Nawab of Dhaka

The Nawab of Dhaka, originally spelt in English Nawab of Dacca was the title of the head of largest Muslim zamindar in British Bengal and Assam, based in Dhaka. The title of "nawab", similar to the British peerage, was conferred upon the head of the family by Queen Victoria as a recognition of the first Nawab’s loyalty and contribution to the social welfare activities.
Although the Nawabs of Dhaka were not sovereigns, they played an essential role in the politics of South Asia—and the relations with external entities. The family was proprietary of the Dhaka Nawab estate, seated at Ahsan Manzil palace. "Nawab of Dhaka" was the title of the head of family and estate from 1875. Khwaja Hafizullah Kashmiri was the first holder of the estate, and Khwaja Abdul Ghani was the first Nawab of Dhaka appointed by Queen Victoria.
Considerable infighting within the Nawab's family gradually led to the decline of the estate. In 1952, the East Pakistan Estates Acquisition Act formally abolished the estate. Khwaja Habibullah Khan Bahadur was the last Nawab of Dhaka to hold the office. Successive land reform in Pakistan and Bangladesh brought an end to the remaining landholdings of the Nawab family.
History.
The Nawabs of Dhaka were Persian and Urdu-speaking aristocrats tracing their ancestry to Kashmiri Khan Mughal merchants who arrived in Mughal Bengal during the reign of emperor Muhammad Shah to pursue trade, but eventually settled in the districts of Dhaka, Sylhet and Bakerganj. They engaged in the purchase and sale of various local commodities. Maulvi Khawaja Abdullah Kashmiri, who moved from Delhi amidst the late Mughal era, is recorded as the first patriarch of the family in Bengal. Having established a successful business in Sylhet, he invited his father and brother from Kashmir, colloquially known as "Iran-e Saghir" (Minor Iran). Later, the family settled in Dhaka.
The Dhaka Nawab family was officially established by Khwaja Hafizullah Kashmiri son of Khawaja Abdullah Kashmiri, who acquired considerable wealth via trade in leather and gold. His fortune was built upon trading leather, spices, and salt with notable Armenian and Greek merchants. He also purchased some floundering zamindari estates, on sale everywhere in Bengal under Permanent Settlement, and indigo factories in Barisal District and Mymensingh District. In the following years, they married into renowned families in the locality to strengthen their hold over the newly acquired territories.
Hafizullah acquired Atia Pargana in the former Mymensingh District (currently in the Tangail District). Hafizullah bought a 4-anna (one fourth) share of the pargana, including Dhamrai, the Atia Mosque built in 1608, and much of Madhupur forest in 1806, on the strength of a mortgage bond for Rs. 40,000. Profits gained from this purchase compelled him to engage further in the purchasing of land properties. He also acquired Aila Phuljhuri in the Bakarganj Sundarbans, a area bought for Rs 21000 in 1812, at a revenue demand of only Rs 372 annually. After clearing of the jungle was affected, in the late 1870s, its estimated total rental income appeared as high as Rs 2,20,502.
Due to an absence of any surviving male successor of Hafizullah, his estate upon his death descended to his nephew Khwaja Alimullah, son of his deceased elder brother Ahsanullah, whom he had groomed as an estate manager. His landed acquisitions were added to those of his uncle, consequently making the united zamindari and taluqdari one of the largest in the province. Before his death in 1854, Alimullah made a "waqf" for a united status of the zamindari which was to be managed jointly by a "mutawalli".
His nephew, Khwaja Alimullah, who was the third son of Khwaja Ahsanullah, is reported to have been an enterprising member of the clan, effectively laying the foundation upon which successive heads of the family established their prosperity and power. He purchased Ahsan Manzil, which was then a French trading house. He had learnt English and encouraged members of his family to learn English, in addition to forging alliances with Englishmen by mixing with them freely. He had partaken in development work for the Dhaka Municipality, and with the aid of the British, he set up the Ramna Race course. He bought thoroughbreds for his race course and established the Gymkhana Club. He purchased the famous diamond, Daria-e-Noor at a government auction in 1852, held by Hamilton and Company of Calcutta. The diamond was initially exhibited at The Great Exhibition in Hyde Park but failed to sell for a desirable price, and was resultantly sent back to India. The diamond is presently being held in a vault of the Sonali Bank in Dhaka.
In 1846 he made a Waqfnama in favour of his second son Khwaja Abdul Ghani, and made him a powerful Mutawalli (Manager) for the management of all the properties of the family. This aided in preserving the family wealth, as it could not be divided amongst descendants. That Waqfnama was the main key responsible for the future success of the family. Despite being a Sunni Muslim himself, Khwaja Alimullah financed the Muharram Festival of the Shia Muslims in Dhaka. He started in 1843 after the death of Ghaziuddin Haider who was the Naib Nazim of Dhaka. He died in 1854 and was buried in the Begum Bazar graveyard.
Khwaja Abdul Ghani, son of Khwaja Alimullah and Zinat Begum, was rendered the Mutawalli of the estate. On the succession of Khwaja Abdul Ghani to the management that the prosperity of the house reached its zenith. Under him the land control of the family was extended to many parganas in the districts of Dhaka, Bakerganj, Tripura, and Mymensingh. For management he split the zamindari into 26 sub-circles, each governed by a "kachari" (office) headed by a "naib" (manager) with a number of "amlas" (officials). He was vested with the personal title of Nawab in 1875, which was made a hereditary title by Queen Victoria on 1 January 1877.
With Khwaja Abdul Ghani the Khwaja family for the first time developed interest in the politics and social works of the country. He also organised Dhaka people into panchayet mahallas, which was endorsed by the British Raj in consideration of his support to the Raj during the Sepoy Mutiny. Nawab Abdul Ghani made several contributions towards benevolent and charitable work, not only in the city and elsewhere in Bengal but also beyond the Indian subcontinent. His most conspicuous public act was the water works system in Dhaka city. The filtered water was supplied free of charge to the people of Dhaka. In addition he established a number of schools, madrasas and donated funds for the Mitford hospital in Dhaka, Kolkata Medical College and Aligarh College. He supported women to act in dramas in spite of the opposition of leaders of the conservative society. At the beginning of the Christian era, each year, he arranged a grand fair in Shahbagh Garden, and maintained a Portuguese Band to entertain guests on festive occasions. He oversaw and financed the construction of Buckland Bund.
Nawab Abdul Ghani handed over the responsibility of the Dhaka Nawab Estate to his eldest son, Khwaja Ahsanullah on 11 September 1868, but continued to supervise the estate until his death on 24 August 1896. Khwaja Ahsanullah was born in Dhaka in the year 1846. He was an Urdu-Persian poet and his pen name was "Shaheen". He was known to compose verses spontaneously, and at the spur of the moment, at the request of his acquaintances. His works disclose a manifestly joyous and optimistic outlook on life. His selected poems, "Kulliat-e-Shaheen" is preserved in the Dhaka University. His book, "Tawariq-e-Khandan-e-Kashmiria" is a very important addition to Urdu-Persian literature and history. Both father and son had the title of Nawab conferred upon them in 1875, and in 1877, this title was made hereditary for the eldest member of the line.
"Nawab Ahsanullah established the Ahsanullah School of Engineering, and being thoughtful of the health of the residents of Dhaka he, along with his father, contributed towards the establishment of a water tank from which filtered water would be supplied to the citizens of Dhaka as far back as 1874.
Nawab Salimullah, the second son of Ahsanullah took up the management of the zamindari in 1902. But soon family feuds started and Salimullah lost the grip on the estate. The estate management deteriorated to the extent of rising revenue arrears and estate debts. For political considerations, the government backed up Nawab Salimullah financially, which included a confidential official loan to Salimullah (1912) to clear up his personal debts. Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and the Muslim aristocrats who formed the bulwark of the Muslim League in 1906 inspired Muslim peasants against the Swadeshi movement (1905–1911) in support of Partition of Bengal. Together with Nawab Ali Chowdhury, he was instrumental in initiating A. K. Fazlul Huq into politics, who isolated Muslim League from peasants and defeated Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin at the Patuakhali Constituency in the election of 1937. Dhaka Nawab Family, together with the Ispahanis of Kolkata still kept a firm grip on a majority of Muslim students while the Bengal chapter of the All India Muslim Students Association was renamed as All Bengal Muslim Students League in 1938.
The tottering Dhaka Nawab Estate was brought under the Court of Wards in September 1907. The first steward of the Estate was HCF Meyer who was followed by LG Pillen, PJ Griffith, and PD Martin, all members of the Indian civil service. On 16 December 1901, while he was posted in Mymensingh, he received a telegram informing him of the demise of his father, and on his arrival in Dhaka the next morning, as the eldest son, and with the "unanimous consent of all parties concerned" was installed as the new Nawab. Nawab Salimullah was a great educational reformer, and like his father, was inclined to prodigal liberality. He was a great philanthropist, rendering financial assistance to many poor students, and established the largest orphanage of undivided Bengal, which was named "Salimullah Muslim Orphanage". For the benefit of Muslim students he donated the well-known "Salimullah Muslim Hall" in Dhaka, which was then the largest residential Hall in any Asian University.
Nawab Sir Salimuilah is mainly remembered today for three of his greatest achievements. Firstly, the part he played in the partition of Bengal which was implemented on 16 October 1905, aimed at freeing the Bengali Muslims from the bondage of Hindu domination, and to secure their socio-economic progress by establishing a separate Muslim majority province; secondly, for being the founder of such a strong political party as the All India Muslim League in December 1906, and the establishment of Dhaka University in 1912.
As has so often happened in the great families of India, after five generations of splendour, the Nawab Family now entered on a period of decline. Extravagant living and the necessity of maintaining an ever-increasing number of dependents were the main causes of the trouble, but to them must be added, the considerable sums spent by Nawab Ahsanullah and Nawab Salimuilah on public service or pro-Partition propaganda. The family was heavily in debt and in view of the political importance of the family, its estates were brought under the Court of Wards in 1909.
Nawab Salimullah was the first man of the Nawab Family of Dhaka to actively participate in politics. He is reported to have said that, his grandfather, Nawab Sir Abdul Ghani, and his father, Nawab Sir Khwaja .Ahsanullah, were men of international renown and were imbibed with the love of their country and people, but, they refrained from participating in politics. It was in his destiny to open the door to politics for the Nawab Family of Dhaka. Nawab Sir Salimullah died in Calcutta on 16 January 1915, and his coffin was brought to Dhaka by a special launch, and he was buried in the family graveyard in Begum Bazar."
In 1934, the family had estates that covered almost 200,000 acres and was well spread over different districts of Eastern Bengal, together with properties in Shillong, Assam, had an yearly rent of £120,000. With its wealth, social status and close relationship with the Raj, the family of the Nawab of Dacca was the single most powerful Muslim family in Bengal.
The Dhaka Nawab Estate was abolished in 1952 under the East Bengal Estate Acquisition and Tenancy Act (1950). Only the Ahsan Manzil complex and khas lands held under raiyati rights were exempted from the operation of the Acquisition Act. But due to many unresolved family claims many assets of the Estate were still controlled by the Court of Wards. The land reforms board, which is the successor of the Court of Wards, still holds those assets on behalf of the family.
The influence of Dhaka Nawab family on the Muslim Students League eroded after the partition, particularly after Muhammad Ali Jinnah's pronouncement on the state language issue in 1948. The anti-Khwaja faction of the Muslim League broke away from the All Bengal Muslim Students League, and established East Pakistan Muslim Students League in 1948. This Students League spearheaded the Language Movement that began that year.
Contributions.
Literature.
Extended kin of the Dhaka Nawab Family played a vital role in the history of Urdu-Persian literature in Bengal. Khwaja Haider Jan Shayek, Khwaja Kawkab, Khwaja Atiqullah Sayeda, Khwaja Muhammad Afzal and Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin KCIE, CIE and others contributed considerably to Urdu and Persian literature in the 19th and 20th centuries. The family maintained close connection with literary figures like Mahmud Azad and Hakim Habibur Rahman. Khwaja Muhammad Azam wrote "Islami Panchayet Dhaka" (1911) in Urdu. His son, Khwaja Muhammad Adel, co-edited "Jadu", a monthly journal with Hakim Habibur Rahman. Khwaja Abdur Rahim Saba (d 1871) wrote Urdu poems. His manuscript, "Daste Saba" is preserved in the Dhaka University Library. Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah wrote Urdu poems by his pen-name Shaheen collected in "Kulliat-e-Shaheen", and a history of his family collected in "Ta'arīkh-e-Khândan-e-Kashmirian". He was also a composer and lyricist of thumri songs, and a financier of "Ahsanul Kasas" (15 February 1884), an Urdu weekly magazine of Dhaka.
Photography.
It was in the later part of the 19th century that the art of photography got its momentum in Dhaka under the patronage of Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah and his son Nawab Khwaja Salimullah. Khwaja Ahsanullah joined the Calcutta-based Photographic Society of India in 1888.


Serizawa Kamo

Serizawa Kamo (芹沢 鴨; September 2, 1826 – October 30, 1863) was a samurai known for being the original lead commander of the Shinsengumi. He trained in and received a licence in the Shindō Munen-ryū. "Kamo" means goose or duck in Japanese which was an odd name to call oneself at the time. His full name was "Serizawa Kamo Taira no Mitsumoto".
Background.
The Serizawa family were upper-seat Goshi rank samurai in Serizawa village in Mito which is now the capital of Ibaraki Prefecture in Japan. Kamo was born as the youngest son and his childhood name was Genta. He had two older brothers and an older sister. He was educated with the Sonnō jōi ideals (meaning revere the Tenno (emperor) and expel the foreigners) and swordsmanship since childhood at Kodoukan which was a state school in Mito. Mito is a sub-branch of the Tokugawa family and it was considered the motherland of the Sonnō Jōi ideology and was a center of support for the Tennō and the Imperial court, which helped fuel the Revolution.
Although no portrait of Kamo remains, it is said he was a large man with very pale skin and small eyes.
On one hand, Serizawa was quite bold and fearless and on the other hand, he was extremely selfish and had a terribly short temper so he started fights often. If he was in a bad mood he would get violent, especially when he was drinking, and he was a heavy drinker. He was an idealist who held very strong pro-Imperial court beliefs and took the Sonno-joi beliefs very seriously while at the same time siding with the Tokugawa regime. A less well-known fact is that Serizawa was good at drawing and showed his drawings to children.
Tenguto Period.
Kamo was the priest for a Shinto temple under the Kimura family. He married the daughter of the Kimura family, so his name was changed to Kimura Keiji. In 1860, he took part in an extremist anti-foreigner group "Tengu-to" (alternative name is Tamazukurisei) which assassinated Tairo Ii Naosuke. He made a name for himself as he joined the higher ranks of the group. What is little known that he was originally supposed to participate in the famous Tairo assassination, but he was not able to make it in time. In early 1861, he found out that three of the younger members in the group had broken the rules, causing him to lose his temper; he made them sit in a line and beheaded them all at once. He was jailed within the Tengu-to group for executing them without any permission. When political power shifted to the pro-Tokugawa government, those in the Tengu-to were jailed for their involvement on the assassination of Ii. There, he wrote this famous poem written on his ripped piece of clothing with his own blood from biting his pinky finger:
This roughly translates as:
Many were surprised at Kamo's never-before-demonstrated poetic talent. Serizawa was released in late 1862 when the government started to weaken and political power shifted back to the anti-foreigners. Then, he changed his name from Kimura Keiji to "Serizawa Kamo" after his release. He later joined Kiyokawa Hachirou's "Roushigumi".
Mibu Roushigumi/Shinsengumi Period.
After their arrival in Kyoto, Serizawa and Kondō Isami's group separated from the Roushigumi, becoming an independent group. A few weeks later, Serizawa and Kondō decided to submit a letter to the Aizu clan asking to join them in policing Kyoto. The Aizu clan were assigned by the Tokugawa regime to police the streets in Kyoto by samurai (most of them lower-class samurai from Chōshū, Tosa, and other states) who rampantly started fights and committed assassinations. The idea of working under the Aizu may have originated with Serizawa's older brother, who had connections with the Aizu clan. The Aizu clan accepted the letter's request, making the twenty-two samurai into a group under the Aizu clan.
It was then that the group began calling themselves the Mibu Roushigumi and Serizawa becomes joint head of the group with Kondō.
However, Serizawa started numerous incidents. On July 18 (lunar calendar June 3), Aizu commanded Mibu Roushigumi members to police Osaka. Serizawa and his group were out drinking and later Serizawa got in a fight with a sumo. This created a conflict with the 25-30 sumos in the same dojo. Serizawa's group had only ten or so members but managed to overcome their attackers. At the end ten sumos were dead and the rest had sustained serious injuries, yet Serizawa's group barely had any injuries at all. News of this incident spread quickly, adding to the Mibu Roushigumi's notoriety. Later in June, Serizawa had a drinking gathering with his members in a restaurant in Shimabara. He lost his temper while drinking and wrecked the whole restaurant; the restaurant had to be closed for business because of it. On September 25 (lunar calendar August 13), Serizawa and his group destroyed Yamatoya, a silk cloth store, in daylight with a cannon given to the group by the Aizu clan when they would not give them money.
Death.
On October 19 (lunar calendar September 10), Niimi Nishiki, who was a sub-captain of the Shinsengumi, was ordered to commit seppuku by Hijikata and Yamanami. Most likely, this was the beginning of the plan by the Kondō faction to expel Serizawa and his allies. When Serizawa, Hirayama, and Hirama found out about the involuntary seppuku, they were unable to retaliate because in August they had started recruiting many of their members to side with Kondō. Noguchi Kenji, who was a fukuchou jokin and a member of Serizawa's group, was not in Mibu village at this time of the assassination. But there is a possibility that Niimi was forced to commit seppuku by a Mito samurai for the murder of a Mibu Roushigumi member and Kondō's group was not involved with his death. Therefore, Serizawa's group may have "not" known about Kondō's assassination plans.
On October 30 (lunar calendar September 18; however there is debate that it could have happened 2 days earlier in October 28), all of the Shinsengumi had a drinking party at which was a plan to assassinate Serizawa. The selected few led by Hijikata went into the house of Yagi Gennojō that night, Serizawa was then assassinated along with Oume, a woman who was sleeping with him, and also Hirayama. Hirama, the sole survivor in Serizawa's group, managed to flee back to Mito where he reported Serizawa Kamo's death to his family. The assassination was carried out under Matsudaira Katamori's order. Three months later, on February 4, 1864 (lunar calendar December 27, 1863), Noguchi was ordered to commit seppuku by the Shinsengumi.
Assassination.
There is some debate about who exactly was involved with killing Serizawa. Obviously those chosen to take part in the plot would have been members that Kondo and Hijikata trusted and also able to keep it a secret. The lineup was most likely Hijikata, Okita, Yamanami Keisuke, Inoue, and Harada. There is an alternative theory that the assassination was done by Hijikata, Tōdō, Saitō and Harada. It is highly unlikely that Kondō himself was involved with the assassination because it would have been too risky to get the next lead captain injured or killed.
There have been a number of theories about the motive for the assassination:
This is the most mainstream and widely-believed theory. It's quite possible that both Aizu and Kondō felt Serizawa was too reckless to be the lead captain of a group that was intended to regulate peace in Kyoto, and one who would react violently to dismissal.
This is a lesser-known theory. The Aizu clan could have commanded Kondō to assassinate Serizawa because he was reckless in order to hide the true motive; an underlying political conflict with Mito. Aizu was having trouble in Kyoto already from samurais from Chōshū and Tosa causing violence openly in the streets, so they could have wanted to prevent Mito samurais from entering the blood bath of Kyoto. Then, extreme samurais from 3 states (Mito, Chōshū and Tosa) were competing with each other carrying out terrorist actions against those who they believed were against anti-foreigner ideals. A Mito official in Kyoto could have been plotting to take Serizawa's group and make them side with Mito.
It's likely that Kondo and Hijikata hated Serizawa in the first place. But, they probably wouldn't have been able to form Mibu Roushigumi, which later became the Shinsengumi, if it wasn't for Serizawa's brother's close relations with the Aizu clan; they allowed him to be lead captain because they were just using him to get connections with Aizu. When they felt they securely had the trust to Aizu they assassinated Serizawa because they no longer needed him. It is possible that they also kept the assassination in the dark from the Aizu clan since they have reported Serizawa's cause of death from illness.
Grave.
Kondō's group held a funeral for his death and Serizawa's older brother came to it. His grave was built a year after his death in Mibu Temple and it still resides there today.
There is a quote about him from Nagakura Shinpachi:
◎新選組顛末記-永倉 新八
猛烈な勤皇思想を抱き、つねに攘夷を叫んでいた。
大勢からは先生と呼ばれていた。
それほどの才幹で、国家有事の時にむざむざと横死したことは、彼自身のみならず、国家的損害であるとは、当時、心あるものの一致するところであった。
which roughly translates as:
"He held extremely strong pro-Imperial court ideals and screamed for the expelling out of foreigners. Everyone called him "sensei". He was that much of a man but he died when the country needed him. We felt this is not just a loss for him but a loss for the country".
In popular culture.
Serizawa is featured in Shiba Ryotaro's "Moeyo Ken" ("Burn, O Sword") and "Shinsengumi Keppuroku" ("Record of Shinsengumi Bloodshed").
He is also featured in the manga "Kaze Hikaru" as Commander Serizawa and is pictured as a jolly man, often red nosed from drunkenness but below his comic and often-perverted nature is also a fierce opponent who should not be underestimated. He is often seen on drinking fests with the rest of the Mibu clan or always trying to get a kiss from Kamiya Seizaburo (Tominaga Sei). He falls in love in with a woman named Oume. His fight with Sumo wrestlers and meeting Oume are historical facts based on the real-life story of Serizawa.
Serizawa's assassination was portrayed in the anime version of "Peacemaker Kurogane"
Serizawa is featured in NHK Shinsengumi portrayed by Kōichi Satō, as a powerful swordsman, with a short temper, yet he had a strong spirit, and a great love for his country. Four Shinsengumi members were sent to assassinate him: Hijikata, Okita, Harada, and Sannan. Okita foolishly swung his Katana and it got stuck on the lintel off a doorway. Serizawa broke Hijikata's sword in two then slipped on his own bottle of sake. Okita stabbed him through the heart with his Kodachi, and Hijikata finished him off by stabbing him in the back.
In "Rurouni Kenshin" the character Shishio Makoto is roughly based on Serizawa Kamo as said by the manga artist Nobuhiro Watsuki, creator of Rurouni Kenshin series, during an interview (contained in Kenshin Kaden).
Also included as a character in Hakuouki Reimeiroku, Serizawa plays a major role in the most recent series of the anime "Hakuōki".
In the 2014 game "Yakuza Ishin!", Serizawa Kamo kills Miburoshigumi captain Inōe Genzaburo, and takes on the dead man's identity at the behest of leader Kondō Isami. He says that three of the existing captains must take on the role of the dead Mito faction members in order to keep the group alive, which he then renames the Shinsengumi.


Gaza Sanjak

Gaza Sanjak () was a sanjak of the Damascus Eyalet, Ottoman Empire centered in Gaza. In the 16th century it was divided into "nawahi" (singular: "nahiya"; third-level subdivisions): Gaza in the south and Ramla in the north.
List of settlements.
In the 1596- daftar, the sanjak contained the following nahiyah and villages/town


Arakan Division

Arakan Division () was an administrative division of the British Empire, covering modern-day Rakhine State, Myanmar, which was the historical region of Arakan. It bordered the Bengal Presidency of British India to the north. The Bay of Bengal was located on its western coastline. Arakan Division had a multiethnic population. It was a leading rice exporter.
History.
Arakan was ceded to the East India Company's administration by the Treaty of Yandabo signed after the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1826. The area was initially governed as part of the Bengal Presidency. It later became part of the Burma Province. In 1937, Burma became a separate crown colony. During World War II, Arakan fell to the Japanese occupation of Burma in 1942. The Burma Campaign involved several Arakanese campaigns, including the Arakan Campaign 1942-1943. The division was regained by British forces, with help from the Allies, in 1945. Arakan continued to be a division of Burma after its independence from Britain in 1948.
Geography.
The division was a coastal strip of land running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naf River estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. Length from northern extremity to Cape Negrais, about 400 m; greatest breadth in the northern part, 90 m, gradually diminishing towards the south, as it is hemmed in by the Arakan Mountains, until, in the extreme south, it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m across. The coast was studded with islands, the most important of which are Cheduba, Ramree and Shahpura. The division had its headquarters at Akyab (Sittwe) and consists of four districts—namely, Akyab, Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and Kyaukpyu, formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The population at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed 100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000, and in 1901 to 762,102.
The principal rivers of Arakan Division included the Naaf estuary, in the north, which forms the boundary between the division and Chittagong; (2) the Mayu River, an arm of the sea, running a course almost parallel with the coast for about 50 m.; (3) the Kaladan River, rising near the Blue mountain, in the extreme north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal a few miles south of the Mayu River, navigable by vessels of from 300 to 400 tons burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemro River, a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of the Kaladan. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness of the range which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of but little importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng, navigable by boats; and the Sandoway, the Taungup and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance, owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or haven for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes over the Arakan Mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng route, leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma. The staple crop of the division was rice, along with cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp and indigo. The forests produce abundance of excellent oak and teak timber.
The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent, who was usually a member of the Imperial Police, with headquarters at Paletwa. The area of the Hill Tracts was 5233 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 20,682.
Districts.
Arakan had four districts which are listed in the following.
Demographics.
The Burmese-origin Arakanese people were the majority of the province. The Burman Arakanese were mainly Buddhist. The second largest community were Arakanese Indians, of whom the predominant majority were Muslim; and a minority were Hindu. Like the rest of Burma, the Burman Arakanese were concentrated in villages and tribal shifting cultivation zones; while Indians dominated urban areas. Arakan had the largest percentage of Indians in Burma. The 1931 census found 500,000 Indians living in the divisional capital Akyab, where they dominated the seaport and its hinterland.
Legislatures.
Arakan Division was represented in the Legislative Council of Burma between 1897 and 1937. It was also represented in the Imperial Legislative Council. After the Government of Burma Act, 1935 separated Burma from India, the Legislature of Burma served as the legislative body of the colony, including Arakan Division. Elections were held in 1920, 1922, 1923, 1925, 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932, 1934, 1936 and 1947.
Both Burmese-Arakanese and Indo-Arakanese were elected as native members to the Legislature of Burma. Gani Markan was a native Indian legislator from Arakan. In 1947, the legislature transformed into a constituent assembly. Two Arakanese Indians were elected under the Burmese native category to the constituent assembly, including M. A. Gaffar and Sultan Ahmed. The constituent assembly became the legislative body of the independent Union of Burma on 4 January 1948.
Economy.
Wages in Arakan were much higher than in British India. The division was notable for its rice production. Akyab became one of the leading rice exporting ports in the world, hosting ship fleets from Europe and China. As Arakan was mostly accessible by sea, its ports depended on ferry and cargo shipping with Chittagong, Narayanganj, Dacca, Calcutta, Moulmein, Rangoon, Singapore, Penang, Madras and Syriam. Arakan was also notable for its timber.


Poykent

Poykent, an ancient city in Uzbekistan, is located in the lower stream of Zarafshan River and was one of the largest cities of the oasis. The city consisted of a citadel, two settlements, and a "rabod" (suburb). Poykent is currently under consideration for inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Site description.
According to the archaeological research, Poykent was founded as a small village in the 4th century B.C., and was later transformed into a fortress. During that period, it was a trade center, as the city connected Southern countries (Bactria, India, Iran) with Northern countries (Front of Ural, Coast of Volga, Northern Caucus). Poykent was one of the important military and trade centers of the Western borders of the Sogd. Due to the development of the Great Silk Road and joining with Poykent fortress have been founded first and second sites of ancient settlement. Hence the city Poykent was founded.
According to Chinese chronicles, this city was under the "An" (Bukhara) kingdom and was the centre of "Bi" khanate. It has also been noted that in Poykent there was no khokim (governor), the city was ruled by traders' council, and in the full sense of the word the city was a republic in the 6th-7th century. The scientists of Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan have carried out scientific research in the ruins of the city for a long time. As a result, Zoroastrian temples, a palace, and a mosque, built in the 9th century, and remnants of a tower were found in citadel. In the inner part of city were discovered defensive walls, a gate, roads, and the remains of [living] quarters (makhallas), while on the outside rabads (suburbs) of the city - there are pottery centers and caravanserais. According to the researcher, due to the inaccessibility of the lower flaw of Zarafshon River, the city ceased to exist in the middle of the 9th century.
World Heritage Status.
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on 18 January 2008, in the Cultural category.


Datarpur

Datarpur is the village situated in the district Hoshiarpur, Tehsil Mukerian, Punjab (India). Datarpur State was a small precolonial Indian hill state in the Lower Himalayas. The state was founded around 1550 and was annexed by the British in 1849.
Nearest city to the village is Talwara ,famous for one hydro power project owned by BBMB. From ancient time Datarpur has been center of business , education in the area.
Datarpur is famous for its spiritual centers , ancient Dushera Festival , Market .
Spiritual places.
Datarpur has spiritual centers including:
History.
Datarpur State was founded in the middle of the sixteenth century by Raja Datar Chand, a scion of the princely families of Siba and Guler who named the state after himself. From 1786 the state was a feudatory of Kangra State until Raja Govind Chand made an alliance with the Gurkha invaders from Nepal in 1806, securing his complete independence.
Govind Chand was succeeded by his son Jagat Chand when Datarpur was conquered by Ranjit Singh of Lahore in 1818 and annexed to the Sikh Empire of Pañjab (Punjab), although a jagir was granted to Jagat Chand as compensation. But in 1848 Jagat Chand joined a rebellion against the British and was deposed, dispossessed and exiled to Almora. The territory of Datarpur was added to Siba State and annexed by the British Raj in 1849 as Dada-Siba. The descendants of Jagat Chand were given no jagir, but the royal house still exists.
Rulers.
They bore the title 'Raja'.
Rajas


Aima of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Aima Kalaminjaa Siri Loka Suvara Mahaa Radun (Dhivehi: އައްސުލްޠާން އައިމަ ކަލަމިންޖާ ސިރީ ލޯކަ ސުވަރަ މަހާރަދުން) was the Sultan of Maldives from 1264 to 1266. His father was "Volumidi Bodu Kilege" (Dhivehi: ވޮލުމިދި ބޮޑުކިލޭގެ) of Fehendu and his mother was "Bulhaa (lit. Cat) Kabaaidhi Kilege" (Dhivehi: ބުޅާ ކަނބައިދި ކިލޭގެ) or "Hirirashu Kabaaidhi Kilege" (Dhivehi: ހިރިރަށު ކަނބައިދި ކިލޭގެ). He belonged to the Lunar Dynasty and ruled for two years until his death in 1266.


Chetaka

Chetaka, also called King Chetaka or President Chetaka, was the representative of the Licchavi clan who ruled as a Republican President in Vaishali (India) reputed to have organised the Vajjian confederation of republics comprising the 9 Mallakis, 18 Gana Rajas of Kashi/Kosala and 9 Licchavi Republics.
He was a 5th-century BC contemporary of Gautama Buddha and Jain Tirthankara Lord Mahavira. His system of government appears to have been a committee which elected a ceremonial king to act upon the committee's advice. His sister Trishala was married to Siddhartha and gave birth to the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. His daughter Chellana married Bimbisara. Chetaka had 10 sons Dhandutt, Dhanprabh, Upendra, Sudutt, Sidutt, Sukumbojh, Akampan, Patangak, Prabhanjan, Prabhas.
Jain tradition.
According to Jain text "Uttarapurāṇa", Chetaka was the king of Vaishali and was a famous and complaisant king. He is mentioned as a staunch follower of Jainism. According to the text, Chetaka had ten sons and seven daughters. His Daughter Priyakarini (also known as Trishala) was married to Siddartha. His daughter Chellana married Shrenik (also known as Bimbisara).
Death of King Chetak:
When King Kaunik aka Ajatshatru attacked Vaishali King Chetak being righteous fought against him, his maternal grandson. King Chetak being a true Jain Shravak used to shoot only one kowtow which was divine n would kill the commander of Kaunik every day for 10 days. Ajatshatru prayed to Gods to have a solution to this. Dev's granted him a way to deflect the arrow killing power. When king Chetak saw that his di Ind arrow became useless he climbed a mountain to commit suicide but was protected by Dharnendra Indra and he preached and counselled him. Then he took King Chetak to Devaloka and upon seeing his last time; avowed him to Santhara and thereupon king Chetak the only Shravak to die in Devaloka and born there as Deva.
As told by Sadhavi Vipula Ji Maharaj


Malabrigo Point Lighthouse

Malabrigo Point Lighthouse, also known as Faro de Punta Malabrigo (Filipino: "Parola ng Punta Malabrigo"), is a historic lighthouse located about southeast of Manila in Barangay Malabrigo, Lobo, Batangas, Philippines. Completed and lit in 1896, it is one of the oldest working lighthouses in the Philippines as well as the best preserved lighthouse in the country. It serves as a guide for ships passing through the Verde Island Passage going to either Batangas Bay or Sibuyan Sea.
History.
The Malabrigo Point Lighthouse was among the lighthouses constructed by the Spanish colonial authorities in the Philippines from 1846 to 1896 as part of the "Plan General de Alumbrado de Maritimo de las Costas del Archipelago de Filipino" (Masterplan for the
Lighting of the Maritime Coasts of the Philippine Archipelago), the goal of which was to install 55 lighthouses all over the archipelago, including its remotest corners.
At the time, Malabrigo Point was considered a dangerous area among seafarers because of its rocky coastline and strong currents especially during the monsoon season, hence, its name which comes from the Spanish words "mal abrigo", meaning "bad shelter." In 1891, Spanish engineer Guillermo Brockman, who also designed the lighthouses at Capul Island and San Bernardino Island, created a design for a lighthouse in Punta Malabrigo which consisted of a Victorian architecture-inspired cylindrical brick tower with a metal staircase and double balcony, lighthouse keeper's quarters, and machine room. The company of Chinese contractor Jose Garcia constructed the lighthouse out of brick and lime cement and completed it in 1896, with the lighthouse being lit for the first time on October 1, 1896.
After the American annexation of the Philippines in 1898, the management of the Spanish-built lighthouses in the country fell into American hands. From 1900 to 1902 — the height of the Philippine–American War — the American gunboat USS "Villalobos", a former Spanish gunboat captured after the American annexation of the Philippines, guarded the lighthouse. The gunboat regularly patrolled the area around the lighthouses at Cape Santiago, Malabrigo Point and Cabra Island from its base in Cavite, maintaining a communication link with the Marines guarding lighthouses and keeping a sharp lookout for smuggling and trafficking of supplies to Filipino revolutionaries.
During World War II, the top of the lighthouse was damaged by machine gun fire from advancing American forces who thought it was being used as a Japanese garrison. After the war, the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) and the Department of Public Works and Highways repaired the lighthouse.
In 1980, the lighthouse was automated following the replacement of its damaged lens with a light bulb donated by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The bulb has since been replaced with a modern, solar-powered halogen light purchased through a loan grant by JICA and installed by the PCG in 1994.
In 2004, Olympic swimmer Akiko Thomson formed the nonprofit group Friends of Malabrigo, which signed an agreement with the PCG allowing them to develop and preserve the lighthouse into a sports and ecotourism site where youth swimming and sailing competitions as well as ecological and tourism-related activities will be held. However, these plans did not materialize. On November 27, 2006, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines installed two historical markers in Filipino and English, designating it a National Historical Landmark.
The municipality of Lobo, where the lighthouse is located, signed an agreement with the PCG to adopt the lighthouse in 2014 and began renovating and repainting the structure, and has since become the best preserved lighthouse in the country. In 2016, the PCG named its second "Parola"-class patrol vessel BRP "Malabrigo" after the lighthouse.
In popular media.
The Malabrigo Point Lighthouse has been the site of filming for a number of Filipino movies and televisions shows, including the 1975 film "Ibong Lukaret" starring Vilma Santos and the 2018 ABS-CBN afternoon soap opera "Precious Hearts Romances Presents: Araw Gabi" starring JM De Guzman and Barbie Imperial. In 2006, a film crew that conducted an unauthorized shoot caused minor damage to the lighthouse, leading the NHCP to declare it a National Historical Landmark to protect the site. The PCG and the local government now prohibits filming within the site without a permit from the Mayor's Office.


Cidanghiang inscription

Cidanghiang inscription, also called Lebak inscription, is an inscription from the Tarumanagara kingdom, estimated to be from the 4th century CE. The inscription was found in 1947 on the bank of Cidanghiang River in Lebak village, Munjul district, in Pandeglang Regency, Banten, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava script and composed in the Sanskrit language.
Text.
This inscription mentions a king named Purnawarman, who used the title "vikrānta", which indicates that he was a worshiper of Lord Vishnu. It consists only of two lines, transliterated as follows:
Translation.
The translation of this inscription according to philologist Poerbatjaraka (1952) is as follows:


Henry Tombs

Major General Sir Henry Tombs VC KCB (10 November 1825 – 2 August 1874) was a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
Early life.
Henry Tombs was born in Calcutta, India on 10 November 1825. He was the youngest of seven to Major General John Tombs and Mary Remington. He was sent back to England for an education during which time he studied at John Roysse's Free School in Abingdon-on-Thames (now Abingdon School). At the age of 14 he entered the East India Company's Military Seminary at Addiscombe, graduating in June 1841 and receiving a commission in the Bengal Horse Artillery. In 1869 he married Georgina Janet Stirling, the youngest daughter of Admiral Sir James Stirling. Their grandson Joseph Tombs received the VC for actions during World War I.
Military career.
Tombs received his commission as second lieutenant in the Bengal Horse Artillery on 11 June 1841, and first saw active service aged 18 during the Gwalior Campaign. He distinguished himself while fighting at the Battle of Punniar with the No.16 Light Field Battery (horsedrawn), and was awarded the Bronze Star in 1843.
During the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846), he became Aide-de-Camp to Lieutenant General Sir Harry Smith. He was present at the Battle of Moodkee, the Battle of Ferozeshah and the Battle of Aliwal. He was awarded a Sutlej Medal with two clasps (for Ferozeshuhur and Aliwal) in 1848.
During the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), he was promoted to Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General of Artillery. He was present at Battle of Ramnagar, the Battle of Chillianwallah and the Battle of Goojerat. He received the Punjab Medal with two clasps (for Chillianwallah and Goojerat) and was subsequently promoted Major.
Tombs saw service for a fourth time during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, during which he commanded a troop of Horse Artillery. On 31 May 1857 his horse was shot from beneath him for the first time. He fought at the Battle of Badli-ki-Serai, where two horses were shot from under him. He was also present at the Siege of Delhi, during which he commanded the Bengal Horse Artillery contingent. It was during this siege, on 9 July 1857 that he performed the act of gallantry for which he was to be awarded the Victoria Cross. As a result of his and his troops' gallantry the unit was awarded the title of Tombs's Troop, which – as 28/143 Battery (Tombs's Troop), part of 19th Regiment Royal Artillery – it still carries to this day.
Victoria Cross.
At the age of thirty-one, when a major in the Bengal Horse Artillery, Bengal Army during the Indian Mutiny, the following deed took place at the Siege of Delhi for which he and James Hills were awarded the VC:
The medal.
His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Artillery Museum, Woolwich, London.


Chilgog Formation

The Chilgog Formation, also known as the Chilgok Formation is an Early Cretaceous geologic formation in South Korea. Formerly dated to the Berriasian to Hauterivian, later dating has established an Albian age. Dinosaur remains, possibly of sauropods, are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.
Description.
The formation predominantly consists of sandstone, mudstone and conglomerate, with subordinate tuff and other volcanics. It overlies the Jinju Formation and underlies the Silla Conglomerate, which underlies the Haman Formation, respectively.


Manthaturath

Chao Manthaturath (also spelled Manthathourat or Mangthaturat; ; 1772–7 March 1837) was the king of Luang Phrabang from 1819 to 1836.
He was a son of king Anouruttha. In 1791, he was appointed as heir presumptive to the Luang Phrabang throne with the title "Raxavong" by Siamese. He was crowned by Siamese at the age of 43. From 1825 to 1826 he joint the monkhold in Bangkok, leaving his country to be administered by Siamese officials. In 1826, he refused to join Anouvong's Rebellion against Siamese. He died on 7 March 1837. Siamese did not confirm his son to succeed the throne until 1839.


Bhatikabhaya Abhaya of Anuradhapura

Bhatikabhaya Abhaya was King of Anuradhapura in the 1st century BC, whose reign lasted from 20 BC to 9 AD. He succeeded his father Kutakanna Tissa as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his brother Mahadathika Mahanaga.


Surguja State

Surguja State, was one of the main princely states of Central India during the period of the British Raj, even though it was not entitled to any gun salute. Formerly it was placed under the Central India Agency, but in 1905 it was transferred to the Eastern States Agency.
The state spread over a vast mountainous area inhabited by many different people groups such as the Gond, Bhumij, Oraon, Panika, Korwa, Bhuiya, Kharwar, Munda, Chero, Rajwar, Nagesia and Santal. Its former territory lies in the present-day state of Chhattisgarh and its capital was the town of Ambikapur, now the capital of Surguja district.
History.
According to tradition,The family of the Maharaja is very ancient, and is stated to belong to the Rajputs of the Lunar race. The present ruling family is said to be descended from a Raksel Raja of Palamau. The state became a British protectorate in 1818 after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Neighbouring Udaipur State was founded in 1818 as an offshoot of Surguja State. In 1860 The State was conferred to younger son of Maharaja Amar Singh Deo, to Raja Bahadur Bindeshwari Prasad Singh Deo CSI. The Chief resided at Partabpur, the headquarters of a tract which he held as a maintenance grant in Surguja, and was a ruler of considerable ability and force of character. In 1871 he aided in the suppression of a rebellion in the Keonjhar State, for which he received the thanks of Government, and gifts of an elephant with gold-embroidered trappings and a gold watch and chain. He obtained the title of Raja Bahadur as a personal distinction, and was also made a Companion of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India. In 1820 hereditary title of Maharaja was conferred on ruling chief of Surguja. Surguja was one of the Chota Nagpur States and its rulers were Rajputs of the Raksel dynasty. They were the "de facto" overlords of the smaller states of Udaipur, Jashpur, Koriya (Korea) and Changbhakar that were fringing its territory.
Maharaja Indrajit Singh Deo (1827–1879) of Surguja was described as a lunatic by Anglo-Indian writer George Robert Aberigh-Mackay in 1877.
Maharaja Ramanuj Saran Singh Deo, the last ruler of this princely state signed the accession to the Indian Union on 1 January 1948. The Maharaja has the notorious record of having shot and killed a total of 1710 Bengal tigers, the highest known individual score; he doesn't hold the official record of shooting into extinction 3 of the last physically recorded Asiatic cheetahs in India, effectively making the species almost locally extinct in 1947, considering that a female was spotted in what was to be the District of Korea in 1951. The last three Asiatic Cheetas were shot by Maharaja Ramanuj Partap Singh Deo of Korea.
Rulers.
The rulers of Surguja State bore the title of 'Maharaja', although a few had the title of 'Maharaja Bahadoor', including the last head of the state.


Om Bikram Rana

Om Bikram Rana is the 19th IGP of Nepal. In September, 2006, he was appointed Inspector General of Nepal Police, the highest police rank of Nepal Police. He was preceded by Shyam Bhakta Thapa as the police chief and was succeeded by Hem Bahadur Gurung. His term had begun in September 18, 2006 and had ended in September 2008.
He was sentenced to two years in prison for corruption by the Supreme Court in the Sudan Armoured Police Carrier Carrier scam.


Sekirankai

The Sekirankai (赤瀾会; Red Wave Society) was a Japanese socialist women's organization active in 1921. Members of an anarchist group established the organization in April 1921. Prominent feminists Yamakawa Kikue and Noe Itō were advisers for the group, which participated in that year's May Day activities, published the magazine "Omedetashi", held seminars and lectures, and distributed anti-war leaflets to the army. Their manifesto condemned capitalism, arguing that it turned women into slaves and prostitutes. The "Sekirankai" was the first women's socialist association and clashed with "Shin Fujin Kyōkai" (the New Women's Association). The organization dissolved eight months after its creation.
History.
Founding.
The "Sekirankai" was formed at time in Imperial Japan when socialist thought gained enough momentum to be expressed publicly.
The "Sekirankai" was founded in April 1921 from an anarchist group established by Sakai Magara, Kutsumi Fusako, Hashiura Haruno, and Akizuki Shizue. It was the first women's socialist association. Advisers for the organization were Yamakawa Kikue and Noe Itō. The society had about 42 members, 17 of whom were active. As members of the "Sekirankai" had personal ties with "Nihon Shakai Shugi Dōmei" (Japan Socialist League), the organization has been referred to as the "women's office" of the league.
The "Sekirankai" sought to overthrow the capitalist system. Their platform stated "We will fight any form of oppression that keeps us and our brothers and sisters in ignorance, poverty, and positions of subordination."
May Day Protest.
One of the first activities of the organization was to plan for that year's May Day, a day adopted by socialist and communist groups to represent International Worker's Day. The previous year's May Day activities, held in Tokyo's Ueno Park, were Japan's first public celebration of May Day and were estimated to include 5000 people. For the event, Yamakawa Kikue drafted a manifesto titled "Fujin ni Gekisu" (Manifesto to Women) that decried capitalism for engendering imperialism and framed the problems of capitalism from a feminist standpoint, and it the manifesto made into leaflets to be distributed at the event. The manifesto read:
About 20 women members of the "Sekirankai" marched during the May Day activities. They carried red and black flags that were made by Hashiura Haruko and smaller flags painted with "R. W." for Red Wave. They paraded through the political meeting. All of the women were arrested. Sensational accounts of the event from journalists resulted in government restrictions on the organization's movements but the women's activities were placed into the national spotlight. During the Mayday demonstration of the following year, women's participants would be seen all over the country.
Other Activities.
In June 1921, members of the "Sekirankai" held a lecture on women's issues at Kanda Seinen Kaikan. Yamakawa Kikue, Itō Noe, Kutsumi Fusako, Fujimori Seikichi, Sakai Magara, Eguchi Kan, and Ishikawa Sanshirō were lecturers at the meeting. In July, the "Sekirankai" held a five-day seminar and published the magazine "Omedetashi" (Auspicious Magazine). In October 1921, they participated in the Guntai Sekka Jiken (Communization of the Army Incident) and distributed anti-war leaflets to the army through the mail.
Conflicts with the New Women's Association.
The "Sekirankai" were also critical of their fellow Japanese women's organization, "Shin Fujin Kyōkai" (New Women's Association), formed in 1920. The Sekirankai found the bourgeois nature of the New Women's Association to be antithetical to the cause of women's rights, and Yamakawa offered harsh criticisms in an article for the July 1921 issue of "Taiyō", "The New Women's Association and the Red Wave Society." She wrote there that "Revolution is essential for women. Only the Sekirankai can provide the answer." The article alone would have been a blow to the New Women's Association, but the timing of it made the impact even more profound, as the article appeared right on the tail of prominent New Women's Association leader Ichikawa Fusae's resignation from the organization. In the article, Yamakawa focused her criticism on New Women's Association leader Hiratsuka Raichō, believing that the group focused solely on the problems of upper-class women while ignoring the harsh realities that working class women faced.
Dissolution.
By the end of 1921, the activities of the "Sekirankai" had come to a halt. At the time, the restrictive Public Order and Police Law of 1900 (治安警察法 "Chian Keisatsu Hō") prohibited worker strikes and labor organizations in a crack down on speech and assembly. Due to Article 5, women in particular were prohibited from attending political meetings or joining political organizations. In addition to this governmental oppression, pressure from the public eye was a powerful detractor. Throughout newspapers, feminist and socialist societies were vilified as degenerates and were the object of derision for numerous cartoonists such as Okamoto Ippei and Kitazawa Rakute. This created a distrust of these kinds of organizations within the public consciousness, and those who may have otherwise been swayed to join found themselves averse to the idea. This public criticism combined with the governmental oppression and the animosity of other women's organization to contribute to the dissolution of the organization in December, only eight months after it was founded. Many members of the organization went on to form spin-off groups such as the discussion group "Suiyōkai" (Wednesday Society) and the organization "Yōkakai" (Eighth Day Society), which would continue to carry "Sekirankai" ideals.
Ideology.
The group approached feminism through a Marxist lens, exploring the problems that women faced as issues of class and commodification. Much of the group's ideological tenets found root in the writings of Yamakawa Kikue, a Japanese feminist and socialist writer who was also a prominent member of the "Sekirankai". Under these Marxist lines of thought, the "Sekirankai" believed that economic independence was a crucial step in achieving gender parity; however, according to their manifesto, they believed that the abolition of capitalism in favor of socialism was a prerequisite for this.


Sri Sulalai

Sri Sulalai (; ; 1770–1837), née Riam (), was the wife of Phra Phutthaloetla Naphalai, Rama II of Siam and was the mother of Nangklao, Rama III.
Her family was Muslim from the Southern part of the Kingdom. She married Prince Isarasundhorn as the second concubine and gave birth to Prince Thap (later Prince Chetsadabodin) in 1787.
In 1809, Prince Isarasundhorn was crowned as King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai. Chao Chom Manda Riam then moved to the Royal Grand Palace and presided over the royal kitchen. Prince Jessadabodindra was trusted by the king to handle various state affairs. In 1824, King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai died. According to the tradition, the throne would go to Prince Mongkut, the son of Queen Sri Suriyendra. However, the nobility instead enthroned Prince Jessadabodindra because he had served the king in "Kromma Tha" (Ministry of Trade and Foreign Affairs) for years and was proved to be competent to rule.
As her son was crowned, Noble consort Riam was raised to "Princess Mother Sri Sulalai", thus a member of the royalty. She died in 1837.


Meppadiyan

Meppadiyan is an upcoming Indian Malayalam-language Thriller film written and directed by Vishnu Mohan under the banner of Unni Mukundan Films. The film features Unni Mukundan, Aju Varghese, Anju Kurian, Saiju Kurup and Kalabhavan Shajohn in the lead roles. Filming took place in Erattupetta in late 2020.
Synopsis.
The film chronicles in the life of Jayakrishnan, a commoner, portrayed by Unni Mukundan.
Production.
The film was shot around 48 different live locations across Erattupetta and Pala with an ensemble cast. Filming began on October 26, 2020, in Erattupetta.
External links.


Dambal

Dambala is a village in the gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. It was an ancient center of Buddhism and remained so as late as the 12th century. Dambal is at an elevation of .
Demographics.
 India census, Dambala had a population of 10,095 with 5,166 males and 4,929 females and 1,815 Households.
History.
Under the rule of the Mauryas and Satavahana, the teachings of Buddha flourished in Karnataka. Buddhist relics are found scattered around the town.
In a temple of the Buddhist deity Tara in Dambal, there is an inscription dated 1095 AD, a temple built by 16 merchants for the deity Tara and a vihara for Buddhist monks. Although Buddhism was assimilated by the growing popularity of Hinduism, there was a Buddhist centre in Dambal as late as the 12th century.
Doddabasappa Temple.
There are three Hindu temples here.
The Doddabasappa Temple is of the Western Chalukya architectural style and has a twenty-four pointed stellate plan for the vimana with so many star points that it almost becomes circular in appearance. Each right angle is divided into four 22.5 degrees angles. Then each angle is again divided and covered with intricate carvings.
Jappadbavi.
Recently discovered the temple well locals call it as "Jappadbavi"
Kappata gudda.
"Kappata gudda" hill is very near to Dambal, the famous "Kappata Malleshwara Temple" is about 5 miles from Dambal.


William Henry Macleod Read

William Henry Macleod Read (7 February 1819 – 10 May 1909) was an active participant in the commercial, political and social life of Singapore and the Malay states between 1841 and 1887.
Early life.
Read was born in Scotland, the son of Christopher Rideout Read, co-partner of A. L. Johnston & Company. Aged 22, he travelled to Singapore to take his father's place at A. L. Johnston & Company, Singapore's leading merchant company at that time, his father retiring and returning to England the following year (1842). Alexander Laurie Johnston, his father's co-partner, retired and left Singapore in December. Read headed the company until his own retirement in 1887. Read was predeceased by his wife, Marjory Cumming-Read at age 21 on 24 June 1849. Cumming-Read was the daughter of banker John Cumming of Forres, Scotland and there is a stone marker in her memory as his "beloved and lamented wife" at St Andrew's Cathedral, Singapore.
Contributions to early colonial Singapore.
William Read was appointed Special Constable to deal with ethnic riots between the Colony's Hokkien and Cantonese communities in 1854. He is credited with using his powers of negotiation and mediation to settle the conflict. Also in 1854, William Read was the first volunteer of the Singapore Rifle Corps, a militia unit in which he remained active for 25 years.
In 1857 Read, who was fluent in French, was made Counsul for the Netherlands in Singapore, a post he held until 1885. For his service as the Dutch Counsul, he was awarded the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Knight Commander). By 1865, Read was Chairman of the Singapore Chamber of Commerce. During his tenure in the then British Straits Settlement, Singapore passed from control of British India to the British Colonial Office in 1867. William Read was a member of the Legislative Council that oversaw the transfer. In 1868, Read was appointed Companion of the Order of St. Michael & St. George (C.M.G.), by Queen Victoria. An announcement in the London Gazette noted, "Chancery of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Downing Street, February 3, 1885. THE Queen has been graciously pleased to give directions for the following appointment to the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George : To be an Ordinary Member of the Third Class, of Companions of the said Most Distinguished Order :— William Henry Macleod Read, Esq., for long and valuable services rendered in the Straits Settlements." Read had ongoing involvements in regional politics, including the establishment of the British Colonial presence in Borneo through co-chairmanship of the British North Borneo Provisional Association in 1881. The charter of the British North Borneo Company, lists merchant William Henry Macleod Read, of 25 Durham Terrace, in the Country of Middlesex, as one of its petitioners.
On 23 February 1843 Read, an avid horseman, won the first prize in the inaugural Singapore Cup, Singapore's first horse derby. In March of that year, he organised the Colony's first rowing regatta. The Singapore Turf Club, the island's home of horse racing, began as Read's Singapore Sporting Club on 4 October 1842. His interest in educational and cultural life are evidenced by his involvement with the National Library (first treasurer), trusteeship of Singapore (later Raffles) Institution, and founding of the first Sailor's Home (appointed Honorary Secretary).
Read was also active as a Freemason, being the second person to be initiated to the Masonic Lodge Zetland in the East and soon becoming its Worshipful Master. He eventually rose to become leader of the Freemasons' Eastern Archipelago, District Grand Lodge. He officiated over Masonic ceremonies which included the laying of the Foundation Stone of Raffles Lighthouse in 1854. One of Read's last duties as a Singapore resident was laying the first cylinder of a bridge over the Singapore River – a bridge that today still bears his name, Read Bridge.
Municipal assessment funds.
In January 1845, at a public meeting, Read put forward a motion proposing that municipal assessment funds (see Act XIII of 1839 allowing for an assessment fund to be used for municipal purposes) be controlled by one person appointed by government and two persons appointed by ratepayers. The motion was carried by a large majority. However a new bill was passed (Act IX of 1848 that provided for two officials and three non-officials, all nominated by the Governor to administer the funds.
Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements.
Read was made a member of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements by Royal appointment. A notice in the London Gazette, reads,"Downing Street, May 18, 1882. THE Queen has been pleased to appoint George Macfarlane Sandilands, Esq., and William Henry Macleod Read, Esq., to be Members of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements."
and again
"Downing Street, March 17, 1868. The Queen has been pleased to appoint William Henry Macleod Read, Forbes Scott Brown, Thomas Scott, and Robert Little, Esqrs., to be Members of. the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements ; and William Bagnell, Alfred James Harrigan. and Henry Stephens Harrigan, Esqrs., to be Members of the Legislative Council of the Virgin Islands."
Freemasons.
On 27 September 1878 a land grant was issued in favour of R. W. Bro. William Henry Macleod Read, District Grand Master, and his successors in office for the use of Masons under the United Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of England. Read laid the foundation stone for the new building on 14 April 1879. The new hall was consecrated on 27 December 1879 by the District Grand Master, Read, Thomas Cargill, the civil engineer who designed the building, was installed as Master of Lodge Zetland-in-the-East. Read was eventually succeeded in his role as District Grand Master by Major Samuel Dunlop in 1885.
The Singapore Turf Club.
The Singapore Turf Club, formerly known as the Singapore Sporting Club, was founded by Read on 4 October 1842. Marking the 24th anniversary of the founding of Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles, the first races were held on 23 and 25 February 1843. Read himself won the first Derby, called the Singapore Cup, and took home the prize money of $150.
Return from the Colonies.
Read returned to Britain in February 1887. He had spent almost 46 years in Singapore. In 1901, Read published his memoirs "Play and Politics, Recollections of Malaya by an Old Resident". Read died on 10 May 1909, aged 91. In 1910, the Governor of Singapore unveiled a memorial tablet to the memory of William Henry Macleod Read in St. Andrew's Cathedral, Singapore, for his outstanding contributions to Singapore. This tablet dedication can be still seen on the left side, behind the main entrance door of the church. Read's imprint on the Straits Settlements also survived his passing through descendants in the local Eurasian community bearing his Read surname. Read was buried on 13 May 1909 at Brompton Cemetery, London.


Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha of Kandy

Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha (reigned 1782–1798) was a member of the Madurai royal family and succeeded his brother, Kirti Sri Rajasinha as King of Kandy in 1782.


Migapulle Arachchi

Migapulle Arachchi ( or ) also known as "Chinna Migapillai", was a feudal lord from the Jaffna Kingdom who became a rebel leader just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. His title "Arachchi", is a title given to the commanders of Lascarins or native military forces.
History.
After the death of Ethirimana Cinkam, the king of Jaffna Kingdom, was there three claimants to the throne. Cankili II usurped the throne by killing the other claimants, "Arasakasari" the latter king's brother and "Periya Pillai Arachchi" a powerful Karaiyar chieftain and father of Migapulle. Migapulle fled to Mannar with the two princesses of Jaffna kingdom to the Portuguese and embraced Catholic Christianity, and was baptised as "Dom Luis". Migapulle joined other Christian mudaliyars such as "Dom Pedro" and with other local support who were dissatisfied with the cruel rule of Cankili and rose to revolt. Cankili put down the uprising by inviting Raghunatha Nayak, who sent his captain Varunakulattan (also known as "Khem Nayak") and a force of 5000 men.
Cankili II was under the Portuguese made the governor of Jaffna in 1617 and paid tribute to them on the promise that he had no contact with the Karaiyar captains. The Portuguese conquered the Jaffna kingdom in 1619 and sent Cankili II to Goa where he was beheaded. Six revolts were led by Karaiyar captains between 1620 and 1621. Migapulle went to India and invited Raghunatha Nayak on March 1620, the king of Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. They were eventually defeated by the Portuguese and a second rebellion was led by Varunakulattan, under the support of the Thanjavur Nayak"." They were finally defeated in February 1621 by Phillippe de Oliveira. The rebellion was put down with excessive brutality against the civilian population including mass murder and mutilations.


Mingyi Swa of Prome

Mingyi Swa of Prome (, ; 1435–1482) was viceroy of Prome from 1446 to 1482 during the reigns of kings Narapati I, Thihathura I and Minkhaung II of Ava.
Brief.
He was born Min Hsin-Mya (မင်းဆင်များ or မင်းဆင်မြား) to Viceroy Thihathu of Prome and his chief queen Atula Thiri Maha Yaza Dewi in Prome (Pyay). He was probably born 1435. He was the fourth of the couple's eight children. He had one elder brother, two elder sisters, one younger brother and three younger sisters. In April 1442, the family moved to Ava (Inwa) when Thihathu succeeded the Ava throne as Narapati I of Ava.
His stay at Ava was short. In January 1446, Narapati I appointed his second son, then no older than 11 years of age, the viceroy of Prome, the second most important city in the kingdom. He was a loyal son throughout his father's 26-year reign. But in 1472, he tried to revolt against his elder brother King Thihathura I by getting into a league with his younger brother Thado Minsaw, governor of Tharrawaddy. But the planned rebellion never panned out and both brothers submitted to the king in February 1473. Thihathura forgave his brothers and appointed them to their former position. He gave no more trouble when his nephew Minkhaung II became king of Ava in 1480. In return, the new king kept Mingyi Swa at his post.
Swa died in 1482. Thado Minsaw of Tharrawaddy seized Prome, and revolted against Minkhaung II. The rebellion succeeded, and Prome became independent.
Family.
Swa and his principal wife Saw Myat Lay had 11 children (four sons and seven daughters). He was also married to the daughter of Minye Kyawhtin of Toungoo and Princess of Yamethin.


Jagat Singh of Amber

Jagat Singh (1786 – 21 November 1818) was the Maharaja of Amber and Jaipur from 1803 until 1818. He was a son of Pratap Singh, Raja of Jaipur.
Biography.
Maharaja Sawai Jagat Singh ascended to the throne of Jaipur on 3 August 1803 at the age of 17. The early years of his reign were comparatively free from Maratha and Mughal inroads but a dispute with Marwar (Jodhpur) on a point of honor brought the two states, which had worked closely during Maharaja Pratap Singh's time, into confrontation, which however ended in peace and a matrimonial alliance. An important event at the commencement of his reign was the signing of an offensive and defensive alliance on 12 December, 1803 with the British. This treaty was likely to free Jaipur from Maratha depredations, but after Lord Wellesley's departure, it was annulled by the Governor General, George Barlow who was an advocate of the policy of non-interference. As a result of this, territories of the state were depredated by the Maratha's and Amir Khan Pindari till the signing of the historic treaty of 1818 ‘defensive alliance, perpetual friendship, protection and subordinate cooperation’ with the British. Barely nine months later Sawai Jagat Singh died at the young age of 32.
Arts & Culture.
Like his father, Sawai Jagat Singh was also a patron of the arts and crafts. He was very much interested in sports as well as in literature. All the Karkhanas that have been thriving for long in Jaipur and came down to him as heritage were bursting with activities. Many Painters prospered in the Suratkhana, a number of paintings depicting Durbar scenes and Zenana Majlis were painted. Painter Sahib Ram painted a life size portrait of him. The latest group of artists, who were the direct descendants of the Ustads (master artists), were trying their best to keep alive the old tradition, despite new equipment entering Jaipur, producing photographs and other modern improvements in the field of drawing and painting.


Thado Minsaw

Thado Minsaw ( ; 15 June 1762 – 9 April 1808) was heir-apparent of Burma from 1783 to 1808, during the reign of his father King Bodawpaya of Konbaung dynasty. As Prince of Shwedaung and Dabayin, he was entrusted by the king to manage the day-to-day affairs of the kingdom, and when necessary, to lead the Royal Army against enemies. Thado Minsaw is best known for his conquest of Arakan (now Rakhine State) in 1784–1785 and the subsequent removal of Mahamuni Buddha from Mrauk-U to Amarapura. He also led the successful defense of Tenasserim (Taninthayi) coast in 1792 in the war with Siam. The crown prince also led the revitalization of Burmese theater in the late 18th century by bringing a group of young artists to his court.
Thado Minsaw died at age 45 in 1808, and was succeeded as crown prince by his son Prince of Sagaing (later King Bagyidaw). The rest of Konbaung kings traced lineage to him.
Early life.
Thado Minsaw was born Maung Paw ( ) to then Prince of Badon (later King Bodawpaya) and his third wife Me Lun Thu (later Queen of Northern Palace) in 1762 in Shwebo. On 26 March 1781, Maung Yit was granted Shwedaung in fief by King Singu, a first-cousin of his, and became known as Prince of Shwedaung. On 13 July 1783, nearly a year and a half after his father Bodawpaya ascended to Burmese throne, Prince of Shwedaung, just 21, was made crown prince, and was granted Dabayin and Taungdwingyi in fiefs.
Crown prince.
Conquest of Arakan.
Thado Minsaw's first major assignment as crown prince was to lead the Burmese invasion of Arakan, an independent kingdom in the west, separated by the Arakan Yoma mountains. In October 1784, Thado Minsaw as commander-in-chief led an expedition force consisted of four divisions, totaling 30,000 men (including 2500 cavalry and 200 elephants). Three divisions crossed the Arakan Yoma from three different passes with Thado Minsaw's division crossing the mountains from its Minbu base. The fourth was a flotilla which came up from the Indian Ocean coastline from the erstwhile British base at Negrais. On the last day of the year, the Burmese forces captured the Arakanese capital Mrauk-U, ending nearly five centuries of Arakanese independence. Twenty thousand people were deported to populate the king's new capital Amarapura. In the looting and destruction that followed, much of Arakan's cultural and intellectual heritage was lost. The royal library was burned to the ground. The country was annexed and ruled through four governorships, each backed by a garrison. The Mahamuni Buddha, the very symbol of Arakanese sovereignty, was forcibly brought back to Amarapura.
Administration.
Though still in his twenties, Thado Minsaw came to be relied upon by his father for both domestic and military affairs. In late 1785, Thado Minsaw was entrusted to govern in Amarapura while the king personally led a large scale invasion of Siam. After the invasion, which ended in total failure, Bodawapaya handed over managing the day-to-day affairs of the kingdom to Thado Minsaw, and concentrated on religion.
Defense of Tenasserim.
The crown prince was called on to service again in 1792 when the Siamese again invaded Tenasserim, the coastal region directly west of Bangkok. The Siamese forces, which also invaded the region in 1787, successfully captured Tavoy (Dawei) this time in March 1792, and laid siege to Mergui (Myeik). Thado Minsaw as commander-in-chief of a 10,000 strong force first marched down to Burmese held Martaban (Mottama) at the north of Tenasserim coast as his forward base. By December 1792, Thado Minsaw was able to drive out the Siamese from Tavoy and relieved Mergui which the Burmese governor had successfully held. Thado Minsaw left a portion of troops to guard the southeastern frontier.
Theater.
The crown prince was also instrumental in revitalizing Burmese theater. In the 1780s, he brought together a circle of innovative young artists in his private court, including Maung Sa, the future Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa. In 1789, a Royal Commission consisted of princes and ministers was charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists captured from Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese Panji tales into Burmese Yama Zatdaw and Enaung Zatdaw.
Death.
Crown Prince Thado Minsaw died at Amarapura at age 45 on 9 April 1808. He had 22 queens, 32 sons and 26 daughters. Although he was not to be king, the crown prince was father of two future kings, Bagyidaw and Tharrawaddy. The rest of Konbaung kings traced lineage to him.


Dalem (Raja)

Dalem was a title for the kings of Bali who resided in Samprangan and Gelgel and were descended from the founder-raja Sri Aji Kresna Kepakisan (mid-14th century?). These kings ruled the island, or at least substantial parts thereof, from maybe the 14th century to the second half of the 17th century. The title literally means "inside" (the Indonesian word "dalam" has the same meaning), and alludes to his ritual-symbolic role inside the palace (puri). The title is first found in a Dutch report from 1619, which says that the Radia Dalam (Raja Dalem) was the paramount ruler of 33 lesser Balinese lords. The title is used in the chronicle Babad Dalem from the 18th century, which recounts the history of the kings of Bali up the end of the 17th century. After the fall of the Gelgel kingdom in 1686, a daughter kingdom was established in nearby Klungkung. However, the rulers of the Klungkung Palace were usually known by another title, Dewa Agung. In the literature, Dewa Agung is sometimes, although anachronistically, used also for the pre-1686 kings of Bali.


Civilian casualties and displacements during the Cyprus conflict

This article covers the civilian casualties and displacements that occurred between 1963 and 1975 – from the outbreak of the intercommunal fighting until the end of displacements following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.
1963–64: Cypriot intercommunal violence.
On 21 December 1963, serious violence erupted in Nicosia when a Greek Cypriot police patrol, checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and three people (two Turkish Cypriots and one Greek Cypriot) were killed. As the news spread, members of underground organizations began firing and taking hostages. North of Nicosia, Turkish forces occupied a strong position at St. Hilarion Castle, dominating the road to Kyrenia on the northern coast. The road became a principal combat area as both sides fought to control it. Much intercommunal fighting occurred in Nicosia along the line separating the Greek and Turkish quarters of the city (known later as the Green Line).
Severe intercommunal fighting occurred in March and April 1964. When the worst of the fighting was over, Turkish Cypriots began moving from isolated rural areas and mixed villages into enclaves. Turkish Cypriots state that the hostilities forced such an amalgamation while the Greek Cypriots state that the Turkish Cypriots did so without any pressure from them, but rather by the Turkish Cypriot paramilitary organization TMT so that to apply uniformity. It is believed by progressive Cypriots that both events occurred. Before long, a substantial portion of the island's Turkish Cypriot population was crowded into the Turkish quarter of Nicosia and other enclaves, in tents and hastily constructed shacks. Slum conditions resulted from the serious overcrowding.
Attempts of the Cypriot National Guard under control of General George Grivas, who claimed to be acting under a mandate given to Cyprus by the UN, to re-capture a beach-head at the Kokkina/Erenköy enclave which the Turkish Cypriots claimed was their last link with the outside world but the Greek Cypriots feared would be used as a landing post for Turkish mainland forces, caused an intervention by the Turkish Airforce. On 8 – 9 August, Turkey bombed the Tylliria area for two days, resulting in the death of 33 Greek Cypriots and 230 injuries.
Pierre Oberling noted that according to official sources, the 1963–64 crisis resulted in the death of 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots. 209 Turkish Cypriots and 41 Greeks were reported as missing. Nearly 25,000 Turkish Cypriots, about one sixth of the Turkish Cypriot population at that time, had been forced to leave their homes to live into enclaves. Finally, more than 3000 Armenian ethnics who had been living in the areas of Nicosia that came under the control of Turkish paramilitaries were forced out of their homes.
1974: Coup d'Etat and the Turkish invasion.
With the coup d'état of 21 April 1967, Greece entered a period under the rule of the Colonels' Junta.
On 15 July 1974, the Republic of Cyprus government was overthrown by the Greek Cypriot national guard acting under orders from the Greek junta. The Greek junta installed an EOKA veteran and a member of the Cyprus Parliament, Nikos Sampson as the new president. The attempt to murder president Makarios failed, however, and he fled Cyprus with the help of the British army.
On 20 July 1974, in response to the coup, Turkish troops landed near Kyrenia, forcing a narrow corridor to Nicosia within 2 days, until a ceasefire was negotiated on 22 July. On the second day of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus the Colonels' Junta collapsed. Karamanlis returned from Paris and formed his civilian Government. In Cyprus, Nikos Sampson resigned and Glafkos Clerides took over the presidency as acting president, according to the 1960 Constitution.
In August of the same year, almost a month after the coup had dissolved the three guarantor powers, together with representatives of the two communities, met in Geneva. The Turkish Cypriots under Rauf Denktaş demanded a federal state with 34% of the territory ceded to Turkish Cypriots. Glafkos Klerides – the Greek Cypriot representative – asked for 36 to 48 hours in order to consult with his superiors. While still in talks, a second Turkish invasion was launched on Cyprus. When a ceasefire was declared, more than 36% of the territory was occupied by Turkish forces. The ceasefire line of 1974 today still separates the two communities and is generally referred to as the Green Line (or the 'Atilla Line'), and also runs through Nicosia, making it the only divided capital in the world.
The Turkish Army and the Greek side conducted policies ethnic cleansing in the territories that came under their respective control.
Turkey was found guilty by the European Commission of Human Rights for displacement of persons, deprivation of liberty, ill treatment, deprivation of life and deprivation of possessions. The Turkish policy of violently forcing a third of the island's Greek population from their homes in the occupied North, preventing their return and settling Turks from the mainland there is considered an example of ethnic cleansing.
In 1976 and again in 1983, the European Commission of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of repeated violations of the European Convention of Human Rights. Turkey has been condemned for preventing the return of Greek Cypriot refugees to their properties. The European Commission of Human Rights reports of 1976 and 1983 state the following:
Enclaved Greek Cypriots in the Karpass Peninsula in 1975 were subjected by the Turks to violations of their human rights so that by 2001 when the European Court of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of the violation of 14 articles of the European Convention of Human Rights in its judgement of Cyprus v. Turkey (application no. 25781/94), less than 600 still remained. In the same judgement, Turkey was found guilty of violating the rights of the Turkish Cypriots by authorising the trial of civilians by a military court.
The European commission of Human Rights with 12 votes against 1, accepted evidence from the Republic of Cyprus, concerning the rapes of various Greek-Cypriot women by Turkish soldiers and the torture of many Greek-Cypriot prisoners during the invasion of the island. The high rate of rape resulted in the temporary permission of abortion in Cyprus by the conservative Cypriot Orthodox Church. According to Paul Sant Cassia, rape was used systematically to "soften" resistance and clear civilian areas through fear. Many of the atrocities were seen as revenge for the atrocities against Turkish Cypriots in 1963–64 and the massacres during the first invasion. In the Karpass Peninsula, a group of Turkish Cypriots, called a "death squad", reportedly chose young girls to rape and impregnated teenage girls. There were cases of rapes, which included gang rapes, of teenage girls by Turkish soldiers and Turkish Cypriot men in the peninsula, and one case involved the rape of an old Greek Cypriot man by a Turkish Cypriot. The man was reportedly identified by the victim and two other rapists were also arrested. Raped women were sometimes outcast from society.
Greek Cypriot EOKA-B militants committed a massacre in the village of Tochni, where all men between the ages of 13 and 74 were found shot (Tochni massacre). Likewise other mass graves were exhumed in the villages of Aloa, Sandalaris and Maratha, containing 126 dead civilians, including women and children (Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre). There is also evidence of the rape of Greek Cypriot women by Turkish soldiers.
Legal challenges.
In 1976 and in 1983 Cyprus challenged Turkey at the European Court of Human Rights over a number of issues, including missing civilian Greek Cypriots, of which Cyprus claimed there were at least 1491. The ECHR concluded that there was a presumption that Turkey had a responsibility for clarifying the fate of civilians last known to be under its control, but also that there was "no proof that any of the missing persons were killed in circumstances for which [Turkey] could be held responsible; nor did the Commission find
any evidence to the effect that any of the persons taken into custody were still being detained or kept in servitude by [Turkey]". A further 1994 case brought by Cyprus, on which judgement was made in 2001, concluded that Turkey continued to offer insufficient support in clarifying the fate of missing Cypriots. Another case is the book "war crimes" written by Andreas Parashos claiming at least 180 reported missings are fake and forged by Cyprus state, and 40 of them are already buried to the graves before 74, he also admittedParashos ? killing 100 Turkish Cypriot civilians
 A new case was brought in 2009, following comments by Turkish actor Atilla Olgac about committing war crimes during his service in Cyprus, although Olgac later retracted the remarks, saying he had been testing public reaction to a TV script.
In 2006, owing to the potential huge number of lawsuits against Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights called on Turkey in December to find "effective domestic remedies" for the mass displacement of Greek Cypriots. The result was a property commission established by the Turkish Cypriots purportedly offering right of return of Greek Cypriot properties so long as the property was unoccupied, or not in an area of military significance. A small number of applicants have received compensation. The Greek Cypriots have refused to recognise the commission as a proper means of redress, with some politicians going as far to suggest treason for those who accept. The European Court of Human Rights has ruled that the property commission does provide an adequate domestic remedy.(ref: Demopoulos & Ors -v- Turkey 1 March 2010)


Mannanar

The Mannanar () were a Thiyyar dynasty of Malabar, in the present-day Kannur and Kasaragod districts of India. In the ancient period, there were five Mannanar palaces in Eruvesi to the North West of Taliparamba, hence they were called as Anju Aramana. The word "Mannanar" derives from "mannan", meaning "king" and "ar", which pluralises it.
The many Nairs, including Kshathriyas such as the rajas of Cochin and Travancore, Samantans such as the Zamorin and some Thiyyas, are also owners of large tracts of land. A Mannanars stani (dignitary or holder of title) Muthedath Aramanakkal family had the authority to decide disputes within the caste and Jurisdiction was invoked on appeal. Kottayam thaluk was distinct in having a number of dominant Thiyyar Tharavads, who were jenmis and village heads. Depositions by muthedath Aramanakal "Kunhi kelappaan Mannanar" and "krishnan Vazhunnavar". The family, with vast land holding in the eastern hilly tracts of Chirakkal Thaluk, is noted to have given refuge.
Even in modern times there was a Thiyyar royal family named "mannanar" at a place called Eruvesi close by the river Thoniyar at the coorg border of north malabar. The head of that family had royal emblems and could move about in manchal (palanquin) and take with him retainers wearing swords and shield. A Thiyyar named Taliparamba Possesses a large extent of land granted by a former Raja of Chirakkal, on condition of his taking under his protection all excommunicated Nambuthiri females, if they choose to go with him. He has special rank and privileges, and has the title of Mannanar or machchiyar.
Origin.
According to Neelakandan Unni, The Parashurama left the place after giving good advice to the women about many things. The Brahmin, who was happy with this generous gift from Parashurama, has been with macchiyar putran Mannan ever since. He took over the government by delaying the harvest and so on. Thus the dynasty that had been advancing from generation to generation (not long after leaving the aliens, eventually died without adopting the mannan, is said to have become the cause of the extinction of the tribe. The place called eruvesi in the vallya of the kadakkanmala, the place where the palace is located. They are called kshathriyas is because they belong to the Vitihotra of the Mannanar Karthavirya dynasty.
Kingdom.
History.
Mannanar is an dynasty of Eruvessi in Kannur district. There were Thampurans In kerala. But their houses were not called Aramana. In Kerala only the palace of the Mannanar was called "Aramana". All the houses of other rules were called kottaram or kovilakam. The Malayalam word used for king is Mannan. The 'ar' is added to the name of a person to be respected. Hence the king was called Mannanar. The best known, because it has formed the subject of judicial proceeding, is that of the Muthedath Aramanakkal in the Chirakkal Taluk with extensive jungle land endowments. The members of this institution are respectively styled as Mannanar or macchiyar, according as they are men or women. They have baronial power and keep up a sort of baronial state, for which purpose two hundred Nairs soldiers of the "Edavikutty kulam" (or clan) were in former days bound of follow the mannanar When out on active service. The members of the Aramana are recognized as of the Thiyyar caste. And the sons of macchiyars become in turn mannanars (barons). The women take husbands from Thiyyar community. The women who are sent to this Aramana are those convicted of illicit intercourse with men of Thiyya or superior castes.
Only the elder can become a Mannanar. The Mannanar fourth was kunhi kelappan Mannanar that. During his reign, a strong monarchy existed, and his main occupation was cultivating cardamom with tenant in the ezhimala forests, harvesting it and taking it to madras to buy gold. And the chirakkal was build during the regin of Mannanar third. When The third Mannanar came to power. There was a "Anjukurvazhcha". He was ruled by Ariyittuvazhcha and given the title of "Vazhunnavar".
Smarthavicharam.
Mannanar provide a comfortable home for Nambudiri women who were thrown out of caste, and thus in the ordinary course of events doomed to every misery and degradation to be found in life. On being outcast, the funeral ceremonies of Nambutiri women were performed by her own people, and she became dead to them. She went to the Mannanar. And her birth ceremonies were performed, so that she might being life anew in a state of purity. If, on arrival, she entered by left door, she was his wife. If, by the front door, his sister. It is said that. When their chief, Mannanar of the Aramana. Is destitute of heirs, the Thiyyars of Kolathunadu go in processing to the kurumattur Nambutiri (chief of the peringallur Brahmins) and demand a Brahman virgin to be adopted as sister of Mannanar, who follow Marumakkathayam rule of succession. This demand, it is said, used to be granted by the Nambutiries assembling at a meeting. And selecting a maiden to be given to the Thiyyars.
Customs.
The well-known Mannanar belonged to the Varakat illam (Varaka Thiyyar). The Varaka Thiyyar or Varakat illam Mannanar were further allowed to wear gold jewels on the neck, to don silken cloth, to fasten a sword round the waist, and to carry a shield. Th sword was made of thin pliable steel, and worn round the like belt, the point being fastened to the hilt through a small hole near the point.


Wisutkasat

Wisutkasat () or Borommathewi (), was a Siamese Queen and Princess during the Ayutthaya period in the 16th century, born Sawatdiratchathida () to Prince Thianracha (later King Maha Chakkraphat) and Suriyothai. She was a mother of two kings (Naresuan and Ekathotsarot, and the maternal ancestor of the Sukhothai Dynasty, which ruled Ayutthaya from 1569-1629.
Life.
In 1548 she married Maha Thammaracha, a cousin on her mother's side. He was made Lord of Phitsanulok, soon after helping Maha Chakkraphat to the throne through a palace coup. She bore Thammaracha three children, two sons: Phra Naretsuan born in 1555, Phra Ekathotsarot (both became Kings) and one daughter Phra Suphankanlaya.
In 1563, King Bayinnaung of Burma invaded Siam. The city of Phitsanulok was forced to surrender and her husband switched his allegiance from her father to his enemy. In 1566, she took part in the kidnapping of her younger sister Phra Thepkassattri, who was betrothed to King Setthathirath of Lan Xang, in order to thwart an attempted alliance between Ayutthaya and Laos against her husband.
Chakkraphat and Mahinthrathirat then marched to Phitsanouk while Thammaracha was away, and took Wisutkasat and her children to Ayutthaya as hostages. Following the Burmese-Siamese War (1568-1569), her husband ascended the throne with the help of Bayinnaung as King Maha Thammarachathirat or Sanphet I, and together they became the founders of the Sukhothai Dynasty.


Upatissa (regent)

Upatissa was purohita to and a Chief government minister under King Vijaya of Sri Lanka. He built a city Upatissa Nuwara named after himself, which became the second Sinhalese kingdom in Sri Lanka.
He became the King of Upatissa Nuwara for a short period of time after the death of Prince Vijaya until the arrival of the heir to the throne, King Panduvasdeva from south India.


Tall-i Bakun

Tall-i Bakun or Tall-e Bakun (in modern Fars Province, Iran) was a prehistoric site
in the Ancient Near East about 3 km south of Persepolis. It was inhabited around 4000-3500 BC.
Archaeology.
The site consists of two mounds, A and B. In 1928, exploratory excavation was done by Ernst Herzfeld, of the University of Berlin. Alexander Langsdorff and Donald McCown conducted full scale excavations in 1932. Additional work was done at the site in 1937 by Erich Schmidt leading the Persepolis Expedition of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
 Some limited work was done at Tall-i Bakun by a team from the Tokyo University led by Namio Egami and Seiichi Masuda in 1956.
The most recent excavations were by a joint team of the Oriental Institute and the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organisation.
History.
The site was active from circa 6th millennium BC to circa 4th millennium BC.
Tall-i Bakun phase A was inhabited c. 4000-3500 BCE. Four layers can be distinguished. Layer III was the best preserved and shows a settlement in which the residential buildings were built close together with no roads or paths. Individual houses consisted of several rooms. Remains of mural paintings and of wooden columns suggest a once rich interior.
Richly painted pottery was produced. There were also ceramic female figurines and those of animals. There were also cylinder seals, which indicates some type of administrative activities.
Artifactual remains from the site include objects made of copper, pottery and stone.
The wealth and variety of material items at Bakun and the evidence of large workshop areas point to the existence of local industry and connection/trade with distant regions such as the Persian Gulf, the central plateau, Kerman, and northeastern Iran whence goods like shells, copper, steatite, lapis, and turquoise were procured. If my inferences are correct, we have a settlement that is spatially arranged according to its functional needs and socio-economic organization.
Kiln technology.
Tall-i Bakun 'A' is the only site in the area providing a long sequence of ancient kilns. These double-chamber kilns have been in use for at least 300 years with no significant changes.
A number of other kilns in the Near East share some elements of the Bakun kilns. There are close parallels with those of Tepe Gawra of the same time period. Also there are parallels with those from the Sinai Peninsula of the Egyptian New Kingdom period. Similar designs are not found elsewhere in the Levant.
Bakun culture.
The Bakun culture flourished in the Fars Province of Iran in the fifth and early fourth millenniums BC. It had a long duration and wide geographical distribution. Its pottery tradition was as sophisticated as that of Susa I. Nevertheless, it was mostly a nomadic culture, and its settlements were typically much smaller than those of Susa.
Bakun pottery is known in the Fars region in the form of bowls and jugs with green, reddish brown or deep brown bands and stripes.
Outside Fars this pottery has been found in northern Khuzestan, in the Bakhtiari mountains, and in the Behbahan and Zuhreh regions.
In the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC, Bakun A settlements were at once manufacturing sites and centres for the administration of production and trade. Their painted pottery featured some unusual specific motifs, such as large-horned mountain
sheep and goats, that were rare or unique elsewhere.
After the decline of Bakun, Lapui period followed. In recent publications, Bakun period is dated 4800-4100 BC, and the Lapui period is dated to 4100-3500 BC.