Bagyidaw

Bagyidaw (, ; also known as Sagaing Min, ; 23 July 1784 – 15 October 1846) was the seventh king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1819 until his abdication in 1837. Prince of Sagaing, as he was commonly known in his day, was selected as crown prince by his grandfather King Bodawpaya in 1808, and became king in 1819 after Bodawpaya's death. Bagyidaw moved the capital from Amarapura back to Ava in 1823.
Bagyidaw's reign saw the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826), which marked the beginning of the decline of the Konbaung dynasty. Bagyidaw inherited the largest Burmese empire, second only to King Bayinnaung's, but also one that shared ill-defined borders with British India. In the years leading to the war, the king had been forced to suppress British supported rebellions in his grandfather's western acquisitions (Arakan, Manipur and Assam), but unable to stem cross border raids from British territories and protectorates. His ill-advised decision to allow the Burmese army to pursue the rebels along the vaguely defined borders led to the war. The longest and most expensive war in British Indian history ended decisively in British favor, and the Burmese had to accept British terms without discussion. Bagyidaw was forced to cede all of his grandfather's western acquisitions, and Tenasserim to the British, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds sterling, leaving the country crippled for years.
Devastated, Bagyidaw held out hope for some years that Tenasserim would be returned to him, and paid the balance of indemnity in 1832 at great sacrifice. The British redrew the border with Manipur in 1830, but by 1833, it was clear the British would not return any of the former territories. The king became a recluse, and power devolved to his queen Nanmadaw Me Nu (born in Pha Lan Gon) and her brother. His brother Crown Prince Tharrawaddy raised a rebellion in February 1837, and Bagyidaw was forced to abdicate the throne in April 1837. King Tharrawaddy executed Queen Me Nu and her brother but placed his brother under house arrest. Bagyidaw died on 15 October 1846, at age 62.
Early life.
The future king was born Maung Sein to Crown Prince Thado Minsaw, Prince of Shwedaung and his half-sister Min Kye, Princess of Taungdwin, on 23 July 1784. The infant prince was granted Sagaing as his fief by his grandfather King Bodawpaya, hence known as Prince of Sagaing. On 23 June 1793, the young prince, not yet 9, was made a general of the Northern and Southern Corps of Royal Cavalry. On 9 February 1803, the 18-year-old prince married 14-year-old Princess Hsinbyume, a granddaughter of Bodawpaya. The young prince was fond of shows, theater, elephant catching and boat racing.
Crown Prince.
His father Crown Prince Thado Minsaw died on 9 April 1808. Nine days later, the young prince at 23 was suddenly elevated to the position of Crown Prince by his grandfather King Bodawpaya. The prince was also allowed to inherit his father's fiefs of Dabayin and Shwedaung. The Crown Prince was Master-General of the Ordnance in the Burmese-Siamese War of 1808, which ended in a stalemate. His elevation to crown prince also brought his royal servants, including Maung Yit (later Gen. Maha Bandula) of Dabayin and Maung Sa (later Lord of Myawaddy) of Sagaing to prominence. Myawaddy became his longtime adviser and personal secretary ("atwinwn") until his abdication in 1837. He promoted Maung Yit to governor of Ahlon-Monywa.
In 1812, his first queen Princess Hsinbyume died of childbirth in Mingun near Ava. The crown prince built a beautiful white stupa in memory of his first wife named Myatheindan Pagoda at Mingun. He took on five more queens as crown prince (of the eventual number of 23 queens). His third and later chief queen Nanmadaw Me Nu built the Maha Aungmye Bonzan Monastery in 1818, more commonly known as "Me Nu Ok Kyaung" (Me Nu's Brick Monastery), unusual in that Burmese monasteries traditionally are wooden structures.
During his stay as crown prince, his grandfather Bodawpaya renewed his expansionism in the west. In February 1814, a Burmese expeditionary force invaded Manipur, placing Marjit Singh, who grew up in Ava, as vassal king.
In 1816, the Ahom governor of Guwahati in Assam, Badan Chandra Borphukan visited the court of Bodawpaya to seek help in order to defeat his political rival Purnananda Burhagohain, the Prime Minister of Ahom Kingdom in Assam. A strong force of 16,000 under the command of Gen. Maha Minhla Minkhaung was sent with Badan Chandra Borphukan. The Burmese force entered Assam in January 1817 and defeated the Assamese force in the battle of Ghiladhari. Meanwhile, Purnananda Burhagohain died and Ruchinath Burhagohain, the son of Purnananda Burahgohain fled to Guwahati. The reigning Ahom king Chandrakanta Singha came in terms with Badan Chandra Borphukan and his Burmese allies. He appointed Badan Chandra Borphukan as Mantri Phukan (Prime Minister). An Ahom princess Hemo Aideo was given for marriage to Burmese King Bodawpaya along with many gifts to strengthen the ties with the Burmese monarch. The Burmese force returned to Burma soon after. A year later, Badan Chandra Borphukan was assassinated and the Ahom king Chandrakanta Singha was deposed by rival political faction led by Ruchinath Burhagohain, the son of Purnananda Burhagohain. Chandrakanta Singha and the friends of Badan Chandra Borphukan appeal for help to Bodawpaya. In February 1819, the Burmese forces invaded Assam for second time and reinstalled Chandrakanta Singha on the throne of Assam.
Reign.
Troubles on the western front.
Bodawpaya died on 5 June 1819, and Bagyidaw ascended to the throne without opposition. On 7 June 1819, he was crowned at Amarapura with the reign name of Sri Pawara Suriya Dharmaraja Maharajadhiraja. It was later expanded to Siri Tribhawanaditya Dhipati Pawara Pandita Mahadhammarajadhiraja. Bagyidaw inherited the second largest Burmese empire but also one that shared a long vaguely defined borders with British India. The British, disturbed by the Burmese control of Manipur and Assam which threatened their own influence on the eastern borders of British India, supported rebellions in the region.
The first to test Bagyidaw's rule was the Raja of Manipur, who was put on the Manipuri throne only six years earlier by the Burmese. Raja Marjit Singh failed to attend Bagyidaw's coronation ceremony, or send an embassy bearing tributes, as all vassal kings had an obligation to do. In October 1819, Bagyidaw sent an expeditionary force of 25,000 soldiers and 3,000 cavalry led by his favorite general Maha Bandula to reclaim Manipur. Bandula reconquered Manipur but the raja escaped to neighboring Cachar, which was ruled by his brother Chourjit Singh. The Singh brothers continued to raid Manipur using their bases from Cachar and Jaintia, which had been declared as British protectorates.
The instabilities spread to Assam in 1821, when the Ahom king of Assam, Chandrakanta Singha tried to shake off Burmese influence. He hired mercenaries from Bengal and began to strengthen the army. He also began to construct fortification to prevent further Burmese invasion. Bagyidaw again turned to Bandula. It took Bandula's 20,000-strong army about a year a half, until July 1822, to finish off the Assamese army. Bagyidaw now scrapped the six- century-old Assamese monarchy and made Assam a province under a military governor-general. This differs with the Assamese versions of history where it is written that Bagyidaw installed Jogeswar Singha, a brother of Hemo Aideo, the Ahom princess who was married to Bodawpaya as the new Ahom king of Assam and a military governor-general was appointed to look after the administration. The defeated Assamese king fled to British territory of Bengal. The British ignored Burmese demands to surrender the fugitive king, and instead sent reinforcement units to frontier forts. Despite their success in the open battlefield, the Burmese continued to have trouble with cross border raids by rebels from British protectorates of Cachar and Jaintia into Manipur and Assam, and those from British Bengal into Arakan.
At Bagyidaw's court, the war party which included Gen. Bandula, Queen Me Nu and her brother, the lord of Salin, made the case to Bagyidaw that a decisive victory could allow Ava to consolidate its gains in its new western empire in Arakan, Manipur, Assam, Cachar and Jaintia, as well as take over eastern Bengal. In January 1824, Bandula allowed one of his top lieutenants, Maha Uzana, into Cachar and Jaintia to chase away the rebels. The British sent in their own force to meet the Burmese in Cachar, resulting in the first clashes between the two. The war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, following border clashes in Arakan.
War.
In the beginning of the war, battle-hardened Burmese forces, who were more familiar with the terrain which represented "a formidable obstacle to the march of a European force", were able to push back better armed British forces made up of European and Indian soldiers. By May, Uzana's forces had overrun Cachar and Jaintia, and Lord of Myawaddy's forces had defeated the British inside Bengal, causing a great panic in Calcutta.
Instead of fighting in harsh terrain, the British took the fight to the Burmese mainland. On 11 May, a British naval force of over 10,000 men, led by Archibald Campbell entered the port city of Yangon, taking the Burmese by surprise. Bagyidaw ordered Bandula and most of the troops back home to meet the enemy at Yangon. In December 1824, Bandula's 30,000 strong force tried to retake Yangon but was soundly defeated by the much better armed British forces. The British immediately went on an offensive on all fronts. By April 1825, the British had driven out the Burmese forces from Arakan, Assam, Manipur, Tenasserim, and the Irrawaddy delta where Gen. Bandula died in action. After Bandula's death, the Burmese fought on but their last-ditch effort to retake the delta was repulsed in November 1825. In February 1826, with the British army only 50 miles away from Ava, Bagyidaw agreed to British terms.
As per the Treaty of Yandabo, the British demanded and the Burmese agreed to:
After the war.
The treaty imposed highly severe financial burden to the Burmese kingdom, and effectively left it crippled. The British terms in the negotiations were strongly influenced by the heavy cost in lives and money which the war had entailed. Some 40,000 British and Indians troops had been involved of whom 15,000 had been killed. The cost to the British India's finances had been almost ruinous, amounting to approximately 13 million pounds sterling. The cost of war contributed to a severe economic crisis in India, which by 1833 had bankrupted the Bengal agency houses and cost the British East India Company its remaining privileges, including the monopoly of trade to China.
For the Burmese, the treaty was a total humiliation and a long-lasting financial burden. A whole generation of men had been wiped out in battlefield. The world the Burmese knew of conquest and martial pride, built on the back of impressive military success of prior 75 years, had come crashing down. An uninvited British Resident in Ava was a daily reminder of humiliation of defeat. The burden of indemnity would leave the royal treasury bankrupt for years. The indemnity of one million pounds sterling would have been considered a colossal sum even in Europe of that time, and it became frightening when translated to Burmese kyat equivalent of 10 million. The cost of living of the average villager in Upper Burma in 1826 was one kyat per month.
Bagyidaw could not come to terms with the loss of the territories, and the British used Tenasserim as bait for the Burmese to pay the installments of indemnity. In 1830, the British agreed to redraw the Manipuri border with Burma, giving back Kabaw Valley to the Burmese. Bagyidaw delivered the balance of the indemnity at great sacrifice in November 1832. But by 1833, it was clear that the British had no intention of returning any of the territories. The king, who used to love theater and boat racing, grew increasingly reclusive, afflicted by bouts of depression. The palace power devolved to his chief queen Me Nu and her brother. In February 1837, Bagyidaw's crown prince and brother Tharrawaddy rebelled, and two months later in April, Bagyidaw was forced to abdicate. Tharrawaddy executed Me Nu and her brother, and kept his brother under house arrest. Bagyidaw died on 15 October 1846, at age 62. The former king had 23 queens, five sons and five daughters.


Mahinda VI of Polonnaruwa

Mahinda VI (?–1187) was a king of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa who came to the throne by killing his predecessor Vijayabahu II. He only reigned for five days, being killed by his successor and Vijayabahu II's sub-king, Nissanka Malla.
During his short reign, he wrote the Madigiriya inscription to show regards to Maharaja Samara of Srivijaya for his deeds to free the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa from the Cholas.


Six Provinces of Southern Vietnam

The Six Provinces of Southern Vietnam ("Vietnamese:" Nam Kỳ Lục tỉnh, 南圻六省 or just Lục tỉnh, 六省) is a historical name for the region of Southern Vietnam, which is referred to in French as Basse-Cochinchine ("Lower Cochinchina"). The region was politically defined and established after the inauguration of the Nguyễn dynasty, and called by this name from 1832, when Emperor Minh Mạng introduced administrative reforms, to 1867, which culminated in the eight-year French campaign to conquer the Six Provinces.
The six provinces, which in 1832 Emperor Minh Mạng divided Southern Vietnam into, are:
These provinces are often subdivided into two groups: the three eastern provinces of Gia Định, Định Tường, and Biên Hòa; and the three western provinces of Vĩnh Long, An Giang, and Hà Tiên.
History.
The Mekong Delta region (the location of the Six Provinces) was gradually annexed by Vietnam from the Khmer Empire starting in the mid 17th century to the early 19th century, through their Nam tiến territorial expansion campaign. In 1832, Emperor Minh Mạng divided Southern Vietnam into the six provinces "Nam Kỳ Lục tỉnh."
According to the Đại Nam nhất thống chí (Nguyễn dynasty national atlas) of the "Quốc sử quán" (official Nguyễn-era compilation of Vietnamese history, geography and people from 1821–1945), in 1698 the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu established the prefecture (phủ) of Gia Định. In 1802, emperor Gia Long turned Gia Định prefecture into a township, and in 1808, he renamed Gia Định prefecture into a governorate containing the five townships of Phiên An, Biên Hòa (or Đồng Nai), Định Tường, Vĩnh Thanh (or Vĩnh Long), and Hà Tiên. In 1832, emperor Minh Mạng renamed Phiên An Citadel into Gia Định Citadel, and the 5 townships were turned into the 6 provinces of Phiên An, Biên Hòa, Định Tường, Vĩnh Long, Hà Tiên, and the newly established An Giang. Thus, the Six Provinces was created in 1832; and in 1834 the Six Provinces were collectively called "Nam Kỳ" ("Southern Region", which would eventually be known in the West as "Cochinchina"). Phiên An Province was renamed to Gia Định Province in 1835.
After the French colonial invaders, led by vice-admiral Rigault de Genouilly attacked and captured the three eastern provinces of Gia Định, Định Tường, and Biên Hòa in 1862, and invaded the remaining western provinces of Vĩnh Long, An Giang, Hà Tiên in 1867, the French Empire abolished the administrative divisions created by the Nguyễn Dynasty. At first, the French used "départements" instead of prefectures, and "arrondissements" in place of districts ("huyện"). By 1868, the former "Nam Kỳ Lục tỉnh" had over 20 arrondissements (districts). Cochinchina was ruled by a French government-appointed governor in Saigon, and each county had a "Secrétaire d’Arrondissement" (en: ""County Secretary", vi: "thư ký địa hạt" or "bang biện"). Bạc Liêu county was created in 1882. On 16 January 1899, the counties were changed into provinces per a French government decree, each with a provincial premier (fr: "chef de la province", vi: "chủ tỉnh"") who is head of provincial government.
French division into 21 smaller provinces, discontinuation of the "Six Provinces".
The French government divided the original Six Provinces into 21 smaller ones. Following the 1899 decrees, starting 01/01/1900 Nam Kỳ would be divided into the following 21 provinces:
Southern Vietnam was divided into 21 provinces was because the French Empire intended to erase the name "Lục tỉnh" from the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese people and language, and cut any feelings of attachment and Vietnamese nationalism with this region, in attempts to avert potential local revolution or rebellion that may arise. In 1908 on the newspaper "Lục Tỉnh Tân Văn" ("Six Provinces News"), lead editor by Gilbert Trần Chánh Chiếu, still commonly used the names "Lục Tỉnh" and "Lục Châu". Along with the French Empire calling Southern Vietnam (vi:" Nam Kỳ") as Cochinchine, they called Northern Vietnam (vi:" Bắc Kỳ") Tonkin, Central Vietnam (vi: "Trung Kỳ") Annam. "Cochinchina" is the name used by Westerners.
Administrative divisions.
Sources for entire table:


Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon

Thao Thep Krasattri () and Thao Si Sunthon () were styles awarded to Than Phu Ying Chan (), wife of the then recently deceased governor of Mueang Thalang, Phuket Province (also known as Junk Ceylon), and her sister, Khun Muk (), who defended the island in the Burmese–Siamese War (1785–1786). According to popular belief, they repelled a five-week invasion by Burmese in 1785, killing male soldiers and rallying Siamese troops. They were also referred to as Chan and Mook.
Chan and Muk were later honored by King Rama I with the Thai honorific "Thao", as Thao Thep Krasattri and Thao Si Sunthon, respectively.
Francis Light, founder of Penang, became family friends with Chan and Mook and her husband, the Governor of Thalang. In 1785, he warned the Siamese on the island of an imminent Burmese attack. Light's warning enabled the islanders, led by Chan and Mook, to prepare for Thalang's defence and subsequently repel the Burmese invasion.
The "Heroine's Monument" honouring them is situated on the main highway (402) between the Phuket International Airport and Phuket town.


El Kulug Shad

El Külüg Shad Irbis Qağan (full title: Yǐqūlìshīyǐpíkĕhàn 乙屈利失乙毗可汗, personal name: Ashina Moheduo 阿史那莫賀咄) was Khagan of the Western Turkic Kaghanate.
Reign.
He was ruling south of Ili River, which was populated mostly by Nushibi tribes, after his father was murdered. He soon died, leaving the throne to his nephew Irbis Ishbara Yabgu Qaghan. His son was Irbis Seguy.


Yudaganawa

Yudaganawa, is a town situated in Buttala Divisional Secretariat, Uva province, Sri Lanka.
Yudaganawa Chaitya.
The Chaitya at Yudaganawa has a circumference of and was initially thought to be a Kota Vehera - a large stupa built half way with a smaller stupa built on top of that. Recent archaeological excavations however have proved that this was not a Kota Vehera but at one time was a complete stupa.
According to the historic chronicle, "Rajaveliya", this is the location where two brothers, Prince Dutugemunu and Prince Saddatissa had a battle over the throne of the kingdom. Prince Saddatissa lost the battle and fled to take refuge in Dematamal viharaya at Okkampitiya. The Queen Mother, Viharamahadevi,was saddened by the animosity between her two sons, pleaded with them to make amends. As a result, the two brothers made peace with each other and to mark this a colossal stupa was erected on the battlefield where they had fought. Some historians believe that it was the site of an already existing chaitya, which was then reconstructed and named Yudagana Chaitya.
Yudaganawa Wewa.
Nearby to Yudagana Chaitya is the Yudaganawa Wewa. It is believed that the clay needed to make bricks for the chaitya was dug from here. According to the chronicles, the wewa had been built by King Mahanaga in 300 BC. In 1950 it was renovated by the Irrigation Department. It covers an area of and provides irrigation to of paddy field cultivation.


Battle of Dimdim

The Battle of Dimdim is the name for the battle between the Safavid Empire and the Sunni Kurds of the Ottoman Empire between 1609 and 1610.
The battle.
There are well documented historical accounts of a long battle from 1609 to 1610 between Kurds and the Safavid Empire. The Kurds were at a disadvantage numerically and technologically. After a siege lasting almost a year, the Safavid Grand Vizier Hatem Beg captured the fort and massacred the Kurdish garrison.
Aftermath.
After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, Dimdim was captured. All the defenders were killed. Shah Abbas I ordered a general massacre in Bradost and Mukriyan (reported by Iskandar Beg Turkoman, Safavid Historian in the Book "Alam Aray-e Abbasi") and resettled the Afshar tribe in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to Khorasan region. Although Safavid historians (like Iskandar Beg ) depicted the first battle of Dimdim as a result of Kurdish mutiny or treason, in Kurdish oral traditions (Beytî Dimdim), literary works (Dzhalilov, pp. 67–72), and histories, it was treated as a struggle of the Kurdish people against foreign domination. In fact, Beytî Dimdim is considered a national epic second only to Mem û Zîn by Ahmad Khani. The first literary account of this battle is written by Faqi Tayran.


Jigni State

Jigni State was a princely state of the Bundelkhand Agency of the British Raj.
It was a small Sanad state of about 82.87 km2 with a population of 4,297 inhabitants in 1901. The state was surrounded by the Hamirpur and Jhansi districts of the United Provinces.
Its capital was at Jigni, also known as Jigini. It is a small town —1,770 inhabitants in 1901— located near the confluence of the Dhasan and the Betwa River in present-day Rath tehsil of Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
History.
Jigni State was founded as a jagir in 1730 by Rao Padam Singh, a Rajput of the Bundela clan. He was a son of Chhatrasal, the founder of Panna State. Originally the "jagir" had been larger, but its size was much reduced during the Maratha invasion in the last half of the eighteenth century.
Jigni became a British protectorate in 1810 under the rule of Pirthi Singh.
Rao Bhupendra Vijai Singh, the last ruler of Jigni State signed the instrument of accession to India in 1947, the state becoming part of the Indian Union on 1 January 1950.
Rulers.
The ruling family were members of the Bundela clan of Rajputs. The rulers used the title of "Rao".


Kanker State

Kanker State () was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. Its last ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union in 1947.
Kanker State was located north of Bastar State and, except for the valley of the Mahanadi in its eastern part, it consisted mostly of hills covered by forests in which teak ("Tectona grandis"), sirsā ("Dalbergia latifolia"), śāl ("Shorea robusta") and bījāsāl ("Pterocarpus marsupium") predominated. The state had 63,610 inhabitants in 1881 and 103,536 in 1901, more than half of which were Gonds. Kanker town in Kanker District, Chhattisgarh, was the capital of the state and the see of the Raja's residence. The languages spoken in the state were mainly Chhattisgarhi and Gondi.
History.
The early history of the state is obscure. According to tradition Kanker was founded in the early 2nd century by Raja Satkarni of the Satavahana dynasty. The state was occupied by the Marathas of Nagpur in 1809 and the Raja of Kanker was deprived of its power. In 1818, following the defeat of the Maratha Empire and when the Nagpur kingdom became a British protectorate, local rule was restored by the British authorities on payment of a tribute of Rs 500. The tribute imposed on Kanker State was remitted in 1823.
At the time of the British Raj Kanker was one among the 26 feudatory states of the Chhattisgarh States Agency. The state's accession to the Indian Union was signed by its last ruler Bhanupratap Deo on 15 August 1947.
Rulers.
The Rajas of the princely state were:


Tailapa II

Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title "Ahavamalla", was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtrakuta vassal from the Tardavadi-1000 province in the modern Bijapur district of Karnataka. When the Rashtrakuta power declined following an invasion by the Paramara king Siyaka, Tailapa overthrew the Rashtrakuta king Karka II, and established a new dynasty.
Tailapa spent several years consolidating his control over the western Deccan region between the Narmada and the Tungabhadra rivers. Gradually, several former Rashtrakuta feudatories, including the Shilaharas, acknowledged his suzerainty. Tailapa successfully resisted Chola and Paramara invasions, and imprisoned and killed the invading Paramara king Munja. His general Barapa captured the Lata region in present-day Gujarat, establishing the Lata Chalukya line of chiefs. Tailapa's successors continued to rule the western Deccan region until the 12th century.
Ancestry.
The records of Tailapa's dynasty trace his patrilineal ancestry to the Chalukyas of Vatapi, and also connect him to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and the Kalachuris of Chedi through matrilineal descent. The Vatapi Chalukya king Vijayaditya was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II: the records of Tailapa's family claim that Vijayaditya had another (unnamed) son, from whom the family descended.
The Chalukya court poet Ranna provides the following genealogy connecting Tailapa to the earlier Chalukya dynasty:
The 11th century inscriptions of Tailapa's descendants (such as the Kauthem grant) provide a similar genealogy, but they state that Vikramaditya III was the son of Taila I and that Bhima II was the son of Vikramaditya. However, the Vatapi Chalukya records make no mention of Vijayaditya's unnamed son. The differences between the genealogies provided by Ranna and the later inscriptions also cast doubt on the claim that Tailapa's family was connected to the earlier Chalukya royals.
Tailapa's immediate ancestors appear to have been feudatories of the Rashtrakutas, who had displaced the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi. The marriage of Tailapa's grandfather Ayyana I to a Rashtrakuta princess probably raised the family's political status. A Devihosur inscription of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (r. 939-967) mentions one Vikramaditya, who can be identified with Tailapa's father Vikramaditya IV.
Early life.
Like his father, Tailapa served as a feudatory to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. He finds a mention in the 957 Karjol inscription and the 965 Narasalagi inscriptions issued during the reign of Krishna. The 957 inscription calls him Tailapayya, and states that he ruled a "nadu" (administrative unit) as Krishna's subordinate. The 965 inscription calls him "Maha-samantadhipati Ahavamalla" Tailaparasa of Satyashraya family ("Satyashraya-kula-tilaka"), and states that Krishna had granted him the fief of Tardavadi-1000. At this time, he also held the title "Chalukya Rama", and had a subordinate from the Khachara family.
Rise to power.
Tailapa's Rashtrakuta overlord Krishna III died around 967, and was succeeded by Khottiga. In 972, the Paramara ruler Siyaka, who had earlier served as a feudatory to the Rashtrakutas in Malwa, invaded and sacked their capital Manyakheta. As a result, the political status of the Rashtrakutas declined greatly. Khottiga died without an heir shortly after Siyaka's raid, and was succeeded by his nephew Karka II. Karka had sidelined Krishna's grandson Indra IV to ascend the throne, thus alienating Indra's maternal uncle Marasimha, who was a powerful Rashtrakuta feudatory from the Ganga family. The records of Tailapa's dynasty suggest that Karka was a weak ruler, and that the vicious nature of two of his principal ministers had led to dissatisfaction among his subjects.
Tailapa used this opportunity to usurp the throne. He was supported by his Yadava feudatory Bhillama II and the Chalukya chief Baddega II of Lakshmeshwara. He may also have been supported by the Kalachuris of Tripuri, the family of his mother: an enmity had developed between the Rashtrakutas and the Kalachuris during the reign of Krishna III.
In 973, Tailapa dethroned Karka and established a new dynasty. His records state that he became a sovereign after a fierce battle, in which Karka's two "wicked" ministers were killed. Karka's ally Ranakambha, a member of the Rashtrakuta family, was also killed in the battle. According to one theory, Karka was killed in the battle, but according to another theory, he escaped and ruled a small principality around Soraba until 991.
After this victory, Tailapa marched to the Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta, and occupied the throne. Krishna's grandson Indra, supported by the Ganga chief Marasimha, disputed Tailapa's ascension. Tailapa defeated them decisively: both men ultimately retired as Jain monks, and died by "sallekhana" (suicide by starvation) - Marasimha in 975, and Indra in 982.
Marasimha's successor Panchaladeva also fought against Tailapa, and described himself as "Chalukya Panchanana" ("Lion to the Chalukyas") in his 975 Mulgund inscription. The inscription claims that he ruled the entire peninsular territory to the south of the Krishna River, which is an obvious exaggeration. Tailapa ultimately defeated and killed Panchaladeva: several Chalukya inscriptions boast that Tailapa cut off his head on the battlefield. These inscriptions also give Tailapa the title "Panchalamardana Panchanana" ("Lion who killed Panchala"). Tailapa must have defeated Panchaladeva around 975-976, because Tailapa's inscriptions dated to around 976 have been found in the neighbouring region.
Tailapa married a Rashtrakuta princess Jakavve, the daughter of Bhammaha Ratta, possibly to strengthen his political position. Gradually, many former Rashtrakuta feudatories accepted his suzerainty:
Conflicts with neighbouring rulers.
Shilaharas.
"Gadayuddha", composed by the Chalukya court poet Ranna, states that by Tailapa's order, prince Satyashraya chased the "Konkaneshvara" (the Shilahara ruler of Konkan) to the sea. The Shilaharas ultimately transferred their allegiance from the Rashtrakutas to the Chalukyas, as attested by the 997 Bhadana inscription of "Mahamandaleshvara" Aparajita.
Lata.
According to "Gadayuddha", prince Satyashraya also conquered the Gurjara region on Tailapa's orders. Tailapa's commander Barapa, who captured the Lata region in present-day Gujarat, established the Lata Chalukya branch of the family. A 980 inscription that describes Tailapa as a lion to the Lata elephant probably refers to Barapa's conquest of Lata.
Paramaras.
Tailapa seems to have inherited the Rashtrakuta enmity with their northern neighbours, the Paramaras. Tailapa's conflict with the Paramara ruler Munja (Siyaka's successor) finds a mention in several inscriptions and literary works.
According to the 14th century Jain scholar Merutunga, whose "Prabandha-Chintamani" account of Munja is based on a now-lost Apabhramsa poem called "Munja-rasa", Tailapa harassed Munja by raiding his kingdom on multiple occasions. Munja defeated him six times (sixteen times, according to one manuscript). Ultimately, Munja decided to launch a decisive war against Tailapa, and against the advice of his prime minister Rudraditya, crossed the Godavari river to invade the Chalukya kingdom. During this campaign, Tailapa defeated and captured Munja. Merutunga further states that Munja and Tailapa's sister Mrinalavati fell in love during his imprisonment. Meanwhile, Munja's ministers entered the Chalukya kingdom in disguise, and managed to get in touch with Munja. They made a rescue plan, which Munja divulged to Mrinalavati, because he wanted to take her with him. Mrinalavati told her brother about Munja's escape plan. As a result, Tailapa humiliated Munja by forcing him to beg door-to-door, and then had him executed.
While Merutunga's account may not be entirely accurate from a historical perspective, there is little doubt that Munja was killed in Deccan in the mid-990s, as a result of his campaign against Tailapa. The 1003 Kauthem inscription records Tailapa's imprisonment of Utpala (another name for Munja).
In his victory against Munja, Tailapa appears to have been aided by his Yadava vassal Bhillama II. The 1000 Sangamner inscription of Bhillama II poetically boasts that Bhillama thrashed the goddess of prosperity Lakshmi on the battlefield because she had sided with Munja, and forced her to become an obedient housewife in the palace of king Rana-ranga-bhima (a synonym of Tailapa's title "Ahavamalla").
Cholas.
As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Tailapa may have participated in his overlord Krishna III's campaigns against their southern neighbours, the Cholas. A 980 inscription describes Tailapa as Indra's thunderbolt to the strong Chola mountain. At that time, the Chola king was Uttama, and it is possible that his attempts to recover the territories captured by Krishna brought him into conflict with Tailapa.
Uttama's successor Rajaraja I invaded and captured several territories in present-day Karnataka, as attested by a 991 Mysore inscription and other inscriptions that mention his conquest of Ganga and Nolamba territories 993 onwards. Tailapa's 992 Kogali inscription states that he stayed at a military camp at Rodda (in present-day Anantapur district) after defeating the Chola king and seizing 150 war elephants from the enemy.
Successors.
Tailapa died around 997. He and his queen Jakavve had two sons: Satyashraya and Dashavarman (alias Yashovarman). Tailapa was succeeded by his elder son Satyashraya, and then by Dashavarman's son Vikramaditya V.
Tailapa maintained his headquarters at the former Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta. His son and successor Satyashraya ruled Rattapadi, and the contemporary Chola inscriptions often use the term Rattapadi to describe the Chalukya kingdom. The later Chalukya rulers ruled from Kalyani.
Cultural activities.
The Chalukya court poet Ranna composed his "Gadayuddha" during the reign of "Ahavamalla", who is identified as Tailapa II by some scholars. However, the text refers to his son Satyashraya as an emperor, and the title "Ahavamalla" was also held by Satyashraya. Because of this, other scholars believe that the "Gadayuddha" was composed during Satyashraya's reign. Govinda Pai, a 20th-century Kannada poet, theorized that Ranna composed the first version of "Gadayuddha" in 982 (during Tailapa's reign). To explain the text's mention of a mid-990s battle and its comparison to a 993 solar eclipse, Pai theorized that Ranna must have revised the text at a later date.
The Kalleshvara temple complex at Bagali, originally consecrated during the late Rashtrakuta rule, was completed during Tailapa's reign. In 987, an individual named Duggimayya consecrated the shrine, and a feudatory named Mahasamanta Adityavarma commissioned a garden in the temple complex.


Xu Xusheng

Xu Xusheng, also known by his courtesy name Xu Bingchang, (1888 – January 4, 1976) was a Chinese archaeologist, historian, and explorer born in Tanghe, Henan Province. Best known for his discovery of the Erlitou culture in 1959, he was one of China's most important and respected archaeologists and historians of the twentieth century, providing a model of archaeological methodology for future Chinese archaeologists. He also was president of Beijing Normal University.
Biography.
In 1921, Xu was appointed professor in the department of philosophy, Peking University, teaching History of Western Philosophy. In 1926, he served as provost of Peking University, and in the following year he led an expedition to northwest China to conduct archaeological investigations. In 1929, Xu served as dean of National Peking University Women's Teachers College. He also was president of Beijing Normal University from February 1931 to May 1932. He traveled to Xi'an in 1933, where he established the Shaanxi Archaeological Society. From 1934 to 1937 he investigated the Early Neolithic culture in Shaanxi Province, discovered by his team of archaeologists who carried out excavations at the Doujitai site in the middle Yellow River Valley, where his approach was said to have served as a model for archaeological methodology. He became director of the Institute for Historical Studies in 1936.
Xu was instrumental in conducting the first modern study of China's early "myths" based on the reports of antiquaries findings by archaeologists. He also worked on the "Historical Gazetteer of Beiping".
He was elected to the Chinese National Assembly in 1947. Xu became a research fellow of the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and surveyed Gaocheng in 1959. The Erlitou culture was discovered by him that year. He joined the Chinese Communist Party in 1957, and was elected to the Third National People's Congress in 1964. Persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, Xu died during January 1976.
Research.
As a historian, Xu authored the 1943 book, "Zhongguo gushi de chuanshuo shidai" ("The legendary times in early Chinese history"), where he comments that the name of Five Emperors was not mentioned until the Warring States era and cannot be found in earlier works such as the Zuo Zhuan, Guoyu, Lunyu, Mozi or Mencius. This was the first book to provide detailed facts concerning ancient Chinese history and archaeological finds and present a comprehensive history of China's prehistoric period.


Battle of Tjiater Pass

The Battle of Tjiater Pass was a battle which occurred between 5 and 7 March 1942 during the Dutch East Indies campaign between invading Japanese forces and the Dutch colonial forces, supported by warplanes from the Royal Air Force. It was fought over control of the Tjiater Pass, as part of an attempted defense of the city of Bandung.
Following Dutch withdrawal from most urban centers in Java in the aftermath of Japanese landings and the loss of the Kalijati airfield, remaining units of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) established a defensive perimeter in the mountain passes around Bandung in the hopes of regrouping with retreating KNIL and Australian units abandoning Batavia and Buitenzorg. Despite the Japanese forces, led by Colonel Toshinari Shōji, being numerically inferior, they opted to launch an attack on the spread-out Dutch forces in order to prevent a possible counterattack.
Benefiting from air superiority and better training than their KNIL counterparts, Japanese soldiers successfully stormed and captured the undermanned defensive positions guarding the pass after three days of fighting, securing their path to Bandung after capturing the town of Lembang. Dutch forces, on the other hand, were demoralized by constant air raids and the intensive fighting. Before any combat could happen in Bandung Dutch forces, who wished to avoid destruction of the city, had surrendered which led to the eventual capitulation of the entirety of the Dutch East Indies to Japan.
Prelude.
After a victory in the Battle of the Java Sea, Japanese land forces landed in the island of Java in three main locations, including one detachment led by Colonel Toshinari Shōji landing at Eretan Wetan, in what is today Indramayu, on dawn of 1 March 1942. The detachment quickly secured the Kalijati airfield and surrounding territories, allowing for the forward deployment of the Japanese air support (from the 3rd Air Division under Major General Endō Saburō). From Japanese-controlled territories in Subang, there were two paths leading to the Bandung plateau - through Purwakarta, or through the less-developed roads of the Tjiater Pass on the foothills of the Tangkuban Perahu. Dutch forces attempted to launch counterattacks via the Tjiater Pass on 2 and 3 March to recapture the Kalijati airfield, but the attempts failed.
The failed counteroffensive had exhausted Allied reserves, and the "West Group" of the Allied forces (including one KNIL infantry regiment and the Australian "Blackforce" brigade) had been ordered to abandon Batavia and Buitenzorg on 4 March. Another group of the KNIL, the "Bandoeng Group", was tasked with defending the Bandung plateau until the West Group could withdraw to Bandung and merge with them, forming a new unit which was expected to be able to hold the Japanese advance better. The Bandoeng Group was commanded by Major General Jacob Pesman. The Dutch forces were however successful in preventing the Japanese from severing the land connection between Batavia and Bandung.
Forces.
Pesman had at his disposal around 9,000 men, including 5,900 from his original force within the KNIL and augmented by the attachment of KNIL's 2nd infantry regiment and a battalion, but the units were split as they had to defend multiple locations at once. Additionally, the attached regiment had lost much of its combat effectiveness. In terms of air forces, there were 27 operational combat airplanes available to the KNIL forces - comprising 12 bombers, 11 fighters, and 4 reconnaissance aircraft. The West Group, under the command of Major General Wijbrandus Schilling, was retreating from its positions west of Bandung, with expectations of arriving in the area between 6 and 7 March and being combat effective by 10 March, until which the Bandung Group was tasked to "fill the gaps" in the defensive lines. Both passes which allowed motor access into Bandung were fortified by the Dutch, and the men guarding the fortifications were commanded by Colonel W.J. de Veer, who had commanded the KNIL's 4th infantry regiment.
Shōji's forces had been expected by the command of the Sixteenth Army to simply hold onto captured positions in Kalijati and onto crossings for the Citarum River, and to wait for further reinforcements in form of the 2nd Division, approaching from the west. However, due to constant air raids from allied aircraft sapping the potency of his air support and the threat of further counterattacks, Shōji opted to launch an attack on Bandung instead, concentrating his forces in order to launch an attack through Tjiater. Although there were concerns within the Japanese command with a potential stalemate at Tjiater, Shōji's operation was approved. His detachment comprised around 3,000 men who were better trained and more experienced than their KNIL counterparts, and out of these somewhere around 2,000 to 2,400 men were deployed in the battle. The Japanese were estimated to have 39 aircraft available for operations - including 14 bombers, 14 assault airplanes, 10 fighters, and a single reconnaissance aircraft.
Tjiater's fortifications on the northern end of the mountain pass had been designed to be held by an infantry regiment, and consisted of trenches, two lines of casemates, and barbed wire obstacle, with the first defensive line measuring about two kilometers in length and located right in front of a ravine. At the start of the battle, it was manned by one infantry battalion, reinforced by two additional platoons and several support units. There was also a secondary defensive line at the southern end of the mountain pass, though it was not fully constructed. The northern fortifications were undermanned, with only one infantry company holding the first line and the fortification itself having only limited operationality due to a lack of laborers following the Japanese invasion.
Battle.
On the morning of 4 March, both sides launched air raids on one another, the Dutch and the Royal Air Force aircraft targeting potential new Japanese troop landings and the Kalijati airfield while the Japanese targeted the Dutch airbase at Andir and forward Dutch defenses. Due to further air raids, the depleted Dutch forward units withdrew towards the main concentration of Dutch forces in Lembang. Later in that day, both sides continued to launch air raids. Air raids continued on both Andir and Kalijati in the early morning of the following day, accompanied by aerial reconnaissance missions.
The land battle for the pass began around noon of 5 March, when Japanese vanguard light tanks encountered Dutch fortifications in form of pillboxes and a 5-cm gun. Dutch defenders were supported by just a single battery of four guns, which did not have a significant effect on the fighting. The effectiveness of the pillboxes were also hindered by foliage. After around three hours of combat, Japanese infantrymen had approached the forward defenses and around 50 men were withdrawn, with the 5-cm gun being destroyed and a bridge crossing the ravine ahead of the fortifications blown up. As the Dutch soldiers retreated, the main first line of defenses began firing at the Japanese soldiers with mortars and machine guns, initially doing some damage before the Japanese responded with their own mortars. Within half an hour, Japanese infantrymen had infiltrated unmanned sections of the defensive line and attempted to encircle the defending company, forcing a retreat to the second line, around 500 meters away. The second line had poor visibility for artillery observers and some equipment such as searchlights and radio had been abandoned in the retreat. By 4 PM, Japanese soldiers were firmly entrenched in the first line and exchanged fire with Dutch troops in the second line, but did not manage to dislodge the defenders.
After receiving reports of the Japanese attack, Pesman deployed his reserves to Tjiater. They were however delayed by a traffic jam in the road leading to the defenses. As dusk approached, the reinforcements arrived in the vicinity, but were prevented from entering the second line due to some Japanese soldiers who managed to infiltrate the lines. As more Dutch soldiers arrived, the men in second line were eventually evacuated before daylight the following day. A new line of defense was established behind the fortifications, manned by some 950 soldiers. Behind the defense lines, there were just 400 inexperienced soldiers defending the southern exit of the pass. The Japanese had captured five pillboxes, and opted to pause their attack for the day. A KNIL motorized column moving north from Bandung was also intercepted by Japanese aerial bombardment.
On 6 March, the Japanese initially assessed that the defensive line was held by some 3,000 soldiers with a number of guns, but after the interrogation of a captured prisoner of war they found out that the defenders were considerably less than their assessment. The Japanese themselves had around 1,000 men in the pass, and still had an advantage in mortars and armor. There were also a large number of Japanese air raids, with hundreds of bombs being dropped, destroying vehicles and eroding Dutch morale. The initial infantry attacks on 6 March were launched against the western section of the defensive line at around 5:30 AM, which was initially repelled, and so was a second assault which was launched following an air raid. Japanese commanders, however, followed with a third wave supported by mortar fire and three tanks, which was successful in breaking the two infantry companies holding the section under attack. During the attacks, the Japanese had taken advantage of a thick fog in order to surprise the defenders. Between 30 to 50 were killed in combat from the two companies, and a further 75 were captured and massacred by the Japanese, leaving just six survivors. Later tallying in 1948 calculated 120 soldiers killed from the two companies from both combat and the massacre. Around midday, forward Japanese patrols had exchanged some machine gun fire with soldiers in the unfinished fortifications. In the afternoon, the Japanese had managed to outflank the defenses, launching an attack against the defenders which was pushed back by a Dutch counterattack. However, de Veer was killed in the counterattack and the fortifications were evacuated after the assault was repelled, and the remaining defenders were ordered to withdraw to Lembang.
Once the positions were captured, the Japanese were in control of the ridgeline of the mountain pass, and the Dutch forces were left in poor reserve defenses. Fighting on 7 March largely consisted of Japanese mopping-up operations, eliminating Dutch units close to the ridgeline. Japanese soldiers also continued to move towards Lembang, though their advance was halted at a destroyed bridge for some time. After some more fighting, the units in Lembang began to further retreat towards Bandung.
Aftermath.
With the Japanese securing the mountain pass, the allied forces in West Java found their position untenable. At night on 7 March, the Japanese forces moved in and occupied Lembang, and there at around 7:30 PM they received a Dutch messenger carrying a flag of truce. While the Dutch initially intended to discuss the capitulation of KNIL soldiers exclusively in the Bandung area, Japanese 16th Army Commander Hitoshi Imamura decided to demand the total capitulation of allied forces in the Dutch East Indies, during negotiations held the following day in Kalijati Airfield. There, governor-general Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and Dutch East Indies military commander Hein ter Poorten initially refused a total capitulation.
Units of the West Group, excluding the Australian brigade, had arrived in Bandung. Its commander initially intended to launch a guerilla campaign against the Japanese, but gave up due to unfavourable conditions. Due to the threat of continued fighting in Bandung, which was filled with a large number of refugees, the Dutch authorities broadcast their general surrender on noon on 9 March. Formal instruments of surrender were signed less than three hours later.


Damjili Cave

Damjili () – is a half-circular shaped cave site (6400-6000 BC) in Azerbaijan, where evidence of prehistoric human presence during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic was discovered.
Various stone tools, arrowheads, flint knives, remains of hearth and fossilized bones of animals have been found in the cave.
Traces of ochre were found in a grotto of the cave, lending credence to the idea, that the occupants had a desire to deal with symbolism and aesthetics. The sediment layers, in which the ochre was found are mixed with more tardy ones which suggests that the use ochre dates back to the Mousterian culture
Overview.
Damjili cave is the biggest cave among Avey Mountain caves. It has an area of . The front side of the cave has been destroyed as the result of floods over the years. The height of the cave's rear side is .
Location.
The site is situated in the South-Eastern part of the "Avey Mountain" of the Small Caucasus, that extends from Daş Salahlı village in the Gazakh rayon to the Khram River.
Name of the Cave.
The name Damjili is an allusion to "weeping water", that rinses through the natural cracks in the limestone cave walls (the Azeri word Damji () translates to "drop").
Damjili spring.
Water of Damjili spring dribbles down from the flinty top of the cave through the natural cracks. Pure and cold falling water drops are accumulating in the dent below and forming a spring. That is why the spring is called Damjili, literally meanining "with drops".
Excavations.
Damjılı cave was discovered for the first time in 1953 during the joint expedition of Russian scientist Zamyatin and Azerbaijani archaeologist Mammadali Husyenov.
Fragments of pottery dated back to the Bronze Age and Middle Ages were discovered from the primary excavations in the cave. The Paleolithic archaeological expedition formed under the History Museum of Academy of Science of Azerbaijan in 1956 conducted fundamental excavations in Damjili cave between 1956 and 1958 under the supervision of M.Huseynov.
In the result of this excavation, around 7,000 stone tools and more than 2,000 bones of hunting animals were found from different cultural layers of the cave.
In 2015–2017, a group of Azerbaijani and Japanese experts (led by the professor Yoshihiro Nishiaki of Tokyo University) conducted joint excavations in the area. The excavations began in 10 different directions. As a result, artefacts dating back to the Neolithic period, ruins of fireplaces, tools of Middle Paleolithic were discovered at a depth of 4 meters. The materials were investigated in Japanese laboratories.
Findings.
The tools found in the Damjili cave trace back to the Middle Paleolithic – Mousterian period, Upper Paleolithic, Mezolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic periods and Bronze Age.
Scrapers, cutting tools, awls, knife-shaped tools of Upper paleolithic were mainly made from flint and obsidian stone.
Pencil-shaped nucleuses, small knife-shaped boards, tiny scrapers, cutting and pointed tools were attributed to Mezolithic, while arrowheads, polished stone object were attributed to the Neolithic period.
Mousterian and Meseolithic period findings consist of triangular spikes, big circular cutting tools and nucleuses which are considered to be used for hunting.
Some of the scrapers made of basalt are in circular shapes.
Disk shaped nucleuses tools are considered to belong to Neanderthal people 100,000-80,000 years ago settled in Damjili.
See also.
Qazakh District


Pyinzi Supaya

Thu Pabawadi (, 1861 – 1915), commonly known as Pyinzi Princess () or Pyinzi Supaya (), was a high-ranking royal princess of the late Konbaung dynasty.
Life.
Pyinzi Supaya was born to King Mindon and his consort Magway Mibaya in 1861 at the Mandalay Palace. Her father gave her the appanage of Taungdwingyaung. When Thado Minye, Prince of Pyinzi, was assassinated in the Myingun Myinkhondaing rebellion, she received the appanage of Pyinzi, and was known thereafter as Pyinzi Princess.
When her sister, Mingin Supaya, was executed in 1883, the family and its servants were sent as slaves to Man Aung Yadana Wakhingone Pagoda. Later, at a sayadaw's request, Supayalat set them free, but they remained under house arrest until the abdication of King Thibaw in 1885. Although they were not favored by Supayalat, she remained on good terms with the family and attended the ear-boring ceremony of the daughters of King Thibaw and Queen Supayalat in Ratnagiri in 1910.
Pyinzi Supaya died on 18 May 1915 at the age of 54 and was buried in the Mandalay Palace enclosure (see Konbaung tombs).
Distinctions.
Because her mother was senior royalty, Pyinzi Supaya received the title Supaya. She accompanied Setkya Dewi whenever she traveled about the palace in the royal palanquin and was one of eleven princesses who had the right to wear "ghanamattaka" clothes during King Mindon's reign.
At the Rajabiseka Muddha consecration of her father in 1874, Pyinzi Supaya, wearing "ghanamattaka" clothes, together with her seven sisters, poured a libation on the king's head and made speeches.
Family.
Pyinzi Supaya married U Pe and gave birth to Pyinzi Thameedawgyi, Pyinzi Thameedawlat, and Pyinzi Kodawle. Pyinzi Kodawle died at a young age. The British government contributed 15 rupees to fund her daughters' educations.


Man Singh of Marwar

Maharaja Man Singh (3 February 1783 – 4 September 1843) was the last independent Maharaja of Marwar Kingdom and Jodhpur State (r. 19 October 1803 – 4 September 1843).
He was appointed as Heir Apparent by his grandfather Vijay Singh on 7 November 1791. However upon Vijay Singhs death, Bhim Singh seized Jodhpur and proclaimed himself as the ruler of Marwar.
Man Singh was sent to Jalore for his own safety, where he remained throughout the reign of his cousin, Maharaja Bhim Singh of Marwar.
He succeeded on his cousins death on 19 October 1803. In 1804 Man Singh broke the treaty with the British for cooperation and formed an alliance with Yashwantrao Holkar, however Jodhpur was invaded by Sindhia and was forced to break their alliance with Holkar and pay heavy tribute.
Opposed by many of his principal nobles throughout his reign, he depended on the support of successive factions. The last of these were the Nath family, the Maharaja's spiritual advisers, who came to control state affairs and turned him into a recluse. Many of the nobles fled to neighbouring principalities, state repression having become entirely vengeful and cold-blooded.
Man Singh had wanted to marry Krishna Kumari after his cousin's death.
Man Singh after finding it unbearable to see his kingdom get destroyed by the Sindhias and his own corrupt nobles and ministers, entered into treaty relations with the British on 6 January 1818.
Siege of Mehrangarh.
In 1806 the combined armies of Jaipur, and Bikaner declared war on Marwar in order to install a pretender as the Maharaja of Marwar. However Maharaja Man Singh defeated the combined army so comprehensively that Maharaja Jagat Singh of Jaipur had to pay a sum of Rs. 2,00,000 to secure his safe passage. In honour of Man's victory over Jaipur the Jai Pol, or victory gate of was built in the Mehrangarh fort in 1808.
Asylum to Nagpur ruler.
In 1829 Man Singh gave shelter to Mudhoji II Bhonsle , also known as Appa Saheb, the dethroned ruler of Nagpur against the wishes of British. He refused to hand him over to British in spite of persistent demands by Governor General Lord William Bentinck. Appa saheb remained in Jodhpur at Man Mandir till his death in 1840.
Death and Legacy.
Man Singh died at Mandore, 4 September 1843.


Socialist Party (Indonesia)

The Socialist Party () was a political party in Indonesia. It was founded in December 1945 at a meeting in Cheribon, as the Socialist People's Party (Paras) of Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir and the Socialist Party of Indonesia (Parsi) of Defence Minister Sjarifuddin merged. Sjahrir became chairman of the unified party, whilst Sjarifuddin became vice-chairman.
In January 1946, the party and its youth wing Pesindo, joined (along with all other major political forces at the time) the Tan Malaka-led national front Persatuan Perdjuangan. By February the same year, the Socialist Party had come to view the Persatuan Perdjuangan as an attempt to replace the existing government, and the party and Pesindo withdrew. Following their withdrawal, the Persatuan Perdjuangan was able to pressure Sjahrir to resign from his position as Prime Minister. Sukarno offered the Persatuan Perdjuangan to form a new cabinet, but such a government never materialized due to conflicts inside the front. As the Persatuan Perdjuangan couldn't form a government, Sjahrir was again offered to form a government.
In May 1946 the government launched "Konsentrasi Nasional", a coalition intended to compete with Persatuan Perdjuangan. The Socialist Party and Pesindo became core constituents of KN, along with the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), Masjumi, the Labour Party of Indonesia and various mass organizations. Soon, KN and Persatuan Perdjuangan clashed, as Persatuan Perdjuangan initiated militant struggle against the government. Sjahrir was kidnapped by Persatuan Perdjuangan (but was released soon thereafter).
In October 1946, the government was broadened to include leaders from several political forces. A new pro-government coalition, Sajap Kiri, was founded to support the Linggadjati Agreement with the Dutch government. Sajap Kiri consisted of the Socialist Party, Pesindo, PKI and the Labour Party of Indonesia.
Towards late 1946, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was enlarged. The Socialist Party was given 35 out of 514 seats.
In May 1947 the Dutch government issued an ultimatum to the Indonesian government, demanding Dutch "de jure" sovereignty over Indonesia until 1949. This ultimatum created a split inside the Socialist Party, as Sjahrir expressed some conciliatory attitudes towards the Dutch positions. Sjahrir faced opposition from Sjarifuddin's followers and Sajap Kiri, and in June 1947 Sjahrir resigned as Prime Minister. When Sjahrir had travelled to address the United Nations, Sjarifuddin was appointed acting party chairman. When Hatta formed a new government, the Sjajrir-led faction of the Socialist Party supported it whilst the rest of Sajap Kiri opposed it.
Sjahrir and his followers left the Socialist Party, and on February 12, 1948, they formed the Socialist Party of Indonesia (PSI). PSI was joined by 4 out of 5 Socialist Party representatives in the KNIP Working Group and 19 out of 35 Socialist KNIP members. Most of the party grassroots stayed with Sjarifuddin, however.
In August 1948 the Socialist Party issued a statement of self-criticism, stating that the foundation of Parsi in 1945 had been a mistake, that a communist party should have been built instead and that the merger with 'rightwing' and 'reformist' Paras should not have taken place.


Bhoja II (Paramara dynasty)

Bhoja II was a 13th-century king of the Paramara dynasty in central India. He succeeded Arjuna II as the king of Dhara in Malwa region.
According to "Hammira Mahakavya", written by the Jain poet Nayachandra Suri, the Chahmana ruler Hammira defeated Arjuna of Sarasapura and Bhoja of Dhara. Based on this, R. C. Majumdar concluded that Hammira must have invaded Malwa twice: once during the reign of Arjuna II, and again, during the reign of Bhoja II. Because Hammira ascended the Chauhan throne during 1282-83, Bhoja must have ascended the Paramara throne sometime after 1283 CE.
Pratipal Bhatia, on the other hand, speculates that Arjuna II's minister Goga-deva rebelled against him, and put Bhoja II on the throne of Dhara as a titular king. The 16th-century historian Firishta describes Goga as the "Raja of Malwa". According to Bhatia's theory, Goga-deva became the "de facto" independent ruler of one part of the Paramara kingdom, while Arjuna II continued to control another part.
Bhoja II was succeeded by Mahlakadeva.


Ikedaya incident

The , also known as the Ikedaya affair or Ikedaya riot, was an armed encounter between the shishi which included masterless samurai ("rōnin") formally employed by the Chōshū and Tosa clans (han), and the Shinsengumi, the Bakufu's special police force in Kyoto on July 8, 1864 at the Ikedaya Inn in Sanjō-Kawaramachi, Kyoto, Japan.
History.
At the end of the Edo period, Kyoto attracted unemployed "rōnin" of varying allegiances. Those from the Chōshū and Tosa clans were heavily influenced by sonnō jōi (revere the Emperor, expel the foreign barbarians) philosophy and supported forcibly removing all western influences from Japan. Emperor Kōmei and the Aizu and Satsuma clans preferred a unification of the bakufu and the imperial court. The bakufu tried to retain their centralized power. In this political chaos, ronin from the various factions began to assassinate each other. The bakufu organized groups of ronin including Shinsengumi and charged them with arresting or killing (should they resist arrest) the "sonnō jōi" shishi.
The shishi were using the Ikedaya Inn as a staging point for their forces. The Shinsengumi arrested one of the shishi, Furutaka Shuntarō. The arrest of Furutaka triggered the Ikedaya incident. Furutaka was arrested because he was one of the members of an anti-Shogunate group. He wanted to build trust with Mōri, a member of the court, to take power. Also, he had a strong relationship with Chōshū clans. There are some other opinions about the cause of the arrest of Furutaka. One opinion is that Teshiro Toshisuke had trouble with Furutaka about the inheritance problem of Masuya, so he had resentment for Furutaka. He reported where Furutaka was to Shinsengumi, which led to Furutaka’s arrest. The method of interrogation, carried out by Shinsengumi vice-commander Hijikata Toshizō was alleged to be particularly brutal, although it appears to be largely without verification. With the prisoner unresponsive, Hijikata was said to have suspended the man by his ankles, restraining his wrists, and driven five-inch spikes into the heels of the man's feet. Placing lit candles upon the holes, hot wax dripped deep into his calves. The prisoner eventually claimed that they planned to set fire in Kyoto and capture Matsudaira Katamori, the "daimyō" of the Aizu clan whose duties included policing Kyoto at the time. In another theory, Furutaka stated that he planned to burn Nakagawanomiya with Kawamura Hanzō and Otaka Matajirō. Also, he stated that a lot of people from Chōshū clans were hiding on the Gion street. The urgency of the situation thus revealed, Kondō Isami led a group of Shinsengumi troops to the inn to arrest the shishi; a second group, led by Hijikata arrived shortly thereafter.
Historians are divided whether the shishi were actually preparing to set fire to Kyoto. The allegations were based on a confession of one prisoner (Furukata) under torture, and only appears in the records of the bakufu. Because of the arrest of Furutaka, people from Chōshū clans decided to gather at Ikedaya, and they tried to take countermeasures. Some of them thought they should attack a garrison of Shinsengumi and recapture Furutaka. However, almost everyone agreed to exercise prudence. Yoshida Toshimaro and Miyabe Teizō decided to hold a meeting to convince those who wanted to act immediately and change their minds to act prudently. Katsura Kogorō (later Kido Takayoshi) who was at the Ikedaya claimed many years later that they had only met to discuss how to rescue Furukata from the Shinsengumi. Whether or not Hijikata actually employed such a cruel interrogation method is also in some doubt, as conflicting reports from those in attendance (such as Nagakura Shinpachi) exist. There is an opinion that if Hijikata would have really tortured Furutaka, Furutaka must have fainted and he would not have been able to make a statement. Some popular fiction, like the account of "Moeyoken" (a novel by Shiba Ryōtarō) seem to ignore Hijikata's potential participation.
Combat.
The incident happened the day before the Gion Festival. Shinsengumi knew about 20 hiding places of shishi, and they started the search of shishi around 7 p.m.
A total of 34 people in the Shinsengumi joined this incident. They were divided into two groups. The Kondō group had 10 people and the Hijikata group had 24 people. Further, a group of Hijikata was separated into two groups. It was designed so that they could act flexibly. Tani, Asano, and Takeda watched the front entrance, and Okuzawa, Andō, and Nitta watched the back entrance. According to Kondo, he entered Ikedaya with Okita, Nagakura, Tōdō, and Shūhei. In contrast, Nagakura mentions that Kondō entered with Okita, Nagakura, and Tōdō. There is a viewpoint that their statements were different because Shūhei was an adopted child of Kondō, and Kondō wanted to emphasize the success of his adopted son. The Kondō group noticed that there were guns and spears in the entrance, so they tied them with a rope. In Ikedaya, there were around 20 people from Chōshū clans.
Generally, it is known that this incident unfolded in the dark, but actually, the place was moderately lit. Kondō tried to induce shishi to come down to the 1st floor because there was a light called "Hachiken" that illuminated 14.5 meters down the hallway. Nagakura got injured on his hand, and his sword was broken, so he robbed a sword of an enemy. Tōdō had difficulty fighting because he was cut in the middle of the forehead and his blood got in his eyes. After a while, Tōdō left from the combat, so Kondō and Nagakura remained in the Ikedaya Inn. Kondō wanted to help Nagakura, but there were many enemies around him, so he could not help. It is commonly believed that more than 20 members of the Hijikata group rushed all at once, but according to Kondō, the members of the Hijikata group arrived at Ikedaya one after another. Kondō wrote that the battle time was about two hours and ended around 12 o'clock.
There are two theories of Katsura Kogorō regarding where he was or what he did at the time of the incident. One is that he was in Ikedaya when the incident happened. However, he immediately escaped by running down the roof and he entered the Tsushima mansion, so he survived. The second theory is that before the incident happened, he went to Ikedaya, but found that nobody was there. So, he left Ikedaya thinking to come back later. He was staying in the Tsushima mansion when the incident happened.
Sugiyama Matsusuke who was in the Chōshū mansion, worried about Katsura when he heard about the incident, and he tried to go to Ikedaya. However, he encountered with enemies on the way to Ikedaya, and he was seriously injured on his arm, and he came back to the Chōshū mansion.
More than half of shishi escaped from the back entrance, and people who were killed inside of Ikedaya were Miyabe Teizō, Ōtaka Matajirō, Yoshida Toshimaro and Fukuoka Yūjirō . Miyabe continued fighting, but he committed harakiri in the end. Yoshida committed suicide in front of the entrance of the Chōshū mansion. On the other hand, there is the theory that Yoshida was killed in front of a liquor store near the Kaga mansion.
Aftermath.
After the incident, the area around Ikedaya was crowded. Many messengers from lords went to visit the Chōshū mansion to nurse injured people back to health. The next morning, the house of Sakamoto Ryōma was attacked. Shinsengumi continued hunting surviving warriors with Aizu clans. They stayed up all night hunting, and they came back to a garrison at noon. Their clothes smeared with blood. A total of eight shishi were killed and twenty-three arrested, Ikedaya Sôbe's family and relatives were also arrested, the Shinsengumi lost only one member in the battle, though two more members later died of injuries. Amongst those injured in the battle were Nagakura Shinpachi and Tōdō Heisuke. It was also said that the later captain of the first Shinsengumi unit Okita Sōji coughed up blood and collapsed during the affair (the cause of which is disputed among researchers, some believe it was due to the tuberculosis which eventually killed him, while others believe it was some other ailment). Okita, Tōdō, and Nagakura recovered in a few days. Sôbe was arrested because he tried to escape captured shishi by unwinding the rope. Shinsengumi thought that Sôbe supported Chōshū clans. In prison, he could not bear the torture, and he died on July 13th. Dead were sent to the Sanryokuji Temple. A few days later, the maid of Ikedaya was asked to examine the dead bodies and identify them. Furutaka thought the incident happened because of his testimony, so he spent his life with a depressing feeling. Katsura did not go back to the Chōshū mansion after the incident. He believed that the incident happened because some people from Chōshū clans revealed a secret meeting in Ikedaya to the shogunate. He was afraid that his secret would be revealed by some people from Chōshū clans. This incident made it clear to all that the Shinsengumi were a powerful force in Kyoto to be feared by the "sonnō jōi" "rōnin". Also, the incident proved the ability to collect information, the detective ability, and the combat ability of Shinsengumi. Aizu clans praised Shinsengumi, and they gave around 500 ryō, and the imperial court gave about 100 ryō to Shinsengumi. Since the incident happened, people from Chōshū clans tended to be arrested without investigation of Shinsengumi. According to Nomi, Shinsengumi arrested even though elderly people were from Kii province and did not know about politics and circumstance.
Some historians credit this incident with delaying the eventual Meiji victory by a year or two, whereas others claim it actually hastened the fall of the bakufu by triggering a cascade of bloody retaliations and assassinations. After the Ikedaya incident, the samurai of the Choshu clan retaliated at the Hamaguri Gate of the Imperial Palace on July 19 in the Kinmon incident. Furukata himself was later killed in jail during that incident. The Shogunate followed up with an armed expedition in September 1864.
As for the Ikedaya itself, the inn stopped operating for seven months, after which the inn resumed under one of the owner's relatives, but later went out of business. The Ikedaya Inn was later taken over by the new owner.
Present.
In 1960, the inn was torn down and a two storey commercial building was built on its former site. Though for many years a pachinko parlor sat on the grounds of the Ikedaya, with the only remnant being a stone memorial tablet relating the events that occurred on the site.
In 2009, an "izakaya" named Ikeda-ya opened, designed and decorated with an Ikeda-ya Shinsengumi/Bakumatsu theme.
In fiction.
The battle at the Ikedaya Inn is the central point of the manga series "Shinsengumi Imon Peacemaker" and its anime version, "Peacemaker Kurogane".
The "Rurouni Kenshin" OVA: "", set in the time of the Meiji Restoration, has a depiction of the Ikedaya Incident. Different depictions of the Ikedaya Incident has also appeared in the Rurouni Kenshin manga and anime.
In volume 6 of the manga "Kaze Hikaru", the Ikedaya incident is the main event.
The Ikedaya Incident is also dramatized in episodes 2 and 3 of the anime series "Hakuōki".
In the SNK game "The Last Blade" the character Washisuka Keichiro, a member of the Shinsengumi, is sent to this place to "investigate" in his ending.
In 2004 taiga drama "Shinsengumi!" the Ikedaya Jiken is featured in episode 28.
Ikedaya Jiken is featured in the anime series "" episodes 1, 11 and 12.
Member list of Shinsengumi.
The Kondō group (10 people)
The Hijikata group (24 people)


Dhrol State

Dhrol State was one of the 562 princely states of British India. It was a 9 gun salute state belonging to the Kathiawar Agency of the Bombay Presidency.
Its capital was in the town of Dhrol, located in the historical Halar region of Kathiawar.
History.
Dhrol State was founded in 1595 by Jam Hardholji, a brother of Jam Rawal, the founder of Nawanagar State. The royal family belonged to the senior-most branch of the Jadeja dynasty of Rajputs who are the descendants of Samma tribe of Sindh . The Khirasra state was an offshoot of Dhrol.
Dhrol State became a British protectorate in 1807. The population of the state was decimated by the Indian famine of 1899–1900, from 27,007 in 1891 it was reduced to 21,906 in the 1901 census. The last ruler of Dhrol State, Thakur Sahib Chandrasimhji Dipsinhji, signed the accession to the Indian Union on 15 February 1948.
Rulers.
The rulers of the state bore the title 'Thakur Sahib'. They had the right to a 9 gun salute.


Dong Zuobin

Dong Zuobin or Tung Tso-pin (1895–1963) was a Chinese archaeologist. He was a leading authority on the oracle bone and turtle shell inscriptions of the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC). In 1928, Dong supervised the first archaeological dig of Anyang, the Shang capital. Dong was a professor at National Taiwan University and director of the institute of philology and history at Academia Sinica from 1950 to 1954. Dong's construction of a Shang chronology was his most important research achievement.
Early life.
Dong was born 20 March 1895 to a shopkeeper's family in Nanyang in southern Henan Province. His talent for calligraphy and writing were already noticed when he was a child. As a result, he was employed by a local seal engraver when he was about 11 or 12. As his father needed help in the shop, Dong could not begin formal education until 1915. In 1922, Dong went to Beijing to audit classes at Peking University and enrolled the following year.
Career.
Dong became a professor at National Zhongshan University in Guangzhou in 1927. He visited Anyang in the summer of 1928 and found that villagers were still digging up oracle bones and shells and selling them, as they had been since around 1895. Although many scholars assumed that thirty years of looting had already removed all valuable items, Dong's visit led him to suggest an archaeological dig. His university approved the dig and he supervised fieldwork in October 1928. This was the first systematic dig of the Anyang site. Some 784 items were uncovered.
There was a total of fifteen expeditions to Anyang before work was interrupted by the Sino-Japanese War. These expeditions were directed by Li Ji, and Dong participated in most of them. The most spectacular discovery, made in June 1937, was Pit H127. This underground chamber housed the archives of two Shang kings. Three tons of finds were removed from this pit.
In March 1932, Dong's breakthrough work, "Jiaguwen duandai yanjiu li", was published. The work gave ten criteria for dating an inscription within the Shang dynasty. It also gave the genealogy of the Shang kings, terms of address used in the inscriptions, names of foreign countries used, grammatical constructions, and ideographic constructions. Publication of the inscriptions themselves was delayed due to wartime conditions and the arduous process of preparation. Dong finally able to published this important work in Hong Kong in 1941 as "Yinxu wenzi, jia pian" [Texts from Yinxu, first collection].
Dong accepted an invitation to lecture on oracle bone inscriptions in the United States in January 1947. He lectured at both University of Chicago and at Yale. He returned to China in late 1948 and immediately began work on evacuating his department to Taiwan.
Among Dong's achievements was his division of the evolution of the oracle bone script into five stages. He also correlated various Shang calendars with lunar eclipses. His research also led to a chronological identification of the twelve kings who ruled Anyang for 273 years beginning 14 January 1384 BC. He also worked out the dates of individual reigns and the rounds of ancestral sacrifice. Dong died in Taiwan on 23 November 1963.


Battle of Peiwar Kotal

The Battle of Peiwar Kotal was fought on 28–29 November 1878 between British forces under Sir Frederick Roberts and Afghan forces under Karim Khan, during the opening stages of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The British were victorious, and seized the strategic Peiwar Kotal Pass leading into Afghanistan.
Aftermath.
Captain John Cook was awarded the Victoria Cross for his role in the battle. First Battalion the Fifth Gorkha Rifles was awarded its first battle honour.


Great Anatolia Party

The Great Anatolia Party (, abbreviated as BAP and formerly abbreviated as BANAP) was a political party in Turkey.
Disputes with the Motherland Party.
The Great Anatolia Party was founded in 1986 as an opposition group to the dominant Motherland Party of Prime Minister Turgut Özal; the founders of the Great Anatolia Party were supporters of the Right Path Party.
Disputes arose quickly between the Great Anatolia Party and the Motherland Party, first about the abbreviation. Initially, the name "Great Anatolia Party" (Büyük Anadolu Partisi") was "BAP", but the party changed it to "BANAP". The cause for the new abbreviation was political: "BANAP" was similar to "ANAP", the abbreviation of the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi").
A second dispute concerned the logo of the Great Anatolia Party, because the main elements of the logo were the map of Turkey and the honey bee, just like the Motherland Party's logo.
The Motherland Party protested against these cases and litigated to the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Electoral Council. The Constitutional Court didn't intervene, but the Supreme Electoral Council warned the Great Anatolia Party about the abbreviation and logo issues. After that, the Great Anatolia Party changed its abbreviation from "BANAP" back to "BAP" and created a new logo.
The new logo consisted from a perforated drum and a jaguar leaping through the hole in the drum. These images referred to drummer Asım Ekren, who was the son-in-law of the ANAP leader Turgut Özal, while the jaguar was a reference to his Jaguar car, a gift from businessman Zeki Berberoğlu. The new logo caused the party to acquire a new nickname, "The Party of Drum Driller Jaguar" ().
1986 Turkish by-elections.
In the 1986 Turkish by-elections, the party gained 13,497 votes (0.6% of 2,507,212 total votes) and failed to win a single seat in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.
Dissolving process.
After the 1986 by-elections, the Great Anatolia Party dissolved. The party officially ended with a ruling of dissolution by the Constitutional Court on 24 November 1992.


Japan Progressive Party

The was a political party in Japan.
History.
The party was established on 16 November 1945 by a group of 273 MPs, of whom 89 had been Rikken Minseitō members and 46 from Rikken Seiyūkai; many had been elected with the backing of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in the 1942 elections. Machida Chūji was appointed party president after the post was turned down by Keizo Shibusawa. Due to it high proportion of members involved in wartime politics, it was the most affected party in the post-war purge, with 238 MPs and all but one its central committee members barred from politics.
In the 1946 elections the party won 110 seats, becoming the second-largest party in the House of Representatives. It was given four ministerial positions in the Liberal Party government led by Shigeru Yoshida, including Kijūrō Shidehara, who was selected as the party's new leader following the elections.
Talks later in the year with the Cooperative Democratic Party about a merger failed, as did efforts in February 1947 to negotiate a merger with the Liberal Party, although a few Liberal MPs led by Hitoshi Ashida subsequently joined the JPP, together with a group from the National Cooperative Party. At the end of March the decision was taken to dissolved the JPP and form the Democratic Party.


Thermae Basilicae

Thermae Basilicae was a town in the Roman province of Cappadocia Prima. Accordingly, its bishopric, which is included in the Catholic Church's list of titular sees, was a suffragan of Caesarea in Cappadocia, the capital of the province.
Description.
The town is mentioned as Therma by Hierocles (Synecdemus, 699, 2) and is quite probably to be identified with Aquae Sarvenae, which the Tabula Peutingeriana places on the road between Tavium and Caesarea, and with Sarvena, a city described on an inscription and by Ptolemy (V, 6, 12). This would be today Terzili Hammam, a village about 60 miles north of Caesarea, where there are hot mineral sulphur waters, still frequented. A part of the building containing the baths is of Roman construction; a Christian inscription has been found thereon.
Down to the 13th century, the Notitiae episcopatuum describe the see as the first suffragan of Caesarea. Perhaps there was a bishop from the time of St. Basil; in any case four others are mentioned: Firminus, present at the Council of Chalcedon, 451; Photinus, at a Council of Constantinople in 459; Musonius, exiled by Justin I, about 518; Theodore, present at the Sixth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 681, and at the Council in Trullo, 692,


Bikhakhanim

Bikhakhanim (d. after 1419), was the reigning princess of a small polity located on the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.
She may have been of Circassian, Georgian, or Cuman origin. The Russian historian F. K. Brun, suggests that the name of the princess might not have been "Bikhakhanim," but "Bikhakhatun," and that, if so, she was the daughter of the Georgian prince Beka II Jakeli (died 1391), the ruler of Samtskhe and Klarjeti.
However, "Beki" means "Ruling Woman" in Mongolian and "Khanim" was the Medieval title of a female patrilineal descendant of Genghis Khan (equivalent to "Khan" for a male). 1419 was the year that the sons of Tokhtamysh Khan of the Golden Horde killed his rival Edigu the Khan of the Nogai Horde as a continuation of the Tokhtamysh–Timur war and reestablished control over the region.
Bikhakhanim was married in 1419 to the Genoese Jew Simeone de Guizolfi, who through this marriage became ruler of that country under Genoese overlordship. One of his heirs, Zacharias de Guizolfi, was still reigning in 1482.


The Flor Contemplacion Story

The Flor Contemplacion Story is a 1995 film produced by Viva Films about the story of the Filipina domestic helper who was hanged in Singapore for allegedly killing her fellow maid. The story was chronicled in a film which operates on various personal, social and political levels. Both controversial and critically acclaimed, it has brought Nora Aunor numerous citations for her intense portrayal as the fallen heroine of the story.
"The Flor Contemplacion Story" was screened and exhibited in different film festivals around the world. The film won the Princess Pataten Statue for best actress for its lead star, Nora Aunor and the film won the Golden Pyramid Award at the 1995 Cairo International Film Festival.
Synopsis.
Just like many impoverished people, Flor (Aunor) thought that by working abroad she could give her family a better life even though it means sacrificing her own happiness. She decided to work as a domestic helper in Singapore thinking that this could be the answer to her problems. Unlike many other servants, Flor was well-treated by her employers.
However, in 1995, she was arrested and was charged of killing her fellow filipina, Delia Maga and the little boy that she was caring for. After a hasty trial, the Singapore government finds Flor guilty and sentences her to death by hanging. Her predicament brings an outpouring of sympathy from Filipinos, who refuse to believe her guilt. There was also a national appeal for clemency and a re-investigation to be done. Even the office of the President appealed to the Singaporean Government. However, the Singapore Government remained steadfast with their decision.
Flor was executed in March 1995.
Awards and recognition.
Reviews.
The movie received positive reviews, especially for Aunor's acting.


Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai

Once Upon a Time in Mumbai is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language gangster film written by Rajat Arora and directed by Milan Luthria. It stars Ajay Devgan, Emraan Hashmi, Kangana Ranaut, Prachi Desai and Randeep Hooda. Produced by Ekta Kapoor under the Balaji Motion Pictures banner, "Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai" was released on 30 July 2010 to generally positive reviews from critics, and was a box office hit. The film is loosely based on the lives of Mumbai underworld gangsters Haji Mastan and Dawood Ibrahim. A sequel, "Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!", was released in 2013.
Plot.
The film opens in March 1993 in Bombay, with a suicide attempt by Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) Agnel Wilson on the pretext of the recent Bombay bombings. When questioned by his superior over his actions, he breaks down and claims that the recent tragic events are his own fault. Wilson recounts that 18 years ago, when he was posted as the ACP in the Mumbai crime branch, his inability to take the necessary action led to the rise of Shoaib Khan, a dreaded gangster, who played a central role in the bombings.
Throughout the film, Wilson narrates the story of 1970s Bombay, when it was ruled by a kind-hearted smuggler Sultan Mirza, and how Mirza's eventual downfall led to Shoaib's rise to power.
After being hit by a flood in his hometown in Madras, a young Mirza arrives in Mumbai, where he lands a job as a coal shoveller. In spite of his meagre earnings, the boy never fails to help the poor and needy, which soon gains their respect and admiration. Mirza has given the nickname "Sultan".
As a grown man, Sultan Mirza becomes the kingpin of Mumbai's smuggling underworld in the '70s. Through his influence, Mirza peacefully divides the city among four gangsters, thus thwarting police efforts to curb illegal activities. Despite being a criminal, Sultan Mirza is portrayed as a man of principle with a heart of gold and a godfather-like figure to the people. He even refrains from smuggling contraband, as it is against his Muslim faith.
Meanwhile, Shoaib is even in childhood a very ambitious person with a dark and daring character. He is frequently involved in petty theft. His father, Hussain Khan, who is a sub-inspector with the Bombay Police, tries in vain to guide and control his son, his anger against Shoaib began years ago when Shoaib and his best friend Javed were stealing money and got caught red handed by a man, by teaching his son a lesson, Khan slapped him 5 times. Khan locks Shoaib in jail but Shoaib angers him as both Shoaib and Wilson make a deal saying that Shoaib wants to follow another path. Worried, Khan turns to Sultan for help. Sultan agrees and helps the young man set up an electronics shop. But Shoaib is unsatisfied, as his only real ambition is to become rich and powerful, like Sultan who is his idol.
Mirza has a crush on Bollywood actress Rehana and eventually the two begin dating. Sultan invests black money in her upcoming films. ACP Wilson moves to stop Rehana's films funded by Sultan. Later, Sultan and Rehana frame Wilson to make it look as if Wilson is accepting a bribe, which damages his credibility.
Shoaib's beautiful girlfriend, Mumtaz, works in a local jewellery shop, which Shoaib visits often, to the aggravation of the girl's boss. Shoaib gives her a beautiful necklace, which, unbeknownst to Mumtaz, Shoaib had stolen from a lady during a home robbery. Later, that lady comes to the shop with her husband to buy more jewellery. The lady soon recognises her own necklace being worn by Mumtaz and accuses her of allegedly stealing her jewellery and publicly insults her, following this, Mumtaz admits to the outraged customer that her boyfriend had given the item to her. The lady and her husband demand she takes them to her boyfriend's shop, where they confront him. This enrages Shoaib, who beats up the husband and destroys his own shop.
Shoaib goes to Sultan and asks to be a part of his crime ring. Seeing his potential, Sultan agrees to take him under his wing. Shoaib learns the tricks of the trade and soon becomes Sultan's trusted aide. ACP Wilson hatches a plan to use Shoaib's reckless ambition for quick money and power as a way to cause the downfall of Sultan. Wilson even refrains from killing Sultan and Shoaib when he has the opportunity. Wilson's plan backfires, however. Finally, when Shoaib becomes invincible, Wilson blames himself for the subsequent catastrophe as he now cannot stop Shoaib's rise to power.
In 1975, Sultan decides to hand over his power to Shoaib, and opts to enter state politics. He travels to Delhi to meet the Home Minister of India Jeet Kumar Rathi. Shoaib's unscrupulous ambitions lead him to carry out trades and acts which Sultan himself would strongly condemn and abhors. Shoaib starts manufacturing illicit liquor, accepts contract killings, invests in drug peddling and runs extortion rackets. When Sultan returns to Bombay, he learns of Shoaib's misdeeds and is outraged. He finds Shoaib at a party and slaps him in public for his unethical activities and states he can never really be like Sultan. This infuriates Shoaib and he plots revenge as he now knows that Sultan and he cannot possibly rule Mumbai together due to Mirza's strong principles and moral ethos. The next day, as Sultan campaigns for his new party, Shoaib appears and assassinates Sultan Mirza whilst he is addressing the people at the rally as a horrified Wilson looks on, thus ending the reign of the smuggler who was loved by his people.
Back in 1993, Wilson laments that he and the police are responsible for the bombings because of their lack of forethought, Wilson also says that 18 years later, Shoaib now rules Mumbai despite living abroad and the people are now forever at his mercy – as Mumbai's new underworld kingpin – he has since established a global smuggling empire. No government or force can reach him now.
Production.
The film was made on a budget of 38 crore ( 28 crore for production and 100 million for publicity and advertising).
Inspiration for the film.
The film depicts the growth of the Mumbai underworld, from crime and smuggling in its early stages to its connection with international terrorism in recent times. It is believed to be based on the lives of real-life gangsters Haji Mastan and Dawood Ibrahim, portrayed by the characters Sultan and Shoaib, respectively. Originally Sanjay Dutt was chosen to play the role of Haji Mastan but the role went to Ajay Devgn instead.
Critical reception.
Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN rated the film 2.5 out of 5 saying, "The film is watchable and enjoyable in parts even, but it doesn't quite pull off the retro chic tone it was going for". IANS rated the movie 3.5 out of 5 saying, "Rajat Arora's dialogues flow from the storytelling in a smooth flow of poetry and street wisdom." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it 4/5 and called it "An outstanding Cinematic experience". Nikhat Kazmi of the "Times of India" gave it 4/5 and stated, ""Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai" offers you both substance and soul, even as it dabbles with a slice of reality". Rediff gave it 4/5 and said, "Book your tickets now".
Box office.
India.
"Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai" managed to have a decent weekend despite starting slowly. The film picked up from Friday evening and managed to have good Saturday and Sunday collections. The approximate breakdowns are 55.0 million (Friday), 70 million (Saturday) and 77.5 million (Sunday) for a 202.5 million weekend. The film grossed Rs. 585.0 million in India at the end of its ninth week. "Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai" was declared a hit by Box Office India.
Overseas.
In its opening weekend the film showed a day-wise growth in U.K. [Friday £15,755, Saturday £19,381 and Sunday £19,644] and a decent start in U.S. [approx. $ at 32 venues]. In its second weekend, the film collected £16,249 on 14 screens, with the per screen average working out to £1,161. Total: £1,07,988 at U.K boxoffice. In its third weekend, the film collected £5,909 on 8 screens, with the per screen average working out to £739 (total: £ in U.K.) In its fourth weekend in U.K, the film collected £743 on four screens, with the per screen average working out to £186 (total: £1,26,696). In its fifth weekend in the U.K, the film collected £105 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to £53 (total: £1,27,338). In its fifth weekend at the U.S. boxoffice, the film collected $1,131 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to $566 (total: $3,02,862).
Accolades.
The film received many awards at several award functions. Ajay Devgn and Prachi Desai received accolades for their nominations, while other awards were won for the film's music, playback and technical direction.
Soundtrack.
The film's songs were released on 28 June 2010. There were a total of 14 songs composed by Pritam with lyrics penned by Irshad Kamil, Neelesh Misra and Amitabh Bhattacharya.
The film score was composed by Sandeep Shirodkar.
The song "Parda" is a medley containing samples from the following 1970's Bollywood songs; "Duniya Mein Logon Ko" (Apna Desh), "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja" (Caravan). The song "I'm A Man" by Black Strobe was also used as background soundtrack uncredited.
Sequel.
Due to the film's commercial and critical success, a sequel was planned. Akshay Kumar and Imran Khan were roped in as the male leads. The sequel, "Once Upon Ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!", features Sonakshi Sinha playing the role of actress Mandakini, whilst Sonali Bendre was also roped in for a role. The film started shooting in August 2012, whilst the film released on 15 August 2013, thus avoids clashing with Rohit Shetty directorial "Chennai Express", starring Shah Rukh Khan and Deepika Padukone, which released one week before the release of "OUATIMD". The film was a flop at the box office as it had very slow opening with very low occupancy while "Chennai Express" was breaking various box office records throughout its release.


Turushka dynasty

Turushka (तुरुष्ककर्पूर) is the name of the ancient Indian royal dynasty that reigned in North. India in Kashmir, Kabulistan, and elsewhere of Turanian or "Indo-Scythian" origin.