List of early Lithuanian dukes

Early dukes of Lithuania (including Samogitia) reigned before Lithuanians were unified by Mindaugas into a state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. While the Palemonids legend provides genealogy from the 10th century, only few dukes were mentioned by contemporary historical sources. All of them were mentioned in written sources the 13th century. Data about them is extremely scarce and is usually limited to few brief sentences. The primary sources are the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and Hypatian Codex.
Rulers recorded in historical sources.
Of the dukes who signed the peace treaty, only four are mentioned in other written sources: Mindaugas, who went on to become the Grand Duke of Lithuania and was crowned as King of Lithuania in 1253, Vykintas, leader of anti-Mindaugas coalition during the civil war in 1248–1251, Bikšys and Ligeikis, both identified as Mindaugas relatives and nobles, mentioned in a document, dated 1260 and sometimes considered a forgery.


Nathan Hale

Nathan Hale (June 6, 1755 – September 22, 1776) was an American Patriot, soldier and spy for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He volunteered for an intelligence-gathering mission in New York City but was captured by the British and executed. Hale has long been considered an American hero and, in 1985, he was officially designated the state hero of Connecticut.
Early life and family.
Nathan Hale was born in Coventry, Connecticut, in 1755, to Deacon Richard Hale and Elizabeth Strong, a descendant of Elder John Strong. He was a great-grandson of Reverend John Hale, an important figure in the Salem witch trials of 1692. He was also the uncle of orator and statesman Edward Everett (the other speaker at Gettysburg) and the grand-uncle of Edward Everett Hale, a Unitarian minister, writer, and activist noted for social causes including abolitionism. He was the uncle of journalist Nathan Hale, who founded the "Boston Daily Advertiser" and helped establish the "North American Review".
In 1769, when Nathan Hale was fourteen years old, he was sent with his brother Enoch, who was sixteen, to Yale College. He was a classmate of fellow Patriot spy Benjamin Tallmadge. The Hale brothers belonged to the Linonian Society of Yale, which debated topics in astronomy, mathematics, literature, and the ethics of slavery. Nathan graduated with first-class honors in 1773 at age 18 and became a teacher, first in East Haddam and later in New London.
American Revolutionary War.
After the Revolutionary War began in 1775, Hale joined a Connecticut militia unit and was elected first lieutenant within five months. His company participated in the Siege of Boston, but Hale remained behind. It has been suggested that he was unsure as to whether he wanted to fight, or possibly that he was hindered because his teaching contract in New London did not expire until several months later, in July 1775. On July 4, 1775, Hale received a letter from his classmate and friend Benjamin Tallmadge, who had gone to Boston to see the siege for himself. He wrote to Hale, "Was I in your condition, I think the more extensive service would be my choice. Our holy Religion, the honor of our God, a glorious country, & a happy constitution is what we have to defend." Tallmadge's letter was so inspiring that, several days later, Hale accepted a commission as first lieutenant in the 7th Connecticut Regiment under Colonel Charles Webb of Stamford.
Hale was also a part of Knowlton's Rangers, the first organized intelligence service organization of the United States of America, led by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Knowlton. In the spring of 1776, the Continental Army moved to Manhattan to defend New York City against the anticipated British attack. In August, the British soundly defeated the Continentals in the Battle of Long Island via a flanking move from Staten Island across Brooklyn. General George Washington was desperate to determine the location of the imminent British invasion of Manhattan; to that end, Washington called for a spy behind enemy lines, and Hale was the only volunteer.
Intelligence-gathering mission.
Hale volunteered on September 8, 1776, to go behind enemy lines and report on British troop movements, which he knew was an act of spying, which would be immediately punishable by death. He was ferried across the Long Island Sound to Huntington, New York, on British-controlled Long Island, on September 12. Hale planned to disguise himself as a Dutch schoolteacher looking for work, though he did not travel under an assumed name and reportedly carried with him his Yale diploma bearing his real name.
While Hale was undercover, New York City (then the area at the southern tip of Manhattan, mostly south of what is now Chambers Street) fell to British forces on September 15, and Washington was forced to retreat to the island's north in Harlem Heights (what is now Morningside Heights). Shortly after, on September 21, a quarter of the lower portion of Manhattan burned in the Great New York Fire of 1776. The fire was later widely thought to have been started by American saboteurs in order to keep the city from falling into British hands, and though setting fire to New York during Washington's retreat had indeed been proposed, Washington and the Congress had rejected the idea and denied responsibility. The Americans accused British soldiers of starting the fires without orders from their superiors so they could sack the city. In the fire's aftermath, more than 200 American Patriots were detained by the British for questioning.
An account of Hale's capture, later obtained by the Library of Congress, was written by Consider Tiffany, a Connecticut shopkeeper and Loyalist. In Tiffany's account, Major Robert Rogers of the Queen's Rangers saw Hale in a tavern and recognized him. After luring Hale into betraying his allegiance by pretending to be a Patriot himself, Rogers and his Rangers apprehended Hale near Flushing Bay in Queens, New York. Another story is that Hale's cousin, a Loyalist named Samuel Hale, was the one who revealed his true identity.
British General William Howe had established his headquarters in the Beekman House in a then-rural part of Manhattan, on a rise between what are now 50th and 51st Streets between First and Second Avenues, near where Beekman Place commemorates the connection. Hale reportedly was questioned by Howe, and physical evidence was found on him. Rogers provided information about the case. According to some accounts, Hale spent the night in a greenhouse at the mansion, while others say he spent it in a bedroom there. He requested a Bible; his request was denied. Sometime later, he requested a clergyman. Again, the request was denied. General Howe did permit him to write letters to his mother and sister, but the next day, they were torn up in front of him by the provost-marshal, Captain Cunningham.
Death and purported last words.
According to the standards of the time, spies were hanged as illegal combatants. By all accounts, Hale comported himself well before the hanging. Frederick MacKensie, a British officer, wrote this diary entry for the day:
On the morning of September 22, 1776, Hale was marched along Post Road to the Park of Artillery, which was next to a public house called the Dove Tavern (at modern-day 66th Street and Third Avenue), and hanged. He was 21 years old.
No official records were kept of Hale's final speech. It has traditionally been reported that his last words, either entirely or in part, were: "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." The account of the quote originated with British Captain John Montresor, who was present at the hanging. The next day, he spoke with American Captain William Hull under a flag of truce. Hull recorded in his memoirs the following quote by Montresor:
Because Hull was not an eyewitness to Hale's speech, some historians have questioned the reliability of this account.
Over the years, there has been a great deal of speculation as to whether or not Hale specifically uttered this line, or some variant of it. If Hale did not originate the statement, it is possible he instead repeated a passage from Joseph Addison's play "Cato", which was widely popular at the time and an ideological inspiration to many Whigs:
It is almost certain that Hale's last speech was longer than one sentence. Several early accounts mention different things he said. These are not necessarily contradictory, but rather, together they give an idea of what the speech might have been like. The following quotes are all taken from George Dudley Seymour's book, "Documentary Life of Nathan Hale", published in 1941 by the author. Enoch Hale, Nathan's brother, wrote in his diary after he questioned people who had been present, October 26, 1776, "When at the Gallows he spoke & told them that he was a Capt in the Cont Army by name Nathan Hale." The February 13, 1777, issue of the "Essex Journal" stated, "However, at the gallows, he made a sensible and spirited speech; among other things, told them they were shedding the blood of the innocent, and that if he had ten thousand lives, he would lay them all down, if called to it, in defence of his injured, bleeding Country." The May 17, 1781, issue of the "Independent Chronicle and the Universal Advertiser" gave the following version: "I am so satisfied with the cause in which I have engaged, that my only regret is, that I have not more lives than one to offer in its service."
Aside from the site at 66th Street and Third Avenue, two other sites in Manhattan claim to be the hanging site:
The Yale Club bears a plaque hung by the Daughters of the American Revolution which states the event occurred "near" the Club. Yale is Hale's alma mater and the Club is at 44th Street and Vanderbilt Avenue, mere feet from Grand Central Terminal. Another account places Hale's execution at Bergen Beach, Brooklyn, but there is no evidence to support this claim.
Hale's body was never found. His family erected an empty grave cenotaph in Nathan Hale Cemetery in South Coventry Historic District, Connecticut.
Legacy.
Statues and appearance.
Statues of Hale are based on idealized archetypes; no contemporaneous portraits of him have been found. Documents and letters reveal Hale was an informed, practical, detail-oriented man who planned ahead. Of his appearance and demeanor, fellow soldier Lieutenant Elisha Bostwick wrote that Hale had blue eyes, flaxen blond hair, darker eyebrows, and stood slightly taller than the average height of the time, with mental powers of a sedate mind and pious. Bostwick wrote:
Hale has been honored with two standing images:
Other statues/markers include:
Ballads.
Two early ballads attempt to recreate Hale's last speech. "Songs and Ballads of the Revolution" (1855), collected by F. Moore, contained the "Ballad of Nathan Hale" (anonymous), dated 1776: "Thou pale king of terrors, thou life's gloomy foe, Go frighten the slave; go frighten the slave; Tell tyrants, to you their allegiance they owe. No fears for the brave; no fears for the brave."; and "To the Memory of Capt. Nathan Hale" by Eneas Munson, Sr., was written soon after Hale's death:
Munson had tutored Hale before college, and knew him and his family well, so even though the particulars of this speech may be unlikely, Munson knew first-hand what Hale's opinions were.


Daira speciosa

Daira speciosa is an extinct species of crab that lived in the Paratethys sea during the Miocene period. It was up to long.


Kiukainen culture

The Kiukainen culture was the last Stone Age culture of the southwestern coast of Finland, dating to 2400–1500/1300 BC. Its material culture combined elements from Pit–Comb Ware and Corded Ware cultures. The area of Kiukainen culture ranged from the shore of Kvarken to Vyborg Bay. Kiukainen culture is named after the Kiukainen municipality where the Finnish archaeologist Matti Kauppinen found the first artefacts.


Viktor Line


Auditorium Conciliazione

Auditorium Conciliazione, also known as Auditorio Pio and former Auditorium di Santa Cecilia, is a hall of audiences, concerts and musical performances located at number 4 of the Via della Conciliazione, in the Borgo Rione in Rome, linked to the Palazzo San Pio X. The work of Marcello Piacentini and Giorgio Calza Bini was inaugurated in 1950 and eight years later became the headquarters of the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia until the end of the century.
Pontifical audience hall.
The audience hall was built during the urban reorganization of the Spina di Borgo in the 1930s, when led to its demolition to allow the desired perspective for the Via della Conciliazione, which connects Ponte Sant'Angelo to St. Peter's Square. The demolition and reconstruction work was sponsored by Benito Mussolini's fascist government. The works were finished after World War II. The construction of the audience hall itself was completed in 1950, the year of the jubilee, when it was inaugurated by Pope Pius XII.
In 1971, the building ceased to be used for this purpose with the inauguration of the Paolo VI Audience Hall, whose official name was at the time Sala Nervi, the work of the architect Pier Luigi Nervi, inaugurated by Pope Paul VI.
Price David de Donatello.
After the move of the Orchestra of Santa Cecilia, the building underwent a new refurbishment between 2004 and 2005, when it remained closed for ten months. On April 29, 2005, it was reopened with the ceremony of the David de Donatello Awards, presented by "l'Accademia del Cinema Italiano" (Italian Film Academy).


Reforma o ruptura

Reforma o ruptura () is the expression used to synthesize the political dilemma faced by Spanish society in the aftermath of the death of Spanish leader Francisco Franco.
After the death of Franco, Spanish society as a whole was not politically active, especially compared to other Western European countries, due to Francoist Spain's sheer length (36 years); citizen political affiliation was very low. There were some demonstrations, especially demanding the amnesty of political prisoners; however, the protests never were a threat to the political stability of Spain. The political and social unrest was concentrated in the Basque Country and in Navarre (due to the repression of Basque nationalism) and, to a lesser extent, in Catalonia.
However, the uncertainty regarding the continuity of the Francoist State boosted political activism, leading to the configuration of a debate on the political future of Spain in which there were essentially two options, with the possibility of a "Francoism without Franco" () being rejected early on:


Bogdan (protovestijar)

Bogdan ( 1407–26), was a Serbian magnate ("velikaš") in the service of Despot Stefan Lazarević (r. 1402–27), with the title of "protovestijar" (financial manager). He was the "ktetor" (donator) of Kalenić monastery, built in 1407–13. He is mentioned in 1426 alongside "veliki vojvoda" Radoslav, "čelnik" Radič and "logotet" Voihna. He had a brother, Petar. His wife was named Milica.


Guildford Cathedral

The Cathedral Church of the Holy Spirit, Guildford, commonly known as Guildford Cathedral, is the Anglican cathedral at Guildford, Surrey, England. Richard Onslow donated the first 6 acres of land on which the cathedral stands, with Viscount Bennett, a former Prime Minister of Canada, purchasing the remaining land and donating it to the cathedral in 1947. Designed by Edward Maufe and built between 1936 and 1961, it is the seat of the Bishop of Guildford.
Construction.
The Diocese of Guildford was created in 1927, covering most of Surrey. Work began nine years later on its cathedral. Following a design competition, The Cathedral Committee chose Edward Maufe (later Sir Edward Maufe) as its architect and the foundation stone was laid by Cosmo Lang, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1936. The brief for the competition specified that construction costs for the entire building should be £250,000. Work began in 1937 but had to be suspended during the Second World War. From 1927 until the dedication of the cathedral in 1961 Guildford's restored Georgian Holy Trinity Church served as pro-cathedral. In 1952 Walter Boulton, who had ministered mostly in India, was made Rector of Holy Trinity and provost (head priest at the pro-cathedral) and revitalised the fund-raising for the new cathedral. The building was consecrated in the presence of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth on 17 May 1961. Much to the disappointment of people in Guildford town and diocese the first Dean of Guildford was not Walter Boulton but The Right Reverend George Clarkson. The building was finally completed in 1965.
By the time that building restrictions were lifted after WW2 there was little left of the original £250,000 previously raised to build the cathedral. The Cathedral Committee, and its formidable secretary, Miss Eleanor Iredale, launched the 'Buy-a Brick' campaign 1952. Between 1952 and 1961 more than 200,000 ordinary people paid 2s 6d (roughly £6 in today's money) to sign their name, or the name of another person on a brick. Elizabeth II and Prince Philip both signed bricks, which are on display inside the cathedral, along with bricks signed by other members of the Royal Family. Before the war, the bricks themselves were made from the clay removed during the installation of 778 piles, driven 50 feet into the hill. They were made by the brickworks at the bottom of Stag Hill. After the war, the brickworks ceased to trade, and bricks were then bought from a brickmakers in Beare Green, Sussex. There is a slight colour variation between the local bricks (forming the eastern end of the cathedral) and the Sussex bricks, forming the western end, tower, garths and Lady Chapel.
Location.
Where to put the cathedral for the new diocese of Guildford was a vexing question until Richard, Lord Onslow donated 6 acres atop Stag Hill — so named because the Kings of England used to hunt there. Its solid red brick outline is visible for miles around. Whilst in 1932 this was far outside the town of Guildford, the growth since then has already begun to wrap around the cathedral to the west and south. Guildford Cathedral shares Stag Hill with the main campus of the University of Surrey.
Description.
Writing in 1932, Maufe said: ‘The ideal has been to produce a design, definitely of our own time, yet in the line of the great English Cathedrals; to build anew on tradition, to rely on proportion, mass, volume and line rather than on elaboration and ornament.' Pevsner Architectural Guides described the building as 'sweet-tempered, undramatic Curvilinear Gothic', and the interior as 'noble and subtle.'
Maufe was influenced by the Continental cathedrals, notably Albi Cathedral in France, and favoured clean modern design in a Gothic Revival style. It is said that the design for Guildford Cathedral in turn influenced the design of Auckland Cathedral in New Zealand.
The tower is high, and contains twelve bells, ten of which were cast by Mears and Stainbank in 1965. The bells were augmented to 12 with two Whitechapel trebles in 1975. The largest bell weighs 30cwt (just over 1.5 tonnes) and is tuned to the key of D. At the top of the tower stands a gilded angel, which turns in the wind. Inside, the cathedral appears to be filled with light, with pale Somerset limestone pillars and white Italian marble floors. It is a Grade II* listed building.
The angel on the top of the tower was given in memory of Sgt. Reginald Adgey-Edgar of the Intelligence Corps, who died on active service in 1944 during World War II. It was designed by William Pickford and created by four silversmiths, before being positioned in Spring 1963. The supporting pole for the angel houses mobile phone antennas.
The wooden cross which stands outside the eastern end of the cathedral was erected in 1933 before construction work began in order to mark the site of the new cathedral. Known as the Ganges Cross, it is made from timbers of Burma teak from the battleship . The ship's emblem — an elephant — is embedded in the wood.
Sir Edward Maufe's wife, Lady Prudence Maufe – an internal designer, Director of Heal and Sons Ltd. and noted broderer – was instrumental in the design of the textiles within the cathedral. Unusually, Maufe's contract included complete control over the internal fittings and colour scheme of the cathedral. This colour scheme references Guildford's wool trade past, notably the blue colour that Guildford wool was famous for. The 1,447 kneelers, using a combination of standard and individual designs, were each reviewed and approved by Lady Maufe and her committee. They were made by over 400 individuals, mainly from the British Isles, but including people from other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand. Whilst most were made during the late 1950s and early 1960s, there are examples dating back to the late 1930s, and they collectively form a fascinating record of society and life at that time.
20th-century sculptors and artists are well represented at Guildford Cathedral, notably Eric Gill, Vernon Hill, Mary Spencer Watson, Dennis Huntley, Alan Collins and local artists John Cobbett and Douglas Stephen. Charles Gurrey created a series of sculptures above the West Front, to mark the Millennium, whilst Canadian sculptor Nicholas Thompson completed a sculpture of a WWI mother and child in 2016.
There are three side chapels. The Children's Chapel is dedicated to children who have died, and holds a book of remembrance for children of any age. The Chapel of the Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment holds the regimental colours and was dedicated in 1959 to the Honour of King Charles the Martyr. The Queen's Royal Regiment was founded in 1661 as the Tangiers Regiment on the marriage of King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza. The Lady Chapel was built using funds donated by the Canadian people, in recognition of the support for Canadian troops stationed in the area during both world wars. It contains a figure of the Madonna and Child, carved in lignum vitae by Douglas Stephen, the then manager of Barclays Bank, Chelsea. The altar and altar rails were originally used in the chapel in the crypt, the place of worship for the original parish, during the construction of the cathedral. The crypt chapel is now used as the choir room.
Stained glass.
Guildford cathedral contains fewer stained glass windows than average, having predominantly a clear glazing scheme (using opaque glass to soften the light) to complement the modernist architectural style of the building. However it includes works by Moira Forsyth, William Wilson, James Powell and Sons, Ninian Comper and Lawrence Lee.
Carved glass.
The cathedral has etched glass works by New Zealand-born artist John Hutton. One set adorns the panel at the west entrance; the other is above the internal doors to the south porch. Hutton achieved particular acclaim for his work at Coventry Cathedral, and he worked on both Coventry and Guildford Cathedrals at the same time.
Dean and clergy.
As of 30 May 2019:
Music.
Organ.
The cathedral organ was installed in 1961 by the Liverpool firm of Rushworth and Dreaper. It is a reconstruction of an organ dating from c. 1866, previously in the Rosse Street Baptist Church in Shipley, West Yorkshire. During the cathedral's renovation in 2015 - 2017, the organ was dismantled and refurbished. There are approximately 4,600 pipes across both the main and positive organs.
Organists.
Organists at Guildford Cathedral have included the composer Philip Moore. Katherine Dienes-Williams became the first female Organist and Master of the Choristers in an English Anglican Cathedral in January 2008.
In culture.
Guildford Cathedral is open to visitors 365 days of the year and free of charge. There are monthly free concerts featuring local musicians with free refreshments, regularly child-friendly Activity Days, a monthly Tots and Carers' Service as well as Art Exhibitions, Guided Tours and Tower Tours (for which there is a small charge). An excellent Café, Seasons, provides light snacks, main meals, children's meals, salads, cakes and hot drinks. Picnic tables on the Cathedral Green provide a welcome area for enjoying food purchased in Seasons or your own picnic. A well-stocked Cathedral Shop is worth a browse with Cathedral themed souvenirs, gifts, books, CDs and much more.
Also the cathedral was the location of some concert of Libera (11.05.2013 – 16.05.2015).
The cathedral was featured in the celebrated 1976 horror film "The Omen".
In 2019, a recording of J.S Bach's St. Luke Passion, recorded in the cathedral, appeared in the infamous final 5 minutes of The Caretaker's final album "Everywhere At The End Of Time". The recording itself is still at large, however, the official Caretaker Discord server is close to finding it.


20th European Film Awards

The 20th Annual European Film Awards took place on December 1, 2007 in Berlin, Germany


Politics of Transnistria

Politics of Transnistria, a "de facto" independent state situated de jure within the Republic of Moldova in Eastern Europe, takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Transnistria is head of state and the Prime Minister of Transnistria is head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Formally, Transnistria has a multi-party system and a unicameral parliament, called the Supreme Council. The president is elected by popular vote. The latest parliamentary elections were held in December 2010; however, they were not monitored by international organizations such as Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which has expressed doubts about the level of democracy in the region, and were not recognized by other countries.
Political parties from Moldova do not recognize the Transnistrian government and do not participate at elections organized by it.
Electorate shrinkage.
As shown by census results, between 1989 and 2004 the population in Transnistria decreased by 18%. This is significantly higher than the decrease of population in the Republic of Moldova (which was 6%, for the same period ).
Data issued by Transnistrian authorities show that of the 555,500 inhabitants, a total of 394,861 are registered to vote, down 5.6% from a year earlier.
Political freedom in Transnistria.
There is disagreement as to whether elections in Transnistria are free and fair. Western organizations, such as the OSCE, have declared that no democratic elections can take place in the region under the present circumstances and have refused to even monitor them.
2005 – 2006 elections.
A team of Russian journalists from Moldova who covered the December 2006 explained that it was "interesting that the position is not a fear of authority, with pressure from government" but that people vote voluntarily because Chişinău, the capital of Moldova, is not an appealing alternative. According to Chişinău-based "Vremea", there is now a whole generation of people in Transnistria who see Chişinău only as something negative.
In August 2006, one month before the referendum against reintegration in Moldova, 4 members of pro-Moldovan NGO "Dignitas" from Slobozia were brought in for questioning by Transnistrian law enforcement as part of an investigation into a bus explosion which had taken place three days earlier and which killed two people. They were released after few days in custody, no charges being made against them.
In November 2006, the Moldovan press reported that the offices of the Rîbniţa district committee of the Communist Party in Transnistria were closed by the local Transnistrian authorities. The Communist Party of Moldova condemned the act and claims it was closed under false pretenses.
2000 – 2001 elections.
Some parties and publications were banned. People's Power Party led by Supreme Soviet member Alexander Radchenko was banned in May 2001; after an appeal the ban was lifted but was reintroduced in December 2001, again the ban was lifted to be reintroduced in August 2002 and confirmed by the "Supreme Court" in December 2002.
"Power to the People" Party led by Nicolae Butchatsky was banned in February 2002.
On November 14, 2001, the Transnistrian customs service banned the distribution of the publication "Glas Naroda", as it contained Radchenko's electoral platform. Radchenko said in a press conference that "Glas Naroda" has been published outside Transnistria because all the printing houses had refused to print it after having discussed the issue with representatives of the Ministry of State Security.
Election results have been contested by some, as in 2001 in one region an undisclosed source reported that Igor Smirnov collected 103.6% of the votes. Nevertheless, some organizations, such as CIS-EMO, have participated and have called them democratic.
Comparison between Moldova's and Transnistria's political system.
While Transnistria has a strongly centralized political system, with the president being also the head of government and having the right to appoint the heads of local (rayonal) administrations, in Moldova the prime minister, elected by the parliament, is the head of government and the heads of rayonal administrations are established by the rayonal councils resulted from local elections.
In Transnistria, the president is elected directly, while in Moldova, the president is elected by the parliament, the political structure of Moldova being a parliamentary republic.
Participation of Transnistrians at Moldovan elections.
The number of Transnistrian holding Moldovan citizenship is disputed. According to the Moldovan government, 400,000 Transnistrians have Moldovan citizenship, which would be the majority of the population and would exceed by a wide margin the amount of ethnic Moldovans living in Transnistria. However, 2004 Transnistrian census data puts the official number of Transnistrians with Moldovan citizenship at 107,600 people (19.4% of respondents).
Transnistria does not allow the organisation of Moldovan elections in Transnistrian territory, just like Moldova does not allow the organisation of Transnistrian elections in Moldovan territory. Polling stations were organised only in those areas of Transnistria under Moldovan government control.
Political parties from Moldova have organisations in Transnistria but refuse to participate in elections organized by the de facto Republic. They participate only in the elections of the Republic of Moldova.
In 2005 Moldovan parliamentary elections nine special polling stations were organised near the Dniester for "guest voters" coming from Transnistria who wished to vote in the Moldovan elections. Around 8000 citizens voted there, who were included in supplementary voter rolls. In those special polling stations results were: 30% for Communist Party of Moldova (compared with 46% in entire Moldova), 50% for Democratic Moldova Bloc (28.5% in entire Moldova), 8% for Christian-Democratic Party (9.1% in entire Moldova) and 6% for each Social Democratic Party and Patria-Rodina Bloc. Due to large turnout of Transnistrian voters queues were formed and some voters didn't manage to vote. As claimed by the Coalition for Free and Democratic Elections, many Transnistrian voters were not informed properly about the place of the voting and some owners of Soviet passports which don't bear the mention "citizen of Moldova" were not allowed to vote.


Skirgaila

Skirgaila (; ; , also known as Ivan/Iwan; ca. 1353 or 1354 – 11 January 1397 in Kiev (Kyiv); baptized 1383/1384 as "Casimir") was a regent of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for his brother Jogaila from 1386 to 1392. He was the son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife Uliana of Tver.
Biography.
After Algirdas' death in 1377, Jogaila became the Grand Duke. It is believed that the dynastic disputes that soon erupted between him and his uncle Kęstutis and his cousin Vytautas the Great were largely inspired by Skirgaila. It is known about his travels to the Teutonic Knights in 1379 just a year prior to the controversial Treaty of Dovydiškės. Skirgaila was the chief supporter of his brother Jogaila and helped him to imprison both Kęstutis and Vytautas in Kreva castle during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384). Some historians speculate that Kęstutis' death after a week in prison was in fact assassination carried out by Skirgaila. As a reward for a job well done, Skirgaila received the Duchy of Trakai.
When Jogaila was preparing for the Union of Kreva, Skirgaila was actively involved in the negotiations and even headed a diplomatic mission to Poland. The negotiations succeeded and Jogaila married Jadwiga of Poland and was crowned as King of Poland in 1386. He appointed Skirgaila on 13 March 1386 as governor in Lithuania, not only on his behalf but also on behalf of queen Jadwiga and Polish Crown.
As ruler of Lithuania, Skirgaila had to deal with his oldest brother Andrei, who still was refusing to accept Jogaila as a Grand Duke. First he defeated Andrei's ally Sviatoslav II of Smolensk in a battle of the Vikhra River near Mstislavl on 29 April 1386, during which Sviatoslav lost his life. Sviatoslav son Yury of Smolensk was forced to accept Lithuanian suzerainty in exchange of princely throne. Later Skirgaila attacked Polatsk; his first expedition in October was unsuccessful, but the next on March 1387 resulted in Andrei's capture and death of his son Simeon, who was killed in a battle. Next month Skirgaila was invested in Polatsk and once again pledged his loyalty to Jogaila, Jadwiga and Polish Crown, promising return of his land in case of his heirless death. Skirgaila was now directly ruling over large portion of Lithuania, including duchy of Vilnius, ruled on behalf of Jogaila. February 20, 1387 Jogaila elevated his brother above other Lithuanian princes and extended his authority over Ruthenian lands.
In 1389 he started a new civil war, but after an unsuccessful attack on Vilnius he had to seek help from the Teutonic Knights. In 1392 Jogaila and Vytautas signed the Ostrów Agreement, and Vytautas became his regent of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Duchy of Trakai was returned to Vytautas as his patrimony.
As a compensation Skirgaila received a portion of Volhynia and Kiev since 1395. The circumstances surrounding his death are not entirely clear. He was interred in Kiev Pechersk Lavra.


Santa Maria da Nives, Atella

The Duomo of Santa Maria ad Nives is a Roman Catholic church, formerly cathedral, located in Atella, province of Potenza, region of Basilicata, Italy.
The church has undergone a number of reconstructions and contains an eclectic array of styles. The stone façade dates to the 13th century with a gothic-style portal and rose window, but the interiors were completed mainly in the 18th-century. The façade has statues of St Anthony Abbot and San Nicola di Bari. The interior has altarpieces depicting the "Annunciation" (circa 1500) and a "Madonna della Neve" from 1800.


West Walton Formation

The West Walton Formation is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period .


Leonhard Kass

Leonhard Heinrich Kass (22 October 1911 – 23 November 1985) was an Estonian football player who played as a left winger. He won the Estonian Championship eight times and the Estonian Cup twice.
Internationally, Kass made 40 appearances for the Estonia national football team since his debut in 1931, and scored 8 goals. He won the 1931 and the 1938 Baltic Cup with the team.


Viscounty of Bas

The Viscounty of Besalú, or Bas (from the Latin "Basso"), was the sub-comital authority in the county of Besalú during the Middle Ages. It was ruled by the House of Cervera (also called "Cerveró(n)" or "Cervelló(n)", from the Latin "Cervaria").


Romanian district

A Romanian district () was an autonomous administrative unit of the Vlachs (or Romanians) in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary.
Origins.
According to scholars who say that the Romanians (or Vlachs) descended from the inhabitants of the Roman province of "Dacia Traiana", the Romanians' territorial organization can be traced back to Roman patterns. Their cohabitation with the Slavs, who settled in the region during the Early Middle Ages, also influenced the Romanians' local administration, as it is demonstrated by the title "knez" of the Romanians' leaders. However, no firm territorial structures developed before the Kingdom of Hungary incorporated Crișana, Banat, Transylvania and other regions inhabited by the Romanians. The territorial units of the Romanians were mentioned as "terrae" ("lands"), "kneziatus" ("a territory under a knez's rule"), "provinciae", "sedes" ("seats") in medieval royal charters, but most commonly as "districtus Valachorum" ("district of the Romanians").
According to a concurring scholarly theory, the Romanians' districts came into existence through organized migration in the 13th-15th centuries. The "knezes" who organized the settlement of the pastoralist Vlachs in the mountainous regions became the hereditary leaders of the newly established villages. The "knezes" were responsible for the collection of the "fiftieth", which was an in kind tax (two ewes for every hundred sheep), specific to the Vlach communities. In exchange, they had a share in the tax income and they were entitled to own mills in their districts.
Administration.
The local administration of the districts is known from documents issued in the second half of the 14th century. The districts, with their own assemblies and officials, had a strong corporate character. For instance, in 1360, the property rights of local "knezes" to two villages was confirmed at the assembly of "all the "knezes" and men of other status" in the Hațeg district. The assembly was presided by the castellan of the royal castle of Hațeg, and the ruling was made by a jury, made up of twelve "knezes", six priests and six communers.
List of Romanian districts.
Districts in Banat.
Almăj.
The Almăj district was located along the upper course of the Nera River between the Semenic Mountains and the Anina Mountains. Royal charters and other documents from the 15th and 16th centuries show that at least fourteen villages (including Rudăria, Gârliște, Prilipeț, Prigor, Lăpușnicu Mare and Bozovici) were situated in the district. In a letter written on 21 August 1430, Nicolaus of Radawitz, the local commander of the Teutonic Knights, who was also Ban of Severin, referred to the knezes and nobles of Almăj, implying that the district had already come to existence. According to the letter, the knezes and nobles refused to accept the Ban's judgement in their conflict with Emeric Himfy. Almăj district (or "pertinencis Halmas") was first mentioned when its representatives (Ioan of Săliște, Blasiu of Gârliște and Ioan, Dragomir's son) were present at the joint meeting of seven Romanian districts in 1452.
Bârzava.
The Bârzava (or "Borzafeu") district was located along the uppermost course of the Bârzava River. At least thirteen villages (including Câlnic, Vasiova and Bratova) were situated in the district, according to documents from the 14th and 15th centuries. The district was first mentioned in 1370 in a royal charter referring to one Peter's village "in pertinencibus Borzafeu".
Caraș.
The Caraș (or "Crasofeu") district was located between the Dognecea Mountains and the Anina Mountains at the hedwaters of the river Karaš. A charter mentioned the domains attached to the royal fortress of Carașova "("castro Crasofeu")" in 1358. Documents from the 14th-16th centuries show that at least seventeen villages were located in the district (including Goruia and Agadici).
Comiat.
The Comiat (or "Comyath") district was situated along the upper course of the Pogăniș River. It was first mentioned as "provincia Comyath" in a charter, issued on 13 March 1369, describing the boundaries of a neighboring domain. At least fifteen villages were located in the district (including Delinești, Ohabița and Apadia). The "nobles and "knezes"" of the district attended at a meeting which was presided by the Ban of Severin in 1391. Between 1435 and 1437, Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary, pledged the district to John Hunyadi. The local inhabitants paid the debt and the pledge was cancelled in 1457, showing that the local Romanians were willing to protect their autonomy.
Cuiești.
The Cuiești (or "Kuesd") district was located along the Bârzava River in the western slopes of the Dognecea Mountains. The district was first mentioned in a royal charter of grant, which was issued on 4 July 1349.


Early history of Switzerland

The early history of Switzerland begins with the earliest settlements up to the beginning of Habsburg rule, which in 1291 gave rise to the independence movement in the central cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden and the Late Medieval growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
Prehistory.
Paleolithic.
A hand-axe fashioned by Homo erectus has been found in Pratteln, which has been dated to 300,000 years ago. Neanderthal presence is known from the Grotte de Cotencher in Neuchatel, dating to 70,000 years ago and from the caves of Wildkirchli in the Appenzell Alps, dated to about 40,000 years ago.
Anatomically modern humans reached Central Europe 30,000 years ago,
but most of what is now Switzerland was covered by glaciers during the Last Glacial Maximum (Würm glaciation). The ice-free parts, northern Switzerland along the High Rhine and part of the Aar basin, were exposed to permafrost.
Human habitation in the Swiss plateau can be shown for the beginning Mesolithic, in Wetzikon-Robenhausen beginning around 10,000 years ago.
Neolithic to Bronze Age.
The Neolithic reaches the Swiss plateau before 7,000 years ago (late 6th millennium BC), dominated by the Linear Pottery culture.
The area was relatively densely populated, as is attested to by the many archeological findings from that period. Remains of pile dwellings have been found in the shallow areas of many lakes. Artifacts dated to the 5th millennium BC were discovered at the Schnidejoch in 2003 to 2005.
In the 3rd millennium BC, Switzerland lay on the south-western outskirts of the Corded Ware horizon, entering the early Bronze Age (Beaker culture)
in step with Central Europe, in the late centuries of the 3rd millennium.
The first Indo-European settlement likely dates to the 2nd millennium, at the latest in the form of the Urnfield culture from c. 1300 BC.
The pre-Indo-European population of the Alpine region is typified by Ötzi the Iceman, an individual of the late 4th millennium BC found in the Austrian Alps (some 25 km east of the Swiss border).
Iron Age.
The Swiss plateau lay in the western part of the Early Iron Age Halstatt culture, and it participated in the early La Tène culture (named for the type site at Lake Neuchatel) which arose out of the Hallstatt background from the 5th century BC.
By the final centuries BC, the Swiss plateau and Ticino were settled by Continental Celtic speaking peoples (Gauls): the Helvetii and Vindelici inhabited the western and eastern part of the Swiss plateau, respectively, and the Lugano area
by the Lepontii.
The interior Alpine valleys of eastern Switzerland (Grisons) were inhabited by the non-Celtic Raetians.
The distribution of La Tène culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern, and between Lake Zurich and the Reuss. The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders.
Almost all the Celtic "oppida" were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss plateau.
About a dozen oppida are known in Switzerland (some twenty including uncertain candidate sites), not all of which were occupied during the same time. For most of them, no contemporary name has survived; in cases where a pre-Roman name has been recorded, it is given in brackets.
The largest were the one in Berne-Engehalbinsel (presumably "Brenodurum", the name recorded on the Berne zinc tablet), on the Aare, and the one in Altenburg-Rheinau on the Rhine.
Of intermediate size were those of Bois de Châtel, Avenches (abandoned with the foundation of "Aventicum" as the capital of the Roman province), Jensberg (near vicus Petinesca, Mont Vully, all within a day's march from the one in Berne, the Oppidum Zürich-Lindenhof at the Zürichsee–Limmat–Sihl triangled Lindenhof hill, and the Oppidum Uetliberg, overlooking the Sihl and Zürichseee lake shore.
Smaller oppida were at Genève ("Genava"), Lausanne ("Lousonna") on the shores of Lake Geneva, at Sermuz on the upper end of Lake Neuchatel, at Eppenberg and Windisch ("Vindonissa") along the lower Aar,
and at Mont Chaibeuf and Mont Terri in the Jura mountains, the territory of the Rauraci.
A female who died in about 200 B.C found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.
Roman era.
In 58 BCE, the Helvetii tried to evade migratory pressure from Germanic tribes by moving into Gaul, but were stopped and defeated at Bibracte (near modern-day Autun) by Julius Caesar's armies and then sent back. In 15 BCE, Tiberius and Drusus conquered the Alps, and the region became integrated into the Roman Empire: the Helvetii settlement area became part first of Gallia Belgica and later of the province of Germania Superior, while the eastern part was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia.
The following 300 years saw extensive Roman settlement, including the construction of a road network and the founding of many settlements and cities. The center of Roman occupation was at "Aventicum" (Avenches), other cities were founded at "Arbor Felix" (Arbon), "Augusta Raurica" (Kaiseraugst near Basel), "Basilea" (Basel), "Curia" (Chur), "Genava" (Genève), "Lousanna" (Lausanne), "Octodurum" (Martigny, controlling the pass of the Great St. Bernard), "Salodurum" (Solothurn), "Turicum" (Zürich) and other places. Military garrisons existed at "Tenedo" (Zurzach) and "Vindonissa" (Windisch).
The Romans also developed the Great St. Bernard Pass beginning in the year 47, and in 69 part of the legions of Vitellius used it to traverse the Alps. The passes were expanded from dirt trails to narrow paved roads. Between 101 and 260, the legions moved out of the region, allowing trade to expand. In Raetia, Roman culture and language became dominant. Nearly 2,000 years later, some of the population of Graubünden still speak Romansh which is descended from Vulgar Latin.
In 259, Alamanni tribes overran the Limes and caused widespread devastation of Roman cities and settlements. The Roman empire managed to reestablish the Rhine as the border, and the cities on Swiss territory were rebuilt. However, it was now a frontier province, and consequently the new Roman cities were smaller and much more fortified.
Christianization and post-Roman era.
In the late Roman period in the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Christianization of the region began. Legends of Christian martyrs such as Felix and Regula in Zürich probably are based on events that occurred during the persecution of Christians under Diocletian around 298. The story of the Theban Legion, which was martyred near Saint Maurice-en-Valais in Valais, figures into the histories of many towns in Switzerland.
The first bishoprics were founded in the 4th and 5th centuries in Basel (documented in 346), Martigny (doc. 381, moved to Sion in 585), Geneva (doc. 441), and Chur (doc. 451). There is evidence from the 6th century for a bishopric in Lausanne, which maybe had been moved from Avenches.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Germanic tribes moved in. Burgundians settled in the Jura, the Rhône valley and the Alps south of Lake Geneva; while in the north, Alamannic settlers crossed the Rhine in 406 and slowly assimilated the Gallo-Roman population, or made it retreat into the mountains. Burgundy became a part of the Frankish kingdom in 534; two years later, the dukedom of Alemannia followed suit.
The Burgundy kings furthered the Christianization through newly founded monasteries, e.g. at Romainmôtier or St. Maurice in the Valais in 515. In the Alaman part, only isolated Christian communities continued to exist; the Germanic faith including the worship of Wuodan was prevalent. The Irish monks Columbanus and Gallus re-introduced Christian faith in the early 7th century. The Bishopric of Konstanz also was founded at that time.
Switzerland in the Middle Ages.
Early Middle Ages.
Under the Carolingian kings, the feudal system proliferated, and monasteries and bishoprics were important bases for maintaining the rule. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 assigned the western part of modern Switzerland (Upper Burgundy) to Lotharingia, ruled by Lothair I, and the eastern part (Alemannia) to the eastern kingdom of Louis the German that would become the Holy Roman Empire. The boundary between Alamania, ruled by Louis, and western Burgundy, ruled by Lothar, ran along the lower Aare, turning towards the south at the Rhine, passing west of Lucerne and across the Alps along the upper Rhône to Saint Gotthard Pass.
Louis the German in 853 granted his lands in the Reuss valley to the monastery of St Felix and Regula in Zürich (modern day Fraumünster) of which his daughter Hildegard was the first abbess. According to legend this occurred after a stag bearing an illuminated crucifix between his antlers appeared to him in the marshland outside the town, at the shore of Lake Zürich. However, there is evidence that the monastery was already in existence before 853. The Fraumünster is across the river from the Grossmünster, which according to legend was founded by Charlemagne himself, as his horse fell to his knees on the spot where the martyrs Felix and Regula were buried.
When the land was granted to the monastery, it was exempt from all feudal lords except the king and later the Holy Roman Emperor (a condition known as Imperial immediacy; in German or ). The privileged position of the abbey (reduced taxes and greater autonomy) encouraged the other men of the valley to put themselves under the authority of abbey. By doing so they gained the advantages of the Imperial immediacy and grew used to the relative freedom and autonomy. The only source of royal or imperial authority was the or of the abbey which was given to one family after another by the emperor as a sign of trust.
In the 10th century, the rule of the Carolingians waned: Magyars destroyed Basel in 917 and St. Gallen in 926, and Saracenes ravaged the Valais after 920 and sacked the monastery of St. Maurice in 939. The Conradines (von Wetterau) started a long time rule over Swabia during this time. Only after the victory of king Otto I over the Magyars in 955 in the Battle of Lechfeld were the Swiss territories reintegrated into the empire.
High Middle Ages.
King Rudolph III of the Arelat kingdom (r. 993–1032) gave the Valais as his fiefdom to the Bishop of Sion in 999, and when Burgundy and thus also the Valais became part of the Holy Roman Empire in 1032, the bishop was also appointed count of the Valais. The Arelat mostly existed on paper throughout the 11th to 14th centuries, its remnants passing to France in 1378, but without its Swiss portions, Bern and Aargau having come under Zähringer and Habsburg rule already by the 12th century, and the County of Savoy was detached from the Arelat just before its dissolution, in 1361.
The dukes of Zähringen founded many cities, the most important being Freiburg in 1120, Fribourg in 1157, and Bern in 1191. The Zähringer dynasty ended with the death of Berchtold V in 1218, and their cities subsequently thus became "independent", while the dukes of Kyburg competed with the house of Habsburg over control of the rural regions of the former Zähringer territory. When the house of Zähringen died out in 1218 the office of Vogt over the Abbey of St Felix and Regula in Zurich was granted to the Habsburgs, however it was quickly revoked.
The rise of the Habsburg dynasty gained momentum when their main local competitor, the Kyburg dynasty, died out and they could thus bring much of the territory south of the Rhine under their control. Subsequently, they managed within only a few generations to extend their influence through Swabia in south-eastern Germany to Austria.
Under the Hohenstaufen rule, the alpine passes in Raetia and the St. Gotthard Pass gained importance. Especially the latter became an important direct route through the mountains. The construction of the "Devil’s Bridge" (') across the ' in 1198 led to a marked increase in traffic on the mule track over the pass. Frederick II accorded the "Reichsfreiheit" to Schwyz in 1240 in the "Freibrief von Faenza" in an attempt to place the important pass under his direct control, and his son and for some time co-regent Henry VII had already given the same privileges to the valley of Uri in 1231 (the '). Unterwalden was ' "reichsfrei", since most of its territory belonged to monasteries, which had become independent even earlier in 1173 under Frederick I "Barbarossa" and in 1213 under Frederick II. The city of Zürich became "reichsfrei" in 1218.
While some of the "Forest Communities" ("Waldstätten", i.e. Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden) were "reichsfrei" the Habsburgs still claimed authority over some villages and much of the surrounding land. While Schwyz was "reichsfrei" in 1240, the castle of Neu Habsburg was built in 1244 to help control Lake Lucerne and restrict the neighboring Forest Communities. In 1245 Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV at the Council of Lyon. When the Habsburgs took the side of the pope, some of the Forest Communities took Frederick's side. At this time the castle of Neu Habsburg was attacked and damaged. When Frederick failed against the Pope, those who had taken his side were threatened with excommunication and the Habsburgs gained additional power. In 1273 the rights to the Forest Communities were sold by a cadet branch of the Habsburgs to the head of the family, Rudolf I. A few months later he became King of the Romans, a title that would become Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolph was therefore the ruler of all the "reichsfrei" communities as well as the lands that he ruled as a Habsburg.
He instituted a strict rule in his homelands and raised the taxes tremendously to finance wars and further territorial acquisitions. As king, he finally had also become the direct liege lord of the Forest Communities, which thus saw their previous independence curtailed. On the April 16, 1291 Rudolph bought all the rights over the town of Lucerne and the abbey estates in Unterwalden from Murbach Abbey in Alsace. The Forest Communities saw their trade route over Lake Lucerne cut off and feared losing their independence. When Rudolph died on July 15, 1291 the Communities prepared to defend themselves. On August 1, 1291 an Everlasting League was made between the Forest Communities for mutual defense against a common enemy.
In the Valais, increasing tensions between the bishops of Sion and the Counts of Savoy led to a war beginning in 1260. The war ended after the Battle at the "Scheuchzermatte" near Leuk in 1296, where the Savoy forces were crushed by the bishop's army, supported by forces from Bern. After the peace of 1301, Savoy kept only the lower part of the Valais, while the bishop controlled the upper Valais.
The 14th century.
With the opening of the Gotthard Pass in the 13th century, the territory of Central Switzerland, primarily the valley of Uri, had gained great strategical importance and was granted "Reichsfreiheit" by the Hohenstaufen emperors. This became the nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy, which during the 1330s to 1350s grew to incorporate its core of "eight cantons" ("Acht Orte")
The 14th century in the territory of modern Switzerland was a time of transition from the old feudal order administrated by regional families of lower nobility (such as the houses of Bubenberg, Eschenbach, Falkenstein, Freiburg, Frohburg, Grünenberg, Greifenstein, Homberg, Kyburg, Landenberg, Rapperswil, Toggenburg, Zähringen etc.) and the development of the great powers of the late medieval period, primarily the first stage of the meteoric rise of the House of Habsburg, which was confronted with rivals in Burgundy and Savoy. The free imperial cities, prince-bishoprics and monasteries were forced to look for allies in this unstable climate, and entered a series of pacts. Thus, the multi-polar order of the feudalism of the High Middle Ages, while still visible in documents of the first half of the 14th century such as the Codex Manesse or the Zürich armorial
gradually gave way to the politics of the Late Middle Ages, with the Swiss Confederacy wedged between Habsburg Austria, the Burgundy, France, Savoy and Milan.
Berne had taken an unfortunate stand against Habsburg in the battle of Schosshalde in 1289, but recovered enough to confront Fribourg (Gümmenenkrieg) and then to inflict a decisive defeat on a coalition force of Habsburg, Savoy and Basel in the battle of Laupen in 1339. At the same time, Habsburg attempted to gain influence over the cities of Lucerne and Zürich, with riots or attempted coups reported for the years 1343 and 1350 respectively. This situation led the cities of Lucerne, Zürich and Berne to attach themselves to the Swiss Confederacy in 1332, 1351, and 1353 respectively.
As elsewhere in Europe, Switzerland suffered a crisis in the middle of the century, triggered by the Black Death followed by social upheaval and moral panics, often directed against the Jews as in the Basel massacre of 1349. To this was added the catastrophic 1356 Basel earthquake which devastated a wide region, and the city of Basel was destroyed almost completely in the ensuing fire.
The balance of power remained precarious during the 1350s to 1380s, with Habsburg trying to regain lost influence; Albrecht II besieged Zürich unsuccessfully, but imposed an unfavourable peace on the city in the treaty of Regensburg. In 1375, Habsburg tried to regain control over the Aargau with the help of "Gugler" mercenaries. After a number of minor clashes (Sörenberg, Näfels), it was with the decisive Swiss victory at the battle of Sempach 1386 that this situation was resolved. Habsburg moved its focus eastward and while it continued to grow in influence (ultimately rising to the most powerful dynasty of Early Modern Europe), it lost all possessions in its ancestral territory with the Swiss annexation of the Aargau in 1416, from which time the Swiss Confederacy stood for the first time as a political entity controlling a contiguous territory.
Meanwhile, in Basel, the citizenry was also divided into a pro-Habsburg and an anti-Habsburg faction, known as "Sterner" and "Psitticher", respectively. The citizens of greater Basel bought most of the privileges from the bishop in 1392, even though Basel nominally remained the domain of the prince-bishops until the Reformation it was de facto governed by its city council, since 1382 dominated by the city's guilds, from this time. Similarly, the bishop of Geneva granted the citizenry substantial political rights in 1387.
Other parts of western Switzerland remained under the control of Burgundy and Savoy throughout the 14th century; the Barony of Vaud was incorporated into Savoy in 1359 and was annexed by Berne only in the context of the Swiss Reformation, in 1536.
In the Valais, the bishop of Sion, allied with Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy, was in conflict of the Walser-settled upper Valais during the 1340s. Amadeus pacified the region in 1352, but there was renewed unrest in 1353. In 1355, the towns of the upper Valais formed a defensive pact and negotiated a compromise peace treaty in 1361, but there was a renewed uprising with the 1383 accession of Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy. Amadeus invaded the Valais in 1387, but after his death in a hunting accident, his mother, Bonne de Bourbon, made peace with the Seven Tithings of the upper Valais, restoring the status quo ante of 1301. From this time, the upper Valais was mostly independent de facto, preparing the Republican structure that would emerge in the early modern period.
In the Grisons, similar structures of local self-government arose at the same time, with the League of God's House founded in 1367, followed by the Grey League in 1395, both in response to the expansion of the House of Habsburg.


Catari

Catari was the name of a tribe belonging to the Venetic peoples that are sometimes confused with Illyrians.


Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel

The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (), spelled Hesse-Cassel during its entire existence, was a state in the Holy Roman Empire that was directly subject to the Emperor. The state was created in 1567 when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half of the Landgraviate and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rheinfels and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt.
During the Napoleonic reorganisation of the Empire in 1803, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to an Electorate and Landgrave William IX became an Imperial Elector. Many members of the Hesse-Kassel House served in the Danish military gaining high ranks and power in the Oldenburg realm due to the fact that many Landgraves were married to Danish princesses. Members of the family who are known to have served Denmark-Norway include Prince Frederik of Hesse-Kassel, Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel, and Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel. It was later occupied by French troops and became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, a French satellite state. The Electorate of Hesse was restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, though by that time there was no longer an emperor to elect.
History.
The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was founded by William IV the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided into four parts. William IV received about half of the territory, with Kassel as his capital. Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Marburg (1537–1604).
Thirty Years' War.
In 1605, Maurice became Calvinist and entered the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side. After being forced to cede some of his territories to Hesse-Darmstadt, Maurice abdicated in 1627 in favour of his son William V. His younger sons received appanages, which created several cadet lines in yet another partition of Hesse. William V allied himself with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and then France, losing most of Hesse-Kassel when Imperial troops invaded. He died in exile in 1637, leaving his widow Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg to act as regent for their eight-year-old son William VI.
Amalie Elisabeth vigorously advanced the interests of Hesse-Kassel. After expelling Imperial troops from Hesse-Kassel, she sent troops to take the city of Marburg, which her father-in-law had lost to their Hesse-Darmstadt relatives. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Hesse-Kassel was further rewarded with most of the County of Schaumburg and the newly secularized Hersfeld Abbey. Amalie Elisabeth also introduced the rule of primogeniture to prevent Hesse-Kasse from being divided again in the future. However, her health was ruined by the stresses of the war, and she died in 1651.
17th and 18th centuries.
William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant, who died in 1670. He was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Charles' chief claim to fame is that he hired out his soldiers to foreign powers as auxiliaries, as a means of improving the finances of his principality. William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, became by marriage King of Sweden. Although the Landgraviate was in personal union with Sweden from 1730 to 1751, the King's younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother as William VIII.
On Frederick I's death in 1751, he was succeeded by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years' War. His successor, Frederick II, converted to Catholicism after a long line of Protestant Landgraviates. When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Frederick II leased Hessian troops to Great Britain for service in America.
End of the landgraviate.
Following the reorganization of the German states during the German mediatisation of 1803, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was raised to the Electorate of Hesse and Landgrave William IX was elevated to Imperial Elector, taking the title William I, Elector of Hesse. The principality thus became known as "", although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel.
In 1806, William I was dispossessed by Napoleon Bonaparte for his support of the Kingdom of Prussia. Kassel was designated as the capital of a new Kingdom of Westphalia, where Napoleon appointed his brother Jérôme Bonaparte as king. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1813, the elector was restored. At the Congress of Vienna, a number of Napoleonic electorates were elevated to kingdoms, and William tried to secure recognition as King of the Chatti. However, he was rebuffed by the Great Powers, who listed him as a "Royal Highness" along with the other grand dukes. To secure his pre-eminence over his cousin, the Grand Duke of Hesse in the former Hesse-Darmstadt, William chose to keep his title of Prince-Elector. The rulers of the Electorate of Hesse became the only Prince-Electors in the German Confederation, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor for them to elect.
Hessian troops in foreign service.
The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel were famous for renting out their army to European Great Powers during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a widespread practice at the time for small countries to rent out troops to larger countries in exchange for subsidies. International jurists drew a distinction between mercenaries and auxiliaries ("Hilfstruppen"). Mercenaries served in foreign armies as individuals, while auxiliaries were sent by their prince to the aid of another prince.
Hesse-Kassel took the practice to an extreme, maintaining 5.3% of its population under arms in 1730. This was a higher proportion than even Prussia, a country that was so heavily militarized that it was described as "not a country with an army, but an army with a country". The Hessian army served as a readily available reserve for the Great Powers.
During the American War of Independence, 25% of the British army consisted of troops rented from German princes, half of whom came from Hesse-Kassel and nearby Hesse-Hanau. For this reason, Americans refer to all German troops serving with the British army as "Hessians", a form of synecdoche.
Namesakes.
The village of Hessen Cassel, Indiana, near Fort Wayne, founded by German immigrants, is named for the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel.


Switzerland in the Iron Age


Saar Protectorate

The Saar Protectorate ( ; ) officially Saarland () was a short-lived protectorate (1946–1957) partitioned from Germany after its defeat in World War II; it was administered by the French Fourth Republic. On rejoining the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957, it became the smallest "federal state" ("Bundesland"), the Saarland, not counting the "city states" ("") of West Berlin, Hamburg, and Bremen. It is named after the Saar River.
The region around the Saar River and its tributary valleys is a geographically folded, mineral-rich, ethnically German, economically important, heavily industrialized area. It has well-developed transportation infrastructure, and was one of the centers of the Industrial Revolution in Germany. Around 1900, the region formed the third-largest area of coal, iron, and steel industry in Germany (after the Ruhr Area and the Upper Silesian Coal Basin). From 1920 to 1935, as a result of World War I, the region was under the control of the League of Nations as the Territory of the Saar Basin.
Geographically, the post–World War II protectorate corresponded to the current German state of Saarland (established after its incorporation into West Germany on 1 January 1957). A policy of industrial disarmament and dispersal of industrial workers was officially pursued by the Allies after the war until 1951 and the region was made a protectorate under French control in 1946. Cold War pressures for a stronger Germany allowed renewed industrialization, and the French returned control of the region to the government of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957.
History.
The region had been previously annexed by France (« bailliage de Sarrelouis », 1685) or occupied during the Revolution (1790–1798) and the Napoleonic Wars, when it had been included in the First French Empire as the "département de la Sarre" between 1798 and 1814.
Post-World War I.
Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Saar was occupied initially by combat units from the United Kingdom and France. In 1920 Britain and France established for the League of Nations mandate of the Saar a nominally independent occupation government was set up to control an area as to the greater part carved out of the Prussian Rhine Province and supplemented by two Bavarian districts (Homburg and St. Ingbert), ceded from the Palatinate. This was sanctioned by a 15-year League of Nations mandate which stationed League of Nations troops from Italy, Sweden, and the United Kingdom in the Saar until 1935. The Saar's coal industry, the dominant industry in the region at the time, was nationalized and directly administered by France, in compensation of the destruction of French mines by the retreating Germans in 1918.
Plebiscite.
On 13 January 1935, a plebiscite held in the territory at the end of the 15-year term, resulted in 90.7% of voters casting their ballot in favour of a return to Germany, and 0.4% voting for union with France. Others (8.9%) favoured the third option of a continued British–French occupation government. After political agitation and maneuvering by Chancellor Adolf Hitler for the re-union of the Saarland with the German Reich ("Rückgliederung des Saarlandes") it was reincorporated in 1935. Its area was not redivided among the Prussian Rhine Province and the Bavarian Palatinate, but united with the latter as the Gau of Saar-Palatinate ("Saarpfalz"). In 1942 it was renamed "Westmark" (Western Boundary) of the Reich. This renaming intended its territorial enlargement by parts of German-occupied French Lorraine which, however, did not materialise.
Post-World War II.
In July 1945, two months after World War II had ended in Europe, the Allied forces were redeploying from the areas they had conquered into their respective zones of occupation. On 10 July 1945, US forces left the Saar and French troops established their occupational administration. On 16 February 1946, France disentangled the Saar from the Allied zones of occupation and established the separate Saar Protectorate, which was no longer under the joint Allied jurisdiction by the Allied Control Council for Germany.
French officials deported a total of 1,820 people from the Saar in 1946 and 1947, most of whom ultimately were allowed to return. However, France had not agreed to the expulsions approved (without input from France) in the Potsdam agreement by the Allies, so France refused to accept war refugees or expellees from the eastern annexed territories in the Saar protectorate or the French zone. However, native Sarrois returning from Nazi-imposed removals (e.g. political and Jewish refugees) and war-related relocations (e.g. evacuation from air raids) were allowed to return to the areas under French control. France aimed at winning over the Saar population for a future annexation.
The principal reason for the French desire for economic control of the Saar was the large coal deposits. France was offered compensation for the return of the Saar to Germany: the treaty permitted France to extract coal from the Warndt coal deposit until 1981.
With effect from 20 July 1946, 109 municipalities of the Prussian Rhine Province within the French zone were added to the Saar Protectorate. By 18 December 1946 customs controls were established between the Saar and allied occupied Germany. By further territorial redeployments between the Saar Protectorate, constituted in early 1947, and neighbouring Rhineland-Palatinate (a new state established on 30 August 1946 in the French zone), 61 municipalities returned to Germany, while 13 other municipalities were ceded to the Saar Protectorate between 8 June 1947 and 1949, followed by one further Palatine municipality incorporated into the Saar in the latter year.
In the speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, given in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes stated the US's motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory".
On 16 July 1947 the Saar mark replaced the Reichsmark as legal tender in the Saar Protectorate, followed by the integration of the Saar into the French currency area on November 15 the same year. While only French franc banknotes circulated from 1954 on, Saar franc coins, designed similar to French coins, were issued too. On 15 December 1947 the Saar was constituted by its constitution as the Saarland, with an elected government under the control of the French high commissioner Gilbert Grandval. December 1947 had severe flooding along the Saar river, water higher than in the past 150 years, with extensive relief efforts undertaken. On 23 March 1948 the customs union with France was confirmed, taking effect on 1 April. In July the same year the Sarrois nationality replaced the German nationality of the Saar population.
Initially, a policy of industrial disarmament was pursued in Germany by the Allied powers (see industrial plans for Germany). As part of this policy limits were placed on permitted production levels, and industries in the Saar were dismantled as they had been in the Ruhr, although mostly in the period before the detachment (see also The 1949 letter from the UK Foreign minister Ernest Bevin to the French Foreign minister Robert Schuman, urging a reconsideration of dismantling policy). This policy was quickly reversed in mid-1946 or early 1947.
Under the Monnet Plan France attempted to gain economic control of the German industrial areas in its assigned zones, especially areas with large coal and mineral deposits, such as the Ruhr (in the British zone) and the Saar. Similar attempts to gain control of, or permanently internationalise, the Ruhr (see International Authority for the Ruhr) were abandoned in 1951, when France rejected the traditional aims of European hegemony predicated upon European enmity. In the face of US and Soviet domination of Europe the French government took a historic step in deciding that the only viable political model for the future lay in European integration; this resulted in the Schuman Declaration in 1950, a plan drafted for the most part by Jean Monnet. The plan put forward France and Germany as the core of a new Europe, requiring a rapprochement and the establishment of close ties between the two states. As a first step France and Germany were to agree to pool their coal and steel resources (see European Coal and Steel Community). German participation in the plan was contingent upon a return of full political control of German industry to the western Federal Government of Germany. However, France delayed the return of the Saar in the hope of cementing its economic control over the region.
Under French rule, pro-German parties were initially banned from contesting the elections. Much support was given to the , a Francophile movement founded by Saar exiles in Paris in early 1945, with many of the exiles having returned after the war. However, a French annexation did not gain the support of a majority of the Sarrois. In the general election of December 1952, 24% of the voters cast blank ballots in support of banned pro-German parties (while the majority still voted for one of the legal parties who wanted the Saar to remain autonomous).
Referendum and the little reunification with Germany.
In the Paris Agreements of 23 October 1954, France offered to establish an independent "Saarland", under the auspices of the Western European Union (WEU), but a referendum held on 23 October 1955 rejected this plan by 67.7% to 32.3% (out of a 96.5% turnout: 423,434 against, 201,975 for) despite the public support of West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the plan. The rejection of the plan by the Sarrois was interpreted as support for the Saar to join the Federal Republic of Germany.
On 27 October 1956 the Saar Treaty established that Saarland should be allowed to join West Germany, as provided by its constitution art. 23, and so Saarland did on 1 January 1957. West Germany had to agree to the channelization of the Moselle. This reduced French freight costs in the Lorraine steel industry. West Germany was also made to agree to the teaching of French as the first foreign language in schools in the Saarland; although no longer binding, the agreement is still in the main followed as the practice is well-established.
The treaty also stated that economic union with West Germany was to be completed by 1960, with the exact date of the replacement of the Saar and French franc by the Deutsche Mark being kept a secret called "Day X" ('). Although the Saar joined West Germany (as Saarland) on 1 January 1957, the franc remained legal tender in Saarland until 6 July 1959. Thus on that date the ' (little reunification) was completed, after more 13 years of separation.
As a footnote to the creation of the European Union, the territorial dispute over control of the Saarland was one of the last between member states and led to the European flag being given a politically neutral ring of twelve stars rather than the originally proposed 15 (one of which was to represent a nominally independent Saar as a member of the Council of Europe).
Minister-Presidents.
The first elections for the parliament of the Saar protectorate were held on 5 October 1947, with four parties being allowed, the Christian People's Party of Saarland (CVP), the Social Democratic Party of Saarland (SPS), the Democratic Party of Saarland (DPS) and the Communist Party of Saarland (KPS). The first Landtag passed the law establishing the constitution of the Saarland on 15 December 1947. The most successful party, the CVP under Johannes Hoffmann formed the first government with the SPS.
Sport.
The Saar competed in the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, and the Saarland national football team participated in the qualifying section of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, but failed to qualify after coming second to the West German team, but ahead of Norway. Helmut Schön, later World and European champion with West Germany, was the manager of the Saarland team from 1952 until Saarland became a part of West Germany in 1957.
The Amateurliga Saarland was the local league within the German Football League System. 1. FC Saarbrücken took part in the first ever European Cup in 1955.
Postage stamps.
Postage stamps were issued specially for the territory from 1920 to 1935, and from 1947 to 1959 (see postage stamps and postal history of the Saar).


2006 in Northern Ireland

Events during the year 2006 in Northern Ireland.


Braich-y-Dinas

Braich-y-Dinas was an extensive hillfort at the summit of Penmaenmawr, one of the northernmost peaks of the Carneddau mountain range on North coast of Wales. It was once considered the best preserved and most complete hillfort in North-West Wales, but completely disappeared in the first half of the 20th century due to a massive quarrying effort by the Darbishire family; which overwhelmed and eventually destroyed all traces of it, despite efforts by the Royal Commission to save the site.
Eyewitness description of the hillfort.
One of the earliest written accounts of the fort comes from Thomas Pennant, who visited the site as part of his 'A Tour in Wales' series (1778–1783). He gives the original height of the mountain as 1545 feet and noted its excellent preservation. The hilltop was defended by massive ramparts of roughly coursed rubble masonry, with no orthostats. By the mid 19th Century these still stood in places to a height of 9 ft., and varied from 8 to 15 ft. in thickness. The number and character of the entrances were uncertain. The interior contained 90 or more huts of various shapes but mostly oval with a usual diameter of 10–20 ft. Their walls were of similar construction to the rampart, about 5 or 6 ft. thick, and stood in places to a height of 4 ft. Summit top cairns were noted by another 18th Century antiquarian – Governor Thomas Pownall – (writing in 1771), and indeed three are included on the detailed 1877 plan (see image in infobox). These are speculated to have been early Bronze Age, which would date organised human activity on the site to at least c. 2000-2500 BC. The wider area is well known for its Neolithic activity, and indeed the Neolithic Axe factory of Graig Lwyd – one of the largest in Wales – can be found nestled at the Southeast corner.
All datable objects were originally assigned to the period AD 100–400, and no evidence was found to indicate more than one period of construction, but T. Driver of the RCAHMW speculates that this conclusion is almost certainly incorrect; noting that the surviving plans of the fort suggest several periods of construction. The evidence of the relics suggests that the most prosperous inhabitants of the fort were those living between the outer and middle ramparts, as all the Samian pottery, and four of the six coins found, came from this part of the fort. The site produced saddle querns, but none of the rotary type'.
An eyewitness account of the site from Archaeologia Cambrensis correspondent H. Longueville Jones; details the hillfort as seen in 1845, as follows:
""Upon reaching the fortified British post of Braich y Dinas, on the summit of Penmaen Mawr, we found the circuits of stone walls still perfect in some parts, but greatly dilapidated in others. They are about 12 to 15 feet height, and about 12 feet thick; of loose stones, not fitting into each other with any attempt at masonry, but merely the shattered debris of that rough mountain piled together by human art. There is no appearance of mortar, nor of vitrification. Between the walls, and inside the central inclosure, but especially on the north eastern side of the summit, are a vast number of small circular cells, or cyttiau, which no doubt served for the habitations of the persons occupying this fortified post, and similar to those so common on the Caernarvonshire hills. Some of them were singularly perfect, and one, near the present north western entrance to the fortress, is still covered with its roof, but we could not penetrate within, and we did not feel ourselves justified in attempting to remove the stones.""
Finds from the site.
 Notable finds from the site include a bronze mount (pictured), which Harold Hughes, writing for Archaeologia Cambrensis, speculated belonged to a handled tankard; based on other, similar pieces from the wider area. Hughes also describes two matching bronze bracelets, ornamented with concentric circles, a design, he conjectured, would have been derived from Celtic, rather than Roman inspiration. Datable finds from the fort include a Middle Bronze Age looped spearhead, Roman coins featuring the Emperors Nerva (reigned 96 AD – 98 AD), Trajan (reigned 98 AD – 117 AD) and Hadrian (reigned 117 AD – 138 AD); as well as numerous pottery fragments, most from late 1st and early 2nd Century AD, with some fewer appearing from as late as the 3rd and 4th Centuries AD. Also found at the site was a large saddle quern, and a sandstone spindle whorl.
Efforts to save the site.
On 10 August 1908, a Royal Commission was authorised and appointed by King Edward VII to 'make an inventory of the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Constructions connected with or illustrative of the contemporary culture, civilisation and conditions of life of the people in Wales and Monmouthshire from the earliest times, and to specify those which seem most worthy of preservation'. From 1909, the newly-founded commission made efforts to rescue the already partly-destroyed site from further harm caused by the extensive quarrying being undertaken by the Darbishire family. Several local newspaper articles from June 1909 attest to this, reporting that MP for Carmarthen District Llewelyn Williams raised the issue of Braich-y-Dinas (named as 'Pendinas') with the Prime Minister, only to be told that the 600 jobs sustained by the quarry took precedence over the prehistoric remains. Having failed in Parliament, attention was turned 'to the creation of a strong public opinion to bring pressure to bear upon the quarrying company concerned with a view of the preservation of the summit of a mountain at Penmaenmawr.' In 1910, an article about the destruction of Braich-y-Dinas appeared in British newspaper The Sphere, which was also picked up and reported across the Atlantic in "The New York Times" . Ultimately unsuccessful and faced with the imminent destruction of the site, members of the commission made several visits to the Braich-y-Dinas hillfort in order to preserve some written record of the remaining structures; and an extensive survey was undertaken by Harold Hughes for the Cambrian Archaeological Association.
Destruction of Braich-y-Dinas.
Evidence given before the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales in February 1912, confirmed that blasting work was currently under way on the crest of Penmaenmawr. Upon examination by the Commission, the Crown Receiver of His Majesty's Woods and Forests Department for Wales and Monmouthshire, Mr William Henry More confirmed that there was no provision in the lease – held and managed by Colonel C. H. Darbishire – for the preservation of the camp. He also argued that extending the quarry in any other direction than towards the camp would be 'impractical and impossible'; speaking from the financial point of view of the owner of the lease. The land in question was described as residing partly on 'Crown wasteland' and partly on 'land sold many years ago to Mr Darbishire, reserving minerals'. It emerged during questioning that surveys of the area from 1840 conducted by one Mr John Jones, failed to show any antiquarian remains at the site. There was some confusion as to the current extent of the damage to the site – indeed Mr More initially described the incursion of the quarry as "small"—but it was conceded upon further examination that because of recent expansion of operations at the blasting site, much of the remaining area must necessarily have already been destroyed. Mr More later admitted to having misled the commission by claiming that only "a small part" of the site was contained within the current lease; when in fact the lease was actually provisioned for an area containing the "whole of the camp." When asked whether it was within the remit of the Department of Woods and Forests to collect information 'respecting the history' of the properties in its charge; Mr More answered that the department had always been run 'to the advantage of the public revenue.' Somewhat contradicting this confused testimony, an RAF aerial photograph taken eleven years later in 1923 appears to show much of the camp still intact; with the shapes of over 50 huts still visible on the mountainside (see comparison image); and indeed finds were still being recorded from the site up until 1934, at the earliest.
Modern day.
Nothing at all remains of the hillfort at Braich-y-Dinas.


Lyubetska Sotnia

The Lyubetska Sotnia (Company) () was one of the sixteen territorial-administrative and military unit of the Chernihiv Regiment of the Cossack Hetmanate. The sotnia's center was the small town of Liubech, now in the Chernihiv Oblast of north-east Ukraine.
The sotnia was created in 1656 and occupied area on left bank Dnieper River. On the territory of the sotnia were 116 settlers. The territory of the sotnia bordered by the Royiska, Bilouska and Slabynska sotnias to the east, Osterska Sotnia of Kyiv Regiment by the south.
In 1782 the sotnia was abolished by the order Empress Catherine the Great as territorial-administrative district. All of the sotnia's territories were included into Chernihiv namestnichestvo. In 1784 it was disbanded as military unit.
Commanders.
Chief in the sotnia was sotnik (sotnia's commander, captain.
List of sotnyks:


Phymosoma

Phymosoma is an extinct genus of echinoids that lived from the Cretaceous to the Eocene. Its remains have been found in Asia, Europe, and North America.


List of years in Luxembourg

This is a timeline of Luxembourgian history. Each article deals with events in Luxembourg in a given year.