History of Darjeeling

The History of Darjeeling covers the history of Darjeeling town and its adjoining hill areas belonging to Sikkim, but eventually part of British India so now in the Indian state of West Bengal, which is intertwined with the history of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Bengal and Great Britain. Part of the state of Sikkim, Darjeeling became part of an important buffer state between Nepal and Bhutan. The British, using the area as a sanitorium, found that the climate provided excellent tea-cultivating conditions and soon began to grow tea on the hills of Darjeeling. Darjeeling tea remains a world-renowned export from Darjeeling.
Early days.
The etymology of the place comes from Dorjeling meaning 'land of thunder'. It is said that it was formerly a place of worship of the Rongs where three stone stand erect (Lung-Chok) till today. Unfortunately the monastery was destroyed by the invading Gurkha Army in 1815.
Darjeeling was originally a part of the Kingdom of Sikkim and was inhabited by the Lepchas, a tribe native to the area since the beginning of time, before being invaded by the Gorkhas who were able to subdue the combined indigenous Bhutia and Lepcha armies of Sikkim.
The Gorkha army from Nepal invaded Darjeeling in the 1780s, attacked the Sikkimese capital of Rabdentse, and annexed territories up to the Teesta River into Nepal. By 1816 the whole of the area known as British Sikkim belonged to Nepal. After the Anglo-Gorkha War, Nepal ceded one-third of it territories to the British under the 1816 Sugauli Treaty, which included the land area between the Mechi and Teesta Rivers. On 10February 1817, the British returned the land area between the Mechi and Teesta to the Sikkimese Chogyal under the Treaty of Titalia.
Migration of the Lepchas to Nepal took place after the assassination of Sikkimese Prime Minister Bolot, of the influential Lepcha Barfung clan. In 1826, Chogyal Tsugphud Namgyal (on the advice of his mother who was a Lepcha herself) passed a resolution for the assassination of his Prime Minister - Bolot.
Bolot was the maternal uncle to Tsugphud Namgyal and his assassination was carried out by 'Lhachos' identified by Maharaja's history as the father of 'Cheebu Lama'.
Bolot's nephews, the sons of Kotaba Kungha named Dathup, Jerung Denon and Kazi Gorok left Sikkim taking with them 800 houses of Lepcha subjects from Chidam and Namthang and went to Ilam in Nepal where their descendants still reside to this day. From here they conducted raids on Darjeeling and Sikkim Terai. This event was known as the Kotapa insurrection which was eventually suppressed through British East India Company's assistance.
More than a fallout between the two ethnic groups, it was basically a race for the prized throne. After 1826 the royal family chose its consorts from the aristocracy of Tibet and not from among its Lepcha subjects as prior to that.
East India Company Lease.
In February 1829 dispute between Nepal and Sikkim arose regarding their borders (especially Ontoo Dara) and the then British Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck, sent two officers, Captain George Alymer Lloyd and J. W. Grant, to help resolve the situation. On the journey to Ontoo Dara the two officers stayed at Darjeeling for six days at "the old Goorka station called Dorjeling", which Lloyd noted was populated by "100 souls" of Lepchas, and were "much impressed with the possibility of the station as a sanatorium." On 18June 1829, Lloyd communicated to the government regarding the possibility of Darjeeling serving as a sanatorium, while about the same time Grant also urged the government to acquire the tract. "From a report dated the 18th June 1829, in which he claims to have been the only European who ever visited the place, we learn that Lloyd visited the old Goorka station called Dorjeling’ for six days in February 1829 ... Darjeeling itself, though formerly occupied by a large village and the residence of one of the principal Kazis, was deserted, and the country round it was sparsely inhabited ... The hill territory of Darjeeling having thus been ceded, General Lloyd and Dr. Chapman were sent in 1836 to explore the country ... The country was still practically uninhabited ... About 10 years previously 1,200 able-bodied Lepchas, forming, according to Captain Herbert, two-thirds of the population of Sikkim, had been forced by the oppression of the Raja to fly from Darjeeling and its neighbourhood, and to take refuge in Nepal. What little cultivation there was, had been abandoned."
Bentinck agreed to acquire the hill tract as a military outpost and sanatorium, acknowledging that it also offered strategic advantages as a military outpost and trading hub. Captain Herbert, the Deputy Surveyor General, was then sent to Darjeeling to examine the area. The court of Directors of the British East India Company approved the project. General Lloyd was given the responsibility to negotiate a lease of the area from the Chogyal of Sikkim. The lease as per the Deed of Grant was granted on 1February 1835 and runs as follows:
This was an unconditional cession of what was then a worthless uninhabited mountain, but in 1841 the British government granted the Chogyal of Sikkim an allowance of Rs. 100,000 per annum as compensation, and raised the grant to Rs. 6,000 per annum in 1846.
Establishing the sanitorium.
In 1835, a member of the Indian Medical Service, Archibald Campbell, was appointed as agent of the leased tract, and Lieutenant Napier (later Lord Napier of Magdala) set to work improving the area and laying the foundations of the hill station of Darjeeling. Dr. Campbell became the first superintendent of the sanitarium in 1839. A road connecting Darjeeling with the plains was constructed in 1839.
Rise of tea plantation.
Dr. Campbell brought Chinese tea seeds in 1841 from the Kumaon region and started growing tea on an experimental basis near his residence at Beechwood, Darjeeling. This experiment was followed by similar efforts by several other British. The experiments were successful and soon several tea estates started operating commercially.
Annexation by the British Indian Empire.
The rapid growth of Darjeeling led to jealousy from the Chogyal of Sikkim. There were also differences between the British Government and Sikkim over the status of people of Sikkim. Because of the increased importance of Darjeeling, many citizens of Sikkim, mostly of the labour class, started to settle in Darjeeling as British subjects. The migration disturbed the feudal lords in Sikkim who resorted to forcibly getting the migrants back to Sikkim.
Relations deteriorated to such an extent that when Dr. Campbell and the explorer Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker were touring in Sikkim in 1849, they were captured and imprisoned. This detention continued for weeks. An expeditionary force was sent by the Company to Sikkim. However, there was no necessity for bloodshed and after the company's troops had crossed the Rangeet River into Sikkim, hostilities ceased.
Consequent to this trouble, and further misconduct on the part of the Sikkim authorities a few years later, the mountain tracts now forming the district of Darjeeling became part of the British Indian Empire, and the remainder of kingdom of Sikkim became a protected state.
The area of Kalimpong along with the Dooars became British property following the defeat of Bhutan in the Anglo-Bhutan war (Treaty of Sinchula – 11 November 1865). Kalimpong was first put under the Deputy Commissioner of Western Duars, but in 1866 it was transferred to the District of Darjeeling giving the district its final shape.
Further development.
The Darjeeling Municipality was established in 1850. Tea estates continued to grow. By the 1860s, peace was restored in the borders. During this time, immigrants, mainly from Nepal, were recruited to work in the construction sites, tea gardens, and other agriculture-related projects. Scottish missionaries undertook the construction of schools and welfare centres for the British residents: Loreto Convent in 1847, St. Paul's School in 1864, Planters' Club in 1868, Lloyd's Botanical Garden in 1878, St. Joseph's School in 1888, Railway Station in 1891, and Town Hall (present Municipality Building) in 1921. With the opening of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway in 1881, smooth communication between the town and the plains below further increased the development of the region. "Darjeeling disaster" was an earthquake in 1898 that caused considerable damage to the young town and its native population.
Administration.
Darjeeling Municipality took responsibility for maintaining the civic administration of the town as early as 1850. From 1850 to 1916, the municipality was placed in the first schedule (along with Halna, Hazaribagh, Muzzaferpur and others), where commissioners were appointed by local governments and second schedule (along with Burdwan, Hooghly, Nadia, Hazaribagh and others), where the local government appointed a chairman.
Prior to 1861 and from 1870–1874, Darjeeling District was a "Non-Regulated Area" (where acts and regulations of the British Raj did not automatically apply in the district in line with rest of the country, unless specifically extended). From 1862 to 1870, it was considered a "Regulated Area". The term "Non-Regulated Area" was changed to "Scheduled District" in 1874 and again to "Back Ward Tracts" in 1919. The status was known as "Partially Excluded Area" from 1935 until the independence of India.
Development as a tourist destination.
Darjeeling's elite residents were the British ruling class of the time, who visited Darjeeling every summer. An increasing number of well-to-do Indian residents of Kolkata (then Calcutta), affluent Maharajas of princely states, land-owning zamindars and barristers of Calcutta High Court also began visiting Darjeeling. The town continued to grow as a tourist destination, becoming known as the "Queen of the Hills". The town did not see any significant political activity during the freedom struggle of India owing to its remote location and small population. However, there was a failed assassination attempt by revolutionaries on Sir John Anderson, the Governor of Bengal in the 1930s.
Post-Indian independence.
After the independence of India in 1947, Darjeeling was merged with the state of West Bengal. A separate district of Darjeeling was established consisting of the hill towns of Darjeeling, Kurseong, Kalimpong, and the Terai areas of Siliguri. When the People's Liberation Army annexed Tibet in 1950, thousands of Tibetan refugees settled across Darjeeling district.
The population of Darjeeling rose rapidly. The colonial town of Darjeeling was designed for a population of only 10,000. The population spurt made the town more prone to the environmental problems of recent decades as the region is geologically relatively new. The rise in tourism also affected the ecological balance of the area.
A diverse ethnic population gave rise to socio-economic tensions, and the demand for the creation of the separate states of Gorkhaland and Kamtapur along ethnic lines grew popular in the 1980s. The issues came to a head after a 40-day strike called by the Gorkha National Liberation Front, during which violence gripped Darjeeling. Political tensions largely declined with the establishment of Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council under the chairmanship of Subhash Ghisingh. The DGHC was given semi-autonomous powers to govern the district. The issue of a separate state still agitated in between with a new political party Gorkha Janmukti Morcha demanding for separate state . The new party accepted the GTA (Gorkha Territorial Administration) after certain years from both the center and the state Government of West Bengal which it believes that the demarcation of land including the Tarai and Doors with Darjeeling and Kalimpong district are formed for better administrative purpose .


Namacpacan Church

The Namacpacan Church also known as the Santa Catalina de Alejandria Church is a Roman Catholic church located in Luna (formerly Namacpacan), La Union, Philippines under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Fernando de La Union. Formerly called as "Luna Church", the church is placed under the advocacy Saint Catherine of Alexandria in 1690 and known for its devotion to the Our Lady of Namacpacan.
The church was declared a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines.
Church history.
Since 1587, Namacpacan was a visita of Purao (presently known as Balaoan). In November 25, 1690, the town was founded and a parish under the advocacy of Saint Catherine of Alexandria was canonically erected. The first church of Namacpacan was built under the supervision of Father Mateo Bustillos, the parish priest from 1695 to 1697. The original site of the church was in Darigayos, a barrio of Namacpacan and was transferred in 1741 to its present site. The image of the Our Lady of Namacpacan was enshrined in the church in 1871.
The church was reinforced with masonry and galvanized iron roof. It was heavily destroyed by an earthquake in 1854. Through the efforts of Father Marcelino Ceballes, the church was restored and the convent was widened in 1876.
Features.
Like other Philippine churches built in earthquake-prone areas, Namacpacan Church is classified as an Earthquake Baroque church with thick walls and buttresses connected to a brick exterior stairway of different designs and shapes. A ceremonial archway or "capilla possa" can be found at the church's entrance. Its 1872 white and yellow facade falls under the Baroque style with the presence of rounded pediments. Three sets of two pairs of engaged columns and two sets of single columns along with twin belfries adorning the façade. A wooden altar, Spanish-era stone pulpit and a wood relief of the Baptism of Christ, probably polychromed, can be found inside the church.
Its "convento" is now used as a school.
Devotion to the Our Lady of Namacpacan.
History.
The wooden image of the Blessed Virgin Mary venerated as the Our Lady of Namacpacan (locally known as "Apo Baket") in Luna was ordered from Spain by an Augustinian priest assigned in the Immaculate Conception Seminary in Vigan in 1871. While on its way to Vigan, the galleon ship from Mexico carrying the image of our Lady took shelter in Darigayos due to a storm. When the sea was calm, they resumed their journey but strong winds forced them to return to the port of Darigayos. The captain of the ship decided to send the image by land and it was temporarily placed in the church's convent. However, the image was too heavy to be transferred onwards overland. Father Camilo Naves, an Augustinian priest, interpreted the incident as meaning that the image of the Virgin Mary wished to be enshrined in the town of Namacpacan. Father Marcelino Ceballos, then parish priest requested to the Augustinian priest to give the image to the town. Upon the agreement that the people of Namacpacan would reimburse all expenses incurred during the image's journey from Spain, the rightful owner gave the image to the town. The people welcomed the Virgin to town with feasting, and enshrined it on an altar in the northern part of the church. The image was canonically crowned on November 24, 1959 through a special decree issued by Pope John XXIII through Apostolic Nuncio to the Philippines Salvatore Siino.
The image of the Our Lady of Namacpacan, standing tall, is the tallest-known Marian image in the Philippines. and is known as the patroness of Ilocano travellers.
Attributed miracles.
Several miracles attributed to the Virgin of Namacpacan are widely known, including the healing of a young girl named Rosa Roldan who was unable to walk since birth. Before Pope Pius XII died on 9 October 1958, he reportedly saw the Blessed Virgin Mary enshrined in Namacpacan in a dream. He asked where Namacpacan was, but none of his staff were aware of the place's existence; the answer was only revealed after the pontiff's death.


Soyuqbulaq, Agstafa

Soyuqbulaq (also, Soyuq Bulaq) is a village in the Agstafa Rayon of Azerbaijan. It forms part of the municipality of Köçvəlili.
In 2006, a French–Azerbaijani team discovered nine kurgans at the cemetery of Soyuqbulaq. They were dated to the beginning of the fourth millennium BC, which makes it the oldest kurgan cemetery in Transcaucasia. Similar kurgans have been found at Kavtiskhevi, Kaspi Municipality, in central Georgia.
Several other archaeological sites seem to belong to the same ancient cultural tradition as Soyuq Bulaq. They include Berikldeebi, Kavtiskhevi, Leilatepe, Boyuk Kesik, and Poylu, Agstafa, and are characterized by pottery assemblages "mainly or totally in the North Mesopotamian tradition".
Discoveries.
The numerous artifacts discovered at these sites have shed light on the material and spiritual culture of this ancient people during the late Eneolithic period. Amongst the finds are stone and bone tools, metal objects, and a huge cache of clay vessels. There are also anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines made of clay or bone. Grain residues were also excavated.
The residents kept cattle and other domesticated animals in these settlements.
Most of these sites are associated with the Leilatepe archeological culture of the first half of the fourth millennium BCE. It is believed that this was the result of the migration of near-eastern tribes from Mesopotamia to South Caucasus, especially to Azerbaijan.
According to the excavators,
Discovery of Soyugbulaq in 2004 and subsequent excavations provided substantial proof that the practice of kurgan burial was well established in the South Caucasus during the late Eneolithic. The roots of the Leylatepe Archaeological Culture to which the Soyugbulaq kurgans belong to, stemmed from the Ubaid culture of Central Asia.
The Leylatepe Culture tribes migrated to the north in the mid-fourth millennium, B.C. and played an important part in the rise of the Maikop Culture of the North Caucasus. A number of Maikop Culture kurgans and Soyugbulaq kurgans display the same northwest to southeast grave alignment. More than that, Soyugbulaq kurgans yielded pottery forms identical to those recovered from the Maikop kurgans. These are the major factors attesting to the existence of a genetic link between the two cultures.


Daw Kyan

Kyan (, ; 1 July 1918 – 16 November 2019), known honorifically as Daw Kyan (, ), was a Burmese historian and writer who specialized in the history of Burma under British colony. She received two civil orders, two lifetime achievement awards, six literary awards and three outstanding women awards, and was remembered as the Centenary History "Devi" of Burma.
She was a full-time member of the Myanmar Language Commission, and served also as a member of the Myanmar National Literature Awards Selection Committee and of Pakokku U Ohn Pe Literary Awards Selection Committee.
Early life and career.
Ma Kyan, the eldest of four siblings, was born on 1 July 1918 in Thandwe, Thandwe Township, Rakhine State to U Kyaw Tun and Daw Ngwe Hnit. Her father died when she was nine years old.
Kyan worked as a junior assistant teacher at the government high school in Thandwe where she passed the high school final exam in 1935. She later served as an upper division clerk at the post offices in Thandwe and Sittwe.
In 1951 when she was 32, Kyan continued her education at the special class of the University of Yangon in which she graduated within three years, and completed her master's degree in 1959. She joined as a part-time tutor at the Department of English Language and Literature of Yangon University for two years while she was a master's candidate. In 1956, she was appointed as a research officer in Burma Historical Commission. Kyan went to SOAS University of London to collect the Burmese historical documents in the following year. In 1959, with Daw Yi Yi, she went to the Victoria and Albert Museum and copied microfilms of rare parabaiks and the collections of Henry Burney and Edward Bosc Sladen. In 1963, she was promoted to a senior research officer.
Kyan was sent on Cultural Award Scheme tours to the major cities in Australia in 1977. She retired from the Burma Historical Commission in 1978.
Later years.
Kyan continued serving as an advisor to the Ministry of Industry No. 1, from 1986 to 1991, for the six-volume set "The History of Myanmar Industrial Interprises".
In 1991, Kyan joined the Myanmar Language Commission as a full-time member. She also became a representative of Amyotha Hluttaw to draft new constitution of Myanmar in 1993.
From 2002 to 2005, Kyan was a member of steering committee for the doctorate program at History Department of Yangon University.
Kyan was awarded the Medal (First Class) for Excellent Performance in the Field of Arts in 2006 and the Sithu title, one of the highest civilian decoration, in 2012 by the Burmese government.
Centenary and death.
On 7 July 2018, Kyan's hundredth birthday was held at the Sarpay Beikman hall in Yangon led by the Minister for Information, Pe Myint, and a book "Centenary History Devi Sayamagyi Daw Kyan" was released.
Kyan died on 16 November 2019 in room 202, No. 5, Yadanamon road, Hlaing Township, Yangon.
Publications.
Kyan had been writing historical books and research papers since the 1960s with the pen name Ma Kyan, and sometimes, Daw Kyan. In addition to the following publications, she also compiled Myanmar Encyclopedia Year books and Myanmar–English Dictionary.


Anglo-Persian Agreement

The Anglo-Persian Agreement involved Great Britain and Persia, and centered on the drilling rights of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The "agreement" was issued by British Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, to the Persian government in August 1919. It was never ratified by the Majlis (Iranian parliament).
After the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new Soviet government abandoned the former Russian sphere of influence in the five northern provinces of Iran, branding the concept as "Tsarist Imperialism". Britain was the remaining power in the region and Curzon hoped to make Iran not a protectorate but a client state of Britain and of no other great power.
The document gave a guarantee of British access to all Iranian oil fields. In return the British would:
The document was denounced worldwide as hegemonic, especially in the United States, which also had designs on accessing Iranian oil fields. Eventually, the Anglo-Persian agreement was formally denounced by the Majlis on 22 June 1921.


Laxmi Niwas Palace


Singu Min

Singu Min (, ; 10 May 1756 – 14 February 1782) was the fourth king of the Konbaung dynasty of Myanmar.
The King, who came to power amid controversy, largely put an end to his father Hsinbyushin's policy of territorial expansion, which had severely depleted the kingdom's manpower and resources. He stopped his father's latest war against Siam at his accession, effectively ceding Lan Na to the Siamese. Likewise, he took no action when the Laotian states stopped paying tribute in 1778. The only campaigns were in Manipur, where the Burmese army was forced to put down four rebellions during his reign.
The king is best remembered for the Maha Ganda Bell, which he donated in 1779. Singu was overthrown on 6 February 1782 by his cousin Phaungka and was executed by his uncle Bodawpaya eight days later.
Early life.
Singu was born Min Ye Hla (), the eldest son to the Prince of Myedu (later King Hsinbyushin) and his first wife at the Royal Palace in Ava on 10 May 1756. When his father became king, Min Ye Hla was granted the town of Singu in fief. He became known as "Singusa", or Lord of Singu, by which he would be known. He was later installed as Heir Apparent, against the wish of the founder of the dynasty, Alaungpaya.
Accession controversy.
Singu ascended the throne amid controversy, as his accession ignored the wish of the dynasty founder King Alaungpaya that all his sons become king. Singu's accession was made possible by the support of his father-in-law Gen. Maha Thiha Thura, the commander-in-chief of the Burmese military. (Singu's second queen, Maha Mingala Dewi, was the general's daughter.) At his succession, he assumed the regnal name "Mahadhammayazadiyaza" (; ).
At Hsinbyushin's death, Maha Thiha Thura-led Burmese forces were bogged down in their latest campaign in Siam. Concerned about his own rule at home, Singu ordered a complete withdrawal of Burmese forces from Lan Na and Upper Menam valley. The withdrawal's long-term impact was that the Burmese would lose most of the old Lan Na Kingdom, which had been under Burmese suzerainty since 1558.
Reign.
Singu killed off potential rivals to the throne as soon as he came to power. He had three of his half-brothers executed in 1776 upon his ascension. He next executed his uncle Prince of Amyin, the rightful heir to the throne per Alaungpaya's wish, on 1 October 1777. He exiled other possible claimants—the remaining three uncles, and two cousins. Prince of Badon (later King Bodawpaya) was next in line for the throne—hence Singu's next target—but the astute prince conducted himself so as to be seen as harmless and thereby escaped death. Prince of Badon was instead sent to Sagaing, where he was kept under close supervision.
Demobilization.
Unlike his predecessors, who were all military men, Singu was anti-war in sentiment. The country had been fighting constant wars since 1740 and manpower and resources had been severely depleted. Moreover, he did not trust army commanders who were "drunk with victory" and had become warlords in the regions. Singu witnessed how the commanders openly disobeyed his father's orders when the once-fiery king was on his deathbed (1774–1776). Reflecting the people's general weariness of war, Singu largely demobilized the armies. He even had a fallout with Maha Thiha Thura and dismissed the man who had made him king, relieving the old general of all his offices, divorcing Maha Thiha Thura's daughter in May 1777, and having her drowned in 1778.
By demobilizing, he essentially decided to give up Lan Na, which had been under Burmese rule since Bayinnaung's time. Similarly, he took no action when the Laotian states of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, which had been Burmese vassals since 1765, stopped paying tribute in 1778. Nonetheless, his demobilization was well received by the war-torn country, as the people had grown tired of constant conscriptions to fight in "ever-lasting wars" in remote regions they had never heard of.
The only region in which Singu maintained military action was Manipur, where he inherited another war from his father. The former Manipuri king, whom the Burmese last drove out in 1770, made four attempts from his base in Cachar to oust the Burmese nominee between 1775 and 1782. The Burmese drove him back each time but were unable to capture him. The army gained "barren victories" and lost 20,000 men partly by fever over the years. After Singu's dethronement in 1782, the Burmese withdrew from Manipur "perhaps because the country was now so thoroughly devastated that nothing more could be wrung out of it".
Administration.
He spent much of his time at the capital and in the palace, surrounding himself with young people, as he was anti-war in temperament. There, he listened to music and poetry and spent his nights in drunken bouts in a hideout across the river. He executed or dismissed those courtiers who criticized his conduct.
Dethronement and death.
On 6 February 1782, one of the exiled cousins, Prince of Phaungka, came back to Ava, deposed Singu and declared himself to be king. Phaungka's reign was, however, very short, as their uncle Prince of Badon organized a coup one week later, killed both Singu and Phaungka, and became King—later known as King Bodawpaya.


Women in the Nepalese Civil War

Women were a significant group who were involved in the Maoist movement during the Nepalese Civil War, which refers to a violent insurgency that took place from 1996 to 2006. The insurgency was led by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) (Nepali: नेपाल कम्युनिष्ट पार्टी (माओवादी-केन्द्र), or CPN (M-C) with the aim of establishing a People’s Republic and ending the rule of the Nepalese Monarchy. During this time, over 13,000 civilians and public officials were murdered, approximately 200,000 were displaced, and numerous others were tortured, extorted, and intimidated. Although the majority of Maoist insurgents were men, the Maoist Party claimed that up to 40 percent of their 19,000 combatants were women. This was regarded as an unprecedented move at the time, given that women were forbidden from fighting in the Nepalese Army until 2003.
Reasons for participation.
The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) was able to garner such a large degree of support primarily due to its ideology which called for the equal treatment of persons irrespective of gender, ethnic, regional, or caste-based differences. This message was starkly different from the pervading views in Nepali society which were firmly rooted in a feudal and caste-based system.
Women's economic oppression.
Until 2008, Nepali society was structured around a feudal system, which was dominated by peasant production. This meant that the state as well as powerful local nobility were able to influence the access individuals had to land, which disadvantaged many groups in Nepal. In fact, according to a NGO, Rural Reconstruction Nepal, 50% of the households in Nepal own only 6.6 percent of the land, whereas the top 9 percent of landowners are in control of 47 percent of the land. This skewed distribution of land has led to high rates of poverty across the nations as individuals do not have enough land to be self-sufficient and they are further exploited by the high interest rates they pay due to borrowing money from local lenders and government loan agencies. Although feudalism has inhibited the economic progress of numerous communities across Nepal, women in particular have been victims of this system. Women’s economic mobility in Nepal has long been hindered by the patrilineal relation of the land-ownership system, which prevented women from inheriting land and subsequently denied them of the right to own land to the same extent as their male counterparts. This unequal access to land was aggravated by the fact that over 90 percent of female workers in 2001 were employed in the agriculture industry, the majority of whom were disproportionately tasked with hard labor and were still paid less than half the amount of their male counterparts. One of the major goals of the Maoist Party was to uproot Nepal's longstanding feudal system, which could have furthered the attractiveness of the movement to disadvantaged groups such as rural women.
Women's social oppression.
According to a senior female Maoist Party leader, Comrade Parvati, in Nepal "women's social oppression is firmly rooted in state sponsored Hindu religion which upholds feudal Brahminical rule based on caste system, which disparages women in relation to men". As an official Hindu state, ideologies such as the caste system play a crucial role in defining the social lives of Nepali citizens, with the Brahmins regarded as the nobles and the highest-ranking members of society whereas the Dalits or "the untouchables" are labelled as the lowest members of the caste system. Women are especially disadvantaged under the caste system as they are depicted solely as a means for reproduction. This limits the role of women as purely that of mothers and wives. Furthermore, Dalit women are especially vulnerable as they are not only seen to be of lower status due to their position as women but are further exploited due to their caste. Dalit women are forbidden from entering temples, touching food at common gatherings and accessing public places with drinking water sources. In addition to the divisions created by the caste system, Nepali women have been systematically disadvantaged by the burden of dowries, which require the bride’s family to provide the groom’s family with property or wealth in order to guarantee a marriage union. This requirement has led to the discrimination of women in Nepali society, and has led to high rates of female feticide among rural families as the cost of bearing female children is considered too high in comparison with the benefits. As a result of these social pressures on women, it is not surprising that many women found the Maoist Party’s focus on gender equality appealing.
Roles.
During the People’s War, for the first time in Nepal, women were given the chance to participate on equal footing as men. Women became combatants, with notable figures such as Comrade Parvati rising to the ranks of a Maoist commander. Other women took on the roles of nurses for wounded soldiers, couriers, organizers, propagandists, activists and even espionage workers. The participation of women as activists and espionage workers was particularly effective for the Maoist cause in Nepal. This was because Nepali society's traditional view of women as homemakers meant that female activists and espionage workers were able to easily access new areas and mobilize masses of individuals in a way that male members could not.
Notable figures.
The following women are examples of some of the female participants in the Maoist movement:
Number of female victims and participants.
According to INSEC, an organization which specializes in human rights issues in Nepal, 1,665 out of the 15,026 deaths (approximately 11 percent of all deaths) that occurred during the People's War were female victims. Based on this dataset, the dynamics of the violence against women appears to very asymmetric, with government forces being responsible for 85 percent of the killings. Although the dataset does not explicitly differentiate between members of the Maoist movement and unaffiliated civilians, the Maoists are recognized for their inclusion of a significant number of women during the People's War. A number of studies carried out by organizations such as the Institute of Human Rights Nepal, and researchers such as Seira Tamang, Sonal Singh, Edward Mills and Adhikari have estimated that female participation in the Maoist movement during the People's War was between 30 and 50 percent. However these results vary, with more recent estimates provided by the UN illustrated that only 24% of the combatants in the People's Liberation Army (Maoist) were women. This discrepancy in estimates could be due to the fact that there were many women who were participants in the movement, and yet were not necessarily engaged in combat.
Effects and reintegration.
The motto of the People's War included declarations of better lives for Nepali citizens and in particular for women. However, many of the women who once bore arms and fought for the Maoist cause were later faced with a double victimization as they sought to reintegrate into post-war Nepal. For example, Rachna Shahi, a former combatant in the Maoist Party, describes that after the end of the People's War, her "family doesn't accept (her) and society looks at (her) with hatred". The process of post-war reintegration was particularly difficult for female combatants who were confronted with the rigid gender roles of traditional Nepali society. Judith Pettigrew and Sara Shneiderman shed light on this in their research as they describe that much of the negative sentiments towards female participants of the Maoist movement were rooted in a disapproval that women "ignored "feminine" duties such as chastity and motherhood during the conflict". The social exclusion of female participants in the Maoist movement was furthered by the fact that many of the individuals in charge of organizing post-war reintegration programs did not recognize the efforts of women in the People's War and subsequently failed to implement gender-inclusive initiatives. In addition to being stigmatized for their role as "women" in the People's War, they had to face the larger effects of returning to conventional jobs and relationships after having spent almost a decade engaged in war. These effects were most evident in economic reintegration efforts as many of the skills of combatants and other participants in the movement had either become obsolete due to automation and technological developments, or had drastically altered, requiring them to undergo training and restart their occupational trajectory.


Tufa Shujineng

Tufa Shujineng (died 279) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He led a revolt in Liang Province against the Jin Dynasty (266-420) between 270 and 279. His revolt helped delayed the Jin invasion of Eastern Wu before he was finally killed in battle against the Jin general Ma Long in 279. His great-great-grandnephew, Tufa Wugu, was the founder of the Xianbei Southern Liang state during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.
Life.
Tufa Shujineng's grandfather was Tufa Shoutian (禿髮壽闐) and his great-grandfather was Pigu (匹孤). Pigu was the son of the Tuoba Xianbei chieftain Tuoba Jifen (拓跋詰汾) and his brother was Tuoba Liwei. Pigu led his branch of Xianbei to Hexi when Tuoba Liwei succeeded their father as chieftain in 218. There are two theories as to how the Tufa got their name. The first being that the words 'Tufa' (禿髮) and 'Tuoba' (拓拔) were nearly identical to each other, and is used as a derogatory term against Pigu's branch as Tufa meant 'bald hair'. The other being that it was Shoutian who named their clan 'Tufa' after his nickname. It is said that Shoutian was born on a blanket, so his people called him 'Tufa', which is the Xianbei word for 'blanket'. After Tufa Shoutian passed away, he was succeeded by his grandson Tufa Shujineng.
Due to bureaucratic oppression by local Chinese officials, Shujineng rebelled against Jin in 270. The Inspector of Qinzhou, Hu Lie led an attack to quell this revolt but he was defeated and killed at Wanhudui (萬斛堆, located in Gaolan county, Gansu province). The Prince of Fufeng, Sima Liang, was supposed to send reinforcements through his subordinate Liu Qi (劉旂) to aid Hu Lie but Liu refused to move his troops. Emperor Wu of Jin wanted to punish Liu Qi but Sima Liang defended him and lost his post in the process.
With the removal of Sima Liang, Shi Jian (石鉴) and Tian Zheng (田章) were sent instead by Emperor Wu to put down the uprising. Shi Jian ordered his subordinate, Du Yu, to attack Shujineng. However, Du Yu remonstrated him, stating that the enemy were still riled up from their recent victories, as opposed to the demoralized Jin troops, and that they should wait until the following year to attack. Du Yu's words angered Shi Jian, who had him sent back to the capital as a prisoner. Shi Jian carried out his original plans but he too could not defeat Shujineng.
The next year, the Inspector of Liangzhou, Qian Hong, also tried to defeat Shujineng but Qiang troops within Qian's army, dissatisfied by his poor treatment of them, rebelled and join Shujineng. Qian Hong was killed in battle at Mount Qing (青山, located in Huan county, Gansu province) after the tribal barbarians surrounded his army. Qian Hong's replacement, Su Yu (蘇愉) was also defeated and killed by Shujineng at Mount Jin (金山, located in Shandan county, Gansu province) later that year. Meanwhile, Shujineng's victories inspired revolts by the Xiongnu, led by Liu Meng (劉猛) in Bingzhou. Liu Meng's revolt was short-lived, fortunately for Jin, as he was killed by Hu Fen in 272 after a year it had started.
Shujineng continued to raid northwestern China but his luck came to an end in 275 when he was defeated by the Marshal of Yongzhou and Liangzhou, Sima Jun. Shujineng faced Sima Jun again the following year, this time with Wen Yang under Jun's wing, and he was defeated a second time. Around 200,000 rebels surrendered to Wen Yang. Wen Yang tightened the security in Liangzhou, Qinzhou and Yongzhou by having patrols defend villagers from Shujineng's raids. Faced with repeated defeats, Shujineng negotiated peace with Jin by sending one of his sons to the capital in Luoyang as a hostage in 277.
Peace between Jin and Shujineng did not last, as he revolted again by attacking Liang Province in 279. A junior Jin General by the name of Ma Long volunteered to help defeat Shujineng. During Ma Long's battles with Shujineng, he used tactics that were rather unorthodox for his time. Ma Long implemented what were called 'flat box carts (偏箱車)' which helped protect the troops from the Xianbei arrows as they advanced. It is also said that he placed magnetic stones on the ground to slow down the Xianbei troops, who generally wore iron armor as opposed to the Jin troops wearing rhinoceros hide armor. Regardless of its historicity, Ma Long's campaign saw the end of Shujineng's raids, as the Xianbei chieftain was finally killed in battle by the end of the year. He was replaced with his younger cousin, Tufa Wuwan (禿髮烏孤).


A Thousand Cuts

A Thousand Cuts is a 2020 Filipino-American documentary film about Maria Ressa, the founder of the online news site Rappler. Directed by Ramona Diaz, it explores the conflicts between the press and the Philippine government under President Rodrigo Duterte.
The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2020. It was released in the United States in a limited release and virtual cinemas on August 7, 2020, by PBS Distribution, and was followed by a broadcast on the program "Frontline" on January 8, 2021.
Plot.
The film follows the conflicts between the press and the Philippine government under president Rodrigo Duterte. It primarily follows Maria Ressa, the founder of the online news site Rappler, which has been subject to scrutiny by Duterte and his supporters, and writers for the website including Pia Ranada, Patricia Evangelista and Rambo Talabong. It also follows Mocha Uson, Samira Gutoc, and Bato dela Rosa as they campaign for seats in the Philippine senate.
Release.
The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2020. It was also set to screen at South by Southwest in March 2020, however, the festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It also screened at AFI Docs on June 19, 2020. In June 2020, PBS Distribution and Frontline acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film, and briefly made the film available for a limited time on YouTube free for Philippine users. The film was released in the United States through virtual cinema on August 7, 2020, followed by broadcast on Frontline on January 8, 2021.
Reception.
"A Thousand Cuts" received positive reviews from film critics. It holds a 100% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 36 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.20/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A sobering documentary and a stark warning, A Thousand Cuts underscores the importance of the press at a pivotal moment in world history." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 81 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


Maiden Tower (Gadabay)

Maiden Tower or Namerdgala () is a medieval defensive tower located in Azerbaijan Republic, Gadabay rayon, Soyudlu village.
About.
The monument is an integral part of the Khojaly–Gadabay cultural heritage. The tower is a local important architectural monument.
Maiden Tower is located in a densely wooded and mountainous area about 7-10 km from Soyudlu village. The tower was raised on a rocky shore along the Shamkir River. It is possible to climb on foot to the castle, which is surrounded by greenness and forests. The castle consists of five circular columns. Entry and exit are invisible. Columns are various in height and diameter. Circular-shaped constellations rise from the corners of the fort. The tower has two levels inside, which correspond to the rugged mountain relief. On the top floor, in the highest part of the mountain, there is a five-corner shaped inner tower. At the lower level, the second section of the fort is located. The part of the monument, which passes through the walls and constellations as a belt and completes the crown above, greatly enhanced the protection of the tower. Mountain towers were usually built of surrounding rocks and stones brought from river beds. The difference between the tower and other mountain forts is that its walls were made of baked bricks, and were covered with a number of polished bricks.
History.
At this time, it is not known what the historic significance of the tower and when it was built. Some researchers consider it to be the work of the 12th century - the Eldiguzids - era, because of its basic construction material and architectural features. But according to various sources the tower was built in 9th century. In official sources it is considered that built in 9-11th centuries.


Plumbangan

Plumbangan is a candi that actually is a paduraksa-style gate with cube-shaped peak. The gate is located at Plumbangan village, Doko subdistrict, Blitar Regency, East Java, Indonesia.
The gate was made of andesite stone, with a length of 4.09 m, width 2.27 m and height 5.6 m. The gate has a wing on either side and has no relief, but only a seam line.
The surviving structure is not a temple, it is a gate and was part of a larger complex or a compound. However, the surrounding walls and other structures did not survive. A similar site, the Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is also a surviving single gate. It is not clear whether the compound was a religious or secular in nature.
At the top of the doorway are carved figures in 1312 Saka (1390 CE), and estimated to be built during the reign of King Wikramawardhana of Majapahit. In general, the structure is still fairly well preserved.


Hodota Kofun Cluster

The is a group of three Kofun period burial mounds located in what is now the city of Takasaki, Gunma Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1985.
Overview.
This group of burial mounds is distributed at the southern foot of Mount Haruna, and were constructed from the end of the latter half of the 5th century to the first half of the 6th century AD. All are , which are shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above. The Futakoyama Kofun is both the largest and oldest of the group and is located to the southwest. The Hachimanzuka Kofun is in the northeast, and the Yakushizuka Kofun, which is the youngest, is in the northwest. Information on excavated items and archaeological sites is displayed at the neighboring .
Futagoyama Kofun.
The is constructed in three tiers and has an overall length of 108 meters. The bottom two tiers were covered in "fukiishi" and rows of cylindrical "haniwa" were found on top and on the terrace between the two tiers. Other types of "haniwa" shaped as human figures, horses and other animals, and houses, etc. were also found. The tumulus was surrounded by a double horseshoe-shaped moat, and there are four smaller dome-shaped tumuli within the inner moat, flanking the posterior circular portion of the main tumulus of all sides. The burial chamber is located at the center of the apex of the circular portion of the tumulus, and consists of a river stone-lined pit-type room with a boat-shaped stone sarcophagus. The tomb has been robbed in premodern times and the lid of the sarcophagus is missing. Grave goods missed by the robbers included a decorative iron sword, gilt-bronze shoes, iron farm implements and stone imitations of everyday objects and other ornaments. Currently, the chamber is backfilled for preservation.
Hachimanzuka Kofun.
The has an overall length of 102 meters, but its original height is uncertain since the top of the tumulus has been shaved off. The mound was covered in "fukiishi" and rows of cylindrical "haniwa" were found on top . Other types of "haniwa" shaped as human figures, horses and other animals, and houses, etc. were also found, and of especially interest was a "haniwa" in the shape of a cormorant with a fish in its beak. The practice of cormorant fishing was documented in the Chinese Book of Sui from the same period as the Kofun period in Japan, and this was the first physical evidence corroborating the Chinese history. The tumulus was surrounded by a double horseshoe-shaped moat, the inner dike of which also had "fukiishi". As with the Futagoyama Kofun, four smaller dome-shaped tumuli are located within the inner moat, flanking the circular portion of the main tumulus of all sides. The Hachimanzuka Kofun was also robbed in antiquity, and the burial chamber has collapsed. Fragments of iron swords and other weapons, fragments of armor and shards of Sue ware pottery have been found.
Yakushizuka Kofun.
The is thought to have had an overall length of over 100 meters, and to have been of two-tied construction with "fukiishi" and rows of cylindrical "haniwa", with a double moat. However, a large portion of the tumulus was destroyed with the construction of an adjacent Buddhist temple and its graveyard. The tumulus was excavated in 1683, and the stone boat-shaped sarcophagus remains on the mound. Some of the surviving grave goods are stored at the temple of Saiko-ji, and are now Important Cultural Properties of Japan.


Maihar State

Maihar State was a princely state in India during the British Raj, located in what is today Madhya Pradesh, central India.
The state had an area of , and a population of 63,702 in 1901. The state, which was watered by the Tons River, consists mainly of alluvial soil covering sandstone, and is fertile except in the hilly district of the south. A large area was under forest, the produce of which provided a small export trade.
History.
The state was founded in 1778. From 1788 to 1790 Maihar State was occupied by Banda. The state became a princely state of British India in the early 19th century, and was administered as part of Bundelkhand Agency in the Central India Agency. In 1871 the eastern states of Bundelkhand Agency, including Maihar, were separated to form the new Bagelkhand Agency in Central India. In 1933 Maihar, along with ten other states in western Bagelkhand, were transferred back to the Bundelkhand Agency.
The state suffered severely from famine in 1896–1897. Maihar became a station on the East Indian Railway (now the West Central Railway) line between Satna and Jabalpur, north of Jabalpur. Extensive ruins of shrines and other buildings surround the town. As of 1940 it had a population of 79,558 and an area of 412 square miles.
In 1948 Maihar was merged into India.


Chattagahaka Jantu of Anuradhapura

Chattagahaka Jantu (a.k.a. Chhattagahaka) was king of Anuradhapura in the 5th century, whose reign lasted from 434 to 435. He succeeded his wife Sangha's stepbrother Soththisena as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by Mittasena.


Lorenzo II of Larantuka

Dom Lorenzo II of Larantuka (c. 1859–1904), born Lorenzo Diaz Vieria Godinho, was the last Raja of the Kingdom of Larantuka and reigned for almost 17 years starting from 14 September 1887. He was educated by Jesuit priests, and like his ancestors Portuguese was his native language. Showing clear traits of independence, he attempted to extract taxes from territories belonging to the nearby Raja of Sikka led groups of men to intervene in local conflicts, and refused to conduct sacrifices in the manner his predecessors did for the non-Catholic natives. Eventually, colonial authorities responded by deposing and exiling him to Java, 1 July 1904, where he died six years later.


Gersenji Khongtaiji of the Jalayir

Gersenji (1513-1549) (Mongolian: Гэрсэнз жалайр хунтайж) (also known as Gersenji Jalair Khongtaiji) - alternately Geressandsa (Geressandsa Jelair Khuntaidshi) - was the 11th and youngest son of Dayan Khan and the second son with Jimsgene khatun. A descendant of the Jalayir tribe, Gersenji was named by his father as chief of the Khalkha Mongol tümen in northern Mongolia, which he ruled from the 1510s until his death in 1549.
Biography.
Before his death, Dayan Khan bestowed the six tümens of eastern Mongolia to his eleven sons. His youngest son Gersenji Jalair Khongtaiji received the Khalkha tümen of northern Mongolia, the largest and strongest of the six tümens and the heartland and birthplace of the Mongol empire, while his brothers received tümens in southern Mongolia. In the middle of the sixteenth century, each of Gersenji's seven sons received as his inheritance a specific part of Khalkha Mongolia. They went on to form the houses of Tüsheet Khan, Zasagt Khan and Setsen Khan.


Elections in North Korea

Elections in North Korea are held every four-to-five years for the Supreme People's Assembly (SPA), the country's national legislature, and every four years for Local People's Assemblies.
All seats are won by the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland. The founding and ruling Workers' Party of Korea dominates the Front and holds 87.5% of the seats, with 7.4% for the Korean Social Democratic Party, 3.2% for the Chondoist Chongu Party, and 1.9% for independent deputies. According to official reports, turnout is near 100%, and approval of the Democratic Front's candidates is unanimous or nearly so.
Procedure.
In reply to a question put forth by Michael Marshall, Li Chun Sik of North Korea stated at a meeting of the Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments (ASGP) of the Inter-Parliamentary Union:
Only one candidate appears on each ballot. Elections are ostensibly conducted by secret ballot, and a voter may cross off the candidate's name to vote against them, but must do so by crossing out the name without secrecy. Voting is mandatory and turnout is habitually near 100%.
Members of the Supreme People's Assembly are elected to five-year terms, and meet for SPA sessions up to ten days per year. The Supreme People's Assembly elects a standing committee known as the Presidium, which exercises legislative functions when the Assembly is not in session which in practice is all but a few days of the year. It also elects the Chairman of the National Defence Commission, the country's head of state and highest state office, and the Premier, the country's "de jure" head of government.
Local elections.
Local elections have been held since 1999. The people elect representatives to city, county, and provincial people's assemblies in local elections every four years. The number of representatives is determined by the population of each jurisdiction.
Mayors and governors are technically elected. Their role is to work with the unelected and more influential city and province party secretaries.
Criticism.
The elections have been variously described as show elections or a political census. Seats are uncompetitive as all candidates are chosen by the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland. Because of the near-100% turnout, elections double as unofficial censuses. The "inminban" neighborhood watch-style organization reportedly watches the elections to identify and investigate no-shows.
A voter may cross off the candidate's name to vote against him or her, but must do so in a separate booth without any secrecy–an act of defiance that many North Korean defectors have claimed is too risky to even attempt. In recent elections there have been separate boxes for "no" votes. Voting against the official candidate, or refusing to vote at all, is considered an act of treason, and those who do face the loss of their jobs and housing, along with extra surveillance.
Latest election.
The latest election was held on 10 March 2019.


Amarindra

Amarindra (; ; 15 March 1737 – 25 May 1826) was the Queen Consort of King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I), the founder of the Chakri dynasty. Her birth name was Nak (นาค). She was a daughter of a wealthy Mon from Bang Chang, in Samut Songkhram Province.
Biography.
Nak was born in 1737 to a local patron of Bang Chang named Thong and his wife San. She was then married to Thong Duang the "Luang Yokkrabat" of Ratchaburi (future Rama I) around 1760 to avoid being taken as a court lady to King Ekathat. She having three sons and seven daughters to Thong Duang. Her sister, Nuan, was married to Bunnag – the progenitor of Bunnag family.
Thong Duang was granted the title "Somdet Chao Phraya" by King Taksin in 1776. In 1779, the "Somdet Chao Phraya" went on his campaigns against Vientiane and took a daughter of King Suriyavong of Vientiane as his concubine – Kamwaen. Kam Waen became "Somdet Chao Phraya"'s favorite much to the dismay of Nak. One day, she beat Kam Waen with a wooden stick and Kam Waen ran for the "Somdet Chao Phraya". The "Somdet Chao Phraya" was enraged with the incident and threatened to murder Nak with a sword, only with the help of her son Chim (the future Rama II) was Nak able to flee to the Thonburi Palace to live with her daughter Chimyai (concubine to King Taksin).
After the incident, Nak and the king had never came into reconciliation. Lady Nak stayed in the Thonburi Palace with her daughter and after her death in 1779 took care of her children including Prince Kasatranuchit. The "Somdet Chao Phraya" became a monarch in 1782 and most of Taksin's sons were executed except for Prince Kasatranuchit who was his own grandson. Lady Nak and her grandsons moved to her former resident and had never received any royal titles. She occasionally went to the Grand Palace to visit her daughters. In 1809, King Rama I died and was succeeded by his son Rama II who raised his mother Nak to the rank of queen – "Krom Somdet" Phra Amarindramat () the Queen Mother and moved to the Grand Palace. However, Prince Kasatranuchit was found to be in a rebellion and was executed along with his siblings and sons. She lived to see her grandson crowned as Rama III and outlived all her children. Queen Amarindra died in 1826.
Queen Amarindra was later raised to "Somdet Phra Amarindra Boromma Rajini" () by King Vajiravudh.
Queen Amarindra had a total ten children with King Rama I; three sons and seven daughters


United Nations Office in East Timor

United Nations Office in Timor-Leste (UNOTIL) supported the capacity development of critical state institutions, including the East Timor National Police (PNTL) in order to strengthen democratic governance and to help further build to peace in East Timor. A UN Police Force of Technical Advisers continues to provide the country's police, Policia Nacional de Timor-Leste (PNTL), with specialized training for rapid response and intervention units. The Technical Advisers are also responsible for providing training in specialized areas such as counter- terrorism, forensics and transferring management skills to the national police in all districts of Timor-Leste.
Following up on UNMISET, the Security Council passed Resolution 1599 authorising peace-building activities by establishing the United Nations Office in Timor Leste (UNOTIL). UNOTIL commenced on 20 May 2005 and was mandated for one year until 19 May 2006. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1677 extended UNOTIL's mandate one month past expiration while forces from former INTERFET countries came to provide peacekeeping, the main force coming from Australia under Operation Astute. The mandate of UNOTIL was then again extended until 25 August 2006.


Prince Naga, Prince of Pyinzi

Minye Thihakyaw (, born Naga; 1771 – 1855), commonly known as the Prince of Pyinzi, was a royal prince during the Konbaung dynasty, especially renowned for his composition of classical songs (or "Mahāgīta").
Life.
Maung Naga was born to King Hsinbyushin and Thanlyin Mibaya in 1771. Because he received the appanage of "Pyinzi", along with the title of "Minye Thihakyaw" in 1784, Maung Naga was known in life as the "Prince of Pyinzi." He married Min Shwenga, a daughter of King Hsinbyushin and Ratanadevi. Maung Naga died in 1855.
Works.
Among the five Pyinzi princes of the Konbaung dynasty, those who showed the most interest in Mahāgīta were Maung Naga and Hteiktin Pu. Although they both composed Mahāgīta songs, no Mahagita books described clearly which songs were written by which Prince of Pyinzi.
Following the 1789 royal order of Crown Prince Shwedaung, many professionals translated Thai and Khmer legends into Burmese with the help of ambassadors from the Ayutthaya Kingdom and the Khmer Empire. The translated Burmese versions were entitled Yama Zatdaw, Indrāvudha, Kesāsīri, and Sinkhapatta.
Maung Naga composed lyrics for eight chapters of the Yama Zatdaw:
In 1841 King Tharrawaddy went to Yangon together with Maung Naga. There he composed Mon songs:
Maung Naga composed "Yintkyu Waemandar" and "Yuzana Malar" patpyoes.


Raghuvanshi

Raghuvanshi or Raghuwanshi or Raghukul is a legendary Indian Kshatriya dynasty in the Itihasa-Purana mythology, considered an offshoot of the Suryavansha or the Ikshvaku dynasty lineage of kings tracing its ancestry to the sun deity Surya. Any king who belongs to Raghuvansha, as a result also belongs to Suryavansh. The dynasty is named after Raghu, a legendary king who protected the sacrificial horse of Ashwamedha from Indra. Raghuvanshi kings include Mandhata, Harishchandra, Sagara, Bhagiratha, Dilīpa, Raghu, Aja, Dasaratha and Rama.
Kalidasa's work, "Raghuvamsha" narrates the epic of the Raghuvanshi in 19 sargas (cantos).
Notable people.
Several legendary kings came from the Solar dynasty and are referred to as "Raghuvanshi" after their ancestor, the king Raghu.


Jayabahu I of Polonnaruwa

Jayabâhu I was the brother of Vijayabâhu I. He ruled for just one year, from 1110 to 1111. He was defeated in war by Vikramabâhu I.


Ishanavarman II

Ishanavarman II () was an Angkorian king who is believed to have ruled from 923 to 928. His empire may have been confined to Angkor and the area around Battambang to the west.
Family.
Ishanavarman was a son of King Yasovarman and his wife, who was a sister of Jayavarman IV.
Grandparents of Ishanavarman were Indravarman I and his wife Indradevi.
Ishanavarman had an elder brother, Harshavarman I.
Biography.
Ishanavarman succeeded his dead brother in 923. The period of his reign may have been very tumultuous and chaotic.
In 921, his uncle, Jayavarman IV, had already set up a rival city about 100 km north-east of Angkor.
During Ishanavarman’s reign, a temple called Prasat Kravan was built.
Nothing else is known about Ishanavarman II. He died in 928 and received a posthumous name of Paramarudraloka.


Battle of Ani

The Battle of Ani was fought between the forces of the Kingdom of Armenia under Vahram Pahlavouni and the Byzantine Empire in 1042. The Byzantine Empire was soundly defeated, with up to 20,000 dead.
Background.
Vahram selected a body of 30,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry, forming three divisions, which fought against the Byzantines, numbering 100,000. A battle ensued in which the invaders were routed with great slaughter. The fight was so ferocious that the effusion of blood flowing into the Akhurian River is said to have coloured its waters completely red.
The Byzantines left 20,000 dead behind. This victory allowed Vahram Pahlavuni along with Catholicos Petros Getadarts to crown Gagik II king of Armenia and subsequently take the fortress of Ani, which had been in the hands of Vest Sarkis.


Cao Wei (curator)

Cao Wei () is a Chinese professor of archaeology. He is currently serving as the chief curator of the Terracotta Army museum in Xi'an, China. In 2010, he and his archaeological team received the Prince of Asturias Awards in social sciences.
Career.
In 2012, he welcomed Myanmar's president Thein Sein to the Terracotta Army museum. In 2013, he accompanied South Korea's president Park Geun-hye and her delegation to visit the Terracotta Army.
In 2014, he led US First Lady Michelle Obama through the archeological site.
Awards.
In 2010, Cao Wei and his team received the Prince of Asturias Awards in Social Sciences for their archaeological discoveries.


Hugh Hickling

Reginald Hugh Hickling (2 August 1920 – 11 February 2007), known as Hugh Hickling, was a British lawyer, civil servant, law academic, and author, and author of the controversial Internal Security Act of colonial Malaysia.
Born in Derby, England, Hickling served from 1941 until 1946 in the British Royal Navy during World War II, and then joined the Colonial Legal Service. In 1955, Hickling was posted to Malaya (now Malaysia), where he gained prominence as a lawmaker. He drafted the Constitution of Malaysia, and as Commissioner of Law Revision wrote the Internal Security Act (ISA) of 1960, which provided for the detention of persons without trial. The ISA was later used to suppress political opponents or those dedicated to non-violent activities, which Hickling later said was not his intention.
In 1972, Hickling retired from the civil service, and subsequently lectured in law in Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the United Kingdom. Hickling later wrote many books and law journal articles, and also wrote novels and short stories throughout his career. Hickling died in 2007 in Malvern, Worcestershire.
Early life 1920–1950.
Hickling was the son of Frederick Hickling, a police inspector, and his wife Elsie, of Malvern, Worcestershire. Hickling was born on 2 August 1920 in Derby, and educated at Buxton College. He applied to study at the University of Oxford, but was unsuccessful at his interview, because he shocked his examiner by rating the poetry of A. E. Housman over that of William Wordsworth. He studied instead at the University of Nottingham, where he became the youngest student to graduate with a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.). After graduation, Hickling joined a law firm as an articled clerk, and then enrolled for one year of approved academic study at the East Midlands School of Law.
Between 1941 and 1946 Hickling served as an ordinary seaman in World War II with the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve on board "HMS La Malouine", a 29-metre French corvette taken over by the British. The ship was part of Convoy PQ 17, carrying matériel from Britain and the US to the USSR. PQ 17 sailed in June–July 1942 and suffered the heaviest losses of any Russia-bound convoy, with 25 vessels out of 36 lost to enemy action. On D-Day, he was a sub-lieutenant commanding an Mk IV Landing Craft Tank 1013 with LCT 1018 of the 43rd LCT flotilla, which carried several hundred tons of ammunition to Sword Beach, Normandy.
Hickling married Beryl (Bee) Dennett in 1945, and the following year he resumed his legal career as deputy solicitor with the "Evening Standard" in London. After the death of their firstborn son, they emigrated despite his wife's uncertainty about moving as far from England as possible.
Crown colony 1950–1972.
Hickling joined the Colonial Legal Service, and in 1950 was posted to Sarawak, then a British colony, as assistant attorney general and, as he put it, "cheerfully assisted in the dissolution of Empire". In 1954, he spent two months in the sultanate of Brunei to research its constitutional status and to brief colonial officials on its history and traditions before the introduction of a written constitution, and submitted his memorandum on the matter in 1955.
Immediately thereafter, Hickling was transferred to Malaya as its first parliamentary draftsman, and in that capacity he helped to prepare the Malayan (now Malaysian) constitution for that country's independence from Britain in 1957. Subsequently, as Commissioner of Law Revision he drafted the Internal Security Act of 1960, based on the Emergency Ordinance 1948 which had been enacted to provide the British colonial authorities with powers to tackle a communist insurgency. For his contributions to Malaya, Hickling was made a Companion of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (known in Malay as the "Johan Mangku Negara" or JMN) by the Malaysian head of state, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, in 1961.
The Internal Security Act allows persons to be detained without trial for acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Malaysia or to the maintenance of its essential services or economic life. It is authorized by Article 149 of the Malaysian Constitution, which stipulates that if an Act recites that action has been taken or threatened by any substantial body of persons, whether inside or outside the Federation in respect of certain situations – including organized violence against persons or property, the excitement of disaffection against the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or the government, or the promotion of feelings of ill-will and hostility between different races or classes of the population likely to cause violence – then any provision of that law designed to stop or prevent that action is valid notwithstanding that it is inconsistent with certain articles of the Constitution guaranteeing fundamental liberties. Upon Singapore's independence from Malaysia in 1965, the island republic retained both the Internal Security Act and Article 149 of the Constitution in its statute book.
According to the "New Straits Times", Hickling later wrote in 1989, "I could not imagine then that the time would come when the power of detention, carefully and deliberately interlocked with Article 149 of the Constitution, would be used against political opponents, welfare workers and others dedicated to nonviolent, peaceful activities." However, he commented that it was not for him to say if the Internal Security Act should be scrapped. "As a lawyer, I'm all for its review but on whether it should be scrapped, I don't know. You've got a multi-racial society [in Malaysia] in which emotions can run high very quickly." Interviewed on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's radio programme "PM" in April 2001, Hickling agreed with the interviewer, Geoff Thompson, that he supported the law's continued existence and said he was "sorry to say that, in the light of my own experience, I'm inclined to think you couldn't really safely get rid of it at the moment". Worldwide terrorist attacks such as 9/11 confirmed his views on the matter.
Hickling later served with the Commonwealth Office in 1964, and as legal adviser to the High Commissioner in Aden and the Federation of South Arabia between 1964 and 1967. He was also Maritime Law Adviser in Thailand (1968–1969), Malaysia (1969), Sri Lanka (1970) and the Yemen Arab Republic (1984 and 1986). His last colonial post was that of Attorney General of Gibraltar between 1970 and 1972.
Academia and later life 1972–2007.
After retiring from the civil service, Hickling became a law academic. He was a lecturer at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London (which awarded him a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Law) from 1976 to 1978 and from 1981 to 1982 where he taught Southeast Asian law, and a visiting lecturer at the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law from 1974 to 1976 and again from 1978 to 1980. He was also adjunct Professor of Southeast Asian Law at the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (National University of Malaysia) in Bangi, Selangor, for six years.
He authored books and law journal articles, particularly about public law in Malaysia and Singapore; some of the latter were collected into two works, "Essays in Malaysian Law" (1991) and "Essays in Singapore Law" (1992). In 1995, in recognition of his reputation and standing in the legal profession, he was appointed adjunct professor of law at the Centre of South East Asian Law at Charles Darwin University in Darwin in the Northern Territory, Australia. Until 2006, Hickling continued travelling to the Far East and Australia, delivering lectures, reviewing examination papers and visiting friends, colleagues and students. Despite his many accolades, he lived simply and impressed staff and students with his disarming humility. In addition to his legal writings, Hickling wrote novels and short stories, mostly drawing on his experiences of life in different British colonies. Hickling was appointed a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMG) in 1968 and a Queen's Counsel (Gibraltar) in 1970.
Upon his retirement, Hickling chose to settle in Malvern, Worcestershire, because of family connections to the town, and indulged his lifelong passion for the music of Mozart. He died after a short illness on 11 February 2007 in St. Richard's Hospice, Malvern, survived by his wife, two sons and a daughter, and 12 grandchildren.


Samasthans of Hyderabad

Samasthanams (Samasthans) were vast tributary estates in the old Hyderabad State, a princely state in pre-Independence India.[1] The creation of these Samasthans go back several hundred years, and many existed until the time of India's Independence. Below is a list of samasthans that existed in the old Hyderabad State.
Estates.
[2][3][4][5]
Amarchinta (Mahbubnagar)
Anegundi (Raichur)
Banswada (Nizamabad)
Chilamwar (Nizamabad)
Chincholi (Gulbarga)
Domakonda (Nizamabad)
Dubbaka (Medak)
Gadwal (Mahbubnagar)
Gopalpet (Mahbubnagar)
Gurgunta (Raichur)
Jatprole/Kollapur (Mahbubnagar)
Jawalgiri (Raichur)
Munagala (Nalgonda)
Narayanpet (Mahbubnagar)
Narkhoda (Shamshabad)
Narsapur (Adilabad)
Nirmal (Adilabad)
Palwancha (Khammam)
Papannapet (Medak)
Rajapet (Nalgonda)
Shorapur (Gulbarga)
Sirnapalli (Nizamabad)
Wanaparthi (Mahbubnagar)
Rents.
There were only two Peshkash(fixed tribute) holders during the Nizam's rule: Gadwal and Gurgunta, each paying 81,795 and 5,291 in rent respectively.The chief Makta or Sarbasta(quit-rent) holders were Wanaparthi, Jatprole, Gopalpet, Narkhoda, Amarchinta, Banswada, Domakonda, Chilamwar and Chincholi.[2][2]
References.
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
 Ali, Cheragh (1885). Hyderabad (Deccan) Under Sir Salar Jung. Bombay: Education Society's Press.
 "Provincial Series, Hyderabad State". Imperial Gazetteer. 1991.
 Journals Kept in Hyderabad, Kashmir, Sikkim and Nepal. 1887.
 Standard Catalog of World Coins 1801-1900. 2012.


Partai Tionghoa Indonesia

The Partai Tionghoa Indonesia (; ) was a left-wing political party in the Dutch East Indies during the Great Depression. Influenced by the growing Indonesian nationalist movement, it proposed a third way beyond the pro-China and pro-Dutch parties which had existed among the Indonesian Chinese until then. The PTI advocated for Indonesian citizenship for Chinese Indonesians and closer political ties to Indigenous Indonesians (pribumi or bumiputera).
The party was created in September 1932 as a result of the dispute over whether Chinese Indonesians should aspire to Dutch citizenship or whether they should remain citizens of the Republic of China. This debate had been going on since the birth of the Chinese republic in 1911. As well, the drive to found the PTI came from the lower classes of Indies Chinese who felt excluded from politics. By the 1930s Peranakan Chinese politics in the Dutch East Indies were dominated by the Chung Hwa Hui, a rightwing political party seen as a mouthpiece of the pro-Dutch and conservative colonial Chinese establishment. The party's leaders, H. H. Kan and Loa Sek Hie, advocated cooperation with, and participation in, the Dutch colonial state. The Sin Po faction, which advocated allegiance to mainland China, wanted to stay out of Indies politics altogether. However, a small faction in the late 1920s and early 1930s led by Liem Koen Hian, editor of the papers Sin Tit Po and Soeara Publiek, influenced by the Indische Partij, advocated for "Indisch Burderschap" (Dutch: Indies citizenship) for the Indies Chinese. By 1932 he was calling it "Indonesiërschap" (Dutch: Indonesian citizenship).
So, in 1932 Liem along with Kwee Thiam Tjing, Ong Liang Kok and other Surabaya Peranakan Chinese founded the PTI with the support of some moderate Indonesian nationalists such as Soetomo and Suroso. Their platform aspired to reform the Dutch East Indies to the point where there was racial equality between the Dutch, Pribumi and Indonesian Chinese. However, like the Chung Hwa Hui they excluded Totok Chinese (foreign-born Chinese) from voting rights in the party.
In 1934, the Leiden-educated lawyer Ko Kwat Tiong, hitherto chairman of the PTI's Semarang branch, was voted to succeed Liem as president of the entire party. The PTI elected Ko, its only member to the Volksraad in the 1935 election. Ko opened up the PTI to Totok Chinese members, and as the party's representative in the Volksraad, was one of the six initiators and signatories of the Soetardjo Petition of 1936, which requested Indonesian independence as part of a Dutch commonwealth.
Liem Koen Hian had a falling out with his Indonesian nationalist ally Dr. Sutomo in 1936 after the later visited Japan and praised its government. As a Chinese nationalist, Liem accused Sutomo of spreading Japanese propaganda. A personality clash between Liem and Ko Kwat Tiong also arose, causing Liem to leave the PTI in 1939 for the Gerindo party. With the Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies in 1942, the party essentially ended and was not recreated after Indonesian independence in 1949.


Sitakot Vihara

Sitakot Vihara ( "Sitakot Vihara")is an archaeological site located in Nawabganj upazila in Dinajpur district of Bangladesh. The site is locally known as the residence of Sita. Through regular excavations in the years 1968 and 1972–1973, an ancient Buddhist monastery was discovered in the site. The monastery dates from a similar time period to the nearby Somapura Mahavihara and Halud Vihara.
Architecture.
The monastery was built on a square area of 65 meters.
On the northern and southern sides there was large open space inside the boundary. The outer gateway was in the northern side and there were two guard rooms inside the boundary. The inner gateway entered to an entrance hall. The hall is attached with monastic cells. There were 41 cells in this monastery: 8 in the northern wing and 11 cells each in the three other wings. The cells were almost equal in size (3.66 m by 3.35 m). The thickness of the front walls of the cells were 1.07 m, back walls 2.59 m and partition walls 0.91-1.22 m. Each cell has a doorway in front side and niches on three side walls.
A 2.59 meter wide verandah ran through the perimeter of the monastery and the cells were connected to it through a doorway of 1.68 meter length and 1.07 meter width.
There is a courtyard in the middle of the monastery that measure 42.38 meter *41.16 meter. Three rooms located in the middles of east, west and south wings were used as prayer rooms.
Artifacts found.
Two bronze images were found on the site. One is of Bodhisattva Padmapani and the other of Bodhisattva Manjushri. Ink pots, terra cotta toys, ornamental bricks, and a lot of pot shards were also unearthed during the excavation.
Protection.
The site is under protection of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Bangladesh. The site is not well maintained and restoration work is needed.


Ne Myo Nawrahta

Ne Myo Nawrahta (, ) was a Konbaung era general who later became the first mayor of Yangon. The general was one of the first Sixty Eight Commanders that Alaungpaya selected to fight in his resistance movement against the southern occupation forces of the Hanthawaddy in 1752. The future general was born Shwe Yi () in a small village of Khin Latt () in the Mu valley in present-day Sagaing Region.
He was appointed mayor of Yangon by Alaungpaya on 24 May 1757 (2nd waning of Waso 1119 ME). The king had just enlarged the former village of Dagon which he captured two years earlier to make it the main port city of his kingdom.


Role of political parties during Bengali Language Movement

There were not many political parties at the time of Bengali Language Movement. There was Muslim League, who were at the treasury bench. The movement was mainly supported by Awami League, National Congress and East Pakistan Communist Party.
National Congress.
National Congress was the only team at the opposition side of the house during the movement. In both Legislative Assembly and in Constituent Assembly they exposed of the logical position of the language demand. In doing so some of the members were called Indian agents and were harassed by the government. Some leaders were also arrested and one of them was killed inside the jail.
Awami League.
The newly born Awami League were active in the movement. Their co-chairman Ataur Rahman Khan became the chairman of the Kendrio Rashtrabhasha Kormoporishod chairman to help the movement. Their leaders were also suffered in custody.
Communist Party.
At the pick of Language Movement government blamed it as a sabotage of the communists. According to them, the local communists were intrigued by the Indian communists.
During the whole movement, activities of the communists were questioned in numerous ways. Tamaddun Majlish once asked the communists to put their hands on the movement. They also blamed the communist party saying they are spoiling the movement and also complained they were weak to make any contribution in the movement.
On 1948, renowned Indian communist leader Mozaffar Ahmed come to Dhaka (then known as Dacca) and attended in the meeting the Party. There he was asked to support the movement by Tamaddun Majlish and was refused. Mozaffar explained his position by saying he refused to avoid the movement being labeled by the government as an India-supported movement.
In 1952, Communist Party had to stay underground as they were banned by the government. During that time they also lost their organizing power. Their leaders were arrested, often tortured and even killed inside the jail at that time. However the movement of the 1940s followed the mental of the communists. The idea about of giving Bengali equal status with Urdu also first came from the communists. The main student leader of 1948 Mohammad Toaha and in 1952 Abdul Matin were members of the communist Party.


Devigarh

Devi Garh Palace is a heritage hotel and resort, housed in the 18th-century Devi Garh palace in the village of Delwara. It was the royal residence of the rulers of Delwara principality, from mid-18th century till mid-20th century. Situated amidst in the Aravalli hills, 28 km northeast of Udaipur, Rajasthan, Devigarh forms one of the three main passes into the valley of Udaipur.
In 2006, "The New York Times" named it as is one of India's leading luxury hotels, and Frommer's Review, while calling it "the best hotel on the subcontinent", stated that "Devi Garh is more than beautiful, it is inspiring." In 2008, it was featured in Lifestyle Channel Discovery Travel and Living series, 'Dream Hotels' spread over five continents, other two Indian hotels that made it to the list of 55, were Taj Lake Palace, Udaipur, and Rambagh Palace, Jaipur
History.
Delwara, nestled in the Aravali hills, is about 28 km away from Udaipur and close to Eklingji Temple on way to temple town of Nathdwara. Delwara was originally known as "‘Devkul Patan Nagri’" which means the town of god, boasted of over 1500 temples at one time, out of which there were about 400 Jain temples. The ancient Jain temples of Delwara, now in total ruins, were built during the reign of Emperor Samprati (224-215 BC). He was the grandson of Emperor Ashok and son of Ashoka’s blind son Kunal. Samprati became the Emperor of the entire western and southern part of India (Maurya Empire) and ruled from Ujjain. It is said that Samprati, also known as ‘Jain Ashoka’, built thousands of Jain temples in India. It may be noted that all the ancient Jain monuments of Rajasthan and Gujarat, including the Jain temples at Delwara (Mewar), are also attributed to Emperor Samprati.
During 12th century, Rao Samant Singh of Jalore had four sons – Rao Kanhadeo, Maldeo, Raningdeo, and Sagar. Rao Kanhadeo and his son Kunwar Viramdeo were killed in a battle against Allauddin Khilji in 1311, while Rao Maldeo and Rao Raningdeo ruled smaller Jagirs in Jalore. It is believed that "Rao Sagar" was given the Jagir of Delwara, as the adjoining areas of Girva (Udaipur) were ruled by Deora Chauhans until 14-15th century.
Around the middle of the 13th century, "Raja Sagar," a Deora Chauhan and a descendant of Rao Kirtipal of Jalore was a very brave king of "Delwara". He was the progenitor of Bothra Bachhawat Mehtas. Raja Sagar was blessed with three sons - "Bohitya", Gangadas and Jaisingh. Whenever there was the invasion from Muslims, Rana Jaitra Singh (1213–53) and later his son Rana Tej Singh (1262–73) called "Raja Sagar" for help in the battle. Raja Sagar always came along with army and fought valiantly against the invading Muslims.
Later, the Kingdom of Mewar was divided into 16 first grade thikanas or districts. Delwara was one of the 16 Rajwadas, along with Badi Sadri and Gogunda. Delwara was ruled by Jhala Rajputs from 15th Century onwards. The ancestor of the family was Raja Raj Singh of Halvad (Dhrangadhara), son of Harpal Singh Makwana. Jhalas performed meritorious service in Mewar along with Maharana Kumbha (1433–68). During the reign of Maharana Udai Singh I (1468–73) sons of Raja Raj Singh, Ajja and Sajja, came to Mewar. The Maharana granted the Jagir of Delwara to Kunwar Sajja and that of Bari Sadri to Kunwar Ajja Singh. Ajja fought alongside Maharana Sangram Singh I (1509-1527) and against Babur in 1527 at the Battle of Khanwa. When Maharana Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) was wounded on the battlefield, Ajja donned the Maharana's tunic, which kept the Mewar army together but proved fatal for Raj Rana Ajja, who died in the battle. As many as 7 generations of the Jhala family had been sacrificing their lives for Maharanas of Mewar. Later, the second wife of Maharana Udai Singh II (1537–72) was a daughter of Raj Rana Jait Singh of Delwara.
The principality of Delwara was given out to Raja Sajja Singh, one of the lieutenant of Maharana Pratap, after the 'Battle of Haldighati' in 1576. First a rudimentary palace was built by Raghudev Singh II, which was later revamped a few years later in the 1760s for a royal visit of the Maharani of Udaipur. The seven-storeyed hilltop fort palace in Rajasthani architecture was built in the 1760s.
Restoration.
Two centuries later, it was in ruins and empty for 20 years, when it was acquired by Poddars, an industrial family from Shekhawati region living in Bangalore in 1984. The restoration took over 15 years and a team of 750 people, led by architect [GAUTAM BHATIA] and architect Navin Gupta. The interior spaces were redesigned in minimalistic style by Mumbai-based interior designer Rajiv Saini, to turn this palace into an all-suite luxury hotel, complete with a spa and Ayurvedic retreat, today it is considered one of India's best-designed hotels.
Visitors and events.
In 2004, it came into limelight with British model-actress Liz Hurley and her NRI boyfriend Arun Nayar's visit to the Devigarh Palace to celebrate the latter's birthday. Since then it has also been visited by Amitabh Bachchan, Saif Ali Khan and Fardeen Khan, and the Ambani brothers.
The 2007 Hindi film, "" was set and extensively shot at Devigarh.
Transport.
Located 28 km northeast of Udaipur, on the road between Udaipur and the religious township of Nathdwara, Devi Garh is a 45-minute drive from the city.


Sonepur State

Sonepur also known as Sonpur State, was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. Its ruler was entitled to a nine gun salute. Formerly it was placed under the Central India Agency, but in 1905 it was transferred to the Eastern States Agency. Its capital was Sonepur, the only significant town in the area. The former state's territory is in the present-day Subarnapur district, Odisha.
History.
The Sonepur state was founded in 1650 when the fourth Chauhan ruler of Sambalpur Madhukar Dev, conquered the region from the Bhanja rulers of Boudh and entrusted it to his younger son Madan Gopal who hence became the founder of the Chauhan dynasty branch of Sonepur.
The state came under the control of the British Empire post the Maratha defeat and later the king Niladhar Singh Deo was awarded with titles for services rendered to the British during the Sambalpur uprising.
After Indian independence, Sonepur's last ruler acceded to the newly independent Dominion of India, on 1 January 1948 with the state forming much of the present day Subarnapur district.
Rulers.
The rulers of Sonepur state of the Chauhan Dynasty:


Valla Dio of the Maldives

Al-Sultan Valla Dio Kalaminjaa Siri Raa-Araa Desvaru Mahaa Radun (Dhivehi: އައްސުލްޠާން ވައްލާ ދިއޯ ކަލަމިންޖާ ސިރީ ރާއަރާދޭސްވަރު މަހާރަދުން) was a Sultan of the Maldives. He was younger brother to Sultan Wadi, Dhinei and Dhihei. He ruled the country from 1233 to 1258.


Saw Nyein Oo

Saw Nyein Oo (, ) was the mother of King Alaungpaya, the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). She was awarded the royal title "Maha Dewi" after her second son became king.


Subbhabhumi

Subbhabhumi was a part of Rarh in ancient times. It is located in what is now Birbhum district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The more fertile eastern part of the district, consisting of alluvial plains, was known as Subbhabhumi.
There is mention of the Rarh region in the Jain text "Acaranga Sutra". The last (24th) great Tirthankara Mahavira had wandered through this land, referred to as the "pathless country of Ladha". The people of this region are referred to as ill-mannered and dogs were set upon Mahavira. Some historians have opined that the people of Aryavarta, were not knowledgeable about the areas beyond their territories and often looked down upon the people of those parts. In the religious text "Baudhayana Dharmasutra", it is mentioned that those who visited Vanga had to perform penance.
In Raghuvaṃśa of Kalidasa there is mention of the Subbhas.


Odzrkhe

Odzrkhe or Odzrakhe ( or ) was a historic fortified town and the surrounding area in what is now Abastumani, Adigeni Municipality in Samtskhe-Javakheti region, southern Georgia.
History.
According to medieval Georgian historic tradition, it was founded by the mythic hero Odzrakhos of the Kartlosid line. The ruins of old fortifications are still visible around the site. Odzrkhe or Odzrakhe considered to be the old name
of Samtskhe or Meskheti.


The Church of the Vernicle Image of the Saviour, Krasnogorskoye

The Church of the Vernicle Image of the Saviour is an Orthodox church in Krasnogorskoye village, Sverdlovsk oblast. 'Vernicle' refers to Saint Veronica.
The building was granted the status of regional significance on the 31st of December 1987 (decision No. 535 by the executive committee of Sverdlovsk oblast Council of People's Deputies). The object number of cultural heritage of regional significance is 661410163420005.
History.
The construction of the building began on the 31st of May 1802 on the right bank of the river Tura in the northern part of the village. The right side-chapel was consecrated in the name of The Great Martyr Saint Catherine on the 8th of February 1804. The main church was consecrated in honor of the Vernicle Image of the Saviour on the 4th of July 1810. The attached left side-chapel was consecrated in the name of Saint Nicholas on the 28th of October 1875. In 1903 the Spassky stone chapel was built on the 100th anniversary of the church.
Since 1932 the church building has been closed. Afterwards, it functioned variously as a warehouse, shop, and gymnasium. In 1992 the church was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church. Since 1991 the church has been in the process of restoration.
The Church was built from 1802 to 1810 with architectural elements of classicism and "Siberian Baroque".
Architecture.
The church has a cube form with a five-edged apse. On both sides of the church building two chapels are attached with their own altars. At the base of the bell tower were two porches. The temple is crowned with a flat two-tiered dome bearing a small eights with a head. A similar octal is completed and the apse. The facade decoration was changed at the recent restoration. Now it comes down to flat window frames, complemented by the inexpressive outlines of arched dripstones. The chapels have ledged window surrounds.
The chapel has Russian-Byzantine art features. The various decor of the walls includes columns, rectangular flat niches, and dentals.


Kota State

Kota State, also known as Kotah State, was a state in India, centered on the city of Kota, now located in Rajasthan State of the India.
History.
The average revenue of Kota state in 1901 was Rs.31,00,000.
Rulers.
The rulers of Kota were from the Hada sept of the Chauhan Rajput clan and bore the title of Maharao.
Titular Maharaos.
On 18 April 1948, the Maharao merged his state with the union of India and the state thus ceased to have independent existence. The Maharao lost his ruling powers but continued to hold certain titles and privileges until 1971, when everything was withdrawn. Nevertheless, the Maharao remains the head of the erstwhile royal family and an important cultural figure in Kota. The non-ruling Maharaos are listed below:


Hamengkubuwono VII

Hamengkubuwono VII (also spelled Hamengkubuwana VII, 4 February 1839 – 30 December 1921) was the seventh sultan of Yogyakarta, reigning from 22 December 1877 to 29 January 1921.
His residence after abdication of the crown in the early of 19th Century is now known as the Museum Ambarrukmo, part of the Royal Ambarrukmo Yogyakarta hotel complex.


Platon Zhukovich

Platon Zhukovich (; 1857–1919) was an Imperial Russian historian and theologian.
Biography.
Born to a family of Russian Orthodox church official (protoiereus), in 1881 he graduated from the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy. He worked as a teacher at the Polotsk Theological School before moving to Vilna where he taught history of the Orthodox church at the local theological school.
In 1891 he returned to his "alma mater" as head of the historical faculty and in 1901 became an ordinary professor. In 1914 he joined the Imperial Russian Historical Society. During the Russian revolution he was an active member of the 1917–18 Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church. He died in 1919.


Shanyue

The Shanyue (山越) were an ancient conglomeration of upland Yue hill tribes living in what is today the mountainous regions of Southern China and Northern Vietnam during the Han dynasty. Since the Southern part of China was not yet controlled by the Han Empire (the Han court only claimed ownership of the lands, but lacked the power to control them in reality), the Shanyue people would perform regular rebellions against Han citizens to gather living essentials. The tribe became powerful during the Eastern Han and the period of the end of the Eastern Han, the Shanyue were absorbed into Han Empire after the Sun family established a strong local government on Jiangdong.
The Kingdom of Wu, founded by Sun Quan, launched numerous campaigns against the Shanyue, but to no avail because the tribesmen of Shanyue had lived in the hills for generations and knew the area well, and would go into hiding once they lost a battle. However, one of the Wu generals, Ling Tong, attempted a different approach to deal with the Shanyue tribe, he proposed that Sun Quan should attempt to win the hearts of the Shanyue peoples and assimilate them instead ofpurely using military force to hamper them. Ling reasoned that if they could impress the Shanyue with Wu's dignity and potential rewards, the tribesmen would submit to their government without bloodshed. After he was granted the authority to request material from counties when required, Ling Tong led a unit with decorative weapons and armors to go deep into the hills. When the Shanyue discovered Wu troops, they were impressed by Ling Tong’s unit; then Ling Tong came out and told them if they would join the Wu forces, handsome rewards would be offered. Tens of thousands of the Shanyue came out from their caves and joined Ling. Ling selected 10,000 strong men to form a unit, and returned. Because of Ling Tong’s success, Zhuge Ke, another Wu general, would adopt his strategy. In AD 234, Ke proposed to Sun Quan that the Shanyue of Danyang could be subdued, and he just needed full powers to implement his plan. Zhuge's requests were granted, and upon Zhuge's arrival, he requested the four neighboring commanderies to seal their borders and not combat the Shanyue; then, when the rice became ready for harvest, he had the rice harvested quickly and then gathered up, away from the pillaging Shanyue. The Shanyue were thus starved into submission (the Shanyue gathered food by plundering the Han people instead of planting themselves), and as soon as they submitted, Zhuge Ke treated them with kindness. The operation was run for 3 to 4 years, and virtually all Shanyue within Dangyang surrendered to Wu.


Sarawak dollar

The dollar was the currency of Sarawak from 1858 to 1953. It was subdivided into 100 "cents". The dollar remained at par with the Straits dollar and its successor the Malayan dollar, the currency of Malaya and Singapore, from its introduction until both currencies were replaced by the Malaya and British Borneo dollar in 1953.
During the Japanese occupation period (1942–1945), paper money was issued in denominations ranging from 1 cent to 1,000 dollars. This currency was fixed at 1 dollar = 1 Japanese yen, compared to a 1:2 pre-war rate. Following the war, the Japanese occupation currency was declared worthless and the previous issues of the Sarawakian dollar regained their value relative to sterling (two shillings four pence).
Coins.
All Sarawak coins carry the portrait and the name of one of the three "White Rajahs" of Sarawak, James Brooke until 1868, Charles Brooke from 1868 to 1917, and Charles Vyner Brooke from 1917 to the end of this currency in 1938. Throughout the history of the Sarawak dollar, coins were minted in values of cent, cent, 1 cent, 5 cents, 10 cents, 20 cents, and 50 cents. The copper was the smallest denomination and the first to be discontinued, last being issued in 1896. The was also always copper and after reductions in size was eventually discontinued in 1933. Starting in 1892 1 cent coins had a hole in the centre, but the holed design was discontinued after 1897.
In 1920 the 1 cent coin was struck in copper-nickel but later reverted to bronze in 1927. The 5 and 10 cent coins were 80% silver until 1920, when they were briefly reduced to 40% silver and then replaced by copper-nickel the same year. The 20 and 50 cent coins remained silver but in 1920 were reduced from 80% to 40%.
Banknotes.
The first series was issued by the Sarawak Government Treasury. They were hand-stamped notes of low quality. All later notes were issued by the Government of Sarawak except for the 10-cent and 25-cent notes in 1919 (by the Treasury again). Throughout its history, banknotes came in the values of 5 cents, 10 cents, 20 cents, 25 cents, 50 cents, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.