Volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province

The volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province presents a record of volcanic activity in northwestern British Columbia, central Yukon and the U.S. state of easternmost Alaska. The volcanic activity lies in the northern part of the Western Cordillera of the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Extensional cracking of the North American Plate in this part of North America has existed for millions of years. Continuation of this continental rifting has fed scores of volcanoes throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province over at least the past 20 million years (see Geology of the Pacific Northwest) and occasionally continued into geologically recent times.
Eruptive activity in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province throughout its 20 million year history has been mainly the production of alkaline lavas, including alkaline basalts. A range of alkaline rock types not commonly found in the Western Cordillera are regionally widespread in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. These include nephelinite, basanite and peralkaline phonolite, trachyte and comendite lavas. The trachyte and comendite lavas are understood to have been created by fractionation of mainly alkali basalt magma in crustal reservoirs. An area of continental rifting, such as the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, would aid the formation of high-level reservoirs of capable size and thermal activity to maintain long-lived fractionation.
In the past 15 million years, at least four large volcanoes have formed their way through dense igneous and metamorphic composed bedrock of this part of North America. This includes Hoodoo Mountain, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, Level Mountain and Heart Peaks, which are primarily located in northwestern British Columbia. Most notable of these is the 7.5 million year old Mount Edziza volcanic complex, which has had more than 20 eruptions in the past 10,000 years. The only activity present in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has been occasional earthquakes and constant boiling of hot springs. However, a high potential exists for renewed eruptive activity that could threaten life and property in the volcanic zone.
Production and rates in volcanism.
More than 100 eruptions have occurred in the past 20 million years with a broad range of eruptive styles. These volcanic processes have created a range of different volcanic landforms, including stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes and cinder cones, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas. Large persistent volcanoes of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province can remain dormant for hundreds or thousands of years between eruptions and therefore the greatest risk caused by volcanic activity is not always readily apparent. Volcanics older than 14 million years are mainly found in the northern portion of the volcanic province while volcanics ranging from nine to four million years old exist only in the middle of the volcanic province. At least three types of volcanic zones are present in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, including large persistent lava plateaus like those found at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, polygenetic volcanoes such as Hoodoo Mountain and monogenetic volcanoes like the basaltic cinder cones found throughout the volcanic province. When Northern Cordilleran volcanoes do erupt, pyroclastic flows, lava flows and landslides can devastate areas away and mudflows of volcanic ash and debris can inundate valleys downstream. Falling ash from explosive eruptions can disrupt human activities hundreds of kilometres downwind, and drifting clouds of fine volcanic ash can cause severe damage to jet aircraft even hundreds of kilometres away. Volcanic deposits in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province include lava flows, welded and unwelded pyroclastic deposits, hydroclastic deposits and other ice-contact volcanic deposits. The variety of different volcanic deposits is partly due to changes in eruption characteristics from mainly subaerial eruptions to broadly subglacial eruptions throughout the history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province.
There is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the past few million years. This decline in volcanic activity can be grouped into two phases. From eight to four million years ago, volcanism rates were higher than they are at present. Magma production during this volcanic phase was most active from seven to five million years ago and was related to a period of rifting along the Pacific and North American Plate boundary. Between four and three million years ago in the Pliocene epoch, a pause in volcanic activity began to happen. The most recent magmatic phase ranging from two million years ago to present resulted from nearby areas of rifting during a period of compression between the Pacific and North American plates. Volcanism rates during this volcanic phase was most active from two to one million years ago with the construction of 25 volcanic zones then decreased one million years ago with the construction of 11 volcanic zones. To date, the most recent volcanic phase has produced of volcanic material whereas the first phase produced of volcanic material. Even though the rate in volcanism throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has changed considerably, there is no correlation between the rate in magma production and the number of active volcanoes during any interval of time. The present day volcanism rate for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is considerably lower than the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Hawaiian volcanism rates. However, geologists are aware the temporal volcanic patterns known for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province should be looked at carefully because volcanics that pre-date the last glacial period have been eroded by glacial ice and many of the volcanics have not been directly dated or have not been dated in significant detail to identify more individual temporal patterns. Lava fountains can occur in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province roughly every 100 years.
Large basaltic shield volcanoes throughout the central Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province form large lava plateaus and are the largest volcanoes of the volcanic zone. These extensive volcanoes are generally larger and more long-lived than volcanoes of adjacent volcanic zones, including the stratovolcanoes of the Cascade and Aleutian arcs. Mount Shasta, the largest stratovolcano in the Cascade Arc and Mount Veniaminof, one of the largest and most active volcanoes in the Aleutian Arc, have volumes of at least , less than half of that of the Level Mountain and Edziza shield complexes. The massive Level Mountain shield, occupying an area of and a volume of more than , is the most voluminous and most long-lived volcano of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Further south, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex resides as the seconed most voluminous volcano with an area of and a volume of . Just west of Level Mountain lies Heart Peaks, the third most voluminous volcano of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province with an area of . However, remains of a shield volcano that once covered an area of more than are present in the western Cassiar Mountains as Maitland Volcano.
All of the known most recent eruptions have occurred in British Columbia, although there is evidence for volcanic activity in Yukon in the past thousand years. The two most recent were lava flow eruptions at Tseax Cone in the 18th century and at The Volcano in 1904. Reports of an eruption south of Gladys Lake in northern British Columbia were made by placer miners at the end of the 19th century, but no evidence for this eruption has been found, leading researchers to speculate the eruption as uncertain.
Volcanic activity begins.
The first volcanic activity in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province 20 million years ago was infrequent, creating small amounts of volcanic material. This infrequent volcanic activity was interrupted when considerable volcanism began to form the large Level Mountain shield volcano 15 million years ago. The shield volcano forms a broad cliff-bounded lava plateau long and wide, with an average thickness of . Ropy pāhoehoe lava flows predominate over blocky ʻaʻā lava flows, breccias and tuffs, attesting to a fluid and effusive character for the volcanism.
When the Mount Edziza volcanic complex began to form 7.5 million years ago, volcanism rates in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province increased again. Early volcanic activity of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex seven million years ago constructed Armadillo Peak, the oldest and most central of the four central volcanoes comprising the complex. Its summit is capped by thick fine-grained silica-rich trachyte lava flows that ponded inside the caldera to produce a lava lake six million years ago during its final stage of activity. A massive stratovolcano was also formed on top of the Level Mountain shield volcano 7.1 to 5.3 million years ago during this increased period of volcanism when viscous peralkaline trachyte and comendite lavas were erupted. The stratovolcano has a volume of and comprises several volcanic vents, some of which were formally more than in elevation. Glacial ice and streams have since dissected the stratovolcano into a series of valleys with intervening ridges, forming the so-named Level Mountain Range on the central summit of Level Mountain.
More Miocene age volcanics of and years are present at the Anderson and Moose bays of Atlin Lake in northern British Columbia that represent remnants of columnar-jointed basalt lava flows. This indicates these volcanics are older than the Edziza and Level Mountain shields and they might represent the oldest volcanic events in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. However, their distinctive chemical characteristics and apparent large age differences compared to other volcanics in the Atlin area could also indicate that these columnar-jointed basalt lava flows are not part of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province assemblage. In northern Yukon, similar aged volcanics can be found, including million year old volcanics at Forty Mile and million year old volcanics at Sixty Mile. However, the type of volcanic landforms these volcanics represent are unknown.
Volcanism 5.3 to 1.6 million years ago.
In northern British Columbia, remnants of a shield volcano are found throughout the western Cassiar Mountains. This prehistoric shield volcano, known as Maitland Volcano, was erupted from five to four million years ago on a mature eroded surface as thin hawaiite and basaltic lava flows engulfed the surrounding landscape. Remnants of this prehistoric shield volcano include a cluster of 14 volcanic plugs and scattered cliff-bounded basaltic lava flows.
At the southern end of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, volcanism constructed the Spectrum Range three to 2.5 million years ago. Named for its extensive colouration, this nearly circular lava dome is up to thick and more than wide with a basaltic shield volcano forming its broad base. Since its formation, the Spectrum Range lava dome has been deeply cut by erosion, forming an extensive valley system. This valley system exposes large comendite and trachyte lava flows of the dome, including faults of a hidden wide caldera.
A series of lava domes were constructed in the Level Mountain Range alpine valley system 4.5 to 2.5 million years ago. These domes intrude the glacially eroded core of the stratovolcano and headward erosion has further modified the Level Mountain shield by incising youthful V-shaped stream canyons into the lava plateau margin.
Volcanism 1.6 million to 10,000 years ago.
Throughout the Pleistocene epoch 1.6 million to 10,000 years ago, volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province was broadly associated with glacial ice and ice sheets during glacial periods, including the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet. This volcano-ice association can be recognized in three different physiographic settings, each displaying unique relationships between topography, volcanism and glacial ice. The first volcano-ice interaction is displayed as tuyas, including Tuya Butte, on the Tanzilla Plateau in the Northern Interior of British Columbia. This sub-section of the Stikine Plateau consists of large flatlands with hills of low relief, and might have been one of the areas of ice accumulation for the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Tanzilla Plateau volcanism throughout the Pleistocene epoch was basaltic subglacial eruptions. The most generally known subglacial volcanoes are distinctive tuyas, which commonly reach more than in elevation. Other volcanic forms also exist, some of which are basic and others that are probably the products of weathering. The subdued relief on the Tanzilla Plateau strongly influenced edifice morphologies, favoring broad-based tuyas. The hydrological conditions in these areas likely were controlled by relatively uniform ice thickness and gentle topography.
The seconed type of volcano-ice interaction is located only to the east, south and southwest of the Tanzilla Plateau, in the Cassiar Mountains, Skeena Mountains and in the Boundary Ranges. Volcanic activity in these locations is also largely mafic in composition, but the extensive elevations of these areas had a much more impressive influence on glaciation and subglacial volcanism. High altitude glaciation took over when the Cordilleran Ice Sheet was not present and even when buried by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, basal ice movement was strongly influenced by the deep, pre-glacial drainages. Accordingly, the erosional remnants of subglacial volcanoes are minor and intermittent. In the Skeena Mountains, separated outcrops of pillow lava and volcanic breccia are generally found side by side on the summits of sharp rugged mountain ridges, with presumably temporally-associated pyroclastic rocks having collected downslope.
The third type of volcano-ice interaction is geographically restricted to three volcanoes, including Level Mountain, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex and Hoodoo Mountain. All three volcanoes are broad enough to hold ice caps that likely altered regional ice flow while still being altered by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet at individual periods. The Mount Edziza and Level Mountain complexes have shelves of older lava with elevations more than and have been zones of volcanic activity long enough that their geothermal activities might have had effects on movements of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet much like the Grímsvötn caldera in Iceland, which has been a significant heat source beneath the vast Vatnajökull icecap. At the Edziza complex, most of the subglacial products were formed on top of the main lava plateau, which now rises at least in elevation above adjacent stream valleys. The Edziza complex consists of a collection of mafic subglacial products, but more unusually, including Hoodoo Mountain and Level Mountain, comprises some of the largest deposits of peralkaline felsic subglacial volcanics known. At the Edziza and Level Mountain complexes, glacier hydrology of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet was possibly dominated by a complicated interaction between drainage on the flat plateaus under relatively thinner ice and drainage within nearby steep valleys filled with much thicker ice.
Just northwest of Level Mountain, the Heart Peaks shield volcano rises with a topographic prominence of above the Nahlin Plateau with rhyolitic lava domes capping its summit. Heart Peaks is made of flat-lying basaltic and trachybasaltic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. The most recent eruption at the shield is of dominantly Pleistocene age and late-stage Holocene activity is uncertain.
On the divide between the head of the Omineca and Bear rivers, The Thumb rises with a topographic prominence of above gently sloping benchland near the crest of the Connelly Range. It is the largest among a cluster of seven steep-sided volcanic plugs associated with dikes, lava flows and remnants of cinder cones.
Ne Ch'e Ddhawa, an extinct volcano in the Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field of central Yukon, reaches a height of near the junction of the Pelly and Yukon rivers. It was erupted subglacially under the Cordilleran Ice Sheet between 0.8 and one million years ago, depositing hyaloclastite tuffs, breccias and pillow breccias that now form the volcano.
In the Boundary Ranges of northwestern British Columbia, Hoodoo Mountain began its formation at least 100,000 years ago mostly under glacial ice of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. More than 90% of Hoodoo Mountain was formed during this eruptive period and interlayed peralkaline phonolitic and trachytic lava flows and hyaloclastites are the main volcanics comprising the volcano. On the northern flank of Hoodoo Mountain lies the smaller Little Bear Mountain, a tuya which also formed in the Pleistocene epoch.
Ice Peak, which overlaps the northern flank of Armadillo Peak, began to form when the regional Cordilleran Ice Sheet began retreating from the Mount Edziza volcanic complex 1,600,000 years ago. It is a stratovolcano that was constructed when large areas of the Edziza lava plateau were free from glacial ice, but additional parts of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex were likely still covered by glacial ice. Volcanic activity at Ice Peak during this period produced lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, which mixed with meltwater to produce debris flows. As Ice Peak began to form, basic lava spread to the flanks of Ice Peak where it formed meltwater lakes and combines with and forms part of the adjacent shield volcano. Mount Edziza, a steep-sided stratovolcano overlapping the northern flank of Ice Peak and the most northerly of the four central volcanoes comprising the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, began to form a million years ago when the Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated from the upper flanks of the Edziza lava plateau. Its smooth northern and western flanks are only slightly channeled by erosion and they curve up to a circular summit ridge which surrounds a central ice-filled caldera in diameter. Active cirques on Edziza's eastern flank have breached the caldera rim, exposing the remnants of several lava lakes that ponded in the caldera 900,000 years ago. As well, subglacial eruptions around the flanks of Mount Edziza and Ice Peak constructed piles of pillow lava and hyaloclastite.
Prindle Volcano, the northernmost volcano of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province and one of the most isolated volcanoes in Alaska, was formed on the Yukon-Tanana upland during the Pleistocene epoch. It is a small cinder cone made of basanite with a deep breached volcanic crater at its summit. Extending from Prindle's breached volcanic crater is a long basanite lava flow that flowed southeast of the cone then flowed southwest into a river valley.
The Cassiar Mountains and Tanzilla Plateau in northern British Columbia are dominated by tuyas of the broad Tuya Volcanic Field. These flat-topped, steep-sided subglacial volcanoes were formed when magma intruded into and melted a vertical pipe in the overlying Cordilleran Ice Sheet. At least six volcanoes formed beneath glacial ice close to Tuya Lake, including Ash Mountain, South Tuya, Tuya Butte, Mathews Tuya. Ash Mountain at the head of Parallel Creek consists of pillow lava and hyaloclastite, South Tuya consists of loose volcanic debris with basaltic dikes intruding into the volcano and Tuya Butte and Mathews Tuya consist of pillow lava and hyaloclastite on its lower flanks with subaerially erupted lava flows at their flat-topped summits.
Volcanism in the past 10,000 years.
Numerous eruptions have occurred since the beginning of the Holocene epoch 10,000 years ago, when the vast Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated rapidly at the end of the last glacial period. The majority of volcanic eruptions throughout the Holocene have occurred in British Columbia while fewer Holocene eruptions have occurred in Yukon.
In the early Holocene epoch, volcanism at Hoodoo Mountain produced lava flows with well-preserved lava channels on its northwestern and southwestern flanks and are largely unglaciated, suggesting the last eruptive activity at Hoodoo Mountain occurred in an ice-free environment. These lava flows originated from the mountain's flat-topped summit and volcanic vents on its flanks. Geologists do not always agree on the dates of these more recent eruptions, some dating them to nice thousand years ago, others to as recently as seven thousand years ago.
At the southern end of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province near the border between British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle, lava flows and eight small volcanoes form a volcanic field known as the Iskut-Unuk River Cones. Lava flows date back 70,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch, but the eight volcanoes were likely formed between nine thousand and a few hundred years ago. At least five volcanoes sent lava down the Iskut and Unuk River valleys and their tributaries. The other three volcanoes were formed when glacial ice existed adjacent to the associated volcanic vents, creating scoria, pillow lava and hyaloclastite breccia. Volcanism in the Iskut River area has created at least ten lava flows and Lava Fork at least three. The most recent eruption of the Iskut-Unuk River Cones at The Volcano (also called Lava Fork volcano) in 1904 is also the most recent volcanic eruption in Canada.
Immediately north of the junction of the Pelly and Yukon rivers, Volcano Mountain in central Yukon consists of a cinder cone and a series of lava flows. It is the youngest volcano in the Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field and lava flows originated from fractures in the volcano's flank. These lava flows extend northeast and southwest of the volcano. The northeastern lava flow extends from Volcano Mountain whereas the southwestern lava flow extends from the volcano. These lava flows are composed of olivine nephelinite, a type of lava not commonly found on Earth. Nephelinite lavas are usually interpreted to have originated much deeper in the Earth's mantle unlike the typical basaltic lava found throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. The nephelinite lava flows at Volcano Mountain remain clear from vegetation and seem to be only a few hundred years old. However, dating of sediments in a lake dammed by the nephelinite lavas suggest the lava flows could not be younger than mid-Holocene and could be early Holocene or older. Therefore, the exact age for the most recent eruptions at Volcano Mountain are unknown.
At the southernmost end of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, Tseax Cone lies in a valley above and east of the Tseax River. It is a young Holocene age cinder cone that was the source for a major basalt lava flow eruption around the years 1750 and 1775 that travelled into the Tseax River, damming it and forming Lava Lake. The lava flow subsequently travelled north to the Nass River, where it filled the flat valley floor for an additional , making the entire lava flow long. Native legends from Nisga'a people in the area tell of a prolonged period of disruption by the volcano, including the destruction of two Nisga'a villages known as Lax Ksiluux and Wii Lax K'abit. Nisga'a people dug pits for shelter but at least 2,000 Nisga'a people were killed due to volcanic gases and poisonous smoke (most likely carbon dioxide). This is Canada's worst known geophysical disaster and is the only eruption in Canada for which legends of First Nations people have been proven true. As of 1993, the Tseax Cone quietly rests in Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park.
More than 20 eruptions have occurred at the Mount Edziza volcanic complex in the past 10,000 years, including Mess Lake Cone, Kana Cone, Cinder Cliff, Icefall Cone, Ridge Cone, Williams Cone, Walkout Creek Cone, Moraine Cone, Sidas Cone, Sleet Cone, Storm Cone, Triplex Cone, Twin Cone, Cache Hill, Camp Hill, Cocoa Crater, Coffee Crater, Nahta Cone, Tennena Cone, The Saucer and the well-preserved Eve Cone. These cinder cones were formed no more than the year 700 based on the age of burnt plant stems still rooted in former soil under of loose basaltic fragments. The cones were built on the basaltic fragments and blocky lava fields surrounding the cones. The Snowshoe Lava Field on the southern end of the Big Raven Plateau is one of the areas of young lava flows in the region while the Desolation Lava Field on the northern end of the Big Raven Plateau is the largest area of young lava flows, covering an area of . The longest lava flow is . This volcanic activity was followed by at least two younger, but still undated eruptions.
Two well-preserved reddish-brown basaltic cinder cones cap a small shield volcano of the Alligator Lake volcanic complex in southcentral Yukon. These cinder cones are likely younger than the adjacent Holocene glaciation and both cones were erupting at the same time. These cinder cones produced alkaline olivine basalt to basanitic lava flows that extend to the north. Lava flows from the northeast cone are the largest, extending from the cone and expanding to a width of at the end. Sections of the lava flows comprise spinel lherzolite, xenoliths composed of granite and megacrysts of olivine, pyroxene and spinel.
An eruption was reported in the Atlin Volcanic Field by placer miners on November 8, 1898. Miners working in the area reportedly were able to work during the dark nights due to the glow of the eruption. A news report published on December 1, 1898 by the American newspaper publisher The New York Times stated:
In 1898 the Atlin area was in dispute with the Alaska-British Columbia boundary, leading American news broadcasters stating the Atlin area was in Alaska rather than in northwestern British Columbia. This Alaska-British Columbia boundary dispute was eventually resolved by arbitration in 1903 and no evidence for the 1898 eruption has been found, leading researchers to speculate the eruption and report as uncertain. However, given the location of the placer operations from which the eruption was supposedly visible (Pine, Birch, Discovery, and McKee creeks) and the reported location of the volcano south of Gladys Lake, the vent might possibly be in the very rugged and inaccessible Coast Mountains south or southwest of Atlin Lake.
On the south side of the Khutzeymateen Inlet north of Prince Rupert, thick basaltic Plinian eruption tephra deposits are recognized at Crow Lagoon. These volcanics originated from a volcanic vent that remains unidentified. However, existence of volcanic bombs at the Plinian tephra deposits indicates the volcanic vent of its origin is located nearby. The age of these volcanics is unknown but they were deposited throughout the Holocene epoch.
In the Pleistocene Tuya Volcanic Field, small subaerial shield volcanoes and postglacial cinder cones and lava flows can be recognized. At least one of these volcanoes is of Holocene age. Gabrielse Cone near the headwaters of Iverson Creek in the Stikine Ranges rises with an elevation of and a diameter of . It is mostly made of loose basaltic scoria with a volcanic crater deep at its summit. The northeastern flank of Gabrielse Cone is ruptured where remnants of a basaltic lava flow exists. This basalt lava flow extends more than from the volcano and there is no proof Gabrielse Cone was formed during or before the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. As a result, Gabrielse Cone is unmistakably younger than 11,000 years and it was formed in the Holocene epoch.
Recent activity and hazards.
At least five volcanoes have had seismic activity since 1985, including the Mount Edziza volcanic complex (eight events), Castle Rock (two events), Hoodoo Mountain (eight events), Crow Lagoon (four events) and The Volcano (five events). Seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma chambers, indicating possible future eruptive activity. Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some Northern Cordilleran volcanoes are potentially active and that their associated hazards may be significant. The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada's most youthful volcanoes and with long-lived volcanoes with a history of significant explosive activity, such as Hoodoo Mountain and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. To date, Edziza and Hoodoo pose the greatest threats in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. A large pumice deposit scattered throughout the Edziza complex highlights one of the significant volcanic hazards associated with the complex, including the possibility of a large explosive eruption. This large pumice deposit indicates that the Mount Edziza volcanic complex has a history of producing not only fluid and passive basaltic lava flows, but also more silica-rich trachytic and rhyolitic lava flows and explosive eruptions. The silica-rich compositions are similar to those associated with the most catastrophic eruptions on Earth. A large explosive eruption at the Edziza complex could produce an eruption column that would affect parts of the Pacific Northwest. Similarly, high eruption columns from Hoodoo Mountain would disrupt air traffic between Canada, Alaska and Asia. The flat summit of Hoodoo Mountain is also covered by an ice cap more than thick. An eruption from Hoodoo's summit would cause considerable melting of the ice cap to create large floods and lahars, which would have significant effects on adjacent river valleys. This includes the Iskut River just on the southern flank of Hoodoo Mountain, which is the host for a large amount of salmon, logging operations and a large mining and mineral exploration camp. Edziza and Hoodoo Mountain are two of the three most hazardous volcanoes in Western Canada that have been active in the past 10,000 years, the other being the Mount Meager massif in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt of southwestern British Columbia which produced a large-scale eruption 2,350 years ago that sent ash as far as central Alberta.
Lava flows in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are among the least hazardous, even though they can be enormously destructive to property in their path. This is because lava generally moves slowly enough for people to get out of their way, though this is dependent on the viscosity of the lava. Lava flows typically have secondary hazards, including the destruction of buildings and ejection of volcanic gases. Forest fires started by lava flows are also a possibility in this part of Canada. The typical lava fountains in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are commonly associated with lava flows, but these do not normally reach heights more than a few hundred metres. Therefore, the dangers caused by lava fountains are only adjacent to the erupting volcano.
Currently, no volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active their magma chambers are. An existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath them. It may sense an increase in activity if a volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption. It might detect activity only once a volcano has started erupting. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan, Canada's volcanic emergency notification program, was established to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would be involved in response to a volcanic eruption in Canada, an eruption close to Canada's borders, or an eruption significant enough to have an effect on Canada and its people. It focuses primarily on aviation safety because jet aircraft can quickly enter areas of volcanic ash. The program notifies all impacted agencies that have to deal with volcanic events. Aircraft are rerouted away from hazardous ash and people on the ground are notified of potential ash fall.


Agreement Respecting a New Relationship Between the Cree Nation and the Government of Quebec

The Agreement Respecting a New Relationship Between the Cree Nation and the Government of Quebec (dubbed as "La Paix des Braves", French for "The Peace of the Braves" by the Parti Québécois government) is an agreement between the Government of Quebec, Canada, and the Grand Council of the Crees. It was signed on February 7, 2002 in Waskaganish, Jamésie, Quebec, after decades of court battles between the Cree and the Government of Quebec. The name was inspired by the 1701 Great Peace of Montreal, also known as "La Paix des Braves".
Summary.
Negotiated by Parti Québécois Premier of Quebec Bernard Landry and Grand Chief of the Crees Ted Moses, the Agreement implemented existing obligations of the Quebec government to the Cree people under section 28 of the James Bay Agreement of 1975 after decades of court battles. It provided for the sharing of revenues and joint management by the Cree and the Quebec government of mining, forestry and hydroelectric resources on traditional Cree lands in Quebec, known as the Eeyou Istchee. It aimed at developing more equitable Cree participation in employment and revenue in natural resource industries in Northern Quebec.
The preamble of the Agreement recognize the treaty as a symbolic "nation to nation" agreement between the Cree and Quebec. This 50-year agreement allows for joint jurisdiction between the Quebec government and Cree in the seven municipalities of James Bay and surrounding territories. In exchange, the Cree consented to hydroelectric development of the Eastmain and Rupert Rivers by Hydro-Québec. In Quebec, "La Paix des Braves" is one of the most popular and consensual achievements of the Bernard Landry government (2001–2003).
The Agreement followed recommendation made by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, abandoning the notion that First Nation peoples in Canada must extinguish claims to their territories in order to settle land claim disputes. Moses declared: "Quebec becomes a leader in the application of the principles recognized by the United Nations in regards of aboriginal development. Quebec will be able to show that the respect of aboriginals is compatible with her national interest. The federal government should inspire itself with this agreement in its negotiations with Natives across Canada." Moses lauded Premier Landry's new attitude: "He understands that the Crees must be part of
Quebec's vibrant economy and a living part of its economic and cultural mosaic." Matthew Coon Come, a former Grand Chief who had opposed the Quebec Government (notably on hydroelectric development) and the sovereigntist movement in the past, said: "This is the type of cooperation and financial engagement that the federal government should offer to other native nations", calling on the federal government to follow the recommendation of the Royal Commission.


Charles DeWitt Bruyn

Charles DeWitt Bruyn (December 12, 1784 – February 9, 1849) was an American politician from Ulster County, New York.
Early life.
Bruyn was born on December 12, 1784 in Shawangunk, Ulster County, New York. He was a son of Johannes Bruyn (1750–1814) and Margaret (née DeWitt) Bruyn (1758–1827).
His maternal grandparents were Blandina (née DuBois) DeWitt and Col. Charles DeWitt, who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress. Through his uncle Gerrit DeWitt and his wife, Catharine (née Ten Eyck) DeWitt, he was a first cousin of Charles G. DeWitt, a U.S. Representative who was appointed the U.S. Chargé d'Affaires to Guatemala by Andrew Jackson. His aunt, Maria "Polly" DeWitt, was the wife of Jacobus "James" Hasbrouck, a prominent Kingston merchant. His paternal grandparents were, and Jacobus Bruyn, who served as a member of the New York General Assembly from Ulster County from 1759 to 1768. He was also a nephew of Assemblyman Jacobus S. Bruyn, Severyn Tenhout Bruyn and Cornelius Bruyn. Through his uncle Jacobus, he was a first cousin of U.S. Representative Andrew DeWitt Bruyn.
Career.
A farmer by occupation, "he was a man of good mind, and well read in the current topics of his time. He was a useful citizen, and engaged in general conveyancing and surveying, as his father had before him. He was influential and active in politics; as a member of the Whig party was appointed Sheriff of Ulster County in 1812, and again in 1815."
Bruyn was a Federalist/Clintonian member of New York State Assembly from Sullivan and Ulster counties from 1821 to 1822. He also served as postmaster.
Personal life.
In 1816, Bruyn was married to his first cousin, Maria Hasbrouck (1793–1851), a daughter of James Hasbrouck and Polly (née DeWitt) Hasbrouck. Together, they were the parents of four children:
Bruyn died on February 9, 1849 in Shawangunk and was buried at the Bruynswick Rural Cemetery in Bruynswick, New York.


George Penny

George Joseph Penny (October 24, 1897 – December 4, 1949) was one of Newfoundland's first three members of the Senate of Canada who were appointed on August 17, 1949, shortly after the province joined Canadian confederation.
He was the operator of a frozen fish plant business in the southwest of Newfoundland and had been an active member of the Newfoundland Confederate Association which had campaigned for the former colony to join Canada. Penny sat in the upper house as a Liberal. He died at the age of 51 after a bout of bronchial pneumonia.


35th Parliament of British Columbia

The 35th Legislative Assembly of British Columbia sat from 1992 to 1996. The members were elected in the British Columbia general election held in October 1991. The New Democratic Party (NDP) led by Mike Harcourt formed the government. Harcourt resigned as premier in February 1996; Glen Clark became party leader and premier later that month. The Liberals led by Gordon Wilson formed the official opposition.
Joan Sawicki served as speaker for the assembly until 1994 when Emery Barnes became speaker.
Members of the 35th General Assembly.
The following members were elected to the assembly in 1991:
Notes:
By-elections.
By-elections were held to replace members for various reasons:
Notes:


Alaska Reindeer Service

Alaska Reindeer Service (ARS) was established for the benefit of the U.S. territory of Alaska by Congressional action on 3 March 1893. The ARS was an integral part of the educational system of northern and western Alaska. The superintendent of education of Alaska Natives had general supervision of the work. The district superintendents in northern and western Alaska were supervisors of the reindeer industry within their districts. The first annual expenditure for the period of 1893-94 was US$5,998.
The establishment of the ARS was the earliest Governmental action providing, by the introduction of a new industry, practical vocational training adapted to community needs, guaranteeing assured support, and resulting in training indigenous peoples into independence. The purpose of the ARS was to accomplish the general distribution of the reindeer among the villages as rapidly as the Inupiat and Yupiit could be trained, by means of a system of apprenticeship, to care for and use the reindeer, resulting in the ultimate establishment of the reindeer enterprise upon a self-supporting basis, for the Inupiat of the Seward Peninsula. "Sheldon Jackson commissioned Sami herders from Norway to move to Alaska and teach apprentice Alaska Natives herding techniques, such as driving and milking reindeer, building and using corrals, marking ears, and working herding dogs."
The ARS affected a vast area: the northernmost station was Point Barrow; the southernmost station was at Ugashik; the westernmost station was near Cape Prince of Wales; and the easternmost station was at Tanana.
Introduction.
During the summer of 1890, Dr. Sheldon Jackson, General Agent for Education in Alaska and Presbyterian Minister, accompanied the revenue cutter "Bear", Capt. Michael A. Healy, commanding, in its annual cruise in Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean visiting all the important villages on both Alaskan and Siberian shores.
The Alaskan Inuit were found eking out a precarious existence upon the few whale, seal and walrus that they could catch. Across Bering Strait, in Siberia, but a few miles from Alaska, with climate and country the same, were tens of thousands of tame reindeer supporting thousands of people. The flesh and milk of the reindeer furnished food, its skin provided clothing and bedding, and in winter, the reindeer made possible rapid communication between the scattered villages. Both Jackson and Healy were impressed by the fact that it would be a wise national policy to introduce domestic reindeer from Siberia into Alaska as a source and supply for food and clothing to the Alaskan Eskimos in the vicinity of Bering Strait. Upon his return to Washington in September, 1890, Jackson brought the matter to the attention of the Commissioner of Education, Dr. William Torrey Harris, who at once endorsed the project and gave it his support.
History.
Pending the securing of a congressional appropriation for the support of the enterprise, an appeal was made to individuals for a preliminary sum in order that an experiment might be commenced at once. With $2,146 thus secured, 16 deer were purchased in 1891, and 171 in 1892. In 1893, Congress realized the importance of the movement and made the first appropriation of $6,000 for the work of importing reindeer from Siberia into Alaska. It continued its support by annual appropriations ranging from $5,000 to $25,000, the appropriation for the fiscal year 1919—20 being $7,500.
During nine seasons, the revenue cutter "Bear" carried agents of the Bureau of Education back and forth between Siberia and Alaska, and transported Siberian reindeer to Alaska. The work was exacting in the extreme, beleaguered, uncharted coast, long delays in dangerous waters, patient bargaining in sign language with Siberians, tedious payment for the reindeer, hard work in transporting deer in the Bear's boats from shore to ship, discomfort on board while on the Way to Alaska, and much labor in the landing of deer on the Alaskan side. The total number of deer thus imported into Alaska from 1892 to 1902, when the Russian Government withdrew its permit, was 1,280.
At the commencement of the service, Port Clarence, on the Seward Peninsula, the nearest harbor to northeast Siberia, was selected as the receiving point for the reindeer brought over season after season. As the work grew, Teller Reindeer Station, on Port Clarence, became the base of supply from which winter after winter, herds were sent out over northern Alaska to establish new centers of the reindeer industry.
In 1907, William Thomas Lopp, who became superintendent education of indigenous peoples of Alaska, in charge of all the work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska, was called to Washington, D.C. to codify regulations for the reindeer service. During a long period of service in Arctic Alaska, Lopp had traveled widely in that region. He knew the people by name, he spoke their language, and in 1897—98, he had been one of the men to drive a herd of reindeer from Cape Prince of Wales to Point Barrow, in the dead of winter, for the relief of a party of whalers reported as starving at that point.
The regulations adopted provide for the distribution of the reindeer by a system of apprenticeship, by which promising and ambitious young Alaskans are selected by each local superintendent as apprentices for a term of four years, receiving at the end of each year the number of reindeer prescribed by the regulations. Upon the satisfactory termination of his apprenticeship the apprentice becomes a herder and assumes entire charge of his herd, subject to the supervision of the district and local school authorities. In accordance with the regulations, the herder must in turn employ apprentices and distribute reindeer to them, thus becoming an additional factor in the extension of the enterprise. In order to safeguard the reindeer industry for the natives, the regulations forbid the disposal of female reindeer to others than natives of Alaska.
The Canadian government, aware of the success of the Alaska Reindeer Service, purchased a herd of 3,000 Alaska reindeer in the 1920s. In an arduous journey that ultimately took five years, the animals were driven from Nome to Reindeer Station, Northwest Territories. However, few of the native Inuvialuit ever chose to take up the profession.
Education.
The ARS was under the administration of the United States Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, with headquarters in Seattle and with seven superintendents in Alaska. The ARS was an integral part of the educational system of northern and western Alaska. The district superintendents of schools were also the superintendents of the reindeer service. The teachers in charge of the US public schools in the regions affected by the reindeer industry were "ex officio" local superintendents of the reindeer herds in the vicinity of their schools. Traveling teachers were employed to go from one reindeer herd to another instructing the apprentices and herders in the elementary branches taught in the schools. The apprentices also, when practicable, attend the sessions of the schools in the vicinity of their herds.


DuPont Building

The DuPont Building, occupying the entire block bound by 10th, 11th, Orange and Market streets, was one of the first high-rises in Wilmington, Delaware, United States. It looks out over Rodney Square. The building was built in phases, with the original building constructed in 1908 fronting Rodney Square. At the time, the building housed the offices of DuPont. In 1913, the building was expanded into a "U" by adding wings along 10th and 11th streets, the DuPont Playhouse was added, and a portion of the original 1908 section was converted into the Hotel duPont. The final addition to the building occurred in 1923 when the Orange Street addition was added along with an additional two floors, bringing the floor count to 13 and the height to .
Until early 2015 the building housed DuPont's headquarters. In December 2014, DuPont announced that it would move and consolidate its corporate headquarters at its nearby Chestnut Run Plaza site and that The Chemours Company, which spun off from DuPont in 2015, would move into the DuPont Building. As well as Chemours, the building houses The Playhouse on Rodney Square (formerly the DuPont Playhouse), the Hotel duPont, and a branch of M&T Bank.
Under pressure from activist shareholders, the company first leased the building's DuPont Playhouse in January 2015 to the Grand Opera House, which renamed it The Playhouse on Rodney Square. The entire structure and the hotel business were then sold to Wilmington-based developer Buccini/Pollin in January 2018. The new owners have leased the building's office space back to Chemours, will continue to lease The Playhouse to The Grand Opera House, and have promised to keep the hotel operating.


Juneau-Douglas City Museum

The Juneau-Douglas City Museum is located at the corner of 4th and Main, opposite the Alaska State Capitol in Juneau, Alaska. It occupies a building which was built in 1950-51 to house the Juneau Memorial Library. It is a two-story Classical Revival structure built out of concrete with red marble trim elements. A gable-roofed projecting section at the center of the long wall provides the main entrance, which is recessed in an opening the full height to the pediment. This projecting section is flanked by banks of five metal-framed awning windows. The northeast facade has a gable pediment similar to that of the entry projection, below which is a large rectangular window, behind which a stained glass decoration has been installed. The building served the city as its library until the 1980s, at which time it was repurposed to house the city museum.
The museum's exhibits include gold mining, hydropower, skiing, outdoor recreation, fishing, politics and city history.
The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.


Onion Portage Archeological District

The Onion Portage Archeological District encompasses a major archaeological site in Kobuk Valley National Park in northwestern Alaska. The site is a deeply stratified site, at which archaeologists have located nine complexes ranging dating from approximately 6500BC to AD1700. The site has been of critical benefit for the study of Arctic cultures, and is used to determine the cultural chronology of the region.
The district was added to the National Register of Historical Places in 1972 and was declared a National Historic Landmark District in 1978.
Setting.
The Onion Portage site is located on the northern banks of the Kobuk River. Above the site is a sandy knoll, from which material is washed onto the site from deeply eroded gullies.
Archaeological history.
The Onion Portage site was first identified by the pioneering Arctic archaeologist J. Louis Giddings in 1940, during his first visit to the Kobuk River. He returned to the site in 1941, at which time some house pits were excavated, but the site's potential was not fully known. After World War II Giddings focused his efforts on other areas (notably the Iyatayet Site and sites at Cape Krusenstern, both also National Historic Landmarks, where he began to assemble a chronology of Arctic cultures. In 1961 he visited the site again, at which time its highly stratified nature was discovered. Giddings led a major excavation at the site in 1964, the last year of his life, seeking evidence of older cultures in the many layers of deposits.
The only built structure to be included in the district is the Giddings Cabin, used by J. Louis Giddings during the 1964 excavation. The National Park Service has preserved the cabin.


Henry Gratiot

Colonel Henry Gratiot (April 25, 1789 – April 27, 1836) was a French-American pioneer, farmer, and mill owner. During the Winnebago and Black Hawk Wars, he acted as both an intermediary and early U.S. Indian agent to the Winnebagos throughout the early 19th century. He and his brother Jean Pierre were among the first pioneers to settle in Wisconsin, operating a successful lead mining and lead smelting business, during the 1820s and 1830s. Both, the present-day village of Gratiot, Wisconsin and the town of Gratiot (town), Wisconsin are named in his honor.
Early life.
The second eldest son of Illinois pioneer Charles Gratiot, Sr. and Victoire Chouteau, Henry Gratiot was born in St. Louis, Spanish Upper Louisiana Territory, in the present-day State of Missouri. He became engaged to Susan Hempstead, only two years after her family arrived from Connecticut, and the two eventually married on June 21, 1813. The youngest daughter of Revolutionary War soldier Stephen Hempstead, her brothers included Edward Hempstead, the first congressional delegate for the Missouri Territory, as well as prominent lawyer Charles S. Hempstead and businessman William Hempstead. He and his wife would live at a small farm and mill, west of St. Louis, for the next several years.
In October 1825, following the admission of Missouri as a slave state, the 36-year-old Gratiot moved his family to the Fever River lead mines region (present-day Galena, Illinois) due to his opposition to slavery and his wish to raise his family in a free state. With the discovery of lead ore in the region in 1826, he and his younger brother Jean Pierre Bugnion Gratiot became interested in the mineral lands of present-day Shullsburg, Wisconsin. Purchasing the right to mine the area from the local Winnebagos, he and his brother were the first to develop a successful mining and smelting operation at Gratiot's Grove in what is now Lafayette County, Wisconsin. Employing sixty Frenchmen and using six furnaces, the brothers would undertake nearly all smelting for the entire region for several years.
Indian agent.
During this time, he and his wife became friendly with the local Winnebagos visiting them during the winter of 1826-27. They eventually befriended a mixed-blood woman, Catharine Mayotte, who had doctored Susan Gratiot for a time and with whom they exchanged gifts and information. Developing a close friendship, the three would remain in contact between 1827 and 1835. The Winnebago Prophet as well spoke highly of Henry Gratiot who "..came as a 'Chouteau' ... welcome[d] him to his village; but if he came as a white man he must consider him, like all white men, an enemy."
Although warned by the Winnebagos before their uprising against the United States the following summer, Gratiot allowed American forces in 1827 to build a stockade at Gratiot's Grove later renamed Fort Gratiot by the Americans. The women and children in the surrounding area were escorted from the fort to Galena and then to St. Louis.
After their defeat, the Winnebago left the area in droves although a few remained for a while longer to trade with arriving American settlers. Appointed a subagent for the Winnebago in 1830, he traveled father into the Wisconsin wilderness to negotiate annuity payments on behalf of the U.S. government. He would also be present at the signing of several treaties between the Winnebago and the United States and was later appointed an official Indian subagent to the Winnebago for the region south of Prairie du Chien in March 1831.
Black Hawk War.
During the Black Hawk War, he exerted his influence with the Winnebago acting as an intermediary in his efforts to negotiate peace and maintain stability in the region. Journeying to Prophet's Town in early-1832, he stayed with Black Hawk from April 25–27; however, Black Hawk refused to hear the message he had been given from General Henry Atkinson.
Gratiot did, however, side with the U.S. authorities, in securing the release of American hostages and prisoners, as seen when working with Chief Wabaunsee and members the Winnebago, to negotiate the release of Indian Creek Massacre survivors, Rachel and Sylvia Hall. On May 25, 1832, he and Colonel Henry Dodge held council with the Winnebagos, as to their position in the war to, which the Winnebago gave their assurance of fidelity in the conflict, "though little reliance was placed on their sincerity." During this meeting, he sent Winnebago chieftain White Crow to Black Hawk's camp purchasing their freedom in exchange for horses and various trinkets valued at $2,000. The young women were later, delivered to Gratiot at Blue Mounds Fort on June 3.
He was later, called on by General Edmund P. Gaines to investigate the rumors that the Winnebagos under the Winnebago Prophet, along with the Kickapoos and the Potawatomis, were attempting to join up with Black Hawk's British Band after being invited to join their ranks. Finding the Winnebago Prophet and several of his followers at Saukenuk, he persuaded them to return to their village. The Prophet did not remain at his lodge for long and resumed recruiting for Black Hawk in Winnebago villages upriver, however he was ultimately unsuccessful in this venture. The activities of the Rock River Winnebagos during the war, including several speeches by several prominent Winnebagos, were recorded by Gratiot in his personal diary.
Later years.
Despite his efforts, relations between the United States and the Winnebago rapidly deteriorated following the end of the Black Hawk War. As American settlement of the territory continued, the native and mixed-blood population near Gratiot's Grove as well as in the areas of Galena and Dubuque had become deserted by 1833 with exception to "a few straggling Winnebagos who lingered in the country."
He resigned his position as an Indian agent the following year and, closing his mining business, he bought a section of land in which he built a small house outside of Gratiot's Grove to retire as a gentleman farmer. He and his wife still continued their friendship with the Winnebago who made visits to their home every autumn camping under the pine trees near their new home.
During the fall of 1835, four chieftains representing the remaining bands from Rock River to Gratiot's Grove met with Gratiot to discuss the payments of annuities which had ceased "by some bad management"" "and had left the"Indains [sic] on Rock River ... are almost [sic] starved and naked." Gratiot then proceeded to travel to St. Louis to acquire the necessary signatures and documentation for the Rock River Winnebagos to receive payments from General Henry Atkinson before preparing to leave for Washington, D.C. in early 1836 to clear up the matter.
Death.
However, by the time he was ready to leave for the capital, few Winnebagos lived near his residence and within a year, the federal government began favoring their removal. While visiting the capital, he contracted a severe cold which grew worse when he attempted to travel back to Wisconsin. By the time he reached Baltimore, Maryland, he had become too ill to continue and forced to stop in Barnum's Hotel. However, his condition grew worse and died at the hotel on April 27, 1836. At the time of his death, he had been attended by his brother General Charles Gratiot, General George Wallace Jones, Captain Henry A. Thompson and Chief Justice Roger B. Taney among others.
Children.
Of his four children, two of his sons Charles and Edward Gratiot both had distinguished careers in the US Army, the latter, serving as a volunteer US Army paymaster. His only surviving daughter became the wife of Congressman Elihu Benjamin Washburne, who later published his biography "Henry Gratiot, a Pioneer of Wisconsin" (1884) based on speeches Washburne had delivered to the State Historical Society of Wisconsin during the early 1880s. Among his historical publications, this was considered his finest work.


Bates Battlefield

The Bates Battlefield was the scene of an 1874 action in which an Arapaho encampment was attacked by U.S. Army forces under Captain Alfred E. Bates. The battlefield is a narrow valley in Hot Springs County, Wyoming near the junction of the Big Horn Mountains and the Owl Creek Mountains. Variously called the Bates Battle, the Battle of Young's Point, the Battle of Snake Mountain and the Nowood Battle, the action was part of a campaign by forces under the command of Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan to protect the comparatively sedentary Shoshone under Chief Washakie from raids by their traditional enemies, the Northern Cheyenne, the Sioux and the Northern Arapaho.
In June 1874, "Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors decided to attack the Wind River Shoshones. As the invaders crossed the Big Horn Mountains, they had a disagreement about the purpose of their trip. Some claimed it was a raid for murder and the spoils of war; others said it was to steal horses. Because of the disagreement, the Arapahoes refused to participate."
Sheridan ordered Bates to raid the Arapaho camp, reported to comprise between 40 and 112 lodges. On July 1, 1874, Bates set forth leading Company B, 2nd Cavalry with 63 cavalrymen, 20 white and Shoshone scouts under Lieutenant R.H. Young, and a party of 167 Shoshone under Washakie.
Bates led thirty cavalrymen and twenty Shoshone against the encampment, occupied by Black Coal's people, at daybreak on July 4. Lt. Young took his scouts around to the other end of the village. Fighting went well at first for Bates' force, but the Arapaho moved to a nearby height and began to fire down onto Bates' raiders. Bates withdrew from the village without recovering his own dead., suffering four killed and five or six wounded, while reporting 25 Arapaho killed and 100 wounded. Other reports indicate the Arapaho suffered as few as ten casualties. Bates captured 350 horses of the 1200 to 1400 head associated with the village. Bates blamed his lack of overall success on the noise made by the Shoshone. Accounts of the battle by different parties reveal wide discrepancies in perceptions of the motivation, progress, and outcome of the fight.
The Bates Battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.


A. R. Bowman Memorial Museum

The A. R. Bowman Memorial Museum is a local history museum in Prineville, Oregon, United States. Opened in 1971, the museum is housed in the old Crook County Bank Building which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The museum is run by the Crook County Historical Society and highlights the history of Crook County and central Oregon. Its collection includes many original pioneer artifacts, a large railroad exhibit, ranching and timber industry displays, furniture, garments, and historic photographs. The museum also has a research library.
Arthur Bowman.
The museum is named after Arthur Ray Bowman, a Prineville businessman and civic leader. Bowman was born in Kansas and came to Prineville in 1910 after receiving a law degree from the University of Washington. He established a successful title and insurance company in Prineville the county seat of Crook County. Bowman was active in civic affairs throughout his life. He served as the County Judge for Crook County from 1936 to 1942. He also helped establish the Ochoco Irrigation District and the Prineville Airport. Bowman helped bring U.S. Highway 26 through Crook County. He was particularly interested in the construction of the Prineville Dam on the Crooked River. Because of his dedication to the project, the dam was renamed the Arthur R. Bowman Dam in his honor. He died in 1970, leaving a legacy of business success and civic responsibility.
In 1971, Bowman's wife and two daughters donated the Crook County Bank building to Crook County for use as a museum. At that time, the Crook County Historical Society assumed the responsibility of operating the A. R. Bowman Memorial Museum through a contractual agreement with Crook County.
Historic building.
The museum is housed in the historic Crook County Bank building. The building was constructed in 1910. It is a two-story Romanesque style building constructed using stone blocks from a local quarry located west of the Ochoco Viewpoint. This is the same quarry that provided the stone used to build the Crook County Courthouse in 1909.
The building's interior has not significantly changed since it was a community bank. The first floor still has the bank's original bronze teller cages, marble counter tops, etched art-glass, gilt and alabaster chandeliers, and the mahogany paneling that were the trappings of a prestigious banking institution in the first half of the 20th century.
The building was first occupied by the Crook County Bank. When the Crook County Bank left in 1923, it was replaced by the Bank of Prineville and later the Prineville National Bank. When that bank became insolvent during the Great Depression, the building was purchased by A. R. Bowman for his title and insurance business. Bowman used the building for his various businesses from 1935 until his death in 1970.
The bank is an excellent example of Prineville's early 20th century development. Because of its unique architecture and its importance to the history of Prineville, the Crook County Bank Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 19 June 1991.
Museum exhibits.
The museum is run by the Crook County Historical Society and highlights the history of Crook County and central Oregon. The building's original bank interior has been maintained and is utilized in the museum's floor plan. There are major sections on local industry, transportation, and military history.
On the first floor is the "Hall of History", which highlights Crook County's past. This includes exhibits on the City of Prineville Railroad, the local timber industry and United States Forest Service as well as pioneer furniture, garments, tools, and other artifacts. There are also many photographs of Crook County people, local landmarks, and historic event. The museum's displays include the bank's original teller cages with their marble counters and elegant woodwork. Museum visitors can look inside bank's safe and see old ledgers and other documents on display.
The second floor rooms include a ranch tack room, an old-time bedroom, a dining room, a re-creation of the old Paulina store and post office, and exhibits of early medical and dental equipment. The museum's research library is also located on the second floor. The museum's research room contains approximately 700 reference books on Oregon history. Researchers can investigate the local timber industry, the Crook County range war between cattlemen and sheepherders, the Lost Meek Wagon Train, and many other subjects. The museum's gift shop has books on local history as well as souvenirs.
In 1980, the Crook County Historical Society was offered a 1907 Studebaker Phaeton along with some old farm equipment. However, there was no place in the museum to house the vehicle and the large artifacts. As a result, the Society established a building fund to raise money for another building. In 1987, a museum annex was constructed at the Crook County fairgrounds. The building is owned by Crook County, but is operated by the Crook County Historical Society in the same manner as the main Bowman Museum.
In 1996, the Bowman Museum hosted a Smithsonian traveling exhibit called "Barn Again". That was the first time a traveling Smithsonian exhibit was shown in central Oregon. In 1997, the museum was awarded a general operating support grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services, an independent agency of the United States Federal Government. That was a significant achievement since less than 20 percent of more than 1,000 institutional applicants received one of the Institute's competitive national grants.
Visiting.
The A.R. Bowman Memorial Museum is located on the southeast corner of Third and Main Street in Prineville. The museum is open year around. From Memorial Day through Labor Day, the museum is open every day. The rest of the year, the museum is open five days a week, Tuesday through Saturday, The operating hour are normally from mid-morning until late afternoon.


Argentine Mexicans

There is a significant Argentine diaspora in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 13,696 registered Argentine citizens living in Mexico, an increase from the 6,465 registered in the 2000 census. Argentine immigrants constitute the second largest community of South Americans in Mexico (after Colombian Mexicans) and the fifth largest immigrant community overall.
The Argentine-Mexican community is sometimes known as ArgenMex.
History.
Argentines have been in Mexico since at least the 1895 census, and periodic migration has continued following the ebb and flow of the Argentine economy. Both countries share the Spanish language; their historical origins are common (part of the Spanish Empire). With two main emigrant waves; during the 1970s Dirty War and after the 2001 economic crisis.
The largest Argentine community is in Mexico City (with a sizeable congregation in the Condesa neighborhood) and there are smaller communities in Leon, Guadalajara, Puebla, Cancun, Playa del Carmen, Tulum, Mérida, Monterrey and Tampico. Most Argentines established in Mexico come from the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba and Tucuman. The Argentine community has participated in the opening of establishments such as restaurants, bars, boutiques, modeling consultants, foreign exchange interbank markets, among other lines of business.
Culture.
Argentine actors have an important presence in Mexico's television industry. Frequently, actors arrive in Mexico to learn neutral Spanish (based on Mexican Spanish and used for mass media distributed across Latin America, such as dubbed foreign films,) and remain as they find work with one of the country's major television networks. Notable among these actors are the telenovela "galanes" (male leads) Juan Soler and Sebastian Rulli. In the music industry, prominent Argentine-Mexicans include Amanda Miguel, Fey and Noel Schajris.
There has been controversy in Mexico over the inclusion of naturalized Mexicans (especially Argentine-Mexicans) on Mexico's national football team. The arguments range from xenophobic ideas to the belief that Argentines have been granted citizenship in order to be eligible players on the team. Nonetheless, Argentines wanting to attain Mexican citizenship have to do so through meeting naturalization and residency requirements.


Pope Pius IX and the United States

The relationship between Pope Pius IX and the United States was an important aspect of the pontiff's foreign policy and Church growth program.
Period of steady immigration.
Together with German and Italian immigrants, the Catholic population in the United States increased from 4  percent at the beginning of the pontificate of Pius IX in 1846 to 11 percent in 1870. Some 700 priests existed in the U.S. in 1846 compared to 6000 in 1878. Pope Pius IX contributed to this development by establishing new Church regions and the installation of capable American bishops.
Creation of modern ecclesiastical structures.
Pius IX is the father of much of the modern American church structure by creating many existing dioceses and archdioceses in the U.S. such as the Roman Catholic Dioceses of Portland, Springfield, Illinois, Burlington, Cleveland, Columbus, Galveston-Houston, Providence, Fort Wayne-South Bend, Kansas City in Kansas, Saint Paul and Minneapolis, San Francisco, Seattle, San Antonio and others. Some of his creations do not exist anymore: On 24 July 1846, Pius IX divided the existing Oregon vicariate apostolic into three dioceses: Oregon City ("Oregonopolitanus"); Walla Walla ("Valle Valliensis"); and Vancouver Island ("Insula Vancouver").
New sees in the Western states.
On 29 July 1850, the Diocese of Oregon City was elevated to an archdiocese with Archbishop Blanchet continuing to serve as its first archbishop. In 1850, Pius IX erected seats at Monterey and Santa Fe in the Spanish-Mexican territories recently added to the United States and in Savannah, Wheeling, and Nesqually, and made the Indian Territory a vicariate under a bishop.
Support for synods and meetings.
Pius IX supported Diocesan synods and regular meetings, and granted all wishes of the American bishops regarding enlargements of their rights and privileges. In 1849, from his exile in Gaeta, he politely turned down an invitation to visit the U.S. He wrote, "...nothing could afford us more pleasure, nothing could be more grateful to our hearts than to enjoy the presence and conversation of yourself and the venerable brethren ... but in the existing times and circumstances, it would be impossible for us to comply with your invitation, as your wisdom will easily understand".
The enormous growth of the Catholic Church in the U.S. and the genuine admiration in the early years for his liberal pontificate resulted in the United States establishing diplomatic relations with the Papal States on 7 April 1848. This lasted until 1867, when domestic pressures forced a closing of relations. The Vatican never had an ambassador in Washington, because the U.S. government refused to accept a Catholic priest as papal nuncio.
Pius IX pushed for an American College in Rome for future American priests and promised his personal financial support. A small college was founded in 1859 under Rev John McCloskey; it was greatly expanded under Pius XII in 1956.
Political involvement during the Civil War.
During the American Civil War, Catholics oriented themselves to John Hughes (the Archbishop of New York) in the Union and to Jean-Marie Odin (the Archbishop of New Orleans) in the Confederate States. Abraham Lincoln asked Pope Pius IX to elevate Hughes into the College of Cardinals, but Pius declined to do so. A decade later, Pius did elevate John McCloskey, Hughes's successor, to the College of Cardinals.
Pope Pius IX never supported the Confederacy, but he did call for peace and offered mediation. He stressed the necessity of emancipation. Confederate diplomat Ambrose Dudley Mann met with the pope in December 1863 and received a letter addressed to the "Honorable President of the Confederate States of America." This was simple courtesy, though it had no legal effect. The Confederacy used it in propaganda to claim papal support. For example, Robert E. Lee thought the pope was "the only sovereign... in Europe who recognized our poor Confederacy". In fact, no diplomatic relations or recognitions were extended in either direction. In his dispatch to Richmond, Mann claimed a great diplomatic achievement for himself; he believed the letter was "a positive recognition of our Government". Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin told Mann it was "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition.


Alcoholic beverages in Oregon

The U.S. state of Oregon has an extensive history of laws regulating the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, dating back to 1844. It has been an alcoholic beverage control state, with the Oregon Liquor Control Commission holding a monopoly over the sale of all distilled beverages, since Prohibition. Today, there are thriving industries producing beer, wine, and liquor in the state. Alcohol may be purchased between 7 a.m. and 2:30 a.m. As of 2007, consumption of spirits is on the rise, while beer consumption is holding steady. Also, 11% of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in-state, the highest figure in the United States.
Oregon wine production began in the mid-19th century, before it was a state. By 1919, the industry had collapsed due to prohibition, and after prohibition ended fruit wines dominated the industry. The modern era of Oregon wine began in 1961, and the industry cemented its reputation in 1975 by winning a French award. In 2007, wine making was a $207.8 million business. Beer production began in 1852 with Henry Saxer's liberty brewing in Portland. In 1862 Henry Weinhard's bought the Liberty brewery. The company is now a part of the Miller Brewing Company, but it helped Portland to become the microbrewing capital of the world. Portland hosts North America's largest beerfest, and Oregon has produced a number of national and international award winning beers.
In 1844, the Oregon territories voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages. This was repealed in 1845, but prohibition was reinstated in 1915, four years before the national alcohol prohibition. When national prohibition was repealed in 1933, the Oregon Liquor Control Commission (OLCC) was created. Unlike states that allow liquor sales in grocery stores, liquor in Oregon is sold only in OLCC run liquor stores and establishments that have liquor licenses, and the OLCC has strict guidelines and training to ensure that all licensed venues understand how to safely sell and serve alcoholic beverages. Alcohol and alcoholism are also studied by the state at the Portland Alcohol Research Center.
Consumption.
Alcohol laws in Oregon permit the sale of beer, wine, and liquor, for on- or off-premises consumption, between 7 a.m. and 2:30 a.m. In 2004, Oregonians consumed of distilled spirits, of wine, and of beer, ranking it 27th, 19th, and 27th respectively of US states. Oregon had an estimated population of 3,594,586 in 2004, ranking it 27th among US states.
In 2007, sales of spirits increased 9% over the previous year. Whiskey and vodka were the top sellers, while tequila had the largest percentage increase. Oregonians' top buy was Jack Daniel's, with 412,000 bottles sold. This was during a national spirits trend where manufacturers introduced new products and advertising aimed at young drinkers. Again in 2007, Oregon's 2.6 million adults on average drank 32 gallons of beer each, versus 4 gallons of wine and 2 gallons of spirits, but sales of beer hadn't increased like sales of spirits. The Oregon Department of Human Services reported that while drinking among 8th–11th graders has fallen nationally, it has increased in Oregon. The number of DUI offenses dropped between 2002 and 2005, from 25,342 to 23,455.
Beer consumption.
The following table lists the amount of beer consumed in Oregon for the years 1997–2004 as reported in the 2005 Beer Handbook. The scale is in 1,000s of cases of beer. A case of beer is 24 12-ounce beers, for a total of 2.25 gallons per case.
Production.
Wine.
Wine grapes were planted in Oregon in the Willamette Valley starting in 1847. A census in 1860 revealed that Oregon's wine production was 2,600 gallons. In the 1880s and 1890s, German immigrants began planting wine grapes in Southern Oregon. In the 1880s, Ernest Reuter garnered a reputation for his Klevner wines, grown in the Willamette Valley, west of Forest Grove. By 1919, the Oregon wine industry had collapsed due to the temperance movement and resulting prohibition. Fruit wines dominated Oregon's wine industry post-prohibition, and by 1938 there were 28 bonded wineries, producing wines based on berries, Concord grapes, and other American hybrids.
Oregon's modern wine industry dates to 1961 when Hillcrest Vineyard in Roseburg began planting Riesling and small amounts of other grapes. In 1965, Oregon pinot noir was established when The Eyrie Vineyards planted grapes near Corvallis. Oregon's wine reputation was made in 1979 when a French magazine ranked The Eyrie's 1975 Pinot noir third among 330 wines of the world. By 2007, Oregon wineries were producing 1.7 million cases of wine for a total of $207.8 million in sales.
There are several official American Viticultural Areas entirely within the state, including the Willamette Valley, Southern Oregon, Umpqua Valley, and Rogue Valley AVAs. Parts of the Columbia Gorge, Walla Walla Valley, and Snake River Valley AVAs lie within Oregon. Pinot noir and Pinot gris are the top two grapes grown.
Beer.
In 1862, German immigrant Henry Weinhard founded a brewery in Portland. By the early 1880s it had become the Northwest's largest brewery. Weinhard once attempted to pump free beer through Portland's Skidmore Fountain. He died in 1904, but the company continued to do well, making it through prohibition by brewing soft drinks and merging with Arnold Blitz, a local competitor. Blitz-Weinhard was sold to the Pabst Brewing Company in 1979, and then again to the Miller Brewing Company in 1999. The company helped prepare Oregon beer drinkers for the arrival of microbrewing.
Portland, Oregon is considered to be the nation's microbrew capital. A microbrewery is defined as one that produces less than 15,000 barrels a year. Portland hosts the Oregon Brewers Festival, North America's largest beer festival. The microbrewery industry began in 1979 when President Jimmy Carter legalized home brewing. In 2006, 14 beers from eight Oregon breweries won medals at the Great American Beer Festival, out of 2,800 entries. Also in 2006, Oregon won 11 times at the World Beer Cup, in a field of 2,200 beers. In 2007, 11% of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in-state, the highest figure in the United States. According to the Oregon Hop Commission, in 2007, Oregon was also the second largest U.S. hops producer, after Washington.
Spirits.
As of 2008, Oregon contains 12 of the nation's 142 craft distilleries, up from six in 2006. In 2007, a law was approved allowing tasting rooms and direct sales to the public. Jim Dodge, purchasing manager for the OLCC, believes that the distilleries are an outgrowth of the microbrew industry, instead of the wine industry, as well as a societal change. Dodge explained that "there's been a recent shift from beer, and to some degree wine, to distilled spirits as the alcohol of choice."
In 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration determined that absinthe was legal, though it had been understood to be illegal for about 80 years. Portland distillery Integrity Spirits responded by releasing the second American-made absinthe, which was in high demand immediately upon its release.
Legislative history.
Oregon has been regulating alcohol through its laws for over 150 years. In 1844, the Oregon Territory voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages. This is often referred to as the first prohibition in the United States. The law was repealed in 1845. From 1845 to 1915, various local laws governing alcohol were passed: in 1908, Portland Councilman George Cellars restricted establishments that could serve alcohol to restaurants greater than and when a meal was ordered, which caused saloons to simply change their name. Councilman Rushlight amended it to and required a food purchase but not a full meal, but this was vetoed by Mayor Harry Lane.
Prohibition.
Using Oregon's local initiative system, the Anti-Saloon League helped focus the movement into passing the Local Option Act by initiative in 1904, allowing individual cities to go dry. Hood River, Oregon became the first dry city in 1905. The ASL and other temperance organizations spent years organizing, and finally passed Initiative 334 in 1914. This initiative required the state legislature to pass prohibition laws, which they did in 1915, preceding national alcohol prohibition by four years.
Accompanying legislation banning liquor advertising in the state resulted in at least some out-of-state newspapers cancelling subscriptions in Oregon.
Liquor was imported into Oregon on the Southern Pacific Railroad from other West Coast states. The smuggling ring was led by the Pullman porters and supplied smuggled liquor to Portland through the 1950s.
In 1933, national prohibition ended with a repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Oregon's governor, Julius Meier, appointed Dr. William S. Knox to study the situation. Knox recommended adopting the Canadian system of sales of alcohol by the state. The reasoning was that this would provide revenue and lower alcohol abuse.
The Oregon Legislative Assembly held a special session and the OLCC was created days after the repeal of national prohibition. Eighteen states in total chose to regulate alcohol. Oregon Revised Statutes Chapters 471, 472, 473 and 474 were the commission's enabling statutes. OAR Chapter 845 governed its administrative rules. The OLCC's mission is "to effectively regulate the sale, distribution, and responsible use of alcoholic beverages in order to protect Oregon's public health, safety and community livability." However, under these laws bootlegging in Oregon was rife and Portland became infamous as a center of corruption.
Post-Prohibition licensing.
In 1939, the advertising of hard liquor on billboards and in newspapers was voluntarily discontinued. Also, in 1939, a "club bill" was passed by the Legislative Assembly. The bill gave regulatory power to the OLCC over hotels, restaurants and private clubs where liquor was served. Lobbyists then succeeded in having the bill referred to the voters in 1940. Voters passed the bill in 1940.
In 1944, the "Burke Bill" became law: wines with more than 14% alcohol could only be sold by Commission stores and agencies. Also in the 1940s, a "service bars" license was established. This restricted liquor licenses to establishments serving food. In 1949, the Legislative Assembly approved a method where establishments that sold liquor could ask for proof of age from patrons they thought were under the age of 21. Measure 15—passed in 1952—amended the Constitution () to regulate the sale of liquor by the individual glass.
Five more types of licenses were created in the 1950s, dealing with liquor-by-the-drink operations, industry agents, salesmen, out-of-state manufacturers of malt beverages, and conventions, group meetings, etc. In 1960, establishments were required to have food sales equal to 25% of their total sales. In the 1970s, the OLCC began enforcing the Oregon Bottle Bill and wines of up to 20% alcohol became allowed with certain licenses. In the 1980s, the number of OLCC commissioners was changed from three to five, to reflect the number of congressional districts. The 1990s saw a flurry of laws passed governing the OLCC's oversight of the newly numerous Oregon wineries and microbreweries. House Bill 4028–passed in 2002–allowed liquor stores to operate on Sunday; they had previously been restricted to six days a week.
Ballot measures relating to alcohol.
The following ballot measures changed state policy on alcohol:
The following alcohol-related ballot measures have failed:
Research.
The Portland Alcohol Research Center is a NIH-established effort funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. About 20 scientists and 60 people, mostly at OHSU, are investigating science organized around ten components:
Additional themes and focuses include:
The center has trained medical students in alcohol-related issues for more than 30 years and has published more than 380 papers and articles since 1996.