Japanese Group

The Japanese Group () was an unofficial name for a political grouping in the Hellenic Parliament in 1906–08.
Name.
Although the group had been created in June 1906 after the parliamentary elections of that year, their popular name was given to them by the journalist Vlasis Gavriilidis, in an article in the "Akropolis" newspaper on 10/23 February 1907, where he likened their combativeness with the ferocity displayed by the Japanese soldiers during the recent Russo-Japanese War.
Members.
The group's members were:
The elderly Dragoumis was the group's titular leader, but the real driving force was Gounaris, a young lawyer, who had been influenced by his experiences during his studies in France and Germany, particularly the Bismarckian social legislation. Protopapadakis was an engineer, and remained Gounaris' closest collaborator for the rest of their careers, while Vozikis had achieved the remarkable feat of being elected to Parliament at the age of only 27.
The group comprised members from various parties and political orientations. This prevented their coalescence into a distinct political party, but the Japanese themselves never appear to have attempted such a transformation, i.e., opening the group to become a true mass party. Gounaris' own reluctance to step into the fore played the main role in this.
Aims.
The main aim of the "Japanese" was the political crisis of Greece following the state bankruptcy of 1893, the defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and the imposition of the International Financial Control in its aftermath. The "Japanese" criticized the political establishment, and the fruitless alternation of parties in power, and proposed radical modernization policies, as well as maintaining an anti-elitist and anti-corruption rhetoric, aiming to uphold moral values.
Dissolution.
The group was dissolved when Prime Minister Georgios Theotokis offered cabinet positions to Gounaris, Protopapadakis, and Repoulis in June 1908, which the first two accepted. Gounaris was sworn in as Minister for Finance, but during the discussion for the budget he was so severely criticized by his former collaborators that he resigned. Despite its failure, the "Japanese Group" nevertheless served as a harbinger of political reform, which came following the Goudi Pronunciamiento in 1909, and the rise of Eleftherios Venizelos to power.


Hesse-Rheinfels

Hesse-Rheinfels was created as a cadet line of Hesse for Philip II, Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels (1541–1583), landgrave from 1567 until 1583, and as a cadet line of Hesse-Kassel for Ernest, Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels (1623–1693), landgrave from 1627 until 1658.
First creation.
Philip was the third son of Philip the Magnanimous, Landgrave of Hesse and Christine of Saxony (1505–1549). After his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided between the four sons of his first marriage. Philip the younger received a portion of about an eighth of his father's territories, mainly the former Lower County of Katzenelnbogen with its four Ämter Rheinfels (with the city of St. Goar and the residence Rheinfels Castle) on the left bank of the Rhine, and Braubach, Reichenberg and Hohenstein on the right bank.
Second creation.
Maurice the Learned (1572–1632) was Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel from 1592 until 1627. Maurice turned to Calvinism in 1605, became involved later in the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in 1627 favour of his son William V (1602-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which created several cadet lines of the house (Hesse-Rotenburg, Hesse-Eschwege and Hesse-Rheinfels), of which, with amalgamation, that of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg survived till 1834.
In 1627 Ernest (1623–1693), a younger son of Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, received Rheinfels and lower Katzenelnbogen as his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his brothers, Friedrich, Landgrave of Hesse-Eschwege (1617–1655) and Herman, Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg (1607–1658), he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to his possessions.


Pinacoteca Querini Stampalia

The Pinacoteca Querini Stampalia is an art collection and museum in Venice, Italy. Situated inside the Palazzo Querini Stampalia, in the sestiere of Castello, on the left bank of the Grand Canal, it includes famous paintings as a "self- portrait" and "Adam and Eve" by Palma Giovane, a "Sacra Conversazione" by Palma Vecchio and a "Madonna and Child" by Bernardo Strozzi. It also holds prized drawings by Giovanni Bellini, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto.
The picture gallery is displayed within twenty rooms on the second floor of the palace which also contains furniture, a large public library, porcelains and musical instruments, along with works by artists ranging from the 14th-18th century.
History.
The palazzo was renovated from its original state before the 1960s. From 1961–1963, Carlo Scarpa restored parts of the building, while changing others. Scarpa created a series of islands, and allowed the water to come into the lobby space. He also restored the idea of a courtyard garden behind the building, with an abstracted rill fountain. Later additions (1993–2003) are by Mario Botta. The palace also houses the Fondazione Querini Stampalia, which sponsors a prominent library and contemporary art expositions.


Vasco-Cantabria

Vasco-Cantabria, in archaeology and the environmental sciences, is an area on the northern coast of Spain. It covers similar areas to the northern parts of the adjacent modern regions of the Basque country and Cantabria. In geology the "Vasco-Cantabrian Basin" or "Basque-Cantabrian Basin" covers the area and the seas off the coast, in the Bay of Biscay, an area between the Iberian and European tectonic plates.
The area is of special significance in the archaeology of the Upper Palaeolithic, Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic periods of the Stone Age. A narrow coastal strip was a glacial refugium, never covered by glaciers during the Last Glacial Maximum, and appears to have been densely populated. It is part of the wider Franco-Cantabrian region (also "Franco-Cantabric region") that stretches from Asturias, the next region west of Cantabria, to Provence in southeastern France.
The main archaeological industries in the area during this period are the Middle Paleolithic Mousterian, and the Upper Paleolithic Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, and then the Azilian, which is variously classified as Late Paleolithic, Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic. Vasco-Cantabrian sites contain much of the surviving art of the Upper Paleolithic, especially in terms of cave paintings. The UNESCO World Heritage Site "Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain" consists of ten caves in Cantabria and three in the Basque County, as well as five from Asturias.
Flora and fauna.
The region is and was part of the Eurosiberian climatic zone, and remained relatively moist throughout the period, unlike much of Spain. In the relevant period common trees included birch, Scots pine, beech, juniper and willow, these fluctuating with changes in temperature. The animal remains commonly found at human sites include red deer, aurochs, ibex, horse and goats. Reindeer are rare, unlike in southern France.
During this period the climate fluctuated, and warmer periods brought a great increase in forest cover, changing the populations of larger animals, with herd animals preferring a more open landscape, notably bison, horse and red deer, giving way to "smaller, less gregarious game", such as wild boar and roe deer. At the start of the Holocene, a rise in sea levels considerably reduced the width of the coastal strip, taking some 6-16 km from a strip that had only been 25-50 km wide between the sea to the north and the Cantabrian Mountains and their glaciers, which lie to the south of the whole region.


Dipsacaster

Dipsacaster is an extinct genus of sea stars in the family Astropectinidae. It was described by Alcock in 1893, and is known from France and Morocco. It contains the species "D. jadeti" and "D. africanus".


Samnites

The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium in south-central Italy. They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC.
An Oscan-speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. The Samnites formed a confederation, consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. They allied with Rome against the Gauls in 354 BC, but later became enemies of the Romans and were soon involved in a series of three wars (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) against the Romans. Despite an overwhelming victory over the Romans at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were eventually subjugated. Although severely weakened, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and some went over to Hannibal in their wars (280–275 BC and 218-201 BC) against Rome. They also fought from 91 BC in the Social War and later in the civil war (82 BC) as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). They were eventually assimilated by the Romans, and ceased to exist as distinct people.
Etymology.
The population of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans. Their own endonyms were Safinim for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) and Safineis for the
Etymologically, the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines, who were Umbrians. From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis, an Indo-European root can be extracted, *-, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian: Sabini and *Safineis. The eponymous god of the Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin.
At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.
Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria, he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English "self"). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.
History.
The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter, the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and their "imperium" reached its peak in 316 BC, after further gains from the Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War, after Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. The war lasted almost four years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the Populares in the civil war against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world.


Valter Palm

Valter Palm (alias Walter Palm) (December 10, 1905 – November 3, 1994) was an Estonian welterweight professional boxer, born in Tallinn, who competed in the 1930s.
In the 1920s he took part 1924 Summer Olympics and 1928 Summer Olympics.
1924 Summer Olympics.
Welterweight (- 66,7 kg).
1928 Summer Olympics.
Welterweight (- 66,7 kg).


United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia

The United Principalities Moldavia and Wallachia (), commonly called United Principalities, was the personal union of the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia, formed on when Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected as the "Domnitor" (Ruling Prince) of both principalities, which were autonomous but still vassals of the Ottoman Empire. On , Moldavia and Wallachia formally united to create the Romanian United Principalities, the core of the Romanian nation state.
In February 1866, Prince Cuza was forced to abdicate and go into exile by a political coalition led by the Liberals; the German Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Throne and, on he entered Bucharest for the first time. In July the same year, a new constitution came into effect, giving the country the name of Romania; internationally, this name was used only after 1877, since at the time the foreign policy of the state was drafted by the Ottomans. Nominally, the new state remained a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. However, by this time the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte had become a legal fiction. Romania had its own flag and anthem, and conducted its own foreign policy. From 1867, it had its own currency as well.
On , Romania proclaimed itself fully independent; the proclamation was sanctioned by the Domnitor the following day. Four years later, the 1866 constitution was modified so the Romania became a kingdom, on , Domnitor Carol I was crowned as the first King of Romania. After the First World War, Transylvania and other territories were also included.
For its triple symbolic meaning, the date of May 10 was celebrated as Romania's National Day until 1948, when Romanian and Soviet Communists installed the republic via coup d'état on December 30, 1947.
Background.
As a historical term designating the pre-Union Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, sometimes including the Principality of Transylvania, the term "Romanian Principalities" dates back to the beginnings of modern Romanian history in the mid-19th century. It was subsequently used by Romanian historians as an alternative to the much older term "Romanian Lands". English use of "Romanian Principalities" is documented from the second half of the 19th century.
In the period between the late 18th century and the 1860s, Danubian Principalities was used, a term that sometimes included Serbia, but not Transylvania. In contrast, use of "Romanian Principalities" sometimes included Transylvania but never Serbia.
History.
The aftermath of the Russian Empire's defeat in the Crimean War brought the 1856 Treaty of Paris, which started a period of common tutelage for the Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers—the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, though never again fully, Russia. While the Moldavia-Wallachia unionist campaign, which had come to dominate political demands, was accepted with sympathy by the French, Russians, Prussians, and Sardinians, it was rejected by the Austrian Empire, and looked upon with suspicion by Great Britain and the Ottomans. Negotiations amounted to an agreement on a minimal formal union; however, elections for the ad-hoc divans in 1859 profited from an ambiguity in the text of the final agreement, which, while specifying two thrones, did not prevent the same person from occupying both thrones simultaneously and ultimately ushered in the ruling of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as "Domnitor" (Ruling Prince) over the United Romanian Principalities from 1862 onwards.
Though internationally formally recognized only after the period of Cuza's reign, the Union was cemented by Ioan Cuza's unsanctioned interventions in the text of previous "Organic Law". In addition, the circumstances of his deposition in 1866, together with the rapid election of Prussian Prince Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (who was backed by the increasingly important Prussia) and the Austro-Prussian War in the same time, made applying measures against the Union actually impossible.
Following the Romanian War of Independence in 1877–78, Romania shook off formal Ottoman rule but eventually clashed with its Russian ally over its demand for the Southern Bessarabia region. Ultimately, Romania was awarded Northern Dobruja in exchange for Southern Bessarabia. The Kingdom of Romania subsequently emerged in 1881 with Prince Carol being crowned as King Carol I of Romania.
The reign of Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
Alexandru Ioan Cuza took steps to unify the administrations of the two Romanian Principalities and gain international recognition for the Union. He also adopted several reforms, including the secularization of church lands, introduction of free primary education, a French-inspired civil code and penal code as well as a limited agrarian reform and one in the army.
Opposition from the large-land-owners dominated parliament to Cuza resulted in a coup against him in 1864. He subsequently instituted authoritarian rule but his popular support, strong at the time of the coup, gradually waned as the land reform failed to bring prosperity to the peasant majority.
Cuza was forced to abdicate in 1866 by the two main political groups, the Conservatives and the Liberals, who represented the interests of former large-land-owners. Although the event sparked some anti-unionist turmoil in Cuza's native province of Moldavia, it was quickly suppressed by the central authorities.
The reign of Carol I as Prince.
The new governing coalition appointed Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as the new Ruling Prince of Romania in a move initially rejected by the European powers but later on accepted. In the first year of Carol's reign Romania adopted its first constitution. This instrument provided for a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with a Parliament being elected through censitary suffrage although the country remained under Ottoman suzerainty. Carol was not unanimously accepted, and a rise in republican sentiment culminated with an uprising in Ploiești in 1870 and a revolt in Bucharest in 1871, both of which were quelled by the army.
In April 1877, in the wake of a new Russo-Turkish war, Romania signed a convention by which Russian troops were allowed to pass through Romanian territory in their advance towards the Ottoman Empire. On May 9, the Romanian parliament declared the independence of the principality, and joined the war on the Russian side. After several Romanian victories south of the Danube and the ultimate victory of the Russian-led side in the war, the European powers recognized Romania's independence under the 1878 Treaty of Berlin. Nevertheless, Romania was made to exchange Southern Bessarabia for Northern Dobruja, and allow non-Christians living in Romania access to Romanian citizenship.
In 1881, the country's parliament proclaimed Romania a kingdom.
Administrative division.
As of 1872, the Romanian Principality was organized into 33 counties of which 17 were in Wallachia (12 in Muntenia and 5 in Oltenia), and 16 were in Moldavia (13 in western Moldavia and 3 in southern Bessarabia).
Demographics.
According to the 1859-1860 census, the United Principalities had a population of 3,864,848.
Cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants, in 1859:


Halit Berzeshta

Halit Bey Bërzeshta (1840 – 1909) was an Ottoman Albanian military physician and activist of the Albanian National Awakening.
Biography.
Bërzeshta was born in Bërzeshta, Vilayet of Monastir, Ottoman Albania (today Librazhd District, Albania) in 1840.
<br>He was a member of the Secret Association of the Albanians of Monastir (), the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania, and one of the main Albanian activists in Monastir, where he joined forces with Bajo Topulli supporting guerrilla fighting against the Ottoman government. He died in 1909.


Abdullah Pashe Taushani

Abdullah Pashe Taushani of Elbasan was a member of the Ali Pasha Tepelena's Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. Other members of the Council included Myftar Pasha, Veli Pasha, Xheladin bej Ohri and a number of his trusted men like Hasan Dervishi, Halil Patrona, Omar Vrioni, Meço Bono, Ago Myhyrdari, Thanasis Vagias, Veli Gega and Tahir Abazi.
Between 1812 and 1813, Abdullah Pasha, in the capacity of Sanjakbey of Elbasan (roughly equivalent to "district governor"), engaged in the process of the hygienization of the city by cleaning the water and sewage canals that originated from inside Elbasan Castle and finally depositing them in the Shkumbin river.


First Margrave War

The First Margrave War () from 1449–50 was the result of disputes between the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg and Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg. Numerous towns in Franconia in modern Germany were badly affected by the war.
On 13 August 1449, Albrecht captured Castle Lichtenau, a possession of Nuremberg. On 11 March 1450, Albrecht was defeated at Pillenreuther Weiher. The war ended with the signing of a peace treaty at Bamberg on 22 June 1450. Albrecht had to return all captured lands to the city of Nuremberg.


John Murray (British diplomat)

John Murray (1712?–1775) was a British diplomat, notorious rake and friend of Giacomo Casanova.
From 1754 he was British resident in Venice. He was appointed on 15 November 1765 as British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, arriving at Constantinople on 2 June 1766. He was given leave to return home, leaving Turkey on 27 January 1775. He sailed home on 25 May 1775 but died during a stop-over in Venice on 9 August 1775.


Republic of Paulava

Paulava Republic (, ) was a peasant community in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with its own parliament, army, and laws.
Located around the Merkinė Manor (also Pavlovo Manor) in present-day Šalčininkai District Municipality, Lithuania, it covered an area of and had about 800 residents.
History.
Paulava Republic was a small self-governing peasant community founded in 1769 by the Catholic priest Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski. The republic ceased to exist in 1795 when, due to the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Brzostowski exchanged the manor with Fryderyk Józef Moszyński for properties in Saxony and Dresden.
Moszyński in turn sold sold the manor to Count de Choiseul-Gouffier in 1799. The new owners tolerated some of the freedoms until Brzostowski's death in 1827. The last freedoms were lost when peasants joined the failed November Uprising in 1830.
Government.
The community was governed by Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski, who declared himself President, and Seimas (parliament), which was formed from the local peasants. The republic had its own constitution which was created before the Constitution of 3 May 1791.
Recognition.
The state was recognized by the Grand Duke and King Stanisław August Poniatowski himself. The Great Sejm (1788–1792) also recognized the republic and approved its statute.
Reforms.
Brzostowski implemented various progressive policies – abolished serfdom and granted personal freedoms to the peasants, replaced corvée with a land tax paid in cash, established a school and a pharmacy, encouraged more profitable agricultural activities, e.g. fruit tree gardens and animal husbandry. Brzostowski's revenue from the manor more than doubled.


Thuringothyris

Thuringothyris is an extinct genus of Early Permian eureptiles known from the Thuringian Forest in central Germany.
Description.
"Thuringothyris" is known from the holotype MNG 7729, articulated well-preserved skull and partial postcranial skeleton, and from the referred specimens MNG 10652, poorly preserved skull and partial vertebral column, MNG 10647, disarticulated cranial and postcranial remains of at least four individuals, MNG 10183, slightly crushed skull and partial postcranial skeleton and MNG 11191, poorly preserved skull and partial limbs. All specimens were collected from the Tambach-Sandstein Member, the uppermost part of the Tambach Formation, dating to the Artinskian stage of the Late Cisuralian Series (or alternatively upper Rotliegend), about 284–279.5 million years ago. They were found in the Bromacker Quarry, the middle part of the Thuringian Forest, near the small town of Tambach-Dietharz.
"Thuringothyris" was originally thought to be protorothyridid. A redescription of all known "Thuringothyris" specimens by Johannes Müller, David S. Berman, Amy C. Henrici, Thomas Martens and Stuart S. Sumida in 2006 suggested that it is a sister taxon of Captorhinidae. A noval phylogenic study of primitive reptile relationships by Müller & Reisz in 2006 recovered "Thuringothyris" as a sister taxon of the Captorhinidae. The same results were obtained in later phylogenic analyses.
Etymology.
"Thuringothyris" was first named by Jürgen A. Boy and Thomas Martens in 1991 and the type species is "Thuringothyris mahlendorffae". The generic name is named after its finding place Thuringia. The specific name honors Ursula R. Mahlendorf.


Berkshire Oolite

The Berkshire Oolite is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.


2000 in Finland

The following lists events that happened during 2000 in Finland.


Gjon Markagjoni

Gjon MarkaGjoni (28 August 1888 – 28 April 1966) was an Albanian Catholic clan chieftain ().
Biography.
He was born in Orosh, Mirdita, the only son of Kapidan Marka Gjoni (1861–1925). His father was the leader or Kapidan of Mirdita who rebelled against the Albanian government if favour of an independent Mirdita. In 1921 in an alliance with Esadists, Marka Gjoni founded the Republic of Mirdita in northern Albania and served as its president during its short existence. His republic did not receive recognition by its alleged citizens nor from other countries. Marka Gjoni's rebellion was extinguished by the Albanian government later that year. Marka Gjoni fled to Yugoslavia, but later returned to Albania and remained active in the political life of the highlands.
Gjon married Mrika Pervizi (1883-1969) in 1904, the niece of the Bajraktar of Kurbin, Gjok Pjeter Pervizi. They had ten children.
Succession as clan leader, 1925.
After the death of his father, Kapidan Marka Gjoni in 1925, Kapidan Gjon inherited the responsibility handed down to him as leader of Mirdita. He was often called upon to intervene in feuds raging within other Mirdita tribes and to preside over the arguments with fairness and clarity, but most of all to pass on judgments following the guidelines of the Kanun.
Although young, at the age of 37 he was already distinguished as a leader of the mission. He was responsible for reconciling 620 blood feuds between 1926-1928, leading Mirdita to become one of the more peaceful regions of the North. Because of his leadership skills in mediating reconciliation, he became widely known and many activists and foreign leaders requested to meet him. In 1930 Kapidan Gjon went to Rome where he was received with high honours by the Italian Government and the Pope.
In a conversation with Zog, the then president of Albania, Kapidan Gjon presented his economic views on the poor state of Mirdita, getting a promise that the region would be exempt from any state tax. When Ahmet Zogu was proclaimed king in 1928, all the northern chiefs of the mountains, among them Kapidan Gjon, met with the him, while Gjon was the first chief offered a meeting with the King.
In 1944, Kapidan Gjon, along with his sons, Mark, Ndue and Lesh, organized an anti-communist resistance. Thus, Kapidan Mark Gjomarkaj, with full support of his father Kapidan Gjon, founded the "National Independent Group" in Shkodra, which he developed through his own political activity.
Exile in Rome.
Overpowered by the communists, he was forced to leave his Mirdita under the escort of his second eldest son Ndue. In Kastrat, on November 27, 1944, he gave farewell to his crew including his sons Mark and Llesh who would stay behind and continue the fight. Accompanied by his son Ndue, he was forced to leave behind his sons Mark and Llesh to continue the fight against the partisans. They both died in combat; Mark on 14 June 1946 and Llesh on 9 August 1947.
Gjon Marka Gjoni, collaborated with the Albanian publicist and writer Ernest Koliqi, in sketching a political organization in exile. This organization was named "Independent National Bloc", which was formed on 6 November 1946, in Rome. Professor Ernest Koliqi, in an article published in "Shejzat" on 6 May 1966 wrote on behalf of Markagjoni:
"Those who lived near the Kapidan and were fortunate to meet and serve him, will always remember his generosity and sharpness. He was lovingly surrounded by us and we will always be thankful that he participated in our discussions without ever missing a word. He always offered sincere and wise advice and always managed to mesmerize us with his insight. He was a man who understood everything with a magnificently sharp memory. We will always remember his noble face, full of kindness. We will always remember him as noble and sensitive. Even after years of suffering, his thoughts were always clear and lucid. Everyone around him was always impressed with his stories of the old world and we were all amazed at the clarity of his memory."
Kapidan Gjon lived in Rome with his son Ndue, his daughter-in-law Maria Teresa and three granddaughters: Maria Cristina, Bianca Maria and Alessandra. He became seriously ill in 1960. He recovered and he was in relatively good health until 1964, when his illness returned. This illness would keep him hospitalized for two years. He died on 28 April 1966. He was buried in Rome on 30 April 1966. His funeral was attended by many dignitaries, scholars and friends. Telegrams and condolences were sent by Leka, Crown Prince of Albania, Cardinal Antoniutti and Francesco Jacomoni, among others.


Pogradec

Pogradec () is the eleventh most populous city of the Republic of Albania and the capital of the eponymous municipality. It is located on a narrow plain between two mountain chains along the southwestern banks of the Lake of Ohrid. Its climate is profoundly influenced by a seasonal Mediterranean and Continental climate.
Pogradec and its surroundings were listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site as part of the natural and cultural heritage of the region of Ohrid. Nevertheless, the Illyrian Royal Tombs in the adjacent unit of Proptisht are on the Albanian tentative list for becoming a World Heritage Site.
Etymology.
The name of the town is Eastern South Slavic in origin. Pogradec comes from "Po(d)" (under/beneath) and "Gradec" (town, city, castle or fortified settlement) and means literally "under the city". This is a reference to the ancient Illyrian settlement, which was situated on a hill above the contemporary region of Pogradec. In the medieval period during the Ottoman occupation, the town was known as İstarova or İstarye during Ottoman rule and was bounded to as kaza center in Görice Sanjak of Manastır Vilayet before Balkan Wars.
History.
From the 8th until the 14th century, Pogradec area was captured by various medieval states such as the Bulgarian, Byzantine and Serbian Empires as well as by noble Albanian families such as Gropa. In the middle of 15th century the area became part of Skanderbeg state and after his death in 1468, it was invaded by the Ottomans who kept it until Albania's Independence in 1912. During their occupation Pogradec was the center of the kaza of Starova and was developed as a small town of craftsmen and fishermen. When the Turkish traveler Evliya Celebi visited the area in 1662 he wrote that "Pogradec was a sweet city with red roofs, four neighborhoods, four mosques, two elementary schools, six hundred houses and one hundred and fifty shops".
During the second half of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, Pogradec area played an important role in the Albanian National Renaissance. In 14 March 1887 the second Albanian language school was started here.
During WWI Pogradec became a battlefield divided between the enemy fronts. From 1914 until 1920 Austro-Hungarian, Serbian, Greek, Bulgarian and French armies, captured the city replacing each-other from time to time.
During WWII the city was first invaded by the Italian army in 12 April 1939. Italian occupation of Pogradec was interrupted due to Greco-Italian War and Greek troops occupied the city between 30 November 1940 and 14 April 1941. After Italy's capitulation in 1943 the Italians were replaced by the German Nazis who kept the city until 30 August 1944 when it was liberated by the Albanian partizans.
After the war the town was a favorite summer escape for many communist government officials and particularly Enver Hoxha. The summer residences and the area around them were sealed off from the public.
Geography.
Pogradec is located at , on the shore of the southwestern corner of the Lake of Ohrid between two mountain chains located in the north and east. The mountain chain of Mali i Thatë in the Prespa National Park rises in the east of the city and divides the region from the Lake of Prespa. Defined in an area of , the municipality of Pogradec is encompassed in the county of Korçë within the Southern Region of Albania and consists of the adjacent administrative units of Buçimas, Çërravë, Dardhas, Proptisht, Trebinjë, Udenisht, Velçan and Pogradec as its seat.
Climate.
The climate of the Lake Ohrid is classified as a local-continental type because of a microclime that is created in that area influenced by Mediterranean climate. The average annual rainfall in the Lake basin amount to approximately 730 mm.
Economy.
Pogradec is located about 139 km from Tirana, the capital city of Albania, 40 km from Korça, and 5 km from North Macedonia.
Pogradec is the last railway station: Tirana - Durrës - Elbasan - Librazhd - Pogradec and located along SH3 road that passes through Devoll and continues to Greece.
Translake transport started on 15 June 2014 with a tourist ferry between Pogradec and Ohrid, but the service is sporadic and unreliable.
Culture.
Pogradec is well known for its famous writers and poets such as Lasgush Poradeci and Mitrush Kuteli, and lately Luan Starova. Their works are a crucial part of Albanian literature.
The main characters of Luan Starova's cycle of novels, "The Balkan Saga", are the author's own parents and their family, who fled Pogradec for Macedonia during World War II. Separated from their old hometown and their relatives by the Albania-Yugoslavia border during the Enver Hoxha's era, they would often look at Pogradec through a binocular from the vantage point of Monastery of Saint Naum on the other side of the lake.
Pogradec is also the home of nationally acclaimed painters like Anastas Kostandini(Taso), Gjergji Lako, Gentian Zeka, Vangjo Vasili and Ilir Dhima. All kinds of sports are practiced in town, especially by the youth.
Pogradec has a professional soccer team (currently in the Superliga, the best division in Albania) which holds the name "Pogradeci". There are several varsity soccer teams mainly composed of high school students. Even volleyball and basketball are played competitively. During the summer, beach volleyball draws the attention of all the residents. Many professional volleyball teams from Albania and other Balkanic countries participate in a championship which lasts about two weeks. Pogradeci team has been awarded the first prize several times. Other sports to mention are swimming and boxing. The boxing team, "Dragoi", is one of the top teams in the nation and has always trained champions.
Pogradec also has a rich folklore. Many songs and dances have been created throughout the centuries. Their themes are based on the beauty of the lake and a love for nature.
Some of the main recurring cultural events in the city are:
"Puppet Theater Festival" - Takes place every June. Participants vary from national to European level.
"Lake Day" - Takes place in 21 June. All the towns surrounding lake Ohrid (Pogradec, Ohrid and Struga) gather in a festival where local delicacies, including food and culture are showcased.
"Balkan Film Food Festival" - Takes place in September. Balkan movies, documentaries and culinary are showcased throughout the days of the festival.
"Wine Fest" - Takes place in December. Pogradec families compete together for the best homemade wine in the city. The days of the festival are accompanied by great food and live music.

Pogradec area is very rich in cultural and natural monuments among which can be mentioned


Lopsi

Lopsi is the name of a Liburnian tribe inhabiting the mountains along the eastern coast of the Adriatic before and during the Roman Empire, specifically present-day Velebit.
The tribe was mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis Historia", and it borrowed its name to one of the Roman cities on the coast, Lopsica (present day Sveti Juraj in Croatia). The name has survived to present day as a place name, as well as the family surname Lopac.


Restoration of the Scottish Catholic hierarchy

The restoration of the Scottish Catholic hierarchy refers to the re-establishment of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church in Scotland on 15 March 1878. This followed the restoration of the English hierarchy in 1850.
The restoration was carried out on the instructions of Pope Leo XIII and was one of the first acts of his papacy.
The "old" hierarchy had ended in 1603 when Archbishop Beaton of the Archdiocese of Glasgow died in Paris. In the intervening period from the Scottish Reformation until the restoration of the hierarchy, Scottish Catholics were ministered to by an underground network of priests (such as Saint John Ogilvie, Martyr) who were overseen by Apostolic prefects and then Apostolic Vicars as the oppression of Catholics became less severe.
The restored hierarchy were members of the Apostolic Vicariate and the territories of the new dioceses and archdioceses were based on the ancient (pre-reformation) ones.
There were two archbishops and four bishops in the new hierarchy:
The Archdiocese of St Andrews and Edinburgh was to be the Metropolitan See for Scotland with the Archdiocese of Glasgow to be under control of the Holy See.
It was nearly another 100 years before Scotland had its first post-Reformation cardinal appointed. In 1969 Archbishop Gray of St Andrews and Edinburgh was elevated to the rank of Cardinal. Since then Cardinal Winning of Glasgow, and Cardinal O'Brien of St Andrews and Edinburgh have been appointed to the College of Cardinals.


24th European Film Awards

The 24th European Film Awards were presented on 3 December 2011 in Berlin, Germany. The winners were selected by the over 2,500 members of the European Film Academy.
Winners and nominees.
The nominations for the 24th European Film Awards were announced on 5 November.
Best Animated Feature Film.
The nominees for Best Animated Feature Film were selected by a committee consisting of EFA Board Members and representatives from the European Association of Animation Film.
Discovery – Prix FIPRESCI.
The nominees for best feature-film debut were selected by a committee consisting of representatives from EFA and the International Federation of Film Critics.
Best Short Film.
The nominees for Best Short Film were selected by independent juries at a series of film festivals throughout Europe.
People's Choice Award.
The winner of the People's Choice Award was selected by online votes.


Hanau-Lichtenberg

The County of Hanau-Lichtenberg was a territory in the Holy Roman Empire. It emerged between 1456–80 from a part of the County of Hanau and one half of the Barony of Lichtenberg. Following the extinction of the counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg in 1736 it went to Hesse-Darmstadt, minor parts of it to the Hesse-Cassel. Its centre was in the lower Alsace, the capital first Babenhausen, later Buchsweiler.
History.
The Lichtenberg inheritance.
In 1452, after a reign of only one year, Count Reinhard III of Hanau (1412–1452) died. The heir was his son, Philip the Younger (1449–1500), only four years old. For the sake of the continuity of the dynasty, his relatives and other important decision-makers in the county agreed not to turn to the 1375 primogenitur statute of the family—one of the oldest in Germany—and to let the heir's uncle and brother of the deceased, Philip I (the Elder) (1417–1480), have the administrative district of Babenhausen from the estate of the County of Hanau as a county in his own right. This arrangement of 1458 allowed him to have a befitting marriage and offspring entitled to inherit, and so increased the chances of survival of the comital house. Philip the Elder was called now "of Hanau-Babenhausen".
In the same year of 1458, Philip the Elder married Anna of Lichtenberg (1442–1474), one of the two daughter-heirs of Louis V of Lichtenberg (1417–1474). After the death of the last of the noble House of Lichtenberg (), Louis' brother, James of Lichtenberg, in 1480, Philip I the Elder inherited the half of the Barony of Lichtenberg in the Lower Alsace with its capital, Buchsweiler. From this arose the branch and county of Hanau-Lichtenberg. His nephew, Philip I (the Younger) of Hanau and his descendants called themselves, by contrast, the "counts of Hanau-Münzenberg".
The Zweibrücken inheritance.
The next large inheritance occurred in 1570. Count James of Zweibrücken-Bitsch (1510–1570) and his brother, Simon V Wecker, who had died in 1540, each left behind one daughter. The daughter of Count James, Margarethe (1540–1569), married Philip V of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1541–1599). The inheritance included the second half of the Barony of Lichtenberg, the County of Zweibrücken-Bitsch and the Barony of Ochsenstein. Parts of the County of Zweibrücken-Bitsch were a fief of the Duchy of Lorraine.
Initially a dispute broke out after James' death between the husbands of the two cousins, Count Philip I of Leiningen-Westerburg and Count Philip V of Hanau-Lichtenberg. Whilst Philip V of Hanau-Lichtenberg was able to overpower Philip I, his immediate introduction of Lutheranism in the course of the Reformation made himself an enemy of the powerful, Roman Catholic Duchy of Lorraine under Duke Charles III, who had the suzerainty of Bitsch and withdrew the fief. In July 1572 troops of Lorraine occupied the county and reversed the Reformation. Because Philip V could not match Lorraine's military might, he sought legal redress.
Not until 1604 and 1606 the conflict was solved by a treaty between Hanau-Lichtenberg and Lorraine. It involved a division and took account of the old treaties: the Barony of Bitsch went back to Lorraine and the administrative district of Lemberg, which had been an allod of the counts of Zweibrücken, was allocated to Hanau-Lichtenberg. As a result, the Bitsche territory remained Roman Catholic, whilst the Lutheran confession was introduced into the district of Lemberg.
Reunification with Hanau-Münzenberg.
In 1642 the last male member of the Hanau-Münzenberg family, Count Johann Ernst, died. The next male of kin was Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg, then still a minor under the guardianship of Georg II of Fleckenstein-Dagstuhl. The relation to count Johann Ernst was quite remote and the inheritance endangered in more than one way. The inheritance happened during the final years of Thirty Years' War, the feudal overlords of Hanau-Münzenberg were partly enemy to Hanau and tried to hold back fiefs traditionally held by Hanau-Münzenberg. Further the county of Hanau-Münzenberg was of Reformed Confession, Friedrich Casimir and the county of Hanau-Lichtenberg were Lutheran. And even to reach the capital of Hanau-Münzenberg, the town of Hanau, was a problem: Friedrich Casimir could do so only in disguise. The inheritance could finally be secured by a treaty of 1643 between Friedrich Casimir and Landgravine Amalie Elisabeth, née countess of Hanau-Münzenberg, daughter to Philipp II. She granted military and diplomatic support against the still resistend overlords. Therefore, Friedrich Casimir granted – should the house of Hanau be without male heirs – the inheritance of Hanau-Münzenberg to the descendants of Amalie Elisabeth. That actually happened in 1736.
For economical and political reasons Friedrich Casimir was married to Sibylle Christine of Anhalt-Dessau, the widow of Count Philipp Moritz, who had been the ruling count in Hanau-Münzenberg until 1638. She had received Steinau Castle as her widow seat. As widow of a ruling count, she could raise substantial claims against the county. The marriage was arranged to avoid such claims and to take advantage of the fact that she was Calvinist as the majority of the population in Hanau-Münzenberg, contrary to Friedrich Casimir who was a Lutheran. The disadvantage of this arrangement was that Sibylle Christine was already 44 years of age at the time, almost 20 years older than Friedrich Casimir. The marriage was plagued by differences and remained childless.
In 1680 the county of Hanau-Lichtenberg came under the souvereignity of France, as a result of the politics of “reunion” by king Louis XIV of France.
Friedrich Casimir died childless in 1685. His inheritance was divided between his two male nephews, count Philipp Reinhard, who inherited Hanau-Münzenberg and count Johann Reinhard III, who inherited Hanau-Lichtenberg. Both were sons of Friedrich Casimir's younger brother count Johann Reinhard II. When in 1712 count Johann Reinhard II died count Johann Reinhard III inherited the county of Hanau-Münzenberg and for a last time both counties were united. With count Johann Reinhard III the last male member of the Hanau family died in 1736. Hanau-Münzenberg and Hanau-Lichtenberg fell to different heirs: Due to the treaty of succession of 1643 Hanau-Münzenberg was inherited by the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, Hanau-Lichtenberg fell to the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt because Countess Charlotte of Hanau-Lichtenberg, daughter to Johann Reinhard III, was married to the heir of Hesse-Darmstadt, reigning later as landgrave Louis VIII.
Regarding the question if the administrative district of Babenhausen was part of Hanau-Münzenberg or Hanau-Lichtenberg nearly led into a war of both landgraviats in 1736 and into an extensive lawsuit at the Reichskammergericht during the next decades. The suit ended with a compromise to divide the administrative district of Babenhausen into two equal parts between the parties. But it took until 1771 to realize that.
In 1803 due to territorial reforms following the French Revolution the former county of Hanau-Lichtenberg was divided: All of it left of the Rhine became part of France, all of it right of the river fell to the Grand Duchy of Baden. A few bits left of the Rhine (Pirmasens) became part of the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1816.


Yverdon-les-Bains Castle

Yverdon-les-Bains Castle is a castle in the municipality of Yverdon-les-Bains of the Canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is a Swiss heritage site of national significance.
History.
The imposing main walls and their four towers follow the geometric characteristics used for lowland castles. It was planned out by the young mason and architect James of St. George as apprentice to his father Master John. He would later travel to England where he would become the master castle builder for King Edward I. James would be responsible for building a series of castles (known as the "Iron Ring") in North Wales following its conquest by the English Crown. As such the castle is the first known work of the architect later responsible for what historian Marc Morris called “the most magnificent chain of castles ever created.”
Yverdon's castle used to be the residence of the castellans of the Savoy dynasty, until 1536, followed by the bailiffs of Bern state. In 1798, the "Département du Léman" became the castle's owner. The "Département" had been set up by the short-lived Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), imposed by Napoleon I.
A few years later, Yverdon acquired the castle, to entrust it to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and his institute. After 1838, the castle housed a public school. New classrooms were created, especially on the second floor: dividing walls were erected, additional windows changed the severe look of the castle's façade.
After 1950, these classrooms were gradually abandoned; the last classes left in 1974. The original medieval structure was then restored. The castle is today a multi-purpose cultural centre, housing a regional museum, a theatre, various conference rooms and the oldest public library of French-speaking Switzerland, founded already in 1763. The library is now part of the castle museum, existing since 1830.


Eurovision Dance Contest 2008

The Eurovision Dance Contest 2008 was the second edition of the Eurovision Dance Contest and was held in Glasgow, Scotland, hosted by the BBC on 6 September. The presenters were, as in the previous edition, Graham Norton and Claudia Winkleman. The contest took place at the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre.
The winners of contest were Edyta Herbuś and Marcin Mroczek of Poland who achieved a score of 154 points. 2nd place went to Russia, 3rd place to Ukraine, 4th place to Lithuania and 5th place to Azerbaijan who were participating for the first time.
In a change to the rules, professional couples were no longer eligible to enter the contest. At least one dancer from each couple had to be a local celebrity, not professionally trained to dance. A further change was that each couple only performed once. In 2007 each couple performed a ballroom or Latin routine followed by a freestyle dance incorporating national flavour; in the 2008 contest, couples only performed the latter. In 2008 a panel of experts was introduced with an approximate weight of 23% of the total outcome and the rest 77% determined through televoting. The highest possible points from the jury were 48 while the televoting cast a maximum of 156 points.
Location.
The Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) is Scotland's largest exhibition centre, located in the district of Finnieston on the north bank of the River Clyde, Glasgow. The venue's holding company SEC Limited, is 91% owned by Glasgow City Council and 9% owned by private investors. It is probably best known for hosting concerts, particularly in Hall 4 and Hall 3.
Since the opening of the original buildings in 1985, the complex has undergone two major expansions; the first being the Clyde Auditorium in 1997, and then the SSE Hydro Arena in 2013.
The host city and venue was announced by the BBC on 7 July 2008.
Participants.
According to the 2007 rules Section 2.2 on the official website, all entrants in the Eurovision Dance Contest 2007 agreed to take part in 2008 when signing up for the first contest. However, in June 2008, Switzerland announced their withdrawal from the contest without specifying a reason, while Germany also decided to withdraw from the event later the same month, due to comparatively low ratings for the 2007 contest in the country.
The running order was announced on 8 August. Due to a scheduling clash with the FIFA World Cup 2010 preliminaries, the Spanish broadcaster announced its late withdrawal on 28 August, just days before the contest was scheduled to took place. In July they held a national selection show "Quiero Bailar" and named singer Rosa López and dancer Nieto as their representatives in the contest. According to the draw they were supposed to be 15th couple to perform.
As the number of dances was reduced, with each couple performing once instead of twice, new countries were allowed to enter the competition, but the only new country to enter the contest was Azerbaijan.
Controversy.
Azerbaijan and Greece announced professional dance couples as their representatives at the Eurovision Dance Contest 2008. According to the regulations of the contest, professional couples were not allowed to take part in the competition. The EBU specified that the couple had to be composed of one professional (defined as a dancer who earns his or her living through dance and dance-related activities), and one non-professional known in a field other than dance. The non-professional was not required to be a celebrity, as long as he or she was known in his field, and it was also not a requirement that the non-professional had no dance experience. Since the representatives for Azerbaijan and Greece both consisted of two professional dancers, however, it is not clear why their entries were considered valid.
Scoreboard.
It is worth noting that, had the judges not been introduced (and thus only the televote been used), Poland would still have won the competition by 31 points. However, Ukraine and Russia would have shifted places therefore Ukraine would have finished 2nd and Russia finishing 3rd.
12 points.
The maximum twelve points awarded by each country (to the couple who had received the most phone votes) were allocated as follows:
International broadcasts and voting.
Voting and spokespersons.
The order in which each country announced their votes was done in order of performance. The spokespersons are shown alongside each country.
Professional jury.
An expert jury of IDSF international judges from non-participating countries acted as a jury in the contest. After each performance, each jury member awarded each performance with 1 to 12 points. The jury members were:
Commentators.
Most countries sent commentators to Glasgow or commentated from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, provide voting information.
Non-participating countries.
Among the countries that took part, Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Macedonia, Iceland, Israel, Malta and Spain also broadcast the event without sending representatives. In accordance with the rules, Spanish broadcaster TVE were obliged to broadcast the contest live due to their late withdrawal as an active participant. The EBU initially confirmed that the event would be broadcast on the network's second channel La 2 "for the benefit of Spanish viewers", however TVE later confirmed it would be delayed by one hour without specifying a reason.
Australia also broadcast the contest on 6 May 2009, as a lead up to the Eurovision Song Contest 2009, on SBS. This was the first time Australia had broadcast the Eurovision Dance Contest, after failing to broadcast the 2007 edition, and was aired without any commentary.


Subdivisions of Polish territories during World War II

Subdivision of Polish territories during World War II can be divided into several phases, when territories of the Second Polish Republic were administered first by Nazi Germany (in the west) and Soviet Union (in the east), then (following German invasion of the Soviet Union) in their entirety by Nazi Germany and finally (following Soviet push westwards) by the Soviet Union again. Starting with the reform of 1946, the administrative division was returned to Poland (see Administrative division of People's Republic of Poland).
After Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland in 1939, following their invasion, most of the ethnically Polish territory ended up under German control while the areas annexed by the Soviet Union was ethnically diverse peoples with the territory being divided into several areas some of which had a significant non-Polish majority (Ukrainians in the south and Belarusians in the north), many of whom felt alienated in the interwar Poland and welcomed the Soviets. Nonetheless Poles composed the largest single ethnic group on the territories annexed by the Soviets.
Soviet zone (1939–1941).
By the end of the Polish Defensive War the Soviet Union had taken over 52.1% of the territory of Poland (circa 200,000 km²), with over 13,700,000 people. The estimates vary; Professor Elżbieta Trela-Mazur gives the following numbers in regards to the ethnic composition of these areas: 38% Poles (ca. 5.1 million people), 37% Ukrainians, 14.5% Belarusians, 8.4% Jews, 0.9% Russians and 0.6% Germans. There were also 336,000 refugees from areas occupied by Germany, most of them Jews (198,000). Areas occupied by the USSR were annexed to Soviet territory, with the exception of area of Wilno, which was transferred to Lithuania, although soon attached to USSR, when Lithuania became a Soviet republic.
Under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact, adjusted by agreement on 28 September 1939, the Soviet Union, annexed all Polish territory east of the line of the rivers Pisa, Narew, Bug and San, except for the area around Wilno (Vilnius), which was given to Lithuania, and the Suwałki region, which was annexed by Germany. These territories were largely inhabited by Ukrainians and Belarusians, with minorities of Poles and Jews (see exact numbers in Curzon line). The total area, including the area given to Lithuania, was 201,000 square kilometres, with a population of 13.5 million. A small strip of land that was part of Hungary before 1914, was also given to Slovakia.
German zone (1939–1945).
Annexation of selected Polish territories.
Under the terms of two decrees by Hitler (8 October and 12 October 1939), large areas of western Poland were annexed to Germany. These included all the territories taken by Prussia in Partitions of Poland which Germany subsequently lost under the 1918 Treaty of Versailles, including the Polish Corridor, Wielkopolska, as well as territories divided after plebiscites such as Upper Silesia, as well as a large area east of these territories, including the city of Łódź.
The area of these annexed territories was 94,000 square kilometres and the population was about 10 million, the great majority of whom were Poles. The annexed parts were controlled by a German administration ruled by a Gauleiter, a system similar in practice to that of the Reich itself. Nearly 1 million Poles were expelled from this German ruled area, while 600,000 Germans from eastern Europe and 400,000 from the German Reich were settled there.
Creation of General Government.
The remaining block of territory was placed under a German administration called the General Government (in German "Generalgouvernement für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete"), with its capital at Kraków. The General Government was subdivided into four districts, Warsaw, Lublin, Radom, and Kraków ("Distrikt Krakau").
A German lawyer and prominent Nazi, Hans Frank, was appointed "Governor-General of the occupied Polish territories" on 26 October 1939. Frank oversaw the segregation of the Jews into Nazi ghettos in the larger cities, particularly Warsaw, and the use of Polish civilians as forced and slave labour in German war industries.
German invasion of the Soviet Union.
After Operation Barbarossa, the June 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Polish territories previously annexed to the Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics were organized by the Germans as follows:
Return of Soviet administration (1944–1945).
Soviet forces returned to former territories of the Second Polish Republic during the 1944 summer offensive, Operation Bagration, specifically in the Lublin–Brest Offensive), leading to Vistula–Oder Offensive of 1945. However, in terms of international politics, a far more important victory was won by Joseph Stalin already in 1943, when the Western Allies yielded to his demands during the Tehran Conference, for the annexation of eastern Poland by the Soviet Union.
With full Soviet control and sponsorship, in July 1944, the Polish Committee of National Liberation ("Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego", PKWN), a Polish provisional government was formed. Its purpose was to administer the territories earmarked for the return to the newly reformed Poland. Starting with the communist decrees of 1946, the legal powers were passed on to local administration (see Administrative division of People's Republic of Poland).
Destruction of the Polish Underground State.
Throughout World War II, Poland had a unique underground administration maintained by the Polish Underground State. For regional divisions of Poland by the underground army known as Armia Krajowa, see areas and regions of operation. Following the German surrender, Soviet agencies such as NKVD and SMERSH proceeded to eliminate all structures originating from the prewar Second Polish Republic. Over 20,000 Poles, including the hero of Auschwitz, Witold Pilecki, were murdered in communist prisons.


German Instrument of Surrender

The German Instrument of Surrender (; ) was the legal document that effected the extinction of Nazi Germany and ended World War II in Europe. The definitive text was signed in Karlshorst, Berlin, on the night of 8 May 1945 by representatives of the three armed services of the "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" (OKW) and the Allied Expeditionary Force together with the Supreme High Command of the Soviet Red Army, with further French and US representatives signing as witnesses. The signing took place 8 May 1945 at 21:20 local time.
An earlier version of the text had been signed in a ceremony in Reims in the early hours of 7 May 1945. In most of Europe, 8 May is celebrated as Victory in Europe Day; 9 May is celebrated as Victory Day in Russia, Belarus, Serbia and Israel.
There were three language versions of the surrender documentRussian, English and German – with the Russian and English versions proclaimed, in the text itself, as the only authoritative ones.
Surrender texts.
Representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, working through the European Advisory Commission throughout 1944, sought to prepare an agreed surrender text to be used in the potential circumstances of Nazi power being overthrown within Germany either by military or civil authorities, and a post-Nazi government then seeking an armistice. By 3 January 1944, the Working Security Committee in the EAC proposed:
The committee further suggested that the instrument of surrender be signed by representatives of the German High Command. The considerations behind this recommendation were to prevent the repetition of the so-called stab-in-the-back myth, where extremists in Germany claimed that since the Armistice of 11 November 1918 had been signed only by civilians, the High Command of the Army carried no responsibility for the instrument of defeat or for the defeat itself.
Not everyone agreed with the Committee's predictions. Ambassador William Strang, 1st Baron Strang, British representative at the EAC, claimed:
The surrender terms for Germany were initially discussed at the first EAC meeting on 14 January 1944. A definitive three-part text was agreed on 28 July 1944 and adopted by the three Allied Powers.
The first part consisted of a brief preamble: "The German Government and German High Command, recognising and acknowledging the complete defeat of the German armed forces on land, at sea and in the air, hereby announce Germany's unconditional surrender".
The second part, articles 1–5, related to the military surrender by the German High Command of all forces on land, at sea and in the air, to the surrender of their weapons, to their evacuation from any territory outside German boundaries as they stood on 31 December 1937, and to their liability to captivity as prisoners of war.
The third part, articles 6 to 12, related to the surrender by the German government to Allied representatives of almost all its powers and authority, the release and repatriation of prisoners and forced labourers, the cessation of radio broadcasts, the provision of intelligence and information, the maintenance of weapons and infrastructure, the yielding of Nazi leaders for war crimes trials, and the power of Allied Representatives to issue proclamations, orders, ordinances, and instructions covering "additional political, administrative, economic, financial, military and other requirements arising from the complete defeat of Germany". The key article in the third section was article 12, which provided that the German government and German High Command would comply fully with any proclamations, orders, ordinances and instructions of the accredited Allied representatives. This was understood by the Allies as allowing unlimited scope to impose arrangements for the restitution and reparation of damages. Articles 13 and 14 specified the date of surrender and the languages of the definitive texts.
The Yalta Conference in February 1945 led to a further development of the terms of surrender, as it was agreed that administration of post-war Germany would be split into four occupation zones for Britain, France, the United States and the Soviet Union. It was also agreed at Yalta that an additional clause "12a," would be added to the July 1944 surrender text. It stated that the Allied representatives "will take such steps, including the complete disarmament, demilitarisation and dismemberment of Germany as they deem requisite for future peace and security." The Provisional Government of the French Republic, however, was not party to the Yalta agreement and refused to recognise it, which created a diplomatic problem as formal inclusion of the additional clause in the EAC text would inevitably create a French demand for equal representation in any dismemberment decisions. While this was unresolved, there were in effect two versions of the EAC text, one with the "dismemberment clause" and one without.
By the end of March 1945, the British government began to doubt whether, once Germany had been completely overpowered, there would be any post-Nazi German civil authority capable of signing the instrument of surrender or of putting its provisions into effect. They proposed that the EAC text should be redrafted as a unilateral declaration of German defeat by the Allied Powers, and of their assumption of supreme authority following the total dissolution of the German state. It was in this form that the text agreed by the EAC was finally effected as the Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany.
Meanwhile, the Combined Chiefs of Staff of the Western Allies agreed in August 1944 to general guidelines for the terms of local military surrenders to be concluded with any capitulating German forces. They mandated that capitulation had to be unconditional and restricted to the purely military aspects of a local surrender, that no commitments were to be given to the enemy, and that surrender was to be without prejudice to any subsequent general instrument of surrender which might replace any document of partial surrender and which would be jointly imposed on Germany by the three primary Allied Powers. These guidelines formed the basis for the series of partial capitulations of German forces to the Western Allies in April and May 1945.
As the German surrender actually happened, the EAC text was substituted by a simplified, military-only version based on the wording of the partial surrender instrument of German forces in Italy signed at the surrender of Caserta. The reasons for the change are disputed but may have reflected awareness of the reservations being expressed as to the capability of the German signatories to agree the provisions of the full text or the continued uncertainty over communicating the "dismemberment clause" to the French.
Context.
On 30 April 1945, Adolf Hitler killed himself in his "Führerbunker", under the Reich Chancellery, having drawn up a testament in which Admiral Karl Dönitz succeeded him as Head of State, with the title of Reich President. But with the fall of Berlin two days later, and American and Soviet forces having linked up at Torgau on the Elbe, the area of Germany still under German military control had been split in two. Moreover, the speed of the final Allied advances of March 1945 – together with Hitler's insistent orders to stand and fight to the last – had left the bulk of surviving German forces in isolated pockets and occupied territories, mostly outside the boundaries of pre-Nazi Germany. Dönitz attempted to form a government at Flensburg on the Danish border, and was joined there on 2 May 1945 by the "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" (OKW) (English: "German High Command") under Wilhelm Keitel, which had previously relocated, first to Krampnitz near Potsdam, and then to Rheinsberg, during the Battle of Berlin. But, although Dönitz sought to present his government as 'unpolitical', there was no repudiation of Nazism, the Nazi Party was not banned, leading Nazis were not detained, and the symbols of Nazism remained in place. Both the Soviets and the Americans remained adamant in not recognising Dönitz or the Flensburg Government as capable of representing the German state.
At Hitler's death German armies remained in the Atlantic pockets of La Rochelle, St Nazaire, Lorient, Dunkirk and the Channel Islands; the Greek Islands of Crete, Rhodes and the Dodecanese; southern Norway; Denmark; the northwestern Netherlands; northern Croatia; northern Italy; Austria; Bohemia and Moravia; the Courland peninsula in Latvia; the Hela peninsula in Poland and in Germany towards Hamburg, facing British and Canadian forces; in Mecklenburg, Pomerania and the besieged city of Breslau, facing Soviet forces; and in southern Bavaria towards Berchtesgaden, facing American and French forces.
Instruments of partial surrender in the West.
German forces in Italy and Western Austria.
German military commanders in Italy had been conducting secret negotiations for a partial surrender; which was signed at Caserta on 29 April 1945, to come into effect on 2 May. Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, with overall military command for OKW-South, initially denounced the capitulation; but once Hitler's death had been confirmed, acceded to it.
German forces in Northwest Germany, Netherlands, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein.
On 4 May 1945, German forces acting under instruction from the Dönitz Government and facing the British and Canadian 21st Army Group, signed an act of surrender at Lüneburg Heath to come into effect on 5 May.
German forces in Bavaria and southern Germany.
On 5 May 1945, all German forces in Bavaria and Southwest Germany signed an act of surrender to the Americans at Haar, outside Munich; coming into effect on 6 May.
The impetus for the Caserta capitulation had arisen from within the local German military command; but from 2 May 1945, the Dönitz government assumed control of the process, pursuing a deliberate policy of successive partial capitulations in the west to play for time in order to bring as many as possible of the eastern military formations westwards so as to save them from Soviet or Yugoslav captivity, and surrender them intact to the British and Americans. In addition, Dönitz hoped to continue to evacuate soldiers and civilians by sea from the Hela peninsula and the surrounding Baltic coastal areas. Dönitz and Keitel were resolved against issuing any orders to surrender to Soviet forces, both from undiminished anti-Bolshevism; but also because they could not be confident they would be obeyed, and might consequently place troops continuing to fight in the position of refusing a direct order, thereby stripping them of any legal protection as prisoners of war.
Following these partial capitulations, the major remaining German forces in the field (other than those bottled-up on islands and fortress-ports) consisted of Army Group Ostmark facing Soviet forces in eastern Austria and western Bohemia; Army Group E facing Yugoslav forces in Croatia; the remains of Army Group Vistula facing Soviet forces in Mecklenburg; and Army Group Centre facing Soviet forces in eastern Bohemia and Moravia. From 5 May, Army Group Centre was also engaged in the brutal suppression of the Prague uprising. An occupying army of around 400,000 well-equipped German troops remained in Norway, under the command of General Franz Böhme, who was contacted by the German Minister in Sweden early on 6 May, to determine whether a further partial capitulation might be arranged for his forces with neutral Sweden acting as an intermediary, but he was unwilling to comply with anything other than a general surrender order from the German High Command. The surrenders in the west had succeeded in ceasing hostilities between the Western allies and German forces on almost all fronts. At the same time however, the broadcast orders of the Dönitz government continued to oppose any acts of German surrender to Soviet forces in Courland, Bohemia and Mecklenburg; indeed attempting to countermand ongoing surrender negotiations both in Berlin and Breslau. German forces in the east were ordered instead to fight their way westwards. Conscious that, if this were to continue, the Soviet Command would suspect that the Western allies were intending a separate peace (as indeed was exactly Dönitz's intention), Eisenhower determined that no further partial surrenders would be agreed in the West; but instead instructed the Dönitz government to send representatives to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) headquarters in Reims, to agree terms for a general surrender of all German forces simultaneously to all the Allied powers, including the Soviets.
Surrender ceremonies.
Surrender in Reims.
Dönitz's representative, Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg, informed him on 6 May that Eisenhower was now insisting on "immediate, simultaneous and unconditional surrender on all fronts." General Alfred Jodl was sent to Reims to attempt to persuade Eisenhower otherwise, but Eisenhower shortcircuited any discussion by announcing at 9.00 p.m. on the 6th that, in the absence of a complete capitulation, he would close British and American lines to surrendering German forces at midnight on 8 May and resume the bombing offensive against remaining German-held positions and towns. Jodl telegraphed this message to Dönitz, who responded, authorising him to sign the instrument of unconditional surrender, but subject to negotiating a 48-hour delay, ostensibly to enable the surrender order to be communicated to outlying German military units.
Consequently, the first Instrument of Surrender was signed in Reims at 02:41 Central European Time (CET) on 7 May 1945. The signing took place in a red brick schoolhouse, the , that served as the SHAEF headquarters. It was to take effect at 23:01 CET (one minute after 11:00 pm, British Double Summer Time) on 8 May, the 48-hour grace period having been back-dated to the start of final negotiations.
The unconditional surrender of the German armed forces was signed by Jodl, on behalf of the OKW. Walter Bedell Smith signed on behalf of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force and General Ivan Susloparov on behalf of the Soviet High Command. French Major-General François Sevez signed as the official witness.
Eisenhower had proceeded throughout in consultation with General Aleksei Antonov of the Soviet High Command; and at his request, General Susloparov had been seconded to the SHAEF Headquarters to represent the Soviet High Command in the surrender negotiations. The text of the act of surrender had been telegraphed to General Antonov in the early hours of 7 May, but no confirmation of Soviet approval had been received by the time of the surrender ceremony, nor was there confirmation that General Susloparov was empowered to sign as representing the Soviet High Command. Accordingly, Eisenhower agreed with Susloparov that a separate text should be signed by the German emissaries; undertaking that fully empowered representatives of each of the German armed services would attend a formal ratification of the act of surrender at a time and place designated by the Allied High Commands.
Surrender in Berlin.
Some six hours after the Reims signing, a response was received from the Soviet High Command stating that the Act of Surrender was unacceptable, both because the text differed from that agreed by the EAC, and because Susloparov had not been empowered to sign. These objections were however, pretexts; the substantive Soviet objection was that the act of surrender ought to be a unique, singular, historical event fully reflecting the leading contribution of the Soviet people to the final victory. They maintained that it should not be held on liberated territory that had been victimized by German aggression, but at the seat of government from where that German aggression sprang: Berlin. Furthermore, the Soviets pointed out that, although the terms of the surrender signed in Reims required German forces to cease all military activities and remain in their current positions; they were not explicitly required to lay down their arms and give themselves up, "what has to happen here is the surrender of German troops, giving themselves up as prisoners". Eisenhower immediately agreed, acknowledging that the act of surrender signed in Reims should be considered "a brief instrument of unconditional military surrender", and undertook to attend with correctly accredited representatives of the German High Command for a "more formal signing" of a suitably amended text presided over by Marshal Georgy Zhukov in Berlin on 8 May. Furthermore, he issued a clarificatory statement that any German forces continuing to fight against the Soviets after the stated deadline would "no longer have the status of soldiers"; and hence, if they were to surrender to the Americans or British, would then be handed back into Soviet captivity.
The effect of the Reims signing was limited to a consolidation of the effective ceasefire between German forces and the Western Allies. Fighting continued unabated in the east however, especially as German forces now intensified their air and ground assault against the Prague uprising, while the seaborne evacuation of German troops across the Baltic continued. Dönitz issued new commands that resistance to Soviet forces should be maintained, taking advantage of the 48-hour grace period to order redoubled efforts to save German military units from Soviet captivity; and it soon became clear that he had authorised the signing of a general surrender at Reims in bad faith, and that consequently neither the Soviet Command nor the German forces would accept the Reims surrender as effecting an end to hostilities between them. General Ferdinand Schörner commanding Army Group Centre, broadcast a message to his troops on 8 May 1945 denouncing "false rumours" that the OKW had surrendered to the Soviet Command as well as the Western Allies; "The struggle in the west however is over. But there can be no question of surrender to the Bolsheviks."
Consequently, Eisenhower arranged for the commanders in chief of each of the three German armed services in person to be flown from Flensburg to Berlin early on 8 May; where they were kept waiting through the day until 10:00 p.m. when the Allied delegation arrived, at which point the amended surrender text was provided to them. The definitive Act of Military Surrender was dated as being signed before midnight on 8 May at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin-Karlshorst, now the location of the German-Russian Museum Berlin-Karlshorst. Since Eisenhower as Supreme Allied Commander for Western Europe technically outranked Zhukov, the act of signing on behalf of the Western Allies passed to his deputy, Air Chief Marshal Tedder. The proposed Soviet amendments to the Reims surrender text were accepted without difficulty by the Western Allies; but the identification and designation of the Allied signatories proved more problematic. French forces operated under SHAEF command, but General de Gaulle was demanding that General de Tassigny sign separately for the French High Command; but in that case it would be politically unacceptable for there to be no American signature on the definitive surrender document, while the Soviets would not agree to there being more than three Allied signatories in total – one of whom would have to be Zhukov. After repeated redrafts, all of which needed translating and retyping, it was finally agreed that both French and American signatures would be as witnesses. But the consequence was that the final versions were not ready for signing until after midnight. Consequently, the physical signing was delayed until nearly 1.00 a.m. on 9 May, Central European Time; and then back-dated to 8 May to be consistent with the Reims agreement and the public announcements of the surrender already made by Western leaders.
The definitive Act of Military Surrender differed from the Reims signing principally in respect of requiring three German signatories, who could fully represent all three armed services together with the German High Command. Otherwise the amended text set out an expanded article 2, now requiring German forces to disarm and hand over their weapons to local allied commanders. This clause had the effect of ensuring that German military forces would not only cease military operations against regular allied forces; but would also disarm themselves, disband, and be taken into captivity. Field Marshal Keitel initially balked at the amended text, proposing that an additional grace period of 12 hours be granted to surrendering German forces, before they might be exposed to punitive action for non-compliance under article 5. In the event, he had to be satisfied with a verbal assurance from Zhukov.
Admiral Friedeburg was the only representative of the German forces to be present at the signing of the German instruments of surrender at Luneburg Heath on 4 May 1945, in Reims on 7 May and in Berlin on 8 May 1945. "Generaladmiral" von Friedeburg committed suicide shortly afterwards, on 23 May 1945, upon the dissolution of the Flensburg Government.
For the most part, the Berlin signing did the job required of it; with German forces in Courland and the Atlantic outposts all surrendering on 9 May within the informal 12-hour grace period. Surrender to the Soviets in Bohemia and Moravia took rather longer to achieve, with some German forces in Bohemia continuing to attempt to fight their way towards the American lines. Nevertheless, the principle of a common surrender broadly held; and units seeking to defy it were denied passage west, perforce having to surrender to the Soviets. The exception was Army Group E in Croatia, which fought on for several days attempting to force an escape from the partisan forces of Marshal Tito, such that many soldiers from these units did succeed in surrendering to General Alexander in Italy. These included considerable numbers of Ustase collaboration troops, who were subsequently returned to Yugoslavia; and who were all promptly executed without trial.
VE Day and Victory Day.
The Reims signing ceremony had been attended by considerable numbers of reporters, all of whom were bound by a 36-hour embargo against reporting the capitulation. As it became clear that there would need to be a definitive second signing before the Act of Surrender could become operative, Eisenhower agreed that the news blackout should remain; so that all Allied powers could celebrate Victory in Europe together on 9 May 1945. However, Edward Kennedy of the Associated Press news agency in Paris broke the embargo on 7 May, with the consequence that the German surrender was headline news in the western media on 8 May. Realising that it had become politically impossible to keep to the original timetable, it was eventually agreed that the Western Allies would celebrate Victory in Europe Day on 8 May, but that western leaders would not make their formal proclamations of Victory until that evening (when the Berlin signing ceremony should be imminent). The Soviet government made no public acknowledgement of the Reims signing, which they did not recognise; and so, maintaining the original dates, celebrated Victory Day on 9 May 1945.
The signing in Berlin took place on 9 May 1945 at 00:16 local time. The capitulation was effective retrospectively, from 8 May 1945 at 23:01 Central European Time. That means time of both signing and capitulation was on 9 May at 01:01 according to Moscow Time.
"Declaration regarding the defeat of Germany".
Although the German military signatories of the May 1945 German Instruments of Surrender had been acting under instructions from Admiral Dönitz, none of the Allied Governments recognised the acting Flensburg Government as validly exercising civil power, and consequently the Allies had insisted that the German signatories should explicitly represent the German High Command alone. On 23 May 1945, the purported German government in Flensburg was abolished, and its members taken into captivity as prisoners of war.
Diplomatic relations and embassies.
During 1944 and 1945 formerly neutral countries, and former German allies, had been joining the Allied powers and declaring war on Germany. The German embassies to these countries had been closed down, with their property and archives held in trust by a nominated protecting power (usually Switzerland or Sweden) under the terms of the Geneva Conventions; with counterpart arrangements for the former embassies of Allied countries in Berlin. The United States State Department had prepared for the diplomatic consequences of the war's ending on the assumption that there would have been an explicit statement of unconditional surrender of the German state in accordance with the agreed EAC surrender text. In the final days of April 1945, the State Department had notified the protecting powers, and all other remaining neutral governments (such as Ireland), that following the forthcoming German surrender, the continued identity of the German state would rest solely in the four Allied Powers, who would immediately recall all German diplomatic staff, take ownership of all German state property, extinguish all protecting power functions, and require the transfer of all archives and records to one or another of the embassies of the western Allies. On 8 May 1945, these arrangements were put into effect in full, notwithstanding that the only German parties to the signed surrender document had been the German High Command; the western Allies maintaining that a functioning German state had already ceased to exist, and consequently that the surrender of the German military had effected the complete termination of Nazi Germany. As the protecting powers complied fully with the Allied demands, the German state ceased as a diplomatic entity on 8 May 1945 (Imperial Japan, the only remaining Axis belligerent, having already denounced the German surrender and unilaterally seized the German embassy in Tokyo).
Berlin Declaration (1945).
Nevertheless, as the surrender instrument of 8 May 1945 had been signed only by German military representatives, the full civil provisions for the unconditional surrender of Germany remained without explicit formal basis. Consequently, the EAC text for Unconditional Surrender of Germany, redrafted as a declaration and with an extended explanatory preamble, was adopted unilaterally by the now four Allied Powers as the "Declaration regarding the defeat of Germany" on 5 June 1945. This spelled out the Allied position that as a result of its complete defeat Germany had no government or central authority, and that the vacated civil authority in Germany had consequently been assumed solely by the four Allied Representative Powers (the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the French Republic) on behalf of the Allied Governments overall, an authority subsequently constituted into the Allied Control Council. Stalin had, however, already backtracked on his previous support for the principle of German dismemberment, publicly renouncing any such policy in his victory proclamation to the Soviet people of 8 May 1945. Consequently, there was no "dismemberment clause" in the Berlin declaration text.


Uliana of Tver

Uliana Alexandrovna of Tver (; – 17 March 1391) was a daughter of Prince Alexander of Tver and Anastasia of Halych (daughter of Yuri I of Galicia). She was the second wife of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania.
Life.
After her father and eldest brother were murdered by Öz Beg Khan in 1339, Uliana was placed in care of Simeon of Moscow, who married Uliana's elder sister Maria in 1347.
In 1349, Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, sent an embassy to the Golden Horde, proposing to khan Jani Beg to form an alliance against Prince Simeon of Moscow; this proposal was not accepted and the envoys, including Algirdas' brother Karijotas, were imprisoned and held for ransom. In 1350, Algirdas then concluded peace with Simeon and married Simeon's sister-in-law Uliana. Simeon first asked an opinion of Metropolitan Theognostus whether a Christian lady could be married off to a pagan ruler. The same year, Algirdas' brother Liubartas married Olga, daughter of Konstantin Vasilyevich of Rostov and niece of Simeon.
According to research of Polish historian Jan Tęgowski, Uliana and Algirdas had eight sons and eight daughters (though other sources provide different data). It seems that the children, unlike children from Algirdas' first marriage with Maria of Vitebsk, were brought up in pagan culture. Uliana's son Jogaila (and not Algirdas' eldest son Andrei of Polotsk) inherited the throne and became Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1377. Uliana, as dowager grand duchess, appeared in national politics and was involved in the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–84) as well as an unsuccessful attempt to wed Jogaila with Sophia, daughter of Dmitri Donskoi, and convert him to Eastern Orthodoxy. The plans failed when Jogaila converted to Roman Catholicism, married Jadwiga of Poland, and was crowned King of Poland (jure uxoris) in 1386.
Death and burial.
There are conflicting claims about Uliana's last years and her burial place. One account claims that Uliana became a nun under the name Marina in the Monastery of the Holy Spirit in Vitebsk and was buried there. Another claim, based on a silver plaque discovered during an 1810 construction, has it that she was buried in the Cathedral of the Theotokos in Vilnius. The Nikon Chronicle recorded that she was an nun at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and was buried there. The newest discovery was made during a restoration of the Transfiguration Church in Polotsk in March 2012. An inscription was found that recorded Uliana's death on the feast of Saint Alexius, which is March 17 in Eastern Orthodoxy. On December 5, 2018, Uliana of Tver was canonized by the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.


Topographic Relations of Philip II

Topographic Relations of the towns from Spain, made under the command of Philip II (Spanish: "Relaciones topográficas de los pueblos de España, hechas de orden de Felipe II") is the name by which is commonly known a statistical work supported and encouraged by Philip II of Spain.
The original aim of the project was to offer a detailed description of all the settlements of the kingdoms under his command. By royal order, an extensive questionnaire was sent out, but only a limited number of settlements were actually described in the completed work.


Addizione Erculea

The Addizione Erculea or Erculean Addition is the area of urban expansion created in 1492 by the enlargement of the walled city limits of Ferrara, Italy. It is celebrated as an example of Renaissance urban planning.
The walled medieval city of Ferrara was geographically limited from southward expansion by a branch of the delta of the Po river. In 1450, the prior Duke, Borso d'Este (1450) had enlarged slightly the city southward with reclaimed land from the river banks.
However, Ercole d'Este had suffered from attacks and sieges from Venice to the north and the Papal states to the South. In 1492, in order to accommodate the burgeoning city and create a more daunting city-fortress to withstand sieges, Ercole d'Este commissioned plans from the architect Biagio Rossetti for an urban expansion north of the city. The walls at this border coincided with the north flank of the Castello Estense. These walls were razed and the moat, present Corso Giovecca, was filled in. Unlike the dense haphazard tracks of the medieval center, the Addizione created a main east-west road (analogous to a Decumanus Maximus) represented now by Corso Porta Po, Biagio Rosetti, and Porta Mare; and north-south street (analogous to a Cardo Maximus) represented by the now Corso Ercole I d'Este parting from the Castello.
The Addizione more than doubled the size of the walled town and included areas for cultivation and private parks (now encompassed by the Cemetery of the Certosa and the Jewish cemetery). Among the buildings erected over the next decades and centuries in this sector were the Palazzina di Marfisa d'Este, the church of Santa Chiara, Palazzo Roverella; the Palazzo Prosperi-Sacrati; the church of Teatini; the church of San Carlo, and the 17th century Teatro Comunale.
The walls of Ferrara once spanned 13 kilometers, some 9 kilometers still stand, mainly to the north and east of the city. The Porta degli Angeli was an original Northern entrance to the Addizione Erculea.


Anta da Estria

The Anta da Estria is a megalithic dolmen situated between Belas and Queluz in the Lisbon District of Portugal. Based on datings of human remains, it is believed to date back to the late-Neolithic and early-Chalcolithic eras (4000-2500 BC). The Anta da Estria, the Anta do Monte Abraão and the Anta da Pedra dos Mouros (also known as the Anta do Senhor da Serra) are collectively known as the Antas de Belas, and were first identified in the 1870s by Carlos Ribeiro (1813-1882), who is regarded as the "father" of Portuguese prehistoric archaeology.
The dolmen is presently in a much-degraded condition and difficult to access. It was almost destroyed by construction in the 1990s of Portugal’s A9 motorway but was eventually incorporated into the landscaped area of a service station for that highway, facilitating easy access. However, the service area has since been closed and access by cars has been blocked. Pedestrian access remains possible, using a footbridge over a motorway slip road.
Carlos Ribeiro, who carried out research in early 1875 and published his results in 1880, described the tomb as having a polygonal chamber, 2-5 metres wide and 2.75 metres high, approached by a corridor bordered by small slabs of limestone. Later excavations carried out by what is now the Portuguese Institute of Architectural and Archaeological Heritage (IPPAR), of the Direção-Geral do Património Cultural (Directorate-General for Cultural Heritage), under the direction of Ana Carvalho Dias have shown the corridor to make use of a pre-existing inclined depression in the rock. This dictated the orientation of the tomb, which points to 212-13 degrees west. Ribeiro identified nine raised slabs but did not identify any stones that could have formed a roof. He considered all of the slabs to have been locally sourced, and this has been confirmed by subsequent research. The hard limestone is similar to that used for the other Antas de Belas.
Limited artifacts have been discovered at the site but many are thought to have been removed prior to the discovery by Ribeiro. Twelve arrowheads were identified, together with two bone artifacts and three small, almost-complete pots. While human remains were found, Ribeiro did not feel confident to identify the number of burials that had taken place at the tomb, which he had done for the Anta do Monte Abraão.