Mannesmann

Mannesmann was a German industrial conglomerate. It was originally established as a manufacturer of steel pipes in 1890 under the name "Deutsch-Österreichische Mannesmannröhren-Werke AG". (Loosely translated: "German-Austrian Mannesmann pipe mills AG"). In the twentieth century, Mannesmann's product range grew and the company expanded into numerous sectors – starting from various steel products and trading to mechanical and electrical engineering, automotive and telecommunications. From 1955, the conglomerate's management holding with headquarters in Düsseldorf was named Mannesmann AG.
The particular success of the corporate activities in the area of telecommunications that started in 1990 was the predominant reason for the takeover of Mannesmann by the British telecommunications company Vodafone in 2000 – still one of the largest-ever company takeovers worldwide. Back then, the Mannesmann Group had 130,860 employees worldwide and revenues of €23.27 billion.
The name Mannesmann ceased to exist in the engineering, automotive and telecommunications sectors soon after Vodafone purchased the company. It lives on in the steel industry, particularly in the steel tube and pipe industry, as the German steel manufacturer Salzgitter AG bought the pipe production division of Mannesmannröhren-Werke AG (today Mannesmannröhren-Werke GmbH), as well as the Mannesmann brand.
History.
Establishment and growth as an international tube manufacturer.
In 1886, the German brothers Reinhard (1856–1922) and Max Mannesmann (1857–1915) received the world's first patent for their invention of a process for rolling seamless steel pipes (Mannesmann process). Between 1887 and 1889 they founded tube mills with several different business partners in Bous, Germany, in Komotau/Bohemia, in Landore/Wales and in their home town Remscheid/Germany.
In 1890, due to technical and financial start-up problems, the tube and pipe mills existing on the continent were folded into Deutsch-Österreichische Mannesmannröhren-Werke AG. The new company had its headquarters in Berlin. Reinhard and Max Mannesmann formed the first board of directors but left it in 1893. In that year the company headquarters were moved to Düsseldorf - at that time the center of the German tube and pipe industry. The company was renamed Mannesmannröhren-Werke AG in 1908.
In the following years the company's position in the export business, which was important from the beginning, was consolidated and expanded by the acquisition of the Mannesmann tube mill in Landore/Wales and by the founding of a Mannesmann tube mill in Dalmine/Italy. Branch offices for storage and direct sales business, sometimes with tube processing workshops and pipeline construction capacities, were set up in cooperation with well-established companies all over the world, especially in South America, Asia, and South Africa. In addition, Mannesmannröhren-Werke took up the production of welded steel pipes, stainless steel pipes and other type of pipes and tubes. The company became the worldwide leading manufacturer of steel tube and pipe
Expansion into a coal and steel conglomerate.
In the first decades of its existence, Mannesmann was a pure manufacturer and therefore highly dependent on third-party deliveries of starting material. To reduce the associated risk, the company started to broaden into a vertically integrated iron and steel group in the first half of the twentieth century. The group had its own ore and coal production, steel manufacturers and processors as well as an integrated trading division. In the 1950s Mannesmann established pipe mills in Brazil, Canada and Turkey
Further diversification.
In 1955, the group's management holding was renamed Mannesmann AG. The group continued to develop into a highly diversified conglomerate. The corporate sectors engineering and automotive founded in the late 1960s comprised famous companies as e.g. Rexroth, Demag, Dematic, Sachs, VDO, Boge, Kienzle, Krauss-Maffei, Hartmann & Braun and Tally. Within the Mannesmann Group several of these companies evolved into world market leaders in their respective business sectors.
Telecommunications.
In 1990, following the liberalization of the German telecommunications market, Mannesmann set up a new business sector and established Germany's first cellular network carrier in private ownership known as D2 Mannesmann. The network company was called Mannesmann Mobilfunk GmbH. It was the main competitor to Germany's incumbent carrier, Deutsche Telekom's T-Mobile, also known as D1.
Additionally, Mannesmann extended its telecommunications division with integrated services covering mobile and fixed network telephony, Internet, and TeleCommerce with companies in Germany, Italy, UK and Austria
Takeover by Vodafone and aftermath.
The Europe-wide telecommunication branch of Mannesmann was extraordinarily successful and so in 1999 the Mannesmann Group hatched a plan to spin off the other divisions. Through a stock exchange flotation under the name of Mannesmann Atecs AG, these industrial divisions were to be combined in a separate enterprise that would be one of the largest companies listed in the German stock index DAX.
However, before these plans could materialize, a historic takeover battle lasting several months ended with the acquisition of Mannesmann by the British mobile phone company Vodafone in 2000. On 4 February 2000 Mannesmann's supervisory board eventually agreed to a takeover price of 190 billion €, which was the largest takeover price ever paid until that date and still is the highest.
The telecommunications division of Mannesmann was subsequently incorporated into the Vodafone Group. The other divisions were resold to various companies soon after the deal. The origins of Mannesmann, the pipe production activities of Mannesmannröhren-Werke AG, were sold to Salzgitter AG along with the brand name Mannesmann.
Controversies.
During the Second World War, when the company was chaired by nazi party activist Wilhelm Zangen, slave labour was employed at their tube rolling mills. Zangen served four months in prison for his involvement, although he remained a leading figure with Mannesmann until his retirement in 1966.
In 2000, Mannesmann was acquired by Vodafone Group Plc. in a tax-free exchange of 53.7 Vodafone shares for each share of Mannesmann. This was a controversial takeover, since never before in Germany had a company as large and successful as Mannesmann been acquired in a hostile takeover by a non-German owner. The merger was said to have been engineered in a private deal concluded between Mannesmann's management and Vodafone. The acquisition was spearheaded by Vodafone's Chief Executive, Chris Gent, and Goldman Sachs' Scott Mead, who was then the chief advisor on the deal.
The circumstances of the deal and the (not only for German standards) particularly high severance payments awarded to leading managers of the company led in 2004 to a trial at Landgericht Düsseldorf (Düsseldorf Regional Court) - the so-called Mannesmann trial. The accused, among others the chairman of the supervisory board at the time of the takeover, Josef Ackermann, and the former CEO of Mannesmann, Klaus Esser, were initially granted a full discharge by the court. However, after revision proceedings, the Bundesgerichtshof Federal Court of Justice overruled the contested judgment and referred the case back for retrial at the Landgericht. On 29 November 2006, the proceedings were terminated, with the defendants agreeing to settlements amounting to millions of euros.
Under the terms of the takeover deal, Mannesmann sought assurances from Vodafone that the Mannesmann brand and name would be kept under the new owners. This was agreed and the deal was announced. However, not long after this, Vodafone reneged on the deal and rebranded.
Individual subsidiaries.
Mannesmann Arcor.
Mannesmann Arcor was a fixed line telephony and internet company. It has been owned solely by Vodafone since May 2008, when Deutsche Bahn (18.17%) and Deutsche Bank (8.18%) sold their shares to Vodafone.


County of Mark

The County of Mark (, colloquially known as ) was a county and state of the Holy Roman Empire in the Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle. It lay on both sides of the Ruhr river along the Volme and Lenne rivers.
The Counts of the Mark were among the most powerful and influential Westphalian lords in the Holy Roman Empire. The name "Mark" is recalled in the present-day district in lands south of the Ruhr in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The northern portion (north of the Lippe river) is still called ("Higher Mark"), while the former "Lower Mark" (between the Ruhr and Lippe Rivers) is—for the most part—merged in the present Ruhr area.
Geography.
The County of the Mark enclosed an area of approximately 3,000 km² and extended between the Lippe and Aggers rivers (north-south) and between Gelsenkirchen and Bad Sassendorf (west-east) for about 75 km. The east-west flowing Ruhr separated the county into two different regions: the northern, fertile lowlands of Hellweg Börde; and the southern hills of the Süder Uplands (Sauerland). In the south-north direction the southern part of the county was crossed by the Lenne. In the region of the Lower Lenne was the County of Limburg (1243–1808), a fiefdom of Berg.
The seat of the Counts of the Mark von de Marck or de la Marck was originally the Burg Altena in the Sauerland region, but moved to "Burg Mark" near Hamm in the 1220s. The county was bordered by Vest Recklinghausen, the County of Dortmund, the Bishopric of Münster, the County of Limburg, Werden Abbey, and Essen Abbey.
Coat of arms.
The coat of arms of the county was "Or a fess chequy Gules and Argent of three". These arms have been used by the city of Hamm since 1226. Many other places in the area include the red and white checkered fess in their arms as a reference to the county and often to their founders.
History.
Originally belonging to a collateral line of the counts of Berg at Altena, the territory emerged under the name of Berg-Altena in 1160. About 1198 Count Frederick I purchased the "Mark Oberhof", a parish land ("Feldmark") on the territory of the Edelherren of Rüdenberg, liensmen of the Cologne archbishop Philip von Heinsberg. Here Frederick had the Mark Castle ("Burg Mark") erected as the residence of the new "Counts of the Mark". The nearby town of Hamm was founded by his son Adolf I, Count of the Mark in 1226, it soon became most important settlement of the county and was often used as residence.
In the 1288 Battle of Worringen, Count Eberhard II fought on the side of Duke John I of Brabant and Count Adolph V of Berg against his liege, the Cologne archbishop Siegfried II of Westerburg, titular Duke of Westphalia. As Brabant and its allies were victorious, the County of Mark gained supremacy in southern Westphalia and became independent of the Archbishopric of Cologne. The territory of Mark was for long restricted to the lands between the Ruhr and Lippe rivers ("Lower Mark"). New territories in the north ("Higher Mark") were gained during the 14th century in wars against the Prince-Bishopric of Münster.
In 1332 Count Adolph II married Margarete, the daughter of Count Dietrich VIII of Cleves. Adolph's younger son Adolph III upon the death of Dietrich's brother Count John acquired the County of Cleves on the western banks of the Rhine in 1368. In 1391 Adolph III also inherited the Mark from his elder brother Engelbert III and united both counties as "Cleves-Mark" in 1394.
In 1509 the heir to the throne of Cleves-Mark John III the Peaceful married Maria, the daughter of Duke William IV of Berg and Jülich. In 1511 he succeeded his father-in-law in Jülich-Berg and in 1521 his father in Cleves-Mark, resulting in the rule of almost all territories in present North Rhine-Westphalia in personal union, except for the ecclesiastical states. The dynasty of Jülich-Cleves-Berg became extinct in 1609, when the insane last duke John William had died. A long dispute about the succession followed, before the territory of Mark together with Cleves and Ravensberg was granted to the Brandenburg Elector John Sigismund of Hohenzollern by the 1614 Treaty of Xanten (generally accepted in 1666). It then became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after 1701.
In 1807 the County of the Mark passed from Prussia to France in the Treaties of Tilsit. In 1808 Napoleon then gave Mark to the elevated Grand Duchy of Berg, which was divided into four departments along the lines of Napoleonic France. Mark was in the Ruhr Department until the collapse of French power in 1813, when it returned to Prussia.
The Prussian administrative reform of 30 April 1815 placed Mark within Regierungsbezirk Arnsberg, Province of Westphalia. The Hohenzollern Prussian sovereigns remained Counts of the "Prussian County of the Mark" until 1918.
The "County of the Mark" has no official meaning anymore, but is used to informally refer to the region in North Rhine-Westphalia.
Counts de la Mark.
The House of La Marck is a cadet branch of Berg dynasty. Another surviving line of the House of Berg (more senior but less prominent in European History) became counts of Isenberg, then count of Limburg and Limburg Styrum.
House of Hohenzollern.
"To France by the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, incorporated into Grand Duchy of Berg"


Cologne Charterhouse

Cologne Charterhouse () was a Carthusian monastery or charterhouse established in the Severinsviertel district, in the present Altstadt-Süd, of Cologne, Germany. Founded in 1334, the monastery developed into the largest charterhouse in Germany until it was forcibly dissolved in 1794 by the invading French Revolutionary troops. The building complex was then neglected until World War II, when it was mostly destroyed. The present building complex is very largely a post-war reconstruction. Since 1928, the Carthusian church, dedicated to Saint Barbara, has belonged to the Protestant congregation of Cologne.
Antecedents and foundation.
Prior to the foundation of Cologne Charterhouse there were already 113 charterhouses throughout Europe, of which 30 were in Germany, but none in the Archdiocese of Cologne. Walram of Jülich, who became Archbishop of Cologne in 1332, had become acquainted before his elevation with the Carthusians in France, and had come to respect them. His desire to found a Carthusian monastery in Cologne was doubtless reinforced by the examples of the nearby bishoprics of Mainz and Trier, who had already founded charterhouses in 1312 and 1321/1322 respectively. Over and above that, Saint Bruno, the founder of the Carthusian Order, had been born in Cologne, and for this reason also it seemed appropriate to establish a Carthusian presence in his home-town. The foundation occurred in a period of mystic piety, which brought about a golden age for the Carthusians generally, in which increasingly the enclosed Carthusian monks settled also in urban environments without giving up their enclosed and secluded way of life.
On 6 December 1334, Archbishop Walram issued the foundation charter of Cologne Charterhouse:
From 1389, the "Sencte Mertinsvelt" ("St. Martin's Field") in the south of the district of St. Severin was given over for the use of the Carthusians: according to the legend, Saint Martin himself instructed Bishop Walram in a dream to do so. On this plot of land, there had been, since about the beginning of the 13th century, a little chapel dedicated to Saint Barbara, which was now renovated for Carthusian use with the financial assistance of the Cologne patrician families of Scherffgin and Lyskirchen. In addition, the families of Lyskirchen and Overstolz made gifts of extra agricultural land, and in that way the material prerequisites for the commencement of the life of the order were assured.
This was the last monastic foundation in Cologne until the 16th century.
Early years.
In early February 1335, the first six Carthusian monks, with their leader ("Rektor") Johannes of Echternach, moved from Mainz to Cologne. They retained the dedication to Saint Barbara from the extant chapel, but gave the relics several decades later to the neighbouring Franciscans.
The Carthusians' first task was to construct the most essential buildings for the accommodation of the new community. Thanks to further gifts and endowments the new charterhouse was able to be formally incorporated into the order as early as 1338. In the same year, Johannes of Echternach was replaced on the general chapter by Heinrich Sternenberg as the first prior. (The first prior of the Cologne Charterhouse to be elected by the community itself was Stephan of Koblenz).
Economically the charterhouse started off on a weak foundation. Archbishop Walram had promised more to the charterhouse than he was able to deliver: his budget was diminished by the expenses of military conflict, and the monks were thus entirely dependent on the continuing generosity of the wealthy of Cologne. Their individual endowments and the charterhouse's consequent obligations were recorded in benefactors' books, which until 2009 were preserved in the Historical Archive of the City of Cologne.
There were also bitter wrangles that lasted for years over prebends and other sources of income with the nearby St. Severin's Abbey ("Stift St. Severin"), whose income was affected by the new charterhouse. Much information about the resulting agreements with St. Severin's has survived, which throws light on the material pressures of monastic life:
When Archbishop Walram died in 1349, the situation became even more precarious, but the following years saw the charterhouse grow in prestige and thus attract an increasing number of affluent novices, which made it wealthier, but also over-burdened the available residential space and the small chapel. Gifts and endowments for the building of a new church are recorded from 1354, and in the same year Charles IV exempted the charterhouse from payment of duty on building materials, which seems to point to construction beginning around this time. The legacy of Canon Johannes of Brandenburg, who in 1365 left the monks an adjoining plot of land, provided the space for a new chapter house and library as well as the continued expansion of the church.
By the beginning of the 15th century the crisis of the beginning had finally been overcome. The charterhouse had scarcely been affected by either the Western Schism or the Black Death. In 1393, the new church was consecrated, which in its essential features has lasted until today, and the charterhouse entered a period of prosperity which was to make it one of the richest monasteries in Cologne.
Development and golden age.
The building and dedication of the Carthusian church took place during the period of office of Prior Hermann of Deventer. After the dedication an unusually large number of altars were set up in the church, which was magnificently furnished and decorated: this was extremely unusual for a Carthusian church, in which normally only a single altar was permitted. An explanation for this is the atypically high number of monks here who were also ordained priests and therefore obliged to celebrate Mass daily.
Besides further extensions to the monastery church, including the Angel Chapel and the Lady Chapel, progress continued to be made to the conventual buildings, supported as always by endowments. It is presumed that the first modest cells and buildings were of wood and plaster, and were gradually replaced by a refectory, cloister and 25 cells of worked stone.
The monks lived a strictly contemplative life in which work on books and manuscripts was of especial importance. Through gifts of books and the entry to the community of wealthy and educated men who brought entire libraries with them, St. Barbara's possessed by the middle of the 15th century one of the largest collections of manuscripts in medieval Cologne. Each cell was equipped with a workshop where the monk could copy writings: unlike in other monasteries, the copyists were not required to work in the library, but could take the manuscripts they were copying to their cells.
The Carthusians of Cologne must also during this period have risen in prestige within their order, as their prior Roland von Luysteringen was sent as the Carthusian representative to the Council of Constance, where regrettably he died of the plague. Pope Martin V freed Cologne Charterhouse of episcopal jurisdiction in 1425, so that from then on it answered directly to the popes.
This flourishing monastic life experienced an abrupt interruption when a catastrophic fire on 6 November 1451 totally destroyed the chapter house and adjacent buildings, including the entire library and its contents, except for those manuscripts which happened to be in individual cells for copying.
Restoration.
Generous gifts to the charterhouse – particularly from Peter Rinck, Rector of Cologne University – made it possible to rebuild the chapter house and library within two years. It took a great deal longer to recover from the financial and intellectual loss of the books and manuscripts. The charterhouse authorities addressed themselves to the task of making good the losses with great energy and single-mindedness. New manuscripts were acquired outright or borrowed to be copied either by the monastery's own monks or even by hired copyists. Prior Hermann of Appeldorn (1457–1472) counts as the driving force during this period of reconstruction; at his death he was honoured for his financial acumen as "reformator et recuperator huius domus". While he was prior not only was the library largely restored but also a new gatehouse was built and an altarpiece painted by "Meister Christoph" for the Angels' Altar in the charterhouse church.
In 1459, even before the charterhouse had begun to recover financially, Prior Johannes Castoris was appointed by Pope Pius II as abbot of the Benedictine St. Pantaleon's Abbey in Cologne, which was seriously in debt. This extraordinary step of seconding a non-Benedictine head of house in order to reform St. Pantaleon's and bring it back onto the right track, is an indication of the high degree of trust within the church that the Carthusians in Cologne had come to enjoy through their strict adherence to the discipline of their order and way of life.
The successors to Appeldorn and Castoris followed their lead, and under their direction the charterhouse made further progress. Under Johann of Bonn (1476–1507) there was further substantial construction work, particularly in the service buildings such as the kitchen and the store rooms, but also in additions to the decoration of the church. By the end of the 15th century the library had grown again to comprise some 500 volumes, and the church had gained two new triptychs by the Master of the Saint Bartholomew Altarpiece, now considered masterpieces of European painting, and displayed in the Wallraf-Richartz Museum.
Reformation.
Presumably in part as a result of the monastery's experience of the loss of their library and the need to replace it, by the early 16th century the charterhouse had not only a printing-press but also a book bindery. At this time the building complex took its final shape, with the completion in 1511 of the sacristy, of the great cloister, presumed to have been completed in 1537, and the cross in the burial ground.
Of decisive importance in the first half of the 16th century and the early Protestant Reformation was the tenure of office as prior of Peter Blommeveen of Leiden, who had entered the charterhouse in 1489 after studying at Cologne University, and became its prior in 1507. While he was in office the founder of the Carthusian Order, Bruno of Cologne, was canonised, and like other charterhouses the Cologne Charterhouse received some of his relics, which had been re-discovered in 1502. Aegidius Gelenius lists in his catalogue of the treasures of the Cologne Charterhouse, published in 1645, among many other relics "two pieces of the skull of Saint Bruno".
Under Blommeveen a small extension was added to the "Kartäuserwall" which bounded the monastery complex on the south, so that women might also seek the prior's spiritual counsel, as entrance to the monastery was strictly forbidden to them.
In 1517 Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses and thus launched the Protestant Reformation and a period of destruction and unrest throughout Germany, particularly in many monasteries. Many monks left their monasteries, including many Carthusians, although only one charterhouse – the Nuremberg Charterhouse – was dissolved at this period. Cologne Charterhouse stayed true to its strict principles. Blommeveen published some writings in defence of Catholicism and the works of the orthodox theologian Denis the Carthusian (Dionysius van Leeuw). Since the Carthusians, on account of their vow of silence, did not preach, their contribution to the defence of traditional Catholic belief was necessarily a written one.
Blommeveen's successor Gerhard Kalckbrenner supported the Jesuits when they settled in Cologne – the first Jesuit community in Germany – and ensured the settlement in Cologne of the well-known beguine and mystic Maria of Oisterwijk, with whom he was on friendly terms. Her works, and those of the mystic Gertrude the Great, were both printed by Cologne Charterhouse. Also closely associated with the Cologne Carthusians at this time was the Jesuit preacher Petrus Canisius.
In the event Cologne remained almost entirely Catholic and little influenced by the efforts of the reformers. Luther's writings were publicly burnt, as in 1529 were the reformers Adolf Clarenbach and Peter Fliesteden. The attempt by Archbishop Hermann von Wied in 1541/42 to introduce the Protestant Reformation into the archdiocese met with great resistance and also failed.
The centuries before secularisation.
During the rest of the 16th century and the whole of the 17th, the monastery limited its building activities to repair and restoration, and the further decoration of the church. The Carthusian Johannes Reckschenkel from Trier lived in here in the late 16th century and became prior in 1580. Besides producing several writings he also made some paintings in the sacristy and provided the monks' cells with improved sanitation. Donations fell off, as the strict piety of the Carthusians was out of fashion, and people preferred to support other orders. Nevertheless, Cologne Charterhouse with 23 monks in about 1630 was the largest Carthusian community in Germany. and was still able to afford new altars, windows and choir stalls for the Baroque refurbishment of the church interior. Some roofs were repaired, cells replaced and in about 1740 a new enlarged conventual building of three wings was erected on the street front.
The charterhouse library by about 1600 had again become one of the largest and best in Cologne. A catalogue of 1695 lists 6,600 volumes, and in the 18th century there were almost 8,000. The 18th century however also saw sales of manuscripts, creating gaps in the collection.
The end, not only of the library, but of the charterhouse itself, was signalled on 6 October 1794, when the French troops occupied Cologne.
A few weeks after their arrival, on 23 October 1794, Prior Martin Firmenich was ordered to vacate the charterhouse within 24 hours, as it was required for use as a military hospital. Despite desperate efforts to save the most valuable pieces of the church treasures, looting, theft and vandalism enured that the irreplaceable collections of archives, books and artworks were irretrievably dispersed.
Until 1802, when all religious houses were finally dissolved in the secularisation, the Carthusian monks lived in temporary accommodation in what is now Martinstraße 19–21, made available to them by the Bürgermeister of Cologne, Johann Jakob von Wittgenstein. Thereafter they had either to look for livings as parish priests or to support themselves in whatever way they could.
Prussian administration.
Unlike many other monastic buildings during the years following secularisation, the premises of Cologne Charterhouse, despite its use as a military hospital, remained largely unaltered. In 1810, the buildings passed into the possession of the City of Cologne, who however exchanged them in 1816 with the Prussian military authorities for other plots of land. It was from this point onwards that major destruction began. The conventual building was again put to use as a military hospital, the remains of the cloisters as a laundry and kitchen, and the church and chapter house as an arsenal, stable and carriage house. By 1827, there remained only 12 bays of the great cloister. The altars and the rood screen disappeared, windows were bricked up and new ones broken through the walls as required. Rubble was tipped down the wells, and broken stones from the crypts and the graveyard used to block the church windows. The significance of the charterhouse not only in religious terms but also in terms of architecture and art history was totally lost to public awareness until the very end of the 19th century.
It was not until 1894 that Ludwig Arntz, master builder of the cathedral, drew public attention to the importance and sorry condition of the monastery complex in an essay in the "Zeitschrift für christliche Kunst". This had little practical result: during World War I the buildings were used yet again for the accommodation of wounded soldiers, and otherwise allowed to stand empty.
The Carthusian church becomes Protestant.
After World War I the buildings passed from Prussian ownership to that of the "Reichsvermögensverwaltung". Once their use as a military hospital had ended discussions began about their future use. At this time there was a dispute concerning the use of the Romanesque former abbey church of St. Pantaleon, which since 1818 had served as the Protestant church of the Prussian garrison and had also been used by the civilian Protestant population of predominantly Catholic Cologne. After the withdrawal of the Prussian military, the Catholics demanded the return of the church from the Ministry of War, which was granted them by ministerial decree in 1921. For the loss of the use of the church the Protestant community was to receive compensation of 200,000 Paper Marks, but as the great 1920s German inflation was just taking hold this was not regarded as adequate. It had already been suggested in 1919 by "Regierungspräsident" Philipp Brugger that the unused Carthusian church should be given to the Protestants, and the idea was now resurrected. The continuing inflation prolonged the repair and conversion works until 1928, when at last the former Carthusian church was re-dedicated, on 16 September, as a Protestant church. The former conventual building was taken over by the Finance Department of Köln-Süd.
World War II: destruction and reconstruction.
In the first years of World War II, the charterhouse escaped significant damage from air raids, but the last major air attack of 2 March 1945 caused great destruction: the church, chapter house, cloisters and prior's house were severely damaged, and the external wall on to the street known as the "Kartäusergasse" was totally destroyed, as were the conventual buildings.
Among the ruins a makeshift structure for religious services was cobbled together for the use of a Protestant population increased by the arrival of displaced persons and refugees. The first service in the "Trümmerkirche" ("ruin church") was held on 19 August 1945. The church and parts of its surroundings were gradually rebuilt in three main stages up to 1953. The destroyed external wall on the "Kartäusergasse" was rebuilt by the members of the congregation. The conventual building used before the war by the finance office was also reconstructed and in 1960 occupied by the Protestant church administration of the city ("evangelischer Stadtkirchenverband Köln").
From 1955, parts of the two cloisters were restored: a complete reconstruction was out of the question for financial reasons, which also delayed the reconstruction of the chapter house, eventually completed in 1985.


Battle of Lumphanan

The Battle of Lumphanan was fought on 15 August 1057, between Macbeth, King of Scots, and Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, the future King Malcolm III. Macbeth was killed, having drawn his retreating forces north to make a last stand. According to tradition, the battle took place near the Peel of Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire. Macbeth's Stone, some south-west of the peel, is said to be the stone upon which Macbeth was beheaded.
Background.
Since the death of his father, King Duncan, in battle with Macbeth, Malcolm had been sheltered by Earl Siward of Northumbria. It was with Siward's backing that Malcolm first attacked Macbeth at Dunsinnan in 1054, failing to win the crown, but having his own lands restored to him.
The battle.
After retreating North, Macbeth would again face Malcolm in battle at Lumphanan. The battle itself appears to have been a comparatively minor affair, except for the death of Macbeth.
Aftermath.
Following the death of Macbeth, his stepson Lulach was initially crowned king. 18 weeks later, in 1078 Malcolm killed him by 'treachery' at Essie, near Aberdeen. Upon assuming the throne, Malcolm began the long task of removing Gaelic culture from mainstream Scotland.


Henk Wesseling

Henk Wesseling (6 August 1937 – 18 August 2018) was a Dutch historian. He was a professor of contemporary history at Leiden University, former rector of the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study between 1995 and 2002. In 1974, shortly after he was appointed to the chair of European history, Wesseling founded the "Center for the History of European Expansion and Reaction" within the Leiden University history department. It included specialists in China and India, as well as Indonesia, and funding was found to hire young specialists in Atlantic and African and other topics. Colonial history had been defunct for nearly two decades, but Wesseling insisted on its importance in Dutch and European history, although some colleagues remain dubious. The department was custodian of hundreds of kilometers of shelf space devoted to primary sources that were exploited by advanced students. An annual workshop brought in leading scholars and a new specialized journal "Itinerario" was launched. Wesseling published widely-read studies on imperialism, the partition of Africa, French military, intellectual, and cultural history, and a biography of Charles De Gaulle. As an academic manager, he collaborated in establishing and funding numerous projects such as the European summer schools, an international project for the comparative study of India and Indonesia, and the Transfer of Science and Technology Program.
In 1988 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.


Lucy Bland

Lucy Bland is a British professor of social and cultural history at Anglia Ruskin University. Much of her work focuses on British sexological history.


Robert Paterson (bishop)

Robert Mar Erskine Paterson (born 27 February 1949) is a British Anglican bishop. He was the Bishop of Sodor and Man in the Church of England from 2008 until his retirement in 2016.
Early life and education.
Paterson was born on 27 February 1949 in Cardiff, Wales. He was educated at King Henry VIII School, Coventry, an independent school. He studied at St John's College, Durham, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1971, and was awarded the Van Mildert Scholarship in the same year. He then spent a year training for ordained ministry at Cranmer Hall, Durham (an Anglican theological college that is part of St John's College, Durham), and completed a Diploma in Theology (DipTh) in 1972. He graduated with a Master of Arts (MA) degree from Durham University in 1983.
Ordained ministry.
Paterson was ordained in the Church of England as a deacon in 1972. From 1972 to 1973, he was a curate in the Diocese of Manchester at Christ Church, Harpurhey. In 1973, he transferred to the Church in Wales and was ordained as a priest in 1973 by the Bishop of Swansea and Brecon. He undertook a further curacy in Sketty, Swansea from 1973 to 1978, during which he was seconded to a parish in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. From 1978 to 1983 he was Rector of two parishes and Diocesan World Mission Officer. From 1983 to 1994 he was Vicar of St Mark's Cardiff, during which he was a member of the Church in Wales Forward Planning Group. In 1994 he became Team Rector of Cowbridge, Vale of Glamorgan, during which he was a Trustee of the South Glamorgan Buildings Preservation Trust and an examining chaplain for the Bishop of Llandaff. From 2000 to 2006 he was Principal Officer of the Church in Wales Council for Mission and Ministry. He was a member of the Governing Body of the Church in Wales 1974-83, 1989-1992, and 1995-2006. He has served on a number of national and international bodies, including the Church Mission Society, the Church Pastoral-Aid Society and the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In 1993 he was a consultant on African Culture and Anglican Liturgy in Kenya and Uganda, and gave a series of lectures in Pretoria, South Africa in 2001 on Mission in the New Testament. From 1998 to 2003 he was a Trustee of the Church Education and Development Partnership for Southern Africa (Chair from 1999). In 1992 he co-founded of the Four Nations Liturgical Group (Convener 2000-03). He was a member of the Porvoo Churches' Contact Group and co-chaired two international symposia on the Diaconate. He chaired the Churches Together in Britain and Ireland Ecumenical Architecture Group for Wales, drafted the Church in Wales Ecumenical Canons and was a member of the Anglican - Roman Catholic Liaison Group. From 2002-09 he was Vice Chair of the Anglican Primates' Working Group on Theological Education (Convener of its Steering Group), and was a consultant on theological education at the Anglican Primates' Meetings in 2003 and 2005, and at the Anglican Consultative Council in 2005. In 2004 he was made a metropolitical canon of the Province of Wales. He was appointed chaplain and researcher to John Sentamu, Archbishop of York, in 2006.
Episcopal ministry.
Paterson was nominated as the next Bishop of Sodor and Man in 2008 to replace Graeme Knowles. The appointment was confirmed by Letters Patent issued by Elizabeth II on 18 April 2008. He was consecrated as a bishop on 25 April 2008 at York Minster. He was enthroned Bishop and Dean of Sodor and Man on 14 June 2008 at St German's Cathedral in Peel, Isle of Man. He chaired the Central Readers' Council for England and Wales, was Vice Chair of the Liturgical Commission and the Fresh Expressions Board, convened the House of Bishops' Working Group on Civil Partnerships (2011–12), co-chaired the Church of England Lay Ministries Working Group (2015–16) and was the Archbishop of Canterbury's envoy to the Church of Ceylon (2014–15). He chaired reviews of training for ministry in Wales (2013–14) and Ireland (2015–16).
He retired from full-time ministry on 11 November 2016. In retirement, he is an honorary assistant bishop in the Diocese of Worcester and the Diocese of Hereford. In retirement he has become involved with clergy review and has been appointed Dean for Evangelism in the Worcester Diocese; he is a mentor in the Germinate Leadership programme.
Other works.
He is author of a number of books on liturgy and preaching and his interests include current affairs, early music, literature, walking, cycling and the countryside. As the island's bishop, he sat "ex officio" on the Legislative Council and Tynwald Court and was required to vote on all matters. Throughout his period of office Paterson spoke in Tynwald particularly on ethical issues concerning international aid, a register of beneficial ownership, family and end-of-life issues and the rights of minorities.
Personal life.
Paterson is married to Pauline Anne. Together they have one son, two daughters and two grandsons.


Mumbles lifeboat disaster

The Mumbles lifeboat disaster occurred in 1947 off south Wales when the Mumbles lifeboat was undertaking a rescue off Sker Point but was overwhelmed by the sea with the loss of all eight lives in the lifeboat.
History.
Mumbles Lifeboat station is situated at the western end of Swansea Bay in the village of Mumbles. At the time of the disaster the Lifeboat operating there was RNLB "Edward, Prince of Wales" (ON 678).
On 23 April 1947 the en route from Middlesbrough to Newport decided to stop at Sker Point on the Glamorgan coast not far from Porthcawl. Its three anchor cables were unable to hold the ship in the gale raging at the time and the ship foundered on the rocks, breaking into three.
The Mumbles lifeboat, in attempting a rescue, was believed to have been overwhelmed by a freak wave and all the crew were drowned. Memorials to the crew stand in the churchyard of All Saints' Church, Oystermouth.
A memorial service was held in Swansea attended by the Duke of Kent on the 50th anniversary of the disaster.


Swansea History Journal

The Swansea History Journal - Minerva is a journal started in 1993 containing articles on historical and artistic topics related to the Swansea area of Wales.
It is published by The Royal Institution of South Wales, founded in 1835 as Swansea Philosophical and Literary Society. Its aims are to advance the study of natural history, local history, the arts and literature. Its principal activities have been the foundation and management of Swansea Museum, and holding lectures and other events. It now acts as the Friends of Swansea Museum.
The journal was launched as "Minerva" in 1993 as an English language popular journal containing topics related to the Swansea area. From 1995 it was retitled into "Minerva – Swansea's Local History Journal". In 1999 it changed again; this time into "Minerva – The Journal of Swansea History". And in 2007/08 it became the "Swansea History Journal – Minerva".
The first fourteen volumes of the journal (from 1993 to 2006) have been digitized by the Welsh Journals Online project at the National Library of Wales.


Godshill railway station

Godshill station opened on 20 July 1897 at Godshill on the Isle of Wight on the Newport, Godshill & St Lawrence Railway, later the Isle of Wight Central Railway. It opened as a single platform station with a small goods siding and this layout remained until closure. The station was reduced to the status of an unstaffed halt in 1927.
The station was not a financial success and never brought a large income to managers. There was some agricultural traffic, notably milk, and a few local passengers until the bus services became well established.
Location.
The station was surrounded by fields but at the same time ½ mile from the centre of the village. This is still the case today. The platform still stands and the station buildings have been converted into private dwellings.
Other stations on the branch.
The other stations on the Ventnor West branch were:


List of former populated places in Croatia

List of ghost towns in Croatia contains towns and villages in Croatia which have no inhabitants.


Torra di Fautea

The Tower of Fautea () is a Genoese tower located in the commune of Zonza (Corse-du-Sud) on the east coast of the French island of Corsica. The tower sits at an elevation of on the Punta di Fautea.
The tower was one of a series of coastal defences constructed by the Republic of Genoa between 1530 and 1620 to stem the attacks by Barbary pirates. It was built before 1601, the date of a document recording a payment made to one of the soldiers responsible for guarding the tower. It was attacked and burnt in 1650 by the Ottoman Turks. It was restored between 1988 and 1991 and again between 1994 and 1995. In 1992 it was listed as one of the official historical monuments of France.
The tower is owned and maintained by the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse in an agreement with the French government agency, the Conservatoire du littoral. The agency plans to purchase of the headland and as of 2011 had acquired .


Elyrus

Elyrus or Elyros () was a town of ancient Crete, which the "Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax" places between Cydonia and Lissus. It had a harbour, Syia (Συΐα), situated on the south coast of the island, 60 stadia west of Poecilassus. Pausanias states that the city existed in his time in the mountains of Crete. He adds that he had seen at Delphi the bronze goat which the Elyrians had dedicated, and which was represented in the act of giving suckle to Phylacis and Phylander, children of Apollo and the nymph Acacallis, whose love had been won by the youthful god at the house of Casmanor at Tarrha. It was the birthplace of Thaletas, who was considered as the inventor of the Cretic rhythm, the national paeans and songs, with many of the institutions of his country. Elyrus appears in Hierocles' list of Cretan cities, then reduced in number to twenty-one. The coins of this city have the type of a bee upon them.
Its site is located in on Kefala Hill near the village of Rodovani. Robert Pashley discovered the site in the 19th century. The first object that presents itself is a building consisting of a series of arches; next, vestiges of walls, especially on the north and northeast sides of the ancient city. The circuit of these must originally have been two miles (3 km); at a slight elevation above are other walls, as of an acropolis. Further on are some massive stones, some pieces of an entablature, and several fragments of the shafts of columns, all that now remains of an ancient temple.
It has not been excavated.
History.
Classical Era.
Elyrus was flourishing at least as early as the Greek Classical Period, e.g. 500 to 350 BCE. In the Classical Period Elyrus was the most important ancient city in southwestern Crete, having about 16,000 inhabitants. It was an industrial and commercial city with large weapons production. Syia and Lissus were its harbours. Apollo, Phylakides and Philandros, sons of Apollo and nymph Akakallida, were worshiped there.
Hellenistic Era.
In the 3rd century BCE, Elyrus was at war with Kydonia, an important center of Cretan power, located in the modern city of Chania. The citizens of Elyrus sent to the Oracle at Delphi a bronze votive complex that represents a goat feeding the sons of Apollo when they were infants. It is also one of the thirty cities that signed the decree with Eumenes II in 183 BCE.
Roman Era.
Elyrus was also important during Roman times. A Roman statue, the Philosopher of Elyrus, was recovered here and is now in the Archaeological Museum of Chania.
Byzantine Era.
During Byzantine times, Elyrus was the seat of an Archbishop. The remains of the bishopric church, a 6th-century basilica, can still be seen in the centre of the old city.
Archaeology.
Robert Pashley was the first to identify the location of the city, near the village of Rodovani. Thenon studied the ruins of the city more carefully and discovered the inscription that says: “it seemed to the city of the Elyrians”.


Grass Valley, California

Grass Valley is a city in Nevada County, California, United States. Situated at roughly 2,500 feet (760 m) elevation in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, this historic northern Gold Country city is 57 miles (92 km) by car from the state capitol in Sacramento, 64 miles (103 km) from Sacramento International Airport, 88 miles (142 km) west of Reno, and 143 miles (230 km) northeast of San Francisco. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 12,860.
History.
Grass Valley, which was originally known as Boston Ravine and later officially named Centerville, dates from the California Gold Rush, as does nearby Nevada City. Gold was discovered at Gold Hill in October 1850 and population grew around the mine. When a post office was established in 1851, it was renamed Grass Valley the following year for unknown reasons. The town incorporated in 1860.
Grass Valley is the location of the Empire Mine and North Star Mine, two of the richest mines in California. George Starr, manager of the Empire Mine, and William Bowers Bourn II, the mine owner, donated mine property which became Memorial Park.
Many of those who came to settle in Grass Valley were tin miners from Cornwall, United Kingdom. They were attracted to the California gold fields because the same skills needed for deep tin mining were needed for hardrock (deep) gold mining. Many of them specialized in pumping the water out of very deep mining shafts. This followed the disastrous fall in tin prices as large alluvial deposits began to be exploited elsewhere.
Grass Valley still holds on to its Cornish heritage, with events such as its annual Cornish Christmas and St Piran's Day celebrations. Cornish pasties are a local favorite dish with a few restaurants in town specializing in recipes handed down from the original immigrant generation. Grass Valley is also twinned with Bodmin in Cornwall (UK).
There was formerly a Roman Catholic Diocese of Grass Valley.
Geography.
Grass Valley is located at (39.219215, -121.058414). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land.
A variety of igneous and metamorphic rock supports Grass Valley. Granitic rock such as quartz diorite underlies the downtown core and extends south along Highway 49. Metavolcanic rock and diabase underlie areas around the granitic zone. Neighborhoods around Nevada County Golf Course and Sierra Nevada Memorial Hospital are underlain by ultramafic rock which supports infertile soils of the Dubakella series. Here the vegetation is sparse considering the high average annual precipitation, with much grassland, and forested areas are often dominated by several species of oaks and the crooked, thin-crowned gray pine. Luxuriant forest dominated by straight, dense ponderosa pine inhabits the more fertile soils which include Musick series on granitic rock and Sites series on mafic or metamorphic rock.
Climate.
Grass Valley has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa) with warm to hot, dry summers and wet, cool, rainy winters. Summer is very dry, but thunderstorms may occur. The winter rains contribute to a heavy fuel-loading of brush and grass, which dry out during the summer, posing a wildfire hazard. Snow occurs at times. Over the course of a year, 36.4 days of or hotter and 0.9 days of or hotter occur, with 61.4 days with minimum of or colder.
Demographics.
2010.
The 2010 United States Census reported that Grass Valley had a population of 12,860. The population density was 2,711.3 people per square mile (1,046.8/km). The racial makeup of Grass Valley was 11,493 (89.4%) White, 208 (1.6%) Native American, 188 (1.5%) Asian, 46 (0.4%) African American, 9 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 419 (3.3%) from other races, and 497 (3.9%) from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1,341 persons (10.4%).
The census reported that 12,401 people (96.4% of the population) lived in households, 118 (0.9%) lived in noninstitutionalized group quarters, and 341 (2.7%) were institutionalized.
Of the 6,077 households, 1,544 (25.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,665 (27.4%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 980 (16.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, and 316 (5.2%) had a male householder with no wife present, 466 (7.7%) were unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 33 (0.5%) were same-sex married couples or partnerships. About 2,605 households (42.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,415 (23.3%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.04. The 2,961 families (48.7% of all households) had an average family size of 2.78.
The population was distributed as 2,625 people (20.4%) under the age of 18, 1,146 people (8.9%) aged 18 to 24, 2,882 people (22.4%) aged 25 to 44, 3,183 people (24.8%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,024 people (23.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 78.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73.5 males.
The 6,637 housing units averaged 1,399.3 per square mile (540.3/km), of which 2,391 (39.3%) were owner-occupied, and 3,686 (60.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 4.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.7%; 4,663 people (36.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 7,738 people (60.2%) lived in rental housing units.
2000.
As of the census of 2000, 10,922 people, 5,016 households, and 2,678 families resided in the city. The population density was 2,660.2 people per square mile (1,026.0/km).
Of the 5,016 households, 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.4% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.6% were not families. About 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.80 people.
The median income for a household in the city was $28,182, and for a family was $33,220. Males had a median income of $32,568 versus $21,915 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,877. About 12.9% of families and 14.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.0% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.
Government.
Grass Valley has been a charter city since it was incorporated in 1893. It uses a council-manager form of government.
State and federal representation.
In the California State Legislature, Grass Valley is in , and .
In the United States House of Representatives, Grass Valley is in .
Economy.
The combined communities of Grass Valley and Nevada City have a fairly diversified economy. The gold rush days left a historical legacy and today, tourism and the related services sector constitute the bulk of the local economy. Many of those who do not commute to the Sacramento Valley, work locally in retail, wholesale, trade, engineering, manufacturing, construction, and other businesses, as well in various levels of local and state government. A significant number of high-tech electronics companies are in the area.
Another significant sector of the local economy is agriculture, as the soil in Nevada County is quite fertile. Around the time of the Gold Rush, farmers planted orchards, vegetables, and other produce as ranchers brought in cattle, sheep, and other livestock. While the percentage of land dedicated to agriculture has significantly decreased over the last few decades, agriculture continues to be an important aspect of the area's economy, including organic agricultural products. During the past decade, Nevada County has become known for its growing wine industry.
Retail employers in Grass Valley include Raley's, Safeway, K-Mart, CVS Pharmacy, Walgreens, Starbucks, GNC, Jamba Juice, Staples and Hills Flat Lumber Co. Fast-food chain restaurants in Grass Valley include Taco Bell, McDonald's, Carl's Jr., Jimboy's Tacos and KFC. Other major employers include Nevada Union High School, Nevada Irrigation District, Sierra Nevada Memorial Hospital, Golden Empire, and Briar Patch Food Co-op.
The Grass Valley Group is a media technology research and development company founded in the city in 1959.
Transportation.
Grass Valley is at the intersection of State Route 49 and State Route 20. Public transportation is served by the Gold Country Stage and is limited to the urban areas.
Sister cities.
Grass Valley has two sister cities:


Ancient Mediterranean piracy

Piracy in the ancient Mediterranean has a long documented history, from the Late Bronze Age. According to the classical historian Janice Gabbert "The eastern Mediterranean has been plagued by piracy since the first dawn of history." Though its prehistory is ambiguously differentiated from trade, this period in history marked the earliest documented wave of piracy.
Origins.
The roots of the word "piracy" come from the ancient Greek πειράομαι, or "peiráomai", meaning "attempt;" i.e., an attempt to rob for personal gain. This morphed into πειρατής, or "peiratēs", meaning "brigand," and from that to the Latin "pirata", where we get the modern English word "pirate". However, they were frequently referred to by ancient Greeks as "leistes", the same word used for land-based thieves.
A number of geographic and economic characteristics of the classical world produced an environment that encouraged piracy. "The coasts of the Mediterranean are particularly favourable to the development of piracy." The barren, rocky shoreline was not suitable for large-scale agriculture and could not support a large population. Therefore, most villages were small and of humble means. Being coastal villages, the primary method of support came from fishing, so most of the able-bodied men had boats, seafaring skills, and navigational knowledge. When fishing wasn’t enough, many men turned to highway robbery and raids of nearby territories to support themselves. However, land trade routes were few and far between, given mountainous obstacles and few rivers. Therefore, most nations deemed "the principal lines of communication should be by sea, and the bulk of commerce should be carried by the same routes."
In the early days of maritime navigation, most trade vessels hugged the coasts. "Traffic was restricted to fixed lanes in a way impossible on the open ocean." The "naukleroi", or ship-owning merchantmen, moved slowly along established trade routes with their heavy burdens weighing them down. fishermen, seeing treasure-laden trade ships passing the shores day after day would eventually prove easy targets. With the motivation and the means to do so, economically desperate fishermen would eventually take on the risks of banditry for a chance at victory and treasure. "The pirate was the robber of the sea highways: and the highways of the Mediterranean were well-defined and well-traveled."
Early development.
The rocky coast that had been unsuitable for agriculture was perfectly suited to piracy, outfitted with hidden inlets that allowed quick access points to trade routes. "Pirate enclaves grew up along rocky shores that provided shelter and kept them hidden from view until it was too late for their victims to escape."
These early maritime raiders were at the same time the first true pirates, attacking anyone of any nationality, owing loyalty to no one, but also quite unique. Because of their roots in land raiding, they were known not only to attack ships and coastal towns but also to venture further inland. This caused even the earliest large cities to relocate anywhere from 2 to 10 miles away from shore. Pirates tended not to go any farther inland due to difficulties escaping. Speed was one of the most important elements of piracy. This relocation gave a relatively effective cushion of safety to major cities such as Athens, Tiryns, Mycenae and others. It protected them from the sea's dangers, although it also cut them off from its benefits. The sea was still the primary, and practically only, area of major commerce. This caused twin cities to be built, one inland city paired with a coastal port, such as Rome and Ostia, Athens and Piraeus, etc. To protect their connection they built "‘long walls’ like those that enclosed the thoroughfare between Athens and Piraeus." The maritime historian Henry Ormerod said, "If we remember that piracy was, for centuries, a normal feature of Mediterranean life, it will be realized how great has been the influence which it exercised on the life of the ancient world."
Despite these efforts, they couldn't completely remove contact between the pirates and the ports. Since they couldn’t effectively disrupt the pirates "business," it only continued to grow. Men often joined the very pirate ships that attacked their own towns. Even the sailors on merchant ships attacked by pirates turned to piracy themselves when they were out of work. Piracy offered a free and lucrative career, a chance for those who were interested to try to change their lives and better their livelihood a hundredfold in a very short time. For example, the area around Crete, famous for its slave markets, was known as "the Golden Sea" because of how profitable the slave trade was. Unsurprisingly, Crete was also notable for its pirates. In point of fact, if a city had a successful slave market it was most likely a pirate port. Notorious pirate havens like Cilicia and Delos had thriving slave markets. "According to Strabo, as many as ten thousand slaves were sold in Delos in just one day." Being kidnapped by pirates and sold into slavery was so common that it was a favorite theme of ancient Greek dramatists.
Egypt and Piracy.
The early history of the Mediterranean includes many references to piracy and measures taken to deal with piracy. It has been suggested that the Pirate Articles, which structured the company democratically, "derived from ancient seafaring traditions", and originated sometime during this period. Egypt is a prime source of many of these early accounts, both because of its greater level of documentation in comparison with the less developed states of the Greek Dark Ages, and because much of its documentation was carved into stone or preserved by the dry sands of the environment.
The Lukka and the Sherden in particular are mentioned in the Amarna letters, a series of 362 clay correspondence tablets from the king of Babylon to Pharaoh Amenhotep or his son Akhenaton, about the fact that these sea raiders were beginning not just to plunder ships but capture towns. This is clearly a reference to pirates in the sense of thieves, rather than just using a generic term for aggressors originating in the Mediterranean. One of "the earliest recorded incident[s] – inscribed on a clay tablet while Akhenaton, an Egyptian pharaoh, reigned depicts pirates attacking a ship in 1350 BCE." Nearly a century later, Ramesses II recorded on the Tanis Stele, "the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever known how to combat, they came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea, none being able to withstand them."
The diverse group known collectively as the "Sea Peoples", a term used by Ramesses III on his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu as well as on numerous obelisks and stelae, may have also been pirates. It was there he recorded the accounts of attacks by named enemies of the Peleset (Philistines), and even the Hittites, but several of the enemies he is shown to be subjugating are only given the uncertain epithet "of the sea". Ramesses III describes how he defeated them by drawing them inland, "like the sand on the shore". Possible members of the "Sea Peoples" include the Tjeker people of Crete, who left to settle Anatolia, the seat of the Hittite Empire, which is known to have clashed with the Egyptians.
This negative view of sea peoples in Pharaonic texts follows the general pattern of Egyptian discussion of outsiders; they are viewed derogatorily until they become useful. There is evidence that as the power of Greece and Persia grew, it became more acceptable for Egyptian rulers to hire pirates for their own ends, and by the early Hellenistic period they were so widely employed as extra-legal forces that "there seemed to be no real distinction made between a pirate and a mercenary." Despite the closeness between these two professions, they were not synonymous with "criminal". The original Greek word for pirate was not incorporated into the language until 140 BC. More often than not, "pirate" simply implied "other": an outsider, but not necessarily a lawbreaker.
Piracy in Greece.
The rulers of Minoan Crete were the first to raise a navy specifically for the purpose of battling piracy. Greek sources describe this navy as the product of the legendary king Minos, and suggest "it is likely he cleared the sea of piracy as far as he was able, to improve his revenues." He is said to have effectively curbed piracy in his area until his fleet was destroyed by a tsunami around 1400 BC, and piratical activities resumed.
Many texts from Bronze Age and archaic Greece actually condone piracy as a viable profession. "In ancient Greece piracy seems to have been widespread and widely regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living." Numerous references are made to its perfectly normal occurrence in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, thought to have been written sometime in the 7th or 6th century BC. Odysseus recounts an incident he himself took part in:
We boldly landed on the hostile place,
And sack’d the city,
and destroy’d the race,
Their wives made captive,
their possessions shared,
And every soldier found a like reward.
Over a century later, the Greek historian Thucydides (460–395 BC) tells of great men like Odysseus, settling upon this as a profession in his History of the Peloponnesian War:
For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands, as communication by sea became more common, were tempted to turn pirate…indeed, this came to be the main source of their livelihood, no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory.
As this quote indicates, by Thucydides' era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" to have as a profession - partly (and perhaps hypocritically, given that the threat of slavery on land was seen as an inevitable and "universal law") because it came with the threat of ransom and enslavement for citizens as they travelled. At the height of Athens' power though, we have few epigraphic reports of piracy and Thucydides does not mention the threat as a particular motive for the cultivation of the Athenian Empire's fleet, so it is possible that the relative safety of the Classical seas in comparison with Hellenistic times was a side-effect of, rather than a motivation for, the development of the Delian League that furnished the Empire with her power.
Piracy in the Hellenistic period.
Reports of piracy did not resurge in the Mediterranean until after Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC. He had set a precedent for an intentional effort to curb piracy during his conquests around the Mediterranean rim. In his "De Civitate Dei", St. Augustine recounts an entertaining exchange between Alexander and pirate that he had captured:
For when that king had asked the man what he meant by keeping hostile possession of the sea, he answered with bold pride, "What do thou meanest by seizing the whole earth? because I do it with a petty ship, I am called a robber, whilst thou who dost it with a great fleet art styled emperor."
After Alexander's death and during the subsequent wars, piracy was a problem both from independent crews of brigands and from states hiring them for mercenary use. Demetrius I of Macedon in particular used naval mercenaries to his advantage, and these mercenaries included crews who would otherwise have been engaged in piracy. According to Diodorus Siculus book 20, the pirates of Demetrius used 'deckless' ships, likely for increased speed.
The famous wreck of the Kyrenia ship dates from around this period in the 4th century, and was found with spear shafts embedded in its hull and a lead 'curse tablet', which Katsev suggests was put there by a pirate as the ship sank, to ensure they would not face retribution for the crime.
By the time Rhodes had become the dominant naval power of the Aegean, part of the function of the League of the Islanders (which was founded by Antigonus I Monophthalmus to be an allied force in the Wars of the Diadochi) was to deflect pirates from its member states. Rhodes was the central trading area of the Mediterranean at this time, with five harbours that could be accessed from all wind directions, and at a fairly even distance from most major Hellenistic powers, and it was imperative for their economy that the waters around them be seen by traders as safe from pirates.
In 167 BC Rome forcibly made Delos a 'duty free' port to undercut the power and wealth of Rhodes, and Rhodian harbour-tax income dropped from 1 million drachmas to 150 000 drachmas in a year. Without its policing influence, piracy grew rampant even in the eastern Mediterranean.
Piracy had become something of a bogeyman, and defence from pirates is frequently given as one of the reasons for cities to set up honorific decrees for individuals, as with the c. 166 BC decree from Imbros: ""Lysanias is benevolent towards the people […] he stood firm and brought news of the descent of pirates"
The phenomenon was particularly endemic in certain areas, notably Cilicia (southeastern Turkey) and Illyria (western Balkans) There is evidence that "the coastal Illyrian tribes had created their own type of vessel, the "lembus", in which to carry out their depredations." It was a small, fast ship built to serve the purpose of quickly emerging from or retreating to hidden inlets to attack heavier vessels.
Illyrian piracy could be more correctly termed privateering, as it was endorsed by the state. In Polybius’ "Histories", which covers the period of 220–146 BC, his description of Teuta, Queen of the Illyrians states "Her first measure was to grant letters of marque to privateers, authorising them to plunder all whom they fell in with."
"So powerful did the Illyrians become that by 230 BC no honest traders wished to participate in maritime commerce." Rome's attention was on land based conquests, and they did not initially seek to become the naval police that Rhodes and previously Athens had been for the Greek islands. However, when Illyrian forces attacked a convoy of ships with grain intended for the military, the Senate decided to send two envoys to Queen Teuta, who promptly had one killed. Outraged, "Consul Gnaeus Fulvius sailed for Illyria with two hundred ships, while Consul Aulus Postumius and 20,000 soldiers marched overland." By 228 BC, Teuta had surrendered, and the Romans had decimated the forces of one of the most notorious pirate havens in the Mediterranean.


Dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight

The Isle of Wight is one of the richest dinosaur localities in Europe, with over 20 species of dinosaur having been recognised from the early Cretaceous Period (in particular between 132 and 110 million years ago), some of which were first identified on the island, as well as the contemporary non-dinosaurian species of crocodile, turtle and pterosaur.
Compton Bay, near Freshwater features dinosaur footprints which are visible at low tide.
Geological strata.
The Isle of Wight has layers of the Vectis and Wealden fossil-bearing beds exposed on the southern half of the island. These are revealed in the cliffs of Yaverland, close to Sandown, and at Hanover Point and Whale Chine, along the southwestern coast.
The Cretaceous habitat.
The island's dinosaurs come from the Wessex Formation, which dates from between 125 and 110 million years ago (mya). During this time the Isle of Wight, then located on a latitude at which North Africa resides today, had a subtropical environment and was part of a large river valley complex, which ran along the south coast of England to Belgium. It was a world of ponds, rivers and swamps, so it had conditions favourable for the formation of fossils.
Animal remains from this time include crocodiles, turtles, pterosaurs, mammals and possibly some birds. In the water were snails, fish and mussels.
As this environment did not change much, over the course of 10 million years, a large number of fossils were formed, so the island today is a very rich source.
List of dinosaur species.
Unless otherwise specified, the following is a list of dinosaurs for which almost complete skeletons have been found on the island. There are also many more species, known only from a single or very few bones.
Other meanings.
Dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight (Palaeontological Association, 2001) , is also the title of a field guide to dinosaurs found on the island, by Darren Naish and David Martill.


Phalasarna

Phalasarna or Falasarna () is a Greek harbor town at the west end of Crete that flourished during the Hellenistic period. The currently visible remains of the city include several imposing sandstone towers and bastions, with hundreds of meters of fortification walls protecting the town, and a closed harbor, meaning it is protected on all sides by city walls. The harbor is ringed by stone quays with mooring stones, and connected to the sea through two artificial channels. Notable finds in the harbor area include public roads, wells, warehouses, an altar, and baths. Most of these structures were revealed by excavations that began in 1986.
The acropolis is built on a cape that rises 90 meters above the harbor and juts into the sea. The acropolis has many remains, including a temple dedicated to goddess Dictynna, fortification towers, cisterns, wells, and watchtowers that could have been used to guard sea routes.
Today Phalasarna is an agricultural area and tourist attraction.
The valley is filled with olive groves and greenhouses cultivating mainly tomatoes; there are also scattered family-run hotels and restaurants. The seaside has long sandy beaches and crystal clear waters that are popular both with residents of the province of Chania and visitors from Greece and abroad. Falasarna beach was voted, in a CNN poll, among the best 100 beaches of the world.
Ancient history.
Phalasarna was mentioned by the ancient historians and geographers Scylax, Strabo, Polybius, Livy, Pliny, Dionysius Kalliphontis, and the anonymous geographer known as Stadiasmus. The ancient geographers took note of the artificial closed port carved out of a lagoon and ringed with fortification walls and towers. Phalasarna was a maritime power; the harbor was the reason for the city's existence, the source of its wealth, and led to its recognition. A city-state with its own laws and minting its own coins, Phalasarna provided military advisers and thousands of mercenaries for a war under the Macedonian king Perseus against the Romans (Livy).
Phalasarna was involved in two major wars with neighboring city-states during the Hellenistic period. The first was with Polyrrhenia, probably triggered by land disputes. It started in the late fourth century and ended around 290 BC, following mediation by Cleonymus of Sparta. The peace treaty was inscribed on a stone tablet which is today in the museum of Kissamos. A second war was fought with Cydonia around 184 BC and the disputes were finally resolved through Roman intervention (Polybius).
The city-state prospered through its maritime affairs, evidenced by the remains of monumental buildings and artwork. The treaty with Polyrrhenia gives evidence that in the third century BC the inhabitants of Phalasarna were engaged in piracy, a common practice of the Cretan city-states. In 69-67 BC the Romans sent forces to eliminate piracy from the eastern Mediterranean, stormed Phalasarna, blocked its harbor with massive masonry, and destroyed the whole city, probably killing its citizens. No ancient sources testify directly to these events, but evidence of burning and the harbor blockage itself suggest the tentative conclusions of the excavators.
The location of the city was then forgotten, and Phalasarna appears in Venetian records only as a lost city. The site was rediscovered in the 19th century by British explorers Robert Pashley and Captain T. A. B. Spratt. Spratt, of the Royal Navy, noted in 1859 that the former harbor of the deserted site was now 100 yards from the sea, and that the ancient sea coast must have risen at least twenty four feet. Modern excavation has confirmed this judgment, and also has shown that the harbor rapidly silted up after the Roman attack. Radiocarbon dating of fossil algae along the ancient sea level mark on the cliffs around Phalasarna estimates the sudden sea level change at some time more than sixteen centuries ago. A probable event was the great earthquake and tsunami of 21 July A.D. 365, which wreaked catastrophic damage on all the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean and was recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus and others. An ancient fish basin with two flights of steps carved into the coastal rocks near the harbor entrance has been cracked in half, probably during the same earthquake.
Excavations.
Rescue excavations at the cemetery of Phalasarna began in 1966 directed by the Ephor of the Department of Classical Antiquities in Chania, Dr. Yannis Tzedakis, and continued under Vanna Niniou-Kindeli. Over 70 graves were uncovered, some of them pithos burials, and others cist graves. The early excavations were important, proving the site to have been inhabited in the 6th century BC. Since then, a small additional part of the cemetery has been excavated and many beautiful artifacts have been recovered, among them a 4th-century pelike showing Eros chasing a Maenad. In the area of the necropolis there stands a two-meter high throne carved from stone, probably dedicated to the Phoenician goddess Astarte.
Research excavations began in 1986 under Dr. Elpida Hadjidaki of the Greek Archaeological Service of Chania. From 1988 through 1990 they were done in collaboration with Frank J. Frost of the University of California, Santa Barbara, and have continued under the direction of Hadjidaki. Major items excavated to date include five towers that were part of the fortifications encircling the harbor. All of them have a distinctive rounded molding () at a point where the foundation narrows to support the upper part of the monument. One tower is circular, preserved to a height of 4.5 m, strengthened inside by two cross-walls filled with rubble, and connected through a 50 m long curtain wall to a rectangular tower. The other fortification towers surrounding the port are also rectangular, and the stones of their exterior faces have drafted edges. A fortified gate was connected to walls that in one direction surround a secondary basin behind the main military harbor, and in another direction extend towards the acropolis. This wall ends in another rectangular tower. From this point a paved road departs for the acropolis, and right next to it is a room filled with stone baths. The secondary basin is lined by a quay 30 m long with a slipway at one end, and a row of structures at the other that the excavator suggests may be more slipways.
Long sections of the quays in the military harbor have been excavated with six bollards in situ, still bearing rope marks from mooring ships. An artificial channel connected the military harbor to the sea, and it was possible to close the channel using a chain. A carved stone structure at the channel entrance, excavated in 2013 and still displaying traces of bronze, supports this view.
A merchant's house has partly been excavated at the foot of the acropolis, revealing imported goods of the early Hellenistic period from around the Mediterranean, particularly from Cyrenaica in North Africa. Finally, a winery and adjoining warehouses excavated between 2008 and 2012 provide evidence of production for export.
The excavations have uncovered a wide variety of ceramic vessels, coins, jewelry, and sculpture, revealing well developed culture of the inhabitants of ancient Phalasarna. Many of these are on display in the museums of Kisamos and Chania.
Situated Simulation.
Between 2010 and 2015, Gunnar Liestøl of the University of Oslo in collaboration with Elpida Hadjidaki developed a quasi-mixed reality simulation of ancient Phalasarna. It contains three visual layers: one for the present day, one recreating Phalasarna as it appeared when constructed in 333 B.C., and one describing the Roman attack of 69 B.C.


Ningwood railway station

Ningwood railway station, was an intermediate station of the Freshwater, Yarmouth and Newport Railway, incorporated in 1860, opened over a ten-month period between 1889 and 1889 and closed 65 years later. A typical rural station that rapidly lost passengers once buses reached West Wight, it was one of the less economically viable stations on this unprofitable line. Despite the addition of a long passing loop and water tank in 1927, the station was in latter years a somewhat lonely outpost. The station house, situated on the "down" side, is now a private residence and the modest passenger shelter on the "up" side their garden shed.


Cecile of Baux

Cecile of Baux (1230–1275), was a Countess Consort of Savoy; married in 1244 to Amadeus IV, Count of Savoy. She was the daughter of Barral of Baux and his wife, Sibylle d'Anduze. She was the Regent of Savoy during the minority of her son, Boniface, Count of Savoy, from 1253 until 1259.
Family and Issue.
On 18 December 1244 she married Amadeus as his second wife. They had 4 children:
Regency.
A year before her husband died, he wrote a will which specified that his brother, Thomas and Cecile would act as regents for Boniface, the heir to the County of Savoy. When Thomas died in 1259, Cecile continued as regent in Savoy. In this role, one of her first acts was to relieve St-Germain-sur-Séez from various taxes in exchange for their work to guide travelers through the pass of Petit-St-Bernard. As regent, she had her own seal for authorizing documents. Under her regency, Boniface's uncles, Peter II and Philip I continued their practice of acquiring territories and influence in surrounding regions in the name of the count.


Peter Colijn

Peter Colijn (d. 10 May 1535 in Amsterdam) [alt. sp. Pieter Colÿn] was a Dutch statesman, and the burgomeister (mayor) of Amsterdam from 1532 until his death. Colijn was murdered during the Anabaptist riot of Amsterdam known as the "Wederdopersoproer" (similar to the Münster Rebellion). Colijn’s death occurred when radical members within the religious group known as Anabaptists attempted to seize control of the government of Amsterdam. He was said to have sympathized with them.


HMS Moresby

HMS "Moresby was a which served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. The M class were an improvement on the previous , capable of higher speed. Originally laid down as HMS "Marlion by J. Samuel White at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight, the vessel was renamed before being launched on 20 November 1915. At the Battle of Jutland, the destroyer was initially cover for the seaplane tender but soon joined the action as part of a flotilla led by the light cruiser . "Moresby" attacked the German fleet with torpedoes, initially unsuccessfully targeting the dreadnought battleship and, near the end of the battle, unleashing another which narrowly missed the battlecruiser . In March 1918, the destroyer sank with the destroyer . After the war, the destroyer was placed in reserve and eventually sold to be broken up on 9 May 1921.
Design and development.
"Moresby" was one of sixteen s ordered by the British Admiralty in September 1914 as part of the First War Construction Programme. The M-class was an improved version of the earlier destroyers, envisaged to reach the higher speed of in order to counter rumoured German fast destroyers, although ultimately the design did not quite meet this.
The destroyer was long overall, with a beam of and a draught of . displacement was normal and full load. Power was provided by three White-Forster boilers feeding two Parsons steam turbines rated at and driving two shafts, to give a design speed of . Three funnels were fitted. of oil were carried, giving a design range of at .
Armament consisted of three Mk IV QF guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft on a raised platform and one between the middle and aft funnels. A single 2-pounder (40 mm) pom-pom anti-aircraft gun was carried, while torpedo armament consisted of two twin mounts for torpedoes.The ship had a complement of 76 officers and ratings.
Construction and career.
"Marlion" was laid down by J. Samuel White at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight on 1 January 1915 with the yard number 1456, and launched on 20 November. The ship was completed on 7 April 1916 and joined the Grand Fleet. By this time, the ship's name had already been changed to "Moresby". The new name honoured Admiral Fairfax Moresby. The vessel was deployed as part of the Grand Fleet, joining the Thirteenth Destroyer Flotilla.
On 30 May 1916, the destroyer sailed with the Grand Fleet to confront the German High Seas Fleet in what would be the Battle of Jutland. "Moresby" was one of fourteen M-class destroyers that were allocated to form part of the screen to protect the battlecruisers of the Fleet. However, along with sistership , the destroyer was detached to cover the seaplane tender . After the reconnaissance seaplane had been recovered, Lieutenant commander Jack Tovey, who commanded "Onslow", led the two destroyers back into the action.
"Moresby" rejoined the Flotilla and, led by the light cruiser , steamed towards the German High Seas Fleet. The two fleets met and "Moresby" was soon in the centre of the action. The destroyer attacked the German battlecruisers, and shortly after 1710 on 31 May, launched a torpedo at the dreadnought battleship . The destroyer also narrowly escaped an attack from the light cruiser , two torpedoes streaking past, one ahead and the other astern. As the battlesfleets broke apart, "Champion" sped away in pursuit of the German fleet, leaving the majority of the destroyers behind, with only "Moresby" and able to keep up.
The small flotilla sought for the main German fleet, and at 2:15 turned westwards towards gunfire. They saw four German cruisers with their attendant destroyers. However, through the mist, "Moresby" saw what were initially taken to be four pre-dreadnought battleships. The destroyer sped off and launched a torpedo at a range of at the third ship in the line. The destroyer reported a hit and then withdrew. In fact, two of the vessels were German battlecruisers, and the torpedo narrowly missed . Instead, the torpedo hit the torpedo boat . Returning to the British lines, the three ships were spotted by the German torpedo boats and , which launched torpedoes, but both sides escaped without recording a hit.
The destroyer was transferred to Buncrana with the Second Destroyer Flotilla during the latter part of 1917. The vessel served as a convoy escort, and on 2 October 1917, was also involved in the ultimately unsuccessful efforts to save the armoured cruiser . On 15 March the following year, the destroyer was patrolling with sistership when they surprised shortly after the submarine had sunk the ocean liner . The submarine dived but was brought back to the surface when the destroyers attacked with depth charges and was finished by gunfire. Six of the crew were rescued.
After the war, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of mobilisation, and surplus vessels were culled. "Moresby" was initially placed alongside fifty-two other destroyers in reserve at Nore. On 9 May 1921, the vessel was sold to Thos W Ward of Grays and was broken up in 1923.


Psaila

Psaila is a Maltese surname. Notable people with the surname include:


Tour de San Ciprianu

The Tour de San Ciprianu () is a Genoese tower located in the commune of Lecci (Corse-du-Sud) on the east coast of the French island of Corsica. The tower sits at an elevation of 57 m and guarded the entrance to the port of Porto-Vecchio.
The construction of the tower was begun in 1589. It is one of a series of coastal defences constructed by the Republic of Genoa between 1530 and 1620 to stem the attacks by Barbary pirates. The design of the San Ciprianu tower is unusual in being square rather than round. The tower is privately owned and in 1995 was listed as one of the official historical monuments of France.


9th Parliament of Queen Elizabeth I

The 9th Parliament of Queen Elizabeth I was summoned by Queen Elizabeth I of England on 23 August 1597 and assembled on 24 October following. The Parliament was summoned to discuss the problems of food shortages and the need for social and economic legislation to deal with the consequential social problems. The speaker was Sir Christopher Yelverton, the Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton
On 5 November Francis Bacon, the MP for Ipswich, tabled a motion on tillage, enclosure and depopulation, introducing two bills to reduce enclosed pasture land in favour of arable food-producing land, which were passed in a heavily redrafted form. Other bills designed to keep down the price of corn and to restrict the wearing of elaborate clothing were rejected. Several other bills to provide relief for the poor and homeless were passed.
Taxation bills to support the war against Spain at home and on the continent and to deal with chronic unrest in Ireland were approved. A petition to the Queen for an investigation into monopolies elicited a reply that their lawfulness would be examined. In total 28 public and 15 private measures received the royal assent.
The Parliament was dissolved on 9 February 1598.


Tam Lenfestey

Tam Lenfestey (1818–1885) published poetry in Guernsey newspapers and in book form.


Simpert

Saint Simpert (died 13 October 807) was an abbot, bishop, and confessor of the late-8th and early-9th centuries, and was supposedly the nephew of Charlemagne. He was educated at Murbach Abbey in Alsace, where he took the Benedictine habit and was elected abbot. In 778, he was appointed bishop of Augsburg by Charlemagne. He consolidated and strengthened the jurisdiction of his bishopric and lived alternately at Neuburg an der Donau, at Staffelsee Abbey, and at Augsburg.
He rebuilt the Basilica of St. Afra and others. While he was bishop, he remained abbot of Murbach, ruling at the same time the diocese and the monastery. He died on 13 October 807, and was buried at St Afra's church. Since 1624, he has been a secondary patron of Augsburg, his cultus having been approved in 1468.
External links.
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Mytilenean Debate

The Mytilenean Debate (also spelled "Mytilenaean Debate") is the Athenian Assembly concerning reprisals against the city-state of Mytilene, which had attempted unsuccessfully to shake off Athenian hegemony during the Peloponnesian War. The Debate occurred in 427 B.C.; Thucydides reports it in book three of his "History of the Peloponnesian War", and uses the events and the speeches as a major opportunity to reflect and to offer his views on the political and ideological impact of the war on the parties involved.
Causes for the Revolt.
Mytilene was one of the last non-tributary members of the Delian League which chose to man their own warships and send subjects to fight alongside the Athenian fleet. Mytilene feared tributary democracy and did not want to be reduced to the status of other Athenian allies. In addition, Mytilene was different from most allies because it was ruled by an oligarchy. Mytilene had contemplated ending its alliance with Athens, but Sparta had rejected its appeal for an alliance to enable this. However, this rejection had been prior to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, which created an opportunity for the Mytilenians, who sent an envoy to Olympia in 428 B.C. to seek assistance from the Peloponnesians. The Mytilenians asked for direct help in Mytilene, but also for an invasion of Attica, pointing out that since Athens had recently been devastated by a plague it would have financial difficulties fighting on two fronts.
Thucydides represented the Mytilenian ambassadors at Olympia as arguing that Athens had taken advantage of the Delian League and used it as a mechanism for "enslaving" and exploiting other Greeks; that it was only a matter of time before they set their sights on Mytilene’s prosperous and autonomous island of Lesbos and forced it into their system of oppression; and that the Mytilenians could not wait for this and should pre-emptively break away before Athens forced its will upon them. The Peloponnesian League agreed to aid Mytilene.
It has been pointed out that these arguments are silent on a major motivation of the oligarchs towards rebellion. The Mytilenian government sought the unification of the five city-states of Lesbos under their leadership.; Athenian policy aimed to break up larger units within the confederacy and did not support consolidation of Mytilenian power.
The Mytilenean Revolt.
The Mytilenians began preparing for the revolt by filling in their harbours, erecting fortifications, building additional warships, and importing extra grain. The preparations began to attract attention, and informants started reporting details to Athens. Information came from several sources. Three of the other states on the island, Antissa, Eresus, and Pyrrha, had oligarchic governments. Methymna, however, had a democracy, and did not support the revolt or the unification of Lesbos. Some Mytilenians, known as proxenoi, also reported information to Athens. Proxenoi were a small faction of political opponents, whose temperaments were compatible with Athenian democracy. Athens selected these officials to strengthen her position internally and prepare for the eventual removal of the oligarchies.
The Athenians responded to the news by attempting to intercept Peloponnesian aid and sending a fleet, led by Paches, to Lesbos. Upon arrival, Athens delivered an ultimatum, which ordered the Mytilenians to surrender and tear down their fortifications, but they refused and the rebellion ensued. However, the Mytilenians were forced into revolt before they were militarily prepared to confront Athens, because the Proxenoi alerted them of Mytilene's plans. As a result, the Mytilenians quickly lost and had to implement negotiating tactics to stall for time. In order to buy more time for Sparta, they called for a truce and sent representatives to Athens for negotiations. The Mytilenian representatives called for the removal of the Athenian fleet, which the Athenians promptly denied, and fighting continued. All of Lesbos, other than Methymna, took arms against Athens, but Lesbos lost ground upon the arrival of more Athenian troops. Mytilene became surrounded by Athenian fortifications and were isolated by land and sea.
Finally, the Spartan Salaethus arrived and raised morale by reassuring the Mytilenians that the Peloponnesians were going to invade Attica and promised to supply them with a fleet in the spring. As promised, Attica was invaded, but it did little to help the trapped islanders because the fleet never arrived and the food supplies had depleted. The final effort was made when Salaethus supplied the demos with hoplite arms. However, after the lower class was given arms they refused to follow orders and demanded that the oligarchs hand over the remainder of the food or else they would surrender. The oligarchs could not meet the demos’ demand because there was no more food. After realizing the hopelessness of the situation, the oligarchs and the demos jointly initiated negotiations with Athens.
For all intents and purposes, Athens’ terms of negotiation were not much better than unconditional surrender, and the fate of the Mytilenian people rested on the decision of the Athenian people. The Mytilenians were only granted the right to send a delegation to Athens to plead for compassion, which was supported by Paches’ guarantee that no punitive actions would be taken until the Athenians agreed upon a conclusion.
The Mytilenean Debate.
Once the Mytilenians arrived in Athens, Salaethus was immediately executed and the assembly gathered to assess the situation and voted on the punitive actions that would be taken. The Athenian assembly, scared of further revolt, hastily sentenced all of the male citizens of Mytilene to death, while the women and children would be sold into slavery. According to Thucydides, after the decision was made a trireme was dispatched to Mytilene to carry out the orders and the Athenians, enraged by premeditated revolt, slaughtered all of the prisoners, who numbered around a thousand.
The next day, the Athenians realized the unprecedented brutality of their actions and some became hesitant about the hurried decision to kill and enslave the citizens of Mytilene. A second debate, which Thucydides called "the Mytilenian Debate", took place in order to reassess the course of action that should be taken. The debate consisted of varying opinions, the first of which was presented by Cleon of Athens. Cleon, a prominent member of Athenian society, spoke to defend the previous decision against doubts and to assert that the guilty party got the punishment they deserved. Cleon's reputation was violent and ruthless. Indeed, Thucydides describes him as "the most violent man in Athens."
Cleon began by questioning the worth of a democracy: “Personally I have had occasion often enough already to observe that a democracy is incapable of governing others, and I am all the more convinced of this when I see how you are now changing your minds about the Mytilenians.” He also implied the Athenians have become jaded by sophist oratory and questioned the worth of free speech. He described the Athenians as “victims of their own pleasure in listening, and are more like an audience sitting at the feet of a professional lecturer than a parliament discussing matters of state.” He finishes his speech by urging the populace to not "be traitors to your own selves."
After Cleon's speech, Diodotus spoke in defense of his previous opposition to the death sentence. He stated that "haste and anger are... the two greatest obstacles to wise counsel..." Diodotus argued the issue was not a question of Mytilene's guilt, and whether Athens should seek vengeance; rather it was a question of what is in Athens' best interest. Citing one of Cleon's main arguments for his position, Diodotus questioned whether the death penalty is really a means of deterrence from revolt or just the opposite. He finished by asking Athenians to fundamentally question what is right and just and look to moderation rather than aggressive punishment. Instead, he urged the Athenians to spare the Mytilenians in an effort to create an alliance.
Following Diodotus’ speech, the assembly recast their votes. Diodotus’ rational argument prevailed and managed to persuade the assembly not to massacre the Mytilenians. The Athenians, who initially ardently supported the total annihilation of the Mytilenians, now found themselves hesitant. As a result, the votes, which were originally unanimous, were narrowly passed in favor of Diodotus.
Results of the Debate.
Ultimately, the Athenians were swayed by Diodotus’ argument and chose to spare the lives of the Mytilenians and to execute only the leaders of the revolt: another trireme, double-manned to row overnight, was promptly dispatched, and in a dramatic scene arrived at Lesbos just in time to prevent the previous orders from being carried out. Mytilene's oligarchy was removed and democracy installed; the Athenians razed the city walls and divided most of the Lesbian land, which was distributed to Athenians.
Thucydides' treatment of the events highlights some of the relative merits of oligarchy and democracy, as perceived at the time. It poses questions for Athens' treatment of its subject allies in the Delian League. James Boyd White suggests power was already corrupting the Athenians, though they still had a capacity for pity and compassion. This may be contrasted with the later Melian Dialogue—where Athens killed all the men and sold the women and children into slavery. Alternatively, the turn to Diodotus' rational interest over Cleon's appeal for just vengeance may mark the beginnings of the decline of appeals to justice and decline of the culture of argument in Athens.