Persis

Persis (, "Persís"), better known in English as Persia (Old Persian: , "Parsa"; , "Pârs"), or Persia proper, is the Fars region located to the southwest of modern Iran, now a province. The Persians are thought to have initially migrated either from Central Asia or, more probably, from the north through the Caucasus. They would then have migrated to the current region of Persis in the early 1st millennium BC. The country name Persia was derived directly from the Old Persian "Parsa".
Achaemenid Empire.
The ancient Persians were present in the region of Persis from about the 10th century BC. They became the rulers of the largest empire the world had yet seen under the Achaemenid dynasty which was established in the late 6th century BC, at its peak stretching from Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in its far east. The ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, are located in Fars.
Alexandrian Empire.
The Achaemenid Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, incorporating most of their vast empire.
Several Hellenistic satraps of Persis are known, following the conquests of Alexander the Great, from circa 330 BC, especially Phrasaortes, who ruled from 330 to 324 BC, Oxines who usurped his position and was then executed by Alexander, and the Macedonian general Peucestas, who learned the Persian language and followed local customs, implementing a persophile policy. Peucestas retained the satrapy of Persis until the Battle of Gabiene (316 BC), after which he was removed from his position by Antigonus. A short period of Antigonid rule followed, until Seleucus took possession of the region in 312 BC.
Seleucid Empire.
When the Seleucid Empire was established, it possibly never extended its power beyond the main trade routes in Fars, and by the reign of Antiochus I or possibly later, Persis emerged as a state with a level of independence that minted its own coins.
Several later Persian rulers, forming the "Frataraka" dynasty, are known to have acted as representatives of the Seleucids in the region of Fārs. They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and Vahbarz or Vādfradād I obtained independence circa 150 BC, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.
Kings of Persis, under the Parthian Empire.
During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier title "prtrk' zy alhaya" (Frataraka) had disappeared. Under Dārēv I however, the new title of "mlk", or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention of "prs" (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.
When the Parthian Arsacid king Mithridates I (ca. 171-138 BC) took control of Persis, he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as the Kings of Persis, and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title of "mlk" ("King").
Sasanian Empire.
Babak was the ruler of a small town called Kheir. Babak's efforts in gaining local power at the time escaped the attention of Artabanus IV, the Arsacid Emperor of the time. Babak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Persis.
The subsequent events are unclear, due to the sketchy nature of the sources. It is however certain that following the death of Babak around 220, Ardashir who at the time was the governor of Darabgird, got involved in a power struggle of his own with his elder brother Shapur. The sources tell us that in 222, Shapur was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him.
Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king, Artabanos V in 224 CE, and was crowned at Ctesiphon as Ardaxšir I (Ardashir I), "šāhanšāh ī Ērān", becoming the first king of the new Sasanian Empire.
At this point, Ardashir moved his capital further to the south of Persis and founded a capital at Ardashir-Khwarrah (formerly Gur, modern day Firouzabad).
After establishing his rule over Persis, Ardashir I rapidly extended the territory of his Sassanid Persian Empire, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighboring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana, and Mesene.
Artabanus marched a second time against Ardashir I in 224. Their armies clashed at Hormizdegan, where Artabanus IV was killed. Ardashir was crowned in 226 at Ctesiphon as the sole ruler of Persia, bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and starting the virtually equally long rule of the Sassanian Empire, over an even larger territory, once again making Persia a leading power in the known world, only this time along with its arch-rival and successor to Persia's earlier opponents (the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire); the Byzantine Empire.
The Sassanids ruled for 425 years, until the Muslim armies conquered the empire. Afterward, the Persians started to convert to Islam, this making it much easier for the new Muslim empire to continue the expansion of Islam.
Persis then passed hand to hand through numerous dynasties, leaving behind numerous historical and ancient monuments; each of which has its own values as a world heritage, reflecting the history of the province, Iran, and West Asia. The ruins of Bishapur, Persepolis, and Firouzabad are all reminders of this. Arab invaders brought about a decline of Zoroastrian rule and made Islam ascendant from the 7th century.


British Weihaiwei

British Weihaiwei, on the northeastern coast of China, was a leased territory of the United Kingdom from 1898 until 1930. The capital was Port Edward (now known as "Weihai"). The leased territory covered and included the walled city of Port Edward, bay of Wei-hai-wei, Liu-kung Island and a mainland area of of coastline running to a depth of inland. Together with Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) it controlled the entrance to the Gulf of Zhili and, thus, the seaward approaches to Beijing.
Background to the British lease.
The port of Weihaiwei served as the base for the Chinese Beiyang Fleet (Northern Seas Fleet), founded in 1871 during the later years of the Qing dynasty in China. In 1895, Japanese land and sea forces captured the port in the Battle of Weihaiwei, the last major battle of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. The Japanese withdrew in 1898.
After Russia leased Port Arthur from China for 25 years in March 1898, the United Kingdom pressured the Chinese government into leasing Weihaiwei, with the terms of the treaty stating that it would remain in force for as long as the Russians were allowed to occupy Port Arthur. The British fleet took possession and raised its flag on 24 May 1898.
The British used the port primarily as a summer anchorage for the Royal Navy's China Station and as a health resort. It also served as an occasional port of call for Royal Navy vessels in the Far East (very much secondary to using Hong Kong in southern China). Other than for military matters, local administration remained under Chinese control, and the port itself remained a free port until 1923.
At the start of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the commander of the Royal Navy's China Station was initially ordered to withdraw his ships from Weihaiwei to avoid Britain being drawn into the conflict. However, fearing that the Imperial Russian Navy might use Weihaiwei as a safe haven, the Japanese government successfully pressured the British to return their fleet. During the war, correspondents covering the conflict used the port as a telegraph- and radio-transmission station; it also served as a source of contraband shipping for blockade-runners bringing supplies into Port Arthur.
After the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905, Japan took possession of Port Arthur. Britain extended its lease over Weihaiwei until 1930; the Japanese occupied Port Arthur from 1905 to 1945.
British rule in Weihaiwei.
The War Office were responsible for the territory as it was envisaged that it would become a naval base similar to British Hong Kong. As such, the first Commissioners of Weihaiwei were appointed from the British Army and based themselves in Liu-kung Island. At the beginning of the lease, the territory was administered by a Senior Naval Officer of the Royal Navy, Sir Edward Hobart Seymour. However a survey led by the Royal Engineers deemed that Weihaiwei was unsuitable for a major naval base or trading port. In 1899, administration was transferred to a military and civil commissioner, firstly Arthur Dorward (1899–1901), then John Dodson Daintree (1901–1902), appointed by the War Office in London. The territorial garrison consisted of 200 British troops and a specially constituted Weihaiwei Regiment, officially the 1st Chinese Regiment, with British officers. In 1901, it was decided that this base should not be fortified and administration was transferred from the War Office to the Colonial Office which allowed for civilians to be appointed as the Commissioner.
In 1909, the then Governor of Hong Kong, Sir Frederick Lugard, proposed that Britain return Weihaiwei to Chinese rule in return for perpetual rule of the New Territories of Hong Kong which had also been leased in 1898. This proposal was never adopted.
Weihaiwei was not developed in the way that Hong Kong and other British colonies in the region were. This was because Shantung Province, of which Weihaiwei was part, was inside Germany's (and after World War I, Japan's) sphere of influence. It was normal practice for British colonies to be administered under the provisions of the British Settlements Act 1887. However, Weihaiwei was actually administered under the Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890 which was the law which granted extraterritorial powers over British subjects in China and other countries in which Britain had extraterritorial rights. The reason for this was that as a leased territory, subject to rendition at any time, it was not considered appropriate to treat Weihaiwei as if it was a full colony.
In exchange for recognizing British Weihaiwei, Germany demanded and received assurance from Britain through Arthur Balfour that Britain would recognize a German sphere in Shantung and not build a railway from Weihaiwei into the interior of Shantung province.
The nickname British sailors gave to this port was "Way High"; it was also referred to as Port Edward in English.
During British rule, residences, hospital, churches, tea houses, sports ground, post office, and a naval cemetery were constructed.
Commissioners.
The Commissioner of Weihaiwei () was the head of government for the British leased territory of Weihaiwei between 1898 and 1930. Until 1902, the first Commissioners of Weihaiwei were members of the British Army before civilians were appointed to the role. A Civil Commissioner was appointed in February 1902 to administer the territory. The post was held by Sir James Stewart Lockhart until 1921, where he oversaw the renaming of the civil seat of the Commissioner from Matou to Port Edward and started to develop the territory as a holiday resort for British expats.
As the position was not a full Governorship, it afforded the holders more authority as they did not have to consult any territorial legislative or executive councils when making decisions or passing ordinances. The Commissioner of Weihaiwei was also responsible for representing the territory overseas.
After Lockhart, Arthur Powlett Blunt (1921–1923) and Walter Russell Brown (1923–1927) were appointed Commissioners in Weihaiwei. The last Commissioner was the outstanding sinologist Sir Reginald Fleming Johnston (previously tutor to the last Chinese emperor, Pu Yi) who served from 1927 to 1930.
Commissioner's flag.
The Commissioners of Weihaiwei initially used a Union Jack with a Chinese imperial dragon from the flag of the Qing dynasty as their flag. When Lockhart arrived as the first civil commissioner, he wrote to the Colonial Office requesting that the dragon be replaced by Mandarin ducks as he felt it was inappropriate to use a Chinese national symbol on a British flag. King Edward VII approved the new design as well as the creation of a civil flag of Weihaiwei in 1903.
List of commissioners.
Below is a list of the military and civilian commissioners of Weihaiwei.
Postage stamps and currency.
No special postage stamps were ever issued for Weihaiwei. Just as in other treaty ports, Hong Kong stamps were used. From 1917, these were overprinted with the word "CHINA". Revenue stamps of Weihaiwei were issued from 1921. There were never any special coins or banknotes issued for circulation in Weihaiwei. The various currencies in circulation in China at the time were used; the Hong Kong dollar was also used.
The following Chinese banknote issuers issued banknotes for circulation in Weihaiwei under British administration;
The Bank of Communications - from 1914 to 1927.
The Bank of China - in 1918.
The National Industrial Bank of China - in 1924.
These all have WEIHAIWEI overprinted in black on them.
There is now a Weihaiwei chapter of The Banknote Book , which lists these notes.
Army and police.
The Weihaiwei Regiment was formed in 1898 with Lt. Colonel Hamilton Bower as its first commanding officer and served in the Boxer Rebellion. The regiment was ordered to be totally disbanded in 1906 by Army Order No. 127 of 1906.
Some of the soldiers were retained as a permanent police force with three British Colour Sergeants commissioned as police inspectors. In 1910 the police force comprised three European Inspectors and 55 Chinese Constables. Previously the force had comprised one Chinese sergeant and seven constables under a District Officer.
During World War I the British recruited the Chinese Labour Corps in Weihaiwei to assist the war effort.
During the seamen's strike of 1922 in Hong Kong, the colonial government sent two European police officers to Weihaiwei in September of that year to recruit the first of about 50 Weihaiwei men as Royal Hong Kong Police constables. After completing six months' training in Weihaiwei, the recruits were posted to Hong Kong to maintain law and order in March 1923. The Weihaiwei policemen were known as the D Contingent in the HKP, and their service numbers were pre-fixed with letter "D" to differentiate them from the European "A", Indian "B" and Cantonese "C".
At the end of 1927, the Chinese police were replaced by Indians.
High Court.
In 1903, the British established a High Court of Weihaiwei. The judges of the court were chosen from individuals serving as a judge or Crown Advocate of the British Supreme Court for China in Shanghai. The three judges of the court from 1903 to 1930 were:
The Commissioner could also exercise judicial powers if the judges of the court were not available.
Appeals from the High Court for Weihaiwei could be made to the Hong Kong Supreme Court, then finally in the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. It appears that no appeal was ever heard in Hong Kong.
Initially, the Crown Advocate for China, Hiram Parkes Wilkinson served as the Crown Advocate for Weihaiwei. When Wilkinson was appointed judge in 1916, Allan Mossop took over as Crown Advocate for Weihaiwei. Mossop later became Crown Advocate for China in 1926.
Return of Weihaiwei.
Weihaiwei was returned to Chinese rule on 1 October 1930 under the aegis of the final Commissioner of Weihaiwei Sir Reginald Johnston who previously had been a District Officer and a Magistrate in Weihaiwei. The last Commissioner of Weihaiwei flew the flag of the Republic of China alongside the Union Jack during the transitional day. Following the return of Weihaiwei to China, the Chinese replaced the British Commissioner role with their own version of the Commissioner as Weihaiwei became a Special Administrative Region of China; later, the was created. However, the Chinese government leased the island of Liu-kung Tao (Liugong Island) to the Royal Navy for ten years; effective control came to an end following a Japanese military landing on 1 October 1940.


Wajed Ali Khan Panni

Wajed Ali Khan Panni (; 1871–1936), also known as Chand Mian () and by the epithet Atiyar Chand (), was a Bengali politician, educationist and the Zamindar of Karatia. He was famed for his charitable works as a philanthropist.
Early life.
Panni was born into a Bengali Muslim family in Karatia, Tangail, Bengal Presidency in the year 1871. His father, Hafez Mahmud Ali Khan Panni, belonged to the Karatia Zamindari, a wealthy landowning family in the area. Panni was homeschooled by private tutors and learned Arabic, Bengali, English, Persian, and Urdu. He was a big fan of the Chomchom of Porabari.
Career.
In 1892, Panni assisted the poet Mohammad Naimuddin in translating the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri into four volumes in Bengali, with his father's patronage.
At the start of the 20th century, Panni ordered the digging of a canal, known as Katakhali, in order to aid communication in Tangail. Panni aided Abu Ahmad Ghuznavi Khan, the Zamindar of Delduar, in repairing the Atia Mosque in 1909 which was founded by his ancestor, Sayeed Khan Panni.
Panni helped the Nawab of Dhaka Khwaja Salimullah organize the "Muslim Education Conference" in Karatia in 1913. He founded two schools in Karatia after the conference, "Hafez Mahmud Ali Khan High School", named after his father, and "Rokeya Aliyah Madrasah", named after his wife. He served as the head of the Mymensingh District Khilafat movement committee and the unit of All India Congress, serving as vice-president of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee. He was jailed for his role in the Khilafat movement in December 1921.
Panni founded Saadat College in July 1926, named after his grandfather Saadat Ali Khan Panni, which was one of the country's first five university-colleges and the first college in rural Bengal. He was a philanthropist who spent 20 percent of his own income in charity work. As a landlord, he was known to have been fair to his ryots/tenants and waive rent in case of natural disasters such as famine or flood. Panni also established a Sharia department in his land which was engaged by 700 Islamic scholars.
He also established the Karatia Zamindar Bari (Karatia Palace) and one of the buildings, Rokeya Manzil, was named after his wife.
Death.
Panni died in 1936.


Vanchi Bhumi

Vanchi Bhumi (alternatively Vanji Bhumi) is the national anthem of the erstwhile Kingdom of Travancore which now forms part of Kerala. It was formally known as the Vanchishamangalam meaning "Hail the Lord of Vanchi". It was played by the Travancore radio every night as the last item.
Vanchi Bhumi, meaning the "Land of Vanchi", is a reference to the city of Thiruvanchikulam, Kodungallur the capital of the Later Cheras, and the "Lord of Vanchi", the Later Chera's tutelary deity, Vanchinathan, a name for Hindu god Shiva.
Written in Malayalam language, it was the anthem of the Kingdom of Travancore until 1947, and the merger of Kingdom of Travancore with India.
The anthem ran thus:
Vanchi Bhumi (Malayalam)
Vanchi Bhumi (Romanization)
"'Vanchi Bhumi
(Translation)"'


Charsadda

Chārsadda ( , ) is a town and headquarters of Charsadda District, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is the eighty fifth-largest city of Pakistan, according to 2017 census. Located in the Valley of Peshawar, Charsadda lies about from the provincial capital of Peshawar at an altitude of . The total area of Charsadda District measures about 996 square Km. The district is geographically organized into two primary parts: Hashtnagar (Pashto: Ashnaghar) and Do Aaba (Pashto: Duaba). The city hosts the ruins of what was once the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati (meaning Lotus City in Sanskrit), and home of the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini.
History.
The earliest archaeological deposits recovered at Charsadda, in Bala Hisar, are dated to ca. 1400 BCE, when a small community was established on a low natural mound of clay above the floodplain of the Kabul and Swat rivers, constructing structures of timber posts slotted into postholes, in association with ceramic sherds and ash. Subsequent periods indicate that more permanent structures were built at Charsadda, including stone-lined pits. Between the 14th century BCE and the 6th century BCE, when an Achaemenid presence is represented at the site (see below), the inhabitants of Charsadda developed an iron-working industry and used ceramics that are typical for this period in the Vale of Peshawar, Swat and Dir.
The father of Sanskrit grammar, Pāṇini was from this area and lived around 4th century BCE.
The later history of Charsadda can be traced back to the 6th century BCE. It was the capital of Gandhara from the 6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. The ancient name of Charsadda was Pushkalavati. It was the administrative centre of the Gandhara kingdom. Many invaders have ruled over this region during different times of history. These include the Durrani Empire, Alexander the Great's Macedonians, the Mauryas, the Greco-Bactrians, the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, the Kushans, the Huns, the Turks, the Guptas.
Charsadda is contiguous to the town of Prang; and these two places were identified by Alexander Cunningham with the ancient Pushkalāvati, capital of the region at the time of Alexander's invasion, and transliterated as Peukelaus or Peukelaotis by the Greek historians. Its chieftain (Astes), according to Arrian, was killed in defence of one of his strongholds after a prolonged siege by Hephaistion. Ptolemy fixes its site upon the eastern bank of the Suastene or Swat. The region was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya from the Macedonian straps. In the seventh century CE Hiuen Tsiang visited the city, which he describes as being 100 li (16⅔ miles) north-east of Peshawar. A stupa, erected over the spot where Buddha made an alms-offering of his eyes, formed the great attraction for the Buddhist pilgrim and his co-religionists. The city, however, had even then been abandoned as a political capital in favour of Purushapura, Parashāwara, or Peshawar.
Rivers.
There are three rivers flowing in Charsadda: the River Jindi, the Kabul River and the Swat River; these are the main source of irrigation for Charsadda. The three rivers then merge and join the Indus River.
Administration.
The district is administratively subdivided into three tehsils - Charsadda, Tangi, and Shabqadar which contained a total of 49 Union Councils.
Education.
Bacha Khan University is a public university situated in Charsadda, named after Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Bacha Khan). In January 2016, the university was attacked by gunmen.
See also.
پشکلاوتی


Cassandane

Cassandane or Cassandana (died 538 BC) was an Achaemenian Persian queen consort and the "dearly loved" wife of Cyrus the Great.
She was a daughter of Pharnaspes. She had four children with Cyrus (it may be 5 based on the documented children listed under Cyrus the Great): Cambyses II, who succeeded his father and conquered Egypt; Smerdis (Bardiya), who also reigned as the king of Persia for a short time; a daughter named Atossa, who later wed Darius the Great; and another daughter named Roxana.
Her daughter Atossa later played an important role in the Achaemenid royal family, as she married Darius the Great and bore him the next Achaemenid king, Xerxes I. Atossa had a "great authority" in the Achaemenid royal house and her marriage with Darius I is likely due to her power, influence and the fact that she was a direct descendant of Cyrus.
When Cassandane died, all the nations of Cyrus' Persian empire observed "a great mourning". This is reported by Herodotus. According to a report in the chronicle of Nabonidus, there was a public mourning after her death in Babylonia lasting for six days. According to a suggestion by M. Boyce, Cassandane's tomb is located at Pasargadae.


Parakramabahu IX of Kotte

Dharma Parakramabahu IX was King of Kotte in the sixteenth century, who ruled from 1508/09 to 1528. He succeeded his father Parakramabahu VIII as king of Kotte and was succeeded by his brother Vijayabahu VII.


Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (film)

Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja is a 2009 Indian Malayalam-language historical drama film based on the life of Pazhassi Raja, a Hindu king who fought against the East India Company in the 18th century. The film was directed by Hariharan, written by M. T. Vasudevan Nair and produced by Gokulam Gopalan. It stars Mammootty in the lead role with Sarathkumar, Kanika Subramaniam, Manoj K Jayan, Padmapriya, Thilakan, Peter Handley Evans, Harry Key, Linda Arsenio and Jagathi Sreekumar in supporting roles. The music score and soundtrack were created by Ilaiyaraaja, while its sound design is by Resul Pookutty. The political situation of the time is portrayed from an Indian viewpoint in the film, and the locals are treated sympathetically.
The film won National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam, Best Background Score, Best Audiography and Special Mention (for Padmapriya). It received numerous other accolades, including eight Kerala State Film Awards and seven Filmfare Awards South.
"Pazhassi Raja" was produced at a cost of 27 crore, making it the costliest film made in Malayalam until then. Originally filmed in Malayalam, "Pazhassi Raja" was dubbed in Tamil as well as Hindi. The film released on 16 October 2009 across Kerala with 150 prints.
Plot.
The film started in 1796, four years after the occupation of Malabar by the East India Company and towards the end of the First Pazhassi Revolt (1793–1797). The revolt is led by Kerala Varma (Mammootty), the Raja of Pazhassi Palace, of Kottayam house. The exploitation of the native Indian resources by the company had culminated in popular revolts against its authority across the district. With the help of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja's uncle Kurumbranadu ruler Veeravarma (Thilakan), who is jealous of Pazhassi Raja for his success and influence, and Raja's old companion Pazhayamveedan Chandhu (Suman), the Company act against Pazhassi Raja. This forces Pazhassi Raja to escape to the forests of Wayanad. The tribal force led by Neeli captures Assistant Collector Thomas Hervey Baber (Harry Key) and his fiancée Dora (Linda Arsenio) in the jungle, in spite of his commander's objection. The Raja treats Thomas Baber and Dora as his guest and releases them.
From there, he begins a guerrilla battles against the Company. He is supported by his army chief Edachena Kunkan (Sarathkumar) and his brother-in-law Kaitheri Ambu (Suresh Krishna). In the guerrilla battle-front, Pazhassi Raja uses the expertise of Thalakkal Chandu (Manoj K. Jayan), a Kurichya soldier, and Chandu's fiancée Neeli (Padmapriya).
During the initial phases of the battle, the Company loses many men and much money. This compels them to make a peace treaty with Pazhassi Raja. Raja agrees, hoping that this move will bring peace to the area and his people. However, the conditions of the treaty are never observed by the company. This prompts Raja to start the battle again. Similarly, Dora leaves Thomas Baber for England, having learned the betrayal done by the Company to the Raja and despite her objection to the hanging of a father and son, who refused to reveal the location of the Raja to the company. He forms useful alliances with many rulers and powerful families in the nearby places like Unni Mootha (Captain Raju) and his men.
Pazhassi Raja and his army successfully restart the battle. But the Company use heavily armed forces against him and succeed in luring many tribal leaders. This leads to the capture and subsequent hanging of Thalakkal Chandu as he was cheated by a tribal head (Nedumudi Venu).
The Company started hunting for Pazhassi and his army chief Edachena Kunkan. In a bloody fight, Edachena Kunkan kills Pazhayamveedan Chandhu. But he is surrounded by the company. Instead of surrendering before them, he commits suicide. This makes Raja's army weaker. But Pazhassi Raja, even though knowing that he is going to die, goes for a last fight against the company. After a glorious fight, Pazhassi Raja is killed by the company. The film ends with the assistant collector Thomas Baber placing the body of the Raja in a litter and his famous words: "He was our enemy. But he was a great warrior, a great man and we honour him." The Company officers respond by saluting the corpse of the Raja and acting as Pall-bearers.
Production.
Development.
M. T. Vasudevan Nair, Hariharan, and Mammootty are working together after two decades; their previous association was "Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha", which turned out into a landmark film in Malayalam. It was about Chanthu, a legendary warrior in the "Northern Ballads". Through "Pazhassi Raja", they made another biopic, on the life of Pazhassi Raja. Gokulam Gopalan was the film's producer. The total budget of the film is about 27 crores, which makes it the most expensive Malayalam film ever made. The sounds in the battle scenes of the film were recreated under Academy Award winner Resul Pookutty as he joined in the project only after its completion.
The Kerala High Court ordered the producers of the film to avail the benefit of entertainment tax concession for viewers of "Pazhassi Raja".
Casting.
Mammootty plays the title role of Pazhassi Raja. There are three heroines: Padmapriya appearing as a tribal girl, Kanika as Pazhassi's wife and Linda Arsenio as Dora Baber, fiancée of Assistant Collector Thomas Baber. Linda is a theatre artist in New York who also acted in the film "Kabul Express".
Through this film, Sarath Kumar makes his debut in Malayalam cinema. He portrays Edachena Kunkan, the chief lieutenant to Pazhashi Raja. Suresh Gopi was originally cast for the role. However, he refused to accept. Later, he clarified that he couldn't act in the film due to personal reasons, and it would always be a loss for him. Suman portrayed Pazhayamveedan Chandu which marked his acting debut in Malayalam. Biju Menon was originally cast for the role, but he opted out after a few days of shooting, citing physical difficulties in shooting fight scenes.
Filming.
The filming began in February 2007 from Palakkad. The filming lasted for two and a half years and was completed in August 2009. Sound mixer Resul Pookutty recreated all location scenes to ensure perfection. About the delay in making, Hariharan said: "The film's shoot took two years to complete, when it should have been completed in eight months. The delay was not because of me. Neither was it because my producer, Gokulam Gopalan, was short of money; I must really thank my producer, without whom a film like "Pazhassi Raja" would never have been made. The delay was because some of the stars were not willing to allot the extra time that was required for the film. They probably didn't realise this film would become a milestone in their careers. Making "Pazhassi Raja" was a great challenge for me. Directing "Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha" was a cakewalk, compared to this."
Music.
The film features six original songs composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The original background score was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, conducted by László Kovács and performed by the Hungarian National Philharmonic Orchestra in Budapest. It took three months for Ilaiyaraaja to complete the background score. On 25 September, Think Music released a soundtrack album, featuring only the songs. The songs received mixed to negative critical reviews and "did not go the way that it was expected". Following the setback of the soundtrack album, Ilaiyaraaja stated that he was not satisfied with the lyrics of the poet O. N. V. Kurup, who penned two songs for the film. Ilaiyaraaja won the National Film Award for Best Background Score
Track listing.
Hindi version (Dubbed)
Release.
The film was released on 16 October as a Diwali release with 130 prints in the original Malayalam version and later on 17 November with 150 prints in Tamil. Later, on 27 September 2013, Goldmines Telefilms launched the trailer of the Hindi dubbed version of the film, at their YouTube channel. The full Hindi version of the film was digitally released on YouTube on 11 October 2013.
Home video.
Moser Baer Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray Disc, DVD, SuperDVD and VCD in India. The home video rights was bought by Moser Baer for a record sum of 62 lakhs. "Pazhassi Raja" was the first regional language film to be released in the Blu-ray format. The DVD version of the film was released on 1 May 2010 as a two-DVD set. It is available in Anamorphic widescreen, Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround, progressive 24 FPS, widescreen and NTSC format.
Reception.
Critical response.
Nowrunning comments that the film is an "exotic chronicle that stuns us with its fascinating tale", and that "this is the stuff that "tours de force" are made of". Rediff gave the film 3.5 stars out of 5, praising the script and the technical brilliance of the film. Sify described the film as one "that will be treasured for years to come".
However, Rediff also stated that "sentimentalism bogs down the pace [of the film]" at several occasions of the story. Ilayaraja's music also received criticism, and the critics further accused the film of taking some cinematic liberties on history. "The Hindu" said, "the host of people who play English Lords and East India Company chiefs appears theatrical. Even Linda Arsenio, the English Lady Dora Baber, isn't spontaneous" and "while on editing, certain parts seem to have been trimmed in haste and hence hang without relevance. Strangely, despite an action-oriented story and mind-boggling stunts, the film sags at points." Other critics pointed the sloppy fight scenes and the English accent of Padmapriya who has dubbed for herself in the film.
Box office.
"Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja" collected around 1.65 crore from first day over the all releasing centres. The film had a record opening, collecting 7.65 crore in its first week, which was the highest ever first week recorded for a film in Kerala, at the time it was released. After six weeks (42 days) of release, the film had collected 16 crore in Kerala. The film grossed worldwide in 70 days run. Producer Gopalan said at a press meet in Kochi a year after the release that the film did a total business over 40 crore.


Karo people (Indonesia)

The Karo, or Karonese, are a people of the 'tanah Karo' (Karo lands) of North Sumatra and a small part of neighboring Aceh. The Karo lands consist of Karo Regency, plus neighboring areas in East Aceh Regency, Langkat Regency, Dairi Regency, Simalungun Regency and Deli Serdang Regency. In addition, the cities of Binjai and Medan, both bordered by Deli Serdang Regency, contain significant Karo populations, particularly in the Padang Bulan area of Medan. The town of Sibolangit, Deli Serdang Regency in the foothills on the road from Medan to Berastagi is also a significant Karo town.
Karoland contains two major volcanoes, Mount Sinabung, which erupted after 400 years of dormancy in 2010, and Mount Sibayak. Karoland consists of the cooler high lands, and the upper and lower lowlands.
The Karolands were conquered by the Dutch in 1904, and in 1906 roads to the highlands were constructed, ending the isolation of the highland Karo people. The road linked Medan and the lowlands to Kabanjahe and from there to both Kutacane in Aceh and Pematangsiantar in Simalungun. The first Christian evangelism was conducted among the Karo people in 1890 by the Netherlands Missionary Society. Due to the perceived association with the colonialism of the Dutch East Indies, only a minority of the Karo converted initially, and it was not until after Indonesian independence in 1945 that Christianity acquired significant support among the Karo people.
In 1911, an agricultural project began at Berastagi, now the major town in Karoland, to grow European vegetables in the cooler temperatures. Berastagi is today the most prosperous part of Karoland, just one hour from Medan, while towns further in the interior suffer from lower incomes and limited access to healthcare.
The administrative centre of Karo Regency is Kabanjahe.
Karo identity.
The Karo people speak the Karo language, a language related to, but not mutually intelligible with, other Batak languages, in addition to Indonesian. These Karo people are divided up into clans or Merga. The Karo Merga are Karo-Karo, Ginting, Sembiring, Perangin-Angin, and Tarigan; these Merga are then divided up into sub-clans and finally families.
In 13th to 16th century, the Karo people believed has established Aru Kingdom (also spelled Haru), located in modern day Medan city and Deli Serdang Regency. It was one of the earliest kingdom in Sumatra. The population of Aru Kingdom adhered native animism, Hinduism and Islam. Islam slowly gained influence in coastal area since late 13th century. Despite among the earliest Sumatran kingdom that was exposed to Islam, the people of Aru kingdom remained predominantly pagan, especially those who inhabit interior region. The successor state of Aru Kingdom was the Sultanate of Deli, which demonstrate a mixed influences of Karo, Malay, Tamil and Aceh.
Today, the religion of Karo people are mostly Christian, a religion brought to Sumatra in the 19th Century by missionaries. However, an increasing number living away from the Karo Highlands have converted to Islam, with the influence of Muslim Malay from neighboring Deli area in Medan, and Javanese immigrants, thus making the traditional habits of pig farming and cooking less common. Some Muslims and Christians however still retain their traditional animist beliefs in ghosts, spirits (perbegu), and traditional jungle medicine, despite that fact it contradicts their other beliefs. The Gereja Batak Karo Protestan or Karo Batak Protestant Church is the largest church among the largely Christian Karo people of North Sumatra, Indonesia. This tribal congregation was established formally in 1941 as a Reformed-Calvinist church. The church has 276,000 members (as of 2006) in 398 congregations with 196 pastors.
Member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches.
Karo people traditionally lived in shared longhouses, but very few now remain, and new construction is exclusively of modern designs.
It is believed that Karo people may have migrated from the other lands in order to take part in trade with the visiting Tamils. This intercourse had an influence on their religious beliefs, as well as ethnic makeup, the marga 'Sembiring', meaning 'black one', and many Sembiring sub-marga (Colia, Berahmana, Pandia, Meliala, Depari, Muham, Pelawi and Tekan) are clearly of South-Indian origin, suggesting that inter-marriage between Karo and Tamil people took place.
Religion.
Christianity.
The Karo were harassing Dutch interests in East Sumatra, and Jacob Theodoor Cremer, a Dutch administrator, regarded evangelism as a means to suppress this activity. The Netherlands Missionary Society answered the call, commencing activities in the Karolands in 1890, where they engaged not only in evangelism, but also in ethnology and documenting the Karo culture. The missionaries attempted to construct a base in Kabanjahe in the Karo highlands, but were repelled by the suspicious locals.
In retaliation the Dutch administration waged a war to conquer the Karolands, as part of their final consolidation of power in the Indies. The Karo perceived Christianity as the 'Dutch religion', and its followers as 'dark-skinned Dutch'. In this context, the Karo church was initially unsuccessful, and by 1950 the church had only 5,000 members. In the years following Indonesian independence the perception of Christianity among the Karo as an emblem of colonialism faded, with the church itself acquiring independence, and adopting more elements of traditional Karo culture such as music (whereas previously the brass band was promoted). By 1965, the Karo church had grown to 35,000 members.
After the Indonesian Genocide.
Unlike the Toba Batak, who embraced Christianity fairly readily, the Karo continued to follow their traditional religion for several decades after the arrival of the first Christian missionaries in the Karolands.
Following the Indonesian Genocide in 1965–1966, at which time over 70% of the Karo still followed traditional religions, there was a push for Indonesians to identify with an established religion. Many Karo joined the GBKP (Batak Karo Protestant church) (60,000 were baptised in 1966–1970.), and from 5,000 Muslims (mostly non-Karo) in Karoland in 1950, there were 30,000 in 1970.
At this time, the "Balai Pustaka Adat Merga Si Lima" (BPAMSL) was established in Berastagi. BPAMSL, proclaimed the 'agama Pemena', or the religion (agama) of the founders (Pemena).
The concept of 'religion' was relatively new in the Karoland; historically the neighbouring Muslim people, were known as 'kalak Jawi' or the people of the Jawi lands, and the concept of 'kalak Kristen', or Christian people, was the first time that people were identified by their religion rather than their land. The 'agama Pemena' of BPAMSL was a defence against accusations of atheism, Communism or animism.
BPAMSL conducted a ceremony in the Lau Debuk–Debuk hot spring akin to the one to invest a new Karo village. This ceremony essentially validated the Dutch-established Berastagi as a 'true' Karo village, and was attended by the regent of Karo regency and other political figures.
At that time, BPAMSL became the largest religious organisation in the Karolands, surpassing the GBKP, and absorbing many who had joined it following the anti-Communist purge.
As a response to the Pemena movement, the GBKP after 1969 determined that members could participate in village rituals as a matter of adat (tradition), whereas previously they had been rejected by GBKP as of a religious (unchristian) nature.
After Golkar won the elections in 1972, Djamin Ginting, a leading BPAMSL figure proclaimed BPAMSL as a movement within Golkar, adopting Islam as his religion, while Indonesian National Party supporters rejected this. With BPAMSL no longer a united force for the practice of Pemena, and Pemena itself no longer a uniting force in the Karoland, and with all Indonesians required to follow one of the religions of Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism, or risk writing 'without belief' on their identity card, the board members of BPAMSL met with a wealthy Indian man from Medan and determined that the traditional religion was in fact an expression of Indian Hinduism, and that it had been founded by a 'Bagavan Bṛgu', from which had been derived the alternate name for the Karo beliefs 'Perbegu' (followers of 'begu' (in Karo, begu is a spirit or ghost)), the existence of Indian-originating Karo marga names and similarities between Karo ritual and Indian Hindu ones all proving this. Thus the Association of Karo Hinduism (PAHK) was proclaimed.
The PAHK declared 'Pemena is the same as Hinduism' and received funding from Medan Indians for their cause. PAHK became a movement within Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia, and as a culmination of this, in 1985 PAHK became a branch of the PHDI, PHDK. When Parisada Hindu Dharma Karo (PHDK) was established, it claimed 50,000 members, and 50,000 more sympathisers. The PHD built a Balinese-style temple in Tanjung, a Karo village to inaugurate the PHDK. In doing so it was stated that PHDI (i.e. Balinese) Hinduism was the only valid form, and in fact the Karo 'Hindu' ritual were invalid, the name change from 'Hindu Karo' to 'Hindu Dharma Karo' and the replacement of Tamil Indians on the PAHK board with Balinese on the PHDK symbolising the assertion of 'Hindu Dharma' as the 'valid' Hindu religion, with little regard paid to re-imagining Karo rituals within an Agama Hindu context.
There was an immediate decline in PAHK/PHDK support, with a small number of people still following the PHDK practices, but others following traditional Karo (Pemena) rituals outside of the formal context of PHDK. This left the Christian GBKP, by then for many years an indigenous Karo-run adat-respecting church a rather more comfortable option for most Karo than the Balinese Hinduism asserted by PHDK. There are today four Balinese-style PHDK temples in the Karoland, but the concept of Karo traditional beliefs as a manifestation of Hinduism is otherwise largely extinct.
Modern Christianity.
Although the Gereja Batak Karo Protestan (GBKP) is the largest Karo church, with has 276,000 members (as of 2006) in 398 congregations with 196 pastors, there are also Catholic (33,000 members as of 1986) and several Pentecostalist denominations.
Merga Si Lima.
Karo people belong to one of five marga or clans, which are Ginting, Karo-Karo, Perangin-Angin, Sembiring and Tarigan. Each marga is further divided into sub-marga (83 in total). With the exception of marga Karo-Karo, most Karo identify themselves by their principal rather than sub-marga.
Karo and Batak adat prohibits marriage within a marga (e.g., Ginting with Ginting). Upon marriage, the bride becomes a part of the groom's family, with the kalimbubu (bride's family) joining with anakberu (groom's family).
Karonese marriages are very large affairs, with typically 200 attendees, comprising the numerous family members of both marrying parties, comprising a number of elements, including the chewing of betel nut (sirih), traditional Karonese dancing (which focuses on hand movements), the payment of a nominal dowry to each of the kalimbubu. Food is cooked by the anakberu, who will spend many hours cooking vast quantities to cater for the numerous guests. This social obligation is expected to be reciprocated, so that Karonese people can attend several weddings each month. Non-Karo people do not attend the wedding ceremony, although such friends might be invited to a separate party in the evening. Where a non-Karonese person wishes to marry a Karonese, they would be adopted into a Karo marga.
Traditionally kalimbubu-anakberu relationships would be reinforced by cross-cousin marriages (i.e. to one's mother's brother's child), however in modern Karo society this tradition is no longer important.
Marga origin mythology.
Karo tradition states that the Merga si Lima originate from five villages, each established by a Sibayak, a founding community. The Sibayak of Suka whose family name was Ginting Suka established the village of Suka. The Sibayak of Lingga called Karo-karo Sinulingga established the village of Lingga. The Sibayak of Barusjahe whose family name was Karo-karo Barus pioneered the village of Barusjahe. The Sibayak of Sarinembah, called Sembiring Meliala established the village of Sarinembah. The Sibayak of Kutabuluh named Perangin-angin established the village of Kutabuluh.
Each one of these five villages has its own satellite villages inhabited by the extended families of the main village inhabitants. The satellite villages were established for the convenience of the villagers whose fields were relatively far from the main villages. The purpose was to save them time when travelling back and forth from the village to their fields. Today, these satellite villages have developed and matured to be independent of the main villages. In the old times, these satellite villages used to ask for help from the main villages to deal with natural disasters, tribal disputes, diseases and famine.
The leaders of these satellite villages were called URUNGs. The Sibayak of Lingga administered five villages i.e., Tiganderket, Tiga Pancur, Naman, Lingga and Batukarang. The Sibayak of Suka administered four villages i.e., Suka, Seberaya, Ajinembah and Tengging. The Sibayak of Sarinembah administered four villages i.e., Sarinembah, Perbesi, Juhar and Kutabangun. The Sibayak of Barusjahe administered two villages i.e., Barusjahe and Sukanalu. The Sibayak of Kutabuluh administered two villages i.e., Kutabuluh and Marding-ding.


Athinkhaya (disambiguation)

Athinkhaya, Athinhkaya, or Thinkhaya was a Burmese ministerial and later, royal title of the Burmese monarchy. It may refer to:


Khin Sok

Khin Sok (; 1942 - 10 October 2011) was a Cambodian historian, linguist, literature and arts scholar. He acquired a doctorate of history in Paris, published scientific works, taught as a professor in the Royal University of Phnom Penh and was a member of the Royal Academy of Cambodia. His publications during the second half of the 20th century profoundly contributed to the scientific interpretation of historical sources, literature and the systemic development of the modern Khmer language. As a participant of the Khmerization movement he encouraged the promotion of a culturally independent Cambodia on the basis of enlightened and scholarly education in an international context.
Career.
After successfully acquiring certificates and titles in advanced literature and the arts, Khin Sok taught Khmer language between 1973 and 1993 at the Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (INALCO) and published his early works (Mon-Khmer Studies, History Revisions) in Paris at the Bulletin de l’École française d'Extrême-Orient.
From 1975 on he conducted studies, revisions, interpretations and translations of the Cambodian Royal Chronicles, culminating 1988 in his work "Chroniques royales du Cambodge (De Banà Yàt jusqu’à la prise de Lanvaek de 1417 à 1595). Traduction française avec comparaison des différences version et introduction" - a widely acclaimed revision and reinterpretation of previous works of European scholars. He and fellow scholar Mak Phoeun reassembled the individually treated, stylistically and methodically differing works of most of the French authors and rearranged them into a new context. During the 1970s and 1980s he published a number of works on the interpretation of inscriptions of various temple ruins of the Khmer Empire. His expertise helped to supplement and determine the actual Royal Chronology of Cambodia.
Beginning in the late 1980s, he produced a number of scientific papers on the history and the relations between Annam (modern day Vietnam), Siam (modern day Thailand) and pre-colonial Cambodia. In 1991 he published his synoptic works "Cambodia squeezed between Siam and Vietnam (from 1775 to 1860)" and "The annexation of Cambodia by Vietnam during the 19th Century, as retold in two poems composed by Venerable Botum Baramey Pich (The Kampoub Ter Ong story)".
During the 1990s Khin Sok's publications shifted towards linguistic topics, such as the first grammar book on modern Khmer language, a comprehensive Khmer language manual in co-operation with Claude Jacques and Yoshiaki Ishizawa and a contemporary Cambodian-French dictionary, followed by his concluding work: "La khmérisation de l’enseignement et l’indépendance culturelle au Cambodge - On the Khmérisation of education and the cultural independence of Cambodia."
In later years he alternatively taught history and civilization of the countries of Southeast Asia in Phnom Penh and Paris in order to lend his expertise and presume the tradition of scholarly exchange and co-operation. Khin Sok was a prominent member of the "Association Culturelle Franco-Khmer", the "Association Des Etudiants Cambogiens" in France and the Cambodian Academic Network.


Tigranes (Orontid)

Tigranes was an Orontid King of Armenia reigning in the period between 560–535 BC.
Life.
According to Moses of Khorene's ""History of Armenia", during the reign of Tigranes ("Tigran Yervanduni") the territory of Armenia spread for about 400.000 km2. Moses calls him "the wisest, most powerful and bravest of Armenian Kings".
According to Herodotus it was Harpagus who overthrew Astyages with Cyrus, although Cyrus the Great allowed many kings to remain in power by providing tribute to him there. This is to be contrasted with an Armenian legend, which claims that the king of the Medes, Azhdahak (Astyages) dreamed that Tigranes would come to attack him and so plotted to bring about his downfall. War commenced and Tigranes killed Azhdahak and then married his widowed wife Anush (Aryenis).
Xenophon mentions the Armenian King Tigranes in his "Cyropaedia", where he states that he was an ally of Cyrus the Great. According to the Armenian author H. Khachatryan, they were hunting companions. Tigranes was a great archer and was always victorious over Cyrus. The latter once decided to organize a tournament in which the participants were to drink ten cups of wine before shooting. Cyrus and Tigranes drank the wine, but, after that, Cyrus the Great took a special herb to counteract the effects of the wine. Tigranes, however, did likewise, and then won the tournament. After that, Cyrus claimed: "No, wine can not win such men like us. No matter how much we drink, we do not get drunk. And I miss only two times of four and you didn't miss at all".


Gusti Ayu Oka Kaba-Kaba

Gusti Ayu Oka Kaba-Kaba was regent of Mengwi, a principality in East Bali, from 1770/80-1807. She was regent for her son Gusti Agung Putu Agung after her husband Gusti Agung Made Munggu died, and from 1793/4 until 1807 she was regent for her grandson.


Early medieval states in Kazakhstan

During the earlier medieval period, a succession of mainly Turkic states ruled in the area of present-day Kazakhstan.


Galuh Kingdom

Kingdom of Galuh was an ancient Sundanese kingdom located in the eastern part of "Tatar Pasundan" (now West Java province and Banyumasan region of Central Java province), present-day Indonesia. It was established following the end of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century. Traditionally the kingdom was associated with Eastern Priangan cultural region, around the Citanduy and Cimanuk rivers, with territory spanned from Citarum river on the west, Pamali and Serayu river on the east. Its capital was first located in Karangkamulyan, Ciamis Regency, then Saunggalah, Kuningan, and Kawali, near today Ciamis City. The etymology of "galuh" is Old Sundanese and Old Javanese word for "gemstone".
History.
Most of the knowledge about this kingdom was collected from local Sundanese myth and folktales, transmitted through Pantun Sunda oral tradition. The Sundanese epic folktale of Ciung Wanara took place in this kingdom. Scarce historical records include Carita Parahyangan and Wangsakerta manuscripts composed in later period. The only stone inscription was 14th century Astana Gede inscription discovered in Kawali, believed to be the former capital of Galuh. From all these sources, it was concluded that Galuh was a Hindu kingdom, the predecessor of later Sunda Pajajaran kingdom. It was about the same period as Javanese Medang kingdom.
According to the Wangsakerta manuscript, Galuh was a vassal of Tarumanagara. After the fall of Tarumanagara, its dynastic patriarch, Wretikandayun of Galuh, separated his realm from Sunda kingdom in the west. Since the crown prince of Galuh was the son-in-law of Queen Shima of Kalingga, a Hindu kingdom in Central Java, Wretikandayun, supported by Kalingga, demanded that the remnant of what was known as Tarumanagara's territory be divided into two kingdoms. Finding himself in an unfortunate position and unwilling to risk a civil war, King Tarusbawa of Sunda granted Wretikandayun's demand. In 670, Tarumanagara was divided into two kingdoms: the Sunda Kingdom in the west, and the Galuh Kingdom in the east, separated by the Tarum (Citarum) River.
Galuh continued to exist as individual kingdom as the counterpart of Sunda until it was absorbed and incorporated within Sunda kingdom around the 10th century. Galuh and the Sunda kingdom, another Sundanese kingdom, established the United Kingdom of Sunda and Galuh. Its centre in Kawali become the court capital until the 15th century when Sri Baduga Maharaja shifted the capital to Pakuan Pajajaran. In later period, during the expansion of Mataram Sultanate, the "menak" (nobles) of Eastern Priangan region (Ciamis, Tasikmalaya, Garut, Kuningan and Majalengka), claimed to hold the legacy and prestige of this ancient kingdom.
Cultural Heritage.
Cangkuang temple located in Leles, Garut Regency is estimated to have been built during Galuh kingdom era. It is the only reconstructed Hindu temple in West Java.


Aynuna

Aynuna (Arab. عينونة, "ʿAjnūna") – a village in northwestern Saudi Arabia, in the Tabuk Region, located about 5 km from the Red Sea coast, at the mouth of the Gulf of Aqaba. Archaeological remains discovered here are identified by most researchers with the Nabataean port of Leuke Kome, mentioned by Strabo, among others. It lay on a trade route; it is estimated that about 8-9 days were needed for a camel caravan to travel from Aqaba to Petra. The 300-km-long track led through the mountains but was fairly easy and safe.
Archaeological research.
Saudi–Polish Archaeological Project in Aynuna.
The archaeological expedition from the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw (PCMA UW) and the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage (SCTA) has conducted research in Aynuna since 2014, under the direction of Prof. Michał Gawlikowski (PCMA UW) and Dr. Abdullah al-Zahrani. The site lies on the bank of a dried-up riverbed of the same name (Wadi Aynuna/Wadi Ainounah). The excavations focus on a complex of buildings of a trading post, which are dated from the Roman period (1st century AD) to the early Islamic times (8th century). A survey carried out on the plateau cut by Wadi Aynuna also revealed the remains of a fortified settlement. A modern fishing village of Khoraiba covers the site of the ancient port. Although it lay about 3 km from the trading post studied by the expedition, both places were undoubtedly connected.


Hachimanyama Castle

 was a castle in Ōmihachiman, Japan, on the eastern shore of Lake Biwa in Shiga prefecture. It was the home castle of Toyotomi Hidetsugu, the nephew of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
History.
Hachimanyama Castle was built by Toyotomi Hidetsugu in 1585 under orders from Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Azuchi Castle's materials were used in the construction of the castle, and Azuchi city's functions were moved to Hachiman city. In 1595, Kyōgoku Takatsugu moved to Ōtsu Castle and Hachimanyama Castle was abandoned.
Current state.
Hachimanyama castle is now in ruins, with some extant stone walls and wet moat. The Buddhist temple Zuiryuji now occupies the former "honmaru", or main bailey. Hachimanyama Ropeway provides services between the mountaintop and Himure Hachimangū.　 The castle was listed as one of the Continued Top 100 Japanese Castles in 2017.


List of Philippine place names of Spanish origin

As a result of more than three centuries of Spanish dominance in the islands that are now the republic of the Philippines, an overwhelming number of places in the country have Spanish or Hispanic names. As with Filipino surnames and many other aspects of Filipino culture, place names in the Philippines have received a great deal of Spanish influence, with many places in the former Spanish colony having been named after those in Spain and Latin America. The name "Philippines" itself originated from its old official name "Filipinas" in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish language has also become one of the country's official languages from the late 16th century until 1986 when it was designated as a voluntary language and it remains so to this day.
Barrios and districts.
This is not an exhaustive list.
Islands.
This is not an exhaustive list.
Mountains and hills.
This is not an exhaustive list.
Streets and roads.
This is not an exhaustive list.
Rivers.
This is not an exhaustive list.


Central Philippine University - College of Theology

The Central Philippine University College of Theology, also referred to as the CPU COT, CPU College of Theology or CPU Theology, is the theological seminary and one of the academic units of Central Philippine University, a private university in Iloilo City, Philippines. Founded in 1905 as the "Bible School" for the training of men Christian workers and missionaries through a grant of the American industrialist and Northern Baptist, John D. Rockefeller, it is the oldest college and academic unit of Central Philippine University and "the first and oldest Baptist theological seminary in the Philippines" (first Protestant theological seminary outside Luzon).
It was later folded and became as the theological department, a year after when Jaro Industrial School (the second predecessor of Central Philippine University), became a junior college in 1923. In 1938, the Baptist Missionary Training School for women, a separate seminary for women, merged with it when Central Philippine University became a senior college. In 1953 when Central Philippine College became a university, the department became as the "College of Theology".
The seminary at present maintains sisterhood ties with Silliman University Divinity School as both were founded by Protestant American missionaries, affiliated with the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches and is accredited with the Association of Theological Education in South East Asia (ATESEA).
History.
Prior when the Philippines was ceded to the United States administration by Spain through the Treaty of Paris (1898), the Americans brought their faith, the Protestantism. A comity agreement with Protestant American churches and sects was created to divide the Philippine islands for missionary works and to avoid future conflicts with different churches. Western Visayas came to the jurisdictions of the Baptists (Northern Baptist).
An idea of establishing an industrial for boys and theological seminary to train Christian workers and ministers thereafter was conceived. Then in 1901, a grant was given by the American industrialist, philanthropist, oil magnate, and devoted Northern Baptist John D. Rockefeller to establish mission schools in the islands to the American Baptist Churches. The Philippine Baptist Conference voted later in December 1904 to establish two schools, an industrial school for boys and a Bible school to train ministers and other Christian workers. The task to found the mission schools was given to American missionary William Orison Valentine, who also became the first presidents of the both schools, with other missionaries as co-founders. Before it, Valentine and Miss Van Allen were married back in 1903 and thereafter, the couple left for the new appointment in Iloilo in the Philippines.
In the summer of 1905 (June), the Baptist Missionary Training School was established by the Reverend William Orison Valentine in their home and later in the fall of 1905, the Jaro Industrial School was established. The leadership of the Bible School was turned over to the Reverend Henry Munger who conducted classes off campus. In 1907, Dr. Eric Lund became principal and classes were held at the Mission Press building where Lund was doing his Scripture translation work. When Dr. Lund left in 1912, the Bible School was closed. It was reopened in 1913 by Reverend Alton Bigelow. It was under his leadership that the school began to have a definite direction in its development.
In 1923, the Jaro Industrial School became Central Philippine College. In April of the following year, the Baptist Missionary Training School became an organic part of the College. A program leading to the degree of Bachelor of Theology was offered. Those who enrolled were men students who were trained to be pastors of the churches. In 1936, through the guidance of Rev. Alton Bigelow, the school became the Department of Theology of Central Philippine College.
While the Baptist Missionary Training School was established for the training of men to be pastors, the training of women to be missionaries began in 1907 with the establishment of separate seminary for women under the leadership of Miss Anna V. Johnson and Celia Sainz. Both were sent to the Philippines by the Women’s American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. Miss Johnson was assigned in Capiz. The seminary for women continued to develop separately from the Baptist Missionary Training School until 1938, when it was merged with the Department of Theology of Central Philippine College. With the merging of the two schools, two degree programs were offered-the Bachelor of Theology and the Bachelor of Science in Religious Education. On April 1, 1953, Central Philippine College was granted government recognition as a university. Following this, the Department of Theology became the College of Theology. Gradually, the leadership of the university and the College of Theology was turned over to the Filipinos. A significant part of this Filipinization process took place in 1966 when Dr. Rex D. Drilon became the first Filipino President of the University.
At present, the college is affiliated with the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches and a member of Association of Theological Education in South East Asia and the South East Asia Graduate School of Theology. It also maintains fraternal ties with American Baptist Churches, the Australian Baptist Mission Society, the Baptist World Alliance, the Asian Baptist Fellowship, the National Council of Churches in the Philippines and other Christian organizations.
Academic Programs.
The college has two departments: Religion and Ethics and Music. As a Protestant seminary, the college is affiliated with the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches and provided various undergraduate and graduate degrees which are accredited with the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia. The college offers graduate programs through the Central Philippine University School of Graduate Studies.


Jungle Terry

Jungle Terry or Jungleterry, from "jangal tarāi", meaning 'jungle lowland', was a term applied in the 18th century to an area bordering Bengal and Bihar that included large tracts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr districts, as well as the Santal Parganas district.
Although named as such, rather than an official district the Jungle Terry was a vague border area. The district named Jungle Mahals would be established later in 1805.
Geography.
The Jungle Terry was located in the present-day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand. It was an ill-defined thickly forested region inhabited by tribal groups such as the Santhal and the Munda people. William Hodges mentions that the Jungle Terry was located to the west of Bauglepore (Bhagalpur).
The area included the Rajmahal Hills; towns that were close to the area according to James Browne included, besides Bauglepoor or Boglypour (Bhagalpur), Curruckpoor (Kharagpur), Colgong (Kahalgaon), Birboom (Birbhum), Curruckdea (Kharagdiha) and Guidore (Gidhaur).
Map number two of James Rennell's 1779 "Bengal Atlas" has the title "Jungleterry District", but the name 'Jungle Terry' itself does not show on the map. Bishop Reginald Heber comments that the "Jungleterry" district is very fertile and that theft, murder and highway robberies are a rare occurrence in it.


Hari Rao Holkar

Hari Rao Holkar (1795-1843), formally Maharajadhiraj Raj Rajeshwar Sawai Shri Hari Rao Holkar IX Bahadur, belonging to the Holkar dynasty of the Marathas was Maharaja Holkar of Indore (Hokar State) from 17 April 1834 until his death at the Juna Rajwada Palace in Indore on 24 October 1843. He was the grandson of Tukoji Rao Holkar.
Hari Rao's accession to the throne ("gaddi") was the result of a popular uprising against the adoption and crowning of the child Marthand Rao Holkar by Krishna Bai Holkar, the mother of the deceased Maharaja Malhar Rao Holkar III. In 1819, Hari Rao was involved in a power struggle with members of the royal family and was imprisoned at Maheshwar for leading an insurrection. After the crowning of Marthand Rao in January 1834, Hari was freed by supporters, who then convinced Krishna Bai to agree to his succession instead. He was subsequently adopted by the widow of the deceased Maharaja on 18 March and formally installed on the throne on 17 April 1834 at the Juna Rajwada Palace.
The British Government remained neutral regarding these succession struggles. Later, however, as Hari Rao's health deteriorated, the British Resident pressed him to appoint an heir. On 2 July 1841, Hari Rao adopted Khande Rao Holkar, the 11-year-old son of Bapuji Rao Holkar, a zemindar of Jotsikhera (near Indore). Soon after, when Hari Rao retired from public life due to his health, Lord Ellenborough, the Governor General, interceded to ensure the appointment of capable ministers to prevent supporters of Marthand Rao from challenging the succession.


Bayads

The Bayad (Mongol: Баяд/Bayad, "lit. "the Riches"") is the third largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia and they are a tribe in Four Oirats. Baya'ud were a prominent clan within the Mongol Empire. Baya'ud can be found in both Mongolic and Turkic peoples. Within Mongols, the clan is spread through Khalkha, Inner Mongolians, Buryats and Oirats.
History.
The clan name Baya'ud appears among the Mongols, while the ethnonym Bayid appears in Central Siberia. Only the latter appears to be connected to the modern Bayad people of western Mongolia. A common clan name does not mean common origin , the clan names Bayad and Baya’ud are differentiated. The Bayads appear to be Siberian peoples subjugated by the Dorbod tribe of the Oirats. Like all the Oirat tribes, the Bayads were not a consanguineal unit but a political-ethnographic one, formed of at least 40 different yasu, or patrilineages, of the most diverse origins.
It is also mentioned that the Bayads are presumably of Siberian Turkic origin, as the Bayad clan name is attested in Siberia from early times.
Modern demographics.
Today, Bayads are settled in the districts of Khyargas, Malchin, Tes, Züüngovi, Baruunturuun and Naranbulag in the province of Uvs. According to the census taken in 2000, 50,824 Bayads currently live in Mongolia.


Sigal, Sakastan

Sigal was a city of the Helmund valley in south-west Afghanistan (ancient Sacastene).
The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE, with their capital at Sigal, is mentioned by Isidore of Charax in his "Parthian stations". He explained that they were bordered at that time by Greek cities to the east (Alexandria of the Caucasus and Alexandria of the Arachosians), and the Parthian-controlled territory of Arachosia to the south:


Jean Hougron

Jean Hougron (1 July 1923 - 22 May 2001) was a French novelist, famous for a series of novels set in French Indochina in the mid-20th century, which is where he resided and travelled for several years. Several of these novels are collected in the series "La Nuit Indochinoise" ("The Indochina Night"), which include several best sellers, such as "Tu récolteras la tempête" ("Reap the Wirlwind").
Life.
Jean Hougron was born on 1 July 1923 to a French Breton family in Calvados, a department of north-western France between Normandy and Brittany. He began his professional life as a teacher of English and sciences in north-western towns, then moved south to Marseille to work for one year with an import-export trading firm. This firm sent him to Indochina in June 1947. From there, he exercised several trades, travelling across Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and southern China, while learning to speak some of the regional languages. In 1949, he returned to Saigon, Vietnam, where he worked at the US consulate and then at Radio France Asie, the Asian branch of the French state-owned radio broadcasting corporation. He returned to France in 1951. He died on 22 May 2001 in Paris.
Novels.
From his years in Indochina, he came with many anecdotes, observations and souvenirs, which he used to write novels, starting with "Tu récolteras la tempête" (1950). He published several novels, mostly based in Indochina, which met with great success, especially the series of novels the "La Nuit Indochinoise" collection. In 1953, he was awarded the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française (French Academy Novel Prize) for these books.
Hougron's novels are not focused on political subjects, such as on the French Indochina colony and the decolonization movement in South Asia during or after World War II and the beginning of the First Indochina War, but rather on studies of atmosphere, climate, landscape, characters, and human relations. He has been sometimes called "The French Joseph Conrad". Several of his books have been translated and published in English and other languages.
He continued writing novels, which were often best sellers and some of which were made into movies ("Je reviendrai à Kandara" (1956), directed by Victor Vicas, and "Mort en Fraude" (1957), directed by Marcel Camus).
While the context of his books is dated, some of them, especially the "Nuit Indochinoise" series, have been re-edited regularly, and he has retained a steady readership.


Saw Pale of Nyaungyan

Saw Pale (, ) was the mother of King Mohnyin Thado of Ava. She was a great granddaughter of King Kyawswa I of Pinya from her father's side. Her descendants became kings of Ava down to 1527. She was also a nine-times great grandmother of King Alaungpaya of Konbaung Dynasty.


Choara (Parthia)

Choara (Latin; from "Khóara", from Old Iranian "*huṷăra-" or "*xṷăra-") was a town or village recorded by Greek authors, and was probably the center of the district Choarene. The "Choarene" mentioned by Strabo refers to this town, not the district. It was part of the region Media, until the rise of the Arsacids who incorporated it to Parthia. The Hellenistic city of Apameia was also located in the Choarene district.
This place-name is probably related to Khuwār () mentioned by Muslim geographers, located in the Qumis region along the Great Khorasan Road, and the modern district of Khāvar, with its center being Arādān.


Dairizuka Kofun

The is a Kofun period burial mound located in what is now the Kashima neighborhood of the city of Futtsu, Chiba Prefecture in the Kantō region of Japan. The tumulus was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 2002, with the area under protection extended in 2009.
Overview.
The Dairizuka Kofun is a , which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above. It is located in an estuary lowland created by the Koito River, which flows into Tokyo Bay, in the central part of the Bōsō Peninsula. The area along this river has a high concentration of Kofun period remains, including 47 tumuli (29 dome-shaped, seven square-shaped and 11 keyhole-shaped), which were built from the middle of the 5th century to the 7th century AD. This area was a transportation hub, controlling the route from the Bōsō Peninsula to the Miura Peninsula and from thence to the Kansai region and the Yamato court.
The Dairizuka Kofun was built in two layers with an overall length of 144 meters, and was originally surrounded by a moat. The mound was once covered in "fukiishi" and was surrounded by three rows cylindrical, "morning-glory"-shaped, house-shaped, and human-shaped "haniwa".
The tumulus was excavated in 1906 by Tokyo Imperial University, and two stone burial chambers aligned with the main axis of the tumulus were found in the posterior circular portion the mound. The eastern chamber measured 5.75 meters long by 0.75 to 0.88 meters in width, and contained two sets of human remains, five iron swords, one iron dagger, one iron sickle, three chopsticks, an iron glove and ax. The western chamber was 7.55 meters long by one meter wide, and had a bronze mirror, five iron swords, one long iron sword, one iron spear, a set of gold-bronze metal fittings and a "Kabura-ya" arrowhead made of deer bone. From the grave goods it was determined that this tomb was built in the middle of the Kofun period, or early 5th century AD. The metal fittings are significant, as an identical set has been recovered from a tomb in Fukuoka Prefecture and the only other known location has been from tombs in the Mimana region of the Korean Peninsula. The "Kabura-ya" arrowhead, which is used to make a noise when the arrow is launched, is a unique find. These artifacts are on display at the National Museum of Japanese History in Sakura, Chiba.
The area where this "kofun" is located is ancient Kingdom of Sue (須恵), which was also on the route the semi-mythical Yamato Takeru took on his expedition to conquer eastern Japan for the Yamato court. Per the "Kujiki" chronicle, Sue was ruled by a "Kuni no miyatsuko" named , and as this is the largest keyhole-shaped "kofun" in the southern Kantō region, it is possible that it is the grave of that local ruler. Per local legend, it is the grave of a daughter of Takahashi no Mushimaro, a court official whose poems appear in the "Man'yōshū"; however, he lived in the Nara period, at least two centuries after this tumulus was completed.
The tumulus is a ten minute walk from Aohori Station on the JR East Uchibō Line.


Ali Mughayat Syah

Sultan Ali Mughayat Syah (died 7 August 1530) was the first sultan of Aceh in northern Sumatra, reigning from about 1514 until his death. Although he was not the first ruler of the Aceh heartland, he is considered the founder of the greater Aceh empire. His time also saw the emergence of the long struggle with the Portuguese for the political and economic supremacy in the Melaka Straits. Sultan Ali's life and career are nevertheless ill-chronicled, and have to be pieced together from various Acehnese, Malay and European accounts.
The rise of Aceh.
In the fifteenth century, three port kingdoms dominated northernmost Sumatra. Samudra Pasai had been a Muslim sultanate since the late thirteenth century, controlling part of the inter-Asian trade that went through the Melaka Straits. However, by the early sixteenth century it was wrecked by political turmoil. Another important state was Pidië which was a prominent producer of pepper and befriended the Portuguese since 1509. A third one was Daya (possibly at present-day Calang) where the Portuguese founded a settlement in the early sixteenth century.
The origins of Aceh are disputed. According to the "Hikayat Aceh" two bidadaris (heavenly nymphs) married two princely brothers from Lamuri and gave rise to the royal dynasty. Other stories speak of Minangkabau, Arab or even Seljuq origins for the royal line. According to the Sejarah Melayu a prince of Champa called Syah Poling (Pau Ling), the son of the King of Champa Syah Pau Kubah, fled Champa when the Vietnamese sacked the capital, Vijaya in 1471. He founded the royal line in Aceh. Indeed, Acehnese is the only non-Chamic relative in the subgroup Aceh-Chamic languages. At any rate, Aceh does not seem to have been a prominent kingdom before 1500. At the end of the fifteenth century a Raja Inayat Syah, son of Abdullah Almalik Almubin, reigned over Dar al-Kamal, the direct predecessor of Banda Aceh. He had two sons, namely Alauddin (d. 1508) who was king of Daya, and Sultan Muzaffar Syah who succeeded his father. Muzaffar was probably expelled by the king of Pidië and died in 1497. When the Portuguese arrived some years later they heard that Aceh was a vassal under Pidië. At this time it was governed by Syamsu Syah, son of Munawwar Syah. Syamsu Syah later had to abdicate in favour of his son Ali Mughayat Syah, and died in 1530. Ali was married to Sitt Hur (d. 1554), a daughter of Alauddin of Daya (alternatively, with Puteri Setia Indera, daughter of Raja Inayat Syah), thus binding the two lines of Aceh rulers together. He was strongly supported by his brother Raja Ibrahim, who was a prominent military commander. According to the authoritative chronicle "Bustanus Salatin", he was the first sultan of Aceh.
The conquest of Pidië.
The time when Sultan Ali Mughayat Syah came to the throne is not certain. The later chronicles give him 15, 16 or 18 years which would place his accession at c. 1512-15. He may have reigned earlier than that since his reign reportedly overlapped with that of Sultan Ma'arif Syah of Pidië (d. 1511). According to the "Hikayat Aceh", Sultan Maa'rif asked for Sultan Ali's sister in marriage but was turned down since he ate with commoners, and since Sultan Ali's family was descended from a "bidadari". The enraged Sultan Ma'arif attacked Aceh but suffered a bad defeat due to Sultan Ali's superior tactics. Apparently this made an end to Aceh's dependence on Pidië. At his death, dated in 1511 by epigraphic evidence, Sultan Ma'arif was succeeded by his son Sultan Ahmad, but he was not valued by the population since he had not done his best in the struggle against Aceh. A Portuguese source from c. 1512-15 suggests that the war between Aceh and Pidië was raging at that time. After a while Sultan Ali Mughayat Syah invaded Pidië whose ruler was abandoned by his people and only defended by his slaves. Sultan Ahmad fled to Pasai while Pidië was incorporated in the Aceh kingdom. Portuguese sources indicate that this happened in the early 1520s
Conflict with Portuguese Melaka.
Meanwhile, the Portuguese had conquered Melaka in 1511. They rapidly gained the animosity of Muslim and other traders who preferred to move to other port cities in the region. In this process, the strongly Muslim Aceh was a clear winner. Aceh enjoyed a strategic location at the northern tip of Sumatra, which gave it access to trade in the Indian Ocean area and the Red Sea. An unreliable Ottoman account says that the sultan of Aceh approached the Ottoman sultan Selim I in 1516 and offered vassalage. However, the Acehnese-Ottoman relations actually seem to belong to a later period, during the reign of Sultan Ali's son Alauddin al-Kahar. In his geographical work "Suma Oriental" (c. 1512-15) the Portuguese writer Tomé Pires writes that the king of Aceh also ruled over Lamuri and lorded over Biheue. He was "a knightly man among his neighbours. He uses piracy when he sees an opportunity." The ruler had 40 lancharas (ships) to use for sea expeditions. Other kingdoms on the north coast at that time included Pidië, Lide (unknown location), Peudada, and Pasai.
The first direct contact between Aceh and the Portuguese took place in 1519 when a Gaspar da Costa arrived with a ship but was captured by the inhabitants. He was later ransomed by the syahbandar (harbour master) of Pasai and found refuge there. In the next year 1520, Sultan Ali and his brother Raja Ibrahim began a series military campaigns to dominate the northern part of Sumatra, which would soon draw in the Portuguese in a deadly struggle. His first campaign was to Daya, on the northwest coast, which, according to Tomé Pires, had not yet been Islamized (although this can only be partly true since members of the Acehnese sultan's family ruled the place). A Portuguese fort had been built there, but was now lost. Further conquests extended down the east coast, incorporating several pepper-producing and gold-producing regions. The addition of such regions ultimately led to internal tensions within the Sultanate, as Aceh's strength was as a trading port, whose economic interests vary from those of producing ports.
Next, a Portuguese fleet with 200 men led by Jorge de Brito arrived in 1521. Sultan Ali sent an envoy, a certain Portuguese who stayed in Aceh, with gifts to the visitors. However, the envoy changed sides and persuaded de Brito to attack the capital of Aceh, reminding him of previous Acehnese robberies and enticing him with stories of a sanctuary filled with gold in the capital. However, Sultan Ali marched out with 800-1,000 men and 6 elephants and inflicted a total defeat on the Portuguese. De Brito was killed and the survivors fled to the ships. Much European artillery was captured which came to good use against Pidië. In the same year the Portuguese occupied Pasai, inspiring new Acehnese attacks.
Last victories and death.
Pidië was soon conquered, as related above. A Portuguese fleet which had been dispatched to support Pidië was successfully pushed back. Sultan Ali's brother and commander Raja Ibrahim fell in the war of conquest on 30 November 1523. However, in 1524 Pasai was eventually captured and the Portuguese garrison there was expelled. The Sultan of Pasai fled to Melaka while the ex-rulers of Pidië and Daya escaped to Aru (roughly corresponding to the later Deli). These military actions challenged both the naval power of Portuguese and the holdings of the Sultanate of Johor on Sumatra. The victories of the 1520s created the larger Aceh Empire that would exist until the Aceh War (1873-1903). However, the struggle with the Portuguese went on unabated. In 1527 Captain Francisco de Mello sank an Acehnese vessel at the roadstead outside the capital and killed the crew. In the next year Simão de Sousa Galvão was forced to seek shelter in Aceh due to a storm. He was attacked by the local people who killed most of the foreigners and took the rest as prisoners. Sultan Ali began to negotiate about peace, with the effect that the preparations for a joint expedition by Aru and the Portuguese were halted. Nevertheless, new incidents soon followed and the sultan had all the Portuguese prisoners killed. In 1529 Sultan Ali made up a plan to conquer Melaka by surprise; however, news of the plans leaked out and the enterprise never got under way.
The death of Sultan Ali Mughayat Syah is given variously by the later chronicles: 1511, 1522, 1530. According to the testimony of his gravestone he died on 7 August 1530, exactly one month before his abdicated father Syamsu, and was buried in the palace compound of Kutaraja (Banda Aceh). According to the Portuguese chronicler João de Barros he was poisoned by his wife, a sister of the ruler of Daya, in order to exact revenge for the conquest of Daya. This lady, Sitt Hur, survived him for 24 years and died on 6 December 1554. Sultan Ali left two sons called Salahuddin and Alauddin al-Kahar. Salahuddin, who did not share his military abilities, succeeded him on the throne. However, it was the younger son Alauddin who would lay the real basis for Aceh's power after 1539.


Chengtoushan

Chengtoushan () was a Neolithic settlement located on the northwestern edge of Dongting Lake in Li County, Hunan, China.
The site is at the village of Chengtoushan, Chengtoushan Town, Li County, it is about northwest of the county seat and north of the Li River.
The site contains one of the earliest dated rice paddies in the world (dating from 4500 to 3000 BC). The settlement spanned three separate cultures: the Daxi culture, the Qujialing culture and the Shijiahe culture. The site was abandoned around the middle period of the Shijiahe culture.
Chengtoushan was a round settlement surrounded by a moat and rammed earth wall, which was first built during the Daxi culture. The remains of human sacrifices were discovered under the foundation of the wall. The remains of a gravel road, a river bridge and a river-control gate were also discovered at Chengtoushan. It is possibly one of the oldest walled sites in China, with the walls and moat built around 4000 BC, where it existed for two millennia.
The earliest known examples of fired bricks were discovered at Chengtoushan, dating to around 4400 BC. These bricks were made of red clay, which was obtained by digging into the loess strata. They were fired on all sides to above 600°C, and used as flooring for houses. By the Qujialing period (3300 BC), fired bricks were being used to pave roads and as building foundations at Chengtoushan.


Huy of Champasak

Huy (or H'ui, "Brhat Chao", 1780–1840) was prince-governor ("Chao Mueang Nakhon Champasakti") of the Siamese vassal Kingdom of Champasak in southern Laos from 1827 to 1840.
Prince ("Brhat Chao") Huy was a son of the Uparaja of Champasak, Unga, who ruled Champasak as a Siamese vassal from 1778 until he was murdered in 1781 on the orders of King Taksin. Huy was raised as a page in the palace of King Rama I of Siam in Bangkok and served in the Siamese army, rising to the rank of general. In 1827, he captured king Nyô during the Laotian rebellion and brought him to Bangkok, where he was thrown from the roof of a temple. Huy was appointed as the prince-governor of Champasak in his place.
Huy died in 1840, leaving seven sons and seven daughters.


Jhatyapali

Jhatyapali was princess of Deogiri and a daughter of Rai Ramchandra Dev, the ruler of Deogiri. She was later married to Alauddin Khalji and her son Shihabuddin Omar was appointed as the successor of Alauddin, after his death.
History.
In a bid to fulfil his desire of territorial expansion, Alauddin first raided Deogiri in 1296. The Deogiri at the time of his raid was ruled by Rai Ramchandra, the Yadava ruler, with his son Simhana as the supreme commander of the Yadava army. Simhana was on an expeditionary mission during Alauddin's invasion and Ramchandra was not able to withstand the invading army from Delhi. Though Yadava gave formidable challenge to Alauddin they were not able to cope up with the situation due to absence of Simhana from the battlefield. Ramchandra then sent a message of truce, which was welcomed by Alauddin as he wanted to return Delhi as soon as possible.
They came to an agreement in which a large amount of wealth along with precious gifts were given to Alauddin as war indemnity. Ramchandra Dev also promised to pay annual tribute to him, which made the treaty possible. After his return to the Deogiri, Simhana came to know about the derogatory peace treaty with Delhi and he pressed his father to stop paying tribute in a bid to express his independence from the subordination.
The failure of Ramchandra to pay the annual tribute dragged Alauddin's attention to the Deogiri once again. After his successful expeditions of Chittor and Malwa, Alauddin was compelled to send two armies to Deogiri for a second showdown. This time Yadavas were routed; as the combined forces of Delhi, one which was sent to displace Rai Karana Singh Vaghela, the Rajput ruler of Gujarat, who was defeated earlier by Alauddin and was seeking refuse at Baglana on the border of south Gujarat and another particularly for Deogiri campaign under Malik Kafur pushed their way into Yadava's territory.
There was a strict order from the Alauddin to his Generals to not harm the family of Rai. Hence, Rai along with his kinsmen were brought to Delhi in an honourable way while Deogiri was left under the charge of Simhana. After keeping him as his guest in Delhi for some time; Rai was honoured with a canopy (the royal insignia) and vast amount of wealth was bestowed upon him. Nausiri, a territory of Gujarat was also awarded to him as gift. During this time, Ramchandra decided to give his daughter Jhatyapali in marriage to Alauddin. The bride was accepted and the relations of Deogiri with Delhi reached new heights.
Life as Empress.
Shihabuddin Omar, the son of Jhatyapali, who was merely six years old was appointed by Malik Kafur, the slave General of Alauddin as his successor while the other sons of Alauddin including Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah were either blinded or detained. This was done by Kafur to strengthen his holds upon the Sultanate.
According to Ferishta, in order to legitimise his rule Malik Kafur married Jhatyapali and became the step-father of the boy Sultan. The fate of Alauddin's family engineered by Kafur to fulfill his ambitions was not liked by some of the earlier nobles and bodyguards ("Paiks") of Alauddin, who plotted and assassinated Kafur, which was followed by freeing of Mubarak Shah, another adult son of Alauddin.
Mubarak Shah took over the affairs of state in his hand as the regent and for some time his younger brother Shihabuddin was restored as the Sultan. After working as regent for some time, Mubarak complained that Jhatyapali, the queen mother had conspired to poison him and taking it as pretext, he sent Shihabuddin as prisoner to Gwalior, where he was blinded but no step was taken against Jhatyapali.
Death.
In 1320, Khusrau Khan, the General and partner of homosexual Sultan Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah, raised the army of Baradus, a Hindu military clan. He assassinated Sultan and in order to eliminate all the possible claimants to the throne, he attacked royal Harem. All the surviving princes were ordered to be killed. Jhayatapali, the mother of Mubarak Shah was also killed during the Coup.


Ain Qannas

Ain Qannas or Ein Ganas is an archaeological site located near Al-Murah village in Al-Hasa, Eastern Saudi Arabia. It dates to the period between late 6th to early 5th millennium. The site is related to Ubaid period, which is Arabian Neolithic period.
Description.
The site is approximately 60 kilometers from the coast, at the time it was located by the shores of a lake. The site is at a mound, that is 4 m high and 250 m across. It contains multi-storied residential units with evidence of slave culture that evolved in the site. The stratigraphy indicated abrupt climatic fluctuation with moist and dry periods alternating. In upper stratigraphic levels, fragments of pottery were found. Also there were evidence of hunting of equids and herding of goats and cattle. Also blade-type tools with projectile points and scrapers were found.
By the end of slave era (Ubaid period), before 5,550 years ago, the civilized era began in Mesopotamia where commercial and cultural contacts between the civilizations around the Persian Gulf has thrived.


Maha Thiha Thura (disambiguation)

Maha Thiha Thura (; also spelled Maha Thihathura) is one of the most prestigious feudal era titles assumed by Burmese royalty or granted to highest ranking generals and ministers. The most famous person to wear the title is the Konbaung-era general who defeated Manchu Qing invasions of Burma (1765–1769) but the title may also mean: