Political history of Pakistan

The political history of Pakistan () is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements, and leaders of Pakistan. Pakistan gained independence from the United Kingdom on 14 August 1947, when the Presidencies and provinces of British India was divided by the United Kingdom, in a region which is commonly referred to as the Indian subcontinent. Since its independence, Pakistan has had a colorful yet turbulent political history at times, often characterized by martial law and inefficient leadership.
Pre-independence era.
The Pakistan Movement, as it came to be known, was based on the principle of two-nation theory, and aimed to establish a separate homeland for Muslims in South Asia. This was a movement against the oppression, that Muslims felt in the face of an increasingly politicized Hindu majority. The Pakistan Movement was spearheaded by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and staunchly opposed by some of Muslim religious scholars.
Parliamentary democracy.
After the independence, Liaquat Ali Khan became the first prime minister and Jinnah became the first Governor-General. Pakistan consisted of two wings, West-Pakistan and East-Pakistan. The Liaquat government, along with all subsequent governments during that first decade after independence faced serious difficulties in effectively governing both East and West Pakistan, eventually leading to the military coup of 1958. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 began to take place in Kashmir region in 1947. Both Liaquat and Jinnah were determined to stop the riots and refugee problems and to set up an effective administrative system for the country. Liaquat Ali Khan did the groundbreaking work for the Foreign Policy of Pakistan while taking initiatives towards the formulation of the constitution. He presented the Objectives Resolution, a prelude to future constitutions, in the Legislative Assembly. The house passed it on 12 March 1949. It has been described as the "Magna Carta" of Pakistan's constitutional history. Both United States and Soviet Union sent invitation to Liaquat Ali Khan. However, Khan chose to pay a goodwill visit to United States first. This was perceived as a rebuff to Moscow, and has been traced to profound adverse consequences. Khan had wanted Pakistan to remain neutral in the Cold War, as declared three days after Pakistan's independence when he declared that Pakistan would take no sides in the conflict of ideologies between the nations. Khan later tried to visit Soviet Union but the dates for goodwill visit were not materialized by Soviet Union.
The same year, Jinnah declared Urdu as official language of Pakistan. It sparked protests in East Pakistan (formerly East Bengal), where Bengali was spoken by most of the population. Jinnah also faced problems with Pakistan Army's Commander-in-Chief General Sir Douglas Gracey who refused to obey the orders of Jinnah. General Gracey argued that Jinnah as Governor-General represented the British Crown of which he himself was an appointee. Therefore, he did not send troops to Kashmir region. Jinnah also faced problems with Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force Air Vice-Marshal Richard Atcherley and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy Rear Admiral James Wilfred Jefford who also refused to obey standing orders given by Jinnah.
During Khan's tenure, India and Pakistan agreed to resolve the dispute of Kashmir in a peaceful manner through the efforts of the United Nations. This agreement was termed as 'Karachi Agreement' and a ceasefire was effected in Kashmir on January 1, 1949. It was decided that a free and impartial plebiscite would be held under the supervision of the UN.
In 1948, Jinnah died, and a major problem of religious minorities flared during late 1949 and early 1950. Militants from Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan began to attack the minorities in West-Pakistan, which later slipped to India. Sensing another war with India, Khan met Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to sign the Liaquat-Nehru Pact in 1950. The pact was an effort to improve relations and reduce tension between India and Pakistan, and to protect the religious minorities on both sides of the borders.
In East Pakistan, the Bengali Language Movement reached its peak on 21 February 1952, when the police and soldiers opened fire on students near the Dhaka Medical College protesting for Bengali to receive equal status with Urdu. Several protesters were killed, and the movement gained further support throughout East Pakistan. Later, the Government agreed to provide equal status to Bengali as a state language of Pakistan, a right later codified in the 1956 constitution.
1951 attempted coup d'état (coup).
In 1951, the Military Intelligence (MI) director-general Major-General Syed Shahid Hamid foiled an attempted coup d'état, planned by Major-General Akbar Khan, then Chief of General's Staff of the Generals Headquarter (GHQ) was arrested along with a number of officers from Pakistan Army. It was the first conspiracy against the elected government. Eleven military (army) officers and four civilians were involved in the conspiracy. The conspirator included Faiz Ahmad Faiz, a notable poet and intellectual, also connected with the Communist Party of Pakistan. In the meantime, Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army General Ayub Khan and Defense minister Iskandar Mirza remained loyal to Liaquat Ali Khan. After an 18-month trial conducted in secrecy, Major-General Khan and Faiz Ahmed Faiz were both convicted and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Their defense lawyer was the notable Bengali Muslim politician Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. When Suhrawardy became the Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1957, he obtained a reprieve for most of the conspirators.
The 1958 era:The first martial law.
The government in response to the riots eventually asked the military for help and in response Corp Commander of Lahore General Muhammad Azam Khan enacted the first martial law in parts of the country.
This was a turning point in the country's history and even though the riots were eventually quashed by force but the seeds of intolerance were sown in the Pakistani society, and only got stronger over time.
1965 War.
In 1962, Pakistan had witnessed the Sino-Indian War, with neither side gaining victory over other side.
The Inter-Services Intelligence's Joint Intelligence North and Military Intelligence's Northern Areas Assessment directorate began to formulate the plan to infiltrate in Kashmir. In 1965, assuming that a weakened Indian Military would not respond, Pakistan chose to send in "mujahideens" and Pakistan Army regulars into the Indian-occupied part of Jammu and Kashmir. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto backed the plan, and Pakistan Army's SS Group was told to begin an operation, under codename Operation Gibraltar. However, even after the careful analysis the airborne operation failed, and major war broke out between India and Pakistan. Ayub Khan blamed Bhutto for starting the conflict, while the armed forces became increasingly involved in the war.
However, both Soviet-Union and United States deescalated the conflict. China provided economic and moral help and even threatened India on its conflicted border issues. Khan along with Lal Bahadur Shastri signed the Tashkent Declaration.
1970 Pakistan election.
After the indecisive war of 1965 with India, Pakistani people began to accuse Field Marshal Ayub Khan of betraying the cause of Kashmir. Months after the war, Munir Ahmad Khan, a nuclear engineer at IAEA's Reactor Division, met Bhutto where he notified Bhutto with rapid development of Indian nuclear programme. Sensing the seriousness of such threat, Bhutto arranged a meeting between Munir Ahmad Khan and Ayub Khan at The Dorchester in London. Khan urged the need of acceleration of nuclear energy programme and develop a credible nuclear deterrent capability. Ayub Khan refused accelerating the programme, and famously said: "if we [Pakistan] ever need the [atom] bomb, we [Pakistan] will buy it off the shelf"". Munir Ahmad Khan quickly notified Bhutto of what had happened. And, Bhutto began lobbying for the nuclear weapon's option. However, due to economical reasons, Khan deferred and refused to expand the nuclear energy programme despite the proposals made by Bhutto, Abdul Salam and Munir Khan. With extensive efforts led by Abdus Salam, Khan had personally approved the KANUPP-I commercial plant, against the wishes of his own military government.
In 1966, Ayub Khan removed Bhutto as his Foreign minister, in a conspiracy planned by Jurist and then-Bhutto's secretary Mushtaq Hussain, and under pressured by the Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States that time. In 1967, Bhutto formed People's Party of Pakistan and tapped a wave of anti-Ayub Khan movement in both West and East Pakistan. Demoralized and pressured, Ayub Khan handed over the regime to his junior Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army General Yahya Khan in 1969. General Yahya designated himself as Chief Martial Law Administrator of the country and installed a military government in both East and West-Pakistan. Yahya and his military government promised to hold a general election within 2 years.
The General parliamentary elections were held in 1970, with People's Party winning the majority in West-Pakistan and Awami League [People's League] gaining absolute majority in East-Pakistan. Yahya Khan, Chief Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan, held talks with both Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Sheikh Mujibur Rehman. Negotiation and talks were brutally failed, and Bhutto was famously heard saying "break the legs" if any member of [People's Party] attend the National Assembly inaugural session. However, the capitalization on West-Pakistan, West-Pakistanis feared the East-Pakistani separatism, therefore, Bhutto demanded a coalition government with Mujib. In a meeting, both Mujib and Bhutto agreed upon a coalition government as Bhutto would assumed the Presidency and Mujib as Premier. The Military government and General Yahya Khan was kept unaware of such of these developments. Both Bhutto and Mujib continued a political pressure on Khan's military government. Under pressured by Bhutto, Mujib and his military government, General Khan ordered a military action in East Pakistan. The Military Police arrested Bhutto and put him on house arrest. And, Mujib was sent to military court where his case was headed by Judge Advocate General Branch's Brigadier-General Rahimuddin Khan.
General Khan ordered Vice-Admiral Mohammad Shariff, Commander of Eastern Naval Command of the Pakistan Navy and Lieutenant-General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, Commander of the Eastern Military Command of Pakistan Army, an extreme armed action to curb and liberate the East-Pakistan from the resistance. Faced with popular unrest and revolt in East-Pakistan, the Army and Navy clamped down through violence. The navy and army crackdown and brutalities during the Operation Searchlight and Operation Barisal and the continued extrajudicial killings throughout the later months resulted in further resentment among the East Pakistanis of East Pakistan. With India assisting the Mukti Bahini, war broke out between the separatist supporters in Bangladesh and Pakistan (Indo-Pakistani War of 1971).organizations like "Al-Badar" and "Al-Shams" were made by Jammat-e-Islami to support Pakistan and Pakistan Army during the conflict, the coordination between the armed forces of Pakistan were ineffective and unsupported. On major decision, the army, navy, marine and air force weren't taken in confidence. Each force had led their own independent operations without notifying or taking in confidence the higher command.
The result was the Pakistan Armed Forces surrender to the Indian forces upon which 93,000 Pakistan Armed Forces officials and 93,000 soldiers and officers became POWs, the largest since World War II. The official war between India and Pakistan ended in just a fortnight on December 16, 1971, with Pakistan losing East Pakistan, which became Bangladesh. Pakistani armies killed 3 million innocent Bengali civilians and raped 200,000 women and children.
During this mass killing in Bangladesh (so called East-Pakistan), the military government had refused to take any political and reconciliation initiatives despite the calls were made. The coordination between the armed forces were ineffective and unsupported. The Air Force was brutally failed to protect the naval and army assets during the conflict (See "Operation Python" and "Operation Trident").
Return of democracy.
Soon after Bhutto assumed the control of the country, Bhutto released Mujibur Rehman, and put General Khan on house arrest instead. Bhutto, immediately appeared on PTV where addressed an emotional speech to his shattered nation. Bhutto also formed the "Hamoodur Rahman Commission", to carry out the inquiry and causes of the war, under the Bengali Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman. Bhutto fired Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army, Lieutenant-General Gul Hassan Khan and also deposed Air Marshal Abdul Rahim Khan, Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Air Force, and Vice-Admiral Muzaffar Hassan, then-Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Navy. All of these Commander-in-Chiefs led their services during the conflict, and openly blamed each other for their intense failure.
Bhutto also disbanded the Pakistan Marines, a new service in the navy, after failing to produce any effective results during the conflict. Bhutto sought to re-organized the Military of Pakistan and numerous officers who were responsible for Bengal's autocracies were fired from their services. In July 1972, Bhutto traveled to India to meet the Indian Premier Indira Gandhi where he successfully proceeded the "Shimla Agreement", and brought back 93,000 Pakistan Armed Forces personnel, secured 5,000 mile sq area held by India. Under this agreement, Bhutto recognized East-Pakistan as Bangladesh.
Bhutto also disapproved the capitalist policies of Field Marshal Ayub Khan, and instead introduced the socialist economics policies while working to prevent any further division of the country. On 2 January 1972, Bhutto announced the nationalization of all major industries, including iron and steel, heavy engineering, heavy electrical engineering, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. A new labor policy was announced with more workers rights and the power of trade unions.
In 1974, Parliament of Pakistan gave approval of 1973 Constitution. For the first time after 1958, the country was shifted back to parliamentary democracy with Bhutto as Prime minister of the country. In 1974, Bhutto adopted the recommendation from Hamoodur Rehman Commission, and disbanded the "Commander-in-Chief" title as the head of the Pakistan Armed Forces. Bhutto appointed Chiefs of Staff in Pakistan Armed Forces, reporting directly to the Prime minister. General Tikka Khan, infamous for his role in Bangladesh war, was made the first Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army; Admiral Mohammad Shariff was made the first 4-star admiral, and first Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan Navy, and Air Chief Marshal Zulfikar Ali Khan as first 4-star air force general and Chief of Air Staff of Pakistan Air Force. In 1976, Bhutto also created the office of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, and the chairmanship of this important and prestigious tier was given to General Muhammad Sharif, who was also promoted to 4-star rank. The Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee was formed after the careful analysis of Pakistan Armed Forces, and it is the principal body that maintain coordination between the armed forces.
Nuclear deterrent development.
Since 1967, Bhutto had been lobbying for the option for nuclear deterrence on different occasions. Soon after Bhutto came to assume control of Pakistan, he made his move to establish the nuclear weapons development. On January 20, 1972, Abdus Salam, after being requested by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, arranged and managed a secret meeting of academic scientists and engineers, in Multan city, to meet with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who assumed the control of his country shortly after the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 and the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was here that Bhutto orchestrated, administrated, and led the scientific research on nuclear weapons as he announced the official nuclear weapons development programme. In 1972, Pakistan's core intelligence service, the ISI, secretly learned that India was close to developing an atomic bomb, under its (India) nuclear programme. Partially in response, defence expenditure and funding of science under then-Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto increased by 200%. In the initial years and starting years, Dr. Abdus Salam, a Nobel laureate, headed the nuclear weapons program as he was the Science adviser to the Prime minister. He is also credited in bringing hundreds of Pakistani scientists, engineers, and mathematicians who would later go on to develop the nuclear weapons program and later on formed and headed ""Theoretical Physics Group" (TPG), the special weapons division of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) that developed the designs and completed the crucial mathematical and physics calculations of the nuclear weapons.
Throughout the time, the foundations were laid down to develop a military nuclear capability. This includes the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons design, development and testing programme. The fuel cycle program included the uranium exploration, mining, refining, conversion and Uranium Hexafluoride (UF6) production, enrichment and fuel fabrication and reprocessing facilities. These facilities were established in the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission or PAEC by its Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan. He was appointed as Chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) on January 20, 1972, at the Multan Conference of senior scientists and engineers. Earlier, Munir Ahmad Khan was serving as Director of Nuclear Power and Reactors Division, IAEA. He was credited to be the "technical father"" of Pakistan's atom project by a recent International Institute of Strategic Studies, London, (IISS) Dossier on history of the Pakistan's nuclear development, with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as the father of Pakistan's nuclear developmental programme. Munir Ahmad Khan, an expert in Plutonium technology, had also laid the foundation and groundbreaking work for the Plutonium reprocessing technology. Khan, built the "New Laboratories", a plutonium reprocessing plant located in Islamabad.
After Chief Martial Law Administrator (later President) and Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq came to power (see Operation "Fair Play"), further advancements were made to enrich uranium and consolidate the nuclear development programme. On March 11, 1983, PAEC led by Munir Ahmad Khan carried out the first successful cold test of a working nuclear device near at the Kirana Hills under codename "Kirana-I". The test was led by CERN-physicist Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, and was witnessed by other senior scientists belonging to Pakistan Armed Forces and the PAEC. To compound further matters, the Soviet Union had withdrawn from Afghanistan and the strategic importance of Pakistan to the United States was gone. Once the full extent of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development was revealed, economic sanctions (see Pressler amendment) were imposed on the country by several other countries, particularly United States. Having been developed under both Bhutto and Zia, the nuclear development programme had fully matured by the late 1980s. Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgical engineer, greatly contributed to the uranium enrichment programme under both governments. Dr. A. Q. Khan established an administrative proliferation network through Dubai to smuggle URENCO nuclear technology to Khan Research Laboratories. He then established Pakistan's gas-centrifuge program based on the URENCO's Zippe-type centrifuge. Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan is considered to be the founder of Pakistan's HEU based gas-centrifuge uranium enrichment programme, which was originally launched by PAEC in 1974.
The PAEC also played its part in the success and development of the uranium enrichment programme by producing the uranium hexafluoride gas feedstock for enrichment. PAEC was also responsible for all the pre and post enrichment phases of the nuclear fuel cycle. By 1986 PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan had begun work on the 50 MW plutonium and tritium production reactor at Khushab, known as Khushab Reactor Complex, which became operational by 1998.
Balochistan civil unrest.
The Baloch rebellion of the 1970s was the most threatening civil disorder to a United Pakistan since Bangladesh's secession. The Pakistan Armed Forces wanted to establish military garrisons in Balochistan Province, which at that time was quite lawless and run by tribal justice. The ethnic Balochis saw this as a violation of their territorial rights. Emboldened by the stand taken by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1971, the Baloch and Pashtun nationalists had also demanded their "provincial rights" from then Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in exchange for a consensual approval of the Pakistan Constitution of 1973. But while Bhutto admitted the NWFP and Balochistan to a NAP-JUI coalition, he refused to negotiate with the provincial governments led by chief minister Ataullah Mengal in Quetta and Mufti Mahmud in Peshawar. Tensions erupted and an armed resistance began to take place.
Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the NAP and charged them all with high treason, to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad Tribunal of handpicked judges.
In time, the Baloch nationalist insurgency erupted and sucked the armed forces into the province, pitting the Baloch tribal middle classes against Islamabad. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973 with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974 when around 15,000 Balochs fought the Pakistani Army, Navy and Air Force. Following the successful recovery of the ammunition in the Iraqi embassy, shipped by both Iraq and Soviet Union for the Baluchistan resistance, the Naval Intelligence launched the investigation, and cited that arms were smuggled from the coastal areas of Balochistan. The Navy acted immediately, and jumped in the conflict. Vice-Admiral Patrick Simpson, commander of Southern Naval Command, began to launch the series of operation with also applying the naval blockage.
The Iranian military fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran also aided the Bhutto-sent Pakistan military in brutally putting down the insurrection.[25] After three days of fighting the Baloch tribals were running out of ammunition and so withdrew by 1976. The army had suffered 25 fatalities and around 300 casualties in the fight while the rebels lost 5,000 people as of 1977.
Although major fighting had broken down, ideological schisms caused splinter groups to form and steadily gain momentum. Despite the overthrow of the Bhutto government in 1977 by General Zia-ul-Haque, Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army, calls for secession and widespread civil disobedience remained. The military government then appointed General Rahimuddin Khan as Martial Law Administrator over the Balochistan Province. The provincial military government under the famously authoritarian General Rahimuddin began to act as a separate entity and military regime independent of the central government.
This allowed General Rahimuddin Khan to act as an absolute martial law administrator, unanswerable to the central government. Both General Zia-ul-Haq and General Rahimuddin Khan supported the declaration of a general amnesty in Balochistan to those willing to give up arms. General Rahimuddin then purposefully isolated feudal leaders such as Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti and Ataullah Mengal from provincial policy. He also militarily put down all civil disobedience movements, effectively leading to unprecedented social stability within the province. Due to martial law, his reign was the longest in the history of Balochistan (1977–1984).
Second martial law period.
During the 1977 parliamentary elections, the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) under the renowned theologian Maulana Maududi began to advocate the overthrow the government of Bhutto. The religious leaders had always seen Bhutto's policies autocratic and more of secular policies than being under in Islamic system. Maududi began to call for Bhutto's overthrow and end his regime as he grabbed support from Pakistan's conservative Islamist parties. Despite of these serious movement, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto held talks with the PNA and Islamist leaders. An agreement was eventually reached in June 1977 and Bhutto was to sign it on July 5. However, in spite the enthusiasm of the negotiating team other PNA leaders had reservations about the agreement. On the other hand, Maududi showed to Army that no agreement was taken place, and Maududi encouraged General Zia-ul-Haq, then-Chief of Army Staff who was recently appointed by Bhutto after Bhutto forced to retire 17 senior generals in order to bring Zia as Chief of Army Staff. Maududi encouraged General Zia-ul-Haq to stage a coup against Bhutto, and convinced him that a new Islamic, but a military coup needed against [B]hutto in order to maintain law and order in the country. Encouraged and supported by Maududi and other hardline religious leaders, General Zia staged a coup against his own loyal supporter [Bhutto] in July 1977 (See Operation Fair Play). Maududi and other hardliner religious groups supported the martial law government, and remained loyal to General Zia entire his regime.
General Zia appointed Mushtaq Hussain, chief jurist for Bhutto's case. Mushtaq Hussain was famously known in the public as extreme hater of Bhutto, and played a controversial role in Bhutto's removal as foreign minister in 1965. Mushtaq Hussain, now judge, disrespected Bhutto and his hometown, and further denied any appeals. Under Zia's direction and Mushtaq's order, Bhutto was controversially executed in 1979 after the Supreme Court upheld the High Court's death sentence on charges of authorizing the murder of a political opponent.[27] Under Zia's martial law military dictatorship (which was declared legal under the Doctrine of Necessity by the Supreme Court in 1978) the following initiatives were taken:
General Zia lifted martial law in 1985, holding party-less elections and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who in turn rubber-stamped Zia remaining Chief of Army Staff until 1990. Junejo, however gradually fell out with Zia as his political and administrative independence grew. Junejo also signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia greatly disliked. After a large-scale explosion at ammunitions store in Ojhri, Junejo vowed to bring those responsible for the significant damage caused to justice, implicating several times the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Director-General Akhtar Abdur Rahman.
President Zia, infuriated, dismissed the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988. He then called for the holding of fresh elections in November. General Zia-ul-Haq never saw the elections materialize however, as he died in a plane crash on August 17, 1988, which was later proven to be highly sophisticated sabotage by unknown perpetrators.
Under Zia, real defence spending increased on average by 9 percent per annum during 1977–88 while development spending rose 3 percent per annum; by 1987–88 defence spending had overtaken development spending. For the 1980s as a whole, defence spending averaged 6.5 percent of GDP. This contributed strongly to large fiscal deficits and a rapid build-up of public debt.


Tanay Church

Saint Ildefonsus of Toledo Parish Church (Spanish: "Iglesia Parroquial de San Ildefonso de Toledo"), commonly known as the Tanay Church, is a Roman Catholic church located in the town of Tanay, Rizal Province in the Philippines. The construction of the present church was begun in 1773 and was completed after ten years in 1783. In 2001, it was declared as a National Cultural Treasure Church by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. It is also among the five Jubilee churches of the Diocese of Antipolo.
History.
The ecclesiastical history of Rizal province dates back to 1573 when two Franciscan missionaries, Fr. Juan de Plasencia and Fr. Diego de Oropesa began establishing missions in towns and villages along the north coast of Laguna de Bay. One of earliest established is a "visita" (sub-parish) is Pililla in Morong, Rizal, among them is Monte Tan-ay (now part of the present town of Tanay). In 1583, Pillila separated from Morong and became an independent town and in turn, Monte Tan-ay evolved into a separate town and parish on its own right in 1606. The parish church of Monte Tan-ay was put under the patronage of Saint Ildephonsus of Toledo, Spain, hence, given the same name. In 1606, Father Pedro de Talavera founded the second mission in San Antonio in Pantay and subsequently became the first parish priest of Monte Tan-ay.
By 1620, the town transferred to San Antonio without changing its patron saint. The first church made up of wood and cogon grass as its roof was also established in San Antonio but was eventually burned down by the flaming arrows of marauding Aetas. Church records state that only a very old image of La Purísima Concepción was saved from the attack, believed to have been left in haste by the retreating Spanish forces.
In 1639, a wide-scale Chinese uprising took over the villages across Laguna from Manila to Bulacan. Chinese rebels descended to Tanay and established camps in Monte Tan-ay and Pantay. A popular story recounts how a Franciscan priest, Fr. Geronimo de Frías, hid the image of La Purísima inside the jungle nearby. It was said that three Chinese soldiers unwittingly discovered the image and tried to destroy it with their spears. The spears are miraculously thrown back to the throwers. Driven by fear, the remaining Chinese who witnessed the event committed suicide by hanging himself in the tree in a place now known as Pinagbigtihan (Place of Hanging) to the present day.
The town suffered a heavy blow during the uprising which only ended when a combined Filipino-Spanish forces attacked their camps on 1640. After the rebels were oppressed, the priests transferred the parish to its present site, formally establishing the town of Tanay in the same year.
In 1678, Fr. Pedro de Espallargas initiated the building of a stone church and the first church was completed in 1680 through the contributions of churchgoers and devotees of Purísima Concepción. The first mass was celebrated on April 20, 1680. However, the structure did not last long because of natural calamities. By 1773, the construction of the present church began through the initiative of Fr. Alonso de Fentanes and the people of Tanay. It was gradually completed in 1783. The six retablos in honor of Our Lady of Anguish "(Nuestra Señora de las Angustias)", the Immaculate Conception "(La Purísima Concepción)", Saint Joseph, Saint Peter of Alcantara, the Baptism of Jesus Christ and Saint Ildefonsus of Toledo were installed in 1786.
The church was declared as one of the five Jubilee churches of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Antipolo near the end of 1999.
National Cultural Treasure.
On July 31, 2001 the church was declared a National Cultural Treasure by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts along with 25 other churches in the Philippines.
Features.
The style of the church, with its triangular pediment and rounded belfry, leans toward Baroque architecture. The church also houses a relic of a piece of bone of San Ildefonso housed in a monstrance, given by Rev. Fr. Felipe Pedraja on October 2006 from Zamora, Spain in which the body of the patron saint lies.
The 14 Stations of the Cross inside the church is considered as one of the most beautiful Stations of the Cross in Asia. The carvings are depicted to have Malay features as evidenced by the brown skin of the natives and their squat figures, all of which are believed to have created by native Tanay artists. Some distinct depictions are borrowed from the native culture such as the "Tambuli" made of carabao and the "bolo" instead of the typical Roman sword. The carvings are encased in large glass windows across each side of the church.


Afif Sunakim


Rashtriya Swabhiman Manch

Rashtriya Swabhiman Manch (National Prestige Forum) (राष्ट्रीय स्वाभिमान मंच) is a forum established by some Indian opposition leaders to oppose the policies of the ruling UPA front headed by Sonia Gandhi. They are of the view that national security and national sovereignty had come under threat under the United Progressive Alliance Government.
The chief organisers of the forum were Subramanian Swamy, Chandra Shekhar and George Fernandes. It was established on 12 October 2004, the birthday of Jai Prakash Narayan.
The forum seems to be inactive now.


Anauk Nanmadaw Ma Mya Lay

Thiri Maha Thuta Yadana Sanda Dewi (, ; born Ma Mya Kyote; 1809 – 1845), commonly known as Anauk Nanmadaw Ma Mya Lay (), was the Queen of the Western Palace of King Tharrawaddy during the Konbaung dynasty.
She was a well-known female poet of the late Konbaung era, and is remembered as the composer of the popular "patpyoe" "Chit-Tha-Hmya-Ko" and for her tragic death.
Life.
Ma Mya Kyote was born in 1809 to Min Pyan Chi and Me Ei of Hinthada.
At age 17 she married Prince Tharrawaddy, who arrived in Danuphyu after signing the Treaty of Yandabo. In 1833, she gave birth to a daughter named Ma Phwar (later Crown Princess Hlaing). When her husband ascended to the throne, Ma Mya Lay became the Queen of the Western Palace. She was given the title of Thiri Maha Thuta Yadana Sanda Dewi () and received the appanage of Hinthada.
Death.
In 1845, Ma Mya Lay was accused of involvement in the Pyay Prince rebellion. She was executed by her husband, who was reportedly suffering from schizophrenia; he ordered her to be trampled to death by an elephant. Their daughter was adopted by Setkya Dewi, who later became the Chief Queen of King Mindon.
Art.
Her "patpyoes" "Chit-Tha-Hmya-Ko" and "Shi-Sone-Ywet-Kyar" are popular romantic songs.
Donations.
In 1843, Ma Mya Lay funded the reconstruction of Nagayon Pagoda in Amarapura. She also donated Yele Kusinayone Sutaungpyae Pagoda in Mandalay, two years before her death.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 440

United Nations Security Council Resolution 440, adopted on 27 November 1978, after hearing from a representative of Cyprus, the Council expressed deep concern at lack of progress on the peace issue. The resolution reaffirmed resolutions 365 (1974), 367 (1975) and 410 (1977), calling on all parties to ensure they implement the resolutions and resume negotiations with the United Nations.
The resolution also called on the Secretary-General to monitor the situation and report back by 30 May 1979 or earlier, in time for the Security Council to review the situation again in June 1979.
No details of the voting were given, other than that it was adopted "by consensus".


Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project


Bahram VII

Bahram VII (Middle Persian: "Wahrām") was the son of Yazdegerd III, the last Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire. After the death of his father at Merv in 651, Bahram fled to China along with many other Sasanian nobles, where he and his brother Peroz III asked the Chinese Emperor Gaozong to support them in their fight against the Arabs. Bahram repeatedly tried to recapture the occupied Iranian territories from the Arabs, which he did not succeed in.
Some identify the aristocrat Aluohan as Bahram VII. According to a Chinese scholar, the so-called Nanmei (), whose statue was erected together with that of Peroz III in Qianling Mausoleum, should be identified with Aluohan.
The figure Wahrām-ī-Warȷā̌wand in late Pahlavi literature may point to Bahram VII.
Bahram died in 710 in his private domicile in Luoyang.
Bahram VII's son, Prince Khosrau, recorded as Juluo () in Chinese source, continued his father's military efforts. However, Khosrau's campaigns and his first successful invasion into Persia were eventually unsuccessful. He is probably the same Khosrow mentioned by al-Tabari.


Sithu Min Oo

Sithu Min Oo (, ; – in or after 1370s) was a longtime pretender to the Pinya throne from the 1320s to the 1360s. After Ava replaced Pinya as the new power in present-day central Myanmar in 1365, Sithu entered into an alliance with King Swa Saw Ke of Ava by marrying Swa's daughter Minkhaung Medaw. Kings Mingyi Nyo, Tabinshwehti and Nanda of the Toungoo dynasty were descended from him.
Brief.
Sithu Min Oo was the elder of the two children of Princess Atula Maha Dhamma Dewi and Crown Prince Uzana I of Pinya. In 1325, by primogeniture, he technically became the heir presumptive when his father ascended to the Pinya throne. However, Sithu probably was never officially recognized as the heir apparent throughout his father's much contested reign. The de facto heir apparent, according to the royal chronicles, was Uzana's half-brother Prince Kyawswa, who maintained his own army and conducted his own policy. Nor was Sithu viewed as a potential successor by his own father, who relied much more on the younger son Thihapate Min Htwe. Whereas the king appointed Htwe governor of Yamethin, and gave command of a regiment (1000 troops, 800 cavalry and 60 war elephants), chronicles do not report any appointments whatsoever for Sithu.
Perhaps because of his low profile, Sithu managed to survive the subsequent palace intrigues to the 1360s. He was not purged when Kyawswa consolidated the power in the early 1340s. (Kyawswa viewed Thihapate Min Htwe, who seriously considered a rebellion, as a threat.) While Thihapate is not heard from again after 1351, Sithu lived through the fall of Pinya in 1364, and the rise of the new kingdom at Ava (Inwa) in 1365. He was apparently still viewed as an eminence grise then. Swa Saw Ke, who became king of Ava 1367, gave his teenage daughter Minkhaung Medaw in a marriage alliance to Sithu.
It is through this marriage that Sithu the elder is remembered. The couple had two sons, Sithu Thanbawa and Thray Sithu. Through Sithu Thanbawa, his descendants included kings Mingyi Nyo, Tabinshwehti, and Nanda of the Toungoo dynasty.
Ancestry.
The prince was descended from the Pagan royalty from both sides. His parents were half-siblings, children of King Kyawswa of Pagan.


List of terrorist incidents in Indonesia

This is a list of incidents in Indonesia that have been labelled as "terrorism".


Phoolan Devi (film)

Phoolan Devi is a Bengali action movie of 1985 directed by Ashok Roy and produced by Rajeev Kaul. This movie was loosely based on the life of Indian bandit turned politician Smt. Phoolan Devi. The film was also released in Hindi with the name "Kahani Phoolvati Ki"'. Popular hero of the Bollywood movies, Joy Mukherjee played the role of main antagonist in this film.
Plot.
Young Phoolan was forced to marry an old man "Puttilal" by her parents. Puttilal has another wife who started torture to Phoolan. One day Phoolan met with her close friend Meena who turned into bandit due to atrocities of Thakur brothers. Those Thakur brother, Bara Thakur and Chota Thakur terrorize the villagers. Bikram Mallah, a trusted hand of Thakurs protests such inhuman activities of them. Whilst those brothers attack on Phoolan, Bikram stops them and took charge of the Thakur's gang forcefully. Subsequently, he married Phoolan. Thakur brothers took revenge to kill Bikram and raped Phoolan. They tagged her mercilessly and few villagers gang raped her in all day long. Escaping from their hand Phoolan made her own gang and became "Dakait" (Decoit) leader. Thereafter she killed all the rapists one by one including two Thakur brothers.


Rong Cheng Shi

The Rong Cheng Shi () is an ancient bamboo manuscript from the Chinese Warring States period (ca. 453–221 BCE) that was discovered and purchased on Hong Kong's antiquity market in 1994. It is now kept at the Shanghai Museum. It was published in the second volume of the "Shanghai Bowuguan can Zhanguo Chu jian shu" 上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書. Like the entire collection, it is dated to the mid through late 4th century BCE.
To date, it is the only historical narrative from that runs from ancient times to the beginning of the Zhou dynasty. It addresses abdication as an ideal way of ruling, and describes history as devolutionary.


Chamanene

Chamanene was an area in central Turkey during the Roman Empire, that adjoined Galatia to the north and west.
The area is referred to by Ptolemy, Strabo and Basil of Caesarea. It also appears on Peutinger Table.
The district may have had its origins as a prefecture created by Archeläus of Cappadocia during Hellenistic times and give its name to the modern district of Kaman.
Towns in the district included:


Rakta Charitra

Rakta Charitra () is a 2010 Indian political action thriller film based on the life of Paritala Ravindra. The film was directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Prashant Pandey. Shot simultaneously in Telugu and Hindi with the latter titled Rakht Charitra, the film stars Vivek Oberoi as "Pratap Ravi", while Sudeep, Shatrughan Sinha, Abhimanyu Singh, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Sushant Singh, and Radhika Apte play supporting roles. Oberoi makes his debut in Telugu cinema through this film.
The film was nominated for Stardust Readers Choice Award for Best Direction — Action/Thriller. Sequel to the film, "Rakta Charitra 2" (2010) was released later that year.
Plot.
Narasimha Reddy, a local politician, is a powerful man in the area. His close associate Veera Bhadra (Rajendra Gupta) is his trustwothy ally for his political work, to the extent that Narasimha Reddy gives him freedom to contest Jilla Parishad polls with his men. Veera Bhadra champions the causes of the poor and oppressed and they look up to him like their leader.
Nagamuni Reddy (Kota Srinivasa Rao), who is the local MLA of the district and close to Narasimha Reddy, becomes jealous of the budding trust between Veera Bhadra and Narasimha Reddy, and starts poisoning Narasimha Reddy against Veera Bhadra. Narasimha summons Veera Bhadra and asks him not to contest the polls with his contestants, but rather support Nagamuni Reddy's. Veera Bhadra lashes out at Narasimha Reddy for being unfair to the underprivileged communities and storms out. Nagamuni Reddy calls for Manda (Ashish Vidyarthi), a close follower of Veerabhadra, and manipulates him into killing Veerabhadra, giving him the assurance that if he does it, people will suspect the policies of Veera Bhadra as his own follower killed him and he will be the next in line as the leader of the poor people, else take his life. Manda reluctantly agrees to it. Veerabhadra and his wife (Zarina Wahab) travel in a bus with 40 people to a wedding. Manda and Nagamani's men stop the bus, kill Veerabhadra's guards, and tell him to step out of the bus or else he will be killed along with the other innocents on the bus. Veera Bhadra comes out, looking at Manda, and dares him to kill. Nagamani's henchman Durga shoots at Veerabhadra, making it look like Manda shot at him; prompting Manda about the deal he made with Nagamani, he tells him to kill him in front of everyone. Manda takes a boulder and crushes Veerabhadra's skull and kills him.
This results in an agitation led by Shankar, who wants to avenge his father's murder by killing all the men of Nagamani and Narasimha Reddy. Enter Nagamuni's son Bukka Reddy (Abhimanyu Singh), described as a ruthless man who enjoys raping women and killing men in brutal ways. He starts killing Shankar's men in gory ways: drilling a hole into their skull, chopping off their heads with a sugarcane chopper, burning them alive and feeding them to ravenous rats.
Pratap Ravi (Vivek Oberoi), who is in college in the city of Anantapur, gets the news of his father's murder and rushes to the village. Nagamani Reddy orders the local police inspector to kill Shankar in a fake encounter. When Pratap Ravi goes to the police station to ask about his brother, the inspector shows him Shankar's dead body and mocks him. Infuriated with his brother's murder, Pratap Ravi and Veerabhadra's men kill all the police officers and the inspector.
Pratap Ravi hides in the jungle with his father's associates and vows to kill Narsimha Reddy, Nagamuni Reddy and Manda one by one, instilling fear of death in each one of them. He starts by busting in the house of Narasimha Reddy, killing his guards and finally killing him with a scythe in front of his wife as she looks on in horror. Next is Manda; as he roams in the market, Pratap's men follow him, and before he can defend himself, they chop his hand off. Manda begs for his life but Pratap stabs him in front of everyone. They plan to kill Nagamuni Reddy, but they are cautious as there is heavy police security in his house. As Nagamani Reddy is sitting on his lawn conversing with a police officer, he is shot at by Pratap, who is dressed as the cop, and his men, dressed as cops as well, kill most of the policemen.
The story progresses as famed filmstar-turned-politician Shivaji Rao (Shatrughan Sinha) targets Anantapur for contesting elections. The day he enters Anantapur for the rally, Bukka Reddy's men throw bombs, which makes Shivaji Rao get back inside the car and go back. This insults him greatly and he asks his secretary for the one who can stop Bukka Reddy. Immediately, his secretary mentions Pratap Ravi's name; Shivaji Rao sends for him and puts down a proposal of joining his party and ticket for contesting elections. On the other hand, Bukka Reddy makes his brother Puru Reddy contest for elections and tries to sabotage the voting process by stealing the ballots. Pratap starts his rampage by eliminating, one by one, every rival of his party. Eventually, he comes across a man named Babu Qadri who seeks Pratap's help in avenging his sister's death. Bukka Reddy had raped his 16-year-old sister, because of which she immolated herself, and Bukka had then broken Babu Qadri's leg. Pratap assures him his vengeance but asks him to forget everything for some time.
As Bukka Reddy's men fail in rigging the election process, Pratap Ravi wins by a majority. Immediately, Bukka Reddy is arrested. Puru Reddy gets him out on bail through Sirji's influence. Bukka, inflamed with the desire to avenge his father's death, hides out in an apartment with his men, and plots to kill Pratap Ravi. Pratap comes to know about his hideout devises a plan to execute him. He immediately gathers his men and calls Babu Qadri, who had sought Pratap's help in avenging his sister, to lead the execution of Bukka Reddy. He calls for the servant of Bukka Reddy and bribes him with 500,000 to aid in the execution. Babu Qadri and Pratap's men rush into the apartment, killing all Bukka's men; then killing Bukka Reddy with an axe.
Critical reception.
Vivek Oberoi's performance in the role of Paritala Ravi drew widespread praise, while Abhimanyu Singh's devious turn as Bukka Reddy, modelled on the real-life Obul Reddy, was regarded as one of the most terrifying villainous acts captured on celluloid in a long time. Renuka Rao of DNA India gave the movie 4 stars in a scale of 5, concluding that RGV has surprisingly thrown at the audience a film that could actually evoke some emotions in you. A must, must watch." Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the movie 4 stars in a scale of 5, saying that "On the whole, RAKHT CHARITRA is not for the faint-hearted or the lily-livered. The violence, the blood and gore depicted in the film will shock and disconcert you, which only goes to establish as to how proficiently the subject material has been treated." Nikhat Kazmi of Times of India gave the movie 3 stars out of 5, stating that "Rakta Charitra holds up a brutal mirror on the muck that masquerades as democracy in India." Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN gave the movie 3 out of 5 stars, noting that "Rakta Charitra is a bold, disturbing film that’s bursting with the kind of confidence we haven’t seen from the filmmaker recently. If the sight of blood doesn’t make you uncomfortable, chances are you’ll enjoy this film." Kittu Singh of Rediff gave the movie 2.5 out of 5, writing that "Once the film is over you realise that all Rakta Charitra has been is a two-hour promotional fare for Rakta Charitra 2. Yes, there is more to come." Anupama Chopra of NDTV gave the movie 2.5 stars in a scale of 5 stars. Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave the movie 2.5 stars out of 5, and wrote that "It is an interesting story, and Oberoi, re-united with RGV after Company does a good job as Ravi. But the blood overtakes it all: Rakta Charitra is not for the faint-hearted."
Accolades.
Nominated
Nominated
Nominated
Sequel.
A sequel titled "Rakta Charitra 2" was released in December of 2010 and included Tamil actor Suriya as part of the main cast.


Ghar-e-Pariyan

Ghar-e-Pariyan is a cave near Isfahan. It is situated at an altitude of 2967 m above sea level. Its entrance measures approximately 1.6 x 1.2 meters. Its coordinates are "".


Siri Naga I of Anuradhapura

Siri Naga I was King of Anuradhapura in the 2nd century, whose reign lasted from 196 to 215. He succeeded his brother-in-law Kuda Naga as King of Anuradhapura and was succeeded by his son Voharika Tissa.


Aigyr-Zhal 2

Aigyr-Zhal 2 is a historical site in Naryn city on the territory of University of Central Asia (UCA), Kyrgyzstan. It is a part of a bigger and more complex site Aigyr-Zhal. It is dated between Mesolithic time and Middle Ages. Aigyr-Zhal is the only site in the Tian-Shan that has evidence of human occupation from Mesolithic (12th millennium BC) time till the Turkic period (13 century AD).
It was first was discovered in 1953 by Akhmat Kibirov. However, during the Soviet time the site was partially destroyed, therefore it was impossible to research the site for a long time. Only in 2012 it was first researched by Kubat Tabaldiev's archaeological team. The length of Aigyr-Zhal 2 is 300 metres, while the width is 100 metres, and the heigh of the site is 2026 metres above the sea level. Since 2002 the whole Aigyr-Zhal complex is in the list of National importance of Kyrgyzstan.
Methodology.
During the excavations different methods were used for findings artefacts:
Archaeological excavations.
The first archaeological excavations of Aigyr-Zhal 2 started in 2012 by Kubat Tabaldiev and other archaeologists. He was invited by representatives of University of Central Asia, who found human bones during construction of the road that situated next to the site. During his excavations he found many burial mounds that are dated back to Bronze Age until Turkic era. After findings of stone tools, he invited another archaeologist Aida Abdykanova. Due to her it was possible to find another cultural layer that dated back to Mesolithic Age (13100-13850 BP).
Since 2012, the archaeological excavations of the site takes place every year.
In 2013 excavations continued by archaeological team consisted of students of anthropology department of American University of Central Asia (AUCA) under the guidance of Aida Abdykanova. During the investigations the team found burial mound with human remains that were dated to Iron Age till Saka period (VIII-III BC).
In 2014, the archaeological team and students of AUCA continued the excavations of the previous years. At the same time students from Jusup Balasagyn National University participated in the excavation process too. During those excavation years a lot of organic and inorganic materials were found on the territory of Aigyr-Zhal 2 site. In 2014 archaeologists opened Area # 1, but this area was not very well studied in 2014, because only 8m2 were excavated, but in 2015 and in 2016 the excavations' works on that area were continued. In 2015 the area was widened, and 39m2 were studied. In 2016, 13m2 more were studied. In 2017, there were 2 sections, the first section was 87m2 and the second section was 16m2. In 2018 the purpose was to dig deeper and to study already more opened 103m2.
In 2016 many different materials were found. The most important finding was wall-like structure. The most likely assumption what it can be is a wall. However, in 2018 after finding some salt on the top of wall-like structure, appears another assumption that it can be a stream as well.
In 2017, it was decided to continue excavate previous areas that were excavated in 2016, including wall-like structure, in order to reveal its shape. In addition, several ritual pits of Iron Age, Mesolithic Age and Bronze Age were found. All of them had traces of fireplaces such as charcoal, ash, ceramics. Another interesting finding was Stone structure, next to which were human bones. More likely, it was a burial mound, the shoe shaped form tells that likely it was burial mound of Hunnic Era.
In 2018, the archaeological team consisted of students of AUCA and Indiana University under A. Abdykanova and A. Pybern continued the excavation of Aigyr-Zhal 2. In the ritual pit dated to Iron Age were found fragments of charcoal, ceramics and ship remains. In addition, fish scales, shells, microlithic tools, cores were found. The most interesting finding was golden bead, supposingly part of necklace. It was found on the west from stone structure in the place of finding human remains in 2017 and 2018. After analysis of human bones it was confirmed the sex of a person buried there - woman.


Tarabya of Toungoo

Tarabya of Toungoo (, ) was viceroy of Toungoo from 1440 to 1446. Prior to Toungoo, he had held governorships at Amyint and Yanaung.
Brief.
He was a son of Gov. Tarabya I of Pakhan, and younger brother of Queen Saw Min Hla. He was appointed governor of Amyint with the title of Tarabya in early 1434 by King Mohnyin Thado. In 1439, King Minye Kyawswa I succeeded the Ava throne, and appointed Tarabya governor of the strategic town of Yanaung in the Prome region as a step to regain Toungoo which had been in revolt since 1426.
In 1440, Tarabya partook in the Ava expedition to Toungoo that retook the region. For his success, Tarabya was appointed viceroy of Toungoo.
According to the "Toungoo Yazawin" chronicle, a court astrologer predicted in 1442 that the viceroy would die at midnight on 5th waxing of Tabodwe 807 ME (1 January 1446). Angered by the prediction, he sent the astrologer to jail. The chronicle continues that the viceroy died at the midnight of 1 January 1446 as he was taking a shower. His son Minkhaung succeeded, and freed the astrologer from jail.
Tarabya ruled for nearly six years. Tarabya was a brother-in-law of Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa of the Forty Years' War fame. Moreover, starting with the "Maha Yazawin" chronicle, all royal chronicles identify Tarabya of Toungoo as an ancestor (paternal great-great-great grandfather) of King Bayinnaung of Toungoo Dynasty.


Battle of Arakere

The Battle of Arakere was a battle fought near the Mysorean capital city of Seringapatam on 15 May 1791 during the Third Anglo-Mysore War. An army led by Charles, Earl Cornwallis consisting of British East India Company and British Army forces, along with allied forces from the Nizam of Hyderabad, arrived near Seringapatam, and sought a crossing of the Kaveri River near the village of Arakere. Tipu Sultan, Mysore's ruler, had established a defensive line there, and Cornwallis, in an attack begun early on 15 May, drove Tipu from his position. Tipu retreated into Seringapatam; Cornwallis, whose army was running out of food, fought Tipu's forces and were defeated in a decisive battle. The British forces then retreated to Bangalore after the battle.


Shrish Chandra Mitra

Srish Chandra Mitra or Habu was a Bengali revolutionary and active member of Indian independence movement.
Revolutionary activities.
Mitra was born in Raspur village, Amta, Howrah district. He was popularly known as Habu Mitra. He joined in Anushilan Samiti and entered in British gun maker Rodda Company as an employee. Mitra was aware of a major consignment of arms and ammunition being shipped to the Company in August 1914 and planned to loot the arms for revolutionaries. On 26 August, he headed to the Customs house in Kolkata to receive the shipment on behalf of Rodda & Co. With him were seven Bullock carts. Haridas Dutta, a member of Jugantar was dressed as the cart-driver for one of the carts Mitra took with him. Total of 202 boxes received by Mitra, Srishh Pal and Khagendra Nath Das assisted him to reach those ammunition towards Mononga Lane via Mission row. British police described that Mitra was the mastermind of the Rodda company arms heist. "The Statesman", in its edition on 30 August 1914 described the heist as 'The greatest daylight robbery'.
Death.
He remained underground as per the instruction of the Anushilan Samiti and went to North East India to avoid arrest. Possibly in 1915 Mitra decided to go to China by road that passing through the jungles but could not succeed to cross the border and shot dead by frontier guards.


Yatala Tissa, Prince of Ruhuna

Yatala Tissa was an early monarch of Sri Lanka of the Kingdom of Ruhuna in the Southern region of the island.
The Kingdom of Ruhuna was a Sub kingdom loyal to the King of Anuradhapura


Maulana Yusuf of Banten

Maulana Yusuf (also spelled Molana Yusup) was the second sultan of Banten, and reigned from c. 1570 to 1580.
In about 1579, he conquered Pajajaran, which was the last significant Hindu-Buddhist kingdom on Java. With this conquest, the Sundanese elite are said to have embraced Islam.


History of Lopburi

Known as "Lavo" during most of its history, Lopburi Province is one of the most important cities in the history of Thailand. The city has a long history, dating back into the prehistory period since the Bronze Age of more than 3,500 years ago.
Later, it was influenced by the art and culture of India in the 11th century when it entered the historical era. This first period under the influence of Indian culture was called the Dvaravati Period. Since that time, Lavo has been ruled by the Khmer, coming under the influence of their art and culture, in the 15th century, a time commonly called the Lopburi Period in Thai art history.
Eventually, when the Ayutthaya empire was established, Lavo decreased in importance until the reign of King Narai. He had a palace built in Lavo, and each year spent most of his time there. After the time of King Narai, Lavo had been abandoned, until the 19th centuries, King Mongkut (Rama IV) had it restored to be used as an inland royal city.
Later, in the 20th century, Prime Minister Marshal P. Piboolsongkhram developed Lopburi as a national military center.
Location.
Lavo is in central Thailand on a river which descends from the mountains "Sam-Yod" (Khao Sam Yod) above the city, and runs into the Lopburi River west of the city. This river runs into Chao Phraya River in Singburi Province.
Prehistorical era.
This city is in the Chao Phraya River basin where historical, archaeological, and cultural evidence has been discovered that prehistoric humans lived here about 3,500 – 4,000 years ago or in the Bronze age. Abandoned ancient cities with many pre-historic instruments and human skeletons has been found in several parts of the modern-day province.
According to the "Northern Chronicles," Lavo (Lopburi) was founded by King Kalavarnadishraj, who came from Takkasila in 648 CE. According to Thai records, King Kakabatr from Takkasila (it is assumed that the city was Tak or Nakhon Chai Si) set the new era, Chula Sakarat in 638 CE. His son, King Kalavarnadishraj founded the city a decade later. And several years later he assigned Jamadevi to reign on the throne of the Haribhunjaya kingdom in the northern Thailand.
These kingdoms adopted Indian culture together with Theravada Buddhism and grew up under post-Indian (the local technology that adapt from Indian) and Mon influence in the 11th to 12th centuries, as it entered into the historical era. This first period under the influence of Indian culture was called the Dvaravati period. For the time being this kingdom was known as Saruka Lavo (Mon language). Although the inscription stones found in this area are the Mon language, however there is not clear evidence to prove if the population of Lavo were actually of Mon ethnicity.
In 2018-2019 The Italian-Thai "Lopburi Regional Archaeological Project", co-directed by Dr Roberto Ciarla (ISMEO - International Association of Mediterranean and Oriental Studies) and Dr Pakpadee Yukongdee (Thai Fine Arts Department, Bangkok), discovered several hundreds of stone and shell adzes, remains of shell industry waste, terracotta artifacts, clay pots of different style, animal and human remains dating back to the Neolithic Period as well as to the Iron Age in the Lop Buri River basin at Khok Phutsa few kilometers north of the Lop Buri City. C14 dates, DNA analysis and full study of the artifacts are still in progress.
Lavo in Chinese records.
In the 6th century, Lavo sent tribute to the Chinese emperor during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), and another during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). The Tang Chronicles refer to Lavo and Dvaravati as Tou-ho-lo. The diary of the monk Xuanzang, dating from the same period (629–645), also mentions the region, referring to it as Tou-lo-po-ti.
Lavo sent tributes to Song dynasty twice, in 1115 and 1155. The Song Chronicles mention Lavo at that time as Lo Hu.
Marco Polo's writings also refer to Lavo, as Locak. It was described as being in the hinterland of the Chao Phraya basin, a place too far to be subject to attack by the Kublai Khan's army of Yuan (1271–1368).
Khmer era.
In the 10th century, when it was known as Lavodayapura (Khmer language), Lavo was subordinate to the Khmer empire that rapid rise to prominence by the migration of Kambojas from the south India, therefore Lavo often be mentioned as Kambojarat (rat – kingdom) in some old Thai records. (Kambojas, in this case, the Khmers of Cambodia) came with the influence of their art and culture, in the 15th to 16th centuries. New construction used the stones of ruined Dvaravati holy places that were built originally without mortar. Thus, the oldest ruins that can now be found in Lopburi are always Khmer-style on a Dvaravati foundation.
The Khmers were present since the eleventh century, but Lavo "became detached from Cambodia" at the end of the thirteenth century, sending embassies to China from 1289 to 1299.
Ayutthaya era.
In 1350, the Ayutthaya kingdom was founded by King Ramathibodi I, which merged Lavo with the kingdom ruled from Suphanburi called "Subharnabhumi" or "Pan Pum", which according to the common Thai history to be identical with the Suvarnabhumi kingdom. This event had been recorded in the Chinese texts that called Thai as "Xian-lo-guo" or Siam-Lavo country.
At that time Lavo became a "Mueang Luk Luang", an important city ruled by a crown prince for several years in the beginning of Ayutthaya period. There were not any evidences the prosperity of Lavo was transferred from Lavo to Ayutthaya, but with time Lavo decreased in importance to become only a border town to the north of Ayutthaya.
In the reign of King Narai the Great, the 26th king of Ayutthaya, in the mid-17th century Lavo become an important city again. He commanded to reconstruct the palace at the same place of King Ramesuan's Palace as a summer palace, King Narai's Palace in 1666. Lavo thus served as a second capital, next to Ayutthaya, the king stayed here for about eight months a year.
Rattanakosin era.
After the time of King Narai, Lavo had been abandoned, until King Mongkut (Rama IV) of Rattanakosin kingdom had it restored to be used as an inland royal city.
Lavo had also been renamed to Lopburi in this period.
Later, in 1937, Prime Minister Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram desired to set up Lopburi as the military center of Thailand. Therefore, the city had been expanded. He laid out Lopburi city, with its modern center about 4 km. east of the historical center. His building style, Art Deco, is apparent along Narai Maharat Road. The improvements he made to the city are apparent to the present day.


Subah of Multan

The Subah of Multan was a subdivision of the Mughal Empire encompassing the southern Punjab region.
History.
The Subah of Multan was one of twelve administrative divisions created by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1580.
Notable governors.
The following is a list of notable governors of Multan subah appointed by the central Mughal government.
16th century
17th century


All-China Resistance Association of Writers and Artists

The National Resistance Association of Literary and Art Workers () was an organization founded on 27 March 1938 to unite cultural workers in China against the Japanese invaders during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was led by the politically neutral writer Lao She and membership ranged from 100 to 400 writers during the years of the organization's existence. Notable members included Mao Dun, Ding Ling, Ba Jin, Lin Yutang, Shi Zhecun, and many others.


Plumeria (Lao Royal Residence)

Plumeria was a former royal residence of Princess Khampieng and Prince Khamtan, a grandson of the 19th-century King Zakarine, in the city of Luang Prabang, Laos. Khampieng’s mother, Princess Vanthatmaly, built the 33-room boutique property, which is anchored by the 1938 residence. The royal couple raised their four children in this house while Khamtan served as prefect of the provinces of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Sainyabuli. He died in a plane crash; his wife lived in the house until her death.
In 2001, the house was converted into a hotel.


Mausoleum of seven martyrs

The Mausoleum of Seven Martyrs () or Saptashikha () is located at Phulbari in Lengura Union at the foot of a hill in Kalmakanda Upazila bordering Netrakona district.
History.
On 26 July 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War, seven fighters were killed in a gun battle with the Pakistan army at the junction of three roads adjacent to the Nazirpur Union Land Office in Kalmakanda Upazila. Their bodies were later buried at Phulbari in Lengura Union, known as the Mausoleum of Seven Martyrs.


Aleimma of Martaban

Aleimma (, ) was governor of Martaban (Mottama), then a Lower Burma province of the Pagan Empire, from 1259 to 1285. Appointed to the office by King Narathihapate, Aleimma proved a loyal governor of the southern province until the 1280s. But when Pagan was fighting a losing war against Mongol invaders in the country's north, he like other vassal rulers in the south began planning to break away. However, the governor himself was assassinated by a local chief named Ma Gadu, who went on to declare independence from Pagan two years later.
Brief.
In the late 1250s, Aleimma was an official at the court of King Narathihapate (r. 1256–1287) in Pagan (Bagan). He hailed from a line of court ministers that included the 12th century Minister Aleimma, who served at the court of King Sithu I. In early 1259, Narathihapate appointed Aleimma the younger governor of the restive province of Martaban (present-day Mon State and southern Kayin State in Myanmar). The appointment came after the Pagan army led by Minister-General Yazathingyan had put down a rebellion by the previous governor Nga Shwe.
Aleimma ruled the province on the upper Tenasserim coast without incident for the next 25 years. However, in 1284, when Pagan was faring badly against Mongol invaders, many of the vassal rulers throughout the country, including the king's own sons, began thinking about breaking away. Aleimma was no exception: he began asking his local chiefs to pledge their allegiance to him.
However, he had underestimated the ambitions of local chiefs. He apparently was not suspicious when one of the local chiefs Ma Gadu not only offered his allegiance and men but also proposed a marriage between the governor and his younger sister Hnin U Yaing, with the wedding to be held at Gadu's hometown Donwun. The chronicle "Razadarit Ayedawbon" suggests that Aleimma was completely smitten with U Yaing after seeing her bathe in the river near Donwun. But it was a setup—part of Gadu's plan to lure Aleimma out of Martaban, and assassinate him. Gadu, who was a former captain of the guards of King Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai, had decided to seize the governorship himself, and had ordered U Yaing to bathe in the river where Aleimma would see her.
While the bathing story may not be historical, Aleimma nonetheless accepted Gadu's proposal. In January 1285, the old governor with a small contingent of troops went up to Donwun, about 100km north of the city of Martaban, to consummate the alliance. On the night of the wedding, 11 January 1285, while Aleimma's guards were drunk, Gadu's men killed them, and assassinated the governor.
Aftermath.
After Aleimma's death, Gadu quickly went on to seize Martaban, and consolidate his control of the Martaban province. Two years later, he had secured the support of the Siamese kingdom of Sukhothai, and declared himself king of Martaban, with the title of Wareru.


Petersburg Tram Mechanical Factory

Petersburg Tram Mechanical Factory ("PTMF") (, "ПТМЗ") was one of the leading manufacturers of tramcars in Russia and the CIS-countries located in Saint Petersburg. As the only tram manufacturing plant in Russia for several decades (until 1981), it was the sole supplier of rolling stock for the tram system in St. Petersburg.
History.
Founded in 1929 as a tram repair plant, it was rebuilt in 1933 into a tram manufacturing enterprise for the city of Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). At that time, it produced LM and LP trams. During the ceremony for the first tram produced and leaving the plant, S. Kirov was present. By the spring of 1934 the plant was moved to Chugunnaya Street.


Japanese Resident-General of Korea

When Korea was a protectorate of Japan from 1905 to 1910, Japan was represented by the Resident-General. This post was highly hated among native Koreans, and international opinion regarded it as nothing more than an imperial sanction to ward off the imperial interests of China, Russia, and the Western Powers (collectively: Britain, France, and the United States). All Resident-Generals were either assassinated or seriously targeted for assassination.


Theinkhathu Saw Hnaung

Theinkhathu Saw Hnaung (, ) was governor of Sagu in the Kingdom of Ava in the late 14th century. He was a grandson of King Thihathu of Pinya, and was one of the four top commanders of King Swa Saw Ke of Ava. He successfully resisted King Thado Minbya's multiple attempts to take his home region (1365−67). He later submitted to Swa. He served in the war against the southern Hanthawaddy Kingdom between 1386 and 1391 and defended the kingdom against the northern state of Mohnyin.
Queen Shin Bo-Me of Ava was his granddaughter.
Military service.
Saw Hnaung was one of the four top generals of King Swa. The other three were Thilawa of Yamethin, Tuyin of Inyi, and Min Pale of Paukmyaing.
Ancestry.
The following is his ancestry according to "Hmannan Yazawin" chronicle. Queen Shin Bo-Me of Ava was his grand-daughter.


Japan Renewal Party

The Japan Renewal Party (also JRP; 新生党, "Shinseitō") was a Japanese political party that existed in the early 1990s. It was founded in 1993 by 44 members of the Liberal Democratic Party led by Tsutomu Hata and Ichirō Ozawa. It was instrumental in ending the LDP's 38 year dominance of Japanese politics.
Both reformers, Hata and Ozawa had been involved in a difficult leadership struggle within the former Takeshita faction of the LDP. Their opponents, led by Keizo Obuchi and Ryutaro Hashimoto, were using the fallout of the Sagawa Kyubin scandal as a tool to undermine the reformist position. Hata and Ozawa split from the party partly to shift media attention away from the scandal. In doing so, they transformed an internal party dispute to a wide-ranging conflict that led to a decade of shifting allegiances and short-lived parties.
In the elections immediately following the split, the JRP won 55 seats, making it one of the most powerful opposition parties. Most importantly, the party drew off support crucial to the LDP. While several other small parties had split from the LDP, Hata and Ozawa's group was the largest, and was widely considered to have finally broken the back of LDP dominance.
Known for his political organisational skills, Ozawa organised a five-party coalition of the JRP, the Japan Socialist Party, the Democratic Socialist Party, Komeito and the United Social Democratic Party. This coalition held 237 seats in the Diet, and after convincing the Japan New Party and the New Party Sakigake to join, was able to form a government under Morihiro Hosokawa.
As the impetus for the collapse of LDP power, the JRP was able to exert great power in the coalition. While some concessions to other parties were made, the JRP was perhaps overly dominant, eventually forcing some other members out of the coalition through its heavyhanded style. In 1994, the JRP merged into the New Frontier Party.


Talal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud

Talal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud ( "Ṭalāl bin ʿAbdulʿazīz Āl Saʿūd"; 15 August 1931 – 22 December 2018), formerly also called The Red Prince, was a senior member of the Saudi royal family. He was notable for his liberal stance, striving for a national Constitution, the full rule of law and equality before the law. He was also the leader of Free Princes Movement in the 1960s.
Early life.
Prince Talal was born in Shubra Palace, Taif, on 15 August 1931 as the twentieth son of King Abdulaziz. His mother was an Armenian, Munaiyir, whose family escaped from the Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1923. Munaiyir was presented by the emir of Unayza in 1921, when she was 12 years old, to the 45-year-old Abdulaziz. Their first child was born when she was 15 years old, a son named Talal. Following tradition, Munaiyir became known as Umm Talal, "mother of Talal". However, in 1927, the three-year-old Talal died. In 1931, their second son Talal was born and named in honor of his late brother, following the Bedouin tradition. It is unknown when Abdulaziz divorced his fourth wife and formally wed Munaiyir. She is reported by her family to have remained illiterate all her life and converted to Islam. Munaiyir was regarded by British diplomats in Saudi Arabia as one of Abdulaziz's favourite wives. She was as known for her intelligence as for her beauty. She died in December 1991.
Prince Talal was the full brother of Nawwaf bin Abdulaziz. During the reign of King Saud, they became bitter enemies, to the point of contesting their inheritances. Their full sister, Madawi bint Abdulaziz, died in November 2017.
Positions held.
Minister of Communications.
Prince Talal became one of the wealthiest young princes, but his bureau suffered major corruption problems. Prince Talal was made minister of communications when the office was established in 1952. Then, King Abdulaziz created the ministry of the air force to represent all flight-related matters from his administration. Because Prince Talal and Prince Mishaal contended over who controlled the national airlines, Saudi Arabia was to have two separate fleets. The dispute ended when Prince Talal resigned in April 1955. Later, the ministry of communication was merged with the ministry of finance after Prince Talal's resignation. This allowed King Saud to skip choosing Talal's successor, which would have caused friction in the royal family no matter whom King Saud selected.
Ambassador to France and Spain.
Prince Talal served as Saudi ambassador to France and Spain during the reign of King Saud between 1955 and 1957.
Minister of Finance and National Economy.
King Saud appointed Prince Talal as minister of finance and national economy in 1960. He was removed from the office on 11 September 1961. The reason for the removal of Prince Talal is that he proposed in September 1961 to establish a constitution in Saudi Arabia. However, King Saud had no intention or plan to reform the political system. Therefore, he forced Prince Talal to resign from the cabinet. First, Prince Muhammed bin Saud and then, his full brother Prince Nawwaf succeeded him in the post.
Controversy.
Free Princes Movement.
After Prince Talal's palaces were searched by the Saudi Arabian National Guard while he was abroad, he held a press conference in Beirut on 15 August 1962. His statements caused a stir since he openly criticized and attacked the Saudi regime. As a consequence, his passport was withdrawn, his property confiscated, and some of his supporters in Saudi Arabia arrested. Soon the North Yemen Civil War began, and one week later, four crews of Saudi Arabian Airlines employees defected to Egypt. Prince Talal adopted the name of the 'Free Princes' in Cairo on 19 August 1962, and broadcast his progressive views on the Radio Cairo. Later, he and two of his brothers, Prince Fawwaz and Prince Badr, and one of his cousins, Prince Saad, began to make statements on behalf of the Saudi Liberation Front. After four years, during which King Faisal offered tremendous financial inducements to the Free Princes, the latter were again reconciled with the royal family.
His return to Saudi Arabia and rehabilitation was made possible through the mediation of his mother, Munaiyir. In exile, his own family did not support him and even criticized him for his intensive sympathy with then Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, Saudi Arabia's foremost enemy. On 8 September 1963, "The Sunday Telegraph" reported that Talal's mother, Munaiyir, advised her son that he was behaving foolishly while his younger sister Madawi kept asking him to return home. A few days later, Prince Talal returned to Saudi Arabia. King Faisal reportedly refused to forgive Prince Talal but privately assured his mother that his assets would be unfrozen and that he could safely return home.
Views.
In September 1961 Prince Talal called for establishing a constitutional monarchy in Saudi Arabia and for closing the Dhahran Air Base which had been constructed by the US. Although he served in the cabinet led by King Saud, in August 1962 Prince Talal argued that King Saud had no quality to be the ruler of the country in the 20th century.
Years later Prince Talal expressed his regret to form a political movement, namely Free Princes, due to the fact that it was commonly considered as a threat to the monarchy.
After the September 11 attacks, Prince Talal challenged the "potentially very confusing" claim that rulers and religious scholars should jointly decide affairs of state. In 2001 he openly stated his support for the establishment of an elected assembly in Saudi Arabia. In September 2007, he announced his desire to form a political party to advance his goal of liberalizing the country.
In 2009, Prince Talal stated, "King Abdullah is the ruler. If he wills it, it will be done." However, in March 2009, he called on King Abdullah to clarify the appointment of Prince Nayef as second deputy prime minister. He publicly questioned whether it would make Prince Nayef the next crown prince. Prince Nayef was in fact named crown prince in October 2011 following the death of his brother, Prince Sultan. Prince Talal was a member of the Allegiance Council when the members were named in 2007. He resigned from the Council in November 2011, apparently in protest of late Prince Nayef's appointment as Crown Prince. In April 2012, he said that the "hand of justice" should reach all the corrupt in Saudi Arabia, and called on the National Anti-Corruption Authority (NACA) to reach everyone, regardless of status. In his June 2012 "Al Quds Al Arabi" interview, Prince Talal stated that the princes on the Allegiance Council were not consulted on the succession of Prince Salman and that the Council became ineffective.
Various official and honorary positions.
Prince Talal was one of the members of Al Saud Family Council which consisted of royals and was established by Crown Prince Abdullah in June 2000 to discuss private issues such as business activities of princes and marriages of princess to individuals who were not member of House of Saud.
Prince Talal was the chairman of Arab Gulf Program For The United Nations Development (AGFUND), which promoted socioeconomic development in the Middle East. As part of AGFUND, he led the board of trustees of the Arab Network for NGOs based in Cairo and established the Arab Open University. He also supported training of women through AGFUND. Through AGFUND, he provided significant monetary support for UNICEF and UNICEF declared him as its Special Envoy in 1980. He became UNESCO's Special Envoy for Water in 2002 to encourage the development of safe water.
Prince Talal was the president of the Arab Council for Childhood and Development. He also helped create the Mentor Foundation and was an honorary member of its board of trustees. He co-founded the Independent Commission for International Humanitarian Issues. He was also a prominent member of the League for Development of the Pasteur Institute and the honorary president of Saudi Society of Family and Community Medicine.
Philanthropy.
According to Riz Khan, "Prince Talal spent his post-political years developing humanitarian work, shedding the epithet 'The Red Prince' and becoming known as 'The Children's Prince' for his work with UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund."
Personal life.
Prince Talal was known to have wed four times. He first married Umm Faisal, who is the mother of Faisal. He later divorced her.
Next he married the Princess Mona Al Solh, the daughter of Riad Al Solh, the first prime minister of Lebanon. Their children are Prince Al Waleed, Prince Khalid and Princess Reema. They married in September 1954. The marriage collapsed in 1962; they remained separated until their divorce in 1968. One of his brother-in-laws was Prince Abdellah, the brother of King Hassan II. Prince Talal hired one professor from the University of Houston and an instructor to teach English, psychology and Western civilization to his daughter Reema, who was 18 years old, in Riyadh in 1976.
His third wife was Moudie bint Abdul Mohsen Al Angari. She is the mother of Turki, Sara and Noura. They later divorced. She died in 2008.
Lastly, he was married to Magdah bint Turki Al Sudairi, daughter of former Human Rights Commission President Turki bin Khaled Al Sudairi.
Prince Talal had fifteen children, nine sons and six daughters. His sons are Faisal (died 1991), Al Waleed, Khalid, Turki, Abdulaziz, Abdul Rahman, Mansour, Mohammed and Mashour. His daughters are Reema, Sara, Noura, Al Jawhara, Hibatallah and Maha. His daughter Sara claimed political asylum in the United Kingdom over fears for her safety in Saudi Arabia on 7 July 2012.
Death.
Prince Talal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud died in Riyadh on 22 December 2018. His son Prince Abdulaziz bin Talal tweeted in Arabic language: "Prince Talal bin Abdulaziz has passed away on Saturday. May God forgive him and grant him heaven". Funeral prayers were held at Imam Turki bin Abdullah Mosque, Riyadh, following day.


Protectorate (imperial China)

Protectorate, also known as Duhu Fu (), was a type of administrative division controlling frontier regions in Imperial China, especially in the Han and Tang dynasties. During the Han and Tang dynasties, a protectorate was the highest government agency in frontier zones and was directly responsible to the central court. The protectorate governor was called "duhu" (literally "capital city protector"), who needed to take charge in military operations when necessary, and provide instructions to minority tribes and small dependent states within the region. Sometimes, a protectorate had subdivisions named commendaries, or Dudu Fu (). The first protectorate was the Protectorate of the Western Regions established in 60 BCE during Emperor Xuan's reign. It controlled the majority of Tarim Basin and some other parts of Central Asia after the Han dynasty defeated Xiongnu.
Notable protectorates.
Notable protectorates in Chinese history include:


Chen Xuanli

Chen Xuanli (陳玄禮) was the General Commander of the Imperial "Yülin Army" (羽林军) during the Chinese Tang Dynasty. He was a loyal subject of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty.
Biography.
Chen Xuanli started as a low officer guard in the palace and then helped Li Longji launch a successful coup, deposing Empress Dowager Wei in 710. After Li Longji took the throne as Emperor Xuanzong, Chen Xuanli was appointed commander of the Imperial Guard and became a trusted confidant of the emperor. In 755, Chen Xuanli escorted Emperor Xuanzong and Yang Guifei as they fled from Tang's capital, Chang'an, during the Anshi Rebellion. Chen Xuanli succumbed to illness in 762 A.D., the same year as Xuanzong's death.
Rumors and Stories.
During the execution of Yang Guifei, Chen secretly plotted with Gao Lishi to bring another woman to replace Yang. As Chen was in charge of examining Yang's body, he managed to facilitate her escape to Shankou County, Japan.


Vaikom

Vaikom, , is a municipal town and a capital town of Vaikom Taluk, situated in the northwest of Kottayam district in the state of Kerala, India. The town is also noted for its role in the Indian independence movement for being the venue of Vaikom Satyagraha, a civil rights movement aimed at securing freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roads leading to the famous Vaikom Shiva temple situated here.
Location.
Vaikom town is situated at the northwestern end of Kottayam district, close to Ernakulam district border. Vaikom is a lakeside town situated in the banks of the Vembanad lake similar to other lakeside towns like Kottayam and Changanassery. It's western borders are bound by the Vembanad lake. The Muvattupuzha river has it's mouth near Vaikom where it empties into the Vembanad lake, many distributaries of the Muvattupuzha river pass through Vaikom. Vaikom is the oldest township in Kottayam district, and among the oldest in South India. It is also very close to the popular tourism destination Kumarakom and the city of Kochi. Vaikom is 30 km from Ernakulam, 32 km from Kottayam via kumarakom, 37 km from Alappuzha and about from Kochi International Airport.
Vaikom Temple.
The Vaikom Shiva Temple, known as "Thekkan Kashi" (Southern Kashi), is the heart of the town, and is remarkable for the "Vaikom Ashtami" celebrations during November. It is notable as the venue of the Vaikom Agitation for achieving for the lower castes the right to walk on the roads surrounding the temple. One of the most popular temples in Kerala dedicated to Lord Shiva, it was built in 1594.
Administration.
Vaikom is administered by a municipality and is the seat of a munsiff's court (among the oldest to be established in the Kingdom of Travancore, 100 years old). Vaikom assembly constituency is part of Kottayam parliamentary constituency.
History.
Vaikom was believed to be a part of a kingdom called Venmalanadu in the past. When Venmalanadu was split into Vadakkumkoor and Thekkumkoor, it became part of Vadakkumkoor dynasty. Vadakkumkoor kingdom spread along the path of Muvattupuzha river towards the north east side from Kaduthuruthy, Vaikom, Piravom, Muvattupuzha, Kothamangalam and Thodupuzha. There was an important port at Chemmanakary, near Vaikom during the Vadakkumkoor era. Later in 1742, it became part of Travancore when the then Maharajah of Travancore, Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, annexed Vadakkumkoor to his kingdom.
Vaikom gained its fame on a national level during Vaikom Satyagraha.
Economy.
The traditional economy has been based on coconut and rice crops, and fishing; more recently, crops like nutmeg, black pepper, and latex have been introduced. Tourism and software are also pursued as a means to livelihood. Hindustan Newsprint Limited is situated in Velloor near Vaikom.
Demographics.
As per the 2001 census, Vaikom has a population of about 22637 (male: 10955; female: 11682). This region has a literacy rate of 92% (male: 97%; female: 90%). Population density of the region is 2496 per square km.
As per the 2011 census, The Vaikom municipality has a population of 23,234 of which 11,304 are males while 11,930 are females. The population of children under age 6 is 1807, which is 7.78% of the total population of Vaikom (M). In Vaikom municipality, the female sex ratio is of 1055 against the state average of 1084. The male child sex ratio in Vaikom is around 960, compared to the Kerala state average of 964. The literacy rate of Vaikom city is 96.84%, higher than the state average of 94.00%. In Vaikom, male literacy is around 98.30% while female literacy rate is 95.47%.
Hindus are the largest religious community in Vaikom, accounting for 85% of the population. Christians represent 12%, and Muslims 3%.


Anandavana

Anandavana Agadi is located near the city of Haveri in the southern state of Karnataka, India. Here, Shri Sheshachala Swamy lived. There is a beautiful Shiva temple in the city and an annual fair is organised on a grand scale. Within the campus, a Sanskrit school is run by the present Swamiji - Shri Chidambaramurthy Chakravarthy. A monthly Kannada magazine by the name of "Sadhbhoda Chandrike" has been printed and published in Anandavana since the early 1900s. There is an offset printing press for the purpose of printing Sadhbodha Chandrike. Shri Gurudatt Chakravarthy looks after the entire dtp, printing, correction and distribution of the magazine. Shri Sheshala Sadguru High School is also run by the mutt for the rural students and is aided by the government of Karnataka. It has also run a free health care camp on the first and third Sunday of every month since 2000. An annual celebration of the jayanthi (Birthday) of Shri Sheshala Sadguru is celebrated for over a week when thousands of people gather to pull the chariot on the 5th(Panchami) day of the Fair. The devotees have praised daily at the mutt itself.
"Sadhbodha Chandrike" has been conferred the prestigious state award "Karnataka Rajyotsava Prashasthi" for the year 2005 in the field of Literature by the Government of Karnataka. And also the "Karnataka Media Academy Award" has been conferred for the excellent service rendered to the development of Kannada literature and culture.


List of rulers of Timor

This is a list of rulers of Timor since the 17th century. Timor was traditionally divided into a large number of small kingdoms whose rulers were variously known as liurais, rajas, regulos, na'i, etc. They were drawn into the colonial spheres of the Dutch East India Company and Portugal from the 17th century onwards. The succession of the individual kingdoms is only partly known from the existing literature. After the achieving of Indonesian independence the kingdoms in West Timor were phased out and eventually abolished in about 1962. In Portuguese East Timor the kingdoms (reinos) lost much of their functions after 1912, although they have persisted as ritual domains until the present.


Sri Vijaya Rajasinha of Kandy

Vijaya Rajasinha (reigned 1739–1747) was a member of the Madurai Nayak Dynasty and succeeded his brother-in-law Vira Narendra Sinha as the King of Kandy.


Zabwedaung Mibaya

Zabwedaung Mibaya (), born Shin Hlaing and known by her royal titles, Thiri Mingala Yuza Mahe (; ) and Maladewi (; ), was a queen of fourth rank of King Mindon Min during the Konbaung dynasty. She was later promoted to Devi-level queen.
Zabwedaung Mibaya was the sister of Lamaing Wun, minister of Lamaing. She had three daughters and a son, but only two daughters survived. She died in 1857 at Mandalay.


Ar begs

Ar begs (in Russian chronicles "Арские князья") was a formation of Noqrat Tatars' nobility, served to Muscovy in 16th–17th century. In 14th–15th centuries they were rulers of semi-independent duchy in the middle Cheptsa, nowadays Udmurtia. At the first time, their lands were under Kazan Khanate's and later under Russian influence. Begs also participated in wars for Udmurtia between Kazan and Muscovy.
Several and Russian noble families descended from the Ar begs: Devetyarov, Kasimov, Yaushev and others.


Bahram Gushnasp

Bahram Gushnasp, known in Byzantine sources as Bargousnas, was an Iranian military officer from the House of Mihran.
He is first mentioned during an unknown date, where he campaigned against the Himyarites, and was quite successful; he managed to capture the Himyarite king Sanatources, sack his capital and take many captives. He is later mentioned in 573, as the head of the Sasanian garrison in the important city of Nisibis, when it was besieged by the Byzantine general Marcian. With the help of several other tribes, Bahram Gushnasp fought Marcian at Sargathon, a place near Nisibis. He was, however, defeated and is not mentioned in any source after that.
It is known that he had several children named Mardansina, Gorduya, Gordiya. His most famous child was Bahram Chobin, who would later occupy high offices in the Sasanian state, and even manage to overthrow the Sasanian king himself in 590–591.


Hong Kong new year marches

The New Year marches () are a fixture on the political calendar in Hong Kong. Thousands take to the streets demanding universal suffrage as part of the ongoing democratic development as well as to protest against further influence of mainland China in Hong Kong.
2010 march.
In a 2009 directive from Beijing, the Hong Kong government said direct elections for the chief executive would come in 2017, and the legislature would not be fully elected until 2020. Five pro-democracy camp legislators planned to resign en masse from Legislative Council of Hong Kong. In December 2009, HK launched a proposal to increase the election committee seats for the chief executive from 800 to 1,200 individuals. On 1 January 2010, protesters called for the release of Chinese activist Liu Xiaobo, drafter of Charter 08, was sentenced to 11 years in prison just a month earlier. The protest also came four days after Donald Tsang, Hong Kong's chief executive, was given a warning by China’s leadership to resolve deep-rooted conflicts.
Police security was put up around the Beijing liaison office in HK. Layers of railings and human chains were set up protecting the building, and more than 1,000 police officers were deployed. About 10 activists, mostly supporters of the League of Social Democrats, broke through a cordon and stormed into the liaison office. Des Voeux Road was forced to close for an hour. Two police officers and one protester was injured. The protesters did not leave until 7:45pm when league members were allowed to lay a mock coffin at the building's back entrance.
Attendance.
A mix reporting of different statistics on the number of people who participated. March organizers said more than 10,000 protesters turned out. Police put the number at 4,000. Pro-democracy camp said they attracted more than the expected 30,000 people. Other sources also suggest 30,000 protesters in participation with 9,000 reported by the police.
2013 march.
Up to 130,000 people have held rival marches on 1 January 2013 in Hong Kong both for and against the city's chief executive CY Leung. Those protesting against him said he should step down over allegations he lied about illegal renovations and extensions to his mansion. Leung secretly extended his $64 million home without getting government planning permission or paying real estate fees. He is accused of lying about it during last year's election campaign. In response, Leung immediately erected a false wall to block access to the unauthorised extension, before awaiting official investigation. Leung claimed he had solved the problem as the illegal extension "did not exist anymore", but the action led to suspicion of destroying evidence. Leung had also been widely accused of hypocrisy over the issue, as he won the election on 1 July last year by criticising his opponent, Henry Tang for the unauthorised building of a huge basement for a villa held in the name of his wife. Other reasons included universal suffrage, greater democracy, the widening wealth gap and Beijing's meddling in Hong Kong affairs. Organisers of the march calling for Leung's impeachment estimated their numbers at 130,000, although police put the figure at a lower 26,000 at the march's peak.
Supporters of Leung who organised a follow up march argued that he was beginning to address deep-rooted social issues. They also suggested that democracy is a Western concept, which is not compatible with fast economic development or Chinese culture. Supportive ally organisers reported that over 60,000 turned out, although police again reported a lower figure of 8,000.
2018 march.
The march was organized by the Civic Human Rights Front. More than 10 pro-democracy groups and the camp's co-location concern group joined the march, as well as four disqualified lawmakers and Occupy movement leader Benny Tai Yiu-ting. The marchers protested seven social issues, including the West Kowloon co-location arrangement, the recent amendments to the Legislative Council's rules of procedure and the potential enactment of Basic Law Article 23. Organizers said 10,000 joined the march, while police said the turnout was 6,000.
2020 march.
"Main article:Timeline of the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests (January 2020)"