War of the Succession of Champagne

The War of the Succession of Champagne was a war from 1216 to 1222 between the nobles of the Champagne region of France, occurring within that region and also spilling over into neighboring duchies. The war lasted two years and "de facto" ended in 1218, but did not officially end until Theobald IV reached the age of majority in 1222, at which point his rivals abandoned their claims.
Origins.
In 1190, Henry II, count of Champagne, left his county for the Crusades with his two uncles Philip II of France and Richard I of England (Henry's mother was the daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine, and thus half-sister to Philip via her father and to Richard via her mother). He made the barons of Champagne swear to pay homage to his brother Theobald if he should die on Crusade.
In the Holy Land, Henry was crowned king of Jerusalem and - to reinforce his legitimacy - married for the second time to queen Isabella, second wife and widow of Conrad of Montferrat, despite the fact that her first husband (from whom she had been forced to separate) was still alive. Henry and Isabella had three daughters and no surviving sons and so, when Henry II died in 1197, his brother inherited the county as Theobald III. Theobald III then died of a sudden illness four years later in 1201 while preparing to lead the Fourth Crusade, leaving his widow Blanche of Navarre nine months pregnant with their son Theobald IV, born after his father's death.
In 1215 Henry II's third daughter Philippa of Champagne married a nobleman from Champagne living in the Holy Land. His name was Erard of Brienne-Ramerupt, and he was a cousin of John of Brienne, king of Jerusalem. It was he who gave Philippa the idea of claiming the county of Champagne.
Blanche of Navarre, however, proved to be an incredibly strong and efficient regent, and had devoted herself for the past 15 years to ensuring the legal status of her son Theobald IV as rightful heir. Blanche was aided in securing her powerbase during the first few shakey years of her regency by the fact that so many lords and knights of the county, who might have posed a challenge to her, had left to fight on the Fourth Crusade from 1202 to 1204. Queen Mother Adèle of Champagne (who was Theobald III's aunt) also took Blanche under her wing, giving Blanche vital counsel during the early years of her regency until Adèle's death in 1206 (for the rest of her life, Blanche would make large monastic donations devoted to Adèle's memory).
By 1216, despite the fact that Erard rallied most of the local barons of the county against Blanche, she had built up such strong alliances with both King Philip II as well as Pope Innocent III that Erard never gained any official legal support for his claims. From the start of the conflict, Pope Innocent III began excommunicating rebel barons, negatively affecting their efforts. Further, while Theobald IV was still an underaged youth of 13 years, he had acquitted himself so valiantly in combat at the decisive Battle of Bouvines that King Philip II threw his full support behind him (though this was also the culmination of over a decade of Blanche cementing an alliance with the monarchy, through financial ties and homage).
Course.
Beginning Maneuvers (1216).
Erard and Philippa landed in France in January 1216. On their journey to Le Puy-en-Velay, Erard was arrested by agents of the king of France but managed to escape and get to Champagne. Erard and his supporters took up a position in Noyers, which Blanche of Navarre then besieged in April 1216. That same month Erard accepted a truce and submitted the matter to the king of France for arbitration.
In July 1216, King Philip II finally heard Erard's suit at Melun, but ruled in Blanche's favor due to the overwhelming evidence she provided: the barons of the realm had sworn to support Theobald III should Henry II not return from the Holy Land, Theobald III had done homage to the king in 1198, Blanche had done homage to the king in 1201, and Theobald IV himself had made an innovative "anticipatory homage" in 1214. Blanche even provided numerous letters patent, bearing the seals of the barons who had sworn homage. Philip II ordained that the barons await the majority of Theobald IV and his assumption of his rights as Count (when he turned 21 years old in May 1222). Philip II ordered Erard and the barons to seal their own letters patent confirming the court's decision and promising to observe a truce.
Open Rebellion (1217).
No sooner had Erard returned to his holdings in Champagne than he and his rebel supporters quickly broke the truce and took up arms against Blanche. In spring 1217 war began in earnest and the local barons of Champagne, all more or less supporting Philippa, abandoned Blanche to rally to Erard. Theobald I, Duke of Lorraine took on Erard's cause, as did his brother-in-law Miles, Seigneur de Noyers, and his nephew André de Pougy, Seigneur de Marolles-sur-Seine and de Saint Valérien. The support of the Duke of Lorraine added a substantial amount of strength to the rebel forces.
Most of the fighting was concentrated in southeastern Champagne, as Blanche's forces pushed east from her capital at Troyes on the Seine river, to rebel fortresses on the Aube river (Erard's holding at Ramerupt north of Troyes) and further east on the Marne river (Joinville and Langres). Two of Blanche's most dangerous enemies were the brothers William and Simon of Joinville, both of whom broke peace treaties they had made with Blanche in 1214 to switch to Erard's side. Simon of Joinville was Blanche's own seneschal (though he had obtained the office through hereditary right, not appointment by Blanche). William was the bishop of Langres to the southeast, who also held overlordship of the county of Bar-sur-Aube.
Apart from various sieges, during the early part of the conflict Erard and his rebel barons attacked merchant caravans traveling to the Champagne fairs at Troyes and Bar-sur-Aube. However, each side soon realized that they did not want to disrupt this vital source of monetary income. During the later years of the war, therefore, Erard would agree to truces with Blanche that would last weeks or months at a time, in order for the trade fairs to occur unmolested. In return, Blanche would pay off Erard with a large fraction of the revenue from the comital taxes exacted from the trade fairs.
Foreign Intervention and Climax (1218).
The rebellion remained a localized affair, largely driven by the self-interest of the local barons, though by spring 1218 it attracted the intervention of Blanche's liege-lords King Philip II of France and Odo III, Duke of Burgundy, as well as Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Duke Theobald I of Lorraine had sided with rival Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV against Frederick II during the recent round of civil wars in Germany, thus their entry on opposite sides of the conflict was an extension of Hohenstaufen-Welf antagonisms.
Emperor Frederick II, the suzerain of Lorraine, considered it a felony for Duke Theobald I of Lorraine to support a candidate he opposed, so he occupied the city of Rosheim, which he had given to Theobald I's father. Theobald I responded in 1218, retaking Rosheim and then ravaging Alsace, particularly Frederick II's vineyards. Nonetheless Theobald I lost Rosheim again when a pro-Frederick II uprising in the city killed the Lorraine garrison (massacring them in their cellars after inviting them down to sample their wines).
After two years, the papal excommunications and interdicts had also taken their toll, isolating the rebel barons. The Church's prelates in Champagne aided Blanche at the order of Pope Innocent III, with the notable exception of William, bishop of Langres, who ignored papal orders to excommunicate his own brother Simon.
Blanche's forces ravaged the lands of her traitorous seneschal Simon of Joinville, and she imposed a humiliating surrender agreement: Simon's fortresses were seized, his eldest son Geoffroy was taken hostage, and Simon was forced to transfer his ancestral castle at Joinville to his brother Bishop William as security for his good conduct.
The entry of Burgundy and Bar into the war began to turn the tide against the rebels. With the aid of Odo III of Burgundy and Count Henry II of Bar, Countess-Regent Blanche rode with her army to Lorraine's capital of Nancy in 1218 and burned the town. Blanche then joined with Emperor Frederick II to besiege the castle of Amance. Duke Theobald I of Lorraine surrendered Amance by the end of May 1218, and officially renewed his fidelity to Blanche on June 1, at which point the rebellion largely collapsed and rebel barons started making their own separate peaces.
Securing the Peace (1218-1222).
Theobald I of Lorraine died in May 1220 under mysterious circumstances, and to seal the peace the 19-year-old Theobald IV of Champagne married Lorraine's 16-year-old widow, Gertrude of Dagsburg. Duke Theobald I's brother Matthew II, who succeeded in Lorraine, made peace and swore fealty to Blanche. Bishop William of Langres was elected archbishop of Reims in 1219, resulting in his fortuitous departure from the conflict. Erard renounced any claim on Champagne on 2 November 1221 and Philippa in April 1222. In return for renouncing his claims, Erard received a substantial cash settlement. The last rebel baron, Erard II of Chacernay, swore his renewed loyalty to Theobald IV in March 1222. Two months later in May 1222, Theobald IV reached the age of maturity and began his reign as count, and the triumphant Countess-Regent Blanche withdrew to the Cistercian convent of Argensolles for her retirement.
Aftermath.
Blanche and Theobald IV had centralized comital authority within Champagne, reining in the rebellious local barons and ending any pretensions of collegiate rule in the county. Theobald IV promptly divorced Gertrude as soon as he came of age and peace was secured, terminating their brief two-year-long and childless marriage, in order to marry Agnes of Beaujeu.
Unfortunately, Theobald IV's rule was initially marked by a series of misfortunes: he was accused of abandoning King Louis VIII at the siege of Avignon (1226), costing him the royal alliance he had relied on to secure his inheritance. Moreover, strong rumors began to spread that Theobald IV was having an affair with Louis VIII's widow, the Queen Regent Blanche of Castile (ruled 1226-1234), for whom he composed a poetic homage (Blanche of Castile and Theobald IV's father Theobald III were both grandchildren of Eleanor of Aquitaine). Theobald IV was becoming increasingly influential at court, and the other great counts of France were becoming resentful (it is entirely possible that the rumors of an affair with the queen regent were indeed unfounded, and merely fabricated by other barons jealous of his position at court). In general, the other barons were jealous of the strengthened County of Champagne which had emerged from the Succession War, and now presented a major rival to surrounding areas.
Whatever the case, the resentful other barons invaded Champagne from 1229-1230. Ironically, the alliances in the invasion were reversed from the arrangement they had been in during the Succession War: Count Henry II of Bar attacked Champagne from the east, prompting Theobald IV to ally with Lorraine to attack the County of Bar. Simon of Joinville, who had fought for the rebel faction during the Succession War, now allied with Theobald IV against the external threat, and aided him in ravaging Bar, which was on the northern border of Joinville's own lands. Unfortunately, the conflict with the County of Bar prompted the more powerful Duchy of Burgundy to invade Champagne from the south, led by Duke Hugh IV (his father Odo III, Blanche of Navarre's staunch ally, had died in 1218). This provoked Queen-Regent Blanche of Castile to intervene, in order to stop the spread of the conflict.
Theobald IV was able to repulse the attackers, but at great cost. Champagne's economy was so depleted by these two major wars, as well as the crusading debts of Theobald IV's father and uncle, that Theobald IV had to sell off his overlordship of the counties west of Paris that his ancestors held before expanding east to Champagne: Blois, Sancerre, and Chateaudun. Another major blow to morale came near the start of the invasion of 1229, when Blanche of Navarre died (of natural causes) while in retirement at Argensolles convent. Moreover, Theobald IV's second wife Agnes of Beaujeu suddenly died in 1231, leaving Theobald IV with only their five-year-old daughter, Blanche. This left Champagne in need of a male heir, prompting Theobald IV to remarry in 1232 to Margaret of Bourbon. The situation reached its nadir in 1233, when Henry II's elder daughter Queen Alice of Cyprus threatened to reprise the succession war of Theobald IV's minority yet again. Alice had become queen of Cyprus by marrying her stepbrother Hugh I of Cyprus in 1210.
However, the fortunes of Theobald IV and Champagne dramatically shifted soon afterward, when in 1234 he became King of Navarre on the death of his uncle (after successfully outmaneuvering James I of Aragon's attempt to succeed in Navarre). Suddenly, Theobald IV became too wealthy and powerful for neighboring counts to risk fighting. This also ended Alice of Cyprus's attempt to renew the succession war, and she was paid off with a substantial cash settlement. Alice was at this time engaged in the War of the Lombards against Blanche's old ally Emperor Frederick II, so it is possible that Alice did not want to fight two wars at once, and wanted to concentrate on the direct threat to Cyprus itself. This war was based on Emperor Frederick II's attempt to claim the throne of Jerusalem and Cyprus, based on his marriage to Isabella II of Jerusalem, the young half-niece of Alice and Philippa (Isabella II's mother Maria was the daughter of Isabella I of Jerusalem by her previous husband Conrad, while Alice and Philippa were the daughters of her subsequent husband Henry II of Champagne). Maria died giving birth to Isabella II in 1212, and Isabella II died in 1228 giving birth to Frederick II's son Conrad IV, sparking the war against Frederick II over control of his son's regency.
Theobald IV spent most of his subsequent time and attention in Navarre, but the removal of external threats ensured an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity for Champagne that would last for the next five decades. Margaret of Bourbon and Theobald IV ultimately had four surviving children together, including Theobald IV's successor Theobald II of Navarre (Theobald V of Champagne), who would rule from his father's death in 1253 to 1270. Theobald IV and Margaret's two daughters Margaret and Beatrix were married to the dukes of Lorraine and Burgundy respectively, to cement peaceful relations through marriage-alliance. After Theobald II/V died childless while on the Eighth Crusade, his younger brother Henry I of Navarre (Henry III of Champagne) succeeded him for a brief but talented reign which ended when he also died in 1274, leaving only his one-year-old daughter (Theobald IV's granddaughter) Joan I of Navarre as his heir. Henry's wife Blanche of Artois would rule Champagne as regent for Joan until 1284, when Joan (at 11 years old, still under the regency of her mother) was married to King Philip IV the Fair of France (who was himself 16 years old). With this marriage alliance to the Kings of France, Champagne was absorbed into the royal holdings. Philip IV and Joan had three sons who each ruled as king of France in turn, because each was unable to produce a male heir. When their last son Charles IV of France died without a male heir in 1328 the Capetian Dynasty ended, resulting in Philip of House Valois (Philip IV's nephew) and King Edward III of England (son of Isabella, Philip IV and Joan's daughter, great-granddaughter of Theobald IV) entering into conflict over the succession, which began the Hundred Years' War.


2004 Bosnian municipal elections

Bosnia and Herzegovina municipal elections were held on 2 October 2004 to elect municipal mayors and assemblies. The mayoral results are as follow:


Sir John Baker, 2nd Baronet

Sir John Baker, 2nd Baronet (c. 1608 – 15 January 1653) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons of England in 1640. He supported the Royalist side in the English Civil War.
Baker was the son of Sir Henry Baker, 1st Baronet of Sissinghurst Castle and his wife Catherine Smythe. He inherited the baronetcy on the death of his father in 1623. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1633 he was High Sheriff of Kent.
In April 1640, Baker was elected Member of Parliament for Hastings for the Short Parliament. He was not elected to the Long Parliament He was fined £3,000 for supporting the Royalist cause on 22 April 1644.
Baker died at Cranbrook, Kent and was buried in St Dunstan's Church.
Baker married Eleanor Parkhurst, daughter of Sir Robert Parkhurst, Lord Mayor of London and his wife Eleanor Babington. He was succeeded by his son Sir John Baker, 3rd Baronet and on the latter's death in 1661, the baronetcy became extinct.


Yn Pabyr Seyr

Yn Pabyr Seyr () is the newsletter of , the Manx pro-independence organisation, and publicises their policies, views and comments.
It has been distributed at least twice a year since 1990. The archive of back-issues available on line is being updated on an ongoing basis. Although its title is in Manx, the majority of content is in English.
Its politics lean towards the left and include criticism of neo-conservative capitalism on the Isle of Man.


Kielce cemetery massacre

The Kielce cemetery massacre refers to the shooting action by the Nazi German police that took place on May 23, 1943 in occupied Poland during World War II, in which 45 Jewish children who had survived the Kielce Ghetto liquidation, and remained with their working parents at the Kielce forced-labour camps, were rounded up and brought to the Pakosz cemetery in Kielce, Poland, where they were murdered by the German paramilitary police. The children ranged in age from 15 months to 15 years old.
During the ghetto liquidation action which began on 20 August 1942 approximately 20,000-21,000 Jews were led to awaiting Holocaust trains and sent to Treblinka extermination camp. By the end of 24 August 1942, there were only 2,000 skilled workers left alive in the labour camp at Stolarska-and-Jasna Streets "" within the small ghetto, including members of the "Judenrat" and the Jewish policemen. In May 1943, most Jewish prisoners from Kielce were transported to forced-labour camps in Starachowice, Skarżysko-Kamienna, Pionki, and Bliżyn. The 45 Jewish children murdered at the cemetery were the ones who stayed behind at the liquidated camp.


List of Serbs of Montenegro

List of Serbs of Montenegro.


Flora MacDonald

Flora MacDonald (Gaelic: "Fionnghal nic Dhòmhnaill"); (1722 – 5 March 1790) was a member of the Macdonalds of Sleat, who helped Charles Edward Stuart evade government troops after the Battle of Culloden in April 1746. Her family supported the government during the 1745 Rising and Flora later claimed to have assisted Charles out of sympathy for his situation.
She was arrested and held in the Tower of London but released under a general amnesty in June 1747. She later married Allan MacDonald and the couple emigrated to North Carolina in 1773. Their support for the British government during the American War of Independence meant the loss of their American estates and they returned to Scotland, where Flora died in 1790.
Early life.
Flora was born in 1722 at Milton on the island of South Uist in the Outer Hebrides, third and last child of Ranald MacDonald (d. 1723) and his second wife Marion. Her father was a member of the minor gentry, being tacksman and leaseholder of Milton and Balivanich; she had two brothers, Angus, who later inherited the Milton tack and Ronald, who died young.
Her father died soon after her birth and in 1728, her mother remarried Hugh MacDonald of Armadale, Skye. Flora was brought up by her father's cousin, Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat; suggestions that she was educated in Edinburgh have not been confirmed. While some MacDonalds remained Catholic, particularly in the Islands, her family was part of the Presbyterian majority.
The escape of Prince Charles Edward Stuart.
Flora was visiting Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides when Prince Charles and a small group of aides took refuge there after the Battle of Culloden in June 1746. One of his companions, Captain Conn O'Neill from County Antrim, was distantly related to Flora and asked for her help.
MacDonald of Sleat had not joined the Rebellion and Benbecula was controlled by a pro-government militia commanded by Flora's step-father, Hugh MacDonald. This connection allowed her to obtain the necessary permits but she apparently hesitated, fearing the consequences for her family if they were caught. She may have been taking less of a risk than it appears; witnesses later claimed Hugh advised the Prince where to hide from his search parties.
Passes were issued allowing passage to the mainland for Flora, a boat's crew of six men and two personal servants, including Charles disguised as an Irish maid called Betty Burke. On 27 June, they landed near Sir Alexander's house at Monkstadt, near Kilbride, Skye. In his absence, his wife Lady Margaret arranged lodging with her steward, MacDonald of Kingsburgh, who told Charles to remove his disguise, as it simply made him more conspicuous. The next day, Charles was taken from Portree to the island of Raasay; Flora remained on Skye and they never met again.
Two weeks later, the boatmen were detained and confessed; Flora and Kingsburgh were arrested and taken to the Tower of London. After Lady Margaret interceded on her behalf with the chief Scottish legal officer, Duncan Forbes of Culloden, she was allowed to live outside the Tower under the supervision of a "King's Messenger" and released after the June 1747 Act of Indemnity. Aristocratic sympathisers collected over £1,500 for her, one of the contributors being Frederick, Prince of Wales, heir to the throne; Flora allegedly told him she helped Charles out of charity and would have done the same for him.
On 6 November 1750, at the age of 28, she married Allen MacDonald, a captain in the British Army and Kingsburgh's eldest son. The couple first lived at Flodigarry, Skye and inherited the family estate after Kingsburgh died in 1772. The writer Samuel Johnson, who met her in 1773 during his visit to the island, described her as "a woman of soft features, gentle manners, kind soul and elegant presence". He was also author of the inscription on her memorial at Kilmuir: "a name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour".
Emigration to North Carolina.
Allan MacDonald served in the 114th and 62nd Regiments of Foot during the 1756–1763 Seven Years' War but was a poor businessman. After quarrelling with his clan chief over rent, he and Flora emigrated to Anson County, North Carolina in 1774 where they settled on an estate near Mountain Creek, named 'Killegray'. When the American War of Independence began in 1775, Allan raised the Anson Battalion of the Loyalist North Carolina Militia, a total of around 1,000 men, including his sons Alexander and James. En route to the coast for collection by British transports, they were attacked by an American force at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge on 28 February 1776 and Allan was taken prisoner.
In April 1777, the North Carolina Provincial Congress confiscated Loyalist-owned property and Flora was evicted from Killegray, with the loss of all her possessions. After 18 months in captivity, Allan was released in September 1777; he was posted to Fort Edward, Nova Scotia as commander of the 84th Regiment of Foot where Flora joined him in August 1778.
Return to Skye.
After a harsh winter in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in September 1779 Flora took passage for London in the "Dunmore," a British privateer; during the voyage, she broke her arm and ill-health delayed her return to Scotland until spring 1780.
She spent the next few years living with various family members, including Dunvegan, home of her son-in-law Major General Alexander Macleod, the largest landowner in Skye after the MacDonalds. The compensation received for the loss of their North Carolina estates was insufficient to allow them to settle in Nova Scotia and Allan returned to Scotland in 1784. Since Kingsburgh was now occupied by Flora's half-sister and her husband, Flora and Allan settled on the nearby tack of Penduin.
She died in 1790 at the age of 68 and was buried in Kilmuir Cemetery, her husband following in September 1792. They had seven surviving children, two daughters and five sons, two of whom were lost at sea in 1781 and 1782; a third son John made his fortune in India, enabling his parents to spend their last years in some comfort.
Legacy.
Traditional portrayals of the escape focus on Charles, Flora being relegated to a secondary role and receiving less credit than is her due. She rarely spoke of the episode and her last contact with Charles was when they parted ways at Portree; it appears at least one motive was that his presence endangered her family.
The Victorians created a Scottish cultural identity expressed through tartans, the late 19th-century inventions of Burns Suppers and Highland Games, and the co-option of romantic icons like Mary, Queen of Scots and Bonnie Prince Charlie. In 1878, Flora took her place in this pantheon with the publication of an alleged 'Autobiography'; ghost-written by her granddaughter Flora Frances Wylde, this contains so many errors it could not have been written by her. Repeated by Charles Ewald in his 1886 book "The Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward", it remains the basis for many popular perspectives on her life and motivations.
In 1884, Sir Harold Boulton wrote an adaptation of an existing melody which he named 'The Skye Boat Song'. This was soon followed by the first performance of the Scottish highland dance "Flora MacDonald's Fancy", while a bronze statue was erected at Inverness Castle in 1896. The Flora MacDonald Academy, formerly Flora Macdonald College, in Red Springs, North Carolina is named after her and two of her children are interred on the campus; until 2009, it was also the site of the Flora Macdonald Highland Games.
Flora was painted several times by Scottish portrait artist Allan Ramsay (1713–1784), the majority of which were destroyed. The one used in this article was done after her release from the Tower in 1749–1750; in 2015, a previously unrecorded painting, allegedly also by Ramsay, was discovered in Florida.
Fictional portrayals include;
In the 1948 film "Bonnie Prince Charlie", Flora is portrayed by Margaret Leighton, with David Niven as Charles. He later recalled it as "...one of those huge, florid extravaganzas that reek of disaster from the start."


Lyakhavichy

Liachavičy (, , , , "Lekhavitsh", ) is a city in the southwestern Belarusian Brest Region.
History.
Known since 15th century in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as the center of the volost of the same name. At the beginning of the 16th century, belonged to Albrecht Gashtol'd. After the death of his son Stanislav in 1542 the city passed to the widow of the latter, Barbara Radziwill, who in 1547 married the heir to the Polish throne, bringing to him the numerous possessions of the Gashtol'ds. On April 10, 1572, Sigismund II Augustus transferred the town to the castellan of Vilna, Jan Ieronimovich Khodkevich. His son, the hetman, the great Lithuanian Jan Karol Khodkevich, built there in place of a small wooden castle a new stone castle of bastion type according to the most modern European models of that time. The castle was repeatedly unsuccessfully besieged by Ukrainian Cossacks and insurgent peasants. In 1635, the castle and the city passed into the possession of Sapieh.
During the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. troops of A. N. Trubetskoy in 1655 burned the city, but did not dare to besiege the castle. In 1660 the Russian voevod Ivan Andreevich Khovansky was unable to take the fortress.
During the Northern War in 1706, the castle, defended by the Cossacks, was handed over to the Swedes after a long siege and partially destroyed.
In 1760–1775, the city and the partly destroyed castle belonged to the Bishop of Vilnius Ignatius of Masala, and then by a decision of the diet (sejm) passed into the possession of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Lyakhovichi was part of the Novgrudok povet (county), and from 1791 to the Sloucheretsk povet. Since 1793, part of the Russian Empire, a township and the center of the volost of Slutsk district. In 1897 the population of Liakhovichi was 5,016 people.
In the years 1655–1760, the famous Belynich Icon of the Mother of God was in Lyakhovichi.
During the First World War it was near the front lines. In 1918, occupied by the Germans, in 1919-1920 by the Poles. In the 1921–1939. it was part of Poland, a city in the Baranovichi povet (county).
Since 1939, part of the BSSR (Byelorussian SSR) and since January 15, 1940 the district center. In 1939 there were 5,100 inhabitants.
During World War II, Liakhavichi was under German occupation from 26 June 1941 to 5 July 1944. More than 3,000 Jewish inhabitants lived in the town, swelled by an influx of refugees fleeing from central and western Poland.
In November, 1941, Jews were gathered in the central square, then taken and killed in a sand pit near the village of Lotva by an Einsatzgruppe. A new massacre took place in June 1942 when 300 Jews kept prisoners in a ghetto were killed in a place close to the previous one. That day, a revolt in the ghetto took place and several Jews managed to join the partisans.


Thomas Dacres

Sir Thomas Dacres (19 October 1587 – December 1668) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons variously between 1626 and 1660. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War.
Dacres was the son of Sir Thomas Dacres of Cheshunt, Hertfordshire and his wife Dorothy Piggott, daughter of Thomas Pigott of Dodershall, Buckinghamshire. He matriculated from St John's College, Cambridge at Easter 1603. He succeeded his father in 1615 and was appointed High Sheriff of Hertfordshire for Aug–Nov 1615 to complete his father's year of shrievalty and knighted on 22 February 1617.
In 1626, Dacres was elected Member of Parliament for Hertfordshire. He was re-elected MP for Hertfordshire in 1628 and sat until 1629 when King Charles decided to rule without parliament for eleven years. In 1641 he was re-elected MP for Hertfordshire in the Long Parliament and sat until 1648 when he was excluded under Pride's Purge. During the civil war he served on various parliamentary commissions.
In 1660, Dacres was elected Member of Parliament for Higham Ferrers in the Convention Parliament. His main interest in parliament was to recover a loan of £250 made in 1642 for suppression of the Irish rebellion. He never received the money and suffered losses in the Great Fire of London.
Dacres died at the age of 81 and was buried at Cheshunt on 26 December 1668.
Dacres married Martha Elmes, daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford Northamptonshire. His son Thomas was also an MP.
References.


William Stanford Grignon

William Stanford Grignon was a planter and slave owner in Jamaica. He was elected to the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1820.


Wingfield Cromwell, 2nd Earl of Ardglass

Wingfield Cromwell, 2nd Earl of Ardglass, DCL, (12 September 1624 – 3 October 1668) was an English nobleman, son of Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Ardglass and Elizabeth Meverell. He held the subsidiary titles of 2nd Viscount Lecale and 5th Baron Cromwell of Oakham.
Life.
Wingfield Cromwell was born at Throwleigh, Staffordshire and educated at Stone School, Staffordshire. He matriculated at Trinity College, University of Dublin, Dublin, County Dublin, Leinster, on 20 March 1637/1638, being awarded with the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) by the University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, in 1642.
In April 1649, during the English Civil War, he fought for King Charles I of England and was taken prisoner in the Royalist cause when fighting against Parliamentarians at Chester.
He succeeded to the titles of 5th Baron Cromwell of Oakham, in the Peerage of England (1540), 2nd Viscount Lecale, in Ulster, in the Peerage of Ireland (1624) and 2nd Earl of Ardglass, in the Peerage of Ireland (1645) in 1653.
He died on 3 October 1668 and was buried at Ilam, Staffordshire.
Marriage and issue.
He married Mary Russell (bef. 1634 – aft. 12 September 1687), daughter of Sir William Russell, 1st Baronet, of Strensham, Worcestershire, and Frances Reade, daughter of Sir Thomas Reade, and had an only son:
His widow married secondly as his second wife in 1670 or between 1670 and 1675 Charles Cotton of Beresford Hall, Nottinghamshire, the angler and poet, and died in 1675 or after 12 September 1687.


Neodamodes

The neodamodes (, "neodamōdeis") were helots freed after passing a time of service as hoplites in the Spartan Army.
The date of their first apparition is uncertain. Thucydides does not explain the origin of this special category. Jean Ducat, in his book "Les Hoplites" (1990), concludes that their statute "was largely inspired by the measures dictated concerning the Brasidians", i.e. the Helots freed after taking part to the expedition of Brasidas in 424 BC.
Their existence is attested from 420 to 369 BC. They were part of Sparta's army and 2,000 of them are recorded taking part, for example, to Agesilaus II's campaign in Ionia between 396 and 394 BC.
The name comes from the words νέος "neos", meaning "new", and "dêmos", meaning ""deme" or territory". Differently from what is written by Hesychius of Alexandria, who brings together the neodamodes and the Athenian "demotes" (citizens of a deme), they never acquired full citizenship. The suffix -ωδης "-ôdês" signals only a resemblance. In truth, the only "deme" they joined was that of the Perioeci.


Metals-banka

Metals-banka () or Development Bank of Vojvodina (), is a Serbian commercial and investment bank, which declared bankruptcy in 2013.
History.
The bank was founded in 1990 by metal processing enterprises. In 2005, the bank acquired its rival "DDOR banka" in 2005 for an undisclosed amount. In 2010, a majority of shares of Metals-banka was acquired by the provincial government of Vojvodina and turned into the "Development Bank of Vojvodina". In April 2013, the bank went into bankruptcy procedure due to insolvency. It was caused by issuing loans without proper guarantees, which cost the bank around 20 million euros.


Isaac Basire

Isaac Basire (1607–1676) was a French-born English divine and traveller. A chaplain to Charles I, he left Britain during the Civil War, and travelled to Greece and Asia Minor, with the ambition of converting the Orthodox churches to Anglicanism. He returned to England in 1661, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II.
Early life.
Basire was born, according to Anthony à Wood, in Jersey. His full name was Isaac Basire de Preaumont, but he dropped the latter part of the name when he settled in England. His father was a Protestant, and belonged to the lowest order of French nobility. Little is known of his early years, but at sixteen he was sent to school in Rotterdam, and two years later (1625) he removed to Leyden University. At Leyden he published (1627) a disputation which he had held there, "De Purgatorio et Indulgentiis".
In about 1628 Basire settled in England, and in 1629 he received holy orders from Thomas Morton, then Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, who soon afterwards made him his chaplain. In 1632, Morton was translated to Durham, and Basire accompanied him there. In 1635 he married Frances Corbett, a member of an old Shropshire family. In 1636 the University of Cambridge conferred upon him the degree of B.D., in compliance with the royal mandate, and appointed him one of the university preachers through England and Ireland. In the same year Bishop Morton bestowed upon him the rectory of Egglescliffe, near Yarm.
In 1640 he was made D.D., and in 1641 chaplain extraordinary to King Charles I. In 1643 he was collated by Bishop Morton to the seventh stall in Durham Cathedral, and in 1644 to the Archdeaconry of Northumberland with the rectory of Howick annexed. These were, for the present, merely nominal appointments, for in consequence of the civil war both the duties and emoluments were in abeyance. In 1645 the rich living of Stanhope became vacant; it was in the gift of the Bishop of Durham, but Morton, "oppressed and overawed by the terrors of the rebels, durst not dispose of it". It therefore lapsed to the crown, and the king gave it to Basire, who was then in attendance upon him as chaplain at Oxford; this also, of course, was only a nominal preferment.
In 1646 Basire, who as royal chaplain had markedly identified himself with the king's cause, was seized upon at Egglescliffe and taken to Stockton Castle. On his release he was "forced by want of subsistence for himself and his family" to go abroad, leaving his wife and children to live upon the so-called "fifths", which "were paid by sixes and sevens, or rather by tenths and twelfths", and upon the small sums which Basire conscientiously remitted to them whenever he possibly could. Mrs. Basire, however, found a kind friend in Dr. Busby, who had been most intimate with her husband, and who frequently expressed himself under great obligations to him for spiritual counsel. When Basire went to London he always stayed with Dr. Busby at Westminster, and he placed his eldest son under the doctor's charge at an unusually early age.
Travels.
Basire commenced his travels by visiting Rouen, where he had a small patrimony of about £8 per annum. Here he was joined by three pupils, two of whom bore the aristocratic names of Lambton and Ashburnham, while the third was a Mr. Andrews. With these three he began his travels in the summer of 1647, going first to Paris, where he had an interview with the unfortunate Queen of England, Henrietta Maria, who gave him a recommendation to Sir Kenelm Digby, the English legate at Rome. Thence he travelled to Naples and Sicily, and reached Rome in 1649.
One by one his pupils left him, and he does not seem to have sought for any others. It appears from his letters to his wife that he had considerable difficulty in getting paid for his pupils, and he had now a nobler object in view. That object was nothing less than to disseminate the Anglo-Catholic faith throughout the East. It seems at first sight a wild and quixotic enterprise for a man who had no knowledge of any eastern language to attempt to impress his religious opinions upon the unchanging East; but he had a thorough conviction that the true position of Anglicanism only required to be known to secure its acceptance among earnest and intelligent Christians, and the result proved that his design was more than a day-dream. Basire visited Messina, Zante, the Morea, Smyrna, Aleppo, Antioch, Jerusalem, Transylvania, Constantinople, Mesopotamia, and many other places, ever keeping his one object before him. In a letter written in 1653 from Pera to Sir Richard Browne, the father-in-law of John Evelyn, and the mainstay of the English church in Paris, he describes what he had effected. At Zante he met with great success "in spreading among the Greeks the catholic doctrine of our church", mainly through a Greek translation of the church catechism. He made such way that he incurred the enmity of the "Latins", that is, those members of the Roman church in the East who perform their services in Latin. He was therefore obliged to go on to the Morea, where the Metropolitan of Achaea allowed him to preach twice in Greek at a meeting of bishops and clergy. At Aleppo he held frequent conversations with the patriarch of Antioch, then resident there, and left copies of the church catechism translated into Arabic. From Aleppo he went to Jerusalem, where he was honoured both by the Greek and the Latin Christians. The Greek patriarch "expressed his desire of communion with our old church of England", and gave him his bull or patriarchal seal; while the Latins received him into their convent, a rare honour then to be paid to someone they considered a heretic. "Then", he says, "I passed over the Euphrates and went into Mesopotamia, Abraham's country, whither I am intending to send our catechism in Turkish to some of their bishops". This was in 1652; he spent the winter of 1652–3 at Aleppo.
In the spring of 1653 he went from Aleppo to Constantinople by land, a distance of about 600 miles, unaccompanied by any one who could speak any European language. He had picked up a little Arabic at Aleppo, and he joined a company of twenty Turks, an apparently dangerous escort; but they treated him well, because he acted as physician to them. He now enjoyed a little comparative rest. At Pera, near Constantinople, he undertook to officiate to the French Protestants, on the express condition that he might use the English liturgy in French. They consented to this, and promised "to settle on him a competent stipend". Here he became known to Achatius Baresay, envoy to the Porte from Prince George Rákóczy II. Baresay introduced him to the prince. "In 1661", he wrote:
Basire still kept his one object in view at Alba Iulia, for we find him writing to Sir Edward Hyde (afterwards Lord Clarendon) in 1658: "As for maintenance here 'tis competent; but my especial loadstone hath been the opportunity in the chair to propagate the right christian religion as well for discipline as doctrine". He had great influence with Prince Rákóczy, and was not afraid of boldly telling him his mind. When a Turkish invasion was imminent, he wrote to the prince, urging him either to exert himself to save his country or to abdicate his throne. The appeal was not in vain. Rákóczy made an heroic but unsuccessful struggle against the invaders at the Battle of Gyula, but was mortally wounded and died soon after (June 1660). All this time Basire had not severed his connection with his other royal master, Charles II. In 1655 he wrote a long letter in Latin to the king, exhorting him to be true to his religion; and in the same year Charles wrote to Prince Rákóczy thanking him for his kindness to Basire, and another letter a little before the prince's death begging him to send Basire back to England. Rákóczy, "loath to lose him", concealed this letter from Basire for a while, and after his death his widow begged him still to stay in Transylvania and educate her son. This, however, he refused to do. The church of England was now restored, and his wife and his five children were still in England.
Return to England.
Basire returned to England towards the end of 1661 by way of Hamburg and Hull. In the archives of the chapter of Alba Iulia is a list of his goods and manuscripts (including lectures, disputations, and itineraria), which were to be sent after him. A similar list, in Basire's handwriting, endorsed "Bona relicta in Transylvania anno 1660", is among the Hunter MSS. in the Durham Dean and Chapter Library. The result of his varied experiences, so far as religion was concerned, is thus stated by himself:
Though Basire speaks of both eastern and western churches, it was with the eastern that he had most to do. "It hath been my constant design", he wrote in his letter to Sir Richard Browne, "to dispose and incline the Greek church to a communion with the church of England, together with a canonical reformation of some grosser errors". Those who are acquainted with the church history of the eighteenth century will observe that Basire was in advance of his age; for what he attempted was, half a century later, the subject of many negotiations in which the nonjurors took a leading part.
Basire, on his return to England, was restored to his stall in Durham Cathedral, the rectory of Egglescliffe, and the Archdeaconry of Northumberland. Bishop Cosin also persuaded the intruding minister of Stanhope, Andrew Lamant, to take Long Newton instead of Stanhope, in order that Basire might be reinstated in the latter. Basire was now, therefore, a wealthy man, but he still had his troubles, one of the chief of them being his son Peter, who became a Catholic. His hands moreover were more than full of work. "The archdeaconry of Northumberland", he writes, "will take up a whole man, (1) to reform the persons, (2) to repair the churches".
He diligently visited the churches in his archdeaconry, and found "many of them scandalously ruinous"; but he met with a liberal and vigorous supporter in his attempts to reform in Bishop Cosin, with whom he appears to have been as closely connected as with his predecessor, Bishop Morton. The last fifteen years of Basire's life were comparatively uneventful. Evelyn mentions in his Diary (10 November 1661) that there "preached in the abbey (Westminster) Dr. Basire, that great traveller, or rather French apostle, who had been planting the church of England in divers parts of the Levant and Asia"; but we do not hear much of him from other sources.
Basire died on 12 October 1676, and "was buried in the cemetery belonging to the cathedral of Durham, near to the body of an ancient servant that had lived many years with him, and not by that of his wife in the cathedral"' (Wood, "Fasti Oxon".) It was his own "desire" that his body should find "burial in the churchyard, not out of any singularity . . . but out of veneration of the house of God".
Works.
Many of Basire's manuscripts are extant in the Hunter collection of manuscripts in Durham Chapter Library. A complete list is printed in Thomas Rud's "Catalogue of Durham Chapter MSS". They include an itinerary of tours in France and Italy for 1647–8, and notes of journeys made in 1667–8. The manuscripts left by Basire in Transylvania do not appear to be among them.


Henry James Passley

Henry James Passley (died before 1832) was a planter and slave-owner in Jamaica. He owned Rodney Hall plantation in the parish of Portland with John Paton Passley and Richard Brown Passley. He was elected to the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1820.


Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Serbia

The Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Serbia ( / "Antifašistička skupština narodnog oslobođenja Srbije"; acr. АСНОС / ASNOS) was formed in November 1944, as the governing body of the Yugoslav National-Liberation Movement in the newly liberated Serbia. President of ASNOS was Siniša Stanković.
In the autumn of 1944, Serbia was liberated by partisan forces and the Red Army. As soon as Belgrade was liberated on 20 October, creation of new administration was initiated. In early November 1944, the "Great Anti-Fascist People's Liberation Assembly of Serbia" () in Belgrade. It consisted of more than eight hundred delegates, elected throughout liberated regions of Serbia. In order to form permanent representative body, delegates elected 250 representatives, thus constituting the "Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Serbia". In the same time, they affirmed the policy of reconstituting Yugoslavia as a federation, with Serbia as one of its federal units. Thus was initiated the process that led to the creation of the "Federated State of Serbia" (), as a federated state within new Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.


Fabriks och Handtwerksordning

Fabriks och Handtwerksordning ('Factory and Handicrafts Regulation') was a business law reform introduced in Sweden 22 December 1846. It is foremost remembered as the reform that abolished the system of the guilds in Sweden.
The law transformed the guilds to handicrafts associations with the task to approve the qualifications of those applying to the authorities for permission to practice a certain profession within trade and handicrafts. Male applicants were still required to study under a master, pass the test and apply for membership of the guild. Female applicants of legal majority, meaning widows, divorced women and unmarried women who had been legally declared of legal majority by court petition, as well as married women with permission from their husbands, were allowed to apply for any profession within trade and handicrafts without having to become a guild member. The former restriction of the guilds from being active within more than one profession were lifted.
It was introduced in parallel with the "Handelsordningen". The reform abolished the "1720 års skråordning", and was followed and completed by the
"1864 års näringsförordning".


Walter Blith

Walter Blith (1605–1654) was an English writer on husbandry and an official under the Commonwealth. His books promoted improvements in techniques, but were suppressed after the 1660 Restoration.
Family.
Blith was baptised in Allesley, Warwickshire, as the fourth and youngest son of John Blith (died 1626), yeoman, a prosperous cereal and dairy farmer, and Ann, daughter of Barnaby Holbeche of Birchley Hall, Fillongley. Walter's elder brother Francis became a lawyer and married into the gentry. Blith and his wife Hannah, daughter of John Waker of Snitterfield, near Stratford upon Avon had three sons and four daughters.
Career.
Blith farmed his land diligently and carefully. During the English Civil War he became a captain in the parliamentary army and also solicitor and sequestrator of royalist land in Warwickshire and Coventry, as well as a rent collector from lands of the bishop and dean and chapter of Worcester, and in 1649 and 1650 a surveyor of confiscated crown lands in Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire and Norfolk. He himself bought confiscated crown land at Potterspury, Northamptonshire and was described in the conveyance as a gentleman of Cotesbach, Leicestershire.
Blith was living at Cotesbach when he made his will in 1650. He died in Lincolnshire, leaving sums between £260 and £340 apiece to his children, to be employed "either in a way of grazing or merchandizing". He was a member of the circle around Samuel Hartlib, the polymath, who described him as a "very loving and experienced friend".
Writings.
Blith's books on husbandry show notable good sense, based on the author's and others' farming experience. He presents his judgements and opinions carefully, and made textual changes in subsequent editions to describe new farming practices. His "The English Improver, or, A New Survey of Husbandry" was dedicated to both houses of Parliament and to the "ingenuous reader". A second edition appeared in the same year, and third, "much augmented" in 1652, with a second part containing "Six Newer Pieces of Improvement". This was dedicated to Cromwell, the council of state, nobility, gentry, soldiers, husbandmen, cottagers, labourers, and the meanest commoner. The new information concerned new crops such as woad, clover, sainfoin, lucerne, etc. Yet another edition appeared in 1653. Blith intended to write a further book on animal husbandry, but apparently did not complete it. His Parliamentarian sympathies prevented any of his work reappearing after the Restoration of 1660.
The books were written "in our own natural country language and in our ordinary and usual home-spun terms". He urged agricultural improvement, but showed less enthusiasm for enclosure, through his concern for the poor: enclosure should not be allowed to cause depopulation. Blith's views almost certainly reflect discussion with Joseph Lee, the pamphleteer and advocate of enclosure, who was rector of Cotesbach. Enclosure had in fact caused turmoil in the village in 1603 and made it a centre of the Midland revolt of 1607. Though Blith showed sympathy for the common man and understood the aspirations of the Diggers, he did not think the latter were realistic.
Blith's work also bore a religious message, holding up "the examples of biblical husbandmen and improvers, from Adam to Solomon, as well as that of God himself, 'the great Husbandman' ("English Improver", p. 4), who had first made plants and trees come forth upon the earth. God intended the preservation of his creation, Blith suggested, and mankind was the instrument by which he would achieve this. For Blith, therefore, the historical examples of the Bible taught the lesson that individuals had a duty to God to practise a reformed husbandry, and that only by doing this might their country be redeemed from sin, famine, and warfare into a new Eden of peace and plenty.
Blith's ideas brought some improvement in techniques, but the period of peace under the Commonwealth was short-lived, and general, substantial improvement had to wait for the Agricultural Revolution of the next century.


Diplomatic School of Spain

The Diplomatic School of Spain ("Escuela Diplomática" in Spanish) is an official institution dependent on the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. It was constituted in 1942 and is located in Madrid.
Master course.
Its main mission is training new Spanish diplomats as civil servants. It also focuses on the training of officials serving abroad and those aspiring to a career in international civil service, among other functions. The Master's degree course in international relations is offered in collaboration with the mainstream Spanish universities, among them the Complutense University of Madrid. Previously the master's degree was titled "Curso de Estudios Internacionales", or Course of International Studies, which brings together both Spanish and foreign students in the fields of diplomacy, and imparts a general education focused on international law and international relations.
Admission to the master's degree programme is based on a competitive exam which assesses the candidates knowledge of international relations. There is no fixed syllabus for this exam, rather the questions are based on international affairs at the date of the exam.
Courses.
The Diplomatic School of Spain offersthe following courses, apart from the selective course for civil servants in diplomatic career:
Each year, the Kings of Spain attend the commencement ceremony together with the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Directors.
Directors of the Diplomatic School since 1942:
Student body.
Among former students, the following personalities stand out:
Foreign Affairs and Cooperation
People's Party (Spain)
Literature
Juristic interpreters.
At its headquarters, the annual exams of Juristic Interpreters take place, by the Office of jurors, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Others.
The Spanish Association of Professors of International Law and International Relations (Asociación Española de Profesores de Derecho Internacional y Relaciones Internacionales = AEPDIRI) and the Spanish Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO have their headquarters. There is also the (Association of former students of the Diplomatic School.)


Lidia Yusupova

Lidia Muhtarovna Yusupova ("Лидия Мухтаровна Юсупова") (born September 15, 1961 in Grozny, Soviet Union) is the Coordinator of the law office of the Moscow-based human rights organization Memorial. Formerly, Yusupova was the director of the Grozny office of Memorial. Currently, Yusupova is completing a two-year law fellowship in Moscow.
Biography.
Yusupova was born to Chechen father and Russian mother in the city of Grozny. She studied Russian Literature at the Karachaevo-Cherkeski Intstitute. Later she studied law at the Chechen University in the city of Grozny, and served as a professor in that field. During the First Chechen War, she witnessed the tragedy of war, and suffered the loss of several friends, neighbors, colleagues, and family members. In 2000, during the Second Chechen War, she decided to devote her life to human rights, using her legal expertise and personal experience during both wars to help others that were entangled in the bloody conflict.
Human rights.
Yusupova gathers testimony from victims of human rights abuses, and presses their cases with law enforcement and military agencies. Not only does she, to the extent possible, provide the victims with legal assistance, but she also informs the rest of the world on violations of human rights, committed by Russian armed forces and Chechen rebels alike. Yusupova has been described by the BBC News service as "the bravest woman in Europe", and representatives of Amnesty International have similarly declared her "one of the most courageous women in Europe". Both Yusupova and her organization have been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.
Yusupova has been awarded the 2004 Martin Ennals Award for Human Rights Defenders and the 2005 Professor Thorolf Rafto Memorial Prize.
The International Federation of Human Rights reported that Yusupova faced death threats for her work on October 12, 2006.


Shlomo Heiman

Shlomo Heiman, (1892–1945) commonly known by the informal "Reb Shlomo", was a Rabbi, Talmudist, and Rosh Yeshiva of some of the most prominent yeshivas in Europe and the United States.
In Europe.
In 1892, Reb Shlomo was born in Paritsh, Minsk in Belarus. His father was Rabbi Michel Heiman. When he was 12 years old, he went to the yeshiva of Kaminetz to study under R' Baruch Ber Lebowitz, with whom he was very close. In 1918, he married the daughter of Rabbi Yochanon Rudensky of Volozhin (the brother-in-law of R' Simcha Zelig Riger of Brisk, who served as the dayan for the Brisker Rav).
After his marriage, Reb Baruch Ber asked Reb Shlomo to be a lecturer in the Kaminetz yeshiva, Beis Yitzchok, which was wandering from Slobodka to Krementchug. It was at this time that Reb Shlomo developed a reputation of being one of Lithuania's most outstanding Talmudists. During World War I, Reb Shlomo was briefly drafted into the Russian army for a some time. He served on the front lines of the war, yet still managed to review the entire tractate of Ketubot (Talmud) in the trenches.
After the First World War, Reb Shlomo began to deliver his Talmudic lectures in Ohel Torah of Baranowitz, under the leadership of Rabbi Elchanan Wasserman. In 1927, at the request of Rabbi Chaim Ozer Grodzensky of Vilna, Reb Shlomo became the Rosh Yeshiva of the Ramailles Yeshiva, a position he held until 1935.
In America.
In 1935, Reb Shlomo was invited by Reb Shraga Feivel Mendlowitz to lead Mesivta Torah Vodaath in the United States of America. With the approval of Reb Chaim Ozer, Reb Shlomo accepted this position, and therefore was spared the horrors of the Holocaust. Reb Shlomo died at the relatively young age of 52 in 1945.
In America Reb Shlomo faced ardent secularism, which threatened to smother any vestige of the haredi way of life. He once remarked that one whose own children do not pursue the path of Torah can compensate by teaching Torah to the children of others. Despite the prevailing irreligious atmosphere, during the years of Reb Shlomo's tenure at Torah Vodaath, "the yeshivah entered a period of significant growth and expansion".
He was succeeded in the Ramailles yeshiva by Rabbi Yisroel Zev Gustman and in Torah Vodaath by Rabbi Reuven Grozovsky.
Works.
A two-volume compendium of Reb Shlomo's Talmudic novellae, "Chiddushei Rabbi Shlomo", was printed after his death (in 1966), based on Heiman's writings as well as notes of his students. It was released by Rav Michel Yehuda Lefkowitz, one of Rav Shlomo's greatest students. It is widely used in many yeshivos, and is considered a basic text among late acharonim. A later book,
"Shiurei Rabbi Shlomo" ('The Lectures of Rabbi Shlomo), printed from the notes of Heiman's students, contains many lectures and novellae not published in "Chidushei Rabbi Shlomo". A collection of some of Heiman's original thoughts on the Bible, as well as a few of his ethical discourses has also been published.


William Hardin Burnley

William Hardin Burnley (21 April 1780 – 29 December 1850) was the largest slave-owner in Trinidad in the nineteenth century.
Born in New York City, he was the son of Hardin Burnley (1741–1823) and his wife, Catherine, née Maitland (1752/3–1827). The family moved to London in 1786, and Burnley attended Harrow School in 1793. He visited Trinidad in 1793, and eventually settled on the island.


Pekabeta

Pekabeta was a Serbian supermarket chain. All of the "Pekabeta" stores were rebranded into "Mini Maxi" after the chain has been sold to Delta Holding. Now the whole Maxi supermarket chain is fully owned by Ahold Delhaize.


Government of Vichy France

The Government of Vichy France was the collaborationist ruling regime or government in Nazi-occupied France during the Second World War. Of contested legitimacy, it was headquartered in the town of Vichy in occupied France, but it initially took shape in Paris under Maréchal Philippe Pétain as the successor to the French Third Republic in June 1940. Pétain spent four years in Vichy and after the Allied invasion of France, fled into exile to Germany in September 1944 with the rest of the French cabinet. It operated as a government-in-exile until April 1945, when the Sigmaringen enclave was taken by Free French forces. Pétain was brought back to France, by then under control of the Provisional French Republic, and put on trial for treason.
Background.
A hero of World War I, known for applying the lessons of the Second Battle of Champagne to minimize casualties in the Battle of Verdun, Pétain became commander of French forces in 1917. He came to power in World War II as a reaction to the stunning defeat of France in early 1940. Pétain blamed a lack of men and material for the defeat, but had himself participated in the egregious miscalculations that led to the Maginot Line, and the belief that the Ardennes were impenetrable. Nonetheless Pétain's cautious and defensive tactics at Verdun had won him acclaim from a devastated military, and poet Paul Valéry called him "the champion of France."
He became Vice-Premier under Paul Reynaud in May 1940, when the only question was whether the French Army should surrender or the French government sue for an armistice. After President Albert Lebrun appointed Pétain prime minister on 16 June, the government signed an armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940.
With France fallen to the Germans, the British judged the risk was too high of the French Navy falling into German hands, and a few days later, in the attack on Mers-el-Kébir on 3 July 1940, they sank one battleship and damaged five others, also killing 1,297 French servicemen. Pétain severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 8 July. The next day the National Assembly voted to revise the constitution, and the following day, 10 July, the National Assembly granted absolute power to Pétain, thus ending the French Third Republic. In retaliation for the attack at Mers el Kébir, French aircraft raided Gibraltar on 18 July but did little damage.
Pétain established an authoritarian government at Vichy, with central planning a key feature, as well as tight government control. French conventional wisdom, particularly in the administration of François Mitterrand, long held that the French government under Petain had merely sought to make the best of a bad situation. While Vichy policy towards the Germans was at least in part founded in concern for the 1.8 million French prisoners of war, as President Jacques Chirac subsequently acknowledged, even Mussolini stood up to Hitler and in so doing saved the lives of thousands of Jews, many of them French. Antisemitism in France did not begin under Pétain, but it certainly became a key characteristic of his time in power as manifested in Vichy anti-Jewish legislation.
Third Republic.
Until the invasion, the French Third Republic had been the government of France since the defeat of Napoleon III and the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It was dissolved by the French Constitutional Law of 1940 which gave Pétain the power to write a new constitution. He interpreted this to mean that the previous constitution, outlined in the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, no longer constrained him.
In the wake of the Battle of France that culminated in the disaster at Dunkirk, the French government declared Paris an open city and relocated to Bordeaux on 10 June 1940 in order to avoid capture. On 22 June, France and Germany signed the Second Armistice at Compiègne. The Vichy government led by Pétain replaced the Third Republic. It administered the zone libre in the south of France until November 1942, when Germans and Italians occupied the zone under Case Anton following the Allied landings in North Africa under Operation Torch. Germany occupied northern France and the Atlantic coast, and the Italians, a small territory in the southeast.
Transition to the French State.
At the time of the armistice the French and the Germans both thought Britain would come to terms any day, so only it included only temporary arrangements. France agreed to its soldiers remaining prisoners of war until hostilities ceased. The terms of the armistice sketch out a "French State" (État français), whose sovereignty and authority in practice were limited to the zone libre, although in theory it administered all of France. The military administration of the occupied zone was in fact a Nazi dictatorship. However, the fiction of French independence was so important to Laval in particular that he agreed to requisition French workers for Germany to prevent the Germans from doing it unilaterally for the zone occupée alone.
The Vichy régime considered itself the legitimate government of France, but Charles de Gaulle, who had escaped to England, declared a government in exile in London, and broadcast appeals to French citizens to resist the occupying forces. Britain shortly thereafter recognized his Empire Defence Council as the legitimate French government. Under the terms of the armistice France was allowed a small army to defend itself and to administer its colonies. Most of these colonies simply recognized the shift in power, but their allegiance to Vichy shifted once the Allies invaded North Africa in Operation Torch. Britain however outraged the French by bombing their fleet because the British were unwilling to risk it falling into Axis hands.
Alsace-Lorraine, which France and Germany had long disputed, was simply annexed. When Allied forces landed in North Africa under Operation Torch, the Nazis annexed the free zone in Case Anton, Germany's response.
Pétain administration under Third Republic.
The Philippe Pétain administration was the last administration of the French Third Republic, succeeding on 16 June 1940 to Paul Reynaud's cabinet. It formed in the middle of the Battle of France debacle, when the Third Reich invaded France at the beginning of the Second World War. It was led until 10 July 1940 by Philippe Pétain, and favored the armistice, unlike General de Gaulle, who favored fighting on in the Empire Defense Council It was followed by the fifth administration of Pierre Laval, the first administration of the Vichy France regime.
Formation.
Paul Reynaud, who had been the French since 22 March 1940, resigned early on the evening of 16 June, and President Albert Lebrun called for Pétain to form a new government.
Pétain recruited Adrien Marquet for Interior and Pierre Laval for Justice. Laval wanted an offer of Justice. On the advice of François Charles-Roux, the , and with the support of Maxime Weygand and Lebrun, Pétain stood firm, which led Laval to withdraw, followed by Marquet in solidarity. After the armistice, Raphaël Alibert convinced Pétain of the need to rely on Laval, and the two rejoined the government.
Pétain obtained the participation of the SFIO by bringing back Albert Rivière and with the agreement of Léon Blum.
End of administration.
On 10 July 1940, the French National Assembly met in Vichy and voted to give absolute power to Pétain in the Constitutional Law of 1940, effectively dissolving itself, and ending the Third Republic. The Vichy regime began.
Vichy governments.
Pétain and the French State.
In the French State under Pétain, French authorities willingly enacted and enforced antisemitic laws, unprompted by Berlin. His collaborationist government helped send 75,721 Jewish refugees and French citizens to Nazi death camps.
First Laval administration (1940).
The fifth government formed by Pierre Laval was the first administration formed by Pétain under the Vichy regime after the vote of 10 July 1940 ceded full constituent powers to Pétain. The government ended on 13 December 1940 with Laval's dismissal. This administration was not recognized as legitimate by the Empire Defense Council of the government of Free France, which the British Government had quickly recognized as the legitimate government of France following De Gaulle's radio appeals to the French public.
Formation.
The government of Philippe Pétain signed the armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940, put an end to the Third Republic on by a vote conveying full powers to Pétain and followed up with three on 11 July. Meanwhile, on 11 July General de Gaulle created the Empire Defense Council, which was recognized by the British Government as the legitimate successor of the Third Republic, which had allied itself with Great Britain in the war against the Nazis.
On 12 July 1940 Pétain named Pierre Laval, second Minister of State of the last government of the Third Republic under Philippe Pétain as vice-president of the Council., while Pétain remained simultaneously head of state and head of government. Constitutional Act #4 made Laval next in the line of succession should something happen to Pétain. On 16 July, Pétain formed the first government of the Vichy régime and kept Pierre Laval on as vice-president of the Council.
Laval's administration more or less coincides with the arrival in France of Fritz Sauckel, tasked by Hitler with procuring qualified manpower. Until then, fewer than 100 000 French workers had voluntarily travelled to Germany to work Refusal to send 150 000 skilled workers had been one of the causes of the fall of Darlan. Sauckel demanded 250,000 additional workers before the end of July 1942.
Laval fell back on his favorite tactic of negotiating, stalling for time, and seeking reciprocation. He proposed the "relève", in which a prisoner of war would be freed for every three workers sent to Germany, and announced it 22 June 1942, after the same day, in a letter to Joachim von Ribbentrop, the German minister of foreign affairs, Laval framing the "relève" policy as French participation, by providing workers, in the German war effort.
"They give their blood. Give your labour to save Europe from Bolshevism".
Nazi propaganda leaflet suggesting French workers travel to Germany to support the war effort on the eastern front (1943)
The voluntary "relève", was replaced by the Service du travail obligatoire (STO) which began in August 1942 throughout occupied Europe. To Sauckel, the "relève" had failed, since fewer than 60 000 French workers had gone to Germany by the end of August. He threatened to issue an "ordonnance" to requisition male and female manpower. This "ordonnance" would only have had effect in the occupied zone. Laval negotiated a French law covering both zones instead. Laval put workplace inspection, the police and the gendarmerie at the service of forced impressments of labor, and tracking Service du travail obligatoire scofflaws. Forced impressments of workers, guarded by "gendarmes" until they boarded a train, drew hostile reactions. On 13 October 1942 the Oullins incidents broke out in the suburbs of Lyon, where workers at the railway station went on strike. Someone wrote "Laval assassin!" (Laval murderer) on the trains. The government was forced to back away; on 1 December 1942 only 2,500 requisitioned workers had left the southern zone. On 1 January 1943, Sauckel demanded, in addition to the 240,000 workers already sent to Germany, a new contingent of 250,000 men, before mid-March To meet these objectives, German forces organised ineffectively brutal raids, which led Laval to propose to the Council of Ministers on 5 February 1943 legislation creating the STO, under which youth born in 1920-1922 were requisitioned for work service in Germany Laval mitigated his legislation with many exceptions.
In all, 600 000 men left between June 1942 and August 1943 despite what Sauckel denounced in a letter to Hitler as "pure and simple sabotage", after meeting more than seven hours on 6 August 1943 with Laval, who again attempted to minimize the number of requisitioned workers and refused to his demand for 50 000 workers for Germany before the end of 1943.
On 15 September 1943, Reich minister for Armament and War Production Albert Speer reached an agreement with Laval minister Jean Bichelonne — an agreement Laval was counting on to "block the deportation machine". Many businesses working for Germany were removed from Sauckel's requisition. Individuals were protected but the French economy as a whole was integrated into that of Germany. In November 1943, Sauckel demanded, without much success, 900 000 additional workers. On orders from Berlin, French workers stopped leaving for Germany on 7 June 1944, after Allied landings in Normandy.
In the end, the STO caused thousands of young "réfractaires" to embrace the Resistance, which created the "maquis". In the eyes of the French, Laval took ownership of the measures imposed by Sauckel and became the French minister who sent French workers to Germany.
Reshuffles.
16 July 1940.
The following joined on 16 July 1940:
September 1940.
The following joined in September 1940, replacing eight dismissed ministers:
18 November 1940.
The following were appointed on 18 November 1940:
Flandin regime.
The second government of Pierre-Étienne Flandin was the second government of the Vichy regime in France, formed by Philippe Pétain. It succeeded the first Pierre Laval government on 14 December 1940 and ended on 9 February 1941.
Carryovers from Laval.
The majority of ministers, secretaries, and delegates were carried over from the Laval government that ended 13 December 1940.
Darlan regime.
After two years at the head of the Vichy government, Admiral Darlan was unpopular and had strengthened ties with Vichy forces, in an expanded collaboration with Germany which seemed to him the least bad solution, and had conceded a great deal, turning over the naval bases at Bizerte and Dakar, an air base in Aleppo in Syria, as well as vehicles, artillery and ammunition in North Africa and Tunisia, in addition to arming the Iraqis. In exchange Darlan wanted the Germans to reduce the constraints under the armistice, free French prisoners, and eliminate the "ligne de démarcation". This irritated the Germans. On 9 March 1942, Hitler signed a decree giving France a chief of the SS and police leader (HSSPF) tasked with organizing the "Final Solution", following the Wannsee Conference with the French police. The Germans demanded the return of Laval to power, and broke off contact. The Americans intervened on March 30 to prevent another Laval administration.
Second Laval administration (1942-1944).
After two years at the head of the Vichy regime, François Darlan's government was unpopular, a victim of the fool's bargain he had made with the Germans. Darlan committed Vichy into further collaboration with Germany as the least bad solution for him, giving up much ground: at Bizerte and Dakar, an air base in (Aleppo]] (Syria), vehicles, artillery and ammunition in North Africa, Tunisia, not to mention the delivery of arms to Iraq.
In exchange, Darlan asked the Germans for a quid pro quo (reduction of the constraints of the armistice: release of French prisoners, elimination of the demarcation line and fuel oil for the French fleet), which irritated them.
On 9 March 1942, Hitler signed the decree endowing France with a "Higher SS and police leader" (HSSPf) responsible for organizing the Final Solution after the Wannsee Conference with the French Police. The Germans then demanded that Pierre Laval return to power, and in the meantime they broke off all contact.
On 30 March 1942, the Americans intervened in Vichy against Laval's return to power.
Dissolution and transition.
On 17 August 1944, Pierre Laval, head of government and minister of foreign affairs, held his last council of government with five ministers. With permission from the Germans, he attempted to call back the prior National Assembly with the goal of giving it power and thus impeding the communists and de Gaulle. So he obtained the agreement of German ambassador Otto Abetz to bring Édouard Herriot, (President of the Chamber of Deputies) back to Paris. But ultra-collaborationists Marcel Déat and Fernand de Brinon protested this to the Germans, who changed their minds and took Laval to Belfort along with the remains of his government, "to assure its legitimate security", and arrested Herriot.
Sigmaringen enclave.
On 20 August 1944 Pierre Laval was taken to Belfort by the Germans along with the remains of his government, "to assure its legitimate security". Vichy head of state Marshal Philippe Pétain was conducted against his will to Belfort on 20 August 1944. A governmental commission directed by Fernand de Brinon was proclaimed on 6 September. On 7 September, they were taken ahead of the advancing Allied Forces out of France to the town of Sigmaringen, where they arrived on the 8th, where other Vichy officials were already present. Rather than resign his post, Pétain wrote in a letter to the French "I am, and remain morally, your leader", but this was a fiction.
Hitler requisitioned the Sigmaringen Castle for use by top officials. This was then occupied and used by the Vichy government-in-exile from September 1944 to April 1945. Pétain resided at the Castle, but refused to cooperate, and kept mostly to himself, and ex-Prime Minister Pierre Laval also refused. Despite the efforts of the collaborationists and the Germans, Pétain never recognized the Sigmaringen Commission. The Germans, wanting to present a facade of legality, enlisted other Vichy officials such as Fernand de Brinon as president, along with Joseph Darnand, Jean Luchaire, Eugène Bridoux, and Marcel Déat.
On 7 September 1944, fleeing the advance of Allied troops into France, while Germany was in flames and the Vichy regime ceased to exist, a thousand French collaborators (including a hundred officials of the Vichy regime, a few hundred members of the French Militia, collaborationist party militants, and the editorial staff of the newspaper "Je suis partout") but also waiting-game opportunists also went into exile in Sigmaringen.
The commission had its own radio station (Radio-patrie, Ici la France) and official press (, "Le Petit Parisien"), and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers: Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000, including known collaborationist journalists, the writers Louis-Ferdinand Céline and Lucien Rebatet, the actor Robert Le Vigan, and their families, as well as 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, prisoners of war and French civilian forced laborers.
Inadequate housing, insufficient food, promiscuity among the paramilitaries, and lack of hygiene facilitated the spread of numerous illnesses including flu and tuberculosis) and a high mortality rate among children, ailments that were treated as best they could by the only two French doctors, Doctor Destouches, alias Louis-Ferdinand Céline and Bernard Ménétrel.
On 21 April 1945 General de Lattre ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. By the 26th, Pétain was in the hands of French authorities in Switzerland, and Laval had fled to Spain. Brinon, Luchaire, and Darnand were captured, tried, and executed by 1947. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain.
Transition.
The liberation of France in 1944 dissolved the Vichy government. The Provisional Consultative Assembly requested representation, leading to the Provisional Government of the French Republic (French: "Gouvernement provisoire de la République française", "GPRF"), also known as the French Committee of National Liberation. Past collaborators were discredited and Gaullism and communism became political forces.
De Gaulle led the GPRF 1944-1946 while negotiations took place for a new constitution, to be put to a referendum. De Gaulle advocated a presidential system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called "the parties system". He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Felix Gouin of the French Section of the Workers' International ("Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière", "SFIO"). Only the French Communist Party ("Parti communiste français", "PCF") and the socialist SFIO supported the draft constitution, which envisaged a form of unicameralism. This constitution was rejected in the 5 May 1946 referendum.
French voters adopted the constitution of the Fourth Republic on 13 October 1946.
Other.
After the fall of France on 25 June 1940 many French colonies were initially loyal to Vichy. But eventually the overseas empire helped liberate France; 300,000 North African Arabs fought in the ranks of the Free French. French Somaliland, an exception, got a governor loyal to Vichy on 25 July. It surrendered to Free French forces on 26 December 1942. The length and extent of each colony's collaboration with Vichy ran a gamut however; anti-semitic meansures met an enthusiastic reception in Algeria, for example.
Operation Torch on 8 November landed Allied troops at Oran and Algiers (Operation Terminal) as well as at Casablanca in Morocco, to attack Vichy territories in North Africa—Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia—then take Axis forces in the Western Desert in their rear from the east. Allied shipping had needed to supply troops in Africa via the Cape of Good Hope, so the Mediterranean ports were strategically valuable.
The Battle of Dakar against the Free French Forces in September 1940 followed the Fall of France. Authorities in West Africa declared allegiance to the Vichy regime, as did the colony of French Gabon in French Equatorial Africa (AEF). Gabon fell to Free France after the Battle of Gabon in November 1940, but West Africa remained under Vichy control until the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942.
Jurisdiction and effectiveness.
Collaboration with Germany.
The German military administration cooperated closely with the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the intelligence service of the SS, and the Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), its security police. It also drew support from the French authorities and police, who had to cooperate under the armistice, to round up Jews, anti-fascists and other dissidents, and from collaborationist auxiliaries like the Milice, the Franc-Gardes and the Legionary Order Service. The Milice helped Klaus Barbie seize members of the resistance and minorities including Jews for detention.
The two main collaborationist political parties, the French Popular Party (PPF) and the National Popular Rally (RNP), each had 20,000 to 30,000 members. Collaborationists were fascists and Nazi sympathisers who collaborated for ideological reasons, unlike "collaborators", people who cooperated out of self-interest. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationists was anti-communism. Examples of these are PPF leader Jacques Doriot, writer Robert Brasillach and Marcel Déat (founder of the RNP).
Some Frenchmen also volunteered to fight for Germany or against Bolsheviks, such as the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism. Volunteers from this and other outfits later constituted the cadre of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French).
Foreign relations.
The French State was quickly recognized by the Allies, as well as by the Soviet Union, until 30 June 1941 and Operation Barbarossa. However France broke with the United Kingdom after the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir. The United States took the position that Vichy should do nothing adverse to US interests that was not specifically required by the terms of the armistice. Canada maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy until the occupation of southern France in Case Anton by Germany and Italy in November 1942.
In 1941, the Free French Forces fought with British troops against the Italians in Italian East Africa during the East African Campaign, and expanded operations north into Italian Libya. In February 1941, Free French Forces invaded Cyrenaica, led by Leclerc, and captured the Italian fort at the oasis of Kufra. In 1942, Leclerc's forces and soldiers from the British Long Range Desert Group captured parts of the province of Fezzan. At the end of 1942, Leclerc moved his forces into Tripolitania to join British Commonwealth and other FFF forces in the Run for Tunis.
French India under Louis Bonvin announced after the fall of France that they would join the British and the French under Charles de Gaulle.
Nearly 300,000 French Jews, 80% of those remaining, moved to the Italian zone of occupation to escape the Nazis. The Italian Jewish banker Angelo Donati had convinced the Italian civil and military authorities to protect the Jews from French persecution.
In January 1943 the Italians refused to cooperate with Nazi roundups of Jews living under their control and in March prevented them from deporting Jews from their zone. German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop complained to Mussolini that "Italian military circles... lack a proper understanding of the Jewish question." However, when the Italians signed the armistice with the Allies, German troops invaded the former Italian zone on 8 September 1943 and Alois Brunner, the SS official for Jewish affairs, formed units to search out Jews. Within five months, 5,000 Jews were caught and deported.
Legitimacy.
Given full constituent powers in the law of 10 July 1940, Pétain never promulgated a new constitution. A draft was written in 1941 and signed by Pétain in 1944, but never submitted nor ratified.
The United States gave Vichy full diplomatic recognition, and sent Admiral William D. Leahy as ambassador.President Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull hoped to encourage elements in the Vichy government opposed to military collaboration with Germany. The Americans also wanted Vichy to resist German demands for its naval fleet or air bases in French-mandated Syria or to move war supplies through French territories in North Africa. Americans held that France should take no action not explicitly required by the terms of the armistice that could adversely affect Allied efforts in the war. The Americans ended relations with Vichy when Germany occupied the zone libre of France in late 1942.
The USSR maintained relations with Vichy until 30 June 1941, after the Nazis invaded Russia in Operation Barbarossa.
France for a long time took the position that the republic had been disbanded when power was turned over to Pétain, but officially admitted in 1995 complicity in the deportation of 76,000 Jews during WW II. President Jacques Chirac, speaking at the site of the Vélodrome d'Hiver, where 13,000 Jews were rounded up for deportation to death camps in July 1942, said: "France, on that day [16 July 1942], committed the irreparable. Breaking its word, it handed those who were under its protection over to their executioners," he said. Those responsible for the roundup were "450 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis... the criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French state".
The police under Bousquet collaborated to the point where they themselves compiled the lists of Jewish residents, gave them yellow stars, and even requisitioned buses and SNCF trains to transport them to camps such as Drancy.
The French themselves distinguish between collaborators, and collaborationists, who agreed with Nazi ideology and actively worked to further their domestic policies, as opposed to the majority of collaborators who worked with the Nazis reluctantly, and in order to avoid consequences to themselves.
The international tribunal at Nuremberg called Vichy régime agreements with the Nazis for deportation of citizens and residents void "ab initio" due to their "immoral content".


Abraham Hooke

Abraham Hooke was a wealthy slave merchant from Bristol who participated in the Transatlantic Slave Trade from 1703 to 1736.
Personal life.
Abraham Hooke was made a Warden of the Society of Merchant Ventures of Bristol in 1702, and retained the position in 1703, the year of his first slave trade. He was made the master or the head of the Society of Merchants in 1712, and was part of the group of men from this society that inherited land and property from the will of Edward Colston in 1708. Hooke was made sheriff of Bristol in 1706. In 1711, with help from Nathaniel Wade (a conspirator in the assassination attempt against King Charles II of England), Hooke helped fund a bridge in Bristol over the River Frome named "Traitors Bridge". In 1722 Hooke co-founded Stokes' Croft Endowed School, one of the oldest endowed schools in Bristol. He had at least one son named Andrew, who wrote a history of Bristol called "Bristolia" in 1748, had a doctorate in medicine, was a manager of a printing office in Bristol, and was part of the commission of the peace for Gloucestershire.
Family.
Hooke grew up far from impoverished. His great-grandfather, Humphrey Hooke, was the sheriff of Bristol in 1614 and mayor in 1629. Abraham’s grandfather, Thomas, went on to be sheriff in 1634. The merchant’s father, Sir Humphrey, was also a merchant, and was mayor in 1643. He was elected by the city along with John Knight as Burgess who represented them in Parliament in 1661, though Hooke requested Lord Ossory be placed in his stead. When Ossory was called onto the King’s private council, Humphrey was placed in his elected position, and was knighted for his courtesy. Upon his death in 1677, he donated 680 British Pounds to St. Stephen Parish, where 8 shillings in bread a week was to be distributed at Queen Elizabeth’s Hospital.
 Sir Humphrey is noted as having built Ashley court on Ashley down for a residence, as well as owning another mansion on Corn street and a country residence in Kingsweston which would go on to be remodeled as the Kings Weston House after being sold in 1679 to Sir Robert Southwell. It is likely that Abraham inherited at least one or all three of these locations and resided in them, though it is unlikely that they exist to this day.
Transatlantic Slave Trade.
Pickups.
Abraham Hooke's ships often sailed to the Bite of Biafra which is in the Gulf of Guinea. The merchant and his company sent the ships "Anna and Sarah", "Rebecca" and the "Tiverton" to the Bight of Biafra and the Gulf of Guinea Islands. Another popular place his ships traveled to was Gambia. The Gambia was one of the most popular places for merchants like Hooke to acquire their human cargo because of its geographical locale and proximity to Bristol and the New World. Shorter distances traveled aboard these sailing vessels meant fewer deaths among the slaves during the middle passage. Because of this, however, Gambian slaves were more expensive. Thus slave merchants such as Abraham Hooke were often willing to travel further along the coast of West Africa, places like the Bite of Biafra, to purchase slaves for less money.
Drop offs.
Abraham Hooke's slave ships dropped off most of his human cargo in the Caribbean, in places like Jamaica. Hooke's merchant ships dropped off slaves to feed the islands demand for labor, sugar being plantation owner's main cash crop. During that time, Jamaica was under English rule and Jamaican elites were financially bound to England. Because of the ties between Jamaica and England, Hooke, as well as other merchants, dropped off many of their slaves in Jamaica. Hooke's captains also sold slaves in Barbados to owners of the numerous sugar plantations, helping to create one of the most profitable sugar plantation systems in the world.
Personal ventures.
Hooke’s own ventures in slave-trading began in 1703, when the "Cowslip" brought 128 African slaves to Jamaica. There was a decade hiatus before he continued to traffic humans, having regular ventures from 1713 all the way to 1729. There, there is another hiatus, ending in 1736 when the "Betty Snow" brought 400 slaves (the largest haul in a single voyage funded by Hooke) to be sold in Virginia. In total, Hooke would engage in the transport of 5,976 Africans to be sold into slavery over the course of 27 known voyages, 4,828 of whom would survive the Trans-Atlantic crossing. This means the fatality rate aboard his ships was 19.3%, a fair amount greater than the average of 15% during the early eighteenth century.
Oftentimes, once the ships had unloaded their human cargo, they would load up on a product in the New World to be sold in the Old. In particular, Hooke’s ships transported a notable amount of redwood, with some “Guinea grains” being imported in his earlier voyages.


Edward Alford (Royalist)

Sir Edward Alford (ca. 15951653) was an English landowner and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1628 and 1644. He supported the Royalist cause in the English Civil War.
Alford was the son of Edward Alford and his wife Judith Downing, daughter of Edmund Downing of Suffolk. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford on 30 October 1612, aged 17. While his father was occupied with his Parliamentary and public duties in London and Essex, Alford appears to have lived at Offington, and was active in Sussex. He was High Sheriff of Surrey and Sussex in 1624 and was concerned with local militia. In 1627 "The King commissioned Edward Alford, with others, to use martial law to soldiers billeted in co. Sussex." and he made complaints against the freeman of Billinghurst, Sussex, for not duly maintaining a watch at a beacon."In 1628 he "renders some accounts of prize-ships." and is in correspondence with Sir John Coke regarding the billeting of soldiers near Portsmouth. In 1628 Edward Alford was elected Member of Parliament for Steyning. Sources differ as to whether this is Alford or his father, who was also elected for Colchester but was unseated on petition.
Alford was knighted by King Charles in 1632. His father died in the same year and the family estates of Hamsey and Offington passed to Alford's elder brother John Alford. Alford also had an interest in Somerset, being lord of the manor of Stanton Drew and his name is recorded at the Taunton Sessions in 1635 in a case of poaching on his manor.
In April 1640, Alford was elected Member of Parliament for Tewkesbury in the Short Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Tewkesbury and also elected MP for Arundel in November 1640 for the Long Parliament. There was a double return at Tewkesbury but by the time it was resolved Alford had chosen to sit for Arundel. Alford was on the King's side in the Civil War, and was disabled from sitting in parliament in 1644. He was involved in the capitulation of Exeter in 1649 and was severely fined by the Commonwealth. He had only just succeeded to the Offington estates, on the death of his brother, John Alford. The fine for Offington alone was £1,503 pounds. He was also fined £1,075 on lands and messuages in Tewkesbury worth £430 p.a, .£189 on the rectory of Cheltenham and Charlton worth £75 pa, £852 on the manor of Ilmington Warwickshire worth £333 p.a., £970 on lands at Whitbury Wiltshire, worth £194, £250 on King's Langley Park, Hertford and £500 on the manor of Pindast in the parish of Waltham Cross worth £200 p.a.
Alford died intestate in 1653 at the age of 61.
Alford married firstly on 11 December 1632 Lady Mary Cooper, widow of Sir John Cooper, 1st Baronet, her second husband, and of Sir Charles Morrison, 1st Baronet of Cashiobury, Hertfordshire. She was the youngest daughter of Baptist Hicks, 1st Viscount Campden. She had no children by this, her third, marriage, and died seven years later, in 1639, and was buried "in the Isle of Watford parish church". Alford married secondly Ann Corbett, daughter of Dr. Corbett, Chancellor of Norwich. By this marriage he had two children John and Frances. Lady Alford outlived Sir Edward by nearly forty years, and, died in 1692. She was buried at St. Mary's Church, Broadwater, where is a brass in the Chancel floor.