History of Alaska

The history of Alaska dates back to the Upper Paleolithic period (around 14,000 BC), when foraging groups crossed the Bering land bridge into what is now western Alaska. At the time of European contact by the Russian explorers, the area was populated by Alaska Native groups. The name "Alaska" derives from the Aleut word "Alaxsxaq" (also spelled "Alyeska"), meaning "mainland" (literally, "the object toward which the action of the sea is directed").
The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. In the 1890s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was granted territorial status in 1912 by the United States of America.
In 1942, two of the outer Aleutian Islands—Attu and Kiska—were occupied by the Japanese during World War II and their recovery for the U.S. became a matter of national pride. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.
Alaska was granted U.S. statehood on January 3, 1959.
In 1964, the massive "Good Friday earthquake" killed 131 people and leveled several villages.
The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline led to an oil boom. In 1989, the "Exxon Valdez" hit a reef in Prince William Sound, spilling between 11 and 34 million U.S. gallons (42,000 and 130,000 m3) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
Prehistory of Alaska.
Paleolithic families moved into northwestern North America before 10,000 BC across the Bering land bridge in Alaska (see Settlement of the Americas). Alaska became populated by the Inuit and a variety of Native American groups. Today, early Alaskans are divided into several main groups: the Southeastern Coastal Indians (the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian), the Athabascans, the Aleut, and the two groups of Eskimos, the Inupiat and the Yup'ik.
The coastal migrants from Asia were probably the first wave of humans to cross the Bering land bridge in western Alaska, and many of them initially settled in the interior of what is now Canada. The Tlingit were the most numerous of this group, claiming most of the coastal Panhandle by the time of European contact and are the northernmost of the group of advanced cultures of the Pacific Northwest Coast renowned for its complex art and political systems and the ceremonial and legal system known as the potlatch. The southern portion of Prince of Wales Island was settled by the Haidas fleeing persecution by other Haidas from the Queen Charlotte Islands (which are now named Haida Gwaii and part of British Columbia). The Aleuts settled the islands of the Aleutian chain approximately 10,000 years ago.
Cultural and subsistence practices varied widely among native groups, who were spread across vast geographical distances.
18th century.
Early Russian settlement.
Russian expeditions of exploration reached Alaska by the early 18th century, and colonial traders (especially fur-traders) followed. On some islands and parts of the Alaskan peninsula, groups of Russian traders proved capable of relatively peaceful coexistence with the local inhabitants. Other groups could not manage the tensions and perpetrated exactions. Hostages were taken, individuals were enslaved, families were split up, and other individuals were forced to leave their villages and settle elsewhere. In addition, during the first two generations of Russian contact, eighty percent of the Aleut population died of Old World diseases, against which they had no immunity.
In 1784 Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island, operating the fur-trading Shelikhov-Golikov Company. Shelikhov and his men killed hundreds of indigenous Koniag, then founded the first permanent Russian settlement in Alaska - on the island's Three Saints Bay. By 1788 Shelikhov and others had established a number of Russian settlements over a large region, including the mainland areas around Cook Inlet.
The Russians had gained control of the habitats of the most valuable sea-otters, the Kurilian-Kamchatkan and Aleutian sea-otters. Their fur was thicker, glossier, and blacker than that of sea-otters on the Pacific Northwest coast and in California. The Russians, therefore, advanced southwards along the Pacific coast only after the superior varieties of sea-otters had become depleted, around 1788. The Russian entry to the Northwest Coast was slow, however, due to a shortage of ships and sailors. Russians reached Yakutat Bay in 1794 and built the settlement of Slavorossiya there in 1795. James Shields, a British employee of the Golikov-Shelikhov Company, reconnoitred the coast as far as the Queen Charlotte Islands. In 1795 Alexander Baranov, hired in 1790 to manage Shelikhov's fur enterprise, sailed into Sitka Sound and claimed it for Russia. Hunting-parties arrived in the following years, and by 1800 three-quarters of Russian America's sea-otter skins were coming from the Sitka Sound area. In July 1799 Baranov returned on the brig "Oryol" and established the settlement of "Arkhangelsk". Destroyed by Tlingits in 1802 but rebuilt nearby in 1804, it became "Novo-Arkhangelsk" (). It soon become the primary settlement and colonial capital of Russian America. (After the United States purchased Alaska in 1867, Novoarkhangelsk was renamed Sitka and became the first capital of Alaska Territory.)
Missionary activity.
Russian fur-traders informally introduced the Russian Orthodox church (with its rituals and sacred texts translated into Aleut at a very early stage) in the 1740s–1780s. During his settlement of Three Saints Bay in 1784, Shelikov introduced the first resident missionaries and clergymen. This missionary activity would continue into the 19th century, ultimately becoming the most visible trace of the Russian colonial period in present-day Alaska.
Spanish claims.
Spanish claims to the Alaska region dated to the papal bull of 1493, but never involved colonization, forts, or settlements. Instead, Madrid sent out various naval expeditions to explore the area and to claim it for Spain. In 1775 Bruno de Hezeta led an expedition; the "Sonora", under Bodega y Quadra, ultimately reached latitude 58° north, entered Sitka Sound and formally claimed the region for Spain. The 1779 expedition of Ignacio de Arteaga and Bodega y Quadra reached Port Etches on Hinchinbrook Island, and entered Prince William Sound. They reached a latitude of 61° north, the most northern point attained by Spain.
In 1788 Esteban José Martínez and Gonzalo López de Haro visited Russian settlements at Unalaska.
The Nootka Crisis of 1789 almost led to a war between Britain and Spain: Britain rejected Spanish claims to lands in British Columbia and Spain seized some British ships. The crisis was resolved in Madrid by the Nootka Conventions of 1790-1794, which provided that traders of both Britain and Spain could operate on the northwest coast, that the captured British ships would be returned and an indemnity paid. This marked a victory for Britain, and Spain effectively withdrew from the North Pacific. It transferred its claims in the region to the United States in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. Today, Spain's Alaskan legacy endures as little more than a few place names, among these the Malaspina Glacier and the towns of Valdez and Cordova.
Britain's presence.
British settlements at the time in Alaska consisted of a few scattered trading outposts, with most settlers arriving by sea. Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard HMS "Resolution", from then-Spanish California all the way to the Bering Strait. During the trip he discovered what became known as Cook Inlet (named in honor of Cook in 1794 by George Vancouver, who had served under his command) in Alaskan waters. The Bering Strait proved to be impassable, although the "Resolution" and its companion ship HMS "Discovery" made several attempts to sail through it. The British ships left the straits to return to Hawaii in 1779.
Cook's expedition spurred the British to increase their sailings along the northwest coast (the north-eastern coast of the Pacific), following in the wake of the Spanish. Alaska-based posts owned by the Hudson's Bay Company operated at Fort Yukon, on the Yukon River, Fort Durham (a.k.a. Fort Taku) at the mouth of the Taku River, and Fort Stikine, near the mouth of the Stikine River (associated with Wrangell throughout the early-19th century).
19th century.
Later Russian settlement and the Russian-American Company (1799–1867).
In 1799, Shelikhov's son-in-law, Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, acquired a monopoly on the American fur trade from Czar Paul I and formed the Russian-American Company. As part of the deal, the Tsar expected the company to establish new settlements in Alaska and carry out an expanded colonization program.
By 1804, Alexander Baranov, now manager of the Russian–American Company, had consolidated the company's hold on the American fur trade following his victory over the local Tlingit clan at the Battle of Sitka. Despite these efforts the Russians never fully colonized Alaska. The Russian monopoly on trade was also being weakened by the Hudson's Bay Company, which set up a post on the southern edge of Russian America in 1833.
In 1818 management of the Russian-American Company was turned over to the Imperial Russian Navy and the Ukase of 1821 banned foreigners from participating in the Alaskan economy. It soon entered into the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825 which allowed British merchants to trade in Alaska. The Convention also settled most of the border between Alaska and British North America.
The Russo-American Treaty of 1824, which banned American merchants above 54° 40' north latitude, was widely ignored and the Russians' hold on Alaska weakened further.
At the height of Russian America, the Russian population reached 700.
Although the mid–19th century were not a good time for Russians in Alaska, conditions improved for the coastal Alaska Natives who had survived contact. The Tlingits were never conquered and continued to wage war on the Russians into the 1850s. The Aleuts, though faced with a decreasing population in the 1840s, ultimately rebounded.
Alaska purchase.
Financial difficulties in Russia, the low profits of trade with Alaskan settlement, and the important desire to keep Alaska out of British hands all contributed to Russia's willingness to sell its possessions in North America. At the instigation of U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, the United States Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for on August 1, 1867 (equivalent to approximately $M in ). This purchase was popularly known in the U.S. as "Seward's Folly", "Seward's Icebox," or "Andrew Johnson's Polar Bear Garden", and was unpopular among some people at the time. Later discovery of gold and oil would show it to be a worthwhile one. Scholars debate whether the purchase of Alaska was a financially profitable for the federal Treasury itself, apart from its benefits to Alaskans and to businesses, and to national defense.
The Department of Alaska (1867–1884).
The United States flag was raised on October 18, 1867, now called Alaska Day, and the region changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, for residents, Friday, October 6, 1867 was followed by Friday, October 18, 1867—two Fridays in a row because of the 12 day shift in the calendar minus one day for the date-line shift.
During the Department era, from 1867 to 1884, Alaska was variously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army (until 1877), the United States Department of the Treasury from 1877 to 1879, and the U.S. Navy from 1879 to 1884. Civil administration of Alaska began in 1877 under the United States Treasury Department. A Collector of Customs was appointed by the President of the United States. The Collector was the highest-ranking official of the United States government in Alaska and de facto Governor. Henry C. DeAhna, a former Union Army Officer and Mottrom D. Ball, a former Confederate Army officer, were the first individuals to serve as Collector of Customs.
When Alaska was first purchased, most of its land remained unexplored. In 1865, Western Union laid a telegraph line across Alaska to the Bering Strait where it would connect, under water, with an Asian line. It also conducted the first scientific studies of the region and produced the first map of the entire Yukon River. The Alaska Commercial Company and the military also contributed to the growing exploration of Alaska in the last decades of the 19th century, building trading posts along the Interior's many rivers.
District of Alaska (1884–1912).
In 1884, the region was organized and the name was changed from the Department of Alaska to the District of Alaska. At the time, legislators in Washington, D.C., were occupied with post-Civil War reconstruction issues, and had little time to devote to Alaska. In 1896, the discovery of gold in Yukon Territory in neighboring Canada, brought many thousands of miners and new settlers to Alaska, and very quickly ended the nation's four year economic depression. Although it was uncertain whether gold would also be found in Alaska, Alaska greatly profited because it was along the easiest transportation route to the Yukon goldfields. Numerous new cities, such as Skagway, Alaska, owe their existence to a gold rush in Canada. Soapy Smith, a crime boss confidence man who operated the largest criminal empire in gold rush era Alaska, was shot down by vigilantes in the famed Shootout on Juneau Wharf. He is known as "Alaska's Outlaw."
In 1899, gold was found in Alaska itself in Nome, and several towns subsequently began to be built, such as Fairbanks and Ruby. In 1902, the Alaska Railroad began to be built, which would connect from Seward to Fairbanks by 1914, though Alaska still does not have a railroad connecting it to the lower 48 states today. Still, an overland route was built, cutting transportation times to the contiguous states by days. The industries of copper mining, fishing, and canning began to become popular in the early 20th century, with 10 canneries in some major towns.
In 1903, a boundary dispute with Canada was finally resolved.
By the turn of the 20th century, commercial fishing was gaining a foothold in the Aleutian Islands. Packing houses salted cod and herring, and salmon canneries were opened. Another commercial occupation, whaling, continued with no regard for over-hunting. They pushed the bowhead whales to the edge of extinction for the oil in their tissue. The Aleuts soon suffered severe problems due to the depletion of fur seals and sea otters which they needed for survival. As well as requiring the flesh for food, they also used the skins to cover their boats, without which they could not hunt. The Americans also expanded into the Interior and Arctic Alaska, exploiting the furbearers, fish, and other game on which Natives depended.
20th century.
Alaska Territory (1912–1959).
When Congress passed the "Second Organic Act" in 1912, Alaska was reorganized, and renamed the Territory of Alaska. By 1916, its population was about 58,000. James Wickersham, a Delegate to Congress, introduced Alaska's first statehood bill, but it failed due to the small population and lack of interest from Alaskans. Even President Warren G. Harding's visit in 1923 could not create widespread interest in statehood. Under the conditions of the Second Organic Act, Alaska had been split into four divisions. The most populous of the divisions, whose capital was Juneau, wondered if it could become a separate state from the other three. Government control was a primary concern, with the territory having 52 federal agencies governing it.
Then, in 1920, the "Jones Act" required U.S.-flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States. All goods entering or leaving Alaska had to be transported by American carriers and shipped to Seattle prior to further shipment, making Alaska dependent on Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the provision of the Constitution saying one state should not hold sway over another's commerce did not apply because Alaska was only a territory. The prices Seattle shipping businesses charged began to rise to take advantage of the situation. This situation created an atmosphere of enmity among Alaskans who watched the wealth being generated by their labors flowing into the hands of Seattle business holdings.
In July 1923 Warren Harding became the first sitting President to visit Alaska as part of his Pacific Northwest 'Voyage of Understanding." Harding arrived by boat from Seattle and made nine stops in the Territory via train which went from Seward to Fairbanks. On July 15 Harding drove in a golden railroad spike at Nenana. The train car in which he rode now sits in Fairbanks' Pioneer Park.
The Depression caused prices of fish and copper, which were vital to Alaska's economy at the time, to decline. Wages were dropped and the workforce decreased by more than half. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt thought Americans from agricultural areas could be transferred to Alaska's Matanuska-Susitna Valley for a fresh chance at agricultural self-sustainment. Colonists were largely from northern states, such as Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota under the belief that only those who grew up with climates similar to that of Alaska's could handle settler life there. The United Congo Improvement Association asked the president to settle 400 African-American farmers in Alaska, saying that the territory would offer full political rights, but racial prejudice and the belief that only those from northern states would make suitable colonists caused the proposal to fail.
The exploration and settlement of Alaska would not have been possible without the development of the aircraft, which allowed for the influx of settlers into the state's interior, and rapid transportation of people and supplies throughout. However, due to the unfavorable weather conditions of the state, and high ratio of pilots-to-population, over 1700 aircraft wreck sites are scattered throughout its domain. Numerous wrecks also trace their origins to the military build-up of the state during both World War II and the Cold War.
World War II.
During World War II, two of the outer Aleutian Islands—Attu and Kiska—were invaded and occupied by Japanese troops. They were the only parts of the continental United States to be invaded and occupied by an enemy nation during the war. Their recovery became a matter of national pride.
On June 3, 1942, the Japanese launched an air attack on Dutch Harbor, a U.S. naval base on Unalaska Island, but were repelled by U.S. forces. A few days later, the Japanese landed on the islands of Kiska and Attu, where they overwhelmed Attu villagers. The villagers were taken to Japan, where they were interned for the remainder of the war. Aleuts from the Pribilofs and Aleutian villages were evacuated by the United States to Southeast Alaska. Many suffered during their two years internment there, and the federal government, charged with their care, provided inadequate health care, food, and shelter.
Attu was regained in May 1943 after two weeks of intense fighting and 3,929 American casualties: 549 killed, 1148 injured and 1200 severe cold injuries, 614 to disease and 318 dead of miscellaneous causes, The U.S. then turned its attention to the other occupied island, Kiska. From June through August, a multitude of bombs were dropped on the tiny island, though the Japanese ultimately escaped via transport ships. After the war, the Native Attuans who had survived their internment were resettled to Atka by the federal government, which considered their home villages too remote to defend.
In 1942, the Alaska–Canada Military Highway was completed, in part to form an overland supply route to the Soviet Union on the other side of the Bering Strait. Running from Great Falls, Montana, to Fairbanks, the road was the first stable link between Alaska and the rest of America. The construction of military bases, such as the Adak base, contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. Anchorage almost doubled in size, from 4,200 people in 1940 to 8,000 in 1945.
Statehood.
By the turn of the 20th century, a movement pushing for Alaska statehood began, but in the contiguous 48 states, legislators were worried that Alaska's population was too sparse, distant, and isolated, and its economy was too unstable for it to be a worthwhile addition to the United States. World War II and the Japanese invasion highlighted Alaska's strategic importance, and the issue of statehood was taken more seriously, but it was the discovery of oil at Swanson River on the Kenai Peninsula that dispelled the image of Alaska as a weak, dependent region. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act into United States law on July 4, 1958, which paved the way for Alaska's admission into the Union on January 3, 1959. Juneau, the territorial capital, continued as state capital, and William A. Egan was sworn in as the first governor.
Alaska does not have counties, unlike every other American state except Louisiana. (Louisiana has parishes). Instead, it is divided into 16 boroughs and one "unorganized borough" made up of all land not within any borough. Boroughs have organized area-wide governments, but within the unorganized borough, where there is no such government, services are provided by the state. The unorganized borough is divided into artificially-created census areas by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes only.
Pioneering conditions in Alaska awoke ingenuity leading to invention of the Alaskan sawmill, an attachment to a chainsaw letting it be used to cut a felled tree into neat parallel-sided planks or boards.
1964 earthquake.
On March 27, 1964 the Good Friday earthquake struck South-central Alaska, churning the earth for four minutes with a magnitude of 9.2. The earthquake was one of the most powerful ever recorded and killed 139 people. Most of them were drowned by the tsunamis that tore apart the towns of Valdez and Chenega. Throughout the Prince William Sound region, towns and ports were destroyed and land was uplifted or shoved downward. The uplift destroyed salmon streams, as the fish could no longer jump the various newly created barriers to reach their spawning grounds. Ports at Valdez and Cordova were beyond repair, and the fires destroyed what the mudslides had not. At Valdez, an Alaska Steamship Company ship was lifted by a huge wave over the docks and out to sea, but most hands survived. At Turnagain Arm, off Cook Inlet, the incoming water destroyed trees and caused cabins to sink into the mud. On Kodiak, a tsunami wiped out the villages of Afognak, Old Harbor, and Kaguyak and damaged other communities, while Seward lost its harbor. Despite the extent of the catastrophe, Alaskans rebuilt many of the communities.
North to the Future.
"North to the Future" is the official state motto of Alaska, adopted in 1967 for the centennial of the Alaska Purchase. As one of the events leading up to the celebration, the Alaska Centennial Commission sponsored a contest in 1963 to come up with a centennial motto and emblem that would express the unique character of the State of Alaska. They offered a $300.00 (which is about $2000 in 2010 dollars) prize to the winning entry. 761 entries were received by the Commission. In December 1963, the commission announced that they had selected Juneau journalist Richard Peter's suggestion. He stated that the motto "...is a reminder that beyond the horizon of urban clutter there is a Great Land beneath our flag that can provide a new tomorrow for this century's 'huddled masses yearning to be free'." The motto represents a visionary optimism for a state filled with promise; promoting the State of Alaska by advising that the future lies with the next-to-the-last United States star located to the north of the Lower 48.
1968 – present: oil and land politics.
Oil discovery, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline.
The 1968 discovery of oil on the North Slope's Prudhoe Bay—which would turn out to have the most recoverable oil of any field in the United States—would change Alaska's political landscape for decades.
This discovery catapulted the issue of Native land ownership into the headlines. In the mid-1960s, Alaska Natives from many tribal groups had united in an effort to gain title to lands wrested from them by Europeans, but the government had responded slowly before the Prudhoe Bay discovery. The government finally took action when permitting for a pipeline crossing the state, necessary to get Alaskan oil to market, was stalled pending the settlement of Native land claims.
In 1971, with major petroleum dollars on the line, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by Richard Nixon. Under the Act, Natives relinquished aboriginal claims to their lands in exchange for access to 44 million acres (180,000 km²) of land and payment of $963 million. The settlement was divided among regional, urban, and village corporations, which managed their funds with varying degrees of success.
Though a pipeline from the North Slope to the nearest ice-free port, almost 800 miles (1,300 km) to the south, was the only way to get Alaska's oil to market, significant engineering challenges lay ahead. Between the North Slope and Valdez, there were active fault lines, three mountain ranges, miles of unstable, boggy ground underlain with frost, and migration paths of caribou and moose. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline was ultimately completed in 1977 at a total cost of $8 billion.
The pipeline allowed an oil bonanza to take shape. Per capita incomes rose throughout the state, with virtually every community benefiting. State leaders were determined that this boom would not end like the fur and gold booms, in an economic bust as soon as the resource had disappeared. In 1976, the state's constitution was amended to establish the Alaska Permanent Fund, in which a quarter of all mineral lease proceeds is invested. Income from the fund is used to pay annual dividends to all residents who qualify, to increase the fund's principal as a hedge against inflation, and to provide funds for the state legislature. Since 1993, the fund has produced more money than the Prudhoe Bay oil fields, whose production is diminishing. , the fund's value was over $30 billion.
Environmentalism, the "Exxon Valdez", and ANWR.
Oil production was not the only economic value of Alaska's land, however. In the second half of the 20th century, Alaska discovered tourism as an important source of revenue. Tourism became popular after World War II, when military personnel stationed in the region returned home praising its natural splendor. The Alcan Highway, built during the war, and the Alaska Marine Highway System, completed in 1963, made the state more accessible than before. Tourism became increasingly important in Alaska, and today over 1.4 million people visit the state each year.
With tourism more vital to the economy, environmentalism also rose in importance. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) of 1980 added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km²) to the National Wildlife Refuge system, parts of 25 rivers to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system, 3.3 million acres (13,000 km²) to National Forest lands, and 43.6 million acres (176,000 km²) to National Park land. Because of the Act, Alaska now contains two-thirds of all American national parklands. Today, more than half of Alaskan land is owned by the Federal Government.
The possible environmental repercussions of oil production became clear in the "Exxon Valdez" oil spill of 1989. On March 24, the tanker "Exxon Valdez" ran aground in Prince William Sound, releasing 11 million gallons of crude oil into the water, spreading along 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of shoreline. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, at least 300,000 sea birds, 2,000 otters, and other marine animals died because of the spill. Exxon spent US$2 billion on cleaning up in the first year alone. Exxon, working with state and federal agencies, continued its cleanup into the early 1990s. Government studies show that the oil and the cleaning process itself did long-term harm to the ecology of the Sound, interfering with the reproduction of birds and animals in ways that still aren't fully understood. Prince William Sound seems to have recuperated, but scientists still dispute the extent of the recovery. In a civil settlement, Exxon agreed to pay $900 million in ten annual payments, plus an additional $100 million for newly discovered damages. In a class action suit against Exxon, a jury awarded punitive damages of US$5 billion, but as of 2008 no money has been disbursed and appellate litigation continues.
Today, the tension between preservation and development is seen in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) drilling controversy. The question of whether to allow drilling for oil in ANWR has been a political football for every sitting American president since Jimmy Carter. Studies performed by the US Geological Survey have shown that the "1002 area" of ANWR, located just east of Prudhoe Bay, contains large deposits of crude oil. Traditionally, Alaskan residents, trade unions, and business interests have supported drilling in the refuge, while environmental groups and many within the Democratic Party have traditionally opposed it. Among native Alaskan tribes, support is mixed. In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, votes about the status of the refuge occurred repeatedly in the U.S. House and Senate, but as of 2007 efforts to allow drilling have always been ultimately thwarted by filibusters, amendments, or vetoes.


Charles Lillard

Charles "Red" Lillard (February 26, 1944 – March 27, 1997) was an American-born poet and historian who spent much of his adult life in British Columbia and became a Canadian citizen in 1967. He wrote extensively about the history and culture of British Columbia, Southeast Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.
Early life and education.
Lillard was born in Long Beach, California and raised in Ketchikan, Alaska. His parents made a living from fishing. Lillard attended the University of British Columbia, earning a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Fine Arts.
Career.
Lillard published several books of poetry; his work was also included in literary publications and anthologies. His collection "Shadow Weather" was shortlisted for the Governor General's Award.
Lillard wrote extensively, and also collected and published stories, about the history of Canada's west coast. His book "Seven Shillings a Year: the History of Vancouver Island" won a BC Book Award in 1986. Lillart also wrote many stories of his travels and experiences in an informal style; he has been criticized for including names of people in his reminiscences without explaining who they were.
In 1978, 1979,and 1981 Lillard was co-editor (with Robin Skelton) of three themed issues, "The West Coast Renaissance" of the literary magazine "The Malahat Review". In 2016 a foundation was set up in Lillard's name which presents an award each year to an author whose non-fiction work has appeared in "The Malahat Review".
He died of cancer, at his home in Oak Bay, British Columbia in 1997. He left his wife, writer Rhonda Batchelor Lillard, and two children, Benjamin (b. 1984) and Joanna (b. 1986).


Treaty 5

Treaty Five is a treaty that was first established in September, 1875, between Queen Victoria and Saulteaux and Swampy Cree non-treaty band governments and peoples around Lake Winnipeg in the District of Keewatin. Much of what is today central and northern Manitoba was covered by the treaty, as were a few small adjoining portions of the present-day provinces of Saskatchewan and Ontario. The Treaty was completed in two rounds. The first was from September 1875 to September 1876. The Crown intended in 1875 to include only "the Indians [east and west] of Lake Winnipeg for the surrender of the Territory uncovered by previous treaties" including "the proposed migration of the Norway House band". Pimicikamak territory was north of the lake. It was included by accident or design of Tepastenam attending the Norway House signing. Additional peoples and groups signed on between 1908 and 1910.
Historical Context.
Treaties had been signed with Indigenous Peoples in most districts well suited for agriculture in central Canada before Confederation in 1867. After Confederation, the purchase of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870 brought to light the question of Indigenous land rights in the areas prime for agriculture in these newly acquired areas. Prior to the signing of treaties, the economy of the prairie provinces relied heavily on the Fur Trade. Though the Canadian government made a formal commitment to organizing and negotiating these treaties, there was little political movement and few resources devoted to the developments of the treaties. A topic commonly discussed during and before the Red River Resistance of 1869-1870 was the need to settle all outstanding Indigenous and specifically the Metis land entitlements. Since there was a large military presence from the Metis during the time of the Resistance, the Canadian Government could not ignore the pushes for treaty negotiations and this is why the Manitoba Act has specific details that the people of Red River would receive adequate land.
According to historian, James Daschuk, the first numbered treaties came about as a result of a strong position from both the Canadian Government and the Indigenous groups. The Indigenous interest in signing Treaty Five came about as a result of the decline in the fur trade. The lack of income from the fur trade was a strong signing motivator for the different Indigenous groups involved in Treaty Five. Prior to the signing of Treaty Five, there was a large influx of European settlers and there was a smallpox outbreak. There was also a large-scale food crisis that was affecting First Nations people in the North of Manitoba. The treaty negotiations from the Canadian government came from an interest in the natural resources in the area. Groups of Cree people from the great plains had been having difficulties with the Canadian government for around fifteen years prior to signing Treaty Five. Many groups had approached the government in previous years regarding a treaty but the government of Canada did not begin negotiations until 1875.
Negotiations.
Prior to 1871, Canada had no clear policy on how to deal with the Indigenous populations in the west. Initially, Indigenous groups in the Lake Winnipeg area were supposed to be included in either Treaties One or Two, but distance made this illogical. This did not mean that the Indigenous Peoples in this area were not interested in developing a treaty. The Canadian government, in conjunction with Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris and the Minister of the Interior, David Laird agreed that a treaty should be signed with Indigenous peoples in this area on 2 July 1875. In 1875, the Canadian Government appointed Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris and the Honourable James McKay to negotiate terms with the different Indigenous groups. The treaty negotiations happened very quickly, three different negotiation sessions took place, each lasting one day. The commissioners of Treaty Five negotiated individually with each Indigenous group involved. Although the Indigenous Peoples in Northern Manitoba are covered under the same treaty as those in the Southern areas, they signed much later than those in the south and for different reasons. The first negotiation and signing of Treaty Five had a lot of input from the Indigenous peoples involved in the treaty. Since there was input from the Indigenous peoples the conditions for the treaty and subsequent agreements were much more appealing to the Indigenous peoples than what the government had originally suggested. The Northern section of the treaty that is now included in Treaty Five was not part of the original agreement. This section was added in 1909-1910 and was not added in the original treaty because there was little interest from the government in utilizing land that was not suitable for agriculture. It was not until the priorities of the government changed at the turn of the century that the government developed an interest in this land. Only once the economic climate changed in the north did the government decide that this land could be beneficial to the development of Canada. Therefore, the reasoning for Treaty Five was twofold: it was because of the Indigenous desire to be included in the agreements that so many other indigenous groups were getting as well as the Canadian governments need to open up new areas for future development. The final boundary of the treaty was along the Manitoba and Ontario border and was not set until 1910 partly because of how long the Ontario-Manitoba border took to settle.
Terms.
The terms for Treaty Five are similar to the terms for Treaty One and Treaty Two. These terms included a promise from the government to provide treaty supplies like ammunition and twine, annuities, access to resources, reserves, and support for agriculture while the Indigenous Peoples were required to maintain law and order and give land to the government. The size of the reserves created in Treaty Five were significantly smaller than those of other treaties. Since the land involved in Treaty Five was not as valuable as the plains, they were not offered the same treaty terms as were offered in Treaty Three and Treaty Four. Treaty Three and Treaty Four had 640 acres for a family of five, whereas Treaty Five granted each family of five 160 acres, or sometimes even 100 acres, which is more similar to the terms of Treaty One and Treaty Two. Terms for Treaty Five included a sum of 500 dollars to aid in the removal of their current houses and to rebuild new houses on the reserve land. A gratuity of five dollars was paid per person to each Indian recognized under the Treaty as well as fifteen dollars for the band leader and 150 dollars for the Chief.
Geography.
Treaty Five covers a great deal of central and northern Manitoba as well as smaller sections of Ontario and Saskatchewan. Treaty Five covers part of the Interlake, the Shield country next to Lake Winnipeg, and the lower Saskatchewan River. The land area that Treaty Five covers is approximately 100,000 square miles. The reserve site proposed by Alexander Miller was located to the west of Lake Winnipeg at Fisher's River. The land in this area was originally thought to not be equipped for agricultural growth and therefore was not originally a candidate for a treaty. In 1874, Lieutenant-Governor Alexander Morris is quoted as saying “the country lying adjacent to Norway House is not adapted to agriculture purposes” and “there is therefore no present necessity for the negotiation of any treaty”. The land that Treaty Five covers was needed by the Canadian Government for the railway that was being built, as they believed that Winnipeg was going to be a centre of communication for the prairies. Lake Winnipeg was seen as valuable body of water as it could be used for both transport and trade. The right of way for steamboats on Lake Winnipeg was a priority for the government, making Treaty Five land very important.
Timeline.
First Treaty Trip, 1875.
Alexander Morris and James McKay were sent as commissioners to negotiate the treaty. On September 20, 1875 Morris and McKay met with Berens River bands at the Wesleyan Mission School House near a trading post along the river. This meeting went smoothly with the only debates being about how the new chiefs were to be elected and how the locations of the reserves were to be chosen. Eventually these issues were resolved and the commissioners received acceptance of the terms.
The next day the commissioner gordon went North to discuss the treaty with two bands of Cree, one Christian and one not, called the Wood band at Norway House by Nelson River. The treaty was signed by the band with little protest and Morris and McKay moved along.
Morris and McKay then moved along to the Grand River Rapids on the Saskatchewan River to meet with the Indigenous groups there on September 27, 1875.They gave this group of Indigenous peoples the same explanation of the treaty that they had given the previous groups. The difference in this case is that the band would need to move from the North side of the river to the South side since the area that they were currently occupying was ideal for a transportation development. The band requested 500 dollars to pay for the rebuilding and moving of their entire settlement and were granted this from the commissioners.
On their way south along Lake Winnipeg on September 28, Morris and McKay came across a man who said he name was Thickfoot and was a spokesperson for the Jack Head Point peoples as well as the peoples of Big Island, Black Island, Wapand, and other islands in the area. He explained to Morris and McKay that he and the people he represented had heard that the commissioners had been having negotiations with other groups and bands and they wanted a chance to be included in the Treaty. Morris and McKay told Thickfoot that a group would be by the following summer to negotiate and confirm the treaty.
Before heading home at the end of the trip. Morris and McKay decided to change the western boundaries of the treaty to include the Swampy Cree at The Pas Settlement on the Saskatchewan River. This area was seen as very important to the government for future developments. The negotiations were set to take place the following summer.
Second Treaty Trip, 1876.
Morris and McKay assigned a Politician, Thomas Howard, and a Land Surveyor, John Lestock Reid, to undertake the task of visiting the bands that had not yet signed the treaty and negotiating with them on the Second Treaty Trip in the summer of 1876. On July 24 they met at Dog Head Point with bands from Bloodvein River, Big Island, Sandy Bar, and St. Peters band as well as Thickfoot's Jack Fish Head band. Negotiations did not go as planned when multiple of the representatives stated that they wanted private negotiations instead of negotiating with multiple other bands present. The Commissioners advised that the bands would only have one chief and a few representatives that would speak for the majority. The representatives were to be chosen by ballot which was extremely unconventional to the Indigenous peoples. This odd way of appointing a leader and having limited people from each band presents indicates that some of the Indigenous groups were not adequately represented in the negotiations.
On August fourth, Howard and Reid headed to Berens River to meet with the Indigenous peoples who had not signed the treaty the summer before when Morris and McKay had been there. The treaty was signed with little discussion and Howard and Reid proceeded on their journey.
Howard and Reid headed to the Saskatchewan River to meet with the Indigenous groups near the Grand River Rapids and provide them with the 500 dollars and other supplies agreed on in the previous years meeting. The Chief of the Grand Rapids band put forth a number of new demands because he was under the impression that the negotiations were still ongoing. Howard had to explain to them that the treaty was completed the previous year and the band eventually agreed to the terms although they still maintain that they had been misled by the terms of the treaty.
Howard and Reid then both set off to different bands to provide goods promised in the previous year or to negotiate new terms with groups who had not been up to negotiations the previous summer.
Treaty terms were adjusted until 1907, although the government of Canada was reluctant to make changes between 1876 and 1907. In 1930, the Canadian government and each of the prairie provinces signed the Natural Resources Transfer Agreement, allowing the prairie provinces more control over the land and resources.
Issues.
The speed at which the treaty was negotiated left room for a great deal of misunderstanding for both the government commissioners and the Indigenous peoples. In many instances treaties were negotiated orally and then were written down separately. In some cases, the oral terms negotiated with Indigenous groups did not match what was eventually written down. This posed issues as there were sometimes two varying terms of the negotiations. Another issue that treaty negotiations faced was the language barrier, especially in what is known as the “surrender clause.” The official language used in Treaty Five is, “The Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians and all other the Indians inhabiting the district hereinafter described and defined, do hereby cede, release, surrender and yield up to the Government of the Dominion of Canada, for Her Majesty the Queen and Her successors for ever, all their rights, titles and privileges whatsoever to the lands included within the following limits.” However, a present-day Indigenous leader translated the text to mean “I quit this land,” stating that if the Indigenous groups had known what they were agreeing to, they would not have signed.
One of the issues that Indigenous groups encountered were the smaller portions of land that they received as opposed to the land received in previous treaties. Smaller lands and smaller reserve area led to fewer resources in the long run for Indigenous peoples included in Treaty Five. Fewer benefits were given to Indigenous people included in Treaty Five than in previous numbered treaties.
In 1895, Indigenous missionary James Settee informed the Lieutenant-General, J. Shultz that at least twenty residents of the reserve had not received their annuity. Another issue encountered by the Treaty-Indians in 1876 was an immigration of Icelandic immigrants who settled on land that had been requested in Treaty Five or that was being inhabited by Indigenous groups who had signed Treaty Five, smallpox then broke out and many settlers and Indigenous people perished in the winter of 1877. The decade of the 1880s saw a rise in the death rate on reserves from Tuberculosis.
Present Day.
Although the terms in which the treaties were signed may not have been exactly what the Indigenous groups wanted, the acceptance of these treaties created a permanent relationship between the Canadian government and these groups. Many Indigenous groups feel that the treaties in general restrict traditional activities, while still acknowledging the good that treaties did in the past. After the signing of Treaty Five until around 1930, First Nations hunting was becoming more and more restricted by laws and regulations. Many Indigenous groups that signed Treaty Five have ongoing land claims with the Canadian Government. Another contemporary issue facing signatories of Treaty Five is that the land they live on is in extremely rural areas, making access to hospitals and resources difficult to access. The cost of living and transportation can be very high, which poses an issue.
List of Treaty Five First Nations / People.
There were many different groups involved in the signing of Treaty Five. Both Indigenous groups and Métis groups were involved.


Five Crows

Five Crows, also known as Hezekiah, Achekaia, or Pahkatos, was a Cayuse Indian chief. His principal rival for the role of Head Chief of the Cayuse was Young Chief (Weatenatemany).
Five Crows was the maternal half-brother of Tuekakas, Old Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce, and the brother-in-law of Peopeomoxmox. The richest of the Cayuse chiefs with over 1,000 horses, he was ruined financially by the Cayuse War that followed the 1847 Whitman Mission killings. Although he was not involved in the killings, he took one of the mission hostages, Lorinda Bewley, as his wife. After he was wounded in the Cayuse War the Nez Perce under Tuekakas nursed him back to health. Five Crows was popular with the Cayuse people and spoke often at the treaty council.
Five Crows died in Pendleton, Oregon at age 70 and his body was found near Athena, Oregon.


La Placita, Colorado

La Placita was a small 1890s Hispanic settlement located in southeastern Colorado in the Purgatoire River Valley. The name "La Placita" is the New Mexican Spanish word for small plaza. It is located south of La Junta and east of Trinidad on the grounds of the Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS).
History and background.
Hispanic settlement of the Purgatoire River Valley took shape in the late 1860s when the Cordova family, formally of Taos, New Mexico, built a fortified plaza. Soon after, other settlements followed. By 1874, the area had a population of roughly 450 people, and as was the case with most frontier settlements there was a higher percentage of men than women.
In the 1880s ranch consolidations began to take place in the area, often using public land for feeding grounds. British based Prairie Cattle Company bought and amassed 2.2 million acres south of the Arkansas River. This encroachment of Anglo peoples into the traditionally Mexicano and Hispanic lands began to change the landscape and community dramatically, especially as statehood and citizenship became factors after the Mexican American War. At the time of La Placita’s founding, the New Mexican settlers were outnumbered by settlers who moved to Colorado from other states.
La Placita was settled around 1890 and was occupied for roughly a decade before being abandoned by 1898. The people of La Placita never legally owned the land, but formed very permanent settlements which were thoughtfully arranged. This type of settlement pattern was historic in nature as most Mexicano populations would move out to a new area and begin to work and modify the land before attempting to claim legal ownership. The land had to be tested for its validity and fertility before a commitment could be made.
Abandonment of La Placita likely occurred due to a thinning of the Mexicano population. As populations moved out to settle new areas and territories they became more and more distanced from one another. This would make it difficult for homesteaders as they would find themselves a long trip from necessities such as midwives, healers, and churches. This lack of community likely lead to abandonment of sites which found themselves far from centers where necessities could be accessed more readily.
Environment.
La Placita is on the Purgatoire River. The Purgatoire River starts in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of Colorado and ends when it meets the Arkansas River. The river is marked by mesas, rock promontories, arroyos, and canyons. The Purgatoire River is often the relied upon source of water in the region during drought. The area is characterized as arid with an average annual precipitation of 12 inches a year. The average temperature in the winter is 30 degrees Fahrenheit and 90 degrees Fahrenheit is the average temperature in the summer. The area contains a large number of grasslands, juniper trees, shrubs, and cacti. Local animal life includes mountain lions, bobcats, antelope, bear, raccoons, mice and rats, as well as a variety of birds.
La Placita is located between two canyons, Welsh and Red Rock, and is part of the lower Dakota Formation. The settlement was intentionally constructed on a terrace below the prairie but above the canyon. This placement protected the settlement from winter winds but still left it open to summer breezes when temperatures could spike to 110 degrees Fahrenheit.
Archaeology.
Survey.
After purchasing land to create the PCMS in the early 1980s, the U.S. Army hired archaeologists to document the material history of the area. From 1983 onward, archaeologists and architectural historians repeatedly surveyed the PCMS.
A 1993 survey conducted in the PCMS recorded fifty sites with standing structures and visible surface artifacts. Site 5LA6104, later named "La Placita", was among the sites recorded by the survey.
Investigation and excavation.
The multi-household La Placita settlement consists of stone structures arranged in a crescent shape around an open area. The structures sit below rock outcrops and above an arroyo that feeds into Red Rock Canyon. Dr. Bonnie Clark, currently at the University of Denver, began field investigations at the site in 2000.
Structures.
There are six primary structures, all constructed from local tabular sandstone and mud mortar. Architecturally, the walls were approximately 2.5 m high and had flat roofs, none of which survive in the present. The floors of the structures were packed earth, compacted through daily use.
The La Placita settlement appears to have at least three rooms for domestic use. There is one two-room structure and two one-room structures that are of a size consistent with domestic architecture in the region.
On the eastern edge of the site is a two-room structure that includes a fogon, a fireplace located in the southeast corner of the original room. Archaeological excavation determined that the two-room structure and another one-room structure were connected by a zaguan, a covered breezeway that was a typical feature of Hispanic architecture in the region. Such a feature may be considered an exterior room or workspace.
Because the attached one-room structure did not appear to have a heat source, it has also been suggested that it may have been a chapel, or capilla, because of its fine masonry and the presence of similar structures in other Hispanic settlements.
The one-room structure on the western edge of the series of structures is also thought have been for domestic use. Although it lacks a fireplace, it is probable that there was a cast-iron stove in one corner. This assertion is supported by the discovery of stove pieces in the area south of the structure. A terraced area just outside the doorway of the structure was most likely used to grow vegetables for the household.
La Placita is also thought to have several features relating to livestock, including a corral built against a rock face and a barn. One small structure is thought to be a chicken coop, supported by the discovery of eggshells and chicken bones throughout the site. The animal remains gathered from the site suggest that sheep, goats and cattle were all present at La Placita.
A stone masonry structure built into the hillside is thought to have functioned as a place for food storage. Similar storerooms have been found at other Hispanic sites, and the one at La Placita appears to be a soterrano that uses the natural insulation abilities of the hillside to protect perishable supplies.
Non-structural features.
La Placita is also thought to have had a horno, a "beehive-shaped outdoor oven". A horno like the one at La Placita is a common feature of Nuevomexicano occupations and would have been shared by multiple households.
La Placita appears to have had a reliable water source located southwest of the structures. The residents of La Placita collected the natural water that leached through the rock by building a rock wall around the seep thus creating a small basin in which water collected.
The plaza.
The plaza, central to nearly every New Mexican architectural and settlement pattern, is also an important aspect of the La Placita settlement and daily life. The plaza was a common space that echoed the plazas in villages where La Placita’s residents previously lived.
The plaza may have been used as a space for watching children, entertaining guests and performing ritual or traditional activities. Within the context of the regional Hispanic community, the plaza would have served as a place for inhabitants of the Purgatoire River area to gather and interact through feasts and religious celebrations.
Life at La Placita.
In considering how La Placita was occupied, it is important to note that each room in the structure functioned as self-sufficient unit with a heating source - chimney or iron stove, window and door. A typical household at La Placita may have consisted of a married couple, children and other relatives. From the domestic space at the site, it is estimated that La Placita housed at least eighteen people.
The residents of La Placita sold livestock and sheep wool at market, but the settlement was most likely supported by several male residents that worked at larger regional ranches while women cared for children, prepared food, and raised livestock. The presence of mass-produced goods - such as apparel, an axe head, and nails - at La Placita suggests that the residents were engaged with the market economy.
Site importance.
La Placita, as an archaeological site, is an excellent illustration of what it meant to be Mexicano in Colorado during the end of the 19th century. It also gives insight into how people carefully modified the land even without having legal ownership. Finally, the short occupation of La Placita illuminates the effects of shifts in population as an influx of Anglo peoples moved into traditional Mexicano lands after the Mexican American War.


York, Alaska

York was a settlement in the U.S. state of Alaska. The mining camp was situated at the mouth of Anikovik River, at Cape York on the Seward Peninsula. It was a distributing point for the region lying to the north. In the spring of 1900, York promised to be a place of importance, but in the early fall, its population had been reduced to about 20–30. The settlement included a number of log cabins and half a dozen substantial frame buildings. During the stormy months of the fall, landing at York was difficult. It was reached overland with horses from Port Clarence. Fifteen miles to the west of York, at Cape Prince of Wales, is the city of Kengegan (Wales), which is the westernmost settlement on the North American continent. York is about from Nome and from Port Clarence. The lack of shelter from southerly storms made the landing at York during the fall months often both difficult and dangerous. The post office established here in April 1900 was discontinued in 1902. York's entire population was killed off during the Spanish flu and the disease likely reached Wales from York where it went on to kill 170 of the town's 310 residents.


Kosoha

Kosoha was an Indian scout serving in the United States Army during the Indian Wars who received the Medal of Honor for bravery.
Biography.
Kosoha was born in Arizona and after entering the army served as a scout in the Indian Wars. He received the Medal of Honor for "engagements with Apaches".
Medal of Honor citation.
Rank and organization: Indian Scouts. Place and date: Winter of 1872–73. Entered service at: ------. Birth: Arizona. Date of issue: 12 April 1875.
Citation:
Gallant conduct during campaigns and engagements with Apaches.


Pacific Coach Lines

Pacific Coach Lines (PCL) was a tour, and charter company operating in Vancouver, Victoria, and Whistler.
PCL was the official bus transportation service between Vancouver International Airport and Whistler Village, British Columbia, Canada until 12 December 2018 when the route was taken over and operated by YVR Skylynx.
Pacific Coach Lines mainly used Prevost coaches.
On 31 March 2019, the company ceased all operations.


Reach Museum

The Reach Museum, also known as the Hanford Reach Interpretive Center, is a museum and visitor center for Hanford Reach National Monument located in Richland, Washington. The center tells a story of the cultural, natural, and scientific history of the Hanford Reach and Columbia Basin area, as well as promoting tourism.
The Columbia River Exhibition of History, Science, and Technology (CREHST) was the predecessor that transitioned into what is now the Hanford Reach Interpretive Center.
The Reach opened on July 1, 2014.
Features.
The Reach is host to two main exhibit galleries. The exhibit in gallery one tells the story of the history of Hanford Reach and the surrounding area. Gallery two presents the story of the Hanford Site's early days and its role in the Manhattan Project. The museum also hosts a rotating exhibit which tells various stories of local history. There is an outdoor stage for various events and musicals. Educational activities are offered by the center, from camps for kids to current environmental forums, and the museum hosts off site tours to several local areas.
Building.
The Reach has a 14,000 square foot ground floor which contains the galleries, rotating exhibit, a great hall, and a store. The museum has seen approximately 70,000 visitors since opening in July 2014, and has worked with about 15,000 students as of December, 2015.
The project development lasted more than 10 years and had several bid phases. Construction on the facility started in 2013.


Julius Bloedel

Julius Harold Bloedel (March 4, 1864 – September 21, 1957) was an American businessman and entrepreneur who operated primarily in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada.
Biography.
Born in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, Bloedel moved from Wisconsin to Fairhaven, Washington (later Bellingham) in 1890, where he became president of Fairhaven National Bank. He engaged in several frontier business ventures, including the Samish Lake Lumber and Mill Company, Blue Canyon Coal Mines, and, as mentioned, the Fairhaven National Bank. He partnered and worked closely with the Bellingham pioneers. Although many of these operations folded eventually, Bloedel's financial know-how managed to keep him afloat through a series of boom-and-bust economic trials. In August 1898, he founded the Whatcom Logging Company with fellow frontier businessmen John Joseph Donovan and Peter Larson, which would later become known as the Bloedel-Donovan Lumber Mills. A park with this name exists today in Bellingham, which sits on the site of Bloedel's first lumber mill, which he dedicated as a park in 1946.
Using his existing operation in Bellingham as collateral, he began acquiring land in Canada, hoping to expand his lumber operation. In 1911, he and two new partners, John Stewart and Patrick Welch, came to Canada and began acquiring large blocks of forests on British Columbia's Vancouver Island. The Bloedel, Stewart and Welch operation eventually overshadowed Bloedel's previous ventures and their Franklin River logging camp soon became one of the world's largest logging operations. Here, in the 1930s, the Canadian logging industry saw its first steel spar and chainsaw. Welch and Stewart were also contractors on the construction of the Pacific Great Eastern Railway, operating with another partner as Foley, Welch & Stewart.
In the fall of 1911, the same year he started his Canadian logging operation, he moved to Seattle, where he lived with his wife, Mina Louise Prentice. He had three children: Prentice, Lawrence, and Charlotte. Julius Bloedel died in Seattle in 1957.
In the 1950s, now under the direction of his son Prentice, Bloedel's company merged with the HR MacMillan Company to form one of the largest forest products companies in the world. MacMillan Bloedel Limited, often called just "Mac-Blo", was eventually taken over by Weyerhaeuser in 1999. Bloedel Hall at the University of Washington in Seattle was named for Julius Bloedel. The Bloedel Conservatory of Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver was named for his son Prentice Bloedel for donating nearly $1.4 million for its construction in 1967. The Bloedel Reserve on Bainbridge Island, Washington, was created by Prentice Bloedel and his wife Virginia.
His son Lawrence Bloedel was the librarian of Williams College. Upon his death, his collection of 300 artworks was bequeathed to the Whitney Museum of American Art and to the Williams College Museum of Art. After Lawrence's death, his widow, Eleanore Bloedel, bequeathed Field Farm in Williamstown, Massachusetts to The Trustees of Reservations.


The Eleanor Roosevelt Story

The Eleanor Roosevelt Story is a 1965 American biographical documentary film directed by Richard Kaplan.
It won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 1965.
The Academy Film Archive preserved "The Eleanor Roosevelt Story" in 2006.


DeNorval Unthank

DeNorval Unthank (December 14, 1899 – September 20, 1977) was an American physician and civil rights activist in Portland, Oregon. Unthank was one of the first black doctors in Oregon and the only black physician operating in Portland during the 1930s. He became the first black member of the City Club of Portland in 1943, and co-founded the Urban League of Portland in 1945.
Biography.
Unthank was born in 1899 in Allentown, Pennsylvania. He had seven siblings, and his mother died when he was nine. Unable to support him, his father sent him to live with his aunt and uncle in Kansas City. Unthank attended the University of Michigan, and later transferred to the University of Kansas where he graduated with a Bachelor of the Arts degree. He later received his medical degree from Howard University in 1926. Unthank moved to Portland in 1929, into the all-white neighborhood of Westmoreland. Unthank's family was harassed with threatening phone calls and repeatedly had rocks thrown through the windows of their home, forcing them to move four times before they were able to settle. Unthank was the only black physician operating in Portland during the 1930s. He became the first black member of the City Club of Portland in 1943. Unthank co-founded the Urban League of Portland in 1945, and served as president of the Portland NAACP chapter. Unthank moved with his family to the Irvington neighborhood in 1952. He was named Oregon Doctor of the Year in 1958. Four years later, he was named Citizen of the Year by the Portland Chapter of the National Conference of Christians and Jews.
Unthank retired from medical practice in 1970, and served as a medical consultant for the Oregon Workmen's Compensation Board from 1970 until 1976. He died on September 20, 1977.
Personal life.
Unthank and his wife, Thelma Shipman, had five children: DeNorval Jr. (1929–2000), Thomas, James (1938–2018), Thelma (1940–2009), and Lesley.
Legacy.
DeNorval Unthank Park, in the neighborhood of Boise, was dedicated to him in 1969. A rededication ceremony was held in 2011. Other namesakes include Unthank Plaza, a senior living facility in the Boise neighborhood, and the DeNorval Unthank Health Clinic, also in the Boise neighborhood.


Gridiron, Sonora

Gridiron was a steamboat landing and woodyard on the lower Colorado River in Sonora state of northwestern Mexico.
It supplied fuel wood to heat the steam boilers of the shipping steamboats on the Colorado River from 1854 to the late 1870s.
Geography.
Gridiron was located above Port Famine, and below Ogden's Landing. Gridiron lay along the east bank of the river below what is now the Sonora/Mexico—Arizona/U.S. border.


James Withycombe

James Withycombe (March 21, 1854 – March 3, 1919) was an American Republican politician who served as the 15th Governor of Oregon.
Biography.
Withycombe was born to tenant farmers Thomas and Mary Ann Withycombe in Tavistock, England, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1854. Withycombe immigrated to the United States with his parents in 1871, settling on a farm near Hillsboro, Oregon. He worked on his father's farm for four years, and in 1873 Withycombe purchased his own parcel on the Horace Lindsay Land Claim, later expanding his holdings to .
Agriculture became Withycombe's passion, becoming a prosperous livestock breeder and establishing a reputation as a successful scientific farmer. On June 6, 1875, in Washington County he married Isabell Carpenter, and the couple would have a daughter and three sons together.
Farmer and educator.
His success led to his involvement in local farming organizations. He became a charter member of the Farmington Grange, and later became a leader in the state grange movement. From these platforms, Withycombe's efficient, innovative, and profitable farming methods became a model for farmers across the Pacific Northwest. His stature gained him an appointment as State Veterinarian in 1889, where he would diligently work to improve conditions of livestock health around the state.
Although mostly self-educated, he was sought after by the Oregon Agricultural College at Corvallis (now Oregon State University) in 1898 to be the head of the college's experimental farming station. He received his Master's Degree in Agriculture 1891 from OAC. Using this position to advance Oregon agriculture, he would play a major part in introducing alfalfa and clover to Eastern Oregon, laying the groundwork for the region's future agricultural economy.
Withycombe also became heavily involved in Oregon's agricultural industry, serving as president of the North Pacific Wool Growers and Northwest Sheep Breeders Associations. His tenureship on the board of the Oregon Academy of Sciences saw the dairy industry's profits rise from $2.5 million to $20 million. Such accomplishments built up respect for Withycombe statewide and gained the state Republican Party's attention.
Governorship.
Withycombe would enter politics in the 1906 Oregon gubernatorial election. He won the Republican nomination in the primary but lost in the general election to incumbent Democratic Governor George Earle Chamberlain. The 1910 gubernatorial election of controversial Democratic Governor Oswald West energized Oregon Republicans, who tapped Withycombe for the 1914 gubernatorial race. He handily defeated challenger Charles Smith; the first Republican Governor to assume office via election since T. T. Geer in 1903.
As Governor, James Withycombe vigorously promoted agricultural development. A notable proposal from his administration was to ask the Legislative Assembly to subsidize flax production as a prison industry.
The Withycombe Administration backed the "Good Roads" movement, creating the Oregon Highway Commission while in office. With the new commission in place, a large road-building program was initiated, establishing many of Oregon's modern state routes and highways.
Upon the U.S. entry into the First World War, Governor Withycombe took a vocal and patriotic position in support of the war effort. He encouraged volunteer military service, and promoted the state's war industries.
While in office, he took a strong position against labor unions. He spoke out publicly against the Industrial Workers of the World, claiming that it terrorized labor and would cripple industry following several instances of IWW threats to disrupt production in 1917. He organized veterans of the Spanish–American War into an Oregon State Defense force, and encouraged citizens in Eastern Oregon to form self-defence committees to defend the state against violent labor agitators. Withycombe used his powers as Governor to prevent a shipyard strike in Astoria, by calling out the National Guard.
His 1918 reelection campaign capitalized on his wartime acts, portraying him as a wartime Governor actively protecting the state and aiding the defense of the United States. These efforts gained him a second term, of which he only served two months.
Death and legacy.
Withycombe died in office of a heart condition on March 3, 1919, succeeded by Secretary of State Ben W. Olcott. He was interred in Mount Crest Abbey Mausoleum in City View Cemetery in Salem, Oregon.
Withycombe Hall at Oregon State University is named after the him, as he was the head of the agricultural research station at OSU's predecessor (Oregon Agricultural College). The building is home to the Department of Animal and Rangeland Sciences, plus it contains an auditorium used by the Theater Department.
Camp Withycombe, a military facility in Clackamas, was named for him.


Thomas Posey

Thomas Posey (July 9, 1750March 19, 1818) was an officer in the American Revolution, a general during peacetime, the third Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, Governor of the Indiana Territory, and a Louisiana Senator.
Early life.
Family and background.
Thomas Posey was born on the banks of the Potomac River on a farm adjacent to Mount Vernon in Fairfax County, Virginia on July 9, 1750. According to his own account, he was "born of respectable parentage." Throughout his life Posey was dogged by rumors that he was the illegitimate son of George Washington. The rumor persisted even after his death and was the subject of several newspaper articles.
Most historians are unsure of who his parents truly were as there is little recorded of them. Posey grew up on land adjacent to Washington's Mount Vernon home, in the home of John Posey. John was a close friend of George Washington, and Thomas benefited from Washington's patronage early in his life. The rumors were dismissed by Posey's biographer, John Thornton Posey.
Posey received a plain English education from the neighborhood school and at 19 he moved to the Virginia frontier near Staunton, Virginia where he intended to engage in a trade or farm. He opened a business producing saddles. He soon married Martha Mathews, daughter of the deceased Joshua Mathews of the Mathews family, who was then in custody of her uncle Sampson Mathews, a prominent leader and tavern keeper in Staunton. The couple had three sons, although only one survived to adulthood. Martha died in 1778 while giving birth to the third son. Life on the frontier was tumultuous, and the Indians' continual raiding led to a reprisal by the Virginia's Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore. In 1774 Posey was in the quartermaster's department of an armed expedition against the Indians who were threatening the frontier settlements. He was present at the Battle of Point Pleasant, and the expedition succeeded in suppressing the Indians for the short term.
Revolutionary War.
Posey was elected a member of the Virginia committee of correspondence in 1775. He served in the army during the War of Independence, first as a captain in the Continental Army, mostly with the 7th Virginia Regiment, then later rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1782. Some claimed his quick rise was due to the patronage of George Washington. During the war Posey led campaigns against Lord Dunmore who was fortified on Gwyn's Island and drove him and his naval support out of the area. Lord Dunmore had been the officer he served under during the Indian war. In the winter of 1775 the 7th Virginia Regiment marched to join with General George Washington in New Jersey. It was at this time that Washington promoted Posey to the rank of captain. During the winter of 1776, Posey commanded the pickets guarding the Valley Forge encampment and led skirmishes almost daily. The following campaigning season, his corps was involved in the battle to drive Gen. Howe back to New York City, and played a critical role in the Battle of Monmouth. In 1778 Capt. Posey replaced Daniel Morgan as commander of the Provisional Rifle Corps when it was reduced to two companies. His small unit was sent to upstate New York to help secure that frontier flank of the Continental Army's Highland Department. He was promoted to major and given command of the 7th Virginia Regiment on December 20, 1778.
In July 1779 Posey was assigned to command a battalion of light infantry in Corps of Light Infantry commanded by Brig-Gen. Anthony Wayne. As part of the provisional 1st Regiment under Col. Christian Febiger, he led his battalion in a bayonet night assault to storm Stony Point, a key British position on the Hudson River near West Point. Posey was one of the first to enter the British works and seized the colors of the 17th Regiment of Foot.
In his absence, the 7th Virginia regiment was ordered on December 8, 1779, to join the rest of the Virginia Line to march to Charleston, South Carolina, to join the Southern Army. When the Corps of Light Infantry disbanded in December, Posey was sent to join his regiment, but the army surrendered on May 12, 1780, before he could rejoin it. As one of the few uncaptured Virginia officers, Posey had few duties until exchange of captured soldiers occurred in early 1781, at which time Col. Febiger recruited him to help reconstitute the Virginia Line in a new "18-month" battalion. He became de facto commander of the battalion and served in the siege of Yorktown. During 1781–1782 he served with General Wayne again, this time in Georgia against the forces in Savannah. He was promoted to Lt. Col. in 1782.
When the war ended, Posey returned to Virginia having resigned from the army on March 10, 1783. In the same year he became an original member of the Virginia [[Society of the Cincinnati]].
He took guardianship of his surviving son who had been living with friends since the death of his mother. Posey married Mary Alexander Thornton, the wealthy widow of George Thornton, in 1784. Posey had nine children by her. He remained married to her until his death. The family lived on her [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]] plantation, where Posey farmed for nearly eighteen years. He ran an unsuccessful campaign for the United States House of Representatives in 1797, and held several appointed position in the Virginia state government.
Posey briefly returned to the military following several setbacks to the army which was campaigning against the [[Wabash Confederacy]] in the [[Old Northwest]]. He reentered the army as a [[brigadier general]] in 1793 and served with "Mad" [[Anthony Wayne]] campaigning against the Indians beyond the frontier in the [[Northwest Indian War]]. Posey was disturbed by the actions of second in command, General [[James Wilkinson]]. Wilkinson had been secretly undermining Wayne's authority in reports to Washington, and Posey discovered that Wilkinson had been involved in similar plots against other ranking officers, including the former frontier commander [[George Rogers Clark]]. Years after Wilkinson's death, it was discovered that he had been accepting bribery money from [[Spain]] to stir up trouble on the frontier. Because of the ill feelings caused by Wilkinson, Posey resigned from the army again on February 20, 1794, only a few months before the war was ended following American victory at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]].
Public office.
Kentucky and Louisiana.
In 1802, Posey received in reward for his military service, and he was given several options of land tracts in the western United States. He chose land near [[Henderson, Kentucky]] and moved his family to the new estate. His prestige made him immediately popular in the area and he was elected to the [[Kentucky State Senate]], beginning a term on November 10, 1804 and became the body's speaker. In 1805 he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, serving a brief term. He was a candidate for governor in 1808, but withdrew to support [[Charles Scott (governor)|Charles Scott]].
In preparation for possible hostilities with the French and British, in 1809 Congress authorized an army of 100,000 men to be mobilized. Kentucky was assigned the task of providing five thousand men. Posey returned to the army as a major general in command of the Kentucky militia. He oversaw an organization of the militia to ready them for the war before he resigned from in 1810. He then moved to the Attakapas region of [[Louisiana]], and was appointed by the governor to serve as a U.S. Senator from that state in 1812–1813 to fill the vacant seat of [[Jean Noel Destréhan]] after his resignation. In [[Washington D.C.]] he also assisted the Acting Secretary of War in preparing war plans.
Indiana Territory.
After he was defeated for re-election to his senate seat, he was appointed by President [[James Madison]] to be Governor of [[Indiana Territory]] in February 1813 where he succeeded [[William Henry Harrison]] who had accepted a new position to lead the army against Indians in the [[Northwest Territory]]. When he arrived he relieved [[John Gibson (Indiana)|John Gibson]] of his duties as acting-governor. The Territorial General Assembly, who had been strongly opposed to the previous governor, took the absence of a strong governor to enact several pieces of legislation it had been trying to force Harrison to pass for several years, including the move of the capital. The assembly was unhappy with Posey's appointment, hoping to have instead received a northern governor who was opposed to slavery and more agreeable to the prevailing mood of the territory. He arrived in the new capital of [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] in December 1813 where he delivered a conciliatory speech to the assembly.
Posey was considered to be a charitable and personally likable man in the territory. He was an active member of the [[Presbyterian Church]] and became president of a Bible Society, who distributed free Bibles to the poor. Posey disliked the small capitol, and because of his poor health he wanted to be closer to a physician in [[Louisville, Kentucky]]. During the middle of the first General Assembly session, Posey moved to [[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]] where he remained for the duration of his tenure, and from there conducted the office of governor. He communicated with the legislature in Corydon by courier. The legislature was offended by his absence, which they portrayed as a continuation of the previous governor's alleged aristocratic tendencies and issued a resolution that rebuked him for leaving.
Posey's most important act as governor was to reorganize the territorial courts. In 1815 Posey called a special session of the assembly to meet in Corydon to create a new territorial judiciary. The existing judiciary's authority was in question because the courts had been created at a time when no authority had been granted by Congress to create their offices. Posey presided over the assembly which ultimately divided the territory into three judicial districts and appointed several judges. The legislature was pleased to find that Posey's appointments to public office were not overly partisan, and were happy with his approval of road construction and the framework he created for basic educational facilities. He also approved the charter for the [[Bank of Vincennes]], the first in the territory leading to considerable economic advancement.
Despite his attempts to please the territory's population, he was widely disliked by the legislature for his "inaccessibility", and his pro-slavery sentiments were at odds with that of the anti-slavery dominated territory. He was the frequent victim of speaker [[Dennis Pennington]]'s huaranging speeches. Although statehood was approved during his term, he is considered to have had little impact on it, and instead attempted to delay it. In a speech he delivered, he claimed the territory's population was too sparse to bear the taxation that would be necessary to effectually grow the state, and instead recommended remaining a territory for a longer period to continue receiving federal financial assistance. The legislature pressed for statehood, and the territory's congressman [[Jonathan Jennings]] proposed federal legislation to approve statehood. When Indiana became a state in 1816, he ran unsuccessfully for Governor and was defeated by Jennings, 5,211 to 3,934 votes. A key election issue causing the dislike of Posey was that he was in favor of slavery in Indiana, which much of the legislature, Dennis Pennington, and Jonathan Jennings opposed.
Later life.
In the last two years of his life, he served as an [[Indian agent]] in [[Illinois]], negotiating treaties with the [[Wea]], [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]], and [[Pottawatomie]]. He was appointed Indian Agent of Helios's in 1816. He was a candidate for Congress again in 1817, hoping to be elected to Jennings' now vacant seat in Congress, but was overwhelming defeated by [[William Hendricks]]. He died of [[Typhus]] fever on March 19, 1818 in [[Shawneetown, Illinois]], aged 67, and was buried in the Westwood Cemetery. [[Posey County, Indiana]], and [[Posey Township, Franklin County, Indiana]]. were named in honor of Thomas Posey.
External links.
[[Category:1750 births]]
[[Category:1818 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Mount Vernon, Virginia]]
[[Category:Mathews family of Virginia and West Virginia]]
[[Category:American Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Democratic-Republican Party United States senators from Louisiana]]
[[Category:Governors of Indiana Territory]]
[[Category:Indiana Territory officials]]
[[Category:Kentucky state senators]]
[[Category:Lieutenant Governors of Kentucky]]
[[Category:People from Gallatin County, Illinois]]
[[Category:People from Jeffersonville, Indiana]]
[[Category:United States Indian agents]]
[[Category:People in Dunmore's War]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers from Virginia]]
[[Category:United States Army generals]]
[[Category:Deaths from typhus]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Illinois]]