Prehistory of Sarangani

Sarangani is a province located in the Mindanao region of the Philippines and has a total land area of 4,441.79 square kilometers. . Historically, Sarangani already had an established community even before the Westerners came. The early Sarangani society was greatly affected by the Indian and Muslim cultures, and the first inhabitants were the indigenous natives called
“Muna’To”, a native term meaning “the first people”. The Spaniards only managed to impose a minimal influence to the province, causing the preservation of the rich cultural heritage of the original settlers. By the American period, the area became a part of the Cotabato Empire and by 1966, a large part of it was incorporated in the province of South Cotabato. It was only changed on 1992, through the Republic Act No. 7228, making Sarangani an independent and separate province.
As of present times, the province of Sarangani upholds a great importance for the country in terms of culture. The culture of its ethnic tribes, such as the Manobo, the Ubo, and the Moro, are without comparison, and their preserved values and traditions can serve as reflections of what the early Saranguenos (or on a larger point of view, the early Filipinos) were in the past.
Archaeological Findings and Discoveries.
Sarangani, unknown to many, boasts one of the most important sites not only in the Philippines, but in the Southeast Asian region as a whole. There are three major archaeological sites in the province, all of which are caves situated in the town of Maitum, the last town bordering the province of Sultan Kudarat. Each one has their own contributions to the province's reputation as an important place for the country's archaeology.
Ayub Cave.
The Ayub Cave was the first significant archaeological site discovered in Sarangani. The cave was named “Ayub” after Hadji Ayub, who is the owner of the property where the cave was located (Dizon 2002: personal communication). Ayub Cave is located approximately 1000m inland from the coastline facing the Mindanao Sea with an elevation of about 6m above the current sea level. That can be accessed via a coconut plantation that intersects the barangay road.
The municipality of Maitum is located in Sarangani Province – a province that was once a part of South Cotobato but on March 16, 1992, RA 7228 created the province of Sarangani. Its capital is Alabel. Maitum is one of seven municipalities that make up the province of Sarangani. The other municipalities are the capital Alabel, Glan, Maasim, Malapatan, Malungon, and Kiamba.
The site is located in Barangay Pinol, Maitum, hence its other name, Pinol Cave. The cave is located approximately 1000m inland from the
coastline facing the Mindanao Sea with an elevation of about 6m above the
current sea level.
Today the cave is now referred to as Pinol Cave, this time after the person who questioned the ownership of Ayub Cave (Ramos 2002: personal communication). The site was excavated in 1991 and instantly created a stir because of the exceptionality of the finds. The archaeologists found unique jars which were unlike the usual jars and pots discovered in other sites.
Like other jars, the jars of Ayub Cave once served as burial places, usually where the skeletal remains are transferred to. However, what makes these jars unique is their intricate design. Unlike their normal, round shape counterparts, the burial jars of Ayub Cave are more sophisticated and artistic, depicting the face and body of the person buried in the artifact. Also, the form of the jars follows the sex of the deceased person, with female remains placed in receptacles with breast like forms while males have penis-like projections at the base of the jar.
Unfortunately, most of the artifacts found in the cave were either destroyed or looted by treasure hunters. The remaining artifacts which were recovered are now displayed in the National Museum, while some are in the care of the local municipality of Maitum.
Two samples found in situ were successfully dated by AMS at Beta Analytic Inc., in Florida USA. The first sample, called Beta 83315, yielded a calibrated result of AD 70-370. The second sample, called Beta 83316, has a calibrated result of 5BC – AD 225.
Ayub Cave Assemblage.
Typologically the designs from Maitum are characteristic of
the Metal Age Period in the Philippines ca. 500 BC – AD 500. According to Dizon (1996: xi) in terms of design the earthenware assemblage is similar to those found in the archaeologicval sites of Kalanay in Masbate in Central Visayas and Tabon Cave in Palawan. Two samples found in situ were successfully dated by AMS at Beta Analytic Inc., in Florida USA. The first sample (Beta 83315) yielded a calibrated result of AD 70-370. The second sample (Beta 83316) has a calibrated result of 5BC – AD 225.
The Ayub Cave assemblage consists mostly of anthropomorphic earthenware burial jars, smaller earthenware ritual vessels, and a number of associated materials, namely, shell ornaments, beads, bones, and metal implements.
The discovery of the Maitum Jars caused great excitement because of their uniqueness in design. According to Dizon (1996), “no similar anthropomorphic types have emerged in any Philippine archaeological sites” compared to those recovered from Ayub Cave.
The collection of associated material cultural remains such as shell ornaments, glass beads and bracelets as well as iron blades found in this assemblage also shows that this ancient people were no different from others in distant parts of the world, as Egypt or Europe or much of Asia. They shared the same common concern over their dead, preparing for their burial and equipping them with things of this world for the next life.
The presence of burial offerings at the Maitum site indicates that these ancient people believed in an afterworld, where such goods were useful during the journey to the afterworld or in the afterlife itself [Ucko 1961:264]. These cave-remains, after a span of some two thousand years, serve as the only reminders of what had once been a symbolic activity.
Traces of such ancient beliefs can be seen in symbolic motifs that are found on funerary wares. Among the most common theme of transitions, water journeys and island-like afterworlds, seems to dominate funeral symbolism. This is noticeable in the Manunggul jar.
Meanwhile, the equally common theme of regeneration and growth expressed in symbols of agriculture and human fertility finds a parallel in the iron tools found in Ayub Cave and Jar 21, which feature the male sex organ.
The potters behind these burial jars and associated pots appear to have been keenly observant, as well as imaginative. This is apparent in the fine detailing of facial expressions and human features; the particularization of details, like pierced earlobes, various eye treatment and detailing of the teeth or inferring their loss from shrunken facial muscle and receding chins. Moreover, the depiction of enlarged earholes and painted ornamented designs on the body of the jar may indicate the use of jewelry. The perforations on the head may indicate hairstyles – receding hairline or balding. The traditions on the styling of secondary burial forms from non-anthropomorphic to anthropomorphic may have evolved through the years. It is uncertain whether both styles were contemporaneous, or which preceded the other, and whether only one group of people used the cave site coeval with one another from two or more periods coming from the same or various places, meeting only at Ayub cave.
Linao Cave.
In 2002, another archaeological site was discovered in Maitum. It is a cave, discovered in Sitio Linao, Barangay Kiambing, thus getting the name Linao Cave. Like its predecessor, the site is unfortunately very much disturbed too, leaving no intact jars, only potsherds, again as a result of treasure hunting.
During the excavation period, old-time residents in the area also informed the archaeologists that the cave has seven chambers, the farthest having supposedly old drawings on the walls, but the National Museum Team, headed by Dr. Eugenio Dizon, were unable to reach the said chambers, because they were blocked by sandbags and timber.
Upon examination of the sherds, the archaeologists concluded that the pots were not anthropomorphic pots or used for burial. They suggested that the Linao Cave was somehow a ritual site, and that the pots were probably used for rituals.
Besides this, the fact that really makes the place special was once the recovered potsherds were carbon-dated, the result suggested that the potteries were much older than those in the Ayub Cave by at least a 1000 years, dating it to almost as old as 3000 years Before Present Time. Also, upon examination, the recovered artifacts, according to Dr. Dizon, seem to have similarities with some of the Sabah pots from Bukit Tengkorak. This is remarkable, since it would make the site very important in terms of explaining the past of ancient man in the Philippines.
The recovered artifacts are now on display in the National Museum.
Sagel Cave.
Sagel Cave is the most recent archaeological excavation in the province of Sarangani. The site is located in Barrio Sagel, Barangay Pinol, Maitum, and was discovered in 2008. The discovery of the site was actually a coincidence – a bulldozer clearing off a side of the mountain exposed a cave system with numerous prehistoric jars and human remains.
By April of the same year, the site was immediately excavated. The results yielded a non-anthropomorphic jar burial of an adult, some pottery sherds, an iron knife and a bead made from fossilized shell. Also the recovery of human and animal bones prove that the cave was used as a burial site by its past inhabitants. There was also a bottle-shaped pendant made from fossilized shell, which was believed to be a burial good. The human bones found were revealed to be of the Homo Sapiens’ and the artifacts were dated to be of Metal Age (ca. 500 BC – 500 AD).
The site is more pristine than Ayub Cave. However, it is more delicate, since the opening of the cave site was very unstable. Because of that, only a few part of the small cave was explored, although there is a possibility that the said site still has some passages which are connected to other parts of the cave. At present, the artifacts are preserved at the National Museum.
Importance to Philippine Archaeology.
The Sarangani sites, as obvious as it seems, is very important to Philippine archaeology. It is a known fact that many are quite unaware to the existence of the sites and the finds associated with them. This should be changed, for there is much to learn from our past by simply analyzing the material remains from such sites, like the ones in the province of Sarangani.
The artifacts discovered in the Ayub Cave, for example, are great tools in understanding who the ancient Filipinos were. The detailed structure and the emotional faces of the anthropomorphic pots represent an amazing and magnificent way of the Filipino lifestyle. The modern Filipinos should be proud of it, because as of present times, no one else in the Southeast Asian region has this type of archaeological finds.
This uniqueness, coupled with the old age of the artifacts, also goes to show the early Filipinos arrived in the country in a much later date than what was already known. Further studies about the Maitum Cave Sites may even prove or disprove existing theories about ancient Filipinos. It may also answer the present-day questions regarding Philippine archaeology, which as of the moment is still a mystery.
Also, the case of these sites should be made known, as to expose the present condition of many cultural heritage sites in the country. The negative effects of the rampant scavenging of the treasure hunters/diggers should be made known to the average Filipino, so that they themselves can either refrain from damaging heritage sites or stop others from doing so. In this way, these sites will be preserved for the sake of the generations passed by and the generations yet to come.


Phra Tabong Province

Phra Tabong Province () was a province of Thailand, from the late-18th century until it was ceded to French Indochina in 1907, and again between 1941-1946 after Thailand recaptured it during the Japanese occupation of Cambodia in World War II. The province was dissolved and returned to France in 1946. The area is now in the Pailin municipality of Battambang Province, Cambodia.
Name.
"Phra Tabong" () is the Thai version of the name "Preah Bat Dambang Kranhoung", the namesake of Battambang, who according to Khmer legend threw his staff from Angkor, landing in the area of modern Battambang.
History.
Though Siam had invaded this area of Cambodia at the beginning of the 15th century, Siamese administration of the area was only formally organized in the late-18th century, at the beginning of the Bangkok Period known as Inner Cambodia or "Khamen Nai". Baen Abhaiwongse, of the Abhaiwongse family, was installed as governor, with the title "Chao Phraya Abhayabhubet". His family governed Phra Tabong as the provincial capital for another five generations, until 1907. In that year Phra Tabong, along with Siemmarat and Sisophon, was ceded to French Indochina in exchange for Trat Province and Dan Sai, in accordance with the Franco-Siam Treaty signed 23 March 1907.
In 1941, with the help of its ally, Japan, which occupied Thailand at the time, Thailand recaptured the areas it had ceded to France in 1907. The area in Cambodia had since been subdivided, and was rejoined to Thailand on 23 July 1941 as three provinces: Phra Tabong Province (with new boundaries, corresponding to Cambodian Battambang Province) and Phibunsongkhram Province (corresponding to Cambodian Siem Reap Province.
Thailand was forced to cede the territory again in 1946, after the end of World War II, as a condition for Thailand's admission into the United Nations.
Administrative divisions.
When it was rejoined to Thailand on 23 July 1941, Phra Tabong was divided into seven districts ("amphoe"):
Three of the former Cambodian districts were renamed to honor the military officers who led the three major divisions of the Thai armed forces in the French-Thai War:
On 23 December 1941, Si Sophon and Sinthu Songkhram Chai were reassigned to Phibunsongkhram Province.
On 3 November 1942, Mueang Phra Tabong was established as a town ("thesaban mueang").
On 17 September 1943, due to its small size, Phromyothi District was downgraded to a minor district ("king amphoe") and renamed Pak Phraek (). At the same time, four sub-districts from Mongkhon Buri District were combined into a new Phromyothi District.


Hendra Bambang Wisanggeni Soerjaatmadja

Ratu Bagus Hendra Bambang Wisanggeni Soerjaatmadja, M.B.A. (EYD: Ratu Bagus Hendra Bambang Wisanggeni Suryaatmaja; born 31 August 1954) is the 18th sultan of Banten who was crowned on December 11, 2016 with the title of Sultan Syarif Muhammad as-Shafiuddin Azmatkhan al-Husaini.
Soerjaatmadja was officially crowned as Sultan who led Bantenese people on custom and culture when the celebration of the Prophet Muhammad's Mawlid at the Great Mosque of Banten, Serang. Ahmad Muhtadi Dimyathi, an influential cleric in Banten is one of the figures who confirmed Soerjaatmadja as sultan.
Biography.
Early life.
Soerjaatmadja was born in Plaju sub-district, Palembang, South Sumatera from Bantenese couple named Ratu Bagus Abdul Mughni Soerjaatmadja and Soepiati Soeraatmadja.
Abdul Mughni was the heir of the Sultanate of Banten, he was the son of Ratu Bagus Marjono Soerjaatmadja bin Pangeran Timur Soerjaatmadja bin Sultan Maulana Muhammad Shafiuddin. Maulana Muhammad Shafiuddin was the last sultan of Banten who ruled from 1809 to 1813. After the Banten Sultanate was abolished by the Dutch, he and his descendants were later exiled to Surabaya.
"Pengadilan Agama" (Indonesian: the Religious Courts) of Serang through "Surat Penetapan Ahli Waris" (Indonesian: the Letter of Determination of the Heirs) numbered 0316 / PDT.P / 2016 / PA.SRG dated 22 September 2016 has decided that Soerjaatmadja was true the son of Ratu Bagus Abdul Mughni Soerjaatmadja who was descended from the last sultan of Banten Maulana Muhammad Shafiuddin, and as the owner of the strongest blood relation who has the right of inheritance as the successor of the Sultanate of Banten.
Soerjaatmadja is the 10th descendant of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa of Banten through Abu Nasr Abdul Kahhar, and the 15th descendant of Sultan Maulana Hasanuddin of Banten, the first sultan of Banten.
Personal life.
In 1981, Soerjaatmadja married a dentist named Nina Arifai. Nina is a retired lecturer at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Indonesia. From the marriage they have four children: Ratu Ayu Primiputri Rakhmania Soerjaatmadja (Ratu Gusti), Ratu Bagus Akhmatindra Adisatria Rachman Soerjaatmadja (Prince Gusti), Ratu Bagus Raditya Hafiz Bangsawan Soerjaatmadja (Prince Adipati), and Ratu Bagus Muhammad Arief Abimanyu Soerjaatmadja (Prince Anom).
Career and activity.
2010.
On June 12, 2010, Forum Silaturahmi Keraton Se-Nusantara under the leadership of from Surakarta Sunanate acknowledged Soerjaatmadja as the official representative of the Sultanate of Banten. In the same year, Kyai Hajji Tubagus Fathul Adzim son of Tubagus Ahmad Chatib al-Bantani handed over the mandate given by Ratu Bagus Aryo Marjono Soerjaatmadja related to the management of the Great Mosque of Banten and the Tomb of Sultan Banten in Old Banten to Soerjaatmadja as the heir of the Sultanate of Banten and is the grandson of Aryo Marjono.
Related to the handover of the mandate by Tubagus Fathul Adzim to Soerjaatmadja, historical records mention that in the early days of Indonesian Independence around 1947 there was a meeting between the heirs of the Sultanate of Banten (Ratu Bagus Aryo Marjono Soerjaatmadja), President of Indonesia (Sukarno), Sultan of Yogyakarta (Hamengkubuwono IX), and Resident of Banten (Tubagus Ahmad Chatib al-Bantani). At the meeting, Sukarno invited the heir to the throne of Banten Sultanate to lead the Banten area back, but the heir to the throne due to his responsibilities as Director of BRI (now the Governor of Bank Indonesia) entrusted Banten's leadership including the guarding and maintenance of the big family asset of Banten Sultanate to Tubagus Ahmad Chatib al-Bantani as Resident of Banten, until the time when child or grandson Marjono return to Banten.
2013.
In 2013, Soerjaatmadja genealogy as the heir of the Sultanate of Banten recognized and endorsed by Rabithah Azmatkhan as research institute Walisongo descendants family.
In December 2013, Soerjaatmadja was invited by Joko Widodo as Governor of Jakarta to represent the Sultanate of Banten in the World Royal Heritage event at National Monument, Jakarta.
Throughout the year 2013 - 2015, Soerjaatmadja also frequent visits to the clerics of Banten such as Abuya Ahmad Muhtadi Dimyathi Cidahu, Abuya Uci Turtusi Cilongok, Abuya Munfasir Padarincang, Kyai Hajji Yusuf Mubarok Cinangka, Kyai Hajji Sukanta Labuan, Kyai Hajji Thobari Syadzili Tangerang, Kyai Hajji Lukman Harun Cilegon, and others.
2014.
In 2014, Soerjaatmadja was invited as Sultan of Banten by the Sultanate of Kelantan in Malaysia, it makes the stronger recognition of him as the official heir of the Sultanate of Banten which began coming from the international community.
2015.
On February 3, 2015, Soerjaatmadja was recognized by international clerics, such as from Turkey (Sheikh Fadhil al-Jailani, descendant of Sheikh Abdul-Qadir Gilani), Syria, Kelantan-Malaysia and Pattani-Thailand, as the 18th Sultan of Banten with the title of Sultan Syarif Muhammad as-Shafiuddin Azmatkhan al-Husaini. He was also given a testament and mandate as the heir of the Sultanate who led culturally to strengthen the bond with the community, local government, and the Bantenese ulama.
2016.
Soerajaatmadja was officially crowned as the 18th Sultan of Banten with the title of Sultan Syarif Muhammad as-Shafiuddin during the celebration of the Prophet Muhammad's Mawlid at the Great Mosque of Banten, Serang, Banten, on Sunday 11 December 2016.
As the Sultan of Banten.
Pros and cons.
A series of pros and cons occurred after the establishment of Soerjaatmadja as the 18th Sultan of Banten on December 11, 2016 in Old Banten.
The Religious Courts of Serang spoke about the pros and cons of the inauguration. The court declared not to establish the title of 18th Sultan of Banten, but only set Soerjaatmadja as the heir of the descendants of the Sultanate of Banten. The Decree of the Religious Courts of Serang was numbered 0316 / PDT.P / 2016 / PA.SRG dated 22 September 2016 on the Stipulation of the Heirs.
Meanwhile, Soerjaatmadja said that the decision of the Religious Courts of Serang has established himself as the heir of the Sultanate of Banten so entitled to the title of Sultan of Banten. He invited the parties who objected to his enthronement as the 18th Sultan of Banten to file a lawsuit.
As the Sultan of Banten, he intends to embrace all parties, including those who reject the coronation himself as the Sultan of Banten. Soerjaatmadja wants to invite all to work together to rebuild the glory of the Sultanate of Banten.
Meanwhile, the Indonesian Ulema Council of Banten Province assessed the horizontal conflict that occurred on the coronation of the 18th Sultan of Banten between Soerjaatmadja as the heir of the Sultanate with the "Kenadziran Kesultanan Banten" was a family affair and must be resolved by way of kinship.


2007 Karaj Rock Concert incident

The 2007 Karaj Rock Concert incident refers to the crackdown of an Iranian rock concert in 2007 by police which led to the imprisonment of 230 Iranian musicians and fans.
Rock groups in Iran are only allowed to perform with a licence from the Ministry of Culture, although this has not prevented numbers of underground formations sprouting up in recent years.


Mway Medaw of Pinya

Mway Medaw (, ) was a queen consort of King Kyawswa I of Pinya. Of Pagan royalty, she was one of the two principal queens consort of Kyawswa, and she was known as the Queen of the Northern Palace. She was a paternal aunt of King Swa Saw Ke of Ava.
Ancestry.
The following is her ancestry as reported by the "Hmannan Yazawin" chronicle. She was the youngest child of King Kyawswa of Pagan and his chief queen Saw Soe.


Indrajayavarman

Indrajayavarman or Indravarman IV () and also known as Srindrajayavarman () was the ruler of Khmer empire from 1308-1327, and was succeeded by Jayavarmadiparamesvara. Charles Higham (archaeologist) states this is the last Sanskrit record of Angkor.
History.
Information about Indrajayavarman was obtained from four inscriptions and the meager statements in Chinese dynastic history:
The inscription of Vat Kok Khpos, dated 1309, says the reign of Indravarman came to an end in 1308. This inscription speaks of the capital under the name of Yasodharapura. A re-reading, by Coedes, of the inscription of the Bayon, dated after 1327, revealed that the reign of Indrajayavarman lasted until 1327. Yuan-Shih, quoted by Pelliot, says a Chinese mission came to Cambodia to buy elephants in 1320.


Sharafkhan Bidlisi

Sharaf al-Din Khan b. Shams al-Din b. Sharaf Beg Bedlisi (Kurdish: شەرەفخانی بەدلیسی, "Şerefxanê Bedlîsî"; ) (949-1012/ 25 February 1543) was a medieval Kurdish Emir of the Emirate of Bitlis. But he is more known as a historian, writer and poet. He wrote exclusively in Persian. Born in the Garmrood village, in central Iran, between Arak and Qom, at a young age he was sent to the Safavid's court and obtained his education there.
He is the author of Sharafnama, one of the most important works on medieval Kurdish history, written in 1597. He created a good picture of Kurdish life and Kurdish dynasties in the 16th century in his works. Outside Iran and Kurdish-speaking countries, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi has influenced Kurdish literature and societies through the translation of his works by other scholars.
He was also a gifted artist, and a well-educated man excelling as much in mathematics and military strategy, as he did in history.
Early life.
Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was born on February 25, 1543, in the Markazi province, Iran in the Garmrood village, during the exile of his father. The Rojaki dynasty, which had ruled intermittently as an independent emirate from their capital of Bitlis since at least the 9th century, and therefore, he never took up the common tribal title of "Khan", preferring instead the royal title of emir or mir, "prince." He was most commonly known as, Mir Sharaf (Prince Sharaf). Later his family was taken under protection of the Safavid dynasty. He was schooled at Tahmasb's court, and wrote in 1596:
Bedlîsî speaks of his education entailing instruction in the Quran, readings in on the principles of the "shari'a", a piety and purity. Due to Shah Tahmasb's religious disposition, Bidlisi was introduced to religious scholars, who warned him against evil people, and instead encouraged friendship with the virtuous. And once Bidlisi attained maturity, he was thought the martial arts (sipahigira), archery, polo, racing, swordsmanship, and the precepts of chivalry – humanism and generosity.
In 1576 Tahmasb of the Safavids gives him the title the "Mir" of "Mirs"; appoints him leader of all Iranian Kurdish tribes. He accepts his title, but only two years later, "Sharafkhan" abandons his previous stand, and supports the Ottomans in their war against the Iranians, offering them 400 soldiers. In 1578, Sultan Murad III, the Ottoman Sultan, grants Sharafkhan the title of Emir and he becomes the "Mir" of the Emirate of Bitlis. Between 1578 and 1588, Sharafkhan virtually led all the Ottoman wars against the Persians. In 1597, Sharafkhan gave the authority of his dynasty to his son Šams-al-Dīn.
Sharafnama.
He was thinking for a long time to write a book about Kurdish history, and finally in 1597 Sharaf Khan Bidlisi started his composition of his epic, "Sharafnama".The "Sharafnama" divides its history into four parts. The first one deals with the five Kurdish dynasties that have enjoyed status as royalty ("Saltant"): the Marwanids of Amed, the Hasanwayhids of Dinavar and Sharizur, the "Fadluyids" of the Great Lur, the princes of little Lur, and finally, Saladin the Great and the Ayyubids. The second part lists dynasties that have had coin struck and the "khutba" recited in their names. (The "Khutba" is a religious invacation pronounced at the Friday day prayers meeting that mentions the Prophet, the first four caliphs and the current rulers). The third part numbers the families of the hereditary governors, while the fourth details the history of the mirs of "Bitilis".


Galaganatha

Galaganath is a small village located near Haveri, in the Haveri District, Karnataka. Located here is the famous Galageshwar Shiva Temple built during the rule of the Western Chalukyas. This large temple faces east and is situated along the Tungabhadra River. The rivers Tunga and Varada join at Galaganath.
History.
Galaganath was formerly known as Palluni. The Galageshwar temple, an example of the Chalukya style of architecture, was built here around the 11th century. Sri Venkatesh Galaganath (Kadambari Pitamaha) worshiped at the Galageshwar temple, and he wrote his novels on the temple premises.
Galageshwar temple.
The temple faces to east and it is situated along the Tungabhadra river. the temple consists of a huge Shiva Linga in a closed hall; it is called Sparsha linga. The temple has an unusual pyramidal basement and a large open hall. The Gopura (tower) is decorated with plain architectural elements while the wall panels of the back of the hall have some fine decorations. The interior has numerous niches containing figural sculpture including Ganesha.
Inscriptions.
A large inscription slab in the open hall of Galageshwar temple dates from 1080 AD and records a grant to the God Galageshwar. The date gives an indication of the era when the temple was built.
The inscription here informs about the prevalence of the tradition of dance and music. The high state of development which the art of music had reached in the 11th century A.D. can be gathered from an inscription of Chalukya king Vikramaditya from Galaganath, Haveri Taluk and Haveri District, North Karnataka, which mentions a certain Mokhari Barmmayya, a musician of high order, titled Battisaraga-bahu-kala-Brahma meaning skilled in 32 ragas.


Klimonas

Klimonas is an archaeological site dating to the 9th millennium BC. Discovered in Cyprus at Ayios Tychonas in the Limassol District, Klimonas is the oldest known farming village in the world. The main part of the site is a subterranean circular building approximately ten metres (~40 feet) in diameter similar to communal buildings in other nearby sites.
Wild boar was hunted and cereals were obtained from the Levant, as well as cats and domesticated dogs. The dogs were used for hunting the boar.


National Party (Japan)

The National Party (, "Kokumintō") was a political party in Japan. A centrist party, its policies had a strong focus on education.
History.
The party was established in July 1946 as the Shinseikai ("New Politics Society") by a merger of the Shinkō Club, some independent MPs and some MPs from the Preparatory Committee for the Japan Democratic Party, which was subsequently dissolved. It initially had 40 MPs, two of whom were amongst the eight MPs who voted against the new post-war constitution. Talks were held with the Cooperative Democratic Party about a merger in August 1946, and after they fell through, the party was renamed the National Party.
By September 1946 the party had been reduced to 33 MPs. In March 1947 another attempt was made to merge with the Cooperative Democratic Party, which this time was successful, resulting in the creation of the National Cooperative Party.


Dangerous Ground (South China Sea)

Dangerous Ground is a large area in the southeast part of the South China Sea characterized by many low islands and cays, sunken reefs, and atolls awash, with reefs often rising abruptly from ocean depths greater than 1000m.
There are few precise definitions, but Dangerous Ground corresponds roughly to the seas around the eastern half of the Spratly Islands. It is an oblong area running southwest to northeast for about 340 nautical miles (nm) (630 km), 175 nm (324 km) at its widest, with an area of about 52,000 nm² (178,000 km2). It is west of Palawan island and northwest of the Palawan Passage. It lies approximately between 7.5 and 12°N, 113–117°E. The US NGA literatureetc. seems to consider its centre as .
The area is poorly charted, making it exceptionally dangerous to navigate – the major Singapore-to-Hong-Kong routes go well to the west and east of the area. The Admiralty Sailing Directions give the following warning regarding navigation in this area:
Due to the conflicting dates and accuracy of the various partial surveys of Dangerous Ground, certain shoals and reefs may appear on one chart, but not on another regardless of the scales involved.<br>Charted depths and their locations may present considerable error in the lesser known regions of this area. Avoidance of Dangerous Ground is the mariner’s only assurance of safety.
The water is a usually greenish-blue and is transparent to depths of on clear days.
Boundaries.
The boundary of Dangerous Ground is shown on NGA charts 93044 (NW), 93045 (NE), 93046 (most of the SE), and 93047 (SW). (The missing portion of the SE is covered by 93048 and the top corner of 92006.)
The area is described in NGA Pub. 161, "Sailing Directions (Enroute) South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand". The navigational charts and sailing directions do not completely agree with each other as to the boundary. For example, the "Sailing Directions" include most of the NW area shown on Chart 93044 as outside of Dangerous ground, but exclude the Reed Bank, which is shown on Chart 93045 as inside Dangerous Ground.
Both publications divide the area into four quadrants - NW, NE, SE and SW:
NW.
Chart 93044 – approx. 10–12°N, 113–115°E; "Sailing Directions" pp8–10.
NE.
Chart 93045 – approx. 10–12°N, 115–117°E; "Sailing Directions" pp10–11.
SE.
Chart 93046 – approx. 8–10°N, 115–117°E; "Sailing Directions" pp11–12.
SW.
Chart 93047 – approx. 8–10°N, 113–115°E; "Sailing Directions" pp12–13.
Outside of Dangerous Ground.
"Sailing Directions" pp13–15.
Other parts of the Spratly Islands which are not inside Dangerous Ground include:
Territorial disputes.
The sovereignty of many of the islands is disputed, as are economic claims.


State of Pasundan

The State of Pasundan (Indonesian and ) was a federal state "(negara bagian)" formed in the western part of the Indonesian island of Java by the Netherlands in 1948 following the Linggadjati Agreement. It was similar to the geographical area now encompassed by the current provinces of West Java, Banten and Jakarta.
A Pasundan Republic () was declared on 4 May 1947 but was dissolved later that year. On 26 February 1948, the State of West Java "(Negara Jawa Barat)" was established and, on 24 April 1948, the state was renamed Pasundan. Pasundan became a federal state of the United States of Indonesia in 1949 but was incorporated into the Republic of Indonesia (itself also a constituent of the USI) on 11 March 1950.
In 2009, there was a proposal to rename the present West Java province "Pasundan" ("Province of the Sundanese") after the historical name for West Java.
Background.
Indonesian developments.
On 17 August 1945, Sukarno proclaimed the independence of Indonesia, which had been a Dutch colony, and then had been occupied by the Japanese since 1942. The Dutch wished to retain control, and an armed conflict broke out. In November 1946, following international pressure, the Indonesians and Dutch signed the Linggadjati Agreement, in which the Dutch recognized Indonesian "de facto" authority over Java and Sumatra and both sides agreed to cooperate in the establishment of a United States of Indonesia comprising the Republic, Borneo and eastern Indonesia. However the Dutch began creating federal states unilaterally, beginning with the State of East Indonesia in December 1946. By July 1947, the cost to the Dutch of maintaining military forces in Indonesia and the desire to regain access to the resources of Java and Sumatra led the decision to attack the Republic. At midnight on 30 July 1947, the Dutch launched a "Police Action", and took control of West Java and Madura as well as the areas around Semarang, Medan and Palembang.
Suriakartalegawa's State of Pasundan.
The first attempt at establishing an independent State of Pasundan was by a Sundanese aristocrat named Musa Suriakartalegawa, who later claimed that it was at the suggestion of the political adviser to Dutch East Indies Lieutenant Governor Hubertus van Mook. He began laying the foundations of the state by establishing the Pasundan People's Party ("Partai Rakyat Pasundan", PRP) on 18 November 1946, with Raden Sadikin as the chairman of the party. The party itself was established as a response to the lack of Sundanese representation in the Malino Conference and Pangkalpinang Conference.
Using the party as the base of support, Suriakartalegawa established the State of Pasundan in the small areas of West Java still controlled by the Dutch. Independence was proclaimed on 4 May 1947. Dutch military forces provided trucks to transport people to the proclamation site and during the ceremony, Dutch military police officers presented attendees with Pasundan flags and bread to encourage them to parade in support of the state. Suriakartalegawa appointed himself as the president and Koestomo as the prime minister in a provisional government. The Dutch supported Suriakartalegawa by providing facilities such as the press and radio, while the Enlightenment Service of the Dutch helped to spread propaganda pamphlets of the PRP.
The establishment of the state was denounced by Sundanese aristocrats and commoners and did not lessen people's support for the Republic of Indonesia. Wiranatakusumah and his family sent out a wire to Sukarno on 6 May 1947 that opposed the establishment of the State of Pasundan. Public meetings were held throughout West Java to oppose the formation of the state, and the Indonesian army in Garut announced IDR 10,000 bounty for the capture of Suriakartalegawa, either dead or alive. Suriakartalegawa's son and mother spoke out against the formation of the state on the Indonesian "Radio Republik Indonesia".
Following press reports of the farcical nature of the state, and noticing the lack of support for it, the Netherlands Government Information Service withdrew its support. Suriakartalegawa's state practically disappeared after the July 1947 Dutch "Police Action". The establishment of Pasundun convinced the Republican side of the Dutch intention to "divide and rule" and maintain their control over Indonesia.
West Java Conferences.
Following the "Police Action", the Dutch authorities established an organization to administer the areas they had gained control over. This was headed by Government Commissioners for Administrative Affairs (). The West Java Recomba organized a series of conferences involving various groups in West Java to establish a new State of Pasundan. Three conferences were held, all in the city of Bandung.
The first conference was held from 13 until 18 November 1947. It was attended by 50 delegates from all of the regions of West Java and discussed matters regarding the government of the State of Pasundan, the integration between Dutch and Indonesian officials, and efforts to restore peace and security in West Java. The conference managed to form a liaison committee between the Dutch and the Indonesian officials, headed by Hilman Djajadiningrat (then Governor of Jakarta).
The next conference was held a month later, from 16 until 20 December 1947. A larger number of delegates (170 delegates) attended. Instead of representing the Sundanese people only, the delegates also came from minorities in West Java (Chinese, Arabic, Europeans, Indo people). Five more people were appointed to the liaison committee, three of which represented minorities. The liaison committee was renamed the preparatory committee.
There were three opinions regarding the formation of the State of Pasundan. The majority of the delegates opted to establish a definitive government, while the others (mainly pro-Indonesian) opted for transitional government or refused to form a government until a referendum was held.
Three motions were submitted to the conference by the delegates. Even though these motions had differences, they were seen as all having a common aim, and following negotiations, they were combined in the form of a resolution stating that the next conference should form a provisional government for West Java with a parliament.
In January 1948, following international pressure, Indonesian Republicans and the Dutch signed the Renville Agreement, which recognized Dutch authority over Indonesia pending the handing over of sovereignty to a United States of Indonesia (USI), of which the Republic of Indonesia would be one component. Regions would be given the option to decide whether to join the USI or the Republic of Indonesia. The agreement also led to the division of Java into areas of Dutch and Republic of Indonesia control separated by a ceasefire line known as the "van Mook" Line. The Pasundan region was within the Dutch-controlled area.
The final West Java conference, the third, was held from 23 February until 5 March 1948. Of the 100 delegates, 53 were chosen by indirect election, and 43 appointed by the Dutch. Most of these delegates were pro-Indonesia, and a particularly vocal nationalist minority expressed its opposition to the establishment of a separate state without a referendum - as specified in the Renville Agreement. At this conference, republican R. A. A. Wiranatakusumah, who had served in Indonesia's first cabinet, was narrowly elected head of state, or "wali negara", and the head of the pro-republican faction, Adil Poeradiredja, was elected prime minister. The delegates to the conference subsequently became the Pasundan parliament.
Establishment of the State of Pasundan.
On 26 February 1948, the Dutch East Indies government expressed approval of the resolution establishing a provisional West Java government, subsequently renamed Pasundan, and the state came into being. The cabinet was sworn in on 8 May. The Indonesians supporting the state were those dissatisfied with their positions within the Republic of Indonesia or who believed that the republic would not survive and wanted to protect the interests of the ethnic Sundanese people within a Sundanese state in a Dutch-supported federal state. However, support for the Indonesian Republic was so strong among the members of the parliament and the cabinet, that the Dutch authorities in Batavia felt obliged to control many aspects of Pasundan life and restrict civil liberties, including the right of assembly. Some powers were transferred to the Pasundan government, but these were severely limited, and the Dutch even kept control of secondary and higher education, as well as the radio, newspapers and information offices.
On 19 December 1948, the Dutch launched a second "Police Action" against the areas controlled by the Republic. Dutch forces captured the republican capital, Yogyakarta and detailed President Sukarno. In protest, the Padundan cabinet, along with the cabinet of the largest federal state, the State of East Indonesia, resigned, to the embarrassment of the Dutch, who had planned a conference to discuss the form of the federal Indonesian state. Prime Minister Adil Poeradiredja refused to form a new cabinet, and its 6-member replacement was formed by Djumhana Wiriaatmadja. However, the new cabinet's anti-Dutch stance angered the Batavia administration, which threatened to arrest key members of the government and install a military government. Four members of the cabinet subsequently resigned, as did Djumhana on 28 January 1949. He then formed a cabinet more acceptable to the Dutch. In early March 1949, Prime Minister Djumhana was part of the Federal Consultative Assembly delegation, representing the non-Republican Indonesian states, that took part in negotiations with Indonesian president Sukarno and other senior officials on the island of Bangka, where Sukarno had been exiled by the Dutch. Both parties to these negotiations, together with the Dutch, then took part in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in the Hague from August to November. This conference led to the Dutch transferring sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia, with Pasundan as one component of it, on 27 December.
Dissolution.
The Dutch-sponsored Pasundan government was never in control of the entire area that officially constituted the state. At the time of its establishment, around 25 percent of the area was in the hands of Islamic anti-Dutch groups, including Darul Islam. Even following the second Dutch "police action" launched against the Republic in December 1948, only one-third of the state was controlled by the Dutch.
On 23 January 1950, Raymond Westerling's Legion of Ratu Adil (APRA) launched a coup attempt. They occupied key locations in Bandung and then headed for Jakarta to attack the United States of Indonesia Cabinet. The coup failed, but the fact that it had been launched from Pasundan, and that several Pasundan leaders were arrested for their involvement severely damaged the credibility of the state. On 9 February, a day after the USI cabinet passed an emergency law transferring the authority of the Pasundan government to a State Commissioner for Pasundan, Wiranatakusumah handed over his powers. The following month, Pasundan and a number of other states requested they be merged into the Republic of Indonesia. On 11 March 1950, the state of Pasundan became part of the Republic and ceased to exist as a separate entity.


Gunung Wukir

Gunung Wukir temple, or Canggal temple, or also known as Shivalinga is a Shivaite Hindu temple dated from early 8th century, located in Canggal hamlet, Kadiluwih village, Salam subdistrict, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple dates to the year 732, making it the first structure attributed to the ancient Mataram kingdom, which ruled Central Java from 732 to around the middle of the tenth century.
Location.
Because of its relatively remote location, the temple site rarely appears on the itineraries of foreign tourists. But it possesses some historical importance owed to its links with the formation of the Central Javanese Mataram kingdom. The temple is located on Wukir hill, which the locals refer to as "Gunung Wukir" ("Mount Wukir", or "carved hill" in Javanese), on the western slopes of Mount Merapi volcano. The hill is located approximately 4 kilometres southeast from the town of Muntilan. Gunung Wukir temple can be reached by following the direction to the Ngluwar subdistrict by turning west from the Semen intersection, on Yogyakarta-Magelang main road. The Kadiluwih hamlet in Canggal, is connected to the Ngluwar road by a small walking trail that leads up to the hill plateau, approximately 300 meters above sea level.
History.
This temple is the oldest surviving temple in Southern Central Java, connected to the Canggal inscription discovered within the temple ruins in 1879. The inscription describes the erection of a "lingam" (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The "lingam" is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java), which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines". According to the inscription, the temple was founded during the reign of King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE). This inscription contains a lot of information related to Medang Kingdom or Hindu Mataram. Based on this inscription, Gunung Wukir temple might originally called "Shivalinga" or "Kunjarakunja".
Architecture.
The temple compound measures 50 metres x 50 metres. The temple building is made of andesite stone, and at least consist of a main temple and three "perwara" temples (guardian or complementary smaller temple) lined in front of the main temple. In addition to the inscription, within the temple complex were also found archaeological artifacts including yoni pedestal and the statue of the sacred cow Nandi the vehicle of Shiva. According to the inscription, the yoni once support a lingam, the symbol of the god Shiva, however it is now missing.


Sahassa Malla of Polonnaruwa

Sahassa Malla (also known as "the lion-hearted king") was King of Polonnaruwa in the thirteenth century. He ruled the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa from 1200 to 1202. He succeeded Lilavati, who was removed from the throne by her co-ministers. He was deposed by General Ayasmantha and succeeded by Kalyanavati. He was the younger brother of Nissanka Malla.


Sutanuti

Sutanuti was one of the three villages which were merged to form the city of Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) in India. The other two villages were Gobindapur and Kalikata. Job Charnock, an administrator of the English East India Company is traditionally credited with the honour of founding the city. He settled in the village of Sutanuti.
In addition to the three recognised hamlets around which the city has grown up, must be added at least four others as the elementary constituents of the city (including Howrah on the opposite bank). These are Chitpur, Salkia, Kalighat and Betor. Out of these four Betor, which was the focus of trade once upon a time, vanished in the seventeenth century. It was located around where Shibpur presently is.
Location.
"The three villages may be said, roughly speaking, to have extended along the river from Coolie Bazar, where the buildings of the Commissariat now stand in the vicinity of Prinsep’s Ghat, to Chitpore: but the English settlement proper was a very small affair indeed. It was confined to the locality between Baboo Ghat, hard by modern Eden Gardens, and a point about a hundred yards to the north of Clive Street. Surrounding it was the native portion of ‘Dhee’ Kolkata, and to the north was Suttanuttee. On the south stood Govindpore, high on the river-bank and covered with thick jungle. The total amount of inhabited land was only 840 bighas, or one-sixth of the territory conveyed by the sanad of Azim-us-shan and of this 204 bighas was absorbed by the Settlement itself, and 400 by the great Bazar to its immediate north. In Colonel Mark Wood's Map of 1784, published in 1792 by William Baillie, Suttanuttee is described as extending from Chitpore in the north to what is designated in the map as Jora Bagan Ghat, a little below Nimtollah Ghat. Thence commenced the northern boundary of ‘Dhee’ Kolkata, and that village proceeded south as far as Baboo Ghat. Here Govindpore began and ended at the Govindpore Creek, afterwards called Surman's Nullah and later Tolly's Nullah."
Mughal period.
At the end of the fifteenth century a poem in praise of the serpent-goddess written by Bipradas Pipilai gives us the first authentic glimpse of the area. Satgaon or Saptagram on the west bank of the Hooghly, between Bandel and Tribeni was a great port. Lower down the river, on the same bank, Betor was a large market town, where travellers paused to buy provisions and worship the goddess Chandi. Chitpur and Kalikata were neighbouring villages passed just before reaching Betor. Gobindapur and Sutanuti did not exist. Kalighat was a small sanctuary claiming just a bare mention. When the Portuguese first started to frequent Bengal, around the year 1530, the two great centres of trade were Chittagong, then known as Porto Grande or Great Haven, in the east and Satgaon, then known as Porto Pequeno or Little Haven in the west. Tolly's Nallah or Adi Ganga was then the outlet to the sea and ocean-going ships came up to around where Garden Reach presently is, then the anchoring place for ships. Only country boats operated further up the river. Possibly the Saraswati river was another watery life line. It started drying up from the middle of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese built a new port at Hugli in 1580.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the merchant-princes of Port Pequeno were forced to seek another market for their trade. Most of them settled down in Hugli but four families of "Bysacks" (an English corruption of the Indian term "Vaishakh") and one of "Setts" (an English corruption of the Indian surname "Seth"), determined to profit by the growing prosperity of Betor, founded the village of Gobindapur, on the east bank of the river. On the northern side of Dhee (meaning village or group of villages) Kalikata (as Calcutta was known in Bengali), came up a place for sale of cloth, which was soon to become celebrated as Sutanuti Haat, the cotton bale market. In 1596, the place is noticed as a district of the Sirkar (or government) of Satgaon, in the book "Ain-e-Akbari" of Abul Fazal, the prime minister of Akbar. As traders, the Portuguese were succeeded by the Dutch and finally the British came.
The British arrive.
Job Charnock is heard of in various positions and places associated with the East India Company from around 1658. After Cossimbazar and Patna he stayed for shorter periods at Hughli, Hijli and Sutanuti. He was convinced about the advantages of Sutanuti as a place of settlement but his colleagues and superiors were not. However, the officials in Madras, after certain debacles at Chittagong, allowed him, with the objective of establishing a settlement, to sail for Sutanuti and he landed there on 24 August 1690, a date that has become historically famous. He lived for two and half years after that.
Job Charnock favoured Sutanuti as a settlement because of the security of the location. It was protected by the river on the west and by impassable marshes on the south and the east. Only the north had to be guarded.
The three villages were part of the "khas mahal" or imperial "jagir" (an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor himself), whose zamindary rights were held by the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family of Barisha. On 10 November 1698, Job Charnock's successor and son-in-law, Charles Eyre, acquired the zamindary rights for the three villages from the Sabarna Roychoudhuris. The company paid regular rent to the Mughals for these villages till 1757.
Kolkata emerges as a city.
Rebellions and skirmishes in the hinterland gave the English the pretext to fortify Kolkata. The fort was named Fort William after William of Orange who was at that time both king of both England and stadtholder of part of the Dutch Republic. Kolkata soon grew into a prosperous town. It attracted merchants, skilled artisans, adventurers and law-abiding citizens anxious to flee from the lawless conditions in the neighbouring territories. In 1700, Kolkata was separated from Madras and became a new presidency. The three presidencies at Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai started functioning independently. In 1717, it secured from the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar, certain concessions regarding trade and revenue. It helped the company to grow commercially.
Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal was alarmed by the growing prosperity and enhanced fortifications of Kolkata. In 1756, he decided to attack the city. After capturing Kolkata, Siraj ud-Daula named it Alinagar, after his grandfather Alivardi Khan. The name of Kolkata was restored in 1758, after the British regained control of Bengal. "To the English indeed, the sack of Kolkata must have appeared little short of devastation. But in fact, of the four contiguous villages of Gobindapur, Kalikata, Sutanuti and Chitpur, only Kalikata or ‘White’ Calcutta suffered extensively... The Black Town escaped major damage, except the burning down of Barabazar... Gobindapur had been fired by the English themselves." The English evacuees set up temporary quarters at Falta, some downstream. What followed was a series of skirmishes finally leading to the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757 and the establishment of British power in Bengal.
Black town.
There were practically no roads in the area except the road connecting Halisahar in the north to Kalighat in the south (it was up to Barisha according to some). Some writers called it pilgrim path. It was kept in repair by the Sheth family; Jagannath Sheth planted trees on both sides of it. The Sheths also maintained a road connecting their garden house at Jorabagan with old Fort William. Some road construction started in 1721 but most of roads came up after 1757.
As the city grew, different neighbourhoods sprang up. Mechhuabazar (later Jorasanko) was the fish market. Kalutola was home of the Kalus (Kaluas) or oil pressers of the company, who may have supplied mustard and other oils to the merchants. Kumortuli was named after the Kumors (Kumbhars) or potters who settled there. Jorabagan, also called Sheth Bagan in earlier days had a 110 bigha garden owned by the Sheths. Further north there were the settlements Bagbazar and Shyambazar. The area was citadel of Bengali aristocracy. Bosepara was set up by Basus and Pals migrating from Hooghly district. Nidhuram Bose is believed to have arrived before the British came to Sutanuti. Sometimes localities were named after trees. Bartala was named after twin banyan trees (bar or bat). Taltala was named after its tal (palmyra) trees. In those days areas such as Entally were part of the salt lakes, Ballygunj and Rasapagla (later Tollygunj) were sleepy villages.
The three-mile (5 km) Maratha Ditch was excavated by 1742 as a protections against the marauding Marathas (known in Bengal as Bargis), but they never came and Siraj ud-Daulah easily crossed it with his forces, near what is now Sealdah. At around the same time, the palisades around the English settlement were strengthened, creating in effect a ‘white ghetto’.
Long before Siraj-ud-dowla sacked Kolkata, the psychological barrier sprung up with a clear distinction between the ‘White Town’ restricted mostly to the north of the old fort and ‘Black Town’ spread over Sutanuti, Chitpur and Gobindapur. The sharp division was sealed by the gradual withdrawal of the British from Sutanuti. Even a deep trench, 16 to wide, was dug in 1710, ostensibly to drain the White Town but also to separate it from the Black Town in Sutanuti. Even as the English gradually abandoned Sutanuti as a place of abode, there stood at its northernmost corner a pleasure resort called Perrin's Garden, where "once it was the height of gentility for the Company’s covenanted servants to take their ladies for an evening stroll or moonlight fete." It also gradually fell out of use and repair and was sold out in 1752. With the commencement of construction of the new Fort William, in 1758 and the demolition of Gobindapur, the inhabitants were compensated and given land in Taltala, Kumortuli and Shobhabazar. European inhabitants gradually forsook the narrow limits of the old palisades and moved to around the Maidan.
Sett and Basaks.
Before the British came the most powerful families in the region were Sheths and Basacks, the merchants of yarn and cloth market at Sutanuti. With the arrival of the British these families flourished with renewed vigour. Janardan Sheth was a trading agent of the British. Shobharam Basack (1690–1773) became a millionaire by supplying textiles to East India Company.
The earliest names floating around are those of Mukundaram Sheth, who lived in the earlier part of sixteenth century and moved from Saptagram to Gobindapur. When Gobindapur was demolished the Sheths moved to Sutanati Haat or Barabazar. Thereafter, the most important name is that of Janardan Sheth. He was the son of Kenaram Sheth (Kiranchandra Sheth according to some) and had two brothers, Baranasi and Nandaram. Janardan Sheth's son Biashnabcharan Sheth had a roaring business of selling bottled Ganges water.
The Marwaris ousted the Sheths and Basacks as cloth merchants and changed the name of old Sutanuti haat or market to Barabazar. Even after that some of them continued to have business ties. Radhakrishna Basak (d. 1811), descendant of Shobharam Basak was Dewan of the Bank of Bengal, but the leading business families of the eighteenth century switched to investments in urban property. While Shobharam Basak left thirty-seven houses to his heirs. Ramkrishna Sheth left sixteen in Barabazar alone. The Sheths and the Basacks began to decline from the mid-eighteenth century – just as Kolkata began to grow into a large city.
Along with the Sheths and Basaks, Sutanuti gradually lost its visibility, replaced by numerous neighbourhoods, and retreated into the books of history and scrolls of honour. We hear of Nabakrishna Deb being offered the Talukdari of Sutanuti. Binay Ghosh, the renowned cultural-historian has distinguished four types of culture prevailing in old Kolkata – Sutanuti culture, Kalikata culture, Gobindapur culture and Bhawanipur culture. Sutanuti culture was the urban-feudal culture propagated by Nabakrishna Deb, Kalikata culture was the mercantile culture propagated by Sheths-Basaks. Gobindapur culture was the European nouveaux riche culture. Bhawanipur culture was the Hindu Bengali middle-class culture. Sutanuti is the place where Job Charnock landed in 1690. Around it grew not only the city of Kolkata but also the mighty British Empire in India. As the heart of Kolkata's Black Town, as well as cradle of its culture, Sutanuti continues to hold nostalgic curiosity for anybody with an interest in old Kolkata.


Flag of the Khmer Republic

The flag of the Khmer Republic is one of the historical flags of Cambodia. It consists of a blue field with a red rectangle in the canton. The red rectangle bears the Angkor Wat silhouette. Three large white stars are aligned horizontally on the upper corner of the blue field.
History.
The flag of the Khmer Republic was introduced on 9 October 1970 by the Lon Nol regime replacing the Royal Flag. It was the official flag of Cambodia for almost five years and it was displayed at the 1972 Summer Olympics where Cambodia officially competed under its new government after a long absence.
The last place where it was hoisted as official flag of the state was in May 1975 in the final area held by the Khmer National Armed Forces on the escarpment of the Preah Vihear Temple in the Dângrêk Mountains. Even though their government had surrendered, loyalist Khmer Republic soldiers continued to fiercely hold their ground for nearly a month after the fall of Phnom Penh. Finally that outpost fell to the Khmer Rouge on 22 May 1975. The flag of Democratic Kampuchea became the flag of Cambodia after the ousting of the republican government.
Later use.
The Khmer Republic flag is still used afterwards by Cambodian opposition groups in exile, such as the Khmer Power Party (KPP), and by certain political parties within Cambodia, such as the Khmer Republican Party (KRP), though on a smaller scale if compared to the South Vietnamese flag. Khmer scholar Keng Vannsak commented that, according to Cambodian superstition, the choice of three stars was inauspicious. The Cambodian Liberty Party (CLP), the Hang Dara Democratic Movement Party (HDMP), the Khmer Front Party, the Khmer Improvement Party, the Khmer Loves Khmer Party and the Society of Justice Party also use the flag. The Royal Cambodian Armed Forces use the flag as its war flag.
Symbolism.
Pattern.
The flag of the Khmer Republic kept the white three-towered Angkor Wat silhouette, as well as the blue and red colors of the royal flag that had preceded it, but in a different pattern.
Stars.
According to Article 4 of the Constitutional Law of the Khmer Republic voted by the National Assembly on 7 October 1970, the three stars in the blue field represent the following:


Pasoemah Expedition

The Pasoemah Expedition was a punitive expedition of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army to the Pasoemah (also Pasumah) region in South Sumatra. The expedition lasted from 1864 to 1868.


Yemen Vilayet

Yemen Vilayet (Ottoman Turkish: ولايت یمن "Vilâyet-i Yemen") was a first-level administrative division (vilayet) of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 20th century it reportedly had an area of . The population for the vilayet is given by the 1885 Ottoman census as 2,500,000.
Broadly speaking, the vilayet was bounded by the 20th parallel north to the north, the Aden protectorate to the south, the Red Sea to the west and the 45th meridian east to the east. The southern border was demarcated by the Anglo-Turkish Boundary Commission of 1902–1905, while the limit of the eastern border was left vague.
History.
Since the Ottoman conquest of Yemen in 1517, it had been known as the Yemen Eyalet. After the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, Yemen Vilayet was established from most of the former Eyalet in 1872. In the 1830s, aided by the collapse of the Zaidi Imamate due to internal division and the adoption of modern weaponry after the Crimean War, the Ottomans moved into northern Yemen, eventually taking San'a and making it the capital of the Yemen Vilayet in 1872. Even then, Ottoman control was largely confined to cities, and the Zaidi imam's rule over Upper Yemen was formally recognized.
Starting in 1872, after the Sana'a region was firmly under control, Ahmed Muhtar Pasha set about restructuring the administration of the Yemen vilayet, dividing it into four sanjaks, with San'a' city serving as capital of the vilayet. Asir became a sanjak of Yemen in 1872.
In the late 19th century, the Zaidis rebelled against the Turks, and Imam Mohammed ibn Yahya laid the foundation of a hereditary dynasty. When he died in 1904, his successor Imam Yahya ibn Mohammed led the revolt against the Turks in 1904–1905, and forced them to grant important concessions to the Zaidis. The Ottoman agreed to withdraw the civil code and restore sharia in Yemen.
In 1906, the Idrisi leaders of Asir rebelled against the Ottomans. By 1910 they controlled most of Asir, but they were ultimately defeated by Turkish and Hejazi forces.
Ahmet İzzet Pasha concluded a treaty with Imam Yahya in October 1911, by which he was recognised as temporal and spiritual head of the Zaidis, was given the right to appoint officials over them, and collect taxes from them. The Ottomans maintained their system of government in the Sunni-majority parts of Yemen.
In March 1914, the Anglo-Turkish Treaty delimited the border between Yemen and the Aden Protectorate. When World War I broke out, Imam Yahya remained nominally loyal to the Sultan, but tried to negotiate with Britain at the same time. The Asir, on the other hand, joined Britain as soon as the war began. The Arab Revolt in Hejaz cut off Yemen from the rest of the Ottoman Empire, and the imam took the opportunity to establish his power over all of Yemen.
Turkish forces withdrew in 1918, and Imam Yahya strengthened his control over northern Yemen creating the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.
Governors.
Governors of the Yemen Vilayet:
Administrative divisions.
Sanjaks, circa 1876:


Zhao Xing

Zhao Xing (Chinese: 趙興, "pinyin": "Zhào Xīng", Cantonese: "Zīu6 Hing1", Vietnamese: "Triệu Hưng", ? – 112 BC), was the second son of Zhao Yingqi and the fourth ruler of Nanyue (Vietnamese: "Nam Việt"). His rule began in 115 BC and ended with his death in 112 BC. In Vietnamese history, he is considered a king of Vietnam.
Life.
In 113 BC, Emperor Wu of Han sent Anguo Shaoji (安國少季) to summon Zhao Xing and the Queen Dowager Jiu to Chang'an for an audience with the Emperor. The Queen Dowager Jiu, who was Han Chinese, was regarded as a foreigner by the Nanyue people, and it was widely rumored that she had an illicit relationship with Anguo Shaoji before she married Zhao Yingqi. When Anguo arrived, quite a number of people believed the two resumed their relationship. The Queen Dowager feared that there would be a revolt against her authority so she urged the king and his ministers to seek closer times to the Han. Xing agreed to and proposed that relations between Nanyue and the Han should be normalized with a triennial journey to the Han court as well as the removal of custom barriers along the border.
The prime minister Lü Jia (呂嘉) held military power and his family was more well connected than either the king or the Queen Dowager. According to the "Shiji" and "Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư", Lü Jia was chief of a Lạc Việt tribe, related to King Qin of Cangwu by marriage, and over 70 of his kinsmen served as officials in various parts of the Nanyue court. Lü refused to meet the Han envoys which angered the Queen Dowager. She tried to kill him at a banquet but was stopped by Xing. The Queen Dowager tried to gather enough support at court to kill Lü in the following months.
When news of the situation reached Emperor Wu of Han in 112 BC, he ordered Zhuang Can to lead a 2,000 men expedition to Nanyue. However Zhuang refused to accept the mission, declaring that it was illogical to send so many men under the pretext of peace, but so few to enforce the might of the Han. The former prime minister of Jibei, Han Qianqiu (韓千秋), offered to lead the expedition and arrest Lü Jia. When Han crossed the Han-Nanyue border, Lü conducted a coup, killing Xing, Queen Dowager Jiu and all the Han emissaries in the capital. Xing's brother, Zhao Jiande, was declared the new king.
The Temple name of Zhao Xing was not mentioned in both "Shiji" and "Hanshu". But according to the Vietnamese historical text "Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư", Zhao Xing's Posthumous name was Ai Vương (哀王, "pinyin": "Āi Wáng").


Matsugoro Okuda

 was a Japanese jujutsu practitioner and judoka. A master of several styles, he was a contemporary to Jigoro Kano in the creation of a style that synthesized them all, and opposed the early judo movement before later joining it.
Biography.
Okuda started learning jujutsu from his childhood at his father Yoshikatsu's dojo. He first started in the native Fukuno-ryū style, but later branched off to the more popular Kitō-ryū and Tenjin Shinyō-ryū, training under master Takeshi Sawada. As a teenager, he joined the Tokugawa shogunate's hatamoto force, eventually becoming a for Isami Kondo. Legend has that Okuda formed part of the Shinsengumi, and it was even rumored that he was one of the killers of Ryoma Sakamoto in 1867, but nothing of this was ever proven. In 1868, the young Okuda became part of the Shōgitai and participated in the Boshin War, managing to survive the loss of his unit at the Battle of Ueno.
In 1876, Okuda had the chance to meet Takamori Saigo, his former enemy in the Boshin War. Learning that Okuda was a jujutsu expert, Saigo hired him as an instructor in his samurai school in Kagoshima. However, with the beginning of the Satsuma Rebellion, Okuda resigned and moved to Yokohama, becoming a freelance jujutsu teacher. He eventually landed in Tokyo, where he fought in 1879 a challenge match against an American wrestler at the Shibusawa Library. Although Okuda was outweighed to the point of looking like a child next to his opponent, he won the match, throwing the American down with seoi nage and tomoe nage. The same year, Okuda opened a Kitō-ryū dojo, and became a hand-to-hand instructor for several police services, among them the prestigious Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department.
In 1884, while still a police teacher, Okuda created a personal jujutsu style, , which integrated all the knowledge from the multiple styles he knew and researched. He aspired to integrate all the jujutsu styles in Japan, though it seems he never followed up with the idea. He did train with other stylists, mainly the eminent Yoshin-ryū school led by Hikosuke Totsuka, where he became friends with its exponent Morikichi Otake and fellow Tenjin Shinyō-ryū practitioner Daihachi Ichikawa. This alignement to the Totsuka school ironically pitted Okuda against another integrator of jujutsu, Jigoro Kano, whose Kodokan dojo was becoming infamous in the jujutsu community for its heterodoxy. In 1885, Ichikawa, Otake and Okuda performed a dojoyaburi on the Kodokan, leading Okuda to fight a bout against Shiro Saigo. Though Okuda was taller and heavier, he was defeated, being thrown repeatedly by koshi nage and deashi barai before Saigō finished him by yama arashi. Okuda suffered a concussion and had to be carried away.
Okuda didn't participate further in the Kodokan-Totsuka rivalry, and in 1893 he moved his field of activity to the Iwate Prefecture by invitation of governor Ichizo Hattori. As a consequence, he was not among the jujutsu masters gathered by Kano at the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai to inaugurate its jujutsu division in 1895 either. However, Okuda would join at some point, being granted the title of . In 1901, he opened a judo dojo in the city of Morioka, and he became an usual attender of tournaments and events while keeping his police teacher job. His high knowledge and personal approach to throws were popularly nicknamed his , possibly in reference to his purported participation in the killings of the Shinsengumi.
Okuda had a last highlight in 1903 when he faced a young Kyuzo Mifune in a sparring, throwing him four times, though not without predicting Mifune would become a judo legend. Afterwards, he dedicated himself to teaching, becoming the master of judo historian Fukuichiro Haruyama. Okuda died in his house in 1931.


Kelantan

Kelantan (; Jawi: کلنتن; Kelantan Malay: "Kelaté") is a state of Malaysia. The capital is Kota Bharu and royal seat is Kubang Kerian. The honorific name of the state is "Darul Naim" (Jawi: دار النعيم, "The Blissful Abode").
Kelantan is located in the north-eastern corner of the peninsula. Kelantan, which is said to translate as the "Land of Lightning" (see alternate theories below), is an agrarian state with green paddy fields, rustic fishing villages and casuarina-lined beaches. Kelantan is home to some of the most ancient archaeological discoveries in Malaysia, including several prehistoric aboriginal settlements.
Due to Kelantan's relative isolation and largely rural lifestyle, Kelantanese culture differs somewhat from Malay culture in the rest of the peninsula; this is reflected in the cuisine, arts and the unique Kelantanese Malay language, which is unintelligible even for some speakers of standard Malay.
Kelantan is positioned in the north-east of the Malay Peninsula. It is bordered by Narathiwat Province of Thailand to the north, Terengganu to the south-east, Perak to the west and Pahang to the south. To the north-east of Kelantan is the South China Sea.
History.
Origin of the name.
There are a number of suggestions for the origin of the name Kelantan. One theory proposes that the word Kelantan comes from a modified version of the word "gelam hutam", i.e. the Malay word for the cajuput, or swamp tea tree ("Melaleuca leucadendron"). Other theories claim that the name comes from the Malay word "kilatan", "shiny or glittery" or "kolam tanah", "clay pool". Kelantan was called Kalantan () by the Siamese when it was under their influence.
Another occasionally quoted suggestion is that Kelantan derived originally from the Indian "Kolaan Thana" or "Kolaam Thana", which meant "Land of Kolaan" or "Land of Kolaam", the term "kolaan" or "kolaam" referring to the floor paintings or diagrams in the numerous Hindu temples which dotted the land in the very ancient days. This theory supposes that "Kolaan Thana" or "Kolaam Thana" gradually became "Kelantan" to fit in better with the spoken dialect of the local people.
Early history.
Kelantan's early history is not very clear, but archaeological evidence shows human settlement in prehistoric times. Early Kelantan had links to the Funan Kingdom, the Khmer Empire, Sri Vijaya, Majapahit and Siam. Around 1411, Raja Kumar, the ruler of Kelantan, became independent of Siam, and Kelantan became an important centre of trade by the end of the 15th century.
Kelantan Sultanate.
In 1499, Kelantan became a vassal state of the Malacca Sultanate. With the fall of Malacca in 1511, Kelantan was divided up and ruled by petty chieftains, paying tribute to Patani, then the supreme Malay Kingdom of the eastern peninsula. By the early 17th century, most of these Kelantan chiefs became subject to Patani. However, the queen of Patani was deposed in 1651 by the raja of Kelantan, starting a period of Kelantanese rule in Patani.
The legendary Cik Siti Wan Kembang was said to have reigned over Kelantan sometime between the 16th and 17th centuries.
Around 1760, Long Yunus, an aristocratic warlord of Patani origin succeeded in unifying the territory of present-day Kelantan and enthroned by his father-in-law Ku Tanang Wangsa, Regent of Terengganu as "Yang di-Pertuan Muda" or Deputy Ruler of Kelantan. Long Yunus was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law Tengku Muhammad Sultan Mansur of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by Long Muhammad, the eldest son of Long Yunus. The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800 and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of "Sultan" as Sultan Muhammad I. Nevertheless, the death of childless Long Muhammad triggered another civil war among claimants to the throne. His nephew and son of Long Tan (Temengggong), Long Senik Mulut Merah, triumphed over his uncles and cousins and assumed the throne in 1835 as Sultan Muhammad II.
Sultan Muhammad II leveraged on his loose alliance with Siam to form the modern Kelantan state, centered in his new fort on the eastern bank of the Kelantan river, which became Kota Bharu in 1844.
Unfederated Malay states.
Under the terms of the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, the Thais relinquished their claims over Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Great Britain, and Kelantan thus became one of the Unfederated Malay States with a British Adviser.
Japanese occupation.
Kelantan was where the Japanese first landed during their invasion of Malaya, on 8 December 1941. In 1943, Kelantan was transferred by the Japanese to Thailand and became a province of Thailand. Kelantan reverted to British protection upon the end of World War 2 in August 1945.
Malayan Union & Federation of Malaya.
Kelantan became part of the Malayan Union in 1946 and then the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, and together with other Malayan states attained independence on 31 August 1957. On 16 September 1963, Kelantan became one of the states of Malaysia.
Geography.
Rising high on the slopes of Gunung Korbu, the second highest peak in Peninsular Malaysia, the Nengiri River flows east to merge first with the Galas, and then with the Lebir — the latter born in the wilds of Taman Negara National Park — before turning decisively northwards and emptying into the shallow waters of the South China Sea. From Kuala Krai the conjoined streams become the Kelantan River, a broad, mud-coloured stream which dominates the fertile coastal plains and defines the geography of the region. The Kelantan River valley is a fertile rice-bowl, rich in hardwoods and rubber and lush with tropical fruits.
For centuries, Kelantan was all but separated from the rest of the country by the Titiwangsa Mountains, a mountain range running from north to south through the peninsula. Weeks of hard travel were required to reach Kelantan. The "easy way" to Kelantan was to sail around the peninsula, braving the sea and pirates. For this reason Kelantan's history often involves the sea, and boats. Even today, many of its people are very much tied to the sea. A discussion with many coastal residents will confirm that their ancestors, as far back as they know, were "of the sea."
During the 1920s, in the days of British colonial rule, a railway line was built, linking Tumpat on the state's northern coast, through the jungles of upper Kelantan and Pahang and then on to other states. Also, between the 1920s and 1980s, trunk roads were built to link Kelantan with adjacent states. Presently, one can travel by road from the capital city Kuala Lumpur to Kota Bharu using national highway 8 through the mountain range within 8 hours.
Economy.
Kelantan has a chiefly agrarian economy dominated by rice, rubber and tobacco. Fishing along its 96-kilometre coastline is also an important economic activity. Cottage industries which employ traditional skills in handicraft production such as batik, woodcarving and songket weaving are also evident. Logging activities are active given the vast remaining area of forest. In recent years, tourism, especially to offshore islands, has increased in importance. A few reputable hotels have been established and more modern shopping malls have been opened to cater for urban folks.
Kota Bharu, the capital, is the major urban centre, and there are also plans to open up the southern portion of the state under an ambitious multimillion-dollar development project. The main market at the city centre is a top attraction.
Kelantan had a GDP per capita in 2006 at RM7,985. The State Socioeconomic Report 2017 published on July 26, 2018 reported that Kelantan has a GDP per capita of RM13,593 in 2017, significantly lower than any other state in Malaysia.
Climate.
Kelantan has a tropical climate, with temperatures from 21 to 32 °C and intermittent rain throughout the year. The wet season is the east-coast monsoon season from November to January.
Political background.
A part of the deeply conservative Malay heartlands, Kelantan has been ruled by the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) since 1990. It is currently one of three Malaysian states ruled by PAS after the 2018 elections, the other being Terengganu and Kedah.
Almost all PAS members are Malay Muslims, as are about 95% of Kelantan's population.
The state of Kelantan is almost synonymous with PAS, as Kelantan has been under PAS rule for two lengthy periods. (Neighbouring Terengganu has also been under PAS rule twice, but for short periods each time [1959–1962 and 1999–2004].) The first period of PAS rule in Kelantan began two years after independence, in 1959, and lasted 18 years (1959–1977); the current period is 28 years long and counting (1990- ). In November 1977, a state of emergency in Kelantan was declared by the federal government following a political crisis and street violence. An election took place soon after the emergency which was won by UMNO.
The interval between the two periods of PAS government, when the Barisan Nasional coalition ruled the state, was only about 12 years (11 March 1978 to 21 October 1990). In the 1990 General Election, PAS returned with an overwhelming victory, winning all the 39 State and 13 Parliamentary seats. The victory was achieved through the PAS-led coalition, called Angkatan Perpaduan Ummah (APU). In the following General Election in 1995, PAS won again, though with a reduced majority. PAS won big in 1999, due in significant part to Malay anger over the treatment of former Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim by then–Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammed and other officials of the national government. However, PAS very nearly lost control of Kelantan, retaining it with only a 1-seat majority, in 2004, when Barisan Nasional, under the new leadership of Abdullah Badawi following Tun Mahathir's retirement, won by a landslide nationally. However, after the 2008 Malaysian general election, PAS regained the two-thirds majority of seats in the state assembly.
For years, PAS has attempted to impose a strict interpretation of Islamic Law on Kelantan. It has succeeded in imposing certain social strictures such as single-sex queues in supermarkets; separate public benches for men and women; and limiting entertainment centres to prohibit "salacious behaviour". Proposals to institute punishments such as amputation of limbs for thievery and execution for blasphemy (collectively known as Hudud Law), however, have been blocked by the national government on constitutional grounds.
One of the most controversial steps PAS has taken in Kelantan is to place tough restrictions or outright bans on the traditional performance of syncretic Malay theatrical forms, such as Wayang Kulit, Mak Yong, Dikir Barat, and Main Puteri. PAS also took action to vanish any sculpture that looked like human or animal, modified versions without the traditional references to Hindu dewa–dewi and traditional Malay "hantu" (spirits or ghosts) and otherwise in keeping with orthodox Islam are, however, tolerated in certain cases. Also restricted are public performances by women: Aside from Quran recitals, such performances are completely banned if any men are in the audience. While PAS has maintained that these steps were essential to promote Islam and put an end to immoral behaviour among the Muslim population, many consider them an act of defiance against Barisan Nasional's laws — which are more tolerant or laxer, depending on one's viewpoint — and also a major loss to Malay traditional arts.
PAS has also ardently defended the practice of child marriage, a practice that been the focus of recent controversy due to recent cases in Kelantan.
Oil royalties.
Assignment deed.
On 9 May 1975, an agreement was signed between the Kelantan Chief Minister of the time Datuk Mohamed Nasir, and the Chairman of Petronas, Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. According to the terms of the agreement, Kelantan was to receive cash payment ('bayaran tunai', the term 'royalties' was not used in the agreement) of 5 percent a year biannially, for any oil found in Kelantan or its coastal areas. In return, Kelantan grants Petronas to exclusive rights to "petroleum whether lying onshore or offshore of Malaysia".
As to the issue whether Kelantan has the right to claim oil royalties from federal government as enumerated in the Assignment Deed. The question arises put so much legal complication and it is trans-border many relevant statues namely Petroleum Development Act 1974, Petroleum Mining Act 1966 and requires legal interpretation on some provisions in Federal Constitution. Being the supreme law of the land, any law or any agreements enacted inconsistent with Federal Constitution is void. Since, Malaysia is a federation of 13 states, the division of powers between two level of governments (central government and state government) are the most important feature in the federal constitution. Relevant with the issue, Article 76 gives powers to two level of governments accordingly set out in Schedule Ninth. In Schedule 9, List I of the Federal Constitution, the following topics are assigned to the Federal Government:
As for the state government:
It is clear, from the Schedule, Peninsular Malaysia states has the constitutional right to fees for permits and licences for extraction of any petroleum that is derived from their land and territorial waters. Anything beyond territorial waters, such as on the continental shelf, is entirely in federal hands. However, because exploration of oil and gas is approximately 150 km from Kota Bharu and beyond the territorial water of Kelantan. Relying on that, Emeritus Professor Dr Shad Saleem Faruqi concludes Kelantan has no constitutional right to regulate it and to receive compensation for it. He further argued given the agreement deed to support Kelantan rights over royalties will render as unconstitutional and void under the doctrine of severability (constitutional parts of the law remain even if other parts are unconstitutional), as the Assignment by Kelantan gives to Petronas the ownership of all petroleum "whether lying onshore or offshore of Malaysia" was an overstatement, and Kelantan has no rights to what lies off the shores of the whole of Malaysia. Indeed, it is the rights of federal government guaranteed by constitution that extraterritorial operations are in their hands.
States cannot transfer rights over something they do not own. In the case of Kelantan and any other Peninsular Malaysian state, the Deed should have been worded to refer only to onshore petroleum. Unfortunately for Kelantan, the matter cannot end with the two agreements. There is a supreme Constitution in Malaysia with a federal-state division of legislative and financial powers. The constitutional allocation cannot be altered except by constitutionally permitted procedures and amendments. Even mutual agreements cannot override the constitutional scheme of things because jurisdiction is a matter of law and not of consent or acquiescence.
Current action.
The Kelantan state government is owed between RM850 million and RM1 billion from oil revenue royalties from the central government, according to the Petroleum Act 1974. In 2009, the central government offered 'compensation' or "Wang Ehsan", a fraction of the sum actually owed. Discrimination of Kelantan on the matter has led the state government considering action in the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Support for Kelantan and the local government in defiance of the central government includes the group Kelantan Peoples' Movement Demanding Petroleum Royalties or "Gerakan Menuntut Royalti Petroleum Rakyat Kelantan (GMR)."
Demographics.
The largely rural state preserves rich Malay traditions such as kite-flying contests, top-spinning contests, and bird singing competitions, and traditional handicrafts such as batik, songket, and silver crafts. As a border state and former vassal state of Thailand, Kelantan has absorbed influences from Thai customs and traditions that help to make the state's culture distinct from those of other states of Malaysia. The Kelantanese people, regardless of ethnic origin, are proud of their state and its unique local culture and dialect.
All the ethnicities generally live together harmoniously in Kelantan. For example, members of the Thai community received a permit to build a very large statue of the Buddha without any objection from the Malay community or the PAS government that granted the permit.
Ethnic groups.
Malays.
Kelantanese Malay people are the predominant ethnic group in the state. They speak Kelantanese Malay which is distinguished from standard Malay as well as other Malay varieties in Malaysia by its unique grammar, pronunciation and figures of speech.
Kelantanese Malay is somewhat partially intelligible with other Malay dialects. Whilst the Arabic script called Jawi has less influence in the other parts of Malaysia, it is still widely used in writing and printing the Malay language in Kelantan. Signboards in Kelantan are written in both Jawi and Rumi. To a certain extent, Thai is also used.
94% of Kelantan's population are ethnic Malays, and under the Malaysian Constitution, all Malays are Muslims; therefore, Islam is the most influential religion in the state.
To most Malaysians, Kelantan is synonymous with Malays arts and crafts. Kota Bharu, as the state capital, is a popular centre for such pursuits as silat, martial arts, and "kertok" drumming. Here, too, more than any other place in Malaysia, the traditional pastimes of top-spinning — known as "gasing" — and the flying of giant, elaborately decorated kites called "wau", are still much in evidence.
Siamese.
The minority ethnic Thai inhabitants of Kelantan are mostly centred in an area around the coastal town of Tumpat, site of most of the state's two hundred or so Buddhist temples, and noteworthy for its number of relatively well-off Siamese villages.
The dialect of the Thai language spoken in Kelantan is called "Tak Bai", after the southernmost coastal town Tak Bai of Narathiwat Province, just across the Golok River from Malaysia. "Tak Bai" dialect differs substantially from standard southern Thai and other regional Thai dialects, and it seems certain that the Kelantan Thais are the descendants of an original enclave of Narathiwat settlers established in sparsely populated Malay territory as long as four centuries ago.
Buddhism is also visible in the hundreds of Thai wats, also known as "ketik", found throughout the state. Since 1980, the longest statue of a reclining Buddha in Southeast Asia can be found in Wat Photivihan, in Tumpat. This temple is very popular with pilgrims and devotees. The "Metta" chanting uses the original Pali language or a Thai translation. About a thousand visitors attend the Wat for such religious celebrations as Tok'katinna, Loy Krathong, Saibat and Songkran.
Chinese.
In Kelantan, the Kelantanese Chinese see themselves as either Cino Kapong (village Chinese) or Cino Bandar (town Chinese). Famous Chinese villages in Kelantan include Kampung Tok'kong (300-year-old temple), Batu Jong, Kampung Jelatok, Kampung Joh, Kampung Temangan, Kampung Mata Ayer, Kampung Tawang, Kampung Balai, and Gua Musang. Descendants of the earlier waves of small-scale migration are known as Oghe Cino kito (our very own Chinese) and the elders are seen as Oghe Kelate beto (true Kelantanese).
Cina Kampung assimilation in Kelantan is manifested as: "Malay behaviour as frontstage and Chinese behaviour as backstage". "Frontstage" or public behaviour includes speaking Kelantanese Malay even when among themselves, adopting Malay-style clothing, and observing certain Malay customs and holidays. "Backstage" or private behaviour includes maintaining certain traditional Chinese beliefs and customs confined only within the home. A pattern which they also associate as Peranakan Chinese, nonetheless they are culturally different in some ways from the Strait-Chinese Peranakan of Malacca, Penang and Singapore or even the Indonesian Peranakans.
The Cina Kampung in Kelantan have native speaker competence in the Kelantanese dialect. It is impossible to tell a Malay from a Chinese by listening to his speech in the Kelantanese dialect, without looking at the person.
Much of Chinese culture still continues until today; such as Lion Dance and Dragon Dance during the Chinese New Year, temple celebration, eating bakchang (meat dumpling), mooncake, baby fullmoon, pulut kuning, telur merah, eat 'e' (tangyuan), religious celebration including praying Na Tuk Kong. They also cook 'bak hong', 'uang (meatball)' during the wedding ceremony and ' kiam mai' during the funeral.
The village of Kampung Tok'kong in the Kelantan state of Malaysian is well known for a historically significant Chinese Temple known as Seng Choon Kiong. 25 km from Kota Bharu, it is located within a paddy field village with a population of around 500 person. The temple is approximately 300 years old. It is dedicated to the worship of the Goddess Matsu. Every year on the equivalent date to 23 March on the Chinese Calendar, the birthday of Mazu is commemorated with concerts, lion dance, Carrying god ride 'Kheng kiu', 'siam hee' and also wayang kulit show for three days. Chinese and Mazu followers visit the temple to pay homage to Mazu, to offer prayers for health and wealth, as well as for personal safety and security and eat Kampung Tokkong most famous 'Bak hong'.
Unlike the Chinese in other parts of Malaysia, Kelantanese Chinese prefer to conduct their wedding party at home rather than at a restaurant. This reflects their mindset that their presence to celebrate the newly weds is more important than the wedding banquet. And also make it a gathering ceremony to celebrate the angsu 'red/ happiness'. the more guest mean the house owner is more respectable. This is further proven by their generosity of the money gifts from the newly weds. Usually the wedding ceremony begins on Thursday night and proceeds until the next morning because the weekend holiday is Friday in Kelantan. For good luck, the groom has to bring home the bride before 12 noon on the Friday with flowers decorate car.
Most Chinese villagers bury their deceased ones at the local town cemetery. Others cremate the dead at the nearest Wat. If the deceased is old, a three-day funeral ceremony and memorial is conducted, complete with chanting from the monks. But if the deceased is of the younger generation, they are either buried or cremated as soon as possible. They also offers prayers for anniversary for the death. example: for Villager in Kampung Tok'kong also have cemetery known as 'Chiakka sua' located nearby Kampung Tok'kong. and one of the biggest cemetery in kelantan is 'Fu Long Shan' located in nearby kem desa pahlawan.
Indians.
Indians are known to be one of the smallest ethnic groups in Kelantan. During the colonial period of the British government, the Indians were brought in to Kelantan to work in rubber estates around Gua Musang and Tanah Merah as labourers.
Orang Asli.
Orang Asli, mostly Temiar, are people who have lived in the forests of Kelantan and Perak for thousands of years. Some of the Temiar maintain traditional beliefs in their natural surroundings and other forms of animist elements. Other "Orang Asli" ethnic groups that live in Kelantan are Jahais, Bateks and Mendriqs.
Religion.
As of 2010 the population of Kelantan is 96.2% Muslim, 2.8% Buddhist, 0.3% Christian, 0.2% Hindu, 0.5% follower of other religions or non-religious.
Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 93.2% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhists, with significant minorities of adherents identifying as Muslims (3.0%), Christians (2.8%) and Chinese folk religions (0.6%). The latter figure may include followers of Taoism. The majority of the Indian population identify as Hindus (76.5%), with a significant minorities of numbers identifying as Muslims (11.6%), Buddhists (6.7%) and Christians (3.7%). The non-Malay "bumiputera" community are predominantly Muslims (39.8%), with significant minorities identifying as Atheists (30.3%) and Christians (14.3%). All Malays are considered Muslims according to the law.
Cuisine.
The Kelantanese cuisine, heavily influenced by Malay cuisine. Kelantanese food makes more use of coconut milk than anywhere else in the country. Curries are richer, and creamier.
Local specialties.
Apart from consumable items from local and also imported from Thailand. There are dishes which have developed through the rich culture of the Kelantanese themselves, such as:
The sauce or "the colek" comes in various forms.
• Colek manis (with brown sugar).
• A sweet, sour and very mildly hot version. This colek is different from other chili sauces because colek is very thin and rather sweet. This dipping sauce is used for chicken, and also goes well with shrimp, fish cake, spring roll, sausage, etc.
Nowadays, other types of fish are also used to create Budu. Famous Budu maker villages are Kg. Tawang, Bachok and Kg. Penambang near Kota Bharu.
Similar sauces are found in the Philippines and Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia).
Culture.
Kelantan is known as the cradle of Malay culture based on the diverse cultural activities practised by Kelantanese. Among the popular cultural practices are Dikir Barat, Wayang Kulit Kelantan, Wayang Kulit Melayu, Mak Yong, Menora, Main Puteri, Wau Bulan (kite-flying), Gasing (top-spinning), Silat, Tomoi, bird-singing competition and handicrafts. The unique Kelantan culture, Mak Yong is recognized by UNESCO. This ancient theatre form created by Malaysia's Malay communities combines acting, vocal and instrumental music, gestures and elaborate costumes. Specific to the villages of Kelantan in northwest Malaysia, where the tradition originated, Mak Yong is performed mainly as entertainment or for ritual purposes related to healing practices.
Among the handicraft products that are songket, batik, silverware and mengkuang. The Kandis Resource Centre provides information on the Kelantanese wood carving.
Administrative divisions.
Districts.
Districts in Kelantan are called "Jajahan"s, though actually the direct translation of "Tanah Jajahan" in Malay to English is 'Occupied Territories'. Kelantan was a divided feudal state, a common situation in the Malay Peninsula, with separate petty local rulers. However, a strong one managed to rise and conquer all these small petty territories. In the end, Kelantan became united under one Sultan.
The eleven "jajahans", from left to right, are written in Rumi and Jawi:
Ranking Population Kelantan.
Patani.
Historically, Kelantan had a strong relationship with the Pattani Kingdom. Pattani and Kelantan are geopolitically divided but culturally united. Kelantanese and Southern Thais cross the border frequently to visit their relatives and transport goods for small business.
Tourism.
Among the popular tourist destinations in Kelantan are: