Protestant Irish nationalists

Protestant Irish nationalists are adherents of Protestantism in Ireland who also support Irish nationalism. Protestants have played a large role in the development of Irish nationalism since the eighteenth century, despite most Irish nationalists historically being from the Irish Catholic majority, as well as most Irish Protestants usually tending toward unionism in Ireland. Protestant nationalists (or "patriots", particularly before the mid-19th century) have consistently been influential supporters and leaders of various movements for the political independence of Ireland from Great Britain. Historically, these movements ranged from supporting the legislative independence of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, to a form of home rule within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to complete independence in an Irish Republic and (since the partition of Ireland) a United Ireland.
Despite their relatively small numbers, individual Protestants have made important contributions to key events in Irish nationalist history, such as Wolfe Tone during the 1798 rebellion, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Home Rule movement, and Erskine Childers and the 1916 Easter Rising.
Today the relationship between Protestants and Irish nationalism differs sharply between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. In the latter, the only explicitly unionist political movement of any significance is The Reform Group, a pressure group which advocates that the Republic of Ireland should rejoin the Commonwealth, but does not contest any elections.
In Northern Ireland, however, the vast majority of Ulster Protestants are unionist and vote for unionist parties. In 2008, only 4% of Protestants in Northern Ireland thought the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be unification with the Republic of Ireland, whereas 89% said it should be to remain in the United Kingdom.
All the various denominations of Protestantism in Ireland have had members involved in nationalism. The Anglican Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church of Ireland are the largest Protestant churches, and this remains the situation across the island of Ireland. The largest Protestant denomination is the Church of Ireland (having roughly 365,000 members, making up around 3% of the population of the Republic of Ireland, 15% of Northern Ireland, and 6.3% of the whole of Ireland), followed by the Presbyterian Church, with a membership of around 300,000, accounting for 0.6% of people in the Republic and 20% in Northern Ireland (6.1% of Ireland's population).
Pre-Union background.
In the eighteenth century the first attempt towards a form of greater Irish home rule under the British Crown was led by the Irish Patriot Party in the 1770s and 1780s, inspired by Henry Grattan.
The Age of Revolution inspired Protestants such as Wolfe Tone, Thomas Russell, Henry Joy McCracken, William Orr, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the brothers Sheares, Archibald Hamilton Rowan, Valentine Lawless, and others who led the United Irishmen movement. At its first meeting on 14 October 1791, almost all attendees were Presbyterians, apart from Tone and Russell who were both Anglicans. Presbyterians, led by McCracken, James Napper Tandy, and Neilson would later go on to lead Ulster Protestant and Catholic Irish rebels in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Tone did manage to unite if only for a short time, at least, some Anglicans, Catholics and Dissenters into the "common name of Irishmen", and would later go on to try to get French support for a rising, first manifested in the failed French Bantry Bay landing of 1796.
At that time, the French republicans were opposed to all churches. Such people were inspired by Thomas Paine of the American Revolution, who disapproved of organised religions in "The Age of Reason" (1794–1795) and preferred a deist belief. Although the United Irish movement was supported by individual priests, the Roman Catholic hierarchy was opposed to it, because of a growing rapprochement between Rome and London (one example of which was the funding of the new seminary in Maynooth by the British government in 1795).
During the 1798 rebellion the military leaders were also largely Anglicans. After the initial battles in County Kildare the rebels holding out in the Bog of Allen were led by William Aylmer. In Antrim and Down the rebels were almost all Presbyterians, and at the Battle of Ballynahinch the local Catholic Defenders decided not to take part. In County Wexford, which remained out of British control for a month, the main planners were Bagenal Harvey and Anthony Perry. Joseph Holt led the rebels in County Wicklow, and Sir Edward Crosbie was hanged for leading a rebel force in County Carlow. Only in County Mayo, where there were few Protestants, was the rebellion led entirely by Catholics, and it only developed there because of the landing by a French force under General Humbert, who was assisted by Captain Bartholomew Teeling. The disarming of Ulster saw several hundred Protestants tortured, executed and imprisoned for their United Irish sympathies. The rebellion became the main reason for the Acts of Union, which passed in 1800.
From Emmet to the Fenians.
In 1803 Robert Emmet, brother of Thomas Addis Emmet, attempted an insurrection in Dublin. Jemmy Hope tried to raise the districts of the north where the Presbyterian spirit of republican resistance had run strongest in the 1790s, but found no response.
The democratic and non-violent Repeal Association led by Daniel O'Connell in the 1830s and 1840s was supported by a number of Protestants; the most eminent being John Gray, who later supported Butt and Parnell (see below), and others such as James Haughton. Several younger Protestant Repealers, grouped around Charles Gavan Duffy's paper, the Nation, were disaffected: wary of O'Connell's ready identification of Catholicism with the nation, and of the broader clericalism of the national movement. Referred to contemptuously by O'Connell as "Young Irelanders"--a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy which in 1849 had briefly imposed a republic on the Pope in Rome--they included Thomas Davis, John Mitchel and leader of the abortive 1848 rebellion William Smith O'Brien.
In 1845 Davis famously clashed with O'Connell over "the Liberator's" denunciation of the "Queens Colleges", a "mixed" or non-denominational scheme for advanced education in Ireland. When Davis pleaded that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life", O'Connell accused him of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic". "I am", he declared, "for Old Ireland, and I have some slight notion that Old Ireland will stand by me".
In the election of 1852 John Gray, then editor of the Freeman's Journal, at the urging of the Reverend David Bell stood on the platform of Tenant Right League in Monaghan. Bell found his appeals for unity in support of Gray could not prevail against calls of the Union in danger, and "No Popery". Of the 100 of his fellow Presbyterians who had signed the requisition asking Gray to stand, only 11 had the courage to vote for him. Despairing of constitutional means, in 1864 Bell was inducted into the Irish Republican ["Fenian"] Brotherhood by Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa. Escaping arrest, from 1865 he was in exile in the United States where, in contrast to John Mitchel who, already in Ireland, had defended American slavery against the abolitionism of Daniel O'Connell, Bell tried to associate physical-force Irish republicanism with the Radical [U.S.] Republican agenda of black enfranchisement and Reconstruction.
Home Rule era (1870–1914).
Politicians.
The new Home Government Association was founded by Isaac Butt in 1870, who died in 1879. William Shaw presided over the convention held to found its successor, the Home Rule League, of which he was chairman. He was followed by Charles Stewart Parnell, the founder of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). H. H. Asquith called Parnell one of the most important men of the nineteenth century and Lord Haldane called him the most powerful man that the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland had seen in 150 years. Parnell led the Gladstonian constitutionalist Home Rule movement and for a time dominated Irish and British affairs. However, at the height of his power he was to be dethroned by the O'Shea divorce affair and died soon afterwards.
Other Protestant Nationalist members of parliament were: Sir John Gray, Stephen Gwynn, Henry Harrison, Jeremiah Jordan, William McDonald, J. G. Swift MacNeill, James Maguire, Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony, Isaac Nelson, John Pinkerton, Horace Plunkett and Samuel Young.
In 1903, with Thomas Sloan, Independent MP for South Belfast, R.Lindsay Crawford co-founded the Independent Orange Order. For Crawford, who became the new order's Grand Master, this, in the first instance, was a protest against co-optation of the established Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers. But he also saw it as an opportunity for Irish Protestants to "reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen". His commitment in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) to an "extended form of self-government" for Ireland proved too much for Sloan and his supporters, and Crawford was expelled. As a journalist in Canada and the United States Crawford was committed to the cause of Irish self-demination, and in the 1920s served as the Irish trade representative in New York.
Several Protestant figures in the early Northern Ireland Labour Party were nationalists. These included MPs Jack Beattie, Sam Kyle and William McMullen and labour leaders James Baird and John Hanna. Meanwhile, trade unionist Victor Halley was a member of the Socialist Republican Party.
Artists.
While not active nationalist supporters, authors who wrote about Irish life and history, such as William Wilde, Whitley Stokes, Standish James O'Grady and Samuel Ferguson helped to develop nationalist sentiment.
From 1897 the artist and mystic George Russell (also known as "Æ") helped Horace Plunkett to run the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society. The IAOS rapidly grew into the main Irish rural co-operative body through which Irish farmers could buy and sell goods at the best price. Plunkett was also a cousin of George Noble Plunkett, father of Joseph Mary Plunkett. Horace Plunkett's home in County Dublin was later burned down in 1922 by anti-treaty Irish republicans during the Irish Civil War, as he had been appointed a Senator in the first Irish Free State Senate.
Russell was also involved in the "Irish Literary Revival" (or Celtic Twilight) artistic movement, that provided an intellectual and artistic aspect supportive of Irish nationalism. This was also largely started and run by Protestants such as WB Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán O'Casey, Alice Milligan, and JM Synge, who also founded the influential but controversial Abbey Theatre that opened in 1904. "An Túr Gloine" (The Glass Tower) had a similar membership.
The archetypal work of art that commemorated the 1916 Rising, though sculpted five years before the rising, is the statue of the dying mythical warrior Cuchullain, sculpted by Oliver Sheppard, a Protestant art lecturer in Dublin who had been a moderate nationalist for decades. Cast in bronze, it was unveiled at the GPO in 1935.
Independence era (1916–1922).
Sam Maguire inducted Michael Collins into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) in 1909. From 1928 the main prize for Irish football awarded by the Gaelic Athletic Association has been the Sam Maguire Cup.
In 1908 Bulmer Hobson and Constance Markievicz founded the Fianna Éireann, intended as a nationalist Boy Scout movement. The Irish Volunteers were a paramilitary organisation established in 1913 by Irish Nationalists and separatists including Roger Casement, Bulmer Hobson and Erskine Childers, all Protestant Irish nationalists (although Casement, who had been secretly baptised a Catholic by his mother, officially converted to Catholicism just before he was hanged in 1916). The Irish Volunteers were formed in response to the formation of the Ulster Volunteers by Edward Carson and James Craig. The Ulster Volunteers were a Unionist paramilitary movement who feared a Dublin-centric, anti-Protestant Home Rule parliament in Dublin.
The Irish Citizen Army existed from 1913–1947 and one of its creators was Jack White from Ulster, son of General George White. On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, 220 of the group (including 28 women) took part in the Easter Rising. Most of the rifles and ammunition used in the Rising had been imported from Germany in July 1914 by Erskine Childers on his yacht "Asgard" along with Conor O'Brien, Alice Stopford Green, Mary Spring Rice, Darrell Figgis and the former Quaker Bulmer Hobson. The rest of the rifles were shipped by Sir Thomas Myles, at the suggestion of the barrister James Meredith, and were landed at Kilcoole. In 1913 Hobson had sworn Patrick Pearse into the IRB; Pearse was one of leaders of the Rising. A prominent signatory to the Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921 that followed the Anglo-Irish war was Robert Barton, a cousin of Childers.
A cousin of both, David Lubbock Robinson, was in the IRA and interned. He later became a Fianna Fáil Senator.
In the subsequent Irish Free State governments Ernest Blythe, a former member of the Irish Volunteers, held various ministerial posts. Seán Lester was a League of Nations diplomat. The founder of the Gaelic League and first President of Ireland was Douglas Hyde. Dorothy Macardle opposed the 1921 Treaty and was a lifelong supporter of Éamon de Valera, writing his view of history in "The Irish Republic" (1937), but also refusing his suggestion to convert to Catholicism on her deathbed in 1958. Some like the Revd. Robert Hilliard fought in the Spanish Civil War in 1936–1939.
Following independence, southern Protestant unionists accepted the new reality and worked with the new Free State from its difficult start in 1922–23. These included judges such as Lord Glenavy, whose suggestions for a new law courts system was enacted as the Courts Act 1924, and twenty accepted nominations to the new Senate, such as Lord Mayo.
1940s.
In 1941, writer Denis Ireland, son of a wealthy manufacturer and steeped in Unionist tradition, described himself as "a son of the Ulster Protestant industrial ascendancy". He founded the Ulster Union Club in Belfast to purportedly "recapture, for Ulster Protestants, their true tradition as Irishmen", it advertised a range of activities including weekly discussions and lectures on current affairs, economics, history and the Irish language, as well as dancing and music classes. A number of pamphlets were published and under its auspices Ireland contributed to various magazines, newspapers and radio programmes in Belfast and Dublin.
The Club was mainly frequented by Protestants but, as the authorities soon discovered, it was a source of recruits to the IRA. UUC meetings were being attended by John Graham, a devout member of the Church of Ireland, who, at the time of his arrest in 1942, was leading a "Protestant squad", an intelligence unit, that was preparing the armed organisation for a new "northern campaign." In 1944, under Northern Ireland Special Powers Act, the UUC was suppressed. The club's premises, and the homes of Ireland and other prominent members (among them Presbyterian clergymen, teachers and university lecturers) were raided by RUC Special Branch.
Along with George Gilmore, and George Plant, Graham had been amongst a handful of Protestants who had come to the IRA through the minority Republican Congress. Plant was executed in 1942 by the Irish government for the murder of a suspected informer.
In 1948 Denis Ireland entered the Seanad Éireann, the Irish Senate, for the republican and social-democratic Clann na Poblachta. As a senator, Ireland was the first member of the Oireachtas, the Irish Parliament, to be resident in Northern Ireland.
During the Troubles.
In the North, Protestants participated in the early years of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Ivan Cooper was among its co-founders in 1970.
Billy Leonard, a former Seventh-day Adventist lay-preacher and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist, whose wife and children are Catholics, was elected in 2001 to Coleraine Borough Council as an SDLP representative for the Skerries area. Citing lack of emphasis on Irish unity he joined Sinn Féin in 2004. The party nominated him to succeed Francie Brolly as an MLA for East Londonderry in 2010. But citing disagreements "over support arrangements for MLAs' wages and expenses", and complaining that "the tentacles of the [IRA] Army Council still run throughout" the republican party he soon resigned.
Ronnie Bunting, son of Ronald Bunting, a close associate of Ian Paisley, became a member of the Official IRA in the early 1970s and was a founder-member of the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) in 1974. He was assassinated by the Ulster Defence Association in 1980.
Also assassinated by the UDA in 1980, John Turnley, scion of a wealthy Protestant family and a former British Army officer, joined in SDLP in 1972. At the time he was killed, Turnley was chairman of the Irish Independence Party, co-founded with Frank McManus (former Unity MP for Fermanagh & South Tyrone) and Fergus McAteer (son of the former Nationalist Party leader Eddie McAteer)., and a leading member of the National H-Blocks Committee supporting the IRA blanket protest.
David Russell was a Protestant Provisional IRA volunteer originally from Ramelton in Donegal and a Presbyterian. He was killed due to a premature bomb explosion in 1974 at a supermarket in Derry. Tom Berry was an Official IRA volunteer with Protestant background. He was killed by the Provisional IRA in east Belfast during the intra-republican feud in 1975.
Republic of Ireland.
Martin Mansergh, a member of the Church of Ireland, has been influential in formulating Fianna Fáil's policy on Northern Ireland since the peace process began in the 1990s. Sinn Féin TD for Clare Violet-Anne Wynne is Protestant.
Protestant nationalist converts to Roman Catholicism.
A number of Protestant nationalists also converted to Catholicism, for a variety of reasons:


Right-bank Ukraine

Right-bank Ukraine (, "Pravoberezhna Ukrayina"; , "Pravoberezhnaya Ukraina"; , , ) is a historical and territorial name for a part of modern Ukraine on the right (west) bank of the Dnieper River, corresponding to the modern-day oblasts of Vinnytsia, Zhytomyr, Kirovohrad, as well as the western parts of Kyiv and Cherkasy. It was separated from the left bank during The Ruin.
Right-bank Ukraine is bordered by the historical regions of Volhynia and Podolia to the west, Moldavia to the southwest, Yedisan and Zaporozhia to the south, Left-bank Ukraine to the east, and Polesia to the north.
Main cities of the region include Cherkasy, Kropyvnytskyi, Bila Tserkva, Zhytomyr and Oleksandriia.
History.
The right and the left-bank Ukraine's history is closely associated with the Khmelnytsky Rebellion of 1648–57. The territory was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the House of Vasa until the Russo-Polish War triggered by Khmelnytsky's Treaty of Pereyaslav, 1654, with the Muscovy alliance. After the 13-year conflict, the victorious Tsardom of Russia incorporated the left-bank Ukraine along with the city of Kyiv in 1667 following the Truce of Andrusovo. Meanwhile, the right-bank Ukraine remained in the Commonwealth until the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. As part of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown it was divided into two voivodeships: Kyiv and Bracław. In 1669 Hetman Petro Doroshenko allowed Right-bank Ukraine to be part of the Ottoman Empire. The southernmost Podolia in the right-bank Ukraine was invaded by Ottomans in 1672. Following the 1683 victory of the Christian powers in the Battle of Vienna, in 1699 the Treaty of Karlowitz returned those lands to the Commonwealth. During the 18th century, two Cossack uprisings took place. In 1793 right-bank Ukraine was annexed by the Russian Empire in the Second Partition of Poland, becoming part of the "guberniya" ('governorate') of Little Russia.
In the 19th century, the population of right-bank Ukraine was mostly Ukrainian, but most of the land was owned by the Polish or Polonized Ukrainian nobility. Many of the towns and cities belonged to the Pale of Settlement and had a substantial Jewish population, while the Polish-speaking nobility was mostly Roman Catholic. Most of the peasantry became Greek Catholic only in the 18th century, and after the Partitions of Poland, largely converted to Orthodoxy long before the disestablishment of the Unia in 1839. The right-bank Ukraine was subsequently divided into four provinces (guberniyas), each with its own administration: Kyiv, Volhynia, Kherson and Podolia.


Pachycondyla petiolosa

Pachycondyla petiolosa is an extinct species of ant in the formicid subfamily Ponerinae described by from a fossil found in Europe. "P. parvula" is one of six Lutetian "Pachycondyla" species.
History and classification.
When described "Pachycondyla petiolosa" was known from two fossil insects which are compression-impression fossils preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock. Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the "P. petiolosa" specimens were collected from layers of Lutetian Messel Formation rock in the Messel pit World Heritage Site. The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and bituminous shale, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable lagerstätten. The area is a preserved maar lake which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.
At the time of description, the holotype specimen, number SMF MeI 1893, along with the paratype SMF MeI 1427 were preserved in the Senckenberg Research Station Messel fossil collections. The fossils were described by Gennady Dlussky and Sonja Wedmann in a 2012 paper on the poneromorph ants of Messel. In the type description Dlussky and Wedmann named the species "P. petiolosa", with the specific epithet derived from the Latin "petiolosus", chosen in recognition of notably visible petiole.
The species is one of six "Pachycondyla" which have been described from Messel Formation fossils. All six of the species were described by Dlussky and Wedmann in the same 2012 paper, the other five being "P. eocenica", "P. lutzi", "P.? messeliana", "P. parvula", and "P. petrosa". Another eight fossil species have been described from fossils in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Description.
Both of the "Pachycondyla petiolosa" queens are preserved in lateral positioning and have body lengths of approximately and the head is . The alitrunk is long, with the queens being described as being built massive and large. The antennae scape extends just beyond the occipital margin of the head, and the funicular segments in the middle are longer than wide. The eyes are oval in shape and placed slightly behind of the head's midpoint. Where preserved the mandibles comprise less than half the length of the head. The petiole is rounded in side view, with a high, thick scale, and there are visible hairs preserved on the last segment of the petiole.


Carteia

Carteia () was a Phoenician and Roman town at the head of the Bay of Gibraltar in Spain. It was established at the most northerly point of the bay, next to the town of San Roque, about halfway between the modern cities of Algeciras and Gibraltar, overlooking the sea on elevated ground at the confluence of two rivers, nowadays called Guadarranque and Cachon.
According to Strabo, it was founded around 940 BC as the trading settlement of "Kʿrt" (meaning "city" in the Phoenician language; compare Carthage and Cartagena). The area had much to offer a trader; the hinterland behind Carteia, in the modern south of Andalusia, was rich in wood, cereals, oranges, lemons, lead, iron, copper and silver. Dyes were another much sought-after commodity, especially those from the murex shellfish, used to make the prized Tyrian purple. Strabo and Pomponius Mela, mention that some believe that Carteia used to be the Tartessos. Pliny the Elder writes that Carteia was called by the Greeks Tartessos.
The town's strategic location meant that it played a significant role in the wars between Carthage and the Roman Republic in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC. It may have been the site of Hamilcar's landing with his army and elephants in 237 BC, and in 206 BC the Carthaginian admiral Adherbal retreated there with the remnants of his fleet after being defeated by Gaius Laelius in the Battle of Carteia. Around 190 BC, the town was captured by the Romans.
Roman and medieval period.
Livy records that in 171 BC, the Roman Senate was petitioned by a group of Romano-Spanish people, the sons of Roman soldiers and Spanish women. Although they were of Roman descent they were not regarded as Roman citizens, nor were they allowed to marry Roman citizens. The Senate responded by elevating Carteia to the status of a "colonia" (Roman colony) and granting around 4,000 Romano-Spanish people the right to live there and receive a grant of land on a similar basis to Roman colonists.
The existing inhabitants were permitted to remain there, while all of the inhabitants were given the right to marry Roman citizens and to carry on trade with Romans. This marked a significant innovation for Rome's overseas colonies; the Carteians were the first outside Italy to receive a civic status known as the Latin Rights, halfway between being a non-citizen provincial and a full Roman citizen. Other cities in Spain were later granted a similar status.
The "Colonia Libertinorum Carteia" (Freedmen's Colony of Carteia) prospered for another 580 years under Roman rule. It grew to become a substantial city which served as a centre for the export of local wines, shipped in amphorae fired in large kilns found on the site, and the manufacture of "garum" fish sauce. Carteia acquired a mint, amphitheatre, temples and port, and played a significant role in late Roman Republican affairs. Pompey made it his western base for his campaign against Mediterranean pirates in 68 BC. His sons Gnaeus and Sextus raised an army there in 45 BC before being defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Munda. While Gnaeus was captured and executed, Sextus escaped via Carteia's port and fled north to the Pyrenees.
Little is known of the remainder of Carteia's Roman history, but it appears to have been sacked by the Visigoths around 409 AD, by which time it was probably already in decline. Nonetheless, archaeological evidence shows that urban life continued there into the medieval period. The foundations of an early Christian basilica have been found, a Visigothic necropolis exists near one of the Roman temples, and Byzantine remains discovered at the site show its continued occupation when Carteia was incorporated into the Byzantine province of Spania during the 6th-7th centuries.
In the 9th century, after the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Islamic sources referred to the town – which was probably not much more than a village by then – as "Qartayanna" or Cartagena. The Marinids constructed a tower nearby, known today as the "Torre de Cartagena", using stones from the ruined Roman walls.
Rediscovery and current condition.
The site of Carteia was rediscovered by a young British Army officer, John Conduitt, who served in Gibraltar as commissary to the garrison between April 1713 to early 1717. He identified the city as having stood on a hill then known as El Rocadillo, which Richard Ford described in his "A Handbook for Travellers in Spain" (1845):
Conduitt communicated his discovery to the Royal Society in London and was invited to read a paper on Carteia on his return to the capital. He did so on 20 June 1717, with Sir Isaac Newton in attendance as chair. Coincidentally, Newton was also interested in Carteia, as he was in the middle of writing his work "The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms", and he invited Conduitt to his home to discuss the ancient city. It was there that Conduitt met Newton's niece, Catherine Barton. After a whirlwind courtship the two were married on 26 August 1717, though Barton was almost a decade older than Conduitt, albeit still renowned for her beauty.
An early 19th-century writer, the anonymous "Calpensis", described how he had "often walked over the site of Carteia, attracted by the rich variety of broken pieces of marble scattered over the fields. Part of the wall enclosing the farm-house was then rudely made up of broken pillars, columns and cornices, of marble of the finest workmanship."
Some of the earliest excavations were carried out at the behest of the British; in 1811–12, Vice-Admiral Charles Penrose reached agreement with the estate's owners to allow amateur antiquarians from Gibraltar to "excavate and examine any part of its ground for antiquities." The excavations found the remains of a tessellated Roman pavement, which was thought to belong to a temple, as well as foundations of Roman buildings.
Although the area around Carteia was open farmland in the time of "Calpensis", it is now heavily industrialised. The site of Carteia is surrounded on three sides by an oil refinery. It was not given protection until as late as the 1960s, by which time the necropolis and city gates had been lost to encroaching development. However, the main urban area has been preserved and can be visited. A number of significant structures can still be seen, including the original Carthaginian city gate, a monumental sandstone flight of steps leading down to what was possibly the forum, a large temple, a number of houses and an extensive Roman baths. The 16th century "Torre de Rocadillo" can also be seen. From 1971 to 1974, excavations were carried out which found part of a bust of the Emperor Augustus and a headless statue of a man wearing a toga. The Carteia Archaeological Museum in San Roque displays archaeological finds from the site.


Ringstead Coral Bed

The Ringstead Coral Bed is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.


Compromise of Thorn

The Compromise of Thorn (also known as the Compromise of Toruń) on 5th of April, 1521, was a peace agreement between the Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Poland. It was a direct response to the Polish–Teutonic War, a feud that had been going on between both countries for about two years.
Background.
Decades before the Compromise, the Kingdom of Poland and the Teutonic Order were engaged in The Thirteen Years' War, where the Polish king had sided with Prussian rebels in order to fight the Teutons. Following a Teutonic defeat, Casimir IV Jagiellon forced them to agree to the Second Peace of Thorn, which reduced the amount of power the Order had, as well as annexing almost all of western Prusal (Prussia). This also gave the Polish control of Malbork, the former capital of the Teutonic Order.
Fifty-three years later, and tensions were still high between the two eastern European powers. Around January 1519, Polish forces near Kolo attacked towards Eastern Prussia, and kick-started the Polish–Teutonic War. Both countries were near-equal in military power, causing the war to mostly be a standstill for its three-year duration.
Nearing the end of the war, current Holy Roman Emperor Charles V called for both countries to cease their fighting, as the Ottoman Empire had invaded Hungary at this point.
Aftermath.
Part of the Compromise required both countries to partake in a four-year truce, giving time for Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon to decide whether Albrecht, former and last leader of the Teutonic Knights, would have to do fealty and homage for Casimir. While no settlement was reached for the latter during that time, Albrecht continued to reach out for allies, most notably Martin Luther, who told Albrecht to abandon his Catholic ways and convert Prussia into a duchy. He agreed, converted to Lutheranism, and dropped out of most positions he was in that related to Catholicism. The old Teutonic Order lost the majority of their power in the region, and eventually Albrecht would become the duke of the Duchy of Prussia.


Bulgarian Land

The Bulgarian land () is a term dating back to the time of the Bulgarian Revival and more precisely to the time after the Spring of Nations with the subsequent Greco-Bulgarian Schism. At that time the lands with the predominantly Bulgarian population coinciding with the ancient provinces of Moesia, Thracia and Macedonia. Historically, the so-called Balkan language union served as a linguistic marker for Eastern South Slavic area called then Bulgarian lands. There are other universal markers on the basis of which one can historically judge the Bulgarian presence - for example, the "wolf tooth" cornice in medieval architecture.


Trinity (novel)

Trinity is a novel by American author Leon Uris, published in 1976 by Doubleday. It spent 21 weeks on the top of "The New York Times" Best Sellers list in 1976 and 14 weeks in 1977.
The book tells the story of the intertwining lives of the following families: the Larkins and O'Neills, Catholic hill farmers from the fictional town of Ballyutogue in County Donegal; the Macleods, Protestant shipyard workers from Belfast; and the Hubbles.
The book describes a number of historical events, from the Great Famine of the 1840s to the Easter Rising in 1916.
Plot..
Conor's best friend Seamus O'Neill begins school in town under a Protestant named Mr. Ingram. Conor, needed at home, helps his father in the fields, until he becomes an apprentice at a blacksmith shop. As the years pass, the boys become friends with Mr. Ingram, who teaches them of the power of books and the history of their Irish forefathers. Seamus goes to college in Belfast, and Conor heads to Derry. In Bogside Conor witnesses the extent of the disaster that has befallen the Irish people. Bogside is in tatters and a state of despair that has stricken its inhabitants since before the Great Famine that had occurred between 1845 and 1852. Held down by the Protestant reign in Derry's labor unions, the Catholics are dying slowly without hope.
In Derry, Conor discovers other like-minded Irish tired of the oppression of the Catholics by the Protestants. This small group, with the support of the few Irish politicians, becomes the Republican Brotherhood, the roots of Sinn Féin, and the whisper of freedom throughout Ireland.
Sequel.
A 1995 sequel, "Redemption", completes many loose ends in the saga.


Fala language

Fala ("Speech", also called "Xalimego") is a Western Romance language commonly classified in the Galician-Portuguese subgroup, with some traits from Leonese, spoken in Spain by about 10,500 people, of whom 5,500 live in a valley of the northwestern part of Extremadura near the border with Portugal. The speakers of Fala live in the towns of Valverde del Fresno (Valverdi du Fresnu), Eljas (As Ellas) and San Martín de Trevejo (Sa Martín de Trebellu).
Other names sometimes used for the language are "Fala de Jálama" or "Fala de Xálima", but neither of them is used by the speakers themselves, who call their linguistic varieties "lagarteiru" (in Eljas), "manhegu" / "mañegu" (in San Martín de Trevejo) and "valverdeiru" (in Valverde del Fresno).
Even though it has no official status, and has little presence in schools and church, use of the language is vigorous, and the literacy rate in Fala is nearly 100%. As a linguistic community, speakers have a strong, independent identity; they have rejected implementing a standard orthography similar to or based on the Galician one. A translation of the New Testament was published in Fala in 2015.
History.
Origins.
In the Middle Ages, mixed varieties of Portuguese and Leonese could be found along the border between Leon and Portugal, represented in texts such as the "Foro de Castelo Rodrigo" (13th century). Although there is no documentation on the colonization and repopulation of this area in the 13th century, there are several hypotheses of Galician citizens moving to protect the frontier against Muslims as a punishment imposed by the Leonese king, or the delivery of the territories to various military orders by Kings Alfonso IX and Fernando II.
In general, philologists in favor of the Galician theory support the hypothesis that the valley is an isolated region and, therefore, the Galician colonists maintain their way of speaking in a "pure" form because of the lack of external influences.
This thesis is refuted if we contrast it with other historical data:
Recent.
On August 3, 1992, the association "Fala i Cultura" was founded, among its goals being the compilation of a common grammar (based on the Galician one) and the commemoration of "u día da nosa fala" (the day of our language) celebrated once a year from 1992 in Eljas, 1993 in Valverde and 1994 in San Martín.
It was not until 1998 that the first literary work in Fala was published: "Seis sainetes valverdeiros", written by Isabel López Lajas and published in 1998 by Edicións Positivas (Santiago de Compostela). It was on this date that the Gabinete de Iniciativas Transfronterizas (Office of Cross-Border Initiatives) started to take interest in Fala and to promote its study, publishing in 1999 scientific works and celebrating in May a "Congress on "A Fala"".
On June 14, 2000, Fala was recognized by the Ministry of Culture of the Junta de Extremadura as Bien de Interés Cultural. Nowadays, although the inhabitants of Jalama Valley can speak Spanish, most of them are bilingual because at home and in other activities outside school, they continue using the local language.
Sociolinguistic surveys.
In 1992, a survey conducted by José Enrique Gargallo Gil (a professor at the University of Barcelona) collected the following data regarding the use of Spanish in family conversation:
In September/December 1993 a survey was published in issue No. 30 of "Alcántara" Magazine by José Luis Martín Galindo, which showed the opinion of the people in San Martín de Trevejo as to the nature of Fala in the following percentages:
The survey involved only twenty people (over 960 neighbours) and there was no alternative answer for those respondents who believed that Fala is a dialect of Galician. It is argued that the absence of this option was logical since theories about the possible relation of Fala with Galician were hardly known.
In 1994, a new study showed that 80% of respondents learned to speak Spanish in school. The percentage of parents who claim to use Fala when speaking with their children was as follows:
Alphabet.
One proposed alphabet has 23 letters:
Comparative vocabulary.
Some Fala vocuabulary are shown in the table below.


Dinas Emrys

Dinas Emrys () is a rocky and wooded hillock near Beddgelert in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. Rising some above the floor of the Glaslyn river valley, it overlooks the southern end of Llyn Dinas in Snowdonia.
Little remains of the Iron Age hillfort or castle structures that once stood here, save its stone ramparts and the base of a keep. Some believe the castle was erected by Llewelyn the Last to guard the road to the mountain pass of Snowdon.
Description.
Little remains of the structures that once stood on the hill. Such remains as are visible today, including three series of ramparts and other walls and some foundations, mostly date to the Middle Ages. Archaeologist H. N. Savory described the fortifications as consisting of stone walls between thick, which exploited every irregularity in the rocky hill-top, enclosing an irregular area of about a in size. The original means of access was by a steep path on the western side of the hillfort. The present entrance from the north-east is a later addition.
Excavations in 1910 and 1954–56 revealed several periods of habitation at the site. The earliest elements date to the Iron Age, perhaps to the 1st or 2nd century. A pool within the enclosure, thought to be an artificial construction, may date to this phase. It is perhaps connected to the pool found in the popular tale of Vortigern and the dragons. Other traces suggest habitation into the 5th century, which would put it in the time frame for Vortigern and Ambrosius Aurelianus.
It has long been known that there is a pool inside the fort, but when the archaeologist Dr H. N. Savory excavated the hillfort between 1954 and 1956, he was surprised to find that not only were the fortifications of about the right time frame for either Vortigern or Ambrosius, but that there was a platform above the pool as described in the "Historia Britonum". However, he found the platform to date much later than the accepted floruit of either personage.
Literary tradition.
While it is of interest to archaeologists because it is an example of a hillfort whose fortifications entirely postdate the Roman period, this hill is also of interest to enthusiasts about the legends of King Arthur. This is the setting of the famous exchange of the warlord Vortigern and the youthful Merlin, as told in the Historia Britonum.
According to legend, when Vortigern fled into Wales to escape the Anglo-Saxon invaders, he chose this lofty hillfort as the site for his royal retreat. Every day his men would work hard erecting the first of several proposed towers; but the next morning they would return to find the masonry collapsed in a heap. This continued for many weeks until Vortigern was advised to seek the help of a young boy not conceived by a mortal man. The King sent his soldiers out across the land to find such a lad. The boy they found was called Myrddin Emrys (Merlin Ambrosius). Vortigern, following the advice of his councillors, was planning to kill the boy in order to appease supernatural powers that prevented him from building a fortress here. Merlin scorned this advice, and instead explained that the hillfort could not stand due to a hidden pool containing two "vermes" (dragons). He explained how the White Dragon of the Saxons though winning the battle at present, would soon be defeated by the Welsh Red Dragon. After Vortigern's downfall, the fort was given to High-King Ambrosius Aurelianus, known in Welsh as Emrys Wledig, hence its name.
Origin and confinement of the dragons.
The earliest sources regard the two dragons as distinctly different, and in a metaphor of the "Adventus Saxonum" describes one as being native to the island of Britain (it had arrived first) which was then joined by another new and alien dragon that fought it for supremacy.
As to how the dragons became confined there, the story of "Lludd and Llefelys" in the Mabinogion gives details. According to the legend, when Lludd ruled Britain (100 BC), a hideous scream, whose origin could not be determined, was heard each May Eve. This scream so perplexed the Britons that it caused infertility, panic and mayhem throughout the realm. In need of help Lludd sought counsel on this and other matters from his brother Llefelys, a King of Gaul. Llefelys furnished the information that the scream was caused by battling dragons. The scream would be uttered by the "dragon of the Britons" when it was fighting another alien dragon and was being defeated. Lludd heeded the advice given to him by Llefelys and captured both dragons in a cauldron filled with mead when they had transformed themselves, as apparently dragons did, into pigs. The captured dragons were buried at the place later called Dinas Emrys, as it was regarded as the safest place to put them.
The main entrance to the fort is on the northern side of the hill and traces of a ruined medieval tower 36 feet by 24 feet have been found on the summit. Nearby is a circle of tumbled stones about 30 feet in diameter which is said to be where the dragons were hidden. Before Dinas Emrys was so-named the fort was known as "Dinas Ffaraon Dandde".
Other local legends.
According to local legend Myrddin hid treasure in a cave at Dinas Emrys. The discoverer of the treasure will be 'golden-haired and blue-eyed'. When that lucky person is near to Dinas Emrys a bell will ring to invite him or her into the cave, which will open of its own accord as soon as that person's foot touches it. A young man who lived near Beddgelert once searched for the treasure, hoping to give himself a good start in life. He took a pickaxe and climbed to the top of the hill. When he began to dig in earnest on the site of the tower, some terrible unearthly noises began to rumble under his feet. The Dinas began to rock like a cradle and the sun clouded over so it became pitch dark. Lightning flashed in the sky and thunder clapped over his head. He dropped the pickaxe and ran home. When he arrived, everything was calm again, but he never returned to collect his pickaxe. Not far from Dinas Emrys is "Cell y Dewiniaid" – "The Grove of the Magicians". There is a field here that once had a thick grove of oak trees at its north end. Local tradition holds that Vortigern's wise men used to meet here to discuss the great events of their times. An adjacent field is where they were buried and at one time a stone marked the site of each grave. A white thorn tree annually decorated each resting place with falling white blossoms.
Actual archaeological findings.
It has long been known that there is a pool inside the fort, but when the archaeologist Dr H. N. Savory excavated the hillfort between 1954 and 1956, he was surprised to find that not only were the fortifications of about the right time frame for either Vortigern or Ambrosius, but that there was a platform above the pool as described in the Historia Britonum. However, he found the platform to date much later than the accepted floruit of either personage.
Savory described the fortifications as consisting of stone walls between thick, which exploited every irregularity in the rocky hill-top, enclosing an irregular area of about a in size. The original means of access was by a steep path on the western side of the hillfort. The present entrance from the north-east is a later addition. The walls had been "poorly built of stone two or three times ", possibly inspiring the legend's reference to the building collapsing several times during construction.
The most conspicuous object currently on the hill is the base of a rectangular tower. It is generally accepted that this is part of an undocumented castle built by the princes of Gwynedd in the eleventh century.
Dinas Affaraon/Ffaraon.
"Dinas Affaraon" or "Dinas Ffaraon" is a placename mentioned in some medieval Welsh literature, where it is said to be the original name of Dinas Emrys.
"Dinas Ffaraon" (Fortress of Pharaoh) or "Dinas Ffaraon Dande" (Fortress of Fiery Pharaoh) is mentioned in the tale "Lludd and Llefelys" as the place where King Lludd of Britain traps and buries two dragons who are ravaging the land. The text explains that the site was later named "Dinas Emreis". This tale is a prequel to the older story involving the hero Emrys (Ambrosius Aurelianus) or Myrddin Emrys (Merlin). In sources such as the "Historia Brittonum" and Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae", a tower built on the spot continually collapses until Emrys reveals the buried dragons as the cause; once they are released the tower is successfully constructed is named for him. The name "Dinas Emrys" has been associated with a Roman ruin in Snowdonia, a localization that possibly dates as early as the "Historia Brittonum".


Kuopio

Kuopio (; ; ) is a Finnish city and municipality located in the region of Northern Savonia (Pohjois-Savo). It has a population of , which makes it the most populous city in Finland and the most populous city in Eastern Finland Province. At the end of 2018, the population of the city center of Kuopio was 89,307. Kuopio has a total area of , of which is water and half is forest. Though the city's population is a spread-out , the city's urban areas are populated comparably densely (urban area: 1,618 /km²), making Kuopio Finland's second-most densely populated city. With the city of Joensuu, Kuopio is one of major urbans, economic, and cultural hubs for Eastern Finland.
Kuopio is known nationwide as one of the most important study cities and centers of attraction and growth, but on the other hand, the history of Kuopio has been characterized by several municipality mergers since 1969, as a result of which Kuopio now includes many countryside; Kuopio's population surpassed 100,000 when the town of Nilsiä joined the city at the beginning of 2013, and when Maaninka joined Kuopio at the beginning of 2015, Kuopio became Finland's largest milk producer community and Finland's second largest beef producer community. In addition, at the end of the 2010s, Kuopio was marked by numerous large projects, which are the largest in the city nationwide immediately after the Helsinki's metropolitan area. With the large tourist center in Tahkovuori, Kuopio has also grown into a major tourist city. Kuopio Airport, located in the Siilinjärvi municipality that almost surrounded by Kuopio, is Finland's fifth-busiest airport, with over 235,000 passengers in 2017.
According to Kuntarating 2017 survey, Kuopio has the most satisfied residents among the 20 largest cities, and according to the 2018 survey, Kuopio is the best city for real estate investors. In the Kuntien imago 2018 survey, Kuopio ranks second among large cities of Finland after Seinäjoki of South Ostrobothnia.
Kuopio is the current European Region of Gastronomy. It is also known as home of "Kalakukko", a traditional food of Savonia, which is why Kuopio is also known by the nickname the "Promised Land of Kalakukko".
Etymology.
Several explanations are behind the name "Kuopio". The first is that in the 16th century, a certain influential person named Kauhanen in Tavinsalmi changed his name to Skopa and the people's pronunciation was "Coopia" and finally "Cuopio". The second explanation is that it comes from the verb "kuopia", meaning "paw", as when a horse paws the ground with its hoof. A third explanation is that it came from a certain Karelian man's name "Prokopij", from Ruokolahti in the Middle Ages. This explanation is the most likely, and is supported by the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland.
Heraldry.
The coat of arms of Kuopio was designed in 1823 by drawing by the town councilor Karl Hårdh or possibly his artist son, Adolf Hårdh. The coat of arms was approved for use in 1823 by the Kuopio Magistrate in accordance with the order of Alexander I of Russia. The coat of arms building, which represents Kuopio Cathedral, has often been mistakenly considered to be Kuopio City Hall, completed in 1886.
The current design of the coat of arms is the handwriting of architect Seppo Ruotsalainen. The coat of arms in its current form was approved at a meeting of Kuopio City Council on 25 November 1957, and the Ministry of the Interior confirmed the coat of arms and its explanation on 12 June 1958.
History.
In the 1550s, under the influence of Mikael Agricola, a church and a parish were founded in Kuopionniemi. Governor Peter Brahe founded the city of Kuopio in 1653, but the official date is recognized as 17 November 1775, when King Gustav III of Sweden ordered the formal establishment of the city.
The period of Russian rule (1809–1917) brought notable transportation development within Eastern Finland. The Saimaa Canal (1856) opened up a summer route towards the Baltic Sea, and the Savo railroad (1889) improved transport in winter.
After World War II, the city's population grew significantly, due in part to the settlement of Karelian evacuees and the high birth rate. The rapid growth of the population forced the expansion of schools; at the end of the 1940s, support was also provided for school transports and the provision of free school meals (the poor people had received it in Kuopio since 1902). The large number of young people and the occasional lack of activity also gave rise to various phenomena in the city, such as the Kuopio Market Riot in 1965. In the 1960s, the first construction of the actual suburb, Puijonlaakso, began. Since then, the new areas have each grown in turn: in the 1960s, Puijonlaakso and Tiihotar (as part of Saarijärvi); In the 1970s Saarijärvi, Kelloniemi and Levänen; In the 1980s, Jynkkä and Neulamäki.
The municipality of Maaninka joined the city of Kuopio in 2015, the town of Nilsiä in 2013, and Karttula in 2011, as did Vehmersalmi in 2005, Riistavesi in 1973, and Kuopion maalaiskunta in 1969.
Geography.
The city is surrounded by Lake Kallavesi, and several parts of it are built on islands. With an area of Lake Kallavesi is the tenth largest lake in Finland. In the wake of the Yoldia Sea, which followed the Weichselian glaciation and preceded the Baltic Sea, there are ancient beaches up to 140 m above the current sea level, of which the current Lake Kallavesi is 82 m above sea level. Kuopio's ample waterfronts and islands are also used in the "Saaristokaupunki" (lit. "Archipelago city") -project, the biggest residential area currently being built in Finland. Saaristokaupunki will accommodate a total of 14,000 inhabitants in 2015. All houses will be situated no more than from the nearest lakeshore.
Kuopio Market Square is the undisputed center of the city and the city center follows a densely built grid pattern with several parks and narrow gutter streets. The environment of the city is quite distinctive; the surface shapes of the waterfront-lined center are so variable that a flat property is a desired rarity. The settlement has spread outside the center of Kuopio according to a dense and sparse finger model that is affordable for public transport, and the new districts have been built in a municipal drive at once; for example, the Saaristokaupunki was banned for building for the previous 25 years, and this Kuopio zoning tradition has a long history. Due to the above-mentioned factors, the population density of the Kuopio city center is the highest in Finland.
With the surrounding lakes, the shoreline in Kuopio is 4,760 kilometers. The terrain is also characterized by rich forests, and the clear center of the Kuopio's lund forest is mainly located in the area between Kuopio, Nilsiä and Siilinjärvi. Of the Finnish municipalities, Kuopio has the second largest number of summer cottages and holiday homes. In 2013, the number of summer cottages was 8,684. The number of summer homes in Kuopio has increased in recent years due to municipal associations. Due to the abundance of water bodies, Kuopio also has a remarkably favorable climate compared to the latitude. The annual sum of the effective temperature is about as high in Kuopio as in places further south than, for example, Tampere and Lahti.
Subdivisions.
There are more than 50 districts and villages in Kuopio.
Climate.
Kuopio falls in the subarctic climate zone (Köppen "Dfc"), closely bordering on continental due to its warm summers. Winters are long and cold, with average highs staying below freezing from November until March, and summers are short and relatively mild. Most precipitation occurs in the late summer and early fall. The summers are relatively warm for its latitude, especially the lows. This is due to influence from the lake, making it much warmer on summer nights than in areas away from water. In winter, maritime moderation is eliminated as the lake freezes over.
Transport.
The city has a nationally unique feature in its street network, where every other street is reserved for pedestrian and cycle traffic, so-called "rännikatu" (derived from the Swedish "gränd", alley). These streets provide pedestrians a calm environment away from vehicular traffic. This setup dates back to Kuopio's first town plan by Pehr Kjellman in 1776. Originally, rännikadut were created as a fire barrier to prevent a possible fire escalating in a mainly wood-constructed city.
Two Finnish highways cross Kuopio: Finnish national road 5 (Vt 5; part of E63 in the northern side of city), which extends south to Helsinki and north to Sodankylä, and Finnish national road 9 (Vt 9; part of E63 in the western side of city), which extends west to Turku and east to the Niirala checkpoint on the Finnish-Russian border. The Blue Highway passes through Kuopio. It is an international tourist route from Mo i Rana, Norway to Pudozh, Russia via Sweden and Finland.
Long-distance transport connections from Kuopio include Pendolino and InterCity trains from Kuopio railway station to several destinations around Finland, operated by VR, as well as multiple daily departures from Kuopio Airport on Finnair to Helsinki.
Economy.
Kuopio's economic structure is very diverse. There are a total of about 5,050 companies and communities in Kuopio, of which more than 190 also trade abroad. There are a total of 50,877 jobs (2016). The business service of the City of Kuopio plays a significant role in the development of Kuopio's business life. The business service promotes the development of companies operating in Kuopio and improves the operating environments of companies. The most important thing in developing operating environments is to improve the supply of estate and business premises. Tourism is of great importance to Kuopio's business life; the Rauhalahti camping site is one indication of Kuopio's expertise, as it is the only five-star camping site in Finland. The city has also a comprehensive hotel offer for tourism, one of the most notable is Hotel Savonia, part of the Best Western hotel chain, in the Puijonlaakso district. Arranging accommodation and program services gives many jobs. Kuopio's Entrepreneurs ("Kuopion Yrittäjät"), the local association of Savonia Entrepreneurs ("Savon Yrittäjät"), operates in Kuopio.
The most significant recent business projects are the centralization of Honeywell's Finnish operations in Kuopio, the completion of Ark Therapeutics' gene medicine plant, the marine industry concentration built by Bella Boats at the Marine Park in Haapaniemi's Siikaniemi and the construction of Junttan's EUR 15 million assembly plant at Kylmämäki at the end of 2008. The site of Junttan's current factory in Särkilahti will have space for a large shopping center. The 9.7-hectare plot purchased by Savocon and TKD Finland for EUR 11 million has a building right for 58,500 square meters. The two companies plan to invest a total of about 40 million euros in the project. A significant industrial player is also Savon Sello company in Sorsasalo, which is currently owned by Powerflute Oyj. One of the biggest projects and investments of recent years is the preparation of the construction of Finnpulp's largest and most modern softwood pulp mill in Kuopio. The most significant retail investments are the Prisma hypermarket completed in December 2007 and the Päiväranta's K-Citymarket completed in August 2008. A hardware store Kodin Terra was opened in Pitkälahti, as well as the Ikano Group's in the Hiltulanlahti area in November 2012 and an IKEA department store earlier this spring.
Demographics.
Kuopio is the eighth largest city in Finland in term of its population. At the beginning of 2021, the population was 120,246, compared to only about 10,000 at the beginning of the 20th century. There are more than 3,000 foreign citizens (31 December 2019). The average age of Kuopio residents is 40,6 years (2014).
Education and business.
Kuopio has always been a city of education. Some of the first schools offering education in Finnish (such as the School for the Blind in 1871, and the Trade School in 1887) were established in Kuopio. Currently the most important institutions are the University of Eastern Finland, the Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Vocational College of Northern Savonia and the Kuopio department of the Sibelius Academy. One of the oldest schools in the city are Kuopio Lyceum High School, which was officially established in 1872, but was originally built in 1826 and designed by Carl Ludvig Engel.
Kuopio is known as a strong center of health (e.g. it has the biggest yearly enrollment rate of medical students in Finland), pharmacy, environment, food & nutrition (all legalized Clinical and Public Health Nutritionists in Finland graduate from the University of Eastern Finland), safety (education in Emergency Services is centered in Kuopio) and welfare professions, as the major organisations University of Kuopio (now part of the University of Eastern Finland since January 2010.), Savonia University of Applied Sciences and Technopolis Kuopio are particularly oriented to those areas.
There are about 4,200 enterprises in Kuopio, of which approximately 180 are export companies. These provide about 45,000 jobs.
People and culture.
Kuopio is known as the cultural center of Eastern Finland. One of the Kuopio's most important cultural venues are the Kuopio Museum, the Kuopio Art Museum and the Kuopio City Theatre in the city center. A wide range of musical (from kindergarten to doctorate-level studies) and dance education is available and the cultural life is active. Notable events include ANTI – Contemporary Art Festival, Kuopio Dance Festival, Kuopio Rockcock, Kuopio Wine Festival, Kuopio Marathon and Finland Ice Marathon in winter. A notable place, however, to enjoy the local flavor of Kuopio life and food is Sampo, a fish restaurant loved by locals and tourists as well.
Kuopio is known for its association with a national delicacy, Finnish fish pastry (Kalakukko), and the dialect of Savo, as well as the hill of Puijo and the Puijo tower. Besides being a very popular outdoor recreation area, Puijo serves also as a stage for a yearly World Cup ski jumping competition.
In inhabitants of Kuopio have a special reputation: they are known as jovial and verbally joking. Within the Savo culture, the onus is placed on the listener to interpret the story. Niuvanniemi a historical psychiatric hospital is also located in the western part of the city in the Niuva district.
During the 2000s, Kuopio has placed very well in a number of image, popularity and city-attractiveness surveys. In 2007 it was placed third, behind Tampere and Oulu.
Religion.
The largest church denomination in Finland, Evangelical Lutheran Church has a diocese in Kuopio, which is shepherded by bishop Jari Jolkkonen. One of the most significant Lutheran churches in the city is the Kuopio Cathedral, completed in 1816.
Kuopio is home of the Finnish Orthodox Church where its primate, archbishop of Karelia and all Finland Leo (Makkonen) is seated. This is an autonomous jurisdiction affiliated with the Patriarchate of Constantinople. It is the only mainstream Orthodox faction to celebrate Easter on the Latin date. The late Archbishop Paul had been successful in producing literature of popular theology. The city is also the location of RIISA- Orthodox Church Museum of Finland.
Kuopio also has an Islamic mosque. Muslims from various parts of the world and certain Finnish Muslims live in Kuopio.
The town is also home to the first Burmese Buddhist monastery in Finland, named the Buddha Dhamma Ramsi monastery.
Sports in Kuopio.
Kuopio bid for the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics, a youth sports festival in the tradition of the Olympics. It became a finalist in November 2008, but ultimately lost to Innsbruck, Austria. Kuopio's image as a small city with a large University and many active young people was considered a model of what the International Olympic Committee seeks for the Games.
International relations.
Kuopio is twinned with 15 cities around the world. It also has one twin county, Lääne-Viru County, Estonia.
Twin towns – Sister cities.
Kuopio is twinned with:


Confederation of Independent Poland

Confederation of Independent Poland (KPN, ) was a Polish nationalist political party founded on 1 September 1979 by Leszek Moczulski and others declaring support for the pre-war traditions of Sanacja and Józef Piłsudski.
It was the first independent political party that was publicly proclaimed in the Eastern Bloc, it was however unrecognized by the People's Republic of Poland government and its chief activists were arrested several times. It didn't participate in the Polish Roundtable Negotiations.
After the fall of communism, Leszek Moczulski was a candidate in the elections for Polish president, but got only 2.5% of votes in the 1990 presidential election and withdrew during the following one. In the 1991 parliamentary election the party got 7.5% of the vote, while in the 1993 parliamentary election it received 5.7%.
In 1996 it suffered a split, with the faction under leaving KPN. KPN then joined Solidarity Electoral Action, but left it in 1997, before the 1997 parliamentary election, in which it didn't participate. For the 2001 parliamentary elections, it allied itself with Solidarity Electoral Action of the Right (AWSP), but its candidates got 0.08% and the AWSP (which got 5.6%) failed to elect a single representative (the threshold was 8%).
In 2003 Leszek Moczulski dissolved KPN, while Słomka declared his KPN-OP the main KPN and gathered some members of the now-disbanded Moczulski's KPN. The party has been re-registered with the Polish authorities in 2007 and took part in the 2009 European parliament elections. The party was dissolved once more on 12 January 2018.


Old High German literature

Old High German literature refers to literature written in Old High German, from the earliest texts in the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century.
Scope.
The term "literature" as it is used in connection with Old High German has a broader scope than for later periods in the history of German: it is not restricted to imaginative works but encompasses everything written in the language, including prayers and theological works as well as verse narratives. The surviving texts were written exclusively by clerics, in the main monks in a small number of monastic scriptoria, and serve almost entirely the purposes of the church in a region that was still being fully Christianized. Pre-Christian and non-clerical literary traditions are reflected in a small number of works, such as the Hildebrandslied and the charms, but otherwise there is little surviving evidence of the oral culture which must have been present outside clerical circles.
The earliest texts date from the second half of the 8th century: translation aids (glosses and glossaries) for those learning to read Latin and translations of Latin Christian texts (prayers, creeds, confessions) for use in missionary or pastoral work among the lay population. Translations and, later, adaptations of Latin Christian texts, continue throughout the period, and are seen in Otfrid's gospel harmony in the 9th century and the extensive works of Notker III in the early 11th century. After Notker, there is gap of some 40 years before evidence of a new tradition of biblical verse in a form of language now called Early Middle High German, which is followed by the flourishing secular literature of Middle High German.
Language.
The Old High German period sees the first attempts to use the Latin alphabet for writing German, something which Otfrid of Weissenburg, writing c. 830, recognized as fraught with difficulty. As Murdoch explains, "Written down without prescriptive rules in more or less isolated monasteries, then, it is to be expected that Old High (and Old Low) German texts show a bewildering amount of linguistic variation." The result is that there is no standard Old High German — each text presents a particular dialect (or dialect mixture), and in the absence of contemporary evidence for dialect boundaries, they have been termed "monastery dialects" (German ).
Genres.
Epic Poetry.
The most famous work in OHG is the "Hildebrandslied", a short piece of Germanic alliterative heroic verse which besides the "Muspilli" is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition.
Lyric Poetry.
Works include the short but splendid "Ludwigslied", celebrating the victory of the Frankish army, led by Louis III of France, over Danish (Viking) raiders at the Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu on 3 August 881. There is also the incomplete "Das Georgslied" about the life of Saint George, and the "Wessobrunn Prayer", a praise of Creation and a plea for strength to withstand sin.
Other Literature.
Works include the "Evangelienbuch" (Gospel harmony) of Otfried von Weissenburg, the Latin-German dictionary "Abrogans", the magical "Merseburg Charms" and the Old High German translation of the theologian Tatian.


Tholos do Barro

The Tholos do Barro (also known as the Tholos da Pena) was a Chalcolithic or Copper-Age domed tomb of block masonry. Its ruins are located on Monte da Pena, near the village of Barro, Torres Vedras municipality, in the Lisbon District of Portugal. The tholos was classified as a National Monument in September 1940.
History.
The Tholos do Barro is a megalithic monument dated between 2500 and 2200 BC. It is located close to a hilltop monument to Our Lady of Fátima. The tholos was discovered in 1908 by Paulo Bovier Lapierre, a French Jesuit priest who was teaching at the Barro college and convent at the foot of the hill. The tomb was excavated a year later by Eugene Jalhay and Félix Alves Pereira but the results of their excavations were not published. Among the items found at the site were implements made from amphibolite, diorite and granite, limestone idols and vessels, ceramics, bones, jewellery, a copper dagger and metal rings. Cylindrical idols characteristic of the early Chalcolithic period permitted the tomb to be dated and it is considered to be contemporary with the nearby Castro of Zambujal, one of the most important chalcolithic sites in the Lisbon area. The finds are located in the Lisbon National Archaeological Museum and also in the Leonel Trindade Museum in Torres Vedras.
The tomb’s chamber was oriented from North to South, with a round burial chamber that was covered with overlapping blocks that created a false dome. This was an unusual construction for a tholos in Portugal, as a wooden roof was usually used. The wall of the chamber, six meters in diameter, is still about a meter high. It is believed that the dead were deposited in a seated position, accompanied by various artifacts and food. The chamber, aisle and antechamber together have a length of 9.7 metres. At the entrance, the remains of a wall of limestone blocks on both sides of about 2.70 m in length are interpreted as the remains of the antechamber. The tomb was surrounded by an outer tumulus made of small stones, with a diameter of approximately 13 metres.


Battle of Strangford Lough

The Battle of Strangford Lough was fought in 877 between two groups of rival Vikings described by the Irish Annals as the "fair heathens" and the "dark heathens". The "Annals of Ulster" describe "Albann", a figure usually identified with Halfdan Ragnarsson, a leader of the Great Heathen Army, as king of the "dark heathens", and "Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib" identifies Bárid mac Ímair, King of Dublin as the leader of the "fair heathens". All accounts agree Halfdan was killed in the battle, and "Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib" adds that Bárid was wounded in it.
Background.
Sometime in the 850s or 860s the three Viking brothers Ímar, Amlaíb Conung and Auisle began to rule as kings in Dublin. Ímar died in 873, Amlaíb in 874, and Auisle in 867; with Bárid, son of Ímar probably succeeding them as king. Some scholars have also suggested that Oistin, son of Amlaíb ruled with Bárid as co-king. According to some scholars Halfdan Ragnarsson was brother to Ímar, Amlaíb Conung and Auisle, and hence uncle to Bárid and Oistin. Halfdan is not described as ruling in Ireland like his brothers in any contemporary source, but he is instead described as one of the leaders of the Great Heathen Army which invaded the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England from 865 onwards. Halfdan is identified by some as a brother of the three kings of Dublin because in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" he is described as the brother of another leader of the Great Heathen Army named Ívarr. This Ívarr is often considered the same as Ímar, primarily because Ímar is absent from Irish records during the period Ívarr is described as a leader of the Great Heathen Army. According to the later Norse sagas Halfdan was the son of the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok, but the historicity of Ragnar is uncertain and the identification of Ragnar as the father of Halfdan is not to be relied upon.
The main historical sources for this period are the Norse sagas and the Irish annals. Some of the annals, such as the "Annals of Ulster" are believed to be contemporary accounts, whereas the sagas were written down at dates much later than the events they describe and are considered far less reliable. A few of the annals such as the "Fragmentary Annals of Ireland" and the "Annals of the Four Masters" were also complied at later dates, in part from more contemporary material and in part from fragments of sagas. According to Downham: "apart from these additions [of saga fragments], Irish chronicles are considered by scholars to be largely accurate records, albeit partisan in their presentation of events".
Battle.
The "Annals of Ulster" record a battle taking place in 877:
According to South "there is now general agreement that Halfdan [Ragnarson] is identical with Albann". Albann is mentioned only one in other time in the annals; in 875 he is named as the killer of Oistin mac Amlaíb, possible co-king of Dublin. Assuming Albann and Halfdan to be the same person, and assuming Halfdan to be the brother of Ímar, this makes Oistin's death nepoticide. Downham suggests this familial connection indicates a motive for the murder; it was part of a dynastic squabble for control of the kingdom. Downham also suggests the squabble continued until 877, of which the battle described by the "Annals of Ulster" was the culmination. The "Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib" expands on the "Annals of Ulster" account:
In this account Halfdan is to be identified with "Ragnall's son". However, this is problematic since in the "Fragmentary Annals" the name of Ímar, Amlaíb, and Auisle's father is Gofraid, not Ragnall. It is possible Ragnall is simply a rendering of Ragnar, meaning Ragnar Lodbrok, who is named as Halfdan's father in the later (and more historically dubious) sagas.


Volhynia Experiment

The Volhynia Experiment was a cultural and political program by the interwar Polish government in the province of Volhynia whose purpose was to create a Ukrainian identity that was also loyal to the Polish state. It was hoped that this program would furthermore lead to pro-Polish sympathies in Soviet Ukraine and serve as a potential aid to Polish plans concerning the Soviet Union. The Volhynia Experiment was opposed both by Ukrainian nationalists from neighboring Galicia and by pro-Soviet communists.
History.
In 1928 Henryk Józewski, the former deputy minister for internal affairs in the Ukrainian government of Symon Petliura, was named voivode, or governor, of Volhynia, to carry out the program of cultural and religious autonomy for Ukrainians in that region. Józewski, a Pole from Kiev (where, unlike in Galicia, Poles and Ukrainians had a history of cooperating with one another), was a Ukrainophile who felt that the Polish and Ukrainian nations were deeply connected and that Ukraine might one day become a "Second fatherland" for Poles.
Józewski brought Ukrainian followers of Symon Petliura, including former officers in Petliura's army, to his capital, Lutsk, to help his Volhynian administration. He hung portraits of Petliura and Piłsudski together in public places, founded an Institute for the Study of Nationality Affairs and an educational society for the Orthodox (which expanded to 870 chapters in Volhynia), subsidized a Ukrainian reading society (which by 1937 had 5,000 chapters), and sponsored Ukrainian theater. The use, in church sermons, of the Ukrainian language instead of Russian, was encouraged.
A loyalist Ukrainian political party, the Volhynian Ukrainian Alliance, was created. This party was the only Ukrainian political party allowed to freely function in Volhynia. Its program called for democracy, separation of church and state, and equality for all citizens. Though many of its supporters, former officers of Symon Petliura, had committed anti-Jewish pogroms in Volhynia during the Revolution, under Józewski's influence antisemitism was not tolerated.
Two groups competed with Józewski and his pro-Polish Ukrainian allies for the allegiance of the Volhynian Ukrainians: the Communist Party of Western Ukraine and the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), based in Galicia. The Communists referred to the Volhynian Experiment as a "Petliurite Occupation", and set up a front party, the Peasant Worker Alliance. The Peasant Worker Alliance, whose affiliation with the Communist party was unknown by most of its supporters, grew to be the most popular party in Volhynia, until it was banned by Jozewski in 1932. Soviet-based partisans fought Jozewski's police in the marshes of northern Volhynia.
While the Communists were coming to Volhynia from the East, Ukrainian nationalists entered from the South. The OUN saw Volhynia as fertile ground for the expansion of its Ukrainian nationalist ideal. By 1935 it was reported that 800 OUN members were operating in Volhynia; they had penetrated many of the Ukrainian institutions that Jozewski had created. According to Jozewski's rivals in the Polish military, the pro-Polish Petliurite Ukrainians in Volhynia failed to match the OUN in terms of organization and numbers.
During the period of his governance, Józewski was the object of two assassination attempts: by Soviet agents in 1932 and by Ukrainian nationalists in 1934.
Cancellation of the Volhynia Experiment.
After his sponsor Pilsudski's death in 1935, Józewski's Ukrainian programme was cancelled. The anti-Ukrainian Polish elements in the Polish military took control over policies in Volhynia. Józewski was criticized for allowing Ukrainians to buy land from Poles, Orthodox churches were demolished or converted to Catholic use during the "revindication" campaign, and by 1938 Józewski himself lost his post. Under his successor, all state support for Ukrainian institutions was eliminated, and it was recommended that Polish officials cease using the words "Ukraine" or "Ukrainian." The Polish army Generals believed that filling all state offices in Volhynia with ethnic Poles would ensure fast mobilization and prevent sabotage in case of a Soviet attack on Poland. Ukrainians were systematically denied the opportunity to obtain government jobs. Although the majority of the local population was Ukrainian, virtually all government official positions were assigned to Poles. Land reform designed to favour the Poles brought further alienation of the Ukrainian population.
Military colonists were settled in Volhynia to defend the border against Soviet intervention.
Despite the ethnic Ukrainian lands being overpopulated and Ukrainian farmers being in need of land, the Polish government's land reforms gave land from large Polish estates not to local villagers but to Polish colonists. This number was estimated at 300,000 in both Galicia and Volhynia by Ukrainian sources and less than 100,000 by Polish sources (see "osadnik").
Plans were made for a new round of colonization of Volhynia by Polish military veterans and Polish civilians and hundreds of new Roman Catholic churches were planned for the new colonists and for converts from Orthodoxy.
Volhynia after the Experiment.
The ultimate result of Polish policies in Volhynia was that a sense of Ukrainian patriotism was created; however this patriotism was not tied to the Polish state. As a result of the anti-Ukrainian Polish policies that followed the Polish government's cancellation of the Volhynian Experiment, both Ukrainian nationalists and Communists found fertile ground for their ideas among the Volhynian Ukrainian population.


Konstantinos Adosidis

Konstantinos Adosidis (1818–1895) was the Ottoman-appointed Prince of Samos from 1873 to 1874, and again from 1879 to 1885.
A native of Kayseri, upon being appointed Prince of Samos he organized all the civil services of the Principality of Samos and he abolished the taxation system based on the tithe, earning him much popularity on the island After ruling for five months he was summoned back by the Ottoman Sultan in order to work elsewhere in administration of the Ottoman Empire, the Samian parliament begged the Sultan to reconsider. But he did not, disregarding the privileges and rights of the Principality of Samos, which stated that the Prince was appointed according to the will of the Samian people. He left Manolis Pyrgios as his representative to govern the island.
Appointed again as Prince of Samos in March 1879, he was welcomed back by the Samians as they remembered his fair ruling. He used to be strict and there was as a result little crimes. No trials took place during this second reign. He fought smuggling and tax favouritism. He settled the economy of the island.
However, his second reign was viewed by the Samians as unfair and too strict. He had a lot of administrative skills but he lacked in patience and calmness. He ended up becoming abrupt and arrogant. Thus he lost all of the people's and the parliament's support. He made more and more enemies every day. He ignored the privileges and rights of the Principality of Samos twice. The first time he dismissed the legally elected Parliament and the second he asked the Ottoman government to send 200 soldiers in order to reinforce the two armies that already remained illegally on the island.
But he also did some good during his second reign. He constructed the road between Mytilinii and Tigani, the aqueduct of Vathi, a lot of schools, prisons, the Court House in Marathokampos, and more.
But the Samians never forgave him for ignoring their rights and privileges. Although the first time the Samian Parliament fought his dismissal, the second time they asked for and obtained it.


Palazzo Gualino

The Palazzo Gualino is an office building in Turin, Italy built in 1928–30 for the entrepreneur Riccardo Gualino by the architects Gino Levi-Montalcini and Giuseppe Pagano.
It is an important example of early Italian rationalist architecture.
The building was used for offices first by Gualino, then by Fiat and finally by the city of Turin, who sold it to a real estate developer in 2012.
A project to convert the office building into high-end apartments was begun in 2012, but was abandoned in 2015.
Construction.
The Palazzo Gualino was built for the financier and art patron Riccardo Gualino, who saw the rationalist work of the architect Giuseppe Pagano (1896–1945) in an exhibition in 1928.
He commissioned Pagano to build his company's headquarters in Turin on Corso Vittorio Emanuele.
The office building for the Gualino enterprises was built on land formerly occupied by the Villa Gallenga.
Part of the earlier building remains as a service structure.
The design was based on formal simplification and careful attention to functional and technical needs.
Pagano and Gino Levi-Montalcini (1902–74) built the Palazzo Gualino in 1928–29, with a flat roof rather than the sloped tile roof typical of other buildings in the city.
In other ways the Rationalist design carefully combined modern and traditional features.
The building has a symmetrical facade with seven floors on the main front on the Corso Vittorio Emanuele, and five floors on the Via della Rocca.
The identical low-stacked floors and the unorthodox but functionally rational horizontal windows convey a sense of efficiency rather than power.
The design covered all aspects of the building's intended use, including the layout, decoration, furniture and fixtures.
The structure is of concrete, with light yellow and green plaster on the facades.
Gualino's former offices on the top floor open onto a veranda that looks over the Parco del Valentino.
Other innovations included the internal layout, the use of new industrial materials and the design of all the furnishings.
Magazines and newspapers hailed the building as the symbol of a new direction in architecture, an expression of progress and an example of new ways of organizing offices and management activities.
The Palazzo Gualino is considered to be a major statement of the emerging rationalist culture in Italy.
The Turin Society of Engineers and Architects recognized the building in 1984 as important both historically and for its artistic value as one of the first buildings of Italian Rationalism, completely preserved in its interior and finish.
Changes in ownership.
Gualino's speculations with the French banker Albert Oustric ran into financial difficulties, and severe problems emerged with his bank during the financial crisis of 1929.
In 1930 Gualino was forced sell his share in SNIA Viscosa and many other investments to try to reduce his debt.
His collections of art were dispersed.
The Italian premier Benito Mussolini responded to Gualino's failure by saying he had caused "serious harm to the national economy".
Gualino was arrested in Turin in January 1931 and sentenced to five years "confino".
This was a form of internal exile.
After Gualino was disgraced, the Palazzo Gualino was purchased by Fiat.
The Agnellis moved their personal offices to the building, which became one of the Fiat headquarters.
In 1988 it became the property of the City of Turin, and housed the city's tax offices.
In 2012 the city decided to sell the palace for €14.2 million to help resolve its financial difficulties.
It was closed and abandoned when it was purchased by Klg Torino, a subsidiary of Gesco Impressit of Rome. The new owner proposed to transform the building into high-end residential units using a design prepared by Baietto Battiato Bianco of Turin.
Renovation project.
The plans to convert the Palazzo Gualino were presented in June 2012.
There would be four offices on the first floor, three floors of underground garages to accommodate 80 cars, and 35 luxury apartments of on the second to sixth floors.
The seventh and highest floor would be a penthouse of .
The project required major changes to the interior structure, including excavation for the new underground parking lots.
The plan was controversial.
The Superintendent of Architectural Heritage insisted on the exterior remaining unchanged apart from the glass "lantern" on the roof of the palace.
However, the carefully designed interior would be completely gutted.
The project began with much publicity on 21 June 2012.
The work was expected to last for 24 to 30 months.
Work on internal demolition continued for a year, then was halted.
In July 2015 it was reported that the builder was insolvent and the project had been abandoned, with two more years of work still required. The title was under dispute, but the city of Turin was trying to regain possession.


Arditi del Popolo

The Arditi del Popolo (The People's Daring Ones) was an Italian militant anti-fascist group founded at the end of June 1921 to resist the rise of Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party and the violence of the Blackshirts ("squadristi") paramilitaries. It grouped revolutionary trade-unionists, socialists, communists, anarchists, republicans, as well as some former military officers, and was co-founded by Mingrino, Argo Secondari, Gino Lucetti – who tried to assassinate Mussolini on 11 September 1926 – the deputy Guido Picelli and others. The "Arditi del Popolo" were an offshoot of the "Arditi" elite troops, who had previously occupied Fiume in 1919 behind the poet Gabriele d'Annunzio, who proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro. Those who split to form the "Arditi del Popolo" were close to the anarchist Argo Secondari and were supported by Mario Carli. The "formazioni di difesa proletaria" (Proletarian Defense Formations) later merged with them. The "Arditi" gathered approximately 20,000 members in summer 1921.
Relations with the workers' movement and organized parties.
Composed of socialists, anarchists and communists, the "Arditi del Popolo" were not supported by leftist parties (neither by the Italian Socialist Party, PSI, nor by the Communist Party of Italy, PCd'I). The "Arditi" were criticized by the socialist newspaper "Avanti!" on July 7, 1921, following a demonstration in Rome the previous day.
On July 10, 1921, Lenin wrote in the "Pravda" an article praising the "Arditi" and criticizing the Bordigan tendency of the PCd'I which opposed militant anti-fascism. On August 3, 1921, the PSI signed a "pacification pact" ("patto di pacificazione") with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, while the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia. Furthermore, the PCd'I ordered its members to quit the organization because of the presence of non-communists in its ranks. The PCd'I organized by themselves some militant groups (the "Squadre comuniste d'azione"), but their actions were relatively minor and the party kept a non-violent, legalist strategy.
The Bordigan tendency was opposed by the Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci, and many communist activists, who supported the "Arditi". In October 1921, the Comintern criticized the "sectarian policy" of the PCd'I, who threatened those of its members who supported the "Arditi" with disciplinary measures. However, after the alignment of Gramsci and of "L'Ordine Nuovo" to the PCd'I's direction, the anarchist "Umanità Nova" newspaper remained the sole mouthpiece of the workers' movement which supported the "Arditi del Popolo".
Parma and dismantlement of the group.
One of the "Arditi"'s most important successes was in Parma in August 1922, when 350 "arditi", directed by the World War I veterans Antonio Cieri and Guido Picelli, successfully defended the city against a 20,000-man fascist offensive headed by Roberto Farinacci, who would join the Grand Council of Fascism in 1935, and Italo Balbo, one of the four main planners of the March on Rome. The "Arditi" benefitted from massive popular support in this task.
But with the complicity of state security forces, the fascists assassinated and detained most of the leaders of the anti-fascist movement, which was completely dismantled by 1924.
Legacy.
Many "Arditi del Popolo" later joined the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). The name was also re-used by Resistance during World War II. The communists Antonello Trombadori and Luigi Longo created an organization thus named on July 25, 1943.


Metriacanthosaurus

Metriacanthosaurus (meaning "moderately-spined lizard") is a genus of metriacanthosaurid dinosaur from the upper Oxford Clay of England, dating to the Late Jurassic period, about 160 million years ago (lower Oxfordian).
History of discovery.
In 1923, German paleontologist Friedrich von Huene wrote a paper on Jurassic and Cretaceous European carnivorous dinosaurs. In this paper, he examined a specimen (OUM J.12144) including an incomplete hip, a leg bone, and part of a backbone, assigning it to a new species of "Megalosaurus": "Megalosaurus parkeri". The specific name honours W. Parker who in the nineteenth century had collected the fossils near Jordan's Cliff at Weymouth. These bones were from the Oxford Clay Formation, which dates to the Upper Jurassic.
In 1932, however, von Huene concluded it was a species of "Altispinax", "A. parkeri".
In 1964, scientist Alick Walker decided these fossils were too different from "Altispinax", as they lacked the long vertebral spines, and named the new genus "Metriacanthosaurus". The generic name is derived from Greek "metrikos", "moderate", and "akantha", "spine". "Metriacanthosaurus" thus gets its name from its vertebrae, which are taller than typical carnosaurs, like "Allosaurus", but lower than other high-spined dinosaurs like "Acrocanthosaurus".
Description.
"Metriacanthosaurus" was a medium-sized theropod with a femur length of . Gregory S. Paul in 1988 estimated its weight at . Thomas Holtz gave a length of 8 meters (26.2 feet). "Metriacanthosaurus" was named for the height of its neural spines, which are actually not overly tall for theropods. They are similar to other theropods such as "Megalosaurus", "Sinraptor", and "Ceratosaurus" in being 1.5 times the height of the centrum.
Classification.
Originally named as a species of "Megalosaurus" in Megalosauridae, "Metriacanthosaurus" has since been reclassified in Metriacanthosauridae. It is thought to be related to genera such as "Yangchuanosaurus", and in 1988 Paul synonymized the two genera. However, a 2007 review of British dinosaurs by Darren Naish and David Martill defending keeping the two genera taxonomically separate. "Metriacanthosaurus" is considered a member of the subfamily Metriacanthosaurinae.
Below is a simplified cladogram of Tetanurae by Matthew Carrano "et al." (2012).


District of Monza

The District of Monza was one of the four divisions of the , the province of Milan during the Napoleonic Italian Republic. It received the numeral III and its capital was Monza.
The district.
Founded on May 13, 1801, it had a population of 78,201 inhabitants. It was composed by the communes of Monza with part of:


Straboe Grave Slab

Straboe Grave Slab is a medieval grave slab and National Monument located in Straboe, County Carlow, Ireland.
Location.
The grave slab is located outside the ruined Templeboy church, about 6 km (4 mi) southeast of Castledermot, and about 1.5 km (1 mile) north of the River Slaney. A holy well, castle, ringfort and spring are located nearby.
Description.
The grave slab measures 1.8 x 0.4 x 0.2 metres. There is a Latin cross at the wider end and a Maltese cross inscribed at the narrower end., with v-shaped ends. Its shape similar to the De Profundis Stone, located in Kilbride, County Westmeath.


Jaromar III

Jaromar III (died 1282) was the younger son of Prince Jaromar II of Rügen and his wife Euphemia. He served as regent of the Principality of Rügen during the many absences of his older brother, Vitslav II. In 1268, he issued a charter as prince to Neuenkamp Abbey.
Jaromar acted as regent when his brother went on a crusade to Livonia in 1282. In this capacity, he issued a privilege of confirmation to Eldena Abbey on 6 July 1282. Vitslav intended to carve out a principality for his brother in the east to serve as a bulwark against the Teutonic Order, but Jaromar died later that year before the plan came to fruition.