Vanderbilt houses

From the late 1870s to the 1920s, the Vanderbilt family employed some of the United States's best Beaux-Arts architects and decorators to build an unequalled string of New York townhouses and East Coast palaces in the United States. Many of the Vanderbilt houses are now National Historic Landmarks. Some photographs of Vanderbilt's residences in New York are included in the "Photographic series of American Architecture" by Albert Levy (1870s).
The list of architects employed by the Vanderbilts is a "who's who" of the New York-based firms that embodied the syncretic (often dismissed as "eclectic") styles of the American Renaissance: Richard Morris Hunt; George B. Post; McKim, Mead, and White; Charles B. Atwood; Carrère and Hastings; Warren and Wetmore; Horace Trumbauer; John Russell Pope and Addison Mizner were all employed by the descendants of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who built only very modestly himself.


Alaska Commercial Company

The Alaska Commercial Company (ACC) is a company that operated retail stores in Alaska during the early period of Alaska's ownership by the United States. From 1901 to 1992, it was known as the Northern Commercial Company (NCC). In 1992, it resumed business as the Alaska Commercial Company under the ownership of The North West Company.
History.
After the 1867 purchase of Alaska by the United States, the firm of Hutchison, Kohl & Company, including Hayward Hutchison, William Kohl, and Louis Sloss, bought the Russian-American Company. In 1868, Sloss, Lewis Gerstle, and August Wassermann bought this company, although Hutchison, Kohl & Company was in simultaneous existence and under the same ownership until 1872, when the new company paid off the purchase. This new company, formed in 1868, was called the Alaska Commercial Company, and did business under this name until 1901. In that year, because of increasing competition in the sealskin trade, the Alaska Commercial Company merged with the International Mercantile Marine Company and Alaska Goldfields, Ltd., to form two new companies, the Northern Navigation Company and the Northern Commercial Company. The original owners of the Alaska Commercial Company, Louis Sloss, Gerstle, etc. carried on the business under the name of the Northern Commercial Company. Shortly afterwards, W.J. Erskine bought some of the old Alaska Commercial Company boats and set up a small successor to the Company in certain areas of Alaska.
The Northern Commercial Company operated village stores in Alaska from 1868 to 1922, including during the Klondike Gold Rush (1897–1899). The stores often served as the village courthouse and post office as well. Much trade in the stores was bartered, as few people had cash. The stores accepted such items as gold, fish and furs in exchange for merchandise. The stores were often the nucleus of small communities and communities often grew because of the stores.
In 1922, the Northern Commercial Company was sold to a group of employees, who moved the headquarters to Seattle. It opened department stores, auto dealerships, and tire stores in Alaska's cities, and became a major supplier of heavy equipment and machinery in Alaska. By 1975 the Northern Commercial Company sold its department stores to Nordstrom. The Goodyear tire stores were sold to Bandag. In 1977 the old name, the Alaska Commercial Company (ACC) was reintroduced to the stores and the remaining eleven rural stores were sold to the Community Enterprise Development Corporation of Alaska (CEDC). In November 1992, the CEDC sold the stores in turn to The North West Company, a Canadian retailer mainly serving northern communities. ACC now has 30 stores in 29 remote Alaska Villages, under the name AC Value Center. Northern Commercial retained the heavy equipment division, which continues to operate under the name NC Machinery.


Tweed Roosevelt

Tweed Roosevelt (born February 28, 1942) is the great-grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt via Roosevelt's son Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, and his son Archibald (Jr). He is Chairman of Roosevelt China Investments, a Boston firm. He occasionally lectures and writes on the topic of his great-grandfather. He is the President of the Board of Trustees of the Theodore Roosevelt Association.
Childhood and education.
Roosevelt was born in Berkeley, California. He is the son of former career CIA officer and banker Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr. and his first wife, Katherine Winthrop ("K.W." or "Kay") Tweed. His paternal grandfather was Archibald Roosevelt, Sr., the third son of Theodore Roosevelt. His maternal grandfather was Harrison Tweed, the grandson of William M. Evarts.
Roosevelt acquired an interest in natural history at the Millbrook School in Millbrook, New York, and then went on to Harvard where he studied social anthropology and graduated in 1964 with an AB in Anthropology and Social Relations. During his freshman year at Harvard, Roosevelt was involved as a driver in an accident that sent two sophomores to the hospital. During the late 1960s, he became active in the movement against the Vietnam war and participated in the 1967 march on the Pentagon. Two years later, he was one of thousands at the Woodstock Festival. Roosevelt was mentioned, by name, in an essay on Time Magazine's 1967 Man of the Year in which he responded to the question on why he was involved as a VISTA volunteer in Harlem, New York with a single word, "individualism". In 1976, Roosevelt earned an MBA in Finance/Banking at Columbia University.
Early career.
From 1967 to 1974, Roosevelt worked in a number of capacities. He was a special assistant to the Administrator of the largest New York City government agency. He worked as staff administrator and treasurer of a non-partisan commission studying the selection process of U.S. presidential nominees. He also worked as a VISTA volunteer involved in community action and anti-drug programs in the slums of New York City, and spent some time in the employ of the United States Forest Service at the Carson National Forest in Taos, New Mexico.
Post MBA career.
After obtaining his MBA, at the Graduate School of Business, Columbia University, Roosevelt, from 1976 to 1979, was a lecturer in business at that same school. He also designed and taught the basic quantitative course for MBAs. He also directed and taught in executive programs for middle and upper-level business executives from all over the world. And he also served as Executive Director of the Institute for Quantitative Research in Finance, an academic research organization which published scholarly papers and organized semi-annual seminars for practitioners and academics involved in the quantitative aspects of finance. From 1979 to 1983, Roosevelt was consultant with the MAC Group, a general management consulting firm with 150 professionals in offices in the U.S. and abroad. Tweed was responsible for the practice area of management development; designing and marketing tailored programs for senior managers in the U.S. and overseas.
From 1983 to 1987 Roosevelt was vice president at Gray-Judson & Howard, Inc, a management consulting firm which provides strategic planning advice to domestic and international clients in both the industrial and service sectors. Projects that Roosevelt directed or participated in included: developing and implementing strategic planning processes for a number of regional brokerage firms; developing a strategic financial profit model for a major law firm; analyzing the market planning system for an international health and fitness service organization; and consulting with other clients including Computervision (a manufacturer of CAS/CAM systems), J. T. Luptin (the largest Coca-Cola franchise bottler in the U.S.), Allied Signal Corporation, Kodak, Mutual Life of Canada, and Cardio Fitness Corporation.
As an investment advisor at the Wingate Financial Group from 1987–1992, Roosevelt provided financial planning advice to individuals, managing their investments, advising them on real estates, and arranging all aspects of their financial affairs. He also provided investment banking services to small companies, arranging both short-term and long-term financing.
From 1992 to 1996, Roosevelt served as president of the Roosevelt Investment Group, Inc, a registered investment advisor with offices in New York City and Boston, Massachusetts, with individual and institutional clients both in the United States and abroad. It manages clients' portfolios, investing mostly in U.S. equity and bond market. The firm, founded by P. James Roosevelt in 1969, is today no longer under the control of the Roosevelt family.
From 1996 to 1998, Roosevelt was a vice president at the Center for Blood Research, a basic research institution affiliated with the Harvard Medical School, funded by Federal grants mostly by NIH and focusing on immunological research. Roosevelt was responsible for the overall administration of the Center and for its development efforts.
Roosevelt has also served as spokesperson for Steiff, an international company headquartered in Giengen, Germany that manufactures extremely high quality collectible plush animals, including Teddy Bears. At the beginning of the 20th century, Steiff was the initiator of the original Teddy Bear, which was named after President Theodore Roosevelt.
As Chairman of Roosevelt China Investments, a Boston firm, he has endeavored, despite setbacks, to establish a presence of Saks Fifth Avenue retail stores in mainland China. Those efforts are ongoing. The firm has missed its originally projected 2008 opening date.
Tweed Roosevelt frequently teaches high school students attending Long Island University's Roosevelt Summer Honor Institute program. He leads them in discussions of various documentaries, literary texts, and also provides tours through Theodore Roosevelt's home in Sagamore Hill, which he grew up in as a child. This is an annual program, that began in the summer of 2019.
Children.
Roosevelt married Candace C. MacGuigan, a Chapin School and Barnard College graduate, in 1980. They had two children, Winthrop Roosevelt (born November 12, 1982) and Amanda Roosevelt (born March 11, 1986).
1992 trip down the Rio Roosevelt - River of Doubt.
In 1992, Roosevelt spent his 50th birthday rafting down the 1,000-mile Rio Roosevelt in Brazil—a river previously explored by his great-grandfather in 1914 in the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition. At that time, Theodore Roosevelt and Colonel Cândido Rondon of the Brazilian Army navigated the river, then called the Rio da Duvida—the River of Doubt—in the heart of the Brazilian rain forest. In a video made about the modern trip, Roosevelt summed the river up saying that "nothing had changed and everything had changed" in the Amazon wilderness during the 78 years between the trips. A camera crew traveled with the latter expedition, resulting in a television documentary.
Contributor to books and projects on Theodore Roosevelt.
Roosevelt is a frequent contributor to books and other projects on Theodore Roosevelt. He presented two seminars during Safari Club International (SCI)’s 2005 Convention: "Return for the River of Doubt" and "Theodore Roosevelt Remembered". In 2006, he was also a guest lecturer at the first annual Theodore Roosevelt symposium, "Theodore Roosevelt, Adventurer", given at Dickinson State University in 2006, speaking on TR's hunting and camping trips in the Western United States. He also spoke at its 2007 Symposium.
A longtime member of the Theodore Roosevelt Association (TRA), Tweed Roosevelt serves on that organization's Executive Committee and is the current President of the organization. In 2007 Roosevelt was asked to head up the organization's site location committee to consider locations for the TRA's since-abandoned Theodore Roosevelt Museum and Research Center. He is also a member of its strategic planning committee.
Roosevelt is a charter member of the New England Chapter of the Theodore Roosevelt Association. He also spoke in 2006 at the Annual Wyoming Commemorative Service on July 4 at the Wyoming Monument in Wyoming, Pennsylvania for the anniversary of his great-grandfather's speech there.
In 2008, he travelled to San Juan, Puerto Rico to unveil a statue of President Theodore Roosevelt commissioned by then Senate President Kenneth McClintock and House Speaker José Aponte, to commemorate the President's visit to Puerto Rico almost a century before. Tweed's great-uncle, Theodore Roosevelt II, served as Governor of Puerto Rico in the early 20th century.
In May 2009, Roosevelt led the team that coordinated and organized an opportunity for members of the Theodore Roosevelt Association (TRA) to join the US Navy's traditional one-day family cruise on the nuclear aircraft carrier, USS "Theodore Roosevelt" (CVN-71). Over 700 people attended and more than 200 people joined the TRA just for the opportunity. This was the first such cruise in over ten years in which TRA members participated.


Joel Hiacoomes

Joel Hiacoomes (1665) was one of the first Native American students at Harvard University.
Life.
Joel Hiacoomes, son of Hiacoomes, the Wampanoag interpreter for missionary Thomas Mayhew, was born into the Wampanoag Tribe on Martha's Vineyard, traditionally Noepe. Joel and his classmate Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck, also a Wampanoag, were taught on the Vineyard by Peter Folger, the maternal grandfather to Benjamin Franklin. The two went on to attend Elijah Corlett's grammar school in Cambridge in around 1657. In 1661 they both entered Harvard's Indian College. Joel Hiacoomes and Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck were both set to graduate from Harvard in 1665; however, only Caleb received his degree.
Harvard and death.
Joel Hiacoomes was set to be named Harvard valedictorian, but died before graduation in a shipwreck, after robbers pounced on the shipwreck survivors. The boat Joel sailed on was found wrecked on the shores of Nantucket Island.
In the time that Joel attended Harvard, two weeks of oral exams in Greek and Latin were a requirement for graduation, in addition to attending the commencement ceremony. Therefore; due to his untimely death, Joel never received his Harvard diploma. Harvard rectified this in 2011 when, almost 350 years after Joel Hiacoomes was scheduled to graduate, Harvard University presented members of the Wampanoag community with a special posthumous degree for him alongside Tiffany Smalley, the first Wampanoag to graduate from Harvard College since Caleb.
In response to the posthumous ceremony in 2011, Cheryl Andrews-Maltais, the chairwoman of the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah), said: <poem> "We are delighted that this posthumous degree is being awarded to our own Joel Iacoomes, since he was from our island community, it means a great deal to us to see his extraordinary achievement recognized alongside his fellow tribe member, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck, the first Indian to graduate from Harvard."</poem>
While at Harvard, Joel used John Amos Comenius's Janua Linguarum Reserata as a textbook. The Harvard College Library copy of the first edition of Janua Linguarum has Joel's signature twice as a borrower.
In 1674, Daniel Gookin, writing about American Indians in New England, described Joel and Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck as "hopeful young men, especially Joel, being so ripe in learning, that he should, within a few months, have taken his first degree of bachelor of art in the college." Gookin, further elaborating, explained how Joel "was a good scholar and a pious man, as I judge. I knew him well; for he lived and was taught in the same town where I dwell. I observed him for several years, after he was grown to years of discretion, to be not only a diligent student, but an attentive hearer of God’s word; diligently writing the sermons, and frequenting lectures; grave and sober in his conversation."
Alternative spellings of Joel's last name are: Jacoomis, Iacoomes, Iacoombs, J:acoomis, and Jacoomis.


KNBS (TV)

KNBS, UHF analog channel 22, was an ABC-affiliated television station licensed to Walla Walla, Washington, United States, which operated from January 3 to December 14, 1960. Owned by Northwest Broadcasting System, Inc., the station closed due to lack of capital to continue operations.
History.
Northwest Broadcasting System, Inc., a group of investors from Los Angeles, was granted a construction permit to build a new television station on channel 22 in Walla Walla in 1959. The investor group also included Chuck Connors, who at the time starred in the ABC show "The Rifleman"; Connors, who invested $5,000 in the venture, was paid $1,000 a year for five years to be the station's "executive vice president". The station went on air January 3, 1960, from studios in downtown Walla Walla and a transmitter on Pikes Peak in Oregon, just across the state line. In addition to network programming from ABC, the station produced local news, sports and weather; a local variety show, "Bondwagon"; and a square dancing program, among others.
While Walla Walla's first TV station had the acceptance of the local community, it lacked the cash to keep going, despite increasing and adequate revenues, because of the costs incurred in launching the venture and lower than anticipated interest from potential local investors. In late 1960, Lyle Bond, who had been the vice president, station manager and newsreader, left for a station in San Diego, California. On the night of December 14, 1960, at sign-off, vice president and chief engineer William Barclay appeared to inform viewers of the station's closure and expressed hope that a new owner would appear to keep KNBS in operation; that same week, the station filed for bankruptcy listing $169,000 in liabilities and $90,000 in assets, and a receiver was appointed to manage the process of selling it to the highest bidder.
A high bid of $50,000, including the assumption of $27,000 in outstanding liens, for KNBS was placed by the Alert Acceptance Corp. of Portland, Oregon, a financial and property management business, and approved in January 1961. The sale to Alert was voided in June, after the company never paid the bid; additionally, it had not filed for Federal Communications Commission approval to transfer the license from Northwest Broadcasting System. While receiver Eugene Golden noted interest from others at the time that Alert's sale was voided, the station was never reactivated. Local television of any kind in Walla Walla would take 20 years to be reestablished, emerging in the form of a cable television channel in 1981.


Wyandot people

The Wyandot people or Wendat, also called the Huron, are Iroquoian-speaking peoples of North America who emerged as a tribe around the north shore of Lake Ontario.
Today, numerous Wyandot people in the United States are enrolled members of Wyandotte Nation, the federally recognized tribe headquartered in Wyandotte, Oklahoma.
In Canada, the Wyandot have a First Nations reserve, Huron-Wendat Nation, in Quebec.
By the 15th century, the pre-contact Wyandot had settled in the large area from the north shores of most of the present-day Lake Ontario, northwards up to the southeastern shores of Georgian Bay. From this homeland, they encountered the French explorer Samuel de Champlain in 1615. They historically spoke the Wyandot language, a Northern Iroquoian language. They were believed to number more than 30,000 at the time of European contact in the 1610s to 1620s.
In the late 17th century, the Huron (Wyandot) Confederacy merged with the Iroquoian-speaking Tionontati nation (known as the "Petun" in French, also known as the Tobacco people for their chief commodity crop). This may originally have been a splinter colony of the Huron, to their west to form the historical Wyandot.
After 1634 their numbers were drastically reduced by epidemic infectious diseases carried by Europeans. They were dispersed by the war in 1649 waged by the Iroquois ("Haudenosaunee"), then based largely in New York and Pennsylvania. Archaeological evidence of this displacement has been uncovered at the Rock Island II Site in Wisconsin.
The Huron Range spanned the region from downriver of the source of the St. Lawrence River, along with three-quarters of the northern shore of Lake Ontario, to the territory of the related Neutral people, extending north from both ends to wrap around Georgian Bay. This became their territorial center after their 1649 defeat and dispossession.
History.
Origin, names and organization: before 1650.
Early theories placed the Huron's origin in the St. Lawrence Valley. Some historians or anthropologists proposed the people were located near the present-day site of Montreal and former sites of the historic St. Lawrence Iroquoian peoples. Wendat is an Iroquoian language. Early 21st-century research in linguistics and archaeology confirm a historical connection between the Huron and the St. Lawrence Iroquois. But all of the Iroquoian-speaking peoples shared some aspects of their culture, including the Erie people, any or all of the later Six Nations of the Iroquois, and the Susquehannock tribe.
In 1975 and 1978, archeologists excavated a large 15th-century Huron village, now called the Draper Site, in Pickering, Ontario near Lake Ontario. In 2003 a larger village was discovered away in Whitchurch-Stouffville; it is known as the Mantle Site. It has been renamed as the Jean-Baptiste Lainé Site, in honor of a decorated Wendat-Huron soldier of World War II.
Each of the sites had been surrounded by a defensive wooden palisade, as was typical of Iroquoian cultures. The large Mantle Site had more than 70 multi-family longhouses.
Canadian archeologist James F. Pendergast states:
In the early 17th century, this Iroquoian people called themselves the Wendat, an autonym which means "Dwellers of the Peninsula" or "Islanders". The Wendat historic territory was bordered on three sides by the waters of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. Early French explorers referred to these natives as the Huron, either from the French ' ("ruffian", "rustic"), or from ' ("boar's head"). According to tradition, French sailors thought that the bristly hairstyle of Wendat warriors resembled that of a boar. French fur traders and explorers referred to them as the "" (good Iroquois). An alternate etymology from Russell Errett in 1885 is that the name is from the Iroquoian term ' ("Cat Nation"), a name also applied to the Erie nation. They pronounced the name as "Hirri-ronon" in French, which gradually was known as "Hirr-on", and finally spelled in its present form, "Huron". William Martin Beauchamp concurred in 1907 that "Huron" was at least related to the Iroquoian root ' ("nation"). Other etymological possibilities are derived from the Algonquin words ' ("straight coast") or ' ("crooked coast").
The Wendat were not a tribe but a confederacy of four or more tribes who had mutually intelligible languages. According to tradition, this Wendat (or Huron) Confederacy was initiated by the "Attignawantans" ("People of the Bear") and the "Attigneenongnahacs" ("People of the Cord"), who made their alliance in the 15th century. They were joined by the "Arendarhonons" ("People of the Rock") about 1590, and the "Tahontaenrats" ("People of the Deer") around 1610. A fifth group, the "Ataronchronons" ("People of the Marshes or Bog"), may not have attained full membership in the confederacy, and may have been a division of the Attignawantan.
The largest Wendat settlement and capital of the confederacy was located at Ossossane. Modern-day Elmvale, Ontario developed near that site. The Wendat called their traditional territory "Wendake".
Closely related to the people of the Huron Confederacy were the Tionontate, an Iroquoian-speaking group whom the French called the "Petun" (Tobacco), for their cultivation of that crop. They lived further south and were divided into two moitiés or groups: the Deer and the Wolves. Considering that they formed the nucleus of the tribe later known as the Wyandot, they too may have called themselves Wendat.
Tuberculosis (TB) was endemic among the Huron, aggravated by their close and smoky living conditions in the longhouses. Despite this, the Huron on the whole were healthy. The Jesuits wrote that the Huron effectively employed natural remedies and were "more healthy than we."
European contact and Wyandot dispersal.
The earliest written accounts of the Huron were made by the French, who began exploring North America in the 16th century. News of the Europeans reached the Huron, particularly when Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River in the early 17th century. Some Huron decided to go and meet the Europeans. Atlanta, the principal headman of the Arendarhonon tribe, went to Quebec and allied with the French in 1609.
The "Jesuit Relations" of 1639 describes the Huron:
The total population of the Huron at the time of European contact has been estimated at 20,000 to 40,000 people. From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by Eurasian infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox which were endemic among the Europeans. The peoples of North America had no acquired immunity to these diseases and suffered very high mortality rates. Epidemiological studies have shown that beginning in 1634, more European children emigrated with their families to the New World from cities in France, Britain, and the Netherlands, which had endemic smallpox. Historians believe the disease spread from the children to the Huron and other nations, often through contact with traders.
So many Huron died that they abandoned many of their villages and agricultural areas. About half to two-thirds of the population died in the epidemics, decreasing the population to about 12,000. Such losses had a high social cost, devastating families and clans, and disrupting their society's structure and traditions.
Before the French arrived, the Huron had already conflicted with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Five Nations) to the south. Several thousand Huron lived as far south as present-day central West Virginia along the Kanawha River by the late 16th century, but they were driven out by the Haudenosaunee, who invaded from present-day New York in the 17th century to secure more hunting grounds for the beaver trade. Once the European powers became involved in trading, the conflict among natives intensified significantly as they struggled to control the lucrative fur trade and satisfy European demand. The French allied with the Huron because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time. The Haudenosaunee tended to ally with the Dutch and later English, who settled at Albany and in the Mohawk Valley of their New York territory.
The introduction of European weapons and the fur trade increased competition and the severity of inter-tribal warfare. While the Haudenosaunee could easily obtain guns in exchange for furs from Dutch traders in New York, the Wendat were required to profess Christianity to obtain a gun from French traders in Canada. Therefore, they were unprepared, on March 16, 1649, when a Haudenosaunee war party of about 1000 entered Wendake and burned the Huron mission villages of St. Ignace and St. Louis in present-day Simcoe County, Ontario, killing about 300 people. The Iroquois also killed many of the Jesuit missionaries, who have since been honored as North American Martyrs. The surviving Jesuits burned the mission after abandoning it to prevent its capture. The extensive Iroquois attack shocked and frightened the surviving Huron. The Huron were geographically cut off from trade with the Dutch and British by the Iroquois Confederacy, who had access to free trade with all the Europeans in the area especially the Dutch. This forced them to continue to use lithic tools and weapons like clubs arrows, stone scrapers, and cutters. This is compared to the near-universal use of European iron tools by Iroquois groups in the area. Huron trade routes were consistently pillaged by raiders, and the lack of firearms discouraged the Huron's trade with the French, at least without French protection. As a result of their lack of exposure, the Huron did not have as much experience using firearms compared to their neighbors, putting them at a significant disadvantage when firearms were available to them, and when available, their possession of firearms made them a larger target for Iroquois aggression.
By May 1, 1649, the Huron burned 15 of their villages to prevent their stores from being taken and fled as refugees to surrounding tribes. About 10,000 fled to Gahoendoe (now also called Christian Island). Most who fled to the island starved over the winter, as it was an unproductive settlement and could not provide for them. After spending the bitter winter of 1649–50 on the island, surviving Huron relocated near Quebec City, where they settled at Wendake. Absorbing other refugees, they became the Huron-Wendat Nation. Some Huron, along with the surviving Petun, whose villages the Iroquois attacked in the fall of 1649, fled to the upper Lake Michigan region, settling first at Green Bay, then at Michilimackinac.
Huron–British Treaty of 1760.
On September 5, 1760, just preceding the capitulation of Montreal to British forces, Brigadier General James Murray signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the chiefs of the Wendat then residing at Lorette, present-day Wendake. The text of the treaty reads as follows:
The treaty recognized the Huron-Wendat as a distinct nation and guaranteed that the British would not interfere with the Huron-Wendat's internal affairs. In 1990, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in "R v Sioui" found that the Huron-British Treaty of 1760 was still valid and binding on the Crown. Accordingly, the exercise of Huron-Wendat religion, customs, and trade benefit from continuing Canadian constitutional protection throughout the territory frequented by the Huron-Wendat at the time the treaty was concluded.
Emergence of the Wyandot.
In the late 17th century, elements of the Huron Confederacy and the Petun joined together and became known as the Wyandot (or Wyandotte), a variation of Wendat. (This name is also related to the French transliteration of the Mohawk term for tobacco.) The western Wyandot re-formed in the area of Ohio and southern Michigan in the United States.
In August 1782, the Wyandot joined forces with Simon Girty, a British soldier. On Aug 15 through 19, 1782, they unsuccessfully besieged Bryan Station in Kentucky (near present-day Lexington). They drew the Kentucky militia to Lower Blue Licks, where the Wyandot defeated the militia led by Daniel Boone. The Wyandot gained the high ground and surrounded Boone's forces.
Also in late 1782, the Wyandot joined forces with Shawnee, Seneca, and Delaware Indians in an unsuccessful siege of Fort Henry on the Ohio River.
During the Northwest Indian War, the Wyandot fought alongside British allies against the United States. Under the leadership of Tarhe, they were signatories to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
In 1807, the Wyandot joined three other tribes – the Odawa, Potawatomi, and Ojibwe people – in signing the Treaty of Detroit, which resulted in a major land cession to the United States. This agreement between the tribes and the Michigan Territory (represented by William Hull) ceded to the United States a part of their territory in today's Southeastern Michigan and a section of Ohio near the Maumee River. The tribes were allowed to keep small pockets of land in the territory. The Treaty of Brownstown was signed by Governor Hull on November 7, 1807 and provided the Indian Nations with a payment of $10,000 in goods and money along with an annual payment of $2,400 in exchange for an area of land that included the southeastern one-quarter of the lower peninsula of Michigan. In 1819, the Methodist Church established a mission to the Wyandot in Ohio, its first to Native Americans.
In the 1840s, most of the surviving Wyandot people were displaced to Kansas Indian Territory through the US federal policy of forced Indian removal. Using the funds they received for their lands in Ohio, the Wyandot purchased of land for $46,080 in what is now Wyandotte County, Kansas from the Delaware (Lenape). The Lenape had been grateful for the hospitality which the Wyandot had given them in Ohio, as the Lenape had been forced to move west under pressure from Anglo-European colonists. The Wyandot acquired a more-or-less square parcel north and west of the junction of the Kansas River and the Missouri River. A United States government treaty granted the Wyandot Nation a small portion of fertile land located in an acute angle of the Missouri River and Kansas River, which they purchased from Delaware in 1843. Also, the government granted 32 "floating sections", located on public lands west of the Mississippi River.
In June 1853, Big Turtle, a Wyandot chief, wrote to the "Ohio State Journal" regarding the current condition of his tribe. The Wyandot had received nearly $127,000 for their lands in 1845. Big Turtle noted that, in the spring of 1850, the tribal chiefs retroceded the granted land to the government. They invested $100,000 of the proceeds in 5% government stock. After removal to Kansas, the Wyandot had founded good libraries along with two thriving Sabbath schools. They were in the process of organizing a division of the Sons of Temperance and maintained a sizable temperance society. Big Turtle commented on the agricultural yield, which produced an annual surplus for the market. He said that the thrift of the Wyandot exceeded that of any tribe north of the Arkansas line. According to his account, the Wyandot nation was "contented and happy", and enjoyed better living conditions in the Indian Territory than they had in Ohio.
By 1855 the number of Wyandot had diminished to 600 or 700 people. On August 14 of that year, the Wyandot Nation elected a chief. The Kansas correspondent of the "Missouri Republican" reported that the judges of the election were three elders who were trusted by their peers. The Wyandot offered some of the floating sections of land for sale on the same day at $800. A section was composed of . Altogether were sold for $25,600. They were located in Kansas, Nebraska, and unspecified sites. Surveys were not required, with the title becoming complete at the time of location.
The Wyandot played an important role in Kansas politics. On July 26, 1853, at a meeting at the Wyandot Council house in Kansas City, William Walker (Wyandot) was elected provisional governor of Nebraska Territory, which included Kansas. He was elected by Wyandot, white traders, and outside interests who wished to preempt the federal government's organization of the territory and to benefit from the settlement of Kansas by white settlers. Walker and others promoted Kansas as the route for the proposed transcontinental railroad. Although the federal government did not recognize Walker's election, the political activity prompted the federal government to pass the Kansas–Nebraska Act to organize Kansas and Nebraska territories.
An October 1855 article in "The New York Times" reported that the Wyandot were free (that is, they had been accepted as US citizens) and without the restrictions placed on other tribes. Their leaders were unanimously pro-slavery, which meant 900 or 1,000 additional votes in opposition to the Free State movement of Kansas.
In 1867, after the American Civil War, additional members were removed from the Midwest to Indian Territory. Today more than 4,000 Wyandot can be found in eastern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma.
The last of the original Wyandot of Ohio was Margaret "Grey Eyes" Solomon, known as "Mother Solomon". The daughter of Chief John Grey Eyes, she was born in 1816 and left Ohio in 1843. By 1889 she had returned to Ohio, when she was recorded as a spectator to the restoration of the Wyandot's Old Mission Church at Upper Sandusky. She died in Upper Sandusky on August 17, 1890. The last known Wyandot to live in Ohio was Bill Moose (1836–1937).
Some descendants of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon live in Ohio and Michigan. Others live in Toronto and Brantford, Ontario, on the Six Nations Reserve. There they have intermarried with the Cayuga and other Indigenous peoples.
20th century to present.
Beginning in 1907, archaeological excavations were conducted at the Jesuit mission site near Georgian Bay. The mission has since been reconstructed as Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, a living museum that is adjacent to the Martyrs' Shrine. This Roman Catholic shrine is consecrated to the ten North American martyrs.
The US federal government set up the Indian Claims Court in the 1940s to address grievances filed by various Native American tribes. The court adjudicated claims, and Congress allocated $800 million to compensate tribes for losses due to treaties broken by the US government, or by losses of land due to settlers who invaded their territories. The Wyandot filed a land claim for compensation due to the forced sale of their land to the federal government under the 1830 Indian Removal law, which required Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River. Originally the United States paid the Wyandot for their land at the rate of 75 cents per acre, but the land was worth $1.50 an acre.
Although Congress intended to have a deadline by which Indian claims had to be settled, Federal district courts continued to hear land claims and other cases for compensation. In February 1985, the US government finally agreed to pay descendants of the Wyandot $5.5 million to settle the tribe's outstanding claim. The decision settled claims related to the 143-year-old treaty. In 1842 the United States had forced the tribe to sell their Ohio lands for less-than-fair value. A spokesman for the Bureau of Indian Affairs said that the government would pay $1,600 each, in July 1985, to 3,600 people in Kansas and Oklahoma who could prove they were descendants of Wyandot affected by Indian removal.
On August 27, 1999, representatives of the far-flung Wyandot bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario. They formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy.
Contemporary Wyandot groups.
Recognized Wyandot nations.
In the United States, there is one federally recognized tribe:
In Canada, there is one Wyandot First Nation:
Unrecognized groups.
Two unrecognized tribes in the United States identify and call themselves Wyandot:
The Wyandot Nation of Kansas has had legal battles with the Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma over the fate of the Huron Cemetery in Kansas City, Kansas. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its significance, it has been a point of contention for more than a century. Because of complications during the Indian removal process, the land continued to be under the legal control of the federally recognized Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma, made up of people who had left Kansas. They have expressed interest in redeveloping the land occupied by the historic cemetery and moving the graves for reinterment, to provide for the benefit of its people. Members of the local Kansas Wyandot, many of whom have had family members buried at the historic cemetery, have strongly opposed most such proposals. The redevelopment would require reinterment of Wyandot and other Indian remains, including many of their direct ancestors. In 1998, the two groups finally agreed to preserve the cemetery in Kansas City for religious, cultural, and other uses appropriate to its sacred history and use.
Culture.
Like other Iroquoian peoples, the Huron were farmers who supplemented their diet with hunting and fishing. The women cultivated several varieties of maize, squash, and beans (the "Three Sisters") as the mainstay of their diet, saving seeds of various types, and working to produce the best crops for different purposes. They also collected nuts, fruit, and wild root vegetables. Their preparation of this produce was supplemented primarily by fish caught by the men. The men also hunted deer and other animals available during the game seasons. Women did most of the crop planting, cultivation, and processing, although men helped in the heaviest work of clearing the fields. This was usually done by the slash-and-burn method of clearing trees and brush. Men did most of the fishing and hunting and constructed the houses, canoes, and tools. Each family owned a plot of land which they farmed; this land reverted to the common property of the tribe when the family no longer used it.
The Huron lived in villages spanning from one to ten acres (40,000 m²), most of which were fortified in defense against enemy attack. They lived in longhouses, similar to other Iroquoian cultural groups. The typical village had 900 to 1,600 people organized into 30 or 40 longhouses. Villages were moved about every ten years as the soil became less fertile and the nearby forest – from which they took firewood – grew thin. The Huron engaged in trade with neighboring tribes, notably for tobacco with the neighboring Petun and Neutral nations.
The Huron way of life is very gender-specific in practice. Men in most societies are the hunters of the tribe; they search for a game to feed their people. Women made the clothes, cooked and processed game, farmed, and raised the children.
Pregnancy for women has its hardships. Women lock themselves in the woods inside a hut to keep pregnancy localized; traditionally only mothers and grandmothers see the women during labor to see how she is doing. Pregnant women deal with their pregnancy and birth with the help of other women while the men go along their day as if nothing else is happening. They are more pleased with the birth of a girl than that of a boy, as they believe she will guarantee the future of the people by bearing children. Women are given more praise for giving birth to girls. Like other Iroquoian peoples, the Wyandot had a matrilineal kinship system, and children were considered born to the mother's family. They took their status from hers; her older brother would be more important to her sons than their biological father.
As children grow older, they slowly grow into their roles within their society. Both genders learn from adults how to do certain things that later will help the tribe. For example, girls learn how to make doll clothing, which teaches them how to make real garments. Boys are given miniature bows so they may practice hunting very small game. Children at young ages are integrated into society evenly. They are given small tasks to follow based on their age. Boys practice hunting and follow men on some hunting events. Having boys follow the men into hunting events lets them learn firsthand how to hunt, receive tips on what to do while hunting, and gain experience for developing needed skills when they are older. Girls learn the same way. They watch the women conduct their daily routines and mimic them on a smaller scale. Having a little girl make the clothes for her doll in preparation for her to make clothing as a young woman and or married mother.
War.
Champlain made mortal enemies with the Iroquois when he fought alongside the Huron people. Souring a relationship between the French people that hadn't even started yet for nearly one hundred years; however, he was also trying to make peace between the two tribes (Huron and Iroquois).
Footnotes.
Wendlas The Wyandot people or Wendat, also called the Hu-ron(on)= Nation and Hu-ron(on) Catti people
External links.
Official tribal websites
Other


K48BL

K48BL was a low-power television station co-licensed in Terrebonne and Bend, Oregon, broadcasting locally in analog on UHF channel 48 as an affiliate of Youtoo America. The station was owned by Rodney S. Johnson. While the station was co-licensed to Bend, its coverage area did not include Bend, as it used a directional antenna aimed at the north and south, towards Terrebonne, Redmond and Madras.
In addition to America One programs, K48BL broadcast locally originated programming, such as city council meetings, local special events, farm information, community programming, Public-access television, public affairs, specials, news, sports, weather, variety shows, logging, music videos and art profiles. Country music videos were also a large part of programming during the 1990s.
History.
On March 7, 1986, the FCC issued a construction permit to Rodney S. Johnson to build K48BL, which first signed on on October 25, 1986.


Elizabeth Hanson (captive of Native Americans)

Elizabeth Meader Hanson (September 17, 16841737) was a colonial Anglo-American woman from Dover, New Hampshire, who survived Native American Abenaki capture and captivity in the year 1725 alongside four of her children. Five months after capture, a French family ransomed Elizabeth and her two children in Canada. Her husband was then able to secure them and find another daughter before having to return home, leaving the eldest daughter, Sarah, behind. Elizabeth's captivity narrative became popular because of its detailed insights into Native American captivity, which was a threat to the people in New England due to the almost constant wars with the Native Americans and French in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Her religious take on her experiences was heavily emphasized in her story.
Biography.
Hanson was born Elizabeth Meader, the youngest of four children. Her parents were John Meader Jr. and Sarah Follett. Little is known about her life before captivity other than her wedding date, July 23, 1703, to John Hanson, when she was nineteen. The two had seven children together.
Because Elizabeth and her family were Quakers, they refused to take refuge in the garrison when the Abenaki first attacked their area during Dummer's War. Elizabeth and four of her children, Sarah, Elizabeth Jr, Daniel, and her two week old daughter, were taken from her home in Dover, New Hampshire on August 27, 1724. They were held captive by Native Americans until early 1725. Two of her six children, Caleb and Ebenezer, were killed during the capture. The first was killed to intimidate them and the other because he wouldn’t be quiet and the Indians were afraid they would be discovered.
Their journey from New Hampshire to Canada was difficult especially because Elizabeth had given birth two weeks before hand. The lack of nourishment and clothing resulted in inadequate milk production and therefore had a hard time feeding her baby. The youngest barely made it to the camps where the Native American women showed Hanson how to make a nut and corn infant formula milk that saved the baby's life. Journalist Avery Yale Kamila wrote that Hanson's account pre-dates the development of packaged infant formula and does show the Wabanaki tribes "had been nourishing their infants with a plant-based food for hundreds, if not thousands, of years."
The second eldest, Sarah Hanson, was separated from her mother and taken to a different group. Her third daughter, Elizabeth, and her female servant were taken shortly after, which left Elizabeth with her son Daniel and new born baby daughter.
After enduring abuse from her captors and master, she was detained by the French and held for ransom in Canada. The French people that saved her were Jesuits and Catholics, not Quakers like herself. A catholic priest baptized her youngest daughter. They declared her name to be Mary Ann Frossways and gave her back to Elizabeth. Her husband John Hanson was able to retrieve Elizabeth, Daniel, and Mary Ann from Port Royal, Canada in 1725. He freed them by paying their ransom to the Native Americans and French. Due to the trade agreement between the French and Native Americans, Sarah married Jean Baptiste Sabourin to escape captivity and she decided to remain in Canada apart from her family. John Hanson attempted to go back to retrieve Sarah once more in 1725 but perished along the way to Canada in Crown Point, New York.
Her captivity narrative.
Elizabeth’s story, "God’s Mercy Surmounting Man’s Cruelty", was published in 1728. It was later renamed “An Account of the Captivity of Elizabeth Hanson." The 40-page booklet explored her captive experience and reflected highly on her religion. Such views allowed the use of her narrative to spread the Quaker ideals of households and the role of women. Elizabeth attributed her family’s survival to “God’s mercy” rather than the leniency of her Native American captors and the French who ultimately secured their freedom. She criticized the native American practices of feasting when there is food and starving when there is not instead of making the surplus last. When the mother-in-law of her Abenaki captor defended her and assuaged him from killing her, she believed it was not because of the woman's legitimate authority, but that it was God's will that she lived. Elizabeth Hanson died in Dover, New Hampshire in 1737.
Captivity narratives became a new genre of literature that was born during this period due to the overwhelming number of accounts of Native American capture. The first edition of her captivity narrative was published without a title page in the "Pennsylvania Gazette" in December 1728. Samuel Keimer released an edited copy later in the same year. The next depiction of Elizabeth’s captivity "An Account of the Captivity of Elizabeth Hanson"which was published in 1760 may have been falsely attributed to Samuel Bownas, a Quaker and friend of Elizabeth’s. Bownas expressly says that he first saw this narrative in Dublin. These many different edits evolved from the actual account of a woman's capture and rescue to a story revolving around the social parameters of women in early colonial New England. These versions were distributed to influence the behavioral standards for Quaker women in the new colonies.


Robert H. Pruyn

Robert Hewson Pruyn (February 14, 1815 – February 26, 1882) was an American lawyer, militia general, diplomat, and politician from Albany, New York. He was most notable for his service as Speaker of the New York State Assembly, Adjutant General of New York, and United States Minister Resident to Japan.
Early life.
Pruyn was born in Albany, New York on February 14, 1815, the son of Casparus F. and Ann (née Hewson) Pruyn. The Pruyn (pronounced "Prine") family of Albany, New York was one of the oldest and most esteemed Dutch families in New York, and at the time of Robert's birth there, had resided in Albany for over two centuries.
Pruyn graduated from The Albany Academy, and received Bachelor of Arts (1833) and Master of Arts (1836) degrees from Rutgers University. He studied law with Abraham Van Vechten, was admitted to the bar, and practiced in Albany.
Political, military, and diplomatic service.
Pruyn served as Albany's corporation counsel and was a member of the city council. Active in the state militia, he was named Judge Advocate General in 1841, serving until 1846, and again in 1851.
A political ally and close friend to William Henry Seward, he was a Whig member of the New York State Assembly (Albany Co., 3rd D.) in 1848, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852 and 1854. On January 30, 1850, after Speaker Noble S. Elderkin left the Assembly to stay at home with his wife who was terminally ill, Pruyn was elected Speaker pro tempore. He was again Speaker in 1854.
Pruyn was an experienced militia officer, including service as the state judge advocate general. In 1855, Governor Myron Clark appointed him Adjutant General of the New York National Guard, replacing John Watts de Peyster. He achieved the rank of Brigadier General of the militia, and was succeeded as adjutant general by Frederick Townsend.
At the personal request of Seward, who was then Secretary of State, President Abraham Lincoln appointed him Minister to Japan in 1861, and he served in that capacity until 1865, when he returned to New York. Japan–United States relations had only recently been established with the visits by Commodore Perry in 1852 to 1854.
Pruyn's crowning achievement was the successful negotiation following the Shimonoseki bombardment. He was considered highly successful in his dealings with the "shōgun". He also signed an agreement to allow shipwrecked Japanese sailors to be repatriated.
Later career.
He was awarded an LL.D. from Williams College in 1865 and served on the board of trustees. He went on to become President of the National Commercial Bank and Trust of Albany, and was one of the founders of Albany Law School.
In 1866, he was the unsuccessful Conservative Union candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New York along with gubernatorial candidate, John T. Hoffman, who was then the mayor of New York City.
In the Summer of 1869, he was illegally arrested with other Albany and Susquehanna Railroad executive members during Jay Gould and Jim Fisk's attempt to buy the railroad.
Personal life.
In 1841, Pruyn married Jane Ann Lansing (1811–1886), a member of another prominent Albany family. Her father, Gerrit Yates Lansing, was a U.S. Representative who served as the Chancellor of the University of the State of New York. Together, Robert and Jane were the parents of four children, including:
He died suddenly in 1882 in Albany. His remains are interred at Albany Rural Cemetery, Section 30, Lot 14.


North Clark Historical Museum


Sacagawea

Sacagawea (; also Sakakawea or Sacajawea; May – December 20, 1812 or April 9, 1884) was a Lemhi Shoshone woman who, at age 16, helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition in achieving their chartered mission objectives by exploring the Louisiana Territory. Sacagawea traveled with the expedition thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean, helping to establish cultural contacts with Native American populations and contributing to the expedition's knowledge of natural history in different regions.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early 20th century adopted her as a symbol of women's worth and independence, erecting several statues and plaques in her memory, and doing much to recount her accomplishments.
Early life.
Reliable historical information about Sacagawea is very limited. She was born into the "Agaidika" ('Salmon Eater', aka Lemhi Shoshone) tribe near present-day Salmon, Lemhi County. This is near the continental divide at the present-day Idaho-Montana border.
In 1800, when she was about 12 years old, Sacagawea and several other girls were taken captive by a group of Hidatsa in a raid that resulted in the deaths of several Shoshone: four men, four women, and several boys. She was held captive at a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota.
At about age 13, she was sold into a non-consensual marriage to Toussaint Charbonneau, a Quebecois trapper who about two decades earlier had lived in the Hidatsa village. He had also bought another young Shoshone, known as Otter Woman, for a wife. Charbonneau was variously reported to have purchased both girls from the Hidatsa, or to have won Sacagawea while gambling.
Lewis and Clark Expedition.
The Corps of Discovery arrived near the Hidatsa villages. They settled near a Mandan village, where Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark built Fort Mandan for wintering over in 1804–05. They interviewed several trappers who might be able to interpret or guide the expedition up the Missouri River in the springtime. Knowing they would need the help of Shoshone tribes who lived at the headwaters of the Missouri, they agreed to hire Toussaint Charbonneau after learning that his wife, Sacagawea, spoke Shoshone. She was pregnant with her first child at the time.
On November 4, 1804, Clark recorded in his journal:
Charbonneau and Sacagawea moved into the expedition's fort a week later. Clark nicknamed her "Janey." Lewis recorded the birth of Jean Baptiste Charbonneau on February 11, 1805, noting that another of the party's interpreters administered crushed rattlesnake rattles in water to speed the delivery. Clark and other European-Americans nicknamed the boy "Little Pomp" or "Pompy."
In April, the expedition left Fort Mandan and headed up the Missouri River in "pirogues". They had to be poled against the current and sometimes pulled by crew along the riverbanks. On May 14, 1805, Sacagawea rescued items that had fallen out of a capsized boat, including the journals and records of Lewis and Clark. The corps commanders, who praised her quick action, named the Sacagawea River in her honor on May 20, 1805. By August 1805, the corps had located a Shoshone tribe and was attempting to trade for horses to cross the Rocky Mountains. They used Sacagawea to interpret and discovered that the tribe's chief, Cameahwait, was her brother.
Lewis recorded their reunion in his journal:
And Clark in his:
The Shoshone agreed to barter horses to the group and to provide guides to lead them over the cold and barren Rocky Mountains. The trip was so hard that they were reduced to eating tallow candles to survive. When they descended into the more temperate regions on the other side, Sacagawea helped to find and cook camas roots to help the party members regain their strength.
As the expedition approached the mouth of the Columbia River on the Pacific Coast, Sacagawea gave up her beaded belt to enable the captains to trade for a fur robe they wished to bring back to give to President Thomas Jefferson.
Clark's journal entry for November 20, 1805, reads:
When the corps reached the Pacific Ocean, all members of the expedition—including Sacagawea and Clark's black manservant York—voted on November 24 on the location for building their winter fort. In January, when a whale's carcass washed up onto the beach south of Fort Clatsop, Sacagawea insisted on her right to go see this "monstrous fish."
On the return trip, they approached the Rocky Mountains in July 1806. On July 6, Clark recorded:The Indian woman informed me that she had been in this plain frequently and knew it well.… She said we would discover a gap in the mountains in our direction [i.e., present-day Gibbons Pass]. A week later, on July 13, Sacagawea advised Clark to cross into the Yellowstone River basin at what is now known as Bozeman Pass. Later, this was chosen as the optimal route for the Northern Pacific Railway to cross the continental divide.
While Sacagawea has been depicted as a guide for the expedition, she is recorded as providing direction in only a few instances. Her work as an interpreter certainly helped the party to negotiate with the Shoshone. But, her greatest value to the mission may have been her presence during the arduous journey, as having a woman and infant accompany them demonstrated the peaceful intent of the expedition.
While traveling through what is now Franklin County, Washington, in October 1805, Clark noted that "the wife of Shabono [Charbonneau] our interpetr we find reconsiles all the Indians, as to our friendly intentions a woman with a party of men is a token of peace." Further he wrote that she "confirmed those people of our friendly intentions, as no woman ever accompanies a war party of Indians in this quarter".
As Clark traveled downriver from Fort Mandan at the end of the journey, on board the pirogue near the Ricara Village, he wrote to Charbonneau:
Later life and death.
Children.
Following the expedition, Charbonneau and Sacagawea spent 3 years among the Hidatsa before accepting William Clark's invitation to settle in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1809. They entrusted Jean-Baptiste's education to Clark, who enrolled the young man in the Saint Louis Academy boarding school. Sacagawea gave birth to a daughter, Lizette Charbonneau, about 1812. Lizette was identified as a year-old girl in adoption papers in 1813 recognizing William Clark, who also adopted her older brother that year. Because Clark's papers make no later mention of Lizette, it is believed that she died in childhood.
Death.
According to Bonnie "Spirit Wind-Walker" Butterfield (2010), historical documents suggest that Sacagawea died in 1812 of an unknown sickness. For instance, a journal entry from 1811 by Henry Brackenridge, a fur trader at Fort Lisa Trading Post on the Missouri River, wrote that Sacagawea and Charbonneau were living at the fort. Brackenrige recorded that Sacagawea "had become sickly and longed to revisit her native country." Butterfield notes that in 1812, a Fort-Lisa clerk, John Luttig, recorded in his journal on December 20 that "the wife of Charbonneau, a Snake Squaw [i.e. Shoshone], died of putrid fever." He said that she was "aged about 25 years. She left a fine infant girl." Documents held by Clark show that Charbonneau had already entrusted their son Baptiste to Clark's care for a boarding school education, at Clark's insistence (Jackson, 1962).
In February 1813, a few months after Luttig's journal entry, 15 men were killed in a Native attack on Fort Lisa, which was then located at the mouth of the Bighorn River. Luttig and Sacagawea's young daughter were among the survivors. Charbonneau was mistakenly thought to have been killed at this time, but he apparently lived to at least age 76. He had signed over formal custody of his son to William Clark in 1813.
As further proof that Sacagawea died in 1812, Butterfield writes:
An adoption document made in the Orphans Court Records in St. Louis, Missouri, states, 'On August 11, 1813, William Clark became the guardian of Tousant Charbonneau, a boy about ten years, and Lizette Charbonneau, a girl about one year old.' For a Missouri State Court at the time, to designate a child as orphaned and to allow an adoption, both parents had to be confirmed dead in court papers.
The last recorded document referring to Sacagawea's life appears in William Clark's original notes written between 1825 and 1826. He lists the names of each of the expedition members and their last known whereabouts. For Sacagawea, he writes, "Se car ja we au— Dead."
Some Native American oral traditions relate that, rather than dying in 1812, Sacagawea left her husband Charbonneau, crossed the Great Plains, and married into a Comanche tribe. She was said to have returned to the Shoshone in 1860 in Wyoming, where she died in 1884.
Jean Baptiste Charbonneau.
Sacagawea's son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, had a restless and adventurous life. Known as the infant who, with his mother, accompanied the explorers to the Pacific Ocean and back, he had lifelong celebrity status. At the age of 18, he was befriended by a German Prince, Duke Paul Wilhelm of Württemberg, who took him to Europe. There, Jean Baptiste lived for six years among royalty, while learning four languages and fathering a child in Germany named Anton Fries.
After his infant son died, Jean Baptiste returned from Europe in 1829 to the United States. He lived after that as a Western frontiersman. In 1846, he led a group of Mormons to California for the gold rush. While in California, he was appointed as a magistrate for the Mission San Luis Rey. He disliked the way Indians were treated in the missions and left to become a hotel clerk in Auburn, California, once the center of gold rush activity.
After working six years in Auburn, Jean Baptiste left in search of riches in the gold mines of Montana. He was 61 years old, and the trip was too much for him. He became ill with pneumonia and died in a remote area near Danner, Oregon, on May 16, 1866.
Burial place.
The question of Sacagawea's burial place caught the attention of national suffragists seeking voting rights for women, according to author Raymond Wilson. Wilson argues that Sacagawea became a role model whom suffragists pointed to "with pride." She received even more attention in the 1930s, after publication of a history novel about her.
Wilson notes:
Interest in Sacajawea peaked and controversy intensified when Dr. Grace Raymond Hebard, professor of political economy at the University of Wyoming in Laramie and an active supporter of the Nineteenth Amendment, campaigned for federal legislation to erect an edifice honoring Sacajawea's death in 1884.
An account of the expedition published in May 1919 noted that "A sculptor, Mr. Bruno Zimm, seeking a model for a statue of Sacagawea that was later erected at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, discovered a record of the pilot-woman's death in 1884 (when ninety-five years old) on the Shoshone Reservation, Wyoming, and her wind-swept grave."
In 1925, Dr. Charles Eastman, a Dakota Sioux physician, was hired by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to locate Sacagawea's remains. Eastman visited various Native American tribes to interview elders who might have known or heard of Sacagawea. He learned of a Shoshone woman at the Wind River Reservation with the Comanche name "Porivo" ('chief woman'). Some of those he interviewed said that she spoke of a long journey wherein she had helped white men, and that she had a silver Jefferson peace medal of the type carried by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He found a Comanche woman named Tacutine who said that Porivo was her grandmother. According to Tacutine, Porivo had married into a Comanche tribe and had a number of children, including Tacutine's father, Ticannaf. Porivo left the tribe after her husband, Jerk-Meat, was killed.
According to these narratives, Porivo lived for some time at Fort Bridger in Wyoming with her sons Bazil and Baptiste, who each knew several languages, including English and French. Eventually, she returned to the Lemhi Shoshone at the Wind River Reservation, where she was recorded as "Bazil's mother." This woman, Porivo, is believed to have died on April 9, 1884.
Eastman concluded that Porivo was Sacagawea. In 1963, a monument to "Sacajawea of the Shoshonis" was erected at Fort Washakie on the Wind River reservation near Lander, Wyoming, on the basis of this claim.
The belief that Sacagawea lived to old age and died in Wyoming was widely disseminated in the United States through "Sacajawea" (1933), a biography written by historian Grace Raymond Hebard, a University of Wyoming professor, based on her 30 years of research.
Mickelson recounts the findings of Thomas H. Johnson, who argues in his "Also Called Sacajawea: Chief Woman's Stolen Identity" (2007) that Hebard identified the wrong woman when she relied upon oral history that an old woman who died and is buried on the Wyoming Wind River Reservation was Sacajawea. Critics have also questioned Hebard's work because she portrayed Sacajawea in a manner described as "undeniably long on romance and short on hard evidence, suffering from a sentimentalization of Indian culture."
Spelling of name.
A long-running controversy has related to the correct spelling, pronunciation, and etymology of the Shoshone woman's name. Linguists working on Hidatsa since the 1870s have always considered the name's Hidatsa etymology essentially indisputable. The name is a compound of two common Hidatsa nouns: "cagáàga" (, 'bird') and "míà" (, 'woman'). The compound is written as "Cagáàgawia" ('Bird Woman') in modern Hidatsa orthography, and pronounced ( is pronounced between vowels in Hidatsa). The double in the name indicates a long vowel, while the diacritics suggest a falling pitch pattern.
Hidatsa is a pitch-accent language that does not have stress; therefore, in the Hidatsa pronunciation all syllables in are pronounced with roughly the same relative emphasis. However, most English speakers perceive the accented syllable (the long ) as stressed. In faithful rendering of "Cagáàgawia" to other languages, it is advisable to emphasize the second, long syllable, rather than the last, as is common in English.
The name has several spelling traditions in English. The origin of each tradition is described in the following sections.
Sacagawea.
"Sacagawea" () is the most widely used spelling of her name, pronounced with a hard "g" sound, rather than a soft "g" or "j" sound. Lewis and Clark's original journals mention Sacagawea by name seventeen times, spelled eight different ways, each time with a "g". Clark used "Sahkahgarwea, Sahcahgagwea, Sarcargahwea", and "Sahcahgahweah", while Lewis used "Sahcahgahwea, Sahcahgarweah, Sahcargarweah", and "Sahcahgar Wea".
The spelling "Sacagawea" was established in 1910 by the Bureau of American Ethnology as the proper usage in government documents. It would be the spelling adopted by the U.S. Mint for use with the dollar coin, as well as the U.S. Board on Geographic Names and the National Park Service. The spelling is also used by numerous historical scholars.
Sakakawea.
"Sakakawea" () is the next most widely-adopted spelling, and is the most-often accepted among specialists. Proponents say the name comes from the Hidatsa "tsakáka wía" ('bird woman'). Charbonneau told expedition members that his wife's name meant "Bird Woman," and in May 1805 Lewis used the Hidatsa meaning in his journal:
[A] handsome river of about fifty yards in width discharged itself into the shell river… [T]his stream we called Sah-ca-gah-we-ah or bird woman's River, after our interpreter the Snake woman.
"Sakakawea" is the official spelling of her name according to the Three Affiliated Tribes, which include the Hidatsa. This spelling is widely used throughout North Dakota (where she is considered a state heroine), notably in the naming of Lake Sakakawea, the extensive reservoir of Garrison Dam on the Missouri River.
The North Dakota State Historical Society quotes Russell Reid's 1986 book "Sakakawea: The Bird Woman":
Her Hidatsa name, which Charbonneau stated meant "Bird Woman," should be spelled "Tsakakawias" according to the foremost Hidatsa language authority, Dr. Washington Matthews. When this name is anglicized for easy pronunciation, it becomes Sakakawea, "Sakaka" meaning "bird" and "wea" meaning "woman." This is the spelling adopted by North Dakota. The spelling authorized for the use of federal agencies by the United States Geographic Board is Sacagawea. Although not closely following Hidatsa spelling, the pronunciation is quite similar and the Geographic Board acknowledged the name to be a Hidatsa word meaning "Bird Woman.
Irving W. Anderson, president of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, says:
 [T]he Sakakawea spelling similarly is not found in the Lewis and Clark journals. To the contrary, this spelling traces its origin neither through a personal connection with her nor in any primary literature of the expedition. It has been independently constructed from two Hidatsa Indian words found in the dictionary "Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians" (1877), published by the Government Printing Office. Compiled by a United States Army surgeon, Dr. Washington Matthews, 65 years following Sacagawea's death, the words appear verbatim in the dictionary as "tsa-ka-ka, noun; a bird," and "mia [wia, bia], noun; a woman.
Sacajawea.
The name "Sacajawea" or "Sacajewea" (), in contrast to the Hidatsa etymology, is said to have derived from Shoshone "Saca-tzaw-meah," meaning 'boat puller' or 'boat launcher'. It is the preferred spelling used by the Lemhi Shoshone people, some of whom claim that her Hidatsa captors transliterated her Shoshone name in their own language, and pronounced it according to their own dialect. That is, they heard a name that approximated "tsakaka" and "wia", and interpreted it as 'bird woman', substituting their hard "g/k" pronunciation for the softer "tz/j" sound that did not exist in the Hidatsa language.
The use of this spelling almost certainly originated with Nicholas Biddle, who used the "j" when he annotated the journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition for publication in 1814. This use became more widespread with the publication in 1902 of Eva Emery Dye's novel "". It is likely that Dye used Biddle's secondary source for the spelling, and her highly popular book made this version ubiquitous throughout the United States (previously most non-scholars had never even heard of Sacagawea).
Rozina George, great-great-great-great-granddaughter of Cameahwait, says the Agaidika tribe of Lemhi Shoshone do not recognize the spelling or pronunciation "Sacagawea". Schools named in the interpreter's honor and other memorials erected in the area surrounding her birthplace use the spelling "Sacajawea":
The Lemhi Shoshone call her Sacajawea. It is derived from the Shoshone word for her name, Saca tzah we yaa. In his Cash Book, William Clark spells Sacajawea with a "J". Also, William Clark and Private George Shannon explained to Nicholas Biddle (Published the first Lewis and Clark Journals in 1814) about the pronunciation of her name and how the tz sounds more like a "j". What better authority on the pronunciation of her name than Clark and Shannon who traveled with her and constantly heard the pronunciation of her name? We do not believe it is a Minnetaree (Hidatsa) word for her name. Sacajawea was a Lemhi Shoshone not a Hidatsa.
Idaho native John Rees explored the 'boat launcher' etymology in a long letter to the U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs written in the 1920s. It was republished in 1970 by the Lemhi County Historical Society as a pamphlet entitled "Madame Charbonneau" and contains many of the arguments in favor of the Shoshone derivation of the name.
The spelling "Sacajawea", although widely taught until the late 20th century, is generally considered incorrect in modern academia. Linguistics professor Dr. Sven Liljeblad from the Idaho State University in Pocatello has concluded that "it is unlikely that Sacajawea is a Shoshoni word.… The term for 'boat' in Shoshoni is saiki, but the rest of the alleged compound would be incomprehensible to a native speaker of Shoshoni." The spelling has subsided from general use, although the corresponding "soft j" pronunciation persists in American culture.
In popular culture.
Some fictional accounts speculate that Sacagawea was romantically involved with Lewis or Clark during their expedition. But, while the journals show that she was friendly with Clark and would often do favors for him, the idea of a romantic liaison was created by novelists who wrote much later about the expedition. This fiction was perpetuated in the Western film "The Far Horizons" (1955).
Film and television.
Several movies, both documentaries and fiction, have been made about, or featuring, Sacagawea:
In 1967, the actress Victoria Vetri, under the name Angela Dorian, played Sacajawea in the episode "The Girl Who Walked the West" of the syndicated television series, "Death Valley Days".
Literature.
Two early twentieth-century novels shaped much of the public perception of Sacagawea. "The Conquest: The True Story of Lewis and Clark" (1902), was written by American suffragist Eva Emery Dye and published in anticipation of the expedition's centennial. The National American Woman Suffrage Association embraced her as a female hero, and numerous stories and essays about her were published in ladies' journals. A few decades later, Grace Raymond Hebard published "Sacajawea: Guide and Interpreter of Lewis and Clark" (1933) to even greater success.
Sacagawea has since become a popular figure in historical and young adult novels. In her novel "Sacajawea" (1984), Anna Lee Waldo explored the story of Sacajawea's returning to Wyoming 50 years after her departure. The author was well aware of the historical research supporting an 1812 death, but she chose to explore the oral tradition.
Other media.
"The Dinner Party", an artwork installation by feminist artist Judy Chicago, features a place setting for Sacagawea in Wing Three, part of "American Revolution to the Women's Revolution".
The first episode of the history podcast, "The Broadsides", includes discussion of Sacagawea and her accomplishments during the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
Memorials and honors.
Sacagawea was an important member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early 20th century adopted her as a symbol of women's worth and independence, erecting several statues and plaques in her memory, and doing much to spread the story of her accomplishments.
In 1959, Sacagawea was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. In 1976, she was inducted into the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas. In 2001, she was given the title of Honorary Sergeant, Regular Army, by President Bill Clinton. In 2003, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
USS "Sacagawea", one of several United States ships named in her honor.
Coinage.
In 2000, the United States Mint issued the Sacagawea dollar coin in her honor, depicting Sacagawea and her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. Because no contemporary image of Sacagawea exists, the face on the coin was modeled on a modern Shoshone-Bannock woman, Randy'L He-dow Teton. The portrait design is unusual, as the copyrights have been assigned to and are owned by the U.S. Mint. The portrait is not in the public domain, as most US coin designs are.


McMillenville, Arizona

McMillenville, also known as McMillianville or McMillanville, is a populated place in Gila County, Arizona. Silver ore was discovered by chance in 1876 by Theodore H. Harris and Charles McMillen, and the town formed around the ore deposits.
History.
On March 26, 1876, Harris and McMillen were heading 28 miles northeast of Globe on a prospecting trip. While traveling through the White Mountains Harris got off his horse as he was too hungover to proceed farther. He went to sleep so McMillen stopped, dismounted and sat down on a nearby ledge. Boredom led McMillen to drive his pick into the rock and discovered silver. The pair founded the Stonewall Jackson mine which eventually turned into McMillenville, named after McMillen who discovered the silver. The town grew fast and a year later on November 12, 1877, a post office was opened. At its peak, 1,000 settlers lived there. The town soon was bolstered with several adobe saloons, dance halls, boarding houses, casinos, as well as homes for hundreds of people, public buildings and the mining structures. The town's first bloodshed came in 1880 over a mining claim dispute. Jack Brown the founder of the claim established a camp which another prospector intended to exploit. After Jack Brown and his killer had a long argument, the two met on the main street and fought a duel. Both men fired their revolvers true and they both died from a gunshot wound seconds later. McMillenville's peak was in 1880, the original five-stamp mill was replaced with by twenty-stamps. A new hoisting mechanism was erected for lifting ore out of the shaft. Silver ingots here taken about 100 miles to Casa Grande. The town was booming until 1882 when Geronimo's warriors attacked; it became a ghost town by 1886.
Battle of McMillenville.
The Apache attack was one of many engagements of the Indian wars in Arizona. It was fought on July 7, 1882. Geronimo's warriors, who had escaped the nearby San Carlos Reservation, were raiding throughout the area. Hundreds of natives fled after the Battle of Cibecue Creek who then went to Mexico or began raided across the Southwest. Hostilities became pitched when locals reported the large number of Apache warriors approaching the town. The women and children were rushed to the mine shaft with a few men for protection, the rest armed themselves and made a position out of a large two-story adobe building. The Apaches attacked with dozens of warriors, they swarmed the small town until they reached the makeshift fortification. There several settlers defeated the attack with accurate fire. Only one American was wounded in the arm. The natives' casualties are not known; the Apache usually concealed their casualties by removing bodies and wounded men from the field. The warriors retreated after cavalry from Fort Apache began to arrive. Several buildings were damaged in the fighting, some from fire. The natives used primarily rifles and pistols with some bow and arrows compared to various firearms used by the settlers. The battle was an American victory with little loss but McMillenville was still abandoned within the next few years.
Remnants.
Almost nothing remains of the mines and mill, and only scattered ruins of the adobe buildings of the town mark the site of McMillenville today.
Geography.
The town is located off U.S. Route 60, about Northeast of Globe.
Geology.
The Stonewall Jackson mine was one of the best producing mines in the area at the time., mainly producing silver, copper and lead.


Arroyo Seco Fight

The Arroyo Seco Fight was a clash between Texas militia, Rangers of the Republic of Texas and a large Comanche war party traveling with Chief Essowakkenny, which took place on the Seco Creek, in Medina County, Texas, on August 10, 1838.
Background.
On December 28, Henry Wax Karnes was authorized to raise eight companies of Texas Rangers to patrol and defend the frontier of Texas.
On August 10, Karnes and his men camped on Seco Creek. Members of the patrol included Jack Hays and Benjamin F. Cage.
The Battle at Arroyo Seco.
While encamped on the Seco Creek resting their horses, the unit was suddenly attacked by about 200 Comanches on horseback. Karnes alerted his men to take cover in the ravine, using the thick brush for cover. While outnumbered about 10:1, the Texans held their ground and fired in alternate sequences with around seven men shooting at a time. This method would give some time to reload as others fired. The Comanches fought fiercely, fighting and regrouping, unleashing three separate attacks. Hays singled out the chief and eliminated the threat. Arrows flew in barrages until 20 Comanches lay dead on the ground, with as many wounded. The Comanches then gathered their wounded and returned to their village.
Although an overwhelming victory for the Texans, Col. Karnes, who had been directing the battle from a bluff, was wounded and a number of the Rangers' horses were shot dead.


Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park

Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park (3 LN 42), also known as Knapp Mounds, Toltec Mounds Site or Toltec Mounds, is an archaeological site from the Late Woodland period in Arkansas that protects an 18-mound complex with the tallest surviving prehistoric mounds in Arkansas. The site is on the banks of Mound Lake, an oxbow lake of the Arkansas River. It was occupied by its original inhabitants from 600 to 1050 CE. The site is designated as a National Historic Landmark.
Name.
The identification of the site with the Toltec of Mexico was a 19th-century mistake. Mrs. Gilbert Knapp, owner of the land from 1857 to 1900, thought the Toltecs had built the mounds.
Investigations at the site by archaeologist Edward Palmer from the Smithsonian Institutions Bureau of American Ethnology in 1883 and by others since have proved that the indigenous ancestors of regional Native Americans built these mounds and all other mounds within the present-day United States. They were part of mound building cultures that flourished from the Late Archaic period into the Protohistoric period. They built earthwork mounds for religious, political and ceremonial purposes, connecting them to their cosmology.
Plum Bayou Culture.
The people who built the mounds at the Toltec site had a culture distinct from other contemporary Native American groups in the Mississippi Valley. Archaeologists named theirs the Plum Bayou culture, after a local waterway. Plum Bayou sites are found throughout the White River and Arkansas River floodplains of central and eastern Arkansas, but are also found as far west as the eastern Ozark Mountains. Toltec is the largest site of the Plum Bayou culture. Their relationships with neighboring cultures such as the Coles Creek culture to the south and Fourche Maline culture to the southwest are still under investigation. The people lived in permanent villages and hamlets throughout the countryside. They built sturdy houses, farmed, gathered wild plants, fished, and hunted.
Toltec Site.
Mound groups, such as this one, were religious and social centers for people living in the surrounding countryside. The Toltec Mounds site had a small population, made up primarily of political and religious leaders of the community and their families. This center was occupied from about 600 to 1050 CE.
Located on the banks of an oxbow lake, the archaeological site once had an and earthen embankment and ditch on three sides. The other side was the lake, now called Mound Pond. Eighteen mounds were built inside the high curving 1 mile embankment, and two were originally high. Mounds were placed along the edges of two open areas (plazas) which were used for political, religious, and social activities attended by people from the vicinity. At least two mounds were used for feasting, as indicated by discarded food remains. Deer were a favorite food. Mound locations seem to have been planned using principles based on the alignment with important solar positions and standardized units of measurement. Most of the mounds were flat-topped platform mounds with buildings on them. Other Native Americans lived on the site in the 15th century, but they did not build the mounds.
The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978.,
Culture, phase and chronological table for the Toltec Mound Site.
Table taken from "Emerging Patterns of Plum Bayou Culture:Preliminary Investigations of the Toltec Mounds Research Project", by Martha Ann Rolingson, 1982.


Sims Site

The Sims Site (16SC2), also known as Sims Place, is an archaeological site located in Saint Charles Parish, Louisiana, near the town of Paradis. The location is a multi-component mound and village complex with platform mounds and extensive midden deposits. The site habitations are divided into three periods. It was first inhabited about 800 CE by peoples of the Coastal Coles Creek culture. By 1100 CE the culture of the site had transitioned into the Mississippianized Plaquemine culture that lasted until 1450 CE. A little later was a Late Mississippian/protohistoric period that lasted from 1500 until about 1700 or 1800.
Site description.
The large site is located along both banks of a small stream known as Bayou Saut d'Ours and at one time had five to six earthen mounds, but only two mounds and the remains of a third mound are visible today. Mound A is topped by a historic period cemetery. It was one of the largest if not the largest site in the vicinity during the time of its occupation and likely served as a local civic and ceremonial center as well as being a center of trade. The inhabitants traded their local marine resources, including such locally produced items as shells and shell beads, to peoples located further up the Lower Mississippi River valley.
The local use of Plaquemine culture pottery grog tempering for pottery and the gradual adoption of shell tempered pottery associated with other areas has allowed archaeologists to track trade interactions with the people of the Sims Site and peoples from these other areas. During the second occupation period trade expanded, and the local ceramics show connections to Lower Mississippi Valley peoples and Plaquemine peoples located near modern-day Barataria Bay and to peoples of the Pensacola culture, located on the upper Gulf Coast near what is modern-day Biloxi, Mississippi. This period, between 1100 and 1450 CE, was during the initial phases of occupation and expansion of the Bottle Creek Site, the major center of the Pensacola culture. This period also sees the most significant Plaquemine connections at the site. The next phase sees increasing contact with Mississipianized Plaquemine peoples from as far up the Mississippi River as the Baton Rouge area, as well as continued interaction with the Mississippian Pensacola peoples.


Young Tobacco

Young Tobacco was the English name given to a Piankeshaw chief who lived near Post Vincennes during the American Revolution. His influence seems to have extended beyond his own village to all those along the Wabash River.
George Rogers Clark, in his memoir, refers to him as "Tobacco's Son", and British Lt-Governor Henry Hamilton's journal often refers to "Old Tobacco and his son." The relationship of the two chiefs, Old Tobacco and Young Tobacco, seems probable but is not certain. It may be that the British and Americans presumed Piankesaw leadership passed from father to son, but this was not common among Miami tribes.
Clark's memoir describes Young Tobacco as being very dedicated towards the American cause, declaring himself to be a "big knife". When Hamilton recaptures Vincennes and occupies Fort Sackville with the American prisoner Captain Leonard Helm, Young Tobacco declares openly that Helm is his brother, and voluntarily imprisons himself to stay with Helm. Knowing the influence of Young Tobacco among the area natives, Hamilton offers him several gifts to regain his favor, which Tobacco accepts for himself and his brother (Helm) to use. Hamilton does not describe these events in his journal.
As Clark and his army nears Vincennes to recapture it, Young Tobacco musters a large band of native warriors and requests permission to join Clark's army. This offer is declined, but Tobacco continues to favor the Americans during the siege of Fort Sackville.
Hamilton's journal offers a contrasting view of Young Tobacco. Rather than being an open supporter of the Americans, Young Tobacco seems to favor whoever is in power at the time. He offers excuses to Hamilton for his lack of loyalty when the residents of Vincennes first mobilized in favor of the Americans. In a war council meeting, Young Tobacco blames this on other chiefs for not coming to his support, and declares that he was too weak to resist the Americans and too young to make such decisions on his own. Hamilton seemed suspicious of Young Tobacco in his journal, but does not describe any open acts in support of the Americans.
After the Americans had secured Vincennes, they had trouble with Delaware along the White River. Clark ordered a punitive expedition against them, but Young Tobacco brokered a peace deal. He accepted responsibility for future Delaware raids but promised to "chastise them" if they again attacked Americans.
Clark says that Young Tobacco died two years after the battle for Fort Sackville, and was carried to Cahokia and buried with military honors.


Christoph Daniel Ebeling

Christoph Daniel Ebeling (20 November 1741 – 30 June 1817) was a scholar of Germany who studied the geography and history of North America.
Biography.
Ebeling was born near Hildesheim, Hanover. He studied theology at Göttingen, but devoted himself to geographical studies, and for 33 years taught history and Greek in the Hamburg gymnasium. He was also superintendent of the Hamburg library, and collected about 10,000 maps and nearly 4,000 books relating to America. Ebeling's magnum opus was a "Geography and History of North America" (5 vols., Hamburg, 1796–1816), forming a continuation of Büsching's "General Geography". He received a vote of thanks from the United States Congress for this work.
He was noted for his extensive knowledge of oriental languages, of classic and foreign literature, and of history and geography. Ebeling's collection was purchased by Israel Thorndike in the year after Ebeling's death, and given by him to Harvard. As a result, Harvard's library collections grew massively, virtually overnight. Through Thorndike, Ebeling's maps became the founding gift that created the Harvard Map Collection.
Ebeling was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814. He died in Hamburg.


Bamie Roosevelt

Anna Roosevelt Cowles (January 18, 1855 – August 25, 1931) was an American socialite. She was the older sister of United States President Theodore Roosevelt and an aunt of Eleanor Roosevelt. Her childhood nickname was Bamie (), a derivative of "bambina" (Italian for "baby girl"), but as an adult, her family began calling her Bye because of her tremendous on-the-go energy ("Hi, Bamie! Bye, Bamie!"). Throughout the life of her brother, Theodore, she remained a constant source of emotional support and practical advice. On the child-bed death of her brother Theodore's young wife Alice Hathaway Lee, Bamie took custody of the child, assuming parental responsibility for T.R.'s first daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, during her early years.
Early life.
Bamie was born in a brownstone home at 28 East 20th Street in New York City on January 18, 1855. She was the eldest child of businessman/philanthropist Theodore "Thee" Roosevelt (1831-1878) and socialite Martha Stewart "Mittie" Bulloch (1835-1884). In addition to brother Theodore Jr. (T.R.) (1858-1919), Bamie's siblings were socialite Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (1860-1894) and writer/speaker Corinne Roosevelt (1861-1933). Bamie was afflicted by a spinal ailment that led to her being partially crippled and confined by corrective steel braces as a child.
Theodore Roosevelt's daughter Alice once remarked that had Bamie, with her incredible intelligence and energy, been born a 19th-century man, without the social restrictions that the era placed on women, she would have been president instead of her brother. Her niece, Eleanor Roosevelt, stated in her autobiography that Bamie had "an able man's mind." Although she was not seen as a stunningly gorgeous woman like her mother or her sisters-in-law, her natural intelligence and energy was magnetic to both men and women. She remained an emotional pillar of strength for all the Roosevelts.
Family responsibilities from a young age.
Because Bamie's mother, Mittie, was often distracted by illness or by her busy social life, Bamie increasingly took a central role in running the Roosevelt household, particularly after the premature death of her father, Thee. In fact, T.R.'s elder daughter Alice remarked that Bamie almost seemed to be born into middle age, so significant were the adult responsibilities put into her hands from childhood. Unlike many children in a similar situation, Bamie had the natural maturity, judgment, and wisdom to "hold the family together," Alice said.
When T.R.'s first wife Alice died suddenly following childbirth, most probably of kidney failure (Bright's Disease) or toxemia, Bamie took custody of young Alice. Because her grieving father initially would not call her by his late wife's name, Alice was called "Baby Lee" for her mother's family, the Lees of Boston. Alice would say of Bamie that she was the most influential person in her entire life. When the young and vivacious Alice became more than her stepmother, Edith Kermit Carow, or her father could handle, they would send her up to Auntie Bye for a dose of discipline and to give her the structure that the Roosevelts in the White House were not able to exert.
Elliott's wife, Anna Rebecca Hall, had wished for Bamie to have custody of her children, Eleanor, Elliott Jr., and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, upon her death. She was separated from her husband, and died young of diphtheria. Custody of the children was not immediately possible because Elliott was still alive—though exiled by the family because of his alcoholism—and could not be bypassed in the event of litigation. Bamie considered a custody suit but realized that Anna's mother, Mary Livingston Ludlow, would not be willing to give the children into Bamie's care. She did open her home to Eleanor, who was a welcome visitor and made extended stays. Bamie was successful, though, in getting Eleanor out of the oppressive and harrowing home situation by demanding that she be sent to Allenswood School for girls in England, where Eleanor developed socially and emotionally. During Eleanor and Alice's childhood, Bamie kept them informed of each other's activities, helping to maintain something of a relationship between the two, though it was a vexing relationship, ranging from sometimes being very close and often a bitter and competitive relationship. She was close to both girls and contributed greatly to their development.
T.R.'s lifelong confidante.
Throughout his life, Bamie's brother Theodore often turned to her for counsel in letters and personal conversations. In fact, it was said by their niece Eleanor that T.R. made few important significant political decisions and even fewer personal decisions without getting the input of his sister. She remained a trusted confidante for his entire career. As president, he would walk down to her residence at 18th and I in Washington so often that Bamie's house was sometimes called the "other White House." As she became more infirm, T.R. turned more and more to his daughter Alice for advice and to act as a go-between in delicate political situations.
Marriage.
In 1895 at age 40, Anna Roosevelt married US Navy Lt. Commander (later Rear Admiral) William Sheffield Cowles (1846–1923), a divorcé who was 49. They had a son, William Jr. (1898–1986), who married Margaret Alwyn Krech (1900–1982) in 1920.
Later life.
When niece Eleanor Roosevelt campaigned against T.R.'s eldest son, Theodore "Ted" Roosevelt III, she publicly broke with her niece after the ordeal. In a letter to her son, Bamie wrote of Eleanor:
T.R.'s elder daughter Alice also broke with Eleanor over this highly distasteful (to Theodore's family) political activity that included Eleanor's riding up to Ted's speaking engagements with a teapot on her car to remind voters of Ted's supposed (but later disproved) connections to the Teapot Dome Scandal. Eleanor dismissed Bamie's criticisms by referring to her as an "aged woman." Despite all these intra-family discords, long after Bamie's death, Alice and Eleanor would later reconcile after Eleanor wrote Alice a comforting letter upon the death of Alice's daughter, Paulina Longworth.
Eleanor Roosevelt on her Aunt Bamie.
Bamie and her niece, Eleanor Roosevelt, eventually reconciled, and in an article in the "Ladies Home Journal", "How to Take Criticism," Eleanor referred to her Aunt Bamie, saying, "I can honestly say that I hate no one, and perhaps the best advice I can give to anyone who suffers from criticism and yet must be in the public eye, would be contained in the words of my aunt, Mrs. William Sheffield Cowles. She was President Theodore Roosevelt's sister and the aunt to whom many of the young people in the family went for advice. I had asked her whether I should do something which at that time would have caused a great deal of criticism, and her answer was: 'Do not be bothered by what people say as long as you are sure that you are doing what seems right to you, but be sure that you face yourself honestly.'"
Death.
Alice and Eleanor's warmest link to their fathers' generation died on the night of August 25, 1931, aged 76. Her last words, "Never mind, it's all right," were reportedly spoken to her friend Sara Delano, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's mother, before Bamie slipped into a coma and died.