Treaty of Bosque Redondo

The Treaty of Bosque Redondo (also the Navajo Treaty of 1868 or Treaty of Fort Sumner, Navajo or ) was an agreement between the Navajo and the US Federal Government signed on June 1, 1868. It ended the Navajo Wars and allowed for the return of those held in internment camps at Fort Sumner following the Long Walk of 1864. The treaty effectively established the Navajo as a sovereign nation.
Background.
Following conflicts between the Navajo and US forces, and scorched earth tactics employed by Kit Carson, which included the burning of tribal crops and livestock, James Henry Carleton issued an order in 1862 that all Navajo would relocate to the Bosque Redondo Reservation near Fort Sumner, in what was then the New Mexico Territory. Those who refused would face "immediate military action". This culminated in the Long Walk of 1864, wherein some 8,000 to 10,000 Navajo and Apache, including women and children, were forced to march over 350 miles from their native land near the Four Corners area.
According to Carleton's planned assimilation, while at Bosque Redondo the Navajo would "become farmers, would live in villages, and would be instructed in Christianity and other American practices". However, the site up, and personally chosen by Carleton, proved difficult and expensive to maintain, and the conditions for those interned there deplorable. Farming was impractical in the poor quality soil, with inadequate irrigation, and the unpredictable and occasionally destructive waters of the Pecos River. What crops grew were destroyed by worms and floods. Many died of disease and starvation. According to one estimate, from March to December 1865, the total population dropped from approximately 9,000 to some 6,000.
Meanwhile, Bosque Redondo was incurring great expense to the government to maintain. In 1865 the cost of feeding and guarding the Navajo reached some $1,250,000. General William T. Sherman wrote to General James Carleton that the government "cannot and will not maintain" this "extravagant system of expendature," and joked to General John A. Rawlins, that they would be better off sending the Navajo to the "Fifth Avenue Hotel to board at the cost of the United States." By Sherman's own calculation, Bosque Redondo would cost the government some $2,002,277 between 1865 and 1868.
Issues of the camp and the fate of those interred there was debated in Congress, and the Doolittle Committee was formed, led by Chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs James Rood Doolittle, in order to in part investigate the squalid conditions and provide recommendations to Congress. Eventually in 1867, Carleton was removed from command. The newly formed Indian Peace Commission, established to resolve the pressing issues of the western tribes, made their official report in January of the following year and recommended their course of action concerning the Navajo, that "a treaty be made with them, or their consent in some way [be] obtained, to remove at an early day to the southern district selected by us, where they may soon be made self- supporting."
After negotiating the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie, peace commissioners William Tecumseh Sherman along with Samuel F. Tappan departed to treat with the Navajo and bring an end to their current arrangement. There they met with Barboncito as tribal representative along with 10 headsmen.
Negotiations.
Sherman and Tappan arrived at Fort Sumner on May 28, 1868 with full authority granted by Congress earlier that year to negotiate a treaty. The conditions on the reservation "deeply impressed Sherman" and "appalled Tappan". Tappan likened the plight of the Navajo to that of prisoners of war during the Civil War, imprisoned at Andersonville, Georgia, where conditions deteriorated so dramatically nearly 13,000 had died there. In Sherman's words, "The Navajos had sunk into a condition of absolute poverty and despair."
Initially, Sherman proposed moving the Navajo to the Indian Territory, in what would become the US state of Oklahoma. He offered to send a delegation there at the government's expense. Barboncito refused, and the Navajo resolved that they would not plant again at Bosque Redondo. Barboncito recited his grievances, according to one source:
the crowding together and dying of his people and their stock, their toil in vain, the cursed ground and the shame of going to the commissary for food, the grubbing of mesquite roots for fuel and carrying them on one's back for miles and miles, the Comanches' murderous raids."
The Indian Bureau agent impressed upon the commissioners, that the Navajo were resolute that they should not remain at Bosque Redondo, and although they had remained peaceable thus far, "if not permitted to return to their own country, would leave anyway, comitting depredations as they went." Sherman telegraphed to Senator John B. Henderson, who had assumed the chair of the Indian Affairs Committee, advising him that "the Navajos were unalterably opposed to any resettlement in Texas, or any place further east, and would not remain at the Bosque Redondo without the use of overwhelming military force."
Tappan had been in favor of a return to their homeland from the outset, and Sherman relented, convinced that the land was unfit for white settlement, and that he had failed in his efforts to divert the Navajo elsewhere. What was left was to define the area to which they would return, and negotiations (through the double language barrier of translation from English to Spanish, and then from Spanish to Navajo) were not well understood. He agreed they could go outside the reservation to hunt and trade, but must make their homes and farms within its bounds, the area of which he overestimated by nearly double. A dozen miles south of the proposed reservation lay the surveyed route for planned rail construction along the 35th parallel, land which had been promised to the railroad for forty miles on either side.
Signing.
Ultimately, regardless of what may have been put down on the "white man's document", the Navajo thought "only of going home". In total, 29 would make their mark, and the treaty was signed on June 1, 1868. It was ratified by the senate on June 24, 1868, and signed by President Andrew Johnson on August 12.
Provisions.
The treaty was divided into 13 articles. Much of the substance was modeled after the Treaty of Fort Laramie crafted for the Sioux earlier that year, and similar to many other such treaties, Bosque Redondo included a number of so-called civilization or assimilation provisions, designed to incentivize a transition to a landed agricultural existence. Provisions of the treaty included the following:
Aftermath and legacy.
The signing of the treaty, as a treaty, and so defined by the US government as "an agreement between two nations", effectively established the sovereignty of the Navajo Nation, although still dependent on the federal government. However, according to historian Jennifer Nez Denetdale, the treaty was also "the point at which the Navajo people lost their freedom and autonomy, and came under American colonial rule." Denetale continues:
In affixing their X-marks to paper, Diné [Navajo] leader both affirmed Diné sovereignty and acknowledged the authority of the United States to limit tribal sovereignty. They did what they had to do in an impossible situation to allow their people to have a future.
In their "Long Walk Home", the Navajo became a rare example in US history of native people successfully returning to their ancestral lands after being forcibly removed. Although in some respect the treated ended Carleton's Bosque Redondo experiment in failure, he had succeeded in ending the Navajo wars, nullifying the independence of the Navajo, and rendering them "wards of the government".
On June 18, 1868, the group of 8,000, accompanied by some 2,000 sheep and 1,000 horses set off at a pace of per day. The group arrived too late in the year to their homeland for the planting season, and were "forced to reply on rations, wild foods" and those Navajo who had avoided the long captivity at Bosque Redondo and had maintained their herds. The people would continue to struggle against their poverty for several years.
The land the newly established Navajo reservation was between 10% and 25% the size of their original lands, and did not include much of the best grazing land, much of which had been occupied by white settlers during the Navajo's internment at Bosque Redondo. The boundaries of the reservation remained nebulous, with as many as half living off the reservation by 1869, and even the army officers in the area were themselves unsure where the limits of the Navajo land may have been. This proved advantageous for both parties. First for the Navajo, who enjoyed the greater freedom of movement allowed by lax enforcement, and also for the government, who could then claim the Navajo failed to respect their agreement, and abrogate their own obligations, saving tens of millions of dollars in subsidies.
Of the benefits the government agreed to provide to the Navajo, none ever fully materialized.
Commemoration.
June 1, 1868 is remembered among the Navajo as Treaty Day, and has since been commemorated, including on June 1, 1999, when thousands gathered at a ceremony held at Northern Arizona University. In May 2018, one of two surviving original copies of the treaty was moved to the Navajo Nation Museum, for display as part of the 150th anniversary of the signing. Ceremonies commemorating the 150th anniversary were also held at the Bosque Redondo Memorial, established in 2005, which includes a museum where the second surviving copy was displayed.


Providence Biltmore

The Graduate Providence is an upscale hotel that opened in 1922 as the Providence Biltmore Hotel, part of the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels chain. It is located on the southern corner of Kennedy Plaza at 11 Dorrance Street in downtown Providence, Rhode Island. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 and is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.
History.
Early history.
The Providence Biltmore was constructed by the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels chain, founded by John McEntee Bowman and Louis Wallick. It was built in the neo-Federal Beaux-arts style and designed by the architectural firm of Warren and Wetmore, who also designed Grand Central Terminal. The hotel opened on June 6, 1922, and was the second-tallest building in the city after the Rhode Island State House, until the Industrial Trust Tower was finished six years later. Today, the Biltmore is the 9th-tallest building in the city.
The Biltmore was bought by Sheraton Hotels in 1947 and renamed the Sheraton-Biltmore Hotel. Providence was flooded by Hurricane Carol in 1954, and much of the lobby of the Sheraton-Biltmore was underwater; a plaque commemorates the high water mark today, eight feet up on lobby columns. Sheraton sold the hotel, along with seventeen other aging properties, to Gotham Hotels in 1968 and it became the Biltmore Hotel & Motor Inn.
Restoration.
In 1975, Gotham Hotels closed the Biltmore. It remained vacant for four years. At one point, with the hotel facing demolition; Mayor Buddy Cianci helped with efforts to designate the hotel a landmark and assembled a group of local businessmen, including Bruce Sundlun of the Outlet Company, Michael Metcalf of The Providence Journal, G. William Miller of Textron, and Jim Winoker and Dominic Zinni of B.B. Greenberg Company, who purchased the hotel and implemented Federal tax credits to rehabilitate the building, reopening it in 1979 as the Biltmore Plaza Hotel. The Biltmore's external glass elevator was added during this rehabilitation, and served all 18 floors of the hotel (though it no longer runs). In 1983, the owners retained Dunfey Hotels to manage the property, and it was renamed Biltmore Plaza, A Dunfey Hotel. Soon after, Dunfey's owner, Aer Lingus, purchased the Omni Hotels chain, and the hotel was renamed the Omni Biltmore Hotel. By the 1990s, the Omni Biltmore was fully owned by The Providence Journal. They sold the hotel to the Grand Heritage Hotels chain in July 1995 for $7 million, and it was renamed the Providence Biltmore. The hotel was sold out of receivership on May 31, 2012 to Finard Coventry Hotel Management, for $16 million. Finard Coventry invested a further $10 million in renovations, and the hotel joined Curio - A Collection by Hilton, on December 16, 2014.
Graduate Providence.
In October 2017, the Biltmore was sold to AJ Capital Partners, a Chicago-based hotel and real estate firm, for $43.6 million. The hotel was renovated and renamed Graduate Providence on April 2, 2019, as part of AJ Capital's boutique chain of "Graduate" hotels, in college towns across the United States. The new owners have retained the hotel's iconic neon "Biltmore" sign.
Description.
The hotel was originally built with 600 rooms; later, walls were knocked down and suites were created. It now offers 292 guest rooms.
The hotel contains banquet space of over . The rooftop level Grand Ballroom offers expansive views of the city and Kennedy Plaza and can hold up to 750 guests; its event space is designed for functions such as wedding receptions, banquet service, and conferences.
It was the tallest and largest hotel in Providence for 71 years, until The Westin Providence (today known as the Omni Providence Hotel) was completed in 1993. the hotel was home to the largest Starbucks in New England from 2003-2019.
In popular culture.
Cinema backdrop.
The Providence Biltmore features prominently in the 2004 Jeff Nathanson film "The Last Shot", and the 2007 Anne Fletcher film "27 Dresses".
Showtime episodes of "Brotherhood" from 2004 to 2007 were also shot here.
Literature.
The Hotel is the scene of a Brown University collegiate reunion in "The Devil Wears Prada" by Lauren Weisberger.
Television.
The Providence Hotel is shown as a scene is NOS4A2, The Hourglass (S2, E6), series on AMC. Air Date: 7/26/2020


Col. James Drane House

The Colonel James Drane House is a frontier I-house built from 1846 to 1848. It is located on the historic Natchez Trace, at mile marker 180.7 on the modern Natchez Trace Parkway in French Camp, Mississippi, USA. It was built for James Drane, a state politician.
The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 21, 1983.
The house is an attraction for modern visitors to the Natchez Trace.
See also Old Natchez Trace segments listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places


Nacotchtank

The Nacotchtank are an indigenous Algonquian people who lived in the area of what is now Washington, D.C. during the 17th century. The Nacotchtank village was situated within the modern borders of the District of Columbia along the intersection of two major rivers— the Potomac and the Anacostia. The name "Nacotchtank", which exists in several historical variants including Nacostine, Anacostine, Anaquashtank, Nacothtant, Nachatanke, is derived from the word "anaquashatanik", which means "a town of traders." The Nacotchtank were a trading people as they were established on fertile land with the nearby rivers. In his 1608 expedition, English explorer John Smith noted the prosperous Nacotchtank and their great supply of various resources.
The Nacotchtank spoke a language within the Algonquian subfamily, a language group whose variants are spoken among many tribes living along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Specifically, the Nacotchtank spoke the Piscataway dialect as they were closely associated with the larger Piscataway Chiefdom of Southern Maryland, whose "Tayac" or grand chief ruled over a loose confederacy of area tribes. The Nacotchtank paid tribute to the Piscataway chief who resided to the south in the nearby village of Moyaone (present-day Accokeek). Various pieces of art and other cultural artifacts such as hair combs, pendants, and pottery, and dog bones have been found in excavations throughout Washington D.C. on Nacotchtank territory.
After the neighboring Province of Maryland began encroaching on Nacotchtank territory in pursuit of land for tobacco plantations, the Nacotchtank were forcibly removed. The Nacotchtank were last recorded in the late 1600s as taking refuge on nearby Theodore Roosevelt Island located in the Potomac River. Over time, the small population that was left behind after battle and disease was absorbed by Maryland’s Piscataway tribe. Current recognition of the tribe takes the form of the latinized version of the name Nacotchtank, "Anacostine".
Naming.
The name Nacotchtank is a derivation from the Algonquian term "anaquashtank," which literally translates to "a town of traders." The process in which Nacotchtank was slowly changed to Anacostine was done by European colonists. In their colonization, the English frequently got rid of unfamiliar and unaccustomed sounds in the words from the local languages and replaced them with sounds that were easier to pronounce and to which they were more familiar. As a result, the English colonists that were interacting with the Nacotchtank would not pronounce the "-tchtank" and would replace it with the ending "-stine," which was easier to enunciate. Through transmission of the mispronounced Nacotchtank name amongst the English, the Nacotchtank name was slowly faded out and replaced with "Nacostine." Later on, the Jesuits from the Province of Maryland further latinized the term by attaching a prefix "A" to "Nacostine," creating the name "Anacostine." Etymologically, keeping the "A" is indeed a closer derivation of the term "anaquashtank," but the Nacotchtank preferred to omit prefixes and suffixes from words. Any present cultural honoring of the Nacotchtank bears the legacy of the latinized version, "Anacostine", as seen in the naming of the river which borders eastern D.C., the Anacostia River, or the neighborhood in southeast D.C., Anacostia.
Classification.
The Nacotchtank fell under the larger influence of the Piscataway Chiefdom. The Nacotchtank were not necessarily under complete control of the Piscataway, but rather, the Nacotchtank closely allied with them as they were a much larger group of 7,000 members in comparison to the roughly 300 members of the Nacotchtank tribe. The Piscataway affiliation was intended for protection against the rival Powhatan Chiefdom of eastern Virginia.
The Piscataway Chief, or "tayac," held a loose confederacy over the Nacotchtank in addition to the other surrounding tribes. The rank of the tayac was supreme to that of the individual chiefs of the smaller tribes that belonged to the Piscataway Chiefdom. These lower-ranked chiefs were known as "werences" (also known as "werowances/weroances)". The Nacotchtank werence would collect and pay tribute to the Piscataway tayac who resided in a village named Mayone in present-day Prince Georges County of Maryland, 15 miles south of the Nacotchtank land base.
History.
Origins (unknown-1608).
The tribe's physical location, which had a mild, temperate climate in the mid-Atlantic, allowed for the Nacotchtank to become a flourishing, self-sustainable community with an abundance in myriad natural resources. By being situated along the confluence of two major rivers, the Nacotchtank had a reliable supply of fish and the area soon became a notorious fishing ground. Additionally, the rivers were surrounded by a vast area of woodlands, which housed wild game such as bison, turkey, deer, and geese. The Nacotchtank were also accomplished in agricultural practices, as they would move inland from the rivers to occupy fertile and flat land and grow a variety of crop species, most of which belonged to the Three Sisters family— corn, beans, and squash.
With the Nacotchtank having abundant natural resources, and by being situated where two rivers met, the Nacotchtank were able to become an epicenter for a bustling trade network with neighboring tribes. One known intertribal network was with the Iroquois of New York, in which the Nacotchtank traded principally animal fur, which was readily available given their extensive supply of wild game. The Nacotchtank eventually held a monopoly on the fur trade.
Encounters with the English (1608-1650s).
The Nacotchtank were first recorded by Captain John Smith, who visited their palisaded village during his First Voyage in 1608, in which he explored the land surrounding the Jamestown settlement of the Colony of Virginia. Between the dates of June 16 and July 18 of 1608, Smith recorded in his journal, which has since been published as "The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles", his impressions of the indigenous peoples of the Potomac River. Specifically speaking of the Nacotchtank, Smith writes that they were a welcoming people who "did their best to content [him]." Smith also noted the presence of a river which made the area appear to be very pleasant. These initial encounters were peaceful and did not affect the Nacotchtank existence.
In the year 1621, Captain Henry Fleet, age 20, took a party of approximately 26 Englishmen from Jamestown in an attempt to barter for corn from the Nacotchtank. The Nacotchtank were suspicious of the colonists, and a confrontation erupted into fighting. All of the colonists were killed except for Captain Fleet, who was captured. Held captive for 5 years, Fleet acquired the language and culture of the Nacotchtank. During his time, Fleet observed the trading village "Tohoga" in present-day Georgetown and noted it as being the center for the monopolized fur trade with the Iroquois.
In November 1622, the Nacotchtank faced their first death at the hand of colonial forces. This took place at the time of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, a battle between English colonists and the Powhatan Confederacy. One tribe that the English closely allied with during this time was the Patawomeke (or "Patawomeck"). Though the Patawomeke were initially part of the Powhatan Confederacy, they were large enough so that they could lose such affiliation and side with the English. The Patawomeke, an Algonquian-speaking people, were established across from the Nacotchtank along the Potomac River, within what are now Stafford and King George counties of Northern Virginia. Such proximity to one another resulted in long-standing hostility, with the Chief of the Patawomeke referring to the Nacotchtank as their "mortal enemies." As such, the Patawomeck chief not only allied with the English, but also helped them in avenging the death of Fleet's party and in attaining corn by providing roughly 40-50 warriors to take part in a raid against the Nacotchtank. As a result of the raid, the English and Patawomeke together killed 18 Nacotchtank people and drove the rest from their cabins before plundering and burning the village. Captain Fleet remained a captive of the Nacotchtank, but would escape in 1626.
In 1626, when Captain Fleet escaped, he left with a great sum of knowledge of the Nacotchtank way of life and would use that information in partnering in trade with other tribes. Fleet began sailing up and down the East Coast, trading with various indigenous tribes and eventually taking over the monopoly on the fur trade that the Nacotchtank had for long enjoyed. When the Jesuits arrived in Maryland in 1634, who wanted to adapt church teachings for the natives, Fleet helped by translating the Algonquian language used by the Nacotchtank to English, under the guidance of Governor Leonard Calvert.
The rise of the Maryland tobacco industry & the resulting displacement (1650s-1697).
Beginning in the 1650s, the Province of Maryland experienced an economic boom with the great popularity and demand of one of its cash crops— tobacco. This large expansion necessitated vast areas of land that could be turned into tobacco plantations as the demand was exceedingly high. In 1663, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord of Baltimore, granted Thomas Dent an 850-acre tract of land named "Gisborough" on the Potomac River, which bordered the principal Nacotchtank village.
The colony, in such close proximity to the Nacotchtank, now had the leverage to begin encroaching on Nacotchtank territory. Additionally, with the two groups now close to one another and in constant contact, the Europeans from Maryland introduced to the area a number of Eurasian infectious diseases to which the Nacotchtank had no immunity, such as measles, cholera, and smallpox. As a result, the Nacotchtank suffered a large population loss.
In 1668, the Nacotchtank tribe, depopulated from Eurasian diseases, collectively relocated to Anacostine Island, which has since been renamed to Theodore Roosevelt Island. Theodore Roosevelt Island is located directly across from Georgetown in the Potomac River, between what is now Washington D.C. and Northern Virginia.
Legacy today (1697-present).
By 1697, the Nacotchtank population living on Theodore Roosevelt Island sought refuge in the larger Piscataway tribe of Southern Maryland, to which the Nacotchtank had previously allied with. With the increased sense of tolerance of indigenous peoples in Pennsylvania, the Piscataway, which the Nacotchtank coalesced with, migrated north and settled on land bordering the lower Susquehanna River around the year 1700. Though the Nacotchtank were absorbed by the Piscataway and relocated north, some aspects of Washington D.C. are named after them. The river surrounding the eastern border of the city and the neighborhood in southeast D.C. are named "Anacostia" after the latinized version of Nacotchtank.
Geography.
The entirety of the Nacotchtank tribe, prior to colonization, was situated within the modern borders of the District of Columbia. The tribe was situated along the intersection of two major rivers— the Potomac and the Anacostia— and thus, the majority of Nacotchtank settlements were along the water. The Nacotchtank's principal village, "Nachatank," was situated along the eastern bank of the Potomac River on the land of what is now the Bolling Air Force Base. It was here that the Nacotchtank chief was noted as residing, along with 80 others, in Smith's journal. Smith summarized his findings in his "Map of Virginia," which plotted the principal village of the Nacotchtank in 1608. In addition to the principal village, there were multiple smaller villages, as observed by Fleet in his time held captive. Fleet mentioned four of these villages: "Tohoga", "Mosticum", "Shaunetowa", and "Usserahak".
Various excavations have been performed throughout Washington D.C., which point to more specific areas of Nacotchtank villages. For example, a 1997 excavation near the Whitehurst Freeway, a major freeway which runs parallel to the Potomac River in Georgetown, gathered findings of a "hair comb, hammer stone, and pendants." This land, upon which modern-day Georgetown is established, was the site for the "Tohoga" village, which Fleet had observed in his time as captive"." "Tohoga" was a trading village, with it being located along the river bank of the Potomac and thus permitting easy access for traders.
Although the proximity of rivers was integral for the Nacotchtank, there is evidence of the Nacotchtank existence further inland, which comes from the findings of archaeologist Samuel Proudfit, who worked for the United States Department of the Interior. Proudfit studied the excavation that was performed when the swimming pool was being constructed in the White House, which is relatively inland from any of the Nacotchtank river settlements. Analysis of the terrain that was dug up proved indigenous existence on the site, with findings such as quartzite points, a broken biface, and fragments of broken pottery. According to Proudfit, blades of quartzite that taper off into points on each end are indicative of the Nacotchtank, as they are found commonly in areas of Nacotchtank settlement and rarely in settlements of the nearby tribes. Additionally, Proudfit posits that fragmented pottery is "one of the unfailing evidences of permanent aboriginal occupation."
This theory of pottery as a marker for permanent occupation was used in Proudfit's mapping of another Nacotchtank village north of Garfield Park on what is now Capitol Hill. The Nacotchtank utilized this land, which now houses the Supreme Court and Library of Congress, for agriculture, growing corn, beans, and squash. The Nacotchtank settled on this specific area as it was flat and much more suitable for agriculture than the uneven land bordering the rivers on which they were initially established. The smooth terrain allowed the Nacotchtank to grow the large stores of corn that were appealing to European colonists.
Culture.
Language.
With the Nacotchtank's under the loose confederacy of the Piscataway Chiefdom, the Nacotchtank spoke the Piscataway language. The Piscataway language is a dialect of the Nanticoke language, which belongs to the Algonquian subfamily of languages. The Algonquian subfamily belongs to an even larger grouping of languages, the Macro-Algonquian phylum. All languages that fall under the Macro-Algonquian phylum are polysynthetic, meaning that an individual word is made up of many different morphemes, which are the smallest linguistic units of meaning.
Structure.
The principal village, "Nachatank," housed the werence (subordinate Chief to the tayac), close kin, priests, and councilors. Here, the werence would store tribute, oftentimes corn and hides, from surrounding villagers. The abode of the werence and all religious buildings within the main village were protected by a palisade, and there were approximately 80 warriors contained within the village.
The structure of the Nacotchtank occupation outside of the principal village followed a particular pattern of settlement called dispersed settlement. In this pattern, there would be rather-isolated dwellings with large open fields in between them. The resultant community would have groupings of between 2 to 100 dwellings clustered together, with a shared, designated spot that would have fallen trees that were to be used for fire-burning. In between these clusters were plots of land, ranging from between 20 to 100 acres, which would be used in cultivating various plants and crops.
The Nacotchtank lived in wigwams—which were dome-shaped huts— and longhouses, as was typical of other tribes along the East Coast. The villages also had menstrual huts, which women would visit when menstruating, and communal sweat houses, where those who were sick could visit and be healed.
Art & other cultural artifacts.
Two types of rock were readily available in Nacotchtank territory for their use— quartzite and soapstone. These two types of rock were available in various quarries throughout Nacotchtank territory. At these quarries, the Nacotchtank would chip away large chunks of the rock, which would then be taken back to the individual villages, where they would complete formation of whatever artifact they were intending to create. Quartzite, which was relatively-easily chipped and available in a quarry in the Piney Branch area of what is now Northwest Washington D.C., was used in forming sharp-edged tools, particularly spears and arrow points. Soapstone was accessed mainly through the Rose Hill quarry of what is now Northwest Washington D.C., and was utilized in producing various vessels such as bowls and pipes.
There is also evidence of the Nacotchtank producing pottery, which has been found in fragments in an excavation of the terrain under the White House.
The Carolina Dog has been proven to be the only domesticated animal that lived among the Nacotchtank and is an important artifact in the Nacotchtank culture. Rarely eaten, the Carolina Dog served mostly as a symbol for respect and honor. It is likely that the dogs played an integral role for the Nacotchtank people, as Carolina Dog skeletons have been found lying on top of human skeletons in ossuary burials collected from gravesites on Nacotchtank territory.


Southern Pacific Red Electric Lines

The Southern Pacific Red Electric Lines, also known simply as the Red Electric, was a network of interurban passenger train services operated by the Southern Pacific Railroad in the Willamette Valley of the U.S. state of Oregon from 1914 to 1929. The service got its name from the bright red color of its cars. Despite its short history, among West Coast interurbans it was unique, and it was considered the finest such system in the Pacific Northwest. It was the only major electric interurban railroad converted from steam to electric passenger use. It was also one of few systems using all-steel equipment, and one of the largest 1500-volt systems in the country.
History.
The Oregon Electric Railway completed an interurban line from Portland to Eugene in 1912, as well as several branch lines to agricultural, business, and population centers in the Willamette Valley. The Southern Pacific (SP), feeling threatened by this competition, researched the feasibility of electrifying most of its Willamette Valley trackage. At the time, electric traction was seen as the way of the future, and in 1912, SP began converting existing steam routes to overhead electrification. Via the Red Electric system, which SP established on rail lines it acquired from the Portland, Eugene and Eastern Railway (PE&E), the company planned to electrify all of its Oregon trackage except for its main line through the valley from Portland to California. The projected growth of the rural areas outside the main population centers of Portland, Salem, Corvallis, Albany and Eugene, however, did not materialize, despite the efforts of real estate promoters. The combination of this lack of growth, World War I and the rise of the automobile meant that the Red Electric system was far smaller than originally intended. The final Red Electric run took place on October 5, 1929.
Construction.
Southern Pacific acquired the Portland, Eugene and Eastern in 1912. The PE&E was developed by Alvadore Welch, who owned the streetcar system in Salem, the streetcar connecting Eugene with Springfield, and the Corvallis and Alsea River Railway, a steam line that was being developed from Corvallis to Monroe. Southern Pacific added its Westside and Yamhill branches between Portland and Corvallis to the PE&E, as well as acquiring and adding the Sheridan and Willamina Railroad and the Willamette Falls Railway. SP began electrifying the PE&E steam lines soon after acquiring them. Interurban service began operation on January 17, 1914, under the Portland, Eugene and Eastern name, but SP replaced references to PE&E with "Southern Pacific Lines" in 1915. The service soon became known as the SP Red Electric. Initial service extended from Portland to Whiteson (south of McMinnville), but eventually reached Corvallis, in 1917.
Southern Pacific proposed several new lines or the electrification of existing lines within its system, but most of these were never built or converted. Instead, the company concentrated on upgrading and electrifying its existing steam lines between Portland and McMinnville.
Routes.
Trains originated at Union Station in Portland. The "Westside" route connected Beaverton, Hillsboro, Forest Grove and Carlton. The "Eastside" line served Oswego, Sherwood, Newberg and Lafayette. The two routes connected in Saint Joseph, just north of McMinnville, and continued to Corvallis as a single line. Service to Corvallis was inaugurated on June 17, 1917.
The main Portland–Corvallis line was long, and the entire Red Electric network encompassed of track, served by 64 trains per day. In 1920, the schedule had four daily trains through from Portland to Corvallis in each direction and two more that ran as far as Whiteson. Closer to Portland, Red Electric service was much more frequent.
Service on the Westside line ran for the last time on July 28, 1929, thereby ending all SP interurban service to Beaverton, Hillsboro, and Forest Grove, among other places situated along only that SP line, some of which continued to be served by interurbans of the Oregon Electric Railway for another three years. The remaining Red Electric service ended only a little more than two months later, on October 5, 1929, with the final runs on the Eastside line.
Wreck.
The worst train accident in the history of Oregon interurban railways occurred east of the depot at Bertha (now within the Hillsdale neighborhood) on May 9, 1920. Two trains collided head-on, killing the engineer of one train instantly. Two other employees and five passengers were also killed, and ten employees and 92 passengers were injured. One of the injured passengers later died. It was hard for rescuers to quickly reach what was at the time a remote location.
Remnants.
The Red Electric substation in Lake Oswego was later converted into apartments that are still in use today. The Forest Grove depot was purchased by a grass seed broker in 1948 and still exists today. The McMinnville Red Electric depot, similar in structure to the Forest Grove depot, is still in operation, as is the Hillsboro depot. They are the only two original depots that still exist on the old Red Electric route. As of 1994, the former substation in Dundee was being used as a garage. The abandoned substation in McCoy, built in 1916, still exists.
Between Portland and Oswego (now called Lake Oswego), most of the track of the Red Electric's "East Side" line remained in use by SP freight trains until 1983, and since 1987 has been used by the Willamette Shore Trolley heritage streetcar service. SP sold that approximately section of rail line in 1988 to a consortium of local governments who wanted to preserve it for possible future rail transit use.
Parts of the former Red Electric alignment in southwest Portland are being studied for use as a trail connecting existing bike and pedestrian trails within Portland Parks & Recreation's trail system.


Pasquo, Tennessee

Pasquo is a region of Nashville, along State Route 100 in Davidson County, within Bellevue. It is incorporated as part of the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County.
Formerly a rural area, Pasquo has experienced rapid growth in recent years as the Nashville suburbs expand westward. As Pasquo is neither an incorporated municipality nor a census-designated place, its population is not measured or reported by the US Census. Pasquo is home to "Radio Free Nashville," the low-power FM radio radio station WRFN-LP. WRFN was the seventh community radio barnraising of the Prometheus Radio Project.
Pasquo is the short name for Pasquotank and it was previously referred to as "Tank." The name was taken from Pasquotank County, North Carolina where early settlers came from to take possession Revolutionary War bounties, which were in the form of land grants.
Pasquo is the location of the northern terminus of the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Loveless Cafe, Barn Dinner Theatre, Union Bridge, Harpeth Valley School, Bellevue YMCA, Old Pasquo School and the State of Tennessee abandoned "Cold War" communications Center.


Haldimand Affair

The Haldimand Affair (also called the Haldimand or Vermont Negotiations) was a series of negotiations conducted in the early 1780s (late in the American Revolutionary War) between Frederick Haldimand, the British governor of the Province of Quebec, his agents, and several people representing the independent Vermont Republic.
Vermonters had been battling Indian raids, sponsored by the British, and engaged in a long-running dispute with New York State over jurisdiction of the territory. At issue was Vermont officially joining the British. Just as Haldimand offered generous terms for reunion in 1781, the main British army surrendered at Yorktown, and the United States would clearly achieve independence. Vermont, surrounded on three sides by American territory, rejected the British overtures and negotiated terms to enter the United States as the 14th state in March 1791. The secret nature of the negotiations, which excluded significant portions of Vermont's political power structure, led to accusations against some of the negotiators, notably Ethan Allen.
Background.
In 1749, Benning Wentworth, the British provincial governor of New Hampshire, began issuing land grants for territory west of the Connecticut River. This area, now the United States state of Vermont, was also claimed by the Province of New York. In 1764, King George III issued an order-in-council resolving the territorial dispute in favor of New York. New York refused to honor the grants issued by Wentworth, who had persisted in issuing grants even after he had agreed to stop issuing them in light of the territorial dispute. Holders of Wentworth's grants, to validate their claims, were effectively required to repurchase their grants at higher prices from New York, to which the land-rich and cash-poor grantees objected.
Following a pro forma rejection of the Wentworth grants in 1770 by New York's Supreme Court, which included members who held competing New York grants for some of the territory, the area's settlers, led by Ethan Allen and Seth Warner, formed the Green Mountain Boys and organized resistance to attempts by New York to assert control over the area. Using methods that stopped shy of lethal force, the resistance at times forcibly removed New York's judges, land surveyors, and other figures of provincial authorities and disrupted efforts by holders of New York land grants to settle their lands. The incidents were reaching a critical point when the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775. General Frederick Haldimand, in command of British military forces in New York City, refused to become involved in the dispute.
Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, and also participated in the invasion later that year of the Province of Quebec. In the latter effort, Allen was captured following a poorly-organized attempt to capture Montreal in September 1775. Allen was held as a prisoner of war by the British until May 1778, when he was exchanged for a British officer. During much of the time, he lived in New York City on parole and was, by his own account, approached in late 1776 by a British officer with an offer to join the British side.
The Wentworth grantholders, led by Ira Allen and Thomas Chittenden, declared independence from New York, establishing the Vermont Republic in July 1777. While there was significant anti-New York sentiment in the territory, there was also significant popular support for the Continental Congress, and the republic's founders regularly petitioned the Congress for admission as the fourteenth state. However, New York and New Hampshire's representatives expressed reservations over its admission until the competing land claims and jurisdictional issues could be resolved and effectively blocked any actions by Congress.
First contact.
In 1779, Lord George Germain, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, instructed General Sir Henry Clinton, the military commander-in-chief in North America, and Haldimand, then serving as governor of Quebec, to open negotiations with the Vermonters over the possibility of establishing Vermont as a separate British province. By 1780 these instructions included detailed offers to convey, including military commissions to Ethan Allen and Thomas Chittenden.
The first documented communication was a letter sent to Ethan Allen in March 1780 by Beverley Robinson, a noted New York Loyalist. Robinson claimed to have heard that many Vermonters still harbored Loyalist sympathies and suggested that the British would support Loyalist regiments raised in the territory. Because of difficulties in infiltrating an agent into Vermont, Allen did not receive the letter until July. On consultation with the Vermont council, Allen made no response to the letter.
Congress took up the subject of the territorial dispute in June but decided to defer discussion until September due to other pressing concerns. While Congress subsequently discussed the issue at length that September, it again postponed taking any sort of action. Chittenden wrote to Congress' president in July, specifically denying that Congress had the right to adjudicate their claims and reserving the right of the Vermont administration to negotiate with the British. In August, Chittenden wrote a letter to Haldimand, offering a truce and parley terms to discuss the exchange of prisoners. Haldimand accepted the offer, and appointed Justus Sherwood, a Loyalist from Vermont who eventually became his spy chief, as his principal negotiator.
Sherwood in Vermont.
On September 26, Major Christopher Carleton left Quebec on a raiding expedition into the upper Hudson River valley, causing some alarm in Vermont. Fears in the republic were heightened further by a British raid into its territory in October. Sherwood and a small company of men also left Quebec; these headed up Lake Champlain for Skenesboro (present-day Whitehall, New York). They were eventually met by Vermont militia, and Sherwood was taken to Castleton. There, he met openly with Vermont officials to formally discuss prisoner exchanges and arrange a truce, but he also had a private meeting with Ethan Allen. Sherwood made offers of allegiance to the Crown in the meeting. According to Sherwood's report, Allen countered by demanding Vermont to be made a separate province with its own military command and insisted that negotiations on the subject remain secret and end if Vermont was recognized by Congress as a state.
While that was going on, word reached Haldimand of the exposure of Benedict Arnold's plot to surrender West Point, the latter's flight to British protection in New York City, and the hanging of Arnold's British co-conspirator, Major John André. As a precaution, Haldimand ordered Carleton, who was preparing to leave Fort Ticonderoga for Quebec, to remain there until Sherwood's safety could be assured. Sherwood returned safely to Quebec in late November.
Following the meetings, Allen rode Bennington to report to Chittenden and the Vermont legislature. His report to the latter apparently raised more questions than it answered, and suspicious legislators demanded more information. Allen angrily resigned his general's commission and stormed out of the session. While the legislature was able to mollify Allen, Chittenden assigned Allen's brother Ira and Joseph Fay to lead further negotiations with the British. Both met with Sherwood and George Smyth, a Loyalist doctor who had fled north from Albany. Mutually distrustful, with the British wary over the safety of their agents in light of André's hanging, they agreed only for the Vermont representatives to meet with Haldimand that winter. No such meeting took place.
Chittenden wrote to the governors of New Hampshire and Massachusetts, suggesting a united defense against British threats if they relinquished claims to Vermont territory. Massachusetts, with only weak claims to that territory, agreed to give up any claims when Vermont was granted statehood. New York Governor George Clinton turned a more demanding letter from Chittenden over to his legislature in February 1781 and noted that it was "insolent in its nature and derogatory to the honor of this state." The New York Senate, however, expressed concern over the fact that Vermont might ally itself with the British in Quebec and voted, to the shock of Clinton, to send commissioners to Vermont to negotiate the release of its claims. Clinton, threatening to dissolve the legislature, insisted successfully for the idea to be dropped.
New Hampshire's response to Vermont's proposals was complicated by the desire of communities on either side of the Connecticut River to belong to the same state, either Vermont or New Hampshire. A convention of the communities meeting in Charlestown, New Hampshire in January 1781 voted on one day to join New Hampshire and the next, following diplomatic concessions by Ira Allen, to join with Vermont.
Evasions and acquisitions.
In February 1781, Beverley Robinson, having received no response from Ethan Allen to his first letter, sent a second letter in which he enclosed a copy of the first. Shortly thereafter, Allen's friend Seth Warner, who still held a colonel's commission in the Continental Army, spoke with him about the ongoing negotiation and his concern that about their potentially treasonous character. In response to ongoing suspicions, Allen sent the letters to Congress, noting that he had never responded to them. Congress, preoccupied with the war, did not deal substantively with the dispute in early 1781.
Also in February 1781, Lord George Germain wrote a letter addressed to Haldimand in which he seemed to assume the alliance was a done (or nearly-done) deal and suggested that Haldimand propose joint British–Vermont actions. The letter was carried aboard a British packet ship that was captured by the French. The letter was delivered to Benjamin Franklin in Paris; he forwarded it to Congress, where it arrived in July. Haldimand, on the other hand, was somewhat pessimistic about the whole affair, writing to Germain, "Ethan Allen is endeavoring to deceive both the Congress and us." When the letter was read in Congress on July 31, it caused an uproar and cries of treason.
The often-delayed plan for British and Vermont representatives finally took place in May 1781 The details of this meeting, which ran from May 7 to 25 and took place at the British fort on Ile-aux-Noix, are primarily recounted from the writings of Justus Sherwood. He found Ira Allen, the principal negotiator for Vermont, to be evasive and extremely wary. Allen refused to sign any sort of preliminary agreement, claiming that although Vermont's leaders were disposed toward the idea, the populace was not, and it would have to be convinced first. On May 11, Sherwood wrote, "My opinion corroborates with the Major's that Mr. Allen's errand here is to prolong the time and if possible to alarm Congress into a compliance with their demands." He also felt that Vermont's large landowners, which included the Allens and Chittenden, might be looking more to their own interests than to those of the people of Vermont. The meeting ended with an oral agreement in which the British promised to not conduct further hostilities against Vermont, and the Vermont authorities would prepare the people for reunion and try to convince the assembly to appoint commissioners to negotiate an alliance when it met in June.
The promises Allen made were never fulfilled since the Vermont assembly appointed no commissioners. To annoy its neighbors, it voted in the June meeting to extend its borders to the east and west, by adopting New Hampshire towns along the Connecticut River, and some New York towns east of the Hudson. The territories became bargaining chips for Vermont's negotiations with Congress. To delay matters with the British, Ira Allen wrote to Haldimand in July, indicating that Vermont was sending representatives to negotiate with Congress, and that public opinion in Vermont would be more favorable once Congress rejected their terms or deferred discussions again. Chittenden also wrote to Haldimand in July, indicating that George Washington was unwilling to release back to him British prisoners that had been captured in Vermont. Justus Sherwood met with Joseph Fay for two weeks in July, with a fruitless outcome that did nothing to relieve British concerns that Vermont's delays were intentional.
Local suspicions and further evasion.
When the Vermont assembly met in August, rumors were swirling about the negotiations, and the assembly insisted on seeing papers relating to them. In response, Ira Allen produced letters that had been exchanged concerning the prisoner exchanges that were the cover for the meetings. Around the same time, Allen extracted from the council the following statement: "[Allen] had used his best policy by feigning or endeavoring to make them [the British] believe that the State of Vermont had a desire to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain – thereby to prevent the immediate invasion [of Vermont]... We... think it a necessary political maneuver to save the frontiers of this state."
Congress also took up the subject of Vermont statehood in August 1781. On August 21, it approved a proposal in which statehood for Vermont would be considered if Vermont relinquished all of its claims east of the Connecticut River and west of the western border of Massachusetts.
In September, Justus Sherwood met again with Joseph Fay and Ira Allen at Skenesboro (present-day Whitehall, New York). Allen suggested that since the Vermont assembly had changed, it would take some time to adjust. He suggested to Sherwood for Haldimand to prepare a proclamation announcing Vermont's new status. The proclamation would be presented to the Vermont assembly after it had discussed and rejected the latest offer from Congress.
Sherwood suggested that a lack of definite action on the part of the assembly might lead to British military action. The threat was followed up with the movement of British troops under the command of Barry St. Leger to occupy Fort Ticonderoga in October that was timed to coincide with the next meeting of the assembly but sent with the expectation that they would be welcomed into Vermont. Sherwood reported after the meeting his opinion that as much as a third of the Vermont population was unhappy with the rule of Chittenden and the Allens and was in favor of a change of government.
Crisis.
When St. Leger arrived at Ticonderoga, Vermont militia under Roger Enos were arrayed across the lake to observe them. St. Leger was instructed to treat any Vermonters encountered by his men in a friendly manner. During a scouting expedition, a company of St. Leger's men killed one Vermont militiaman, Sgt. Archelaus Tupper, and captured five more. Horrified at what happened, St. Leger wrote a letter of apology that unintentionally divulged aspects of the conspiracy. Enos forwarded the letter to the assembly, using as a messenger someone who had long harbored suspicions about the actions of the Allen clan. In addition to delivering the letter, he broadcast his suspicions far and wide. A crowd gathered at the assembly, demanding answers from Ira Allen. He demurred, claiming that Chittenden, who was not present at the time, was in possession of the relevant papers and would deliver them. A series of more innocuously-worded dispatches was then forged by Nathaniel Chipman and delivered to the assembly to satisfy its demands for information.
The assembly considered the offer put forward by Congress and rejected it on October 16, but it agreed to consider negotiations over its boundaries. Pro-British factions in Vermont had not done well in the election, and news of a French naval victory on the Chesapeake had dampened Loyalist sentiment. By mid-November news of Charles Cornwallis's surrender of his army at Yorktown arrived, and St. Leger returned to Quebec. Haldimand, who believed that the negotiations were conducted in good faith, and some Vermonters continued to correspond through the winter, but with the British in a weak position, and Vermont in a position that appeared strong, nothing of substance came of the exchange.
Agreements and complications.
In 1782, the fractious nature of Vermont's internal politics became a problem for the republic's quest for statehood. The southeast corner of the republic (now Brattleboro and the surrounding area) harbored strong political support for rejoining New York. In January, the "east side Yorkers" made another in a series of petitions to Governor Clinton and the Congress, complaining in part about the ongoing "intrigue with Canada." This led Clinton to call a special meeting of the New York assembly to discuss the "dangerous intercourse" going on between Vermont and the British, in which they decided to forward papers on the matter to Congress, and move to enforce the state's authority over the territory.
Chittenden also received a letter from George Washington in January, who wrote that he supported statehood for Vermont if it adhered to its original boundaries. He also indicated his opinion that its statehood was a virtual certainty, with only details to be negotiated. When Vermont's assembly had the letter read in February, it agreed to accept the boundaries proposed by Congress in August 1781. In response, Congress voted on March 1 to consider Vermont's statehood if, within 30 days, Vermont returned full control over the towns it previously claimed to New York and New Hampshire authority. Vermont did so and notified Congress on March 31 that it had done so. Congress then began consideration of a statehood resolution but tabled it without further action on April 17. It may have been influenced by the publication that month of correspondence between Haldimand and Sir Henry Clinton on the matter by a New York newspaper. Publication of the letters led Governor Clinton to comment negatively on the "traitorous correspondence between the leaders of the New Hampshire Grants and the enemy."
In spite of the negative publicity, New York's assembly in April passed a bill pardoning the New Hampshire grantees of offenses they may have committed and recognizing, without requiring additional payment, the New Hampshire grants and those issued later by the Vermont Republic. That appeared to clear the significant legal roadblocks to Vermont's statehood, but the east side Yorkers continued to be a persistent problem, and Governor Clinton almost encouraged them to engage in acts of resistance against the Vermont administration and even issued commissions for New York judicial positions covering the affected area. The situation got bad enough that Ethan Allen, in some secrecy, raised 250 men and marched on the town of Guilford, the epicenter of Yorker activity. That resulted in the arrest, trial, and banishment of the Yorker ringleaders in October 1782 and the seizure of some of their property. That prompted Congress to demand for Vermont to compensate the affected individuals.
Meanwhile, correspondence continued with Haldimand in Quebec, particularly by Ethan Allen. In June, Allen wrote, "I shall do everything in my power to render this state a British province", and made additional scathing commentary on the Congress. However, the ongoing peace negotiations to end the war put a damper on the communications, which finally ended in late 1783.
Statehood.
With the end of the war, the subject of Vermont's statehood remained stalemated in spite of the basic agreement on boundaries. The urge for statehood subsided for a time in Vermont, as it was not burdened by the debts of the war. (In fact, the Vermont government profited from the sale of the lands seized from Loyalists.)
The subject was finally raised again in 1789 when the new US Constitution came into force. Vermont's leadership was favorably disposed to it, and in the summer of 1790 negotiated terms with New York over their shared border and agreed to pay $30,000 in compensation for land grants issued by New York. A Vermont convention voted by an overwhelming landslide in favor of a petition for statehood on January 6, 1791. US President George Washington presented the petition to the United States Congress on February 9, and signed the passed legislation on February 18, making Vermont the first new state to join the Union formed by the original thirteen, as of March 4. Vermont celebrated its statehood in Rutland on March 8, 1791.


Vancouver Agreement

The Vancouver Agreement was an initiative undertaken jointly by the governments of Canada, British Columbia, and the City of Vancouver, to develop and revitalize Vancouver, and in particular its Downtown Eastside, through collaboration between projects and ministries at all three levels of government, as well as community and business groups. While other parts of the city are also targeted by the initiative, its Downtown Eastside area is notorious across Canada for its deep problems with poverty, substance abuse, prostitution, violent crime and homelessness, and the agreement’s stated goals include promoting the health, safety and economic and social well being of the neighbourhood. The initial five-year agreement began in March, 2000 and expired in March, 2010.
On May 6, 2005, the Vancouver Agreement received the United Nations Public Service Award for "Improving transparency, accountability and responsiveness in the public service". On September 1, 2004, it received the Institute of Public Administration of Canada's Innovative Management Award.
Public safety.
The initiative's programs aimed at public safety include the Enhanced Enforcement Initiative, which co-ordinates efforts between the Vancouver Police Department, the BC Liquor Control and Licensing Branch, and Citizenship and Immigration Canada to target businesses that either have ties to organized crime or exploit individuals who are vulnerable due to mental illness or addiction. Also developed under the agreement is the Vancouver Police Department's Keep Exploited Youth Safe program, designed to protect sex trade workers from violent crime, which has been adopted by many other police departments across Canada.
Physical redesign of public spaces has also been part of the initiative's strategy for public safety and security. The Carrall Street Greenway, built between Gastown and Chinatown, was meant to deter crime by creating a more open and attractive space. The corner of Hastings and Main, traditionally the site of a major open drug market, has also been redesigned to discourage illicit use.
Housing.
The Vancouver Agreement also supports programs to improve the quality and availability of housing on the Downtown Eastside. The initiative's policy is to find ways of improving the quality of housing without making it inaccessible to the low-income residents who have traditionally been attracted to the DTES for low rents. The Single Room Occupancy project, a collaboration of Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, BC Housing and the City of Vancouver Housing Centre, has refurbished DTES hotels to ensure livable conditions for at-risk tenants. The repurposed Woodward's building, which will include 200 units of social housing alongside market-price condos and commercial office and retail space, is another Vancouver Agreement project.


Flat Rock, Idaho

Flat Rock (also known as Macks Inn) was a former unincorporated community along Henrys Fork in Fremont County, Idaho, United States, that is now part of the city of Island Park. The site of the former community in at .
Island Park is part of the Rexburg Micropolitan Statistical Area.
Transportation.
A U.S. Highway passes through the community, as did a former U.S. Highway:


Kangeq

Kangeq or Kangek (Kalaallisut: "Promontory") is a former settlement in the Sermersooq municipality in southwestern Greenland. It is located on the same island that formed the first Danish colony on Greenland between 1721 and 1728.
History.
As a coastal settlement, Kangeq was positioned on the migration route of the ancient Inuit peoples. Archeological finds from the Dorset culture era have been found near Kangeq. The Dorset people had vanished from the Nuuk region prior to 1000 CE.
The island of Kangeq, dubbed Håbets Ø ("Island of Hope"), formed the site of Hans Egede's first settlement in Greenland after his landing on July 3, 1721. The settlement was relocated to the mainland by Major Claus Paarss in 1728.
In the mid-19th century, it was also home to the artist Aron of Kangeq (1822-1869), a Greenland Inuit hunter, painter, and oral historian. In 1854, Kangeq became an official trading station, and an official residence was built for the assistant representing the Royal Greenland Trade Department.
Today the ruins of Kangeq are sometimes visited by historically oriented tourists. In 2009, the old houses of Kangeq were used as a backdrop for the "Eksperimentet" film, with the settlement emulating the look of Nuuk in 1952.
Geography.
Kangeq was located in an island at the mouth of the Nuup Kangerlua fjord, on the coast of Labrador Sea, approximately west-south-west of Nuuk, the capital of Greenland.


Grays Bay

Grays Bay is an Arctic waterway in Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut, Canada. It is located in Coronation Gulf. Hepburn Island is located at its mouth. The Tree River and the Annielik River flow into the bay.
It is the ancestral home of the Kogluktuaryumiut, a Copper Inuit subgroup.
Grays Bay is on the Northwest Passage route.
Northwest Passage.
Grays Bay was proposed as the site of a potential dock facility. In 2007 Wolfden Resources received a favourable review "for its copper/zinc mine proposal from the Nunavut Impact Review Board (NIRB)." The proposal included plans for a 53-kilometre all-weather road that would include a dock facility at Grays Bay on the Coronation Gulf, and will parallel the Kennartic River to the mine site at High Lake."
Minerals and Metals Group's, MMG Minerals, a subsidiary of the Chinese state-owned Minmetals Resources Ltd., has also proposed a port "that could accommodate ships of up to 50,000 tonnes that would make 16 round trips a year — both east and west —through the Northwest Passage" and a "350-kilometre all-weather road with 70 bridges that would stretch from Izok Lake to Grays Bay." The multibillion-dollar Izok Corridor project is projected to produce 180,000 tonnes of zinc and another 50,000 tonnes of copper a year. In order to do this "Izok Lake would be drained, the water dammed and diverted to a nearby lake. Three smaller lakes at High Lake would also be drained. Grays Bay would be substantially filled in."
In their August 2012 proposal which has since been revised, MMG Minerals described the planned facilities at the Grays Bay Port that would "include a dock, concentration storage shed, fuel storage facilities and a camp. These facilities will support storage of concentrate, loading of bulk-carrier ships, and re-supply of fuel and goods for the Project." The Grays Bay port would be open three months of the year to "ship ore in two directions through both ends of the Northwest Passage."


Wargaming Seattle

Wargaming Seattle, formerly known as Gas Powered Games, was a video game developer located in Redmond, Washington. The development studio was started in May 1998 by Chris Taylor and several other ex-Cavedog Entertainment employees. In 2013 they became the Seattle studio of Wargaming. Wargaming Seattle was closed down in July 2018.
History.
Gas Powered Games was formed in May 1998 by Chris Taylor, alongside Jake McMahon, Bartosz Kijanka, Mike Biddlecombe, and Rick Saenz. Their launch title was the 2002 3D role-playing video game "Dungeon Siege", published by Microsoft Game Studios. Apart from its custom graphics engine, it also featured simple and innovative role-playing rules and mechanics that made it stand out from a market already crowded with sword and sorcery/fantasy role-playing games.
In 2003 Gas Powered released a stand-alone expansion pack for the game, '. The expansion was co-developed by Mad Doc Software and again published by Microsoft Game Studios. In August 2005, Gas Powered released its sequel to "Dungeon Siege", "Dungeon Siege II". In March 2006, Take-Two Interactive purchased the full publishing rights of the Dungeon Siege series, ending the four-year Microsoft partnership with Gas Powered Games. GPG released "Supreme Commander", a real-time strategy game in February 2007, published by THQ. Announced in the August 2005 issue of PC Gamer magazine, Chris Taylor touted "Supreme Commander" as the spiritual successor to "Total Annihilation" as "Total Annihilation" remains the intellectual property of Atari. As a stand-alone expansion, ' was announced in June 2007, for a November release.
In May 2007, Gas Powered Games announced a partnership with Sega to work on an original role-playing game. On July 6, 2007, the game was announced as "Space Siege". The game was released on August 12, 2008 to generally middling reviews. In January 2008, Gas Powered Games announced a new project, "Demigod", to be released sometime in early 2009. It is an action role-playing and real-time strategy video game, a hybrid inspired by the "" mod Defense of the Ancients. "Demigod" was released on 14 April 2009 in the U.S. On November 12, 2008, Square Enix announced that it would be partnering with Gas Powered Games to create "Supreme Commander 2". The game was released in March 2010 for the PC and Xbox 360, with a version for Mac OS X following in September 2010.
On February 24, 2011, it was announced that Gas Powered Games would be taking over development on the upcoming real-time strategy game "Age of Empires Online", replacing Robot Entertainment on the project. Gas Powered Games has announced plans to create a real-time strategy game named "Chris Taylor's Kings and Castles", which will use the game engine from "Supreme Commander 2". On January 4, 2013, it was noted in an "Age of Empires Online" blog post that Gas Powered Games would no longer be supporting the game. Approximately two weeks prior to this announcement, Gas Powered Games put up a teaser web site announcement for a 'Project W'
On January 14, 2013, Gas Powered Games announced the Kickstarter project "Wildman", declared to be "an 'evolutionary' action role-playing game". Four days later on January 18, Gas Powered Games had to lay off roughly 40 employees, with the ultimate fate of the company riding on the Kickstarter campaign. On Feb 11, 2013, Gas Powered Games canceled their Kickstarter project "Wildman", four days before it was due to finish, announcing that they wanted to "focus [their] attention on other ways to keep Gas Powered Games running" Three days later, Wargaming announced that they were in talks to buy Gas Powered Games. Later, Gas Powered Games was absorbed into Wargaming to become Wargaming Seattle, which ended Gas Powered Games as an independent studio
On May 23, 2018, Victor Kislyi, the head of Wargaming, announced to the studio that it would be closed down, laying off roughly 150 developers. The studio was officially closed on July 22.
GPGnet.
GPGnet was an online gaming service run by the company. It was used with "Supreme Commander", "", "Dungeon Siege", "Dungeon Siege II", and "Space Siege".


Wascopam Mission

The Wascopam Mission or Dalles Mission was a branch of the Methodist Mission active in the Pacific Northwest. It was the first post established outside the Willamette Valley, opened at Celilo Falls along the Columbia River on March 21, 1838, by Rev. Daniel Lee and Rev. Henry K. W. Perkins.
Establishment.
Lumber for the buildings was cut mostly by neighboring Wascos and the mission was often called Wascopam after them. The mission consisted of a schoolhouse, garden, stable, barn, and two dwellings along with a cleared pasture adjacent to the wood huts used by the Native American villagers. Supplies were procured from Hudson's Bay Company stations Fort Vancouver and Fort Nez Percés along with the Methodist stations of Mission Bottom and later Mission Mill with Chinookan and Walla Walla escorts. During one such trip the provisions for the party had dwindled and a horse had to be consumed until salmon could be purchased from a Clackamas village. The main tribes proselytized to from this location were the Walla Wallas, the Wascos, the Wishram, the Klickitats, the Cascades and the Shastas. Missionaries used Pulpit Rock to preach to the natives and was at first successful in converting some.
Pulpit Rock.
Pulpit Rock is a rock about tall in what is now The Dalles, Oregon. Prior to Euro-American settlement the rock was carved by natural elements in an open area on a slight slope. The Methodist missionaries were known to preach to the local Native Americans during the 1830s and 1840s from this rock. The rock currently stands in the intersection of 12th and Court streets, directly south of The Dalles-Wahtonka High School, with a historical marker. The city kept the rock at its location in the middle of a street due to history surrounding the rock. A mural on a building in downtown The Dalles features the rock prior to the development of the current roads and neighborhood around it.
Closing.
The Wascopam Mission was sold for $600 to Marcus Whitman in 1847, who intended to move there. However after the Whitman Massacre and the eruption of the Cayuse War, the mission was occupied by the Oregon militia. The station was returned to the Methodist Mission in 1849, and as the ABCFM had yet to be pay for the station, its bill of purchase was waived. The Dalles mission did not get used again by the Methodists, and it was sold to the Federal Government for $24,000.
The U.S. Army developed Fort Dalles during the 1850s on the site of the Wascopam Mission, becoming the center of modern town of The Dalles. The remaining indigenous people inhabiting the surrounding region were evicted by the U.S. Army to the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. During litigation that reached the Supreme Court in 1883 between the church and settlers in the area, the Methodists land claims of the Dalles were rejected. Three years later the church gave $23,000 to settlers who had previously paid for lots on the now defunct claim.


Zaachila

Zaachila (the Zapotec name; Nahuatl: "Teotzapotlan"; Mixtec: "Ñuhu Tocuisi") was a powerful Mesoamerican city in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, from the city of Oaxaca. The city is named after Zaachila Yoo, the Zapotec ruler, in the late 14th and early 15th century. Zaachila was home of Donaji- the last Zapotec princess. Zaachila is now an archaeological site. A large unexplored pyramid mound is in the center in which two tombs were discovered in 1962. These tombs are thought to belong to important Mixtec persons.
Following the fall of Monte Alban, Zaachila became the last Zapotec capital. Sometime before the arrival of the Spaniards, the capital was conquered by the Mixtecs. The history of the pre-Hispanic city is unclear. One theory is that the site flourished 1100 and 1521 AD. Another theory is that the city was founded in 1399 and could be compared to Tenochtitlan, as it was a city in the middle of a lake. The full extent of the ancient city is not known either, principally because excavation is impeded by the fact that most mounds have inhabited structures on them.
In 1971 new excavations found two more tombs registered with the numbers 3 and 4. Even though the offerings were simpler than the ones found by Gallegos, tomb 4 end up being of special interest because of the paint remains found on its lintel. Unfortunately, tree roots and rain infiltration have damaged the designs, according to Acosta (1972) they represent skulls and cross bones over a red colored background. Since 1990 the project "La pintura mural prehispánica en México" of the Institute of Aesthetic Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, it is dedicated to record and study of the pre-Columbian murals, like those from Zaachila.
Due population growth and neglect of the authorities a housing project was authorized which has add up to the damage and pillaging of this valuable archaeological site.
Nowadays, in this community barter is a common practice, every Thursday many merchants came to this place to exchange and sell their products.
The big festival of the Zaachila hill | Laanii Roo Xten Daan Zaadxil.
The last Monday of July, the Zaachila community meets in the archaeological site, better known as "el cerrito," to honor the Corn Goddess (Pitao Ko Shuub), in traditional Laanii Roo Xten Daan Zaadxil.
The Goddess Pitao Ko Shuub is chosen among several young women who previously enrolled in a contest, the main demanded features are: the long black hair, they must have brown skin and share a theme of the history of Zaachila. The chosen one will be host of all the activities of the festival.
Has the young women, the ten neighborhoods that conform the town organize months before the festival to represent the most iconic dances of various regions of Oaxaca, like: "La Flor de la Piña de Tuxtepec (the pineapple flower of Tuxtepec)," "El Jarabe de Ejutla," "Las Chilenas de la Costa," "El Jarabe Mixe," "Los Bailes del Itsmo de Tehuantepec," and has a central valley special input we found the "Dance of the Feather" and "Los Zancudos," this last one is performed by young men on stilts almost five feet tall.
In this festivity the ejidal authorities get involved, and they are in charge of giving to the participants tepache (a fruit fermented beverage), mezcal, atole and tamales.
This festival is one of the most colorful and joyful of the region because in this festival cultural events, calendas, parades, culinary samples and other events are celebrated too.


Central Point Software

Central Point Software, Inc. (CP, CPS, Central Point) was a leading software utilities maker for the PC market, supplying utilities software for the DOS and Microsoft Windows markets. It also made Apple II copy programs. Through a series of mergers, the company was ultimately acquired by Symantec in 1994.
History.
CPS was founded by Michael Burmeister-Brown (Mike Brown) in 1980 in Central Point, Oregon, for which the company was named. Building on the success of its Copy II PC backup utility, it moved to Beaverton, Oregon. In 1993 CPS acquired the XTree Company. It was itself acquired by Symantec in 1994, for around $60 million.
Products.
The company's most important early product was a series of utilities which allowed exact duplicates to be made of copy-protected diskettes. The first version, Copy II Plus v1.0 (for the Apple II), was released in June 1981. With the success of the IBM PC and compatibles, a version for that platform - "Copy II PC" (copy2pc) - was released in 1983.
CPS also offered a hardware add-in expansion card, the "Copy II PC Deluxe Board", which was bundled with its own software. The Copy II PC Deluxe Board was able to read, write and copy disks from Apple II and Macintosh computer systems as well. COPY II PC's main competitor was Quaid Software's "CopyWrite", which did not have a hardware component.
CPS also released Option Board hardware with TransCopy software for duplicating copy-protected floppy diskettes.
In 1985 CPS released PC Tools, an integrated graphical DOS shell and utilities package. PC Tools was an instant success and became Central Point's flagship product, and positioned the company as the major competitor to Peter Norton Computing and its Norton Utilities and Norton Commander. CPS later manufactured a Macintosh version called "Mac Tools". CPS licensed the Mirror, Undelete, and Unformat components of PC Tools to Microsoft for inclusion in MS-DOS versions 5.x and 6.x as external DOS utilities. CPS File Manager was ahead of its time, with features such as view ZIP archives as directories and a file/picture viewer.
In 1993 CPS released PC Tools for Windows 2.0 which ran on Windows 3.1 and Windows 95/98. After the Symantec acquisition the programmer group that created PCTW 2.0 created Norton Navigator for Windows 95 and Symantec unbundled the File Manager used in PCTW 2.0 and released it as PC-Tools File Manager 3.0 for Windows 3.1
The lateness of PCTW to the Windows market was a major factor in why CPS was acquired by Symantec. Windows Server at the time was not viewed as a credible alternative to Novell NetWare - the first version of Windows Server was released in 1993 - and the desktop and server software products market was completely centered on Novell NetWare. The subsequent stumble by Novell to maintain dominance in the server market came years later and had nothing to do with the acquisition. Instead, like many software vendors, CPS underestimated how rapidly users were going to shift to Windows from DOS.
CPS's other major desktop product was Central Point Anti-Virus (CPAV), whose main competitor was Norton Antivirus. CPAV was a licensed version of "Carmel Software"'s "Turbo Anti-Virus"; CPS, in turn, licensed CPAV to Microsoft to create Microsoft Antivirus for DOS (MSAV) and Windows (MWAV).
CPS also released CPAV for Netware 3.xx and 4.x Netware servers in 1993.
Central Point also sold the Apple II clone Laser 128 by mail.


Alliance of the North

The Alliance of the North () was a Canadian social conservative and right-wing populist political party, originating from the province of Quebec. In the 2015 federal election, the party nominated its leader François Bélanger in Lévis—Lotbinière. Bélanger did not win a seat. The party was deregistered by Elections Canada on September 15, 2019.
Ideology.
On its website, the party created a list of six (6) priorities, developed in September 2013, which form the foundation of its ideology. Among the priorities include reducing the size of the federal government, reducing the number of immigrants accepted into Canada to 150,000 per year, promoting a right to bear arms, launching a federal investigation into "criminal bankers", and "removing" the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Election results.
The party leader François Bélanger ran as the party's only candidate in the 2015 federal election in the Quebec riding of Lévis—Lotbinière. He received 136 votes or 0.2% of the vote, placing last among the six candidates to contest the riding.


Bowman-Biltmore Hotels

Bowman-Biltmore Hotels was a hotel chain created by hotel magnate John McEntee Bowman.
The name evokes the Vanderbilt family's Biltmore Estate, whose buildings and gardens within are privately owned historical landmarks and tourist attractions in Asheville, North Carolina, United States. The name has since been adopted by other unrelated hotels. For a time, the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels Corporation was a publicly traded company.
Planned hotels.
A Detroit Biltmore was planned for the site of the Hotel Tuller on Detroit's Grand Circus Park. The Tuller was to have been demolished in 1929 and replaced by a towering 35-story, 1500 room hotel with an attached 14-story garage and 18-story office building. The plans were abandoned when the stock market crashed that year.
Unassociated hotels.
Florida.
The Palm Beach Biltmore was not connected to the Bowman Biltmore group. It was built in 1926 as the Alba, renamed The Ambassador in 1929, and sold to Henry L. Doherty in 1933. Doherty, who had bought the Miami Biltmore two years earlier, renamed the hotel the Palm Beach Biltmore. It was later owned by Hilton Hotels, closed in the 1970s, and was converted to condos from 1979 to 1981.
Nevada.
The Tahoe Biltmore Lodge & Casino, a hotel-casino in Crystal Bay, Nevada, very near the California border among the communities known as North Shore Tahoe. Opened In 1947.
Oklahoma.
The Oklahoma Biltmore in Oklahoma City was an unassociated hotel that once stood downtown, at 228 West Grand Avenue. It was built in 1932 during the Great Depression by the city's prominent civic leaders at the time, headed by Charles F. Colcord. Designed by architects Hawk & Parr, the Biltmore had 619 rooms and was 24 stories high, making it the state's second tallest building only to the Ramsey Tower built in 1931, when it was completed. In 1936 alone, the Biltmore was headquarters for 104 conventions and saw 114,171 guests. After a $3 million renovation in the mid-1960s the Biltmore was renamed the Sheraton-Oklahoma Hotel. By 1973, the hotel had left Sheraton, and the Oklahoma City Urban Renewal Authority agreed with the owners that the Biltmore had outlived its useful life. In contrast, architect I. M. Pei had envisioned keeping the hotel, and his sketches and models all showed the tower overlooking the surrounding "Tivoli Gardens". The hotel was one of the largest demolitions in the country at the time it was blown up on October 16, 1977 by a team of demolition specialists to make way for the "Myriad Gardens". Hundreds of low-yield explosives were planted throughout the building so that it would collapse and fall inward into an acceptable area only slightly larger than the hotel's foundation.


Shooting of John T. Williams

On August 30, 2010, John T. Williams, a Native American woodcarver, was shot four times by Officer Ian Birk of the Seattle Police Department. Williams died at the scene. The shooting was ruled "unjustified" by the police department's Firearms Review Board. The department's actions were scrutinized by the United States Department of Justice as a result of the incident.
Biography.
John T. Williams was born in February 27, 1960. He was a member of the Nuu-chah-nulth tribe, and during his childhood, lived in Seattle, and Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia.According to Williams' family, he was a seventh-generation woodcarver. Williams was an extremely talented artist. Williams had hearing difficulties, and had battled problems with alcohol much of his adult life. He had spent time at the mental institution Western State Hospital.
Shooting.
At about 4:15 p.m. on August 30, 2010, Birk was driving his patrol car and saw Williams near Boren Avenue and Howell Street. The dashboard camera of Birk's patrol car showed Williams walk "through the crosswalk, hunched over (with) something in his hands, then disappear(ing) offscreen". Birk emerged from his patrol car with his pistol drawn. Birk yelled, "Hey", "Hey… Hey!", "Put the knife down", "Put the knife down. Put the knife down!" Less than 5 seconds after the first "Hey", the sound of gunshots was recorded on the camera. Williams had been holding a "scrap of wood" and "a single-blade pocketknife". Officers who arrived on the scene after the shooting and nearby witnesses later observed that the knife Williams was carrying was closed.
Investigation.
Birk stated to the Firearms Review Board that Williams appeared to be impaired, and that he had an open knife in his hand. Birk also stated that when Williams began to turn toward Birk that Williams was "brandishing" the knife in a "very confrontational posture" and that Williams did not obey Birk's orders to drop the knife. Birk stated that he was mindful of the fact that Williams was approximately away from him and might attack before Birk had the opportunity to react, and at that point Birk made the decision to fire.
The report of the Firearms Review Board concluded that Birk acted appropriately in contacting Williams, but that the decision to use deadly force was unjustified. The Firearms Review Board found a number of problems in Birk's actions and his subsequent testimony. The FRB found that when Birk first made the decision to contact Williams that Birk was in the safety of his patrol car and that his radio communication to police dispatchers indicated that he was conducting a routine stop of a suspicious person, but the correct action would have been for Birk to indicate explicitly to dispatchers that he "observed a man with a knife", to request backup, and to wait for backup to arrive before initiating contact. The FRB also found that Birk's decision to exit his vehicle with his firearm drawn were inconsistent with a routine assessment of a suspicious circumstance; that Birk failed to adequately identify himself as a police officer in his verbal commands to Williams; that there were inconsistencies in Birk's testimony; that whether or not the knife was open was the subject of debate but the FRB based its findings with the belief that Birk was correct in stating that the knife was open when he confronted Williams; that Birk made the decision to move to approximately within 10 feet of Williams and that this close distance is insufficient to establish a justification for the use of deadly force; that based on Williams' posture "Officer Birk's decision to use deadly force was premature", and the unanimous conclusion that Birk's discharge of his firearm was "unjustified and outside of policy, tactics and training".
Aftermath.
Birk resigned from the Seattle Police Department on February 16, 2011, one day after King County prosecutor Dan Satterberg decided not to press criminal charges against him. Seattle Mayor Mike McGinn declared February 27, 2011 to be "John T. Williams Day" in the city.
In August 2011, the City of Seattle paid Williams' family a settlement of $1.5 million. A high totem pole honoring Williams was erected at the Seattle Center on February 26, 2012.
In 2011, A Tribe Called Red recorded "Woodcarver." The song samples recordings from the shooting and the music video includes dashcam footage.
In 2016, a crosswalk painted in the style of a white deer was unveiled at Boren Avenue and Howell Street, where Williams was shot, and dedicated to him.