the Imperial Japanese Army to supply the canteens of Allied POWs working along the Kwai Lo River, smuggled medicine, money and contraband food to the POWs and is credited by many with saving thousands of lives during the building of the Burma Railway.
Although Thailand made peace with the Japanese after being invaded, there was an active underground movement. One prisoner recalls Boonpong was the merchant with the lowest prices and the smallest mark up. However he performed other services risking his life and those of his family. He lent money, provided extra medicines and ran messages. With access to medicines, the death rate of the prisoners was reduced from five a day in May 1943 to one a week by the following November.
Post-war.
After the war, Boonpong was attacked by Thai police in some mistaken retribution. Sir Edward "Weary" Dunlop, another hero of the POW camps, ordered a report on 'the condition of Mr. Boonpong, injured Thai civilian, who had done so much for prisoners of war.’ In 1947 he was in financial difficulties and so a POW association on hearing of it organised a collection for him. Shortly thereafter, Boonpong started the Boonpong Bus Company. In 1948 he was awarded the MBE by the British Government.
Later an Australian medical scholarship was named in honor of him and Sir Edward Dunlop. The documentary film “The Quiet Lions” is about both of them. Boonpong also figures prominently in "Beyond the Bamboo Screen", a collection of anecdotes by Scottish PoWs.
In popular culture.
Ruangsak "James" Loychusak portrayed Boonpong Sirivejjabhandu in "Boon Pong" a thai television soap opera based on him. "Boon Pong" was broadcast on Thai PBS from 8 May 2013 to 20 June 2013.


Kiev Bolshevik Uprising

The Kiev Bolshevik Uprising (November 8–13 (October 26–31 by old style), 1917) was a military struggle for power in Kiev (Kyiv) after the fall of the Russian Provisional Government due to the October Revolution. It ended in victory for the Kievan Committee of the Bolshevik Party and the Central Rada.
Chronology of events.
When in the fall of 1917 in Petrograd Bolsheviks staged the "Great October Revolution", their Ukrainian colleagues attempted to do the same. However, unlike in the Russian capital, the rebellion in Kiev has failed. The Bolshevik Revolution in Petrograd in November 1917 became a total surprise to leaders of the Ukrainian Central Council (Tsentralna Rada). As the predominant part of the Russian public, the Ukrainian officials were sure that undertakers of the Russian Provisional Government would not stand in power for more than a few weeks.
Already the very next day after the events in Petrograd, the Ukrainian Central Council declared that considers unacceptable transferring of power to the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' deputies who composed only a part of the organized revolutionary democracy. Officially condemning the coup as non-democratic, the Central Council promised to fight with motivation against all type of support of the rebellion in Ukraine.
The notice about the Petrograd coup has caused a surf of armed struggle in the capital of Ukraine. For the next three days there were street fighting in Kiev between supporters of the Soviet power and government forces before the latter were forced to surrender. Despite its declarations, in this fight the Ukrainian Central Council took the position of friendly neutrality towards Bolsheviks. To many Ukrainian politicians Bolsheviks seemed to be much less dangerous than the toppled Provisional Government that in the last weeks of its existence was expressing increasing hostility towards Ukrainian National movement.
Taking advantage over the defeat of government forces, the Ukrainian units took under their control main government institutions of the city. The power in Kiev and Ukrainian lands was transferred to the Central Council and its executive body, the General Secretariat. The Kiev Military District commander was appointed a participant of Ukrainian National movement Lieutenant Colonel Viktor Pavlenko. Kiev Bolsheviks did not object to the actions of the Central Council. Both sides considered their main opponent the toppled Russian government that seemed as it could still return to power. However, soon thereafter it became understood that the Provisional government has finally descended from political forestage. On the daily agenda before the fighter for "proletarian revolution" arose a question about establishing of Soviet power in Ukraine.
The Kievan Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Worker's Party (Bolsheviks) 10 members of which joined the Central Rada previously.
On November 8 with the initiative of the Central Council of Ukraine the Regional Committee in Protection of Revolution in Ukraine was created which was intended to be a temporary government in Kiev. It consisted of representatives from different political parties, councils, and the city Duma. The Committee was meeting in the building of the Pedagogical museum. The headquarters of the KMD was supporting the Russian Provisional Government and did not trust the State Committee as it included the Bolsheviks. On November 9 the Central Rada finally defined its negative position in relation to the Petrograd coup, condemned the Bolshevik's actions, and declared that "it will decisively fight against all attempts to support such uprising in Ukraine. Rada expressed its agreement for the creation in Russia "homogeneous socialist government" with the representatives of all socialist parties.
The Kievan Bolsheviks headed by Georgiy Pyatakov (active member of the Central Rada) firmly stood on the Lenin's principles and they did not agree with the position of the Central Rada. The same day they left the State Committee for the protection of the revolution and held a joint meeting (congress) with representatives of worker's and soldier's deputies councils, trade unions, factory presiding committees (fabzavkom), and military units (in the building of the Bergonie theater). The meeting accepted the resolution for the support of the Bolshevik Revolution in Petrograd and declared the power of Soviet government. With their next decision the congress elected revkom consisting of such Bolsheviks as Jan Hamarnyk, Oleksandr Horwits, Andriy Ivanov, Isaac Kreysberg, Volodymyr Zatonsky, Ivan Kulyk, and others to whom was planned to transfer the power. All of them also initiated the January Uprising couple of months later to support the sack of Kiev by the advancing Bolshevik forces from Russian SFSR and installation of the Soviet government in Ukraine.
In response to the Bolshevik activities the military forces of the KMD were ordered to liquidate the Bolshevik center on November 10, 1917. They surrounded Mariyinsky Palace where was located the local revkom and thrashed the building of the Kievan Duma Executive Committee and the Bolshevik Committee. Almost all the members of the Kievan Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Worker's Party (Bolsheviks) and the revkom (14 people) were arrested. The same day ceased to exist the State Committee for the protection of the revolution as the commander of the KMD, Mikhail Kvetsinsky, refused to take orders from it. On November 10 all the functions of the liquidated State Committee for the protection of the revolution were transferred to the General Secretariat.
Bolsheviks answered by reinstating the revkom the next day (Volodymyr Zatonsky, Andriy Ivanov, Ivan Kudrin, and others). They initiated military operations against the forces of the KMD. At the same time the VII session of the Central Rada was taken place, the deputies of which formed a committee that would find ways to stop mayhem in Kiev. The session also sanctioned all the power in Ukraine to be transferred to the Central Rada. The committee decided that all the power in the city will transfer to the Ukrainian Central Rada that will cooperate with the City Duma and the soviets of the workers' soldiers' deputies. For the next couple days street firefights filled some parts of the city (Pechersk, Demiivka). On November 13 the headquarters of the Kiev Military District (KMD) that was located on the Bankova Street signed a cease-fire agreement with the Kiev revkom and soon withdrew out of the city. Since that time the Kiev Military District was virtually liquidated.
On November 16, 1917 at the joined meeting of the Central Rada and the Executive Committee of the soviets of the workers' soldiers' deputies in Kiev have acknowledge the Rada as the regional council in Ukraine. Soon, on November 20, the III Universal of the Ukrainian People's Republic which declared Ukraine an autonomous part of the Russian state with the capital in Kiev was officially enacted.


Military history of Nigeria during World War II

Nigeria participated in World War II as a British colony in September 1939, following the government's acceptance of the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Nazi Germany. As a British colony, Nigeria entered the war on the side of the Allies. Nigeria was a key country in the African theatre of war, serving as a critical part of the Allied strategy in Africa. In addition to Nigeria's importance as a staging point in Africa, several Nigerian infantry regiments were raised to serve the British Empire in campaigns in Africa and Asia. Throughout the war, 45,000 Nigerian soldiers served in the British Armed Forces in Africa and southeast Asia. Nigerian regiments formed the majority of the 81st and 82nd West African Divisions of the British Army.
Nigerian soldiers fought in most notably Burma and India. During the war, none of the commanding officers of the Nigerian corps were from Nigeria, continuing pre-war policies. These were instead selected from around the British Commonwealth. The first Nigerian officers were selected towards the war's end. Nigeria's involvement in the Second World War helped fuel the struggle for independence from colonial rule. This was in part because participation of Africans in these wars exposed them to ideas of self-determination and independent rule.
Outbreak of war.
Nigeria's entry was first marked by a verbal agreement to join the Allied Forces in declaration of war against Germany. Nigeria accepted the British invitation to join the war almost unanimously. Influential Nigerian political leaders such as Nnamdi Azikiwe and Herbert Macaulay, hitherto critics of British colonial rule, reversed gear and appealed to all Nigerians to support the war effort. Within days of the declaration, the Nigerian War Relief Fund (NWRF) was established, a volunteer fundraising movement designed to increase local support for Britain. Initially, the war had significant popular support in Nigeria. While many soldiers signed up willingly, there were instances of conscription of Nigerian men, some as young as 16.
In response to critical manpower shortages following the invasion of Europe by Axis Powers, Britain and France began to look to their colonies for supplies of able-bodied fighting men. These men included combatants, military laborers and specialist units, and from 1942 onward, their role transformed from a defensive role in defending their empire in Africa, to an offensive role in repelling Japanese forces in the far eastern parts of the British Empire. The Home Office was aware that by sending colonial soldiers to Europe it would risk exposing them to radical political ideas which could eventually destabilize British rule in Africa, and African forces were therefore sent more commonly to South-East Asia.
Combat deployments.
East Africa.
The first Nigerian units to see combat in the Second World Warserved in the British campaigns in East Africa. In 1940, the 1st (West Africa) Brigade was the first Nigerian unit to be deployed against the Axis Powers in Kenya. A total of 9,000 West African soldiers fought alongside regiments from the Gold Coast (present day Ghana), and the other British colonial possessions in West Africa. At this stage in the war, Nigeria's troop contributions were relatively small, and would not grow until the conclusion of the African campaigns of the war. Throughout the East African Campaigns, the Nigerian forces were organised at battalion level, and no whole divisions were created from Nigerian soldiers. Despite this, British officers reported being impressed with the capabilities of the Nigerian soldiers, of which their participation in the capture of Mogadishu and the rapid advance towards Dehegabur can be highlighted.
For many Nigerian citizens, the invasion of Ethiopia at the outbreak of WWII was a wake-up call to the Axis threat. Therefore, as early as 1935, Nigerian efforts on the home front were concentrated on raising funds to support the war effort in Ethiopia.
Burma.
After the success of the Allied campaigns in Africa, and with increasing need for soldiers to be deployed elsewhere, British command decided to form two divisions to fight in southeast Asia. The 81st Division was formed from West African brigades, then deployed in 1943. In 1944, the 82nd (West Africa) Division was formed, then sailed to British Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka) from the east coast of Africa. They then moved to Burma and took part in the third Arakan campaign in December 1944.
The Allied forces in Burma faced a more experienced and entrenched Japanese Imperial force. Despite this, through use of aerial re-supply and effective use of the jungle terrain, the Allied forces were able to push the Japanese out of Burma. The jungle terrain forced the Allied forces to adopt new tactics and logistical strategies, a task which the Nigerian forces excelled at. The two West African divisions uniquely used non-combatant soldiers as porters, auxiliaries head-carrying supplies and ammunition. While British units used traditional resupply methods, the African porters enabled the West African divisions greater mobility than even the famed Chindit units native to Burma. The British units used their air-superiority to great effect throughout the campaign, with the RAF flying resupply missions which enabled the Allied forces to effectively fight in the jungles.
The 81st Division was initially deployed deep into the front, where it faced intense fighting for nearly a year before being relieved by the 82nd Division. By January 1945, the 82nd Division had reached Apuakwa on the Kaladan River, where they had been ordered to meet up with the 81st Division. From here the 81st Division was initially intended to return to India for rest and refit, and the 82nd Division was to take up the 81st Division's role of engaging Japanese elements.
The largest engagement of the campaign fought by Nigerian forces was the Battle of Myohaung, a swiftly executed operation to seize the town of Myohaung. Both Nigerian divisions were deployed to encircle the city, with the 81st Division due to return to India after the town's capture. After some fierce fighting on the outskirts of the city, the Japanese forces evacuated the city upon realizing they had been surrounded. The recapture of Myohaung was strategically important as the city lay on major supply routes for Japan.
Actions of the Allied combatants ultimately forced a Japanese evacuation of the Mayu peninsula, capturing areas which had been held by Japan for nearly four years. British troops continued to advance along the Mayu peninsula until the Japanese conceded the area entirely. The involvement of Nigerian forces was critical for this campaign.
Home front.
In preparation for the outbreak of a world war, the colonial government secretly developed several schemes to retain foreign exchange and ensure the supply of commodities necessary for a war effort. In 1939, as part of the plans the Nigerian colonial administration set up the Nigeria Supply Board to regulate trade and manage production. That year a series of "defense regulations" were instituted, granting vast power to the board and other administrates to control the distribution of imports and foodstuffs. In the early stages of the war, British commanders and colonial officials had not anticipated that Africa would be heavily involved in the conflict. After the rapid success of Germany's "Blitzkrieg" in Europe, the British government declared that winning the war would require a supreme effort from every person in the empire. Part of this effort would include increasing production of wartime commodities, meanwhile drastically reducing social spending, development, and imports of goods deemed non-essential. Additionally, direct taxes were increased on the population, a measure which would result in country-wide strikes in 1945 and 1947 against the continued enforcement of wartime legislation. Throughout the war, Nigerian attitudes towards colonial rule grew steadily more negative as the demands of the Nigerian War Relief Fund became harder to meet. The Home Office strongly encouraged and incentivised Nigerian miners and farmers to increase their output of raw materials. In particular, heavy demand was placed on rubber and coal.
Nigerian women played a critical role in collecting the harvests of Nigeria's two largest crop exports: cocoa and palm oil. Farmers were forced to produce these cash crops instead of food for the duration of the war due to economic difficulties. At the outbreak of war, the colonial government prohibited exports of cocoa and palm oil to Germany in order to deprive them of critical wartime goods. The government became the sole purchaser of all of Nigeria's cash crops, and lowered prices to cope with wartime demands. As a result, continuation of cocoa farming became highly difficult for small rural farmers, many of whom abandoned their farms due to sustained years of producing at a loss.
As in many places throughout WWII, Nigeria experienced an acute shortage of food from the years 1939–1945. Rationing was introduced and lasted as late as 1948 in some parts of the country. In order to procure basic items like salt, flour, butter or tinned milk a ration card was required. In addition to rationing, the government put restrictions on the movement of food within the country, for example: banning the movement of rice between Abeokuta and Lagos. Smugglers attempting to transport rice into Lagos were either fined or put on criminal trial for subverting the war effort.
Media was used to propagate support for the war throughout the country. Radio broadcasts were relayed throughout the country, broadcasting programming from the BBC and local broadcasters. Newspapers like "The Yoruba News" brought information of the progression of the war in the Yoruba language as well as English. In both of these cases, the media was produced primarily in English, with Yoruba publications emerging later in the war. The aims of these outlets was fundraising for the Nigeria War Relief Fund.
After the war.
Nigerian soldiers returning home after the war received little official congratulations for their involvement in the war. Upon successful completion of the Allied objectives in Burma, Nigerian troops were not included in the victory speech by commanding officer General William Slim. Upon their return to Nigeria, a general frustration with the colonial administration and a renewed sense of national pride contributed significantly to the pushes for independence in post-war Nigeria. Throughout the war, Nigerians had fought under European officers, and it was not until four years after the war's conclusion that the first Nigerian officer was commissioned, in 1949.
Combined with the tensions which had emerged on the home-front throughout the war, Nigeria pushed significantly for the principles of self-determination following the war. Like many nations following the end of WWII, wartime experiences inspired the population to campaign for independence. The Nigerian Civil War of 1966 was fought and organised by many veterans of the Second World War.
The general strike of 1945 has been credited as one of the defining moments in Nigerian history. The strike was orchestrated by trade unionists across the country and included delegates from the farming, railway, mining, manufacturing and teaching unions.


Battle of Achuapa

The Battle of Achuapa, or the Achuapa massacre, took place on December 31, 1930 during the American occupation of Nicaragua of 1926–1933.
The engagement took place when a ten-man unit of American Marines led by Sergeant Arthur M. Palrang were ambushed by Sandinista forces led by Miguel Angel Ortez after leaving Ocotal to repair the telephone line with San Fernando.
Eight Marines were killed in the firefight (including Palrang), with the two survivors being wounded. It was the largest loss of American life in a single battle during the occupation of Nicaragua.
The battle resulted in the Sandinistas capturing "two Browning automatic rifles, one Thompson submachine gun, three Springfield rifles, and eight fully equipped mules." The battle lasted two and a half hours.
In the United States, the incident reignited controversy over the military occupation of Nicaragua. On 2 January 1931, Senator William E. Borah, the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, called for a withdrawal of American military personnel from Nicaragua.
American casualties.
Killed:
Wounded:


South Sudan United Front

On April 9, 2018, South Sudan's former military chief Paul Malong announced the SS-UF would be his new organisation to challenge President Salva Kiir after accusing him of turning the nation into a failed state after looting the country's resources.


245th Mixed Brigade

The 245th Mixed Brigade (), was a mixed brigade of the Spanish Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War.
Hastily formed in the winter in Catalonia shortly before the end of the war in order to defend the beleaguered Spanish Republic, it would be the only mixed brigade of the 77th Division, the last division to be established.
History.
Incomplete formation of the brigade.
The decision to establish the 245th Mixed Brigade was taken in December 1938 in Catalonia, shortly before the onset of the rebel faction's unstoppable Catalonia Offensive. The brigade was formed in an undisclosed location and the names of the commanding officers in charge of the instruction of the hastily gathered recruits are unknown.
The 245th Mixed Brigade was made part of the 77th Division, another ill-prepared and hastily established unit. Part of the 24th Army Corps of the Eastern Region Army Group "(GERO)", the 77th Division would be the last Spanish Republican division to be established. Like in all of the mixed brigades of the last period of the Spanish republic, the officers were drafted from the reserve.
Failure of the Line of Resistance and extinction.
Without being adequately equipped the 245th Mixed Brigade was sent to the Tordera River in the last week of January 1939, around the time of the Fall of Barcelona. Its mission was to attempt to establish a defensive line for which, together with the 242nd Mixed Brigade which was posted further downriver, it took positions along the middle course of the Tordera. The aim was to halt the swift advance of the enemy, but at the end of the month the idea of a Line of Resistance was abandoned by the high command as unrealistic owing to the lack of battle-ready Republican units and the overwhelming pressure of the rebel forces.
The 245th Mixed Brigade was sent then across the Montseny Massif to Vic in order to defend the town. But the march across the mountain range in the cold winter weather, and without proper food supplies and equipment, was an arduous task. Once near Vic the brigade tried to halt the enemy advance against the town, but it had to withdraw in the face of the fierce rebel onslaught and quickly fell apart, the scattered remainders of the unit being unable to regroup. By 1 February to all effects the 245th Mixed Brigade was disbanded.


Battle of the River Bug

The Battle of the River Bug, sometimes known as the Battle of Volhynia, was a battle that took place on 22–23 July 1018, in Red Ruthenia, near the Bug River and near Volhynia (Wołyń), between the forces of Bolesław I the Brave of Poland and Yaroslav the Wise of Kievan Rus, during the Bolesław's Kiev Expedition. Yaroslav was defeated by the Polish duke. It was part of the war of succession following the death of Vladimir the Great in 1015. Boleslaw supported his son-in-law, Sviatopolk (known as Sviatopolk the Damned for his murder of his half-brothers Boris and Gleb), who was eventually defeated by Yaroslav.
Both armies met on opposite banks of the river Bug. Yaroslav's forces took up positions with archers covering the crossing points; Bolesław took his time, allowing his army to rest, and started work on several makeshift bridges. The main battle occurred on 23 July. According to Polish chronicler Gall Anonim, the battle occurred by accident: Bolesław decided to throw a feast to boost morale of his army; Yaroslav's archers and scouts decided to stir up trouble for the Polish servants who were gutting the animals and preparing them near the river - but they only succeeded in annoying them so much that the servants themselves crossed the relatively shallow river and chased Yaroslav's much-surprised advance troops away. Bolesław learned about this quicker than Yaroslav, and managed to move most of his army across the river and attack the surprised Kievan prince, who didn't manage to muster his army in time; the Kievan army quickly broke rank and fled. However a Russian chronicle, "Tale of Bygone Years" gives a slightly different version of these events, one version which both armies were combat-ready and facing each other across the river, and Bolesław, enraged by insults hurled by the Rus' army, charged across the army with at the head of his army, surprising Yaroslav and shattering the Kievan army. Most modern historians support Gall Anonim's version, and all agree that after a short battle the Polish Duke was victorious, scoring a major victory. Yaroslav retreated to Novogrod, not Kiev - likely suspecting that he has not enough strength left to defend Kiev, besieged by the Pechengs, and with a significant pro-Sviatopolk (Boleslaw's son-in-law) faction inside the city.
While Yaroslav lost the battle, he was able to raise troops among the Novgorodians and eventually defeat his half-brother Sviatopolk and consolidate his position in Kiev, where he ruled over the golden age of Kievan Rus' until his death in 1054. Thus, in spite of this defeat at the hands of the Polish duke, Yaroslav became the greatest of the Kievan rulers.


Battle of Kelley Creek

The Battle of Kelley Creek, also known as the Last Massacre, is often considered to be one of the last known massacres carried out between Native Americans and forces of the United States, and was a closing event to occur near the end of the American Indian warfare era. In January 1911 a small group of Bannocks and Shoshones killed four investigative agents in a ranch after they had been pursued for abducting cattle. A posse of policemen and citizens was sent to track the natives, who were found encamped near Winnemucca, Nevada, in a region known as Kelley Creek. A largely one-sided battle ensued on February 25 that ended with the direct deaths of nine people, eight Daggetts and one mortally wounded American. At the time the affair was briefly characterized as a Native American revolt, though it is now mostly regarded as a family's attempted escape from law enforcement.
Background.
Mike Daggett, or Shoshone Mike (only after his death), was the chief of the small band and in the spring of 1910, he led his group of eleven off the Fort Hall Reservation at Rock Creek, Idaho. All but two men of the group were members of Mike's family, which included three women and four or five children. They first headed south into northern Nevada and then wandered west to Oroville, California, before heading back into Nevada to spend the winter at Little High Rock Canyon in northern Washoe County. In January 1911 the Daggett party was running low on food, so they abducted and butchered some cattle belonging to a local rancher. A Basque sheepherder named Bert Indiano witnessed the event and alerted the people of Surprise Valley, California, who sent a posse of three men to investigate the incident and protect the ranch. The three men, Harry Cambron and two Basque sheepherders, Peter Erramouspe and John Laxague, were to go to the ranch and join up with the sheepherder so the four could investigate the scene. Upon arrival the posse of four men instead ran into Mike Daggett and two of his sons, who were reported to be waiting for them.
Last Massacre.
The Daggetts had apparently realized the agents would be coming to find them, so when the posse entered the canyon on January 19, the natives opened fire with rifles and pistols, killing all four of them (Harry Cambron and the three Basque sheepherders Bert Indiano, Pierre Erramouspe and John Laxague) . The bodies were allegedly picked clean and found with numerous gunwounds on a creekbed, weeks later on February 8, by a search party from Eagleville, California. The scene also showed signs of looting. When word of the killings reached the surrounding settlements many who felt at risk temporarily evacuated the area, and the men who stayed behind remained armed and alert at all times. Initially it was thought that a gang of outlaws from Oregon or a band of Modocs were responsible. The Nevada and California State Police organized a posse under the command of Captain J.P. Donnelly to find the suspects, who had decided to flee towards the Duck Valley Indian Reservation. Other posses were also organized (though only Donnelly's would ever make contact with the Daggetts), and a large cash bounty was promised to anyone who managed to arrest or kill the fugitives.
Battle.
Donnelly's posse included at least five policemen, a few armed civilians, and the "county coroner and physician". After stopping in Little High Rock Canyon on February 13, they continued despite extreme cold and winter weather. Over 200 miles further and on February 25, the posse found Daggett and his family hiding in an area known as Kelley Creek, northeast of Winnemucca. It is unclear which side shot first, but a battle erupted that lasted for around three hours. The women reportedly fought equally alongside the men. Father and chief Mike Daggett was one of the first casualties during the battle, but his death only made the members of his family desperately fight back harder; even as they were inevitably forced back. At some point during the conflict the remaining Daggetts had run out of ammunition for their guns and were forced to resort to bows, spears and tomahawks. By the end of the battle only four of the original twelve Dagget family members were still alive: a sixteen-year-old girl and three young children, who were taken into police custody. One member of Donnelly's posse, Ed Hogle of Eagleville, was mortally wounded during the fight. Two other young Daggett children were also reported to have been shot inadvertently.
After the battle was over, the posse found evidence linking the killings in Little High Rock Canyon to the natives. Other than Mike's war bonnet, the posse found guns and a watch that had belonged to Harry Cambron, identified by brother Ben Cambron. The bodies of the natives were taken by wagon to Golconda, Nevada, and buried in a mass grave made from the crater of a dynamite explosion. A tall pole was placed at the site as a grave marker. The remains of Ed Hogle were returned to Eagleville, where he was buried. Sheriff Charles Ferrell, who was in command of the investigation (but not present at the battle) arrived back in Reno on March 2 with the four surviving captives, and they claimed that while the man had indeed been Shoshone Mike, their mother and the others were Bannocks. The four were informally adopted by Reno's civilian population until in May 1911 they were enrolled in the Stewart Indian School near Carson City, Nevada. By 1913, three of the children had died of natural causes, and only one of the survivors, Mary Jo Estep was left alive; she died in 1992. The reward offered to anyone who could catch or kill the Daggett party was initially denied to the posse by Governor Tasker Oddie, due to the fact that there were state policemen involved, but the case was later settled in favor of the posse by the Supreme Court.


William Nicolay

Lieutenant General Sir William Nicolay (14 April 17713 May 1842) was a British Army officer present at the Battle of Waterloo who later became Governor of Mauritius.
He was the sixth son - not the third -
Life.
He was the third son of Frederick de Nicolay, Principal Page to Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife of King George III. He was born at St. James's Palace on 14 April 1771 and was a member of the British branch of the Nicolay family.
He entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a cadet on 1 Nov. 1785, but did not obtain a commission as second lieutenant Royal Artillery until 28 May 1790. In April 1791 he embarked for India with two newly formed companies of Royal Artillery, known as the 'East India Detachment,’ which subsequently formed the nucleus of the old sixth battalion (Duncan, Hist. Roy. Artillery, ii. 2).
He served under Lord Cornwallis at the siege of Seringapatam in 1792, and was an assistant engineer at the reduction of Pondicherry in 1793. Meanwhile, with some other artillery subalterns, he had been transferred in November 1792 to the Royal Engineers, in which he became first lieutenant on 15 August 1793 and captain on 29 August 1798. He was present at the capture of Saint Lucia, and was left there as commanding engineer by Sir John Moore. He afterwards served under Sir Ralph Abercromby at Tobago and Trinidad until compelled to return home by a broken thigh, which incapacitated him for duty for two years.
When the Royal Staff Corps was formed, to provide a corps for Quartermaster General's and engineer duties which should be under the Horse Guards (instead of under the ordnance), Nicolay was appointed major of the new corps from 26 June 1801, and on 4 April 1805 became lieutenant colonel. He was employed on the defences of the Kent and Sussex coasts during the invasion alarms of 1804–1805, and on intelligence duties under Sir John Moore in Spain in 1808, and was present at Corunna.
He became a brevet colonel on 4 June 1813 and in 1815 proceeded to Belgium in command of five companies of the Royal Staff Corps, and was present at the Battle of Waterloo. During the battle he received a wound to the head and was unhorsed by a splinter, but did not report himself wounded. Afterwards he received the Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) and Waterloo Medal then proceeded with the army for the occupation of Paris. There he remained until the division destined to occupy the frontier, of which the Staff Corps formed part, moved to Cambray. He became a major general on 12 August 1819.
He was Governor of Dominica from April 1824 to July 1831, Governor of Saint Kitts and Nevis, (which included Nevis, Antigua, and the Virgin Islands) from January 1831 to December 1832, and Governor of Mauritius from 1832 to February 1840, an anxious time, as, owing to the recent abolition of slavery and other causes, there was much ill-feeling in the island towards the British.
Nicolay was promoted to lieutenant general on 10 January 1837, and was appointed colonel, 1st West India Regiment, 30 November 1839. He died at his residence, Oriel Lodge, Cheltenham, on 3 May 1842. He married in 1806 the second daughter of the Rev. E. Law of Whittingham, Northumberland.


Legionville

Legionville (or Legion Ville) was the first formal basic training facility for the military of the United States. The camp, which was established in winter 1792 under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne, was near present-day Baden, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Pittsburgh. It was used to train the soldiers which would become the Legion of the United States.
Throughout the winter of 1792-93, existing troops along with new recruits were drilled in military skills, tactics and discipline. The following spring the newly named Legion of the United States left Legionville for the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy in the area north of the Ohio River.
The overwhelmingly successful campaign was concluded with the decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794. The training the troops received at Legionville was seen as instrumental to this victory.
Background.
The United States military realized it needed a well-trained standing army following St. Clair's Defeat on November 4, 1791, when a force led by General Arthur St. Clair was almost entirely wiped out by the Western Confederacy near Fort Recovery, Ohio. The plans, which were supported by U.S. President George Washington and Henry Knox, Secretary of War, would lead to the creation of the "Legion of the United States". The command would be based on the 18th-century military works of Henry Bouquet, a professional Swiss soldier who served as a colonel in the British army, and French Marshal Maurice de Saxe.
In 1792 Anthony Wayne, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, was encouraged to leave retirement and return to active service as Commander-in-Chief of the Legion with the rank of Major General. The Legion, which was recruited and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was formed around elements of the 1st and 2nd Regiments from the disbanded Continental Army. These units then became the First and Second Sub-Legions. The Third and Fourth Sub-Legions were raised from additional recruits. From June 1792 to November 1792, the Legion remained cantoned at Fort LaFayette in Pittsburgh.
Establishment.
By October 1792, Major General Wayne had been seeking a suitable place to winter and train his army away from the distractions of the city. Wayne eventually found the perfect site 22 miles from Pittsburgh on the eastern bank of the Ohio River near the modern town of Baden, Pennsylvania. The site was either on or near a former Indian village called Logstown (circa 1727-1758). On November 9, an advance party arrived and began preparing the camp for the arrival of the main army. On November 28, 1792, Wayne left Pittsburgh by boat with a fanfare and good wishes from its citizens. Within four hours, he disembarked at the new cantonment that he dubbed Legion Ville.
The camp, which was laid out on an east-west axis, had steep ravines to the north, east and west. Four redoubts, numbered 1-4, ringed the cantonment. Each redoubt garrisoned 36 men with an additional 120 men stationed at guard posts around the perimeter. The defensive ditch surrounding the entire garrison area was more than a mile long. In total 260 men, guarded the camp seven days a week, twenty-four hours a day. In less than a month, Legion Ville had grown to more than 500 buildings and had a population five times larger than the city of Pittsburgh. Single story wooden barracks were built for the enlisted men of the dragoons, infantry, artillery and rifle-corps. Officers of the dragoons and artillery had two-story buildings. Major General Wayne's house and the hospital were two-story log cabins with chimneys on both sides. The total area of the cantonment was about . Estimates of the personnel at Legion Ville vary, but 2,500 is the popular figure.
History.
After all Wayne's forces had been properly quartered, training started in earnest. The troops fired at targets every day as Wayne wanted marksmen. Bayonet drills, hand-to-hand combat, mock battles and overnight encampments outside the installation were also common. The dragoons (cavalry) under the command of Captain Robert MisCampbell built an obstacle course south of Legion Ville. The artillery lieutenants and captains built an artillery range. An auxiliary rifle range was built a half-mile west of the site. Troops were marched continually and battle formations and tactics taught to new officers. Discipline was harsh as courts martial were common; even minor infractions were dealt with severely (often lashing with a Cat o' nine tails). Captain William Eaton who would lead the U.S. Marines ashore at Tripoli in 1804 was often a presiding judge.
During the winter, 16 private soldiers died at Legion Ville and were buried in an unmarked cemetery near Redoubt Number 2 inside the camp. The exact location was identified by local archaeologists via a cadaver dog in 2013. Among the dead were: Henry Dundalo, William Perry, James White, Randolph Hutchins, William Williamson, John Patterson, John Fry and Jarrett Rogers.
An officer duel between Lieutenant Daniel Jenifer and Ensign William Pitt Gassaway resulted in the ensign being killed. He was buried in the unmarked military cemetery. Colonel Thomas Proctor visited the camp and stayed for months helping the artillery become proficient. On February 26, 1793, Dr. Joseph Strong of Connecticut climbed the western bank of the hill and drew a picture of the site in a letter to a friend, Dr. Mason Cogswell. This letter, the only known depiction of the site, is kept within the archives at Yale University.
On March 25, 1793 the Grand Masonic Lodge of the State of Pennsylvania granted the first Masonic Lodge in Beaver County. This was to be at Legion Ville and was known under charter as Lodge 58. The Master was Captain Robert MisCampbell, Senior Warden Captain Robert Tinsley and Junior Warden, William Eaton.
With Spring, Seneca leaders Guyasuta, Cornplanter and Big Tree met Wayne at Legion Ville in March 1793 to discuss peace terms. When the talks failed, George Washington gave the go-ahead for the campaign against the Indians. On April 30, 1793, the largest flotilla of military barges ever assembled on the Ohio River departed Legion Ville for Fort Washington, Cincinnati, Ohio. On August 20, 1794, the Legion of the United States defeated the Indian Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The Treaty of Greenville was signed on August 3, 1795 opening the Northwest Territory to settlement.
The discipline and intense training at Legion Ville was a key factor in the United States' winning of the Northwest Indian War.
Site legacy.
In 1824 the Harmony Society purchased the property on which Legion Ville stood. The site was later bought by the A.M. Byers Ironworks Company who in turn sold it to National Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio. In 1973, the Anthony Wayne Historical Society was formed to preserve the site. In 1994, the name was changed to the Legion Ville Historical Society.
Republican senator John Heinz from Pennsylvania wanted to make the site a national park but the Bill was pocket-vetoed due to a clerical error by President Jimmy Carter. National Tire and Rubber eventually sold the site. In 2005 it was acquired by developers. A portion of the site was proposed as the location of a car dealership in Spring 2013.


German ostruble

Ostruble (German and Polish: ; Latvian and Lithuanian: ; ) is the name given to a currency denominated in and , which was issued by Germany in 1916 for use in the eastern areas under German occupation ( and the Government General of Warsaw). It was initially equal to the Russian ruble. The reason for the issue was a shortage of rubles. The banknotes were produced by the in (now ) on 17 April 1916.
From 4 April 1918, the circulated alongside the in the area, with = 1 . In the Government General of Warsaw the was replaced by the Polish on 14 April 1917.
Denominations.
The denominations available were:
The front sides of the banknotes carry a warning in German against forging banknotes. On the reverse sides is the same warning in Latvian (with old style orthography), Lithuanian and Polish.
There were also 1 kopeck, 2 kopeck and 3 kopeck coins, made out of iron.
Aftermath.
The circulated in Lithuania together with the Ostmark until 1 October 1922, when it was replaced by the .
It was also still in use in a part of the Second Polish Republic during the first months of independence, until 29 April 1920.


Yala Provincial Court

Yala Provincial Court is a court of first instance in the province of Yala in southern Thailand. It is located in Sukhayang Road, Sateng, in Mueang Yala District. It has jurisdiction over all of Yala Province except Betong District, which falls under Betong Provincial Court, and excluding juvenile and family cases, which fall under Yala Juvenile and Family Court.
The province of Yala is in the area of the South Thailand insurgency and cases at the court are often related to the insurgency.
There have been claims that there may have been political interference in the administration of justice in the court. In October 2019, Kanakorn Pianchana, a senior judge there, shot himself after claiming to have been pressured to change a verdict in a capital case from not guilty to guilty despite a lack of evidence to convict. The Pheu Thai Party called for a government investigation to establish if there were irregularities at the court. The incident led to an official statement from the Thailand Court of Justice that senior judges were empowered to review the decisions of more junior judges but not to change them.


Battle of Gdov

The Battle of Gdov in the Russo-Swedish War took place on September 16, 1657 in Gdov. The battle was a clear victory for Prince Ivan Khovansky of the Tsardom of Russia over Swedish Governor-General Count Magnus De la Gardie allowing the Russians to regroup after a brief resurgence of Swedish resistance.
Prelude.
After the defeat at Walk, in July 1657, Ivan Khovansky was appointed as the Pskov voivode. His army was reinforced with 10 companies of Reiters and 3 companies of Dragoons (about 1,200 men). In September, the Swedes under Governor-General Count Magnus De la Gardie invaded the Gdov district, but Prince Khovansky timely learned about the invasion of the Swedish army and managed to reinforce the garrison of the city to 1,000 men (300 noble militia, 300 Don Cossacks, 200 Streltsy, 100 Luga Cossacks, 100 mercenaries), but with only two guns. Nevertheless, the garrison managed to repel all attacks, and even make several successful sorties.
Battle.
Upon learning of the arrival of the Swedes, Prince Khovansky hastily advanced to Gdov. On the night of September 16, Russian troops caught the retreating army of Delagardi 3 versts from Gdov on the river Chermi. Beginning the persecution, Prince Khovansky sent forward the cavalry: 12 noble hundreds, Don Cossacks and Reiters. The decisive action was the attack of the Russian Reiters, who knocked the enemy out of position and fled. De la Gardie ordered all his artillery to be thrown into the water. In 15 versts of persecution, Russian troops scattered enemy forces. Swedes lost many officers, banners, artillery and over 1.000 men.
Aftermath.
Having broken the troops of the Governor-General Count De la Gardie, the victory of Prince Khovansky greatly diminished the recent successes of the Swedish army in 1657, and restored the strategic initiative of the Russian army.


List of wars involving Uganda

The following is a "list of wars involving Uganda".


Machurucuto incident

The Machurucuto incident, also known as the Invasion of Machurucuto, was a battle involving Venezuelan Army and National Guard troops against Cuban trained guerrillas. On 10 May 1967, a dozen guerrillas landed in Venezuela at the beach of Machurucuto. The Army of Venezuela and the National Guard engaged them on the night of 10 May and the battle lasted into 11 May. Two men were captured while the remaining were killed in battle. The guerrillas had completed paramilitary training in Cuba so they could recruit guerrillas in the Venezuelan Andes region to overthrow President Raúl Leoni.
Events.
Landing.
On 8 May, twelve guerrillas arrived on the coast of Machurucuto in two rafts. While preparing to land one of the rafts capsized drowning one guerrilla. The rest disembarked on the coast and abandoned their rafts.
Confrontation with the Venezuelan army.
A fisherman spotted the two rafts and notified the armed forces. They discovered and engaged the guerrillas on the evening of 10 May and the battle lasted until the morning of 11 May. In the fighting, ten guerrillas were killed and two captured; Venezuelan casualties are unknown.
Aftermath.
Soon after, the government of President Raúl Leoni held a press conference denouncing Cuban aggression against Venezuela and showing the two captured Cubans, Manuel Gil Castellanos and Pedro Cabrera Torres. Cuba was denounced by Venezuela to the OAS. Cuba did not recognize the action even when the investigation of the AK47s in possession of the guerrillas were identified as weapons sold by Czechoslovakia to Cuba. The Government of Venezuela broke all relations with Cuba following the incident and with further relations not occurring until 1974.


Brookwood Cemetery

Brookwood Cemetery, also known as the London Necropolis, is a burial ground in Brookwood, Surrey, England. It is the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in Europe. The cemetery is listed a Grade I site in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
History.
Background.
Brookwood Cemetery was conceived by the London Necropolis Company (LNC) in 1849 to house London's deceased, at a time when the capital was finding it difficult to accommodate its increasing population, of living and dead. The cemetery is said to have been landscaped by architect William Tite, but this is disputed.
In 1854, Brookwood was the largest cemetery in the world (it is no longer). Its initial owner incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1852, Brookwood Cemetery (apart from its northern section, reserved for Nonconformists) was consecrated by Charles Sumner, Bishop of Winchester, on 7 November 1854 and opened to the public on 13 November 1854 when its first burials took place.
In 1858 the London Necropolis Company sold 64 acres of the extra land to the government for the building of Woking Convict Invalid Prison.
Necropolis Railway.
Brookwood originally was accessible by rail from a special station – the London Necropolis railway station – next to Waterloo station in Central London. Trains had passenger carriages reserved for different classes and other carriages for coffins (also for different classes), and ran into the cemetery on a dedicated branch from the adjoining South Western Main Line – there was a junction just to the west of Brookwood station. From there, passengers and coffins were transported by horse-drawn vehicles. The original London Necropolis station was relocated in 1902 but its successor was demolished after suffering bomb damage during World War II.
There were two stations in the cemetery: "North" for non-conformists and "South" for Anglicans. Their platforms still exist along the path called Railway Avenue. For visitors wishing to use the South Western Main Line, Brookwood station has provided direct access since June 1864. A very short piece of commemorative track, with signpost and plaque, purposefully gives way to a grass field and recollects the old final stage of the journey of the deceased.
Early burials.
The LNC offered three classes of funerals:
Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work. As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time, it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason, to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance.
While the majority of burials conducted by the LNC (around 80%) were pauper funerals on behalf of London parishes and prisons, the LNC also reached agreement with a number of societies, guilds, religious bodies and similar organisations (such as Woking Convict Invalid Prison and Tothill). The LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups, on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death. Although the LNC was never able to gain the domination of London's funeral industry for which its founders had hoped, it was very successful at targeting specialist groups of artisans and trades, to the extent that it became nicknamed "the Westminster Abbey of the middle classes". The Royal Hospital Chelsea, which previously buried their inmate pensioners at Brompton Cemetery in Chelsea, have used Brookwood Cemetery, where they have two plots, since 1893.
A large number of these dedicated plots were established, ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires and the LSWR. The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862, which remained the only Zoroastrian burial ground in Europe. Dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC.
The first burial was of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street, Southwark Borough. The Hore twins, along with the other burials on the first day, were pauper funerals and buried in unmarked graves. The first burial at Brookwood with a permanent memorial was that of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Goldfinch, buried on 25 November 1854, the 26th person to be buried in the cemetery. The first permanent memorial erected in the Nonconformist section of the cemetery was that of Charles Milligan Hogg, son of botanist Robert Hogg, buried on 12 December 1854. Goldfinch and Hogg's graves are not the oldest monuments in the cemetery, as on occasion gravestones were relocated and re-erected during the relocation of existing burial grounds to Brookwood.
Over 235,000 people have been buried there.
Reburials.
The massive London civil engineering projects of the mid-19th century—the railways, the sewer system and from the 1860s the precursors to the London Underground—often necessitated the demolition of existing churchyards. The first major relocation took place in 1862, when the construction of Charing Cross railway station and the routes into it necessitated the demolition of the burial ground of Cure's College in Southwark, which uncovered at least 7,950 bodies. These were packed into 220 large containers, each containing 26 adults plus children, and shipped on the London Necropolis Railway to Brookwood for reburial, along with at least some of the existing headstones from the cemetery.
At least 21 London burial grounds were relocated to Brookwood via the railway, along with numerous others relocated by road following the railway's closure. Churches whose graves were relocated included:
Brookwood Cemetery and cremation.
In 1878 the LNC sold an isolated piece of its land at Brookwood, close to St John's village, to the Cremation Society of Great Britain, on which they built Woking Crematorium, the first in Britain, in 1879. While the LNC never built its own crematorium, in 1910 Lord Cadogan decided he no longer wanted to be interred in the mausoleum he had commissioned at Brookwood. This building, the largest mausoleum in the cemetery, was bought by the LNC, fitted with shelves and niches to hold urns, and used as a dedicated columbarium from then on.
After 1945 cremation, up to that time an uncommon practice, became increasingly popular in Britain. In 1946 the LNC obtained consent to build their own crematorium on a section of the Nonconformist cemetery which had been set aside for pauper burials, but chose not to proceed. Instead, in 1945 the LNC began the construction of the Glades of Remembrance, a wooded area dedicated to the burial of cremated remains. These were dedicated by Henry Montgomery Campbell, Bishop of Guildford in 1950. Intentionally designed for informality, traditional gravestones and memorials were prohibited, and burials were marked only by small stones.
In the next decade the cemetery came closest to having its own crematorium. Following the closure of the two Brookwood railway stations, the land surrounding the site of South station and the station's two Anglican chapels was redundant. As part of the London Necropolis Act 1956 the LNC obtained Parliamentary consent to convert the disused original Anglican chapel into a crematorium, using the newer chapel for funeral services and the station building for coffin storage and as a refreshment room for those attending cremations. Suffering cash flow problems and distracted by a succession of hostile takeover bids, the LNC management never proceeded with the scheme and the buildings fell into disuse. The station building was demolished after being damaged by a fire in 1972, although the platform remained intact.
Horticultural.
With the ambition for it to become London's sole burial site in perpetuity, the LNC were aware that if their plans were successful, their Necropolis would become a site of major national importance. As a consequence, the cemetery was designed with attractiveness in mind, in contrast to the squalid and congested London burial grounds and the newer suburban cemeteries which were already becoming crowded.
The LNC aimed to create an atmosphere of perpetual spring in the cemetery, and chose the plants for the cemetery accordingly. It had already been noted that evergreen plants from North America thrived in the local soil. Robert Donald, the owner of an arboretum near Woking, was contracted to supply the trees and shrubs for the cemetery. The railway line through the cemetery and the major roads and paths within the cemetery were lined with giant sequoia trees, the first significant planting of these trees (only introduced to Europe in 1853) in Britain. As well as the giant sequoias (also known as "Wellingtonia" after the recently deceased Duke of Wellington), the grounds were heavily planted with magnolia, rhododendron, coastal redwood, azalea, andromeda and monkeypuzzle, with the intention of creating perpetual greenery with large numbers of flowers and a strong floral scent throughout the cemetery.
In later years the original planting of the cemetery was supplemented by numerous other tree species planted by the LNC, as well as many plants planted by mourners at burial sites and around mausolea. Between the end of LNC independence in 1959 and the cemetery's purchase by Ramadan Guney in 1985 cemetery maintenance was drastically reduced, and the spread of various plant types caused many of the non-military sections of the cemetery to revert to wilderness in this period.
20th and 21st centuries.
In August 1914, on the outbreak of the First World War, the LNC offered to donate to the War Office of land "for the free interment of soldiers and sailors who have returned from the front wounded and may subsequently die". The offer was not taken up until 1917, when a section of the cemetery was set aside as Brookwood Military Cemetery, used for the burials of service personnel who died in the London District. This purpose built cemetery came to accommodate further dead from World War II.
In the meantime, 141 Commonwealth service personnel were buried from London in scattered graves throughout the cemetery, apart from a small Nurses' Plot in St Peter's Avenue in the Westminster field (where are buried nurses from Millbank Military Hospital) and an Indian plot (including one unidentified soldier) in the North-West corner.
In World War II 51 Commonwealth service personnel were buried in the civilian cemetery, where there are also buried five foreign national servicemen whose graves the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) additionally care for. A military memorial to the missing from that war was built in 1958 by the CWGC.
Memorialised here too came to be Edward the Martyr, King of England, whose relics are kept nearby in St Edward the Martyr Orthodox Church.
The London Necropolis Company was taken over by Alliance Property in 1959 and the company was gradually divested of land and investments until by 1973, the cemetery was an independent entity. The cemetery changed hands between various development companies in the 1970s, during which time the cemetery maintenance was neglected: 1970 Cornwall Property (Holdings) Ltd, 1971 Great Southern Group, 1973 Maximillian Investments. Maximillian investments secured the passing of the Brookwood Cemetery Act 1975 which authorised them to sell unused parts of the cemetery and a few areas were sold for development.
In 1985, Ramadan Güney acquired Brookwood Cemetery from the owner Mr D.J.T. Dally, who was previously the cemetery manager . The purchase evolved from Güney's role as Chairman of the UK Turkish Islamic Trust, which wanted suitable burial facilities for its members. The Brookwood Cemetery Society was founded in 1992 to organise events, promote the site's history and support restoration work. After Güney's death in 2006 he was buried in the cemetery and ownership passed to his children (by his late wife) and operated by his son Erkin, a director at the cemetery for almost 30 years. Diane Holliday, Güney's partner of 6 years, was "frozen out" from the operating company and then dismissed. In 2011, the inheritance of the cemetery was successfully challenged by Diane Holliday and her adult son Kevin. This decision was upheld by the High Court on appeal in 2012. In 2014, Diane Holliday sold the cemetery to Woking Council.
Brookwood Military Cemetery and memorials.
Brookwood Military Cemetery covers about and is the largest Commonwealth war cemetery in the United Kingdom. The land was set aside during World War I to provide a burial site for men and women of Commonwealth and American armed forces who died in the United Kingdom of wounds and other causes. It now contains 1,601 Commonwealth burials from World War I and 3,476 from World War II (the latter including 3 unidentified British and 2 unidentified Canadian airmen).
Within this, there is a particularly large Canadian section, which includes 43 men who died of wounds following the Dieppe Raid in August 1942. Two dozen Muslim dead were also later transferred here in 1968 from the Muslim Burial Ground at Horsell Common. There is a large Royal Air Force section in the southeast corner of the cemetery which includes graves of Czech and United States nationals who died serving in the RAF.
The cemetery also has 786 non-Commonwealth war graves, including 28 unidentified French, besides eight German dead from World War I and 46 from World War II. It also contains Polish (84 graves), Czech, Belgian (46 graves), Dutch (seven graves) and Italian (over 300 graves) sections. Except for Christmas Day and New Year's Day, this cemetery is open to the public from 8am to sunset Monday to Friday, and 9am to sunset Saturdays and Sundays.
The United Kingdom 1914–1918 Memorial originally stood at the northeastern end of the 1914–1918 Plot. The new memorial that replaced it was created in 2004, and currently (24 January 2021) commemorates 403 Commonwealth service personnel who died in the First World War in the United Kingdom but have no known grave. The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time. (Those whose graves are subsequently discovered become commemorated under the respective cemetery.)
The Brookwood Memorial stands at the southern end of the Canadian section of the cemetery and commemorates 3,428 Commonwealth men and women who died during the Second World War and have no known grave. This includes commandos killed in the Dieppe and St Nazaire Raids; and Special Operations Executive personnel who died in occupied Europe. The Brookwood Memorial also honours 199 Canadian servicemen and women. The memorial was placed within a military cemetery near the theatre of operations.
The Brookwood (Russia) Memorial was erected in 1983 and dismantled in 2015. It commemorated forces of the British Commonwealth who died in Russia in World War I and World War II and were buried there. The memorial was erected originally because during the Cold War those graves were inaccessible.
Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial.
This site lies to the west of the civilian cemetery. It contains the graves, from World War I of 468 American military dead and a further 563 with no known grave are commemorated.
After the entry of the United States into the Second World War the American cemetery was enlarged, with burials of US servicemen beginning in April 1942. With large numbers of American personnel based in the west of England, a dedicated rail service for the transport of bodies operated from Devonport to Brookwood. By August 1944 over 3,600 bodies had been buried in the American Military Cemetery. At this time burials were discontinued, and US casualties were from then on buried at Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial.
On the authority of the Quartermaster General of the United States Army, the US servicemen buried at Brookwood during the Second World War were exhumed in January–May 1948. Those whose next of kin requested it were shipped to the United States for reburial, and the remaining bodies were transferred to the new cemetery outside Cambridge.
Brookwood American Cemetery had also been the burial site for those US servicemen executed while serving in the United Kingdom, whose bodies had been carried to Brookwood by rail from the American execution facilities at Shepton Mallet. They were not transferred to Cambridge in 1948, but instead reburied in unmarked graves at Oise-Aisne American Cemetery Plot E, a dedicated site for US servicemen executed during the Second World War. (One of those executed, David Cobb, was not transferred to Plot E but was repatriated to the US and reburied in Dothan, Alabama in 1949.) Following the removal of the US war graves the site in which they had been buried was divided into cemeteries for the Free French forces and Italian prisoners of war.
It is administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission. Close by are military cemeteries and monuments of the British Commonwealth and other allied nations.
Notable graves.
"List of people buried in Brookwood Cemetery"
Location.
Brookwood Cemetery is served by Brookwood railway station, and is located on both sides of Cemetery Pales in Woking. The Cemetery office is located in Glades House.


Governor of Sheerness

The Governor of Sheerness Fort and the Isle of Sheppey was a military officer who commanded the fortifications at Sheerness, on the Isle of Sheppey, part of the defences of the Medway estuary. The area had been fortified since the time of Henry VIII, but the Sheerness fortifications were destroyed in 1667 when it was captured during the Dutch Raid on the Medway. It was subsequently re-fortified as Sheerness became the site of a major Royal Navy dockyard, in operation until 1960. The post of Governor was abolished in 1852, when the last governor, Lord Combermere, accepted office as the Constable of the Tower.


Governor of Calshot Castle

The Governor of Calshot Castle was a military officer who commanded the fortifications at Calshot Castle, a Device Fort of Henry VIII guarding Southampton Water. It was in military use until 1956.


Last battle on British soil

There are several contenders for the title of last battle on British or English soil, depending largely on how one defines battle and how one classifies various events.
Below is a chronological list of events that different sources cite as the last battle on British or English soil or a related title:


Borinqueneers Congressional Gold Medal

The "Borinqueneers Congressional Gold Medal" is a Congressional Gold Medal awarded to Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment by President Barack Obama, at an official ceremony on June 10, 2014. On May 19, 2014, the United States House of Representatives passed the Bill, known as HR 1726 and three days later on May 22, 2014, the Senate approved Bill S. 1174. With the approval of both houses, the president signed the legislation which awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 65th Infantry, the first segregated Hispanic military unit, and the first unit of the Korean War, to receive such distinction.
65th Infantry Regiment.
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers" from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), was a segregated Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II and the Korean War.
Congressional Gold Medal.
A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress and is, along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. It is awarded to persons "who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient's field long after the achievement."
As of 2013, four military units had been awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. These were the Navaho Wind Talkers – Native American Marines whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages with the use of their Native language; the Nisei Soldiers - Japanese American intelligence soldiers during WWII in the Pacific, Africa, Italy and France; the Tuskegee Airmen - the first African-American military aviators; and the Montford Point Marines - the first African-Americans to break the race barrier in the Marines. In addition, the Women's Air Service Pilots (WASP) received the Congressional Gold Medal.
Congressional Gold Medal initiative.
The bill that would confer the Congressional Gold Medal on the 65th Infantry Regiment was introduced in both the United States House of Representatives and in the United States Senate. In order for the bill to become law and the medal to be conferred, one of those bills would have to pass in both chambers and be signed by the President of the United States. was introduced into the House of Representatives on April 25, 2013 by Representative Bill Posey of Florida and Pedro Pierluisi, Puerto Rico’s Resident Commissioner to the U.S. Congress. was introduced into the Senate on June 18, 2013 by Senator Richard Blumenthal of Connecticut. The two bills, H.R. 1726 and S. 1174, were formally recognized as "identical bills" by the Congressional Research Service. This meant that they were "word-for-word identical."
Section two of the bill reads as follows:
Advocates garnered over 25 regional proclamations and resolutions signed by governors, mayors, county commissioners and state senators/representatives throughout the U.S., all urging the U.S. Congress to award the Congressional Gold Medal to the 65th Infantry. There are also 10 memorials and monuments honoring the 65th Infantry around the nation.
On 14 August 2013, the Vietnam Veterans of America, a congressional-chartered veterans service organization, issued a national resolution in favor of the Congressional Gold Medal for the 65th Infantry Regiment. Also in August 2013, the Hispanic American Veterans of Connecticut announced their support of the CGM initiative.
Other national organizations supporting the Congressional Gold Medal initiative include the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), Military Order of the Purple Heart (MOPH), American GI Forum (AGIF), and National Puerto Rican Coalition (NPRC). Individuals and organizations around the U.S. are currently advocated for the passage of both 65th Infantry CGM bills. They are urged their federal elected officials to join on as co-sponsors of HR 1726 in the House, and S 1174 in the Senate. The Borinqueneers Congressional Gold Medal Alliance, officially sponsored by the You Are Strong! Center on Veterans Health and Human Services, was the leading organization dedicated to the effort.
Congressional Gold Medal legislation.
The Bill, known as HR 1726, passed favorably in the House on May 19, 2014. Three days later on May 22, 2014, the Senate approved Bill S. 1174. The Borinqueneers CGM Bill went to President Barack Obama, who signed the legislation, since then known as Public Law 113-120, at an official ceremony on June 10, 2014. The 65th Infantry is the first Hispanic military unit, and the first unit of the Korean War, to be awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.
Congressional Gold Medal design.
A decision on designs for a congressional gold medal being awarded in 2015 to the Borinqueneers of the 65th Infantry Regiment was selected by the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee on June 16, 2015. For the 65th Infantry Borinqueneers congressional gold medal, the CCAC recommended for the obverse a design depicting a close-up portrait of a unit staff sergeant, with three soldiers traversing rocky ground in the background. The recommended reverse features an historic sentry box in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, an olive branch, the 65th Infantry insignia patch and unit's motto, HONOR ET FIDELITAS (Honor and Fidelity). However, the gold medal design process and candidate design did not achieve unanimous support among various members of the Borinqueneers community. Some Borinqueneers advocates were not satisfied with the lack of fairness, inclusion, and transparency of the medal design process itself. In August 2015, the Borinqueneers CGM design was finally approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. On April 13, 2016, leaders of the United States House and Senate awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 65th Infantry Regiment.


Soldiers and Sailors Monument (Nashua, New Hampshire)

The Soldiers and Sailors Monument in Nashua, New Hampshire is an American Civil War memorial. Its cornerstone was laid on May 30, 1889, and the monument dedicated on October 15, 1889. The monument is located in central Nashua within the triangle formed by Concord, Amherst, and Nashville streets.
The monument is a square, castellated column of New Hampshire granite from Nashua on a base of Quincy granite, atop which stands a figure of Victory, dressed in classical Roman garments and holding an American shield and a laurel wreath. Its base is ornamented with bronze statues of a soldier and sailor, and bronze reliefs depicting the Goddess of Liberty overseeing the reconciliation of the South with the North, an emancipation scene with a Union soldier extending a scroll to a kneeling figure, and the sinking of the "Alabama" by the "Kearsarge". At its front is a sculpture of a saddle draped with cavalry clothing and equipment; at the rear is a sculpture of Civil War-era weapons.
The design for the monument was made by T. M. Perry, of Messrs. Frederick & Field, who carved the Victory, erected the monument, and did all its granite work. The sailor was modeled by S. J. O'Kelley and cast by Melzar Hunt Mosman. The soldier was modeled by Caspar Buberl and cast by the Henry Bonnard Bronze Company. The artillery sculpture was made and cast by Melzar Hunt Mosman, as were the Emancipation bas-relief and the two lettered panels. The statue of Victory, cavalry sculpture, and sinking of the Alabama were modeled by Beattie & Brooks.
<poem>A TRIBUTE TO THE
MEN OF NASHUA
WHO SERVED THEIR COUNTRY
ON LAND OR SEA DURING
THE WAR OF THE
REBELLION, AND AIDED IN PRESERVING THE INTEGRITY
OF THE
FEDERAL UNION.
A.D. 1861-1865.
ERECTED BY THE
CITY OF NASHUA,
A.D. 1889</poem>
<poem>"THE UNION OUGHT TO BE CONSIDERED AS
A MAIN PROP OF YOUR LIBERTY, AND THE
LOVE OF THE ONE OUGHT TO ENDEAR TO
YOU THE PRESERVATION OF THE OTHER."
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS.
"OUR FEDERAL UNION: IT MUST BE PRESERVED."
ANDREW JACKSON.
"LIBERTY AND UNION, NOW AND FOREVER,
ONE AND INSEPARABLE."
DANIEL WEBSTER
"THAT FROM THOSE HONORED DEAD, WE TAKE
INCREASED DEVOTION TO THAT CAUSE FOR
WHICH THEY GAVE THE LAST FULL MEASURE
OF DEVOTION-THAT WE HERE HIGHLY RE-
SOLVE THAT THESE DEAD SHALL NOT HAVE
DIED IN VAIN-AND THAT GOVERNMENT OF
THE PEOPLE, BY THE PEOPLE, FOR THE PEO-
PLE, SHALL NOT PERISH FROM THE EARTH."
ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
"LET US HAVE PEACE and a happy new year
U.S.GRANT</poem>
<poem>WITH MALICE TOWARD NONE
WITH CHARITY FOR ALL</poem>
SINKING OF THE ALABAMA BY THE KEARSARGE JUNE 19, 1864


List of ships of the Sri Lanka Navy

The following is an alphabetical list of historic ships of the Sri Lanka Navy:
A
B
D
E
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
R
S
T
U
W
V


Protection of the Flag Monument

The Protection of the Flag Monument (also known as the "Defense of the Flag Monument") is a historic war memorial located in Academy Park at 715 South Main Street in Athens, Bradford County, Pennsylvania. Designed in the Classical Revival style by the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White, with a sculpture by George Thomas Brewster, it was erected between 1900 and 1902, and has a granite pedestal topped by a bronze sculpture group. The sculpture depicts an adult soldier and a young drummer boy attired in Revolutionary War clothing and protecting their flag from falling into enemy hands. A commemorative plaque indicates it was dedicated in memory of the soldiers who fought in defense of the flag.
This monument was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001. It is located in the Athens Historic District.
History and architectural features.
Located in Academy Park at 715 South Main Street in Athens, Pennsylvania, the Protection of the Flag Monument was completed in 1902. Erected on the front of the lot where it stands, it occupies the center of the site's western half. The front of the monument may be reached from Main Street via a concrete sidewalk while the monument's eastern side may be approached via a brick walkway, which is flanked by two stones affixed with bronze commemorative plaques. Situated between those stones is a state historical marker and a flag pole.
The monument itself, which is situated 50 feet east of the sidewalk, is surrounded by a 26-foot ornamented, raised granite coping square. The monument's polished, Stony Creek granite pedestal, which stands at the center of that square, is composed of a plinth, molded base, die, and a cap, is roughly nine feet tall, and is topped by a roughly eight-foot-tall bronze sculpture of a wounded adult Revolutionary War-era soldier holding a rifle and a young, barefooted drummer boy. It was created by sculptor George T. Brewster.
The monument's sculpture was commissioned in 1900 by Joseph Whipple Stickler and his wife, Charlotte Snell Stickler, and was unveiled in June 1902. Stickler, a native of New York who became a successful realtor and philanthropist, had wed Charlotte Snell in Hoboken, New Jersey; Snell, who had attended school at the Athens Academy which had previously been located where the monument now stands, was a daughter of Captain John Snell, an Athens resident who "was one of the first white children born in Bradford county about the time of the Wyoming Massacre," according to historian Henry Hall.
Inscriptions.
The front of the monument, which faces west in the park, is adorned with a bronze bas relief of entwined laurel wreaths, below which were placed the words of the statue's dedication:
"PRO PATRIA ET GLORIA<br>
ERECTED TO THE MEMORY OF OUR SOLDIERS WHO FOUGHT IN DEFENSE OF THE FLAG."
The inscription on the opposite (rear), eastern-facing side of the monument reads:
"PRESENTED TO THE TOWNSHIP OF ATHENS, BRADFORD COUNTY BY JOSEPH WHIPPLE AND CHARLOTTE SNELL STICKLER OF ORANGE, NEW JERSEY MDCCCC."
Placement of this monument on the National Register of Historic Places.
The NRHP nomination application for the Protection of the Flag Monument was formally reviewed by Pennsylvania's Historic Preservation Board at its March 13, 2001 meeting at 9:45 a.m. at the State Museum in Harrisburg. Also considered for NRHP status at this time were the: Normandy Farm, George K. Heller School, and Upper Roxborough Historic District in Montgomery County; Awbury Historic District and Harris/Laird, Schober & Company Building in Philadelphia; Michael Derstine Farmstead in Bucks County; Chester Heights Camp Meeting Historic District in Delaware County; John Nicholas and Elizabeth Moyer House in Berks County; William Shelly School and Annex in York County; and the Zeta Psi Fraternity House in Northampton County.
This monument was then officially added to the National Register of Historic Places later in 2001. It is located in the Athens Historic District.


Capture of Delfzijl

The Capture of Delfzijl took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange. The siege commenced on 26 June and lasted until the Spanish troops surrendered the city of Delfzijl on 2 July 1591.
Events.
Background.
In early 1591, Maurice had begun a campaign to push the Spanish out of the Netherlands - the States General of the Netherlands wanted Nijmegen to be taken, but complications arose of its capture, so surrounding towns and cities such as Zutphen and Deventer had to be taken before any siege took place. The strategy was to draw the Spanish troops and make them think the real objective was elsewhere. First Zutphen and then Deventer were both taken by Dutch troops under Maurice and English troops under Francis Vere respectively. The next target was Groningen in the North as two years before William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, had captured a sconce at Zoutkamp, providing an initial impetus to eventually besiege Groningen. This was soon abandoned by Maurice as it was still considered too strong to besiege, and in addition the threatened approach of the Duke of Parma with his army.
Capture.
Maurice instead went directly to the North - his target was the town and fortress of Delfzijl which lay on the shores of the Dollart, a large inlet dividing the province of Groningen from the German district of Emden, a Spanish supply base. On June 26, 1591, the Anglo-Dutch army came before the fortress - they had used 150 boats along the waterways to transport their heavy artillery. The Spanish garrison in Delfzijl numbered only 300 troops and ten guns and both sides knew they were in for a short siege. Siege positions were established in front of the town and when the guns were all in position, they opened fire. Sure enough after a heavy bombardment in the first few days of the siege the Spanish garrison, realising no relief was forthcoming, had had enough and began negotiations for surrender on 2 July. Maurice eventually agreed and the Spanish garrison surrendered and was allowed to leave (except for the disloyal and defectors) under terms for Groningen.
Aftermath.
Francisco Verdugo, the Spanish governor in the province of Groningen, was enraged when they arrived there. He ordered the captains beheaded and then humiliated the soldiers. Twelve soldiers were chosen by a lot to be imprisoned; five of these were also beheaded later.
Maurice, after taking Delfzijl, reinforced the fortifications there according to the original plans of Johan van den Kornput and placed a small garrison of Dutch and English inside. In early 1594, the garrison was able to repel a Spanish attack led by Francisco Verdugo.
Maruice then marched from Delfzil and advanced towards Hulst and Nijmegen. Maurice and the Dutch and English army instead had to come before Knodsenburg where they defeated the Duke of Parma attempting to besiege the place.