Nome Gold Rush

The Nome Gold Rush was a gold rush in Nome, Alaska, approximately 1899–1909. It is separated from other gold rushes by the ease with which gold could be obtained. Much of the gold was lying in the beach sand of the landing place and could be recovered without any need for a claim. Nome was a sea port without a harbor, and the biggest town in Alaska.
Together with the Klondike Gold Rush (1896–1899) and Fairbanks Gold Rush (1903–1911), Nome was among the biggest gold rushes north of 60 degrees latitude on the North American continent. It shared prospectors with both Klondike and later rushes like Fairbanks. It is memorialized in films like "North to Alaska". Nome City still exists and the area is mined as Nome mining district and by tourists. Total production of gold from the area is estimated to be 112 metric tons.
History.
Prehistory.
The center of the Nome Gold Rush was the town of Nome at the outlet of Snake River on the Seward Peninsula at Norton Sound of the Bering Sea. Inupiaq Eskimos had camped for centuries in the Nome area before Russians came. In the 18th century, they established the port of St. Michael, 125 miles to the southeast, for sailing on the Yukon River. Fur traders and whalers from many countries visited the area. A few church missions were established beginning in the 1880s. Gold was found in smaller amounts at Council 1897, the year before Nome, and subsequently other places in the area.
Discovery.
In September 1898, the "Three Lucky Swedes": Norwegian-American Jafet Lindeberg, and two American citizens of Swedish birth, Erik Lindblom and John Brynteson, discovered gold on Anvil Creek and founded Nome mining district. News of the discovery reached the outside world that winter. By 1899, Nome had a population of 10,000 many of whom had arrived from the Klondike gold rush area. In that year, gold was found in the beach sands for dozens of miles along the coast at Nome, which spurred the stampede to new heights. Thousands more people poured into Nome during the spring of 1900 aboard steamships from the ports of Seattle and San Francisco. More gold seekers from the distant city of Adelaide, Australia set out for Nome aboard the schooner Inca in 1902. By 1900, a tent city on the beaches and on the treeless coast reached 30 miles, from Cape Rodney to Cape Nome.
Claim jumping.
Many late-comers were jealous of the original discoverers, and tried to "jump" the original claims by filing claims covering the same ground. The federal judge for the area ruled the original claims valid, but some of the claim jumpers agreed to share their invalid claims with influential U.S. politicians. One of these, Alexander McKenzie, a Republican from North Dakota, took interest in the gold rush and seized mining claims with the help of a crooked judge, Arthur H. Noyes. Mckenzie's claim-jumping scheme was eventually stopped by the federal Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals; however, the episode provided the plot for Rex Beach's best-selling novel "The Spoilers" (1906), which was made into a stage play and movies, most famously The Spoilers (1942) starring John Wayne. Because of the unrest Fort Davis was established 1900 at the mouth of Nome River, 4 miles east of Nome City.
Mining at Nome.
Beach.
Claim jumping was mostly a problem before the beach gold was found, since it could not be claimed and there was plenty of it. As a matter of fact, the beach gold seems to have been more important than the claimed gold in the creeks. The mining of Nome beach is a good example of gold rushes going through phases of increasing use of machinery and capital. The very first gold on the beach was found with a pan. Later in the summer of 1899 human powered equipment like sluices and rockers were present. In 1900 small machines together with hoses and pumps were seen at the beach, and finally from around 1902 big companies took over. The season wasn't long. Due to ice, the beaches could only be worked from June to October. Local police forced people with inadequate shelter to leave for the winter.
Creeks.
Panning creeks for gold in Alaska is slow and cold. As in Klondike there was a layer of permafrost just below the surface. In Nome different kinds of equipment were used to thaw the ground and suck up gravel. The mining methods used were extensive meaning that the amount of soil processed was more important than the efficiency of the equipment that separated gold from sand. By hydraulic methods soil was washed off the creek banks and into sluices either by gravity or suction. Dredges and in some cases mine shafts were used. To facilitate digging the ground was softened with steam. Steam was also used for collecting dumps of gravel in the winter. The gravel was sluiced the next summer.
Nome City.
By 1905 Nome had schools, churches, newspapers, a hospital, saloons, stores, and a post office, an electric light plant and other businesses. A hothouse on the sand-spit across the Snake River provided fresh vegetables. Some of the first automobiles in Alaska ran on the planks of Front Street. Travelers going to the mines at Council City rode in heated stages. In 1904 the first wireless telegraph in the United States to transmit over a distance of more than 100 miles began operating in Nome. Messages could be sent from Nome to St. Michael and from there by cable to Seattle.
Nome had no harbor for ships during the rush, only one for local boats. Ships anchored offshore and people were shuttled ashore in boats. In early summer the coast could still be covered with ice. In that case passengers would be put off on the ice and brought ashore by dog sledges. In 1901 a loading crane was built and in 1905 a wharf. This was by 1907 replaced by or combined with a tramway. Together with the tramway, which was 1,400 feet long, people and freight were brought ashore by wire-pulled lighters.
End of the Rush.
In 1904 and 1905, gold was found in old beaches above the high-tide mark. The discovery of a second and then a third beach renewed mining close to Nome. These strikes, however, were short-lived. Between 1900–1909 Nome's estimated population reached as high as 20,000; in the census of 1909 the population at Nome had dropped to 2600. The rush was over, but gold mining continues to the present (2015) and every year prospectors arrive to look for gold. Total gold production for the Nome district is at least 3.6 million ounces or 111.6 metric tonnes.
Financial results.
Among the Nome prospectors at least the three "Three Lucky Swedes" made a fortune. Around 1920 their mining company had made $20,000,000. An attempt to calculate how much the average beach prospector earned in 1899 gives the following figure: Estimate of gold value recovered: $2,000,000, annual wage for a worker: $400, number of prospectors: 2,000. This yields 2.5-year of salary worth for each person. Also, saloon owners and other service providers made money during the rush. An example is Wyatt Earp, who is estimated to have returned from Nome with $80,000. A well-known prospector, Swiftwater Bill Gates, made a fortune in both Klondike and Nome, but lost everything just as quickly.
Effect on Native people and nature.
The people most affected were probably the natives. Mining claims could only be staked lawfully by citizens. Since natives were considered to be uncivilized, they could not get citizenship. For them, the gold rush meant a drastic reduction in moose, caribou, and small game as prospectors hunted these for food. In many areas, gold mining resulted in destruction of salmon streams. Contact with white men also had consequences like drinking and disease.
Legacy.
The original claim sites of the "Three Lucky Swedes" were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 (as "Anvil Creek Gold Discovery Site", "Erik Lindblom Placer Claim", and "Snow Creek Placer Claim No. 1"). In 1978, these three places, plus a fourth critical to the gold rush, were designated a National Historic Landmark District, Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites. The fourth site is a stretch of the beach on the eastern edge of the city, extending from the seawall to East Limit Road.
Nome and Klondike.
The legacy of the Nome gold rush is somewhat obscured by the fame of Klondike. The two gold rushes, however, should not be confused. Both Klondike and Nome are often thought of as Alaska gold rushes, even though only Nome is actually in Alaska. The center of the Klondike gold rush was near Dawson City in the Yukon Territory, Canada and therefore outside Alaska, but the two locations are connected by the Yukon River, which has its headwaters in northern British Columbia, Canada, and eventually flows through the Yukon Territory into Alaska. Klondike River giving name to the rush is a tributary of the Yukon River, which runs through Alaska and ends in Norton Sound opposite Nome. For that reason, Yukon River too is associated with both rushes. As mentioned earlier, there was an overlap of prospectors between Klondike and Nome and, finally, the two rushes shared some of the same routes.
Film.
Apart from the novel and the films "The Spoilers" filmed in 1955 with Jeff Chandler, 1942 with John Wayne, 1930 with Gary Cooper, and 1914 with William Farnum, and also "North to Alaska" (1960 comedy, starring John Wayne as well and also known for its theme song) is set in Nome during the rush. In "Wyatt Earp" (1993 western based on the life of Wyatt Earp, starring Kevin Costner) a scene in the end refers briefly to Nome.


Jeffers Mound

Jeffers Mound is a Hopewell tradition Native American burial mound in Worthington, Ohio. The mound is all that remains of the ceremonial Worthington Earthworks site built between 100 B.C. and 400 A.D. The mound is named after Herman Plesenton Jeffers, who owned the land the mound is situated on before its transfer to the Worthington Historical Society.
Ownership of the site has changed since the early 1800s. In 1804, William Vining purchased 203 acres of land known today as the Plesenton subdivision, which included the site of Jeffers Mound. The area was farmed for decades, resulting in the degradation of the site's smaller mounds. In 1921, Herman Plesenton Jeffers purchased the Plesenton subdivision and made plans for the area to be developed - however, the area around Jeffers Mound was excluded from development. Finally, in 1974, the Herman Plesenton Jeffers Trust donated the site to the Worthington Historical Society for its preservation.
Near Jeffers Mound is a set of markers that reveal the footprint of a previously existing rectangular structure.
Jeffers Mound was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, the same year that the site was donated to the Worthington Historical Society. The site has also been designated as a Remarkable Ohio historical site by Ohio History Connection, Ohio's historical society.


Abraham de Peyster (captain)

Abraham de Peyster (born 18 February 1753, New York City; died 19 February 1798, Saint John, New Brunswick) was a Loyalist and royal officer in the American Revolutionary War. He is best known for leading the Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain and for helping, after the war, to settle the new royal colony of New Brunswick.
Biography.
American Revolution.
Born in 1753 into an upper-class family of New York City, Abraham was the great-grandson and namesake of former city mayor Abraham de Peyster. Upon the outbreak of war in 1775-1776 between the rebel colonists and the colonists loyal to King George III, de Peyster chose the King's side. He served in the King's American Regiment, a regiment of Loyalists who were ordered to serve in the interior of the American colonies to re-awaken loyal sentiment and hearten those opposed to the rebels, and was commissioned in December 1776 as a captain.
This became dangerous duty in the rebel colony of South Carolina, where de Peyster served under and tried to assist his regimental commander, the recklessly aggressive Patrick Ferguson. Major Ferguson had led the regiment into the Upcountry of South Carolina, where he and his men were badly outnumbered. After the hemmed-in Loyalist regiment tried to entrench themselves on a low mountaintop near Kings Pinnacle, Patriot riflemen surrounded the small detachment of King's troops on 7 October 1780. The Loyalists were besieged and, after rifle bullets struck down Major Ferguson, Captain de Peyster became the struggling regiment's scratch commander. His strategic position was hopeless and he was almost immediately forced to offer the white flag of surrender. The battle was over, but many of the Patriots continued to storm parts of the enemy encampment and shoot down their defeated enemies, and de Peyster was forced to watch many of his men get massacred. By the battle's end, there were 1,018 Loyalist casualties and only 698 living prisoners, including de Peyster.
New Brunswick.
Following the decisive defeat of the British and Loyalist cause at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, de Peyster was allowed to return to the royal garrison in his home city of New York. There, on 2 August 1783, he married Catharine Augusta Livingston. He and Catharine evacuated New York in November 1783, bound for British North America. In 1785, the couple began a new life in the recently-organized colony of New Brunswick.
In consideration of his loyal services to the Crown, de Peyster was granted lands and appointed to a variety of offices. In 1792, he was appointed by royal Lieutenant Governor Thomas Carleton to be Treasurer of the new colony. While serving in office as Treasurer, however, de Peyster died in Saint John in February 1798. Although honored by his superiors and his neighbors, colonial records indicate that de Peyster died intestate and insolvent.


Crime in Oregon

This article refers to crime in the U.S. state of Oregon.
Crime statistics (1960–2009).
Reported cases of crime in the state of Oregon between 1960 and 2009:
Capital punishment laws.
The Oregon Constitution originally had no provision for a death penalty. A statute was enacted in 1864 allowing for the death penalty in cases of first degree murder. Authority to conduct executions was initially granted to local sheriffs, but in 1903, the Oregon Legislative Assembly passed a law requiring all executions to be conducted at the Oregon State Penitentiary in Salem, the first state prison in Oregon which opened in 1866.
Oregon voters amended the Constitution in 1914 to repeal the death penalty, with 50.04% of the vote. The repeal was an initiative of Governor Oswald West. The death penalty was restored, again by constitutional amendment, in 1920.
Initially, all executions were performed by hanging; lethal gas was adopted as the method after 1931.
Voters outlawed the death penalty in the general election of 1964, with 60% of the vote. Governor Mark Hatfield commuted the sentences of three death row inmates two days later.


Department of Alaska

The Department of Alaska was the designation for the government of Alaska from its purchase by the United States of America in 1867 until its organization as the District of Alaska in 1884. During the department era, Alaska was variously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army (until 1877), the U.S. Dept. of the Treasury (from 1877 until 1879) and the U.S. Navy (from 1879 until 1884). The area later became the District of Alaska, then the Territory of Alaska, then the State of Alaska.
At the instigation of U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, the United States Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from the Russian Empire for $7,200,000 on April 9, 1867, and the United States flag was raised on October 18 of that same year (now called Alaska Day). Coincident with the ownership change, the de facto International Date Line was moved westward, and Alaska changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, for residents, Friday, October 6, 1867 was followed by Friday, October 18, 1867; two Fridays in a row because of the date line shift.
On the morning of October 18, 1867, arrived at Sitka with Russian Commissioner Captain Alexis Pestchouroff and American Commissioner General Lovell Rousseau on board. That afternoon, 250 American soldiers, 80 Russian soldiers, Russian-American Company Chief Manager Prince Maksutov and his wife, and a group of locals assembled at the flagstaff in front of the governor's residence (on what has come to be known as "Baranof (Baronov) Castle Hill" to witness the flag of Russia being lowered and the U.S. flag being raised in its place.
A dual cannon salute was fired for each flag, and each Commissioner gave a short speech. Perhaps misunderstanding the directions, the Russian soldier bringing his country's flag down tore it loose, then dropped it. The banner drifted down and was caught on a portion of the upraised bayonets of the Russian garrison. Princess Maksutov is said to have fainted at the sight.
Legend has it that the first American administrator of Alaska was Polish immigrant Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski. However, the "Anchorage Daily News" was unable to find any conclusive information to support or disprove this claim. Public opinion in the United States was generally positive, though some criticized the purchase as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox". However, the resources of Alaska would soon show that this was a wise buy. Alaska celebrates the purchase each year on the last Monday of March, which is known as Seward's Day.
When the United States had first bought Alaska, vast regions of the area still remained unexplored. In 1865, Western Union decided to lay a telegraph line across Alaska to Bering Strait where it would connect with an Asian line. Robert Kennicott, part of a Western Union surveying effort, had led his crew to Nulato on the banks of the Yukon. He died the following year and William Healey Dall took charge of scientific affairs. The Western Union expedition conducted the first scientific studies of the region and produced the first map of the entire Yukon River. That same year, 1866, workers finally succeeded in laying an Atlantic undersea telegraph cable, and the Alaskan overland project was abandoned. Dall returned to Alaska many times, recording and naming geological features.
The Alaska Commercial Company also contributed to the growing exploration of Alaska in the last decades of the 1800s, building trading posts along the interior's many rivers. Small parties of trappers and traders entered the interior, and, though the federal government provided little money to the region, army officers would occasionally explore on their own. In a four-month journey, Lt. Frederick Schwatka and his party rafted the Yukon from Lake Lindeman in Canada to Saint Michael near the river's mouth on the Bering Sea. In 1885, Lt. Henry T. Allen and four others left the Gulf of Alaska, followed the Copper River, crossed a mountain range, and traveled down the Tanana River to the Yukon, and portaged to the Kanuti and Koyukuk rivers. Allen went up the Koyukuk, then back down the Yukon, crossed over to Unalakeet on the coast, and then made his way to Saint Michael, exploring about of Interior Alaska.


29th Battalion, (Vancouver), CEF

The 29th Battalion (Vancouver), CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. Known as "Tobin's Tigers", the battalion was authorized on 7 November 1914 and embarked for Britain on 20 May 1915. It disembarked in France on 17 September 1915, where it fought as part of the 6th Infantry Brigade, 2nd Canadian Division in France and Flanders until the end of the war. The battalion was disbanded on 30 August 1920.
The 29th Battalion recruited in Vancouver and New Westminster, British Columbia and was mobilized at Vancouver.
The 29th Battalion had eight Commanding Officers:
One member of the 29th Battalion, Company Sergeant-Major (Warrant Officer Class II) Robert Hill Hanna was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions on August 21, 1917, at Hill 70 near Lens, France.
The 29th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours:
Raised by Lieutenant-Colonel Tobin on 24 October 1914 in Vancouver, British Columbia, the 29th derived its manpower from the Duke of Connaught's Own Rifles and the Irish Fusiliers of Canada. The SS "Missanabie" transported the battalion to England in May 1915. Subordinated to the 6th Brigade, 2nd Canadian Division, the 29th consisted of 37 officers and 1,104 other ranks.
The 29 Battalion's lineage was perpetuated by the 2nd Battalion, British Columbia Regiment – constituted in 1920. Subsequent amalgamation in 1936 absorbed the 29th's history into that of the Irish Fusiliers of Canada (The Vancouver Regiment), which was placed on the Supplementary Order of Battle in 1965. On 13 June 2002, The Irish Fusiliers of Canada (The Vancouver Regiment) was amalgamated with The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own).
The 29th Battalion is currently perpetuated by The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own).
Sources.
"Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919" by Col. G. W. L. Nicholson, CD, Queen's Printer, Ottawa, Ontario, 1962


38th Parliament of British Columbia

The 38th Parliament of British Columbia sat from 2005 to 2009, replacing the 37th parliament and being succeeded by the 39th parliament. It was composed of two elements, The Queen represented by the Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia, Steven Point, and the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia as elected by the general election of British Columbia, Canada, on May 17, 2005. The Speaker of the House was Bill Barisoff.
The 38th Parliament.
†Speaker.
Three seats in the legislature were vacant when the assembly was dissolved: Comox Valley following the death in office of Stan Hagen, Peace River North following the appointment of Richard Neufeld to the Senate of Canada, and Vancouver-Langara following the resignation of Carole Taylor. As all three vacancies occurred less than six months before the next provincial election, by-elections were not held to fill the vacancies before the regular election.
Party standings of the 38th Parliament.
Source: Legislative Assembly of BC
Seating plan.
Reference:


History of Oregon State University

The history of Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon, United States, began in the era of the Oregon Territory. At first a private school, the college later became a state supported agricultural institution. Nineteen presidents have led the school over the years while the school has been transformed from a single building to a campus of and approximately 30,000 students in 2015.
Corvallis College.
In 1856, a school building was constructed in the Willamette Valley at Corvallis. The structure would serve as home to a private academy until 1858. Named Corvallis Academy, this was the area's first community school for primary and preparatory education. The local chapter of the Freemasons played an important role in developing the concept to eventually establish a state college in the city and initiated the construction of the early campus with the original donation of land.
In 1858, what would become Oregon State University began as Corvallis College as it was formally incorporated by members of the Freemasons. At that time the school did not offer college level courses. Years later the school's ownership was transferred to the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1865, William A. Finley was named as the school's first president. The school as began offering a bachelor's degree that year.
State school.
Corvallis College was incorporated by the church in 1868, and the state of Oregon designated the school as the State Agricultural College (SAC). In 1873, the school became the first West Coast school to offer a course in agriculture. The two-year program had been approved by the Oregon Legislative Assembly. State Agricultural College became a completely state run school in 1885. In 1889, the original building of Corvallis College was torn down. In 1888 the college informally became known as Oregon Agricultural College (OAC), a name not made official until 1907.
By 1934, Mary J. L. McDonald made donations that allowed for the purchase of the land that comprises the McDonald Forest owned by the school, which also includes Peavy Arboretum.
Oregon State.
A growing diversity in degree programs offered led to another name change in 1937, when the college became Oregon State College.
Naval ROTC, and the program of Naval Sciences, were added to the existing Army ROTC program in 1946. The Air Force ROTC program was included in 1949, making Oregon State one of only 33 universities in the country to offer officer training for all branches of the United States Armed Forces.
Although OSU's focus was solidly on agriculture, engineering and other vocational subjects, the novelist Bernard Malamud spent the 1940s and 1950s teaching English Composition there. His experiences as a professor were the basis for his novel "A New Life". He was also awarded the 1967 Pulitzer Prize for his novel "The Fixer", named after a store in downtown Corvallis.
Linus Pauling, Class of 1922, became Oregon State's first Nobel Laureate alumnus in 1954 when he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work elucidating the nature of the atomic bonds. In 1962, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his campaign against nuclear weapons testing. He joined Marie Curie as the only person to win two different Nobels. Curie's physics prize was shared with her husband, Pierre Curie. Both of Pauling's prizes were unshared. The university's current title, Oregon State University, was adopted on March 6, 1961 by a legislative act signed into law by Governor Mark Hatfield. A new library, the William Jasper Kerr Library, opened in 1963. That building was expanded twice, and after the latest expansion nearly doubled the size that ended in 1999, the library was renamed as The Valley Library.
School presidents.
The position of President was created in 1865. From 1868 to 1929 the president reported to the institution's own Board of Trustees/Regents. Since the creation of the Oregon University System (OUS), the president has reported to the OUS chancellor.
List of presidents:


James M. Haworth

James Mahlon Haworth (November 19, 1831 – March 12, 1885) was a United States Army major, an Indian agent, and the first Superintendent of Indian Schools in the United States.
Biography.
Haworth, a Quaker, was born in Wilmington, Ohio, and studied at Earlham School in Richmond, Indiana and Haverford College. He died in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Career.
Haworth took over as Indian agent at Fort Gibson in 1873 after Lawrie Tatum resigned. He was a U.S. Indian Inspector from 1879, and was made the first Indian School Superintendent when the 47th U.S. Congress created the position in 1883 (Session II, Chap. 61). Mathew Brady's photographic studio in Washington D.C. captured an image of Haworth.
He selected the site for the Chilocco Indian School during the administration of president James Garfield and its Haworth Hall was named for him.


Maine Indian Newsletter

The "Maine Indian Newsletter" was a monthly newsletter published independently from 1966 to 1972 in Gardiner, Maine and Freeport, Maine. While the exact address is not listed, the office was on Pine Street in Freeport. All of the articles archived by Dawnland Voices have Pine Street listed as the place to send submissions and money.
The newsletter was produced by Penobscot and Indian Island resident ssipsis, also known as Eugenia T. Thompson, as well as edited by various volunteers on the small staff. The newsletter sought to inform and “serve the Indians in Maine”. Because target readership was Native Americans, the newsletter’s content contained items of interest, such as news, fictional stories, advertisements, and art, relevant to native peoples.
Background.
The "Maine Indian Newsletter" originated during the Red Power movement, a period in the 60s and 70s of reinvigorated Native American political effort to mobilize their communities into action against the perceived wrongs against their sovereignty by state and federal governments, dating back to initial European colonization. The front cover of the 1972 "Maine Indian Newsletter" references this social movement as a theme of the newsletter with a handwritten Red Power slogan.
One aspect of the Native American movement to gain full land and self-government involved combating mainstream news by developing their own news sources. Many native peoples resented white mainstream accounts of recent events in the early 70s like the Wounded Knee incident, which they argued unfairly represented American Indians. Because of the increase in Native American periodical publications, this period also marked the inception of the American Indian Press Association, an organization brought about in part to hold native journalism to more rigorous editorial standards as well as work towards developing a national native press that could compete with mainstream news representations of Indian affairs.
At the publication time of later issues of "Maine Indian Newsletter", the Penobscot people, joined with the Passamaquoddy tribe, were actively suing the State of Maine over what they argued were violations of 200 year-old land treaties, in that Maine had denied the tribes their right to 12 million acres. Many of the Newsletter issues reflect concerns with Penobscot land and sovereignty rights. Two years after the final publication of "Maine Indian Newsletter", the courts reached their verdict in favor of the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes.
Content.
Newsletters were published monthly and distributed to readers via mail. Each newsletter ran about 16-20 pages long and was produced in black and white on a typewriter with each article hand-typed by ssipsis, the editor.
Unlike some tribal nation newsletters, which are disseminated by the tribal government, the "Maine Indian Newsletter" was privately produced. The style and format of the newsletter was similar to many American Indian independent publications at the time: short, monthly tabloids produced inexpensively by a small staff that resembled “in formal and technical quality many small-town weeklies”. Informal and sometimes humorous editor’s notes commonly featured alongside articles in each issue.
Content ranged from local Indian Island reservation news, such as births, deaths, and tribal government meeting minutes, to national events and legislation pertinent to Native Americans. Other information covered included stories, jokes, comics, letters to the editor, and native business advertisements. Articles, especially those in the earlier publications, were often recycled stories about serious issues from other Indian and non-Indian newspapers across the state and nation, such as "Bangor Daily News" and "Navajo Times." Readers were welcome to contribute to each issue, and frequently did.
Although intended to serve the Indians of Maine, readers did not just include on and off- reservation Penobscot Indians and indigenous people from other Maine tribes. Readership also extended beyond Maine borders and outside of the native community, such that the editor included a $2 newsletter subscription fee as of January 1968 for non-Indians (the newsletter was free for American Indians).
The hope behind the subscription fee was to "see if the newsletter could be self supporting." Some national newsletters charge for their articles but local publications like "The Chehalis Tribal Newsletter" do not charge. Local publications have a stronger desire to actively benefit their community.
There are several stories from the October 1967 issue that are further developed in later issues. For example, the Pine Tree Legal Assistance group is mentioned in October of 1967 and is further expanded on in the February 1968 issue.


K. M. Grant

Katie M Grant (born 1958) is a children's writer, based in Scotland, who is best known for her "DeGranville Trilogy", published by Walker Books.
Early and personal life.
Born Katharine Mary Towneley, she is the third daughter of Sir Simon Towneley and Lady Mary Fitzherbert. She grew up at Dyneley Hall in Cliviger near Burnley. She married William Marr Couper Grant the son of Douglas Marr Kelso Grant in 1985. They have three children together and live in Glasgow.


Institute for Space and Defense Electronics

The Institute for Space and Defense Electronics (ISDE) is a research facility at Vanderbilt University, a private research university in Nashville, Tennessee. ISDE is housed in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and is the largest such academic facility in the world.
Objective.
The mission of ISDE is to contribute to the design and analysis of radiation-hardened electronics, the development of test methods and plans for assuring radiation hardness, and the development of solutions to system-specific problems related to radiation effects. ISDE was launched with initial support from the US Navy SSPO and Draper Labs. In addition, ISDE currently supports the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Arnold Engineering Development Center, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Mission Research Corporation, Boeing/DARPA and BAE Systems. ISDE engineers help to identify radiation related issues at the device and circuit levels, propose design solutions and implement test plans. Expertise includes, but is not limited to, Intersil, Honeywell and IBM processes.
History.
The Radiation Effects Group (RER) at Vanderbilt University was established in 1987 and is the largest program of its kind in the U.S. It is the only academic program actively involved in supporting the Department of Defense (DOD) in radiation effects for strategic applications, and one of a very few programs involved in microelectronics research for space applications. In January 2003, the Radiation Effects Group established the Institute for Space and Defense Electronics (ISDE) in order to extend its capabilities to serve government and commercial customers.
Facilities.
The ISDE facility is located off of the Vanderbilt University campus and provides an office environment conducive to engineering and project management activities. However, the Institute has full access to the University's laboratories and meeting facilities located on campus just a short walk away. The ISDE office is a secure, limited access facility allowing only approved personnel to enter without an ISDE employee escort.
Capabilities.
The engineering staff of ISDE performs design, analysis and modeling work for a variety of space and defense-oriented organizations. ISDE engineers help to identify radiation-related issues at the device and circuit levels, propose design solutions, and implement test plans. ISDE has an array of software tools for simulating radiation effects and designing integrated circuits, a high performance parallel computing cluster (ACCRE), several types of radiation sources, and extensive electrical characterization capability. Specifically, ISDE has an extensive suite of test and characterization equipment for radiation-effects analysis, including an ARACOR 10-keV x-ray irradiator, two Cs-137 isotopic irradiators, a state-of-the-art 2 MV Pelletron Facility capable of 4 MeV protons, 6 MeV alphas, 14 MeV oxygen and 16 MeV chlorine ions, a Class IV Laser Test Facility etc. ISDE team members have extensive experience conducting single-event tests at facilities including Brookhaven National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, TRIUMF, Sandia National Laboratories etc.
An array of test equipment is available to facilitate the characterization of irradiated devices and ICs. Vanderbilt also has in place a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with NAVSEA-Crane that provides access to a suite of radiation sources and fully equipped parts analysis laboratory. Vanderbilt's Advanced Computing Center for Research and Education (ACCRE) houses VAMPIRE, an 1800+ processor Beowulf cluster supercomputer used to execute Vanderbilt's Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) suite and the particle interaction simulator based on Geant4.
Radiation-Effects Group sponsors.
The institute gets funding from various government and private sector sources. Some of them are:


Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse

The Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse is a courthouse in Downtown Brooklyn, New York City, that houses the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York. It is across the street from the Federal Building and Post Office, which houses, among other things, the Eastern District of New York's bankruptcy court.
History.
The courthouse stands on the location of the previous federal courthouse named the Emanuel Celler Federal Building. The previous courthouse, which was built in 1963, was a 6-story building that became unable to accommodate the court. This building underwent major renovations in 1999 under the direction of architect César Pelli. Upon its completion in 2006, the renovation had increased the number of floors to fifteen, bringing the total floor area to . The building contains 16 courtrooms and 9 magistrate courtrooms. The construction incorporated several extraordinary security features, such as having a structural frame that can withstand an explosion and having laminated glass face the exterior. On September 17, 2008, the courthouse was officially renamed in honor of Theodore Roosevelt with President George W. Bush signing into law legislation introduced by Senator Charles Schumer. A rededication ceremony was held on December 30 of that year.
Located on Cadman Plaza in Downtown Brooklyn, east of Brooklyn Heights, it is one of many federal buildings in the area whose construction and renovation has played a role in revitalizing Downtown Brooklyn. The courthouse is located at 225 Cadman Plaza East, across Tillary Street from the historic Federal Building and Post Office, which houses the Eastern District's bankruptcy court.
Along with the Alfonse M. D'Amato United States Courthouse in Central Islip, New York, the Theodore Roosevelt Courthouse houses the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York. The Theodore Roosevelt Courthouse serves as its administrative headquarters.


History of Link light rail

Sound Transit's Link light rail in Washington state consists of two lines, Central Link and Tacoma Link. A 21-mile line was approved by a ballot measure in 1996. However, a series of financial missteps and planning errors resulted in escalating costs and delayed construction. The 21-mile line was shortened to a 14-mile line running from Westlake Center in downtown Seattle south to Sea-Tac Airport, and opened in 2009. Federal grants received in 2005 funded a northern extension to University of Washington in 2016.
The Sound Transit 2 ballot measure passed in 2008, and will fund several new lines and extensions. The system will be extended north in Lynnwood, east to the Microsoft campus in Redmond, and south to the Kent-Des Moines area. The measure originally funded an extension further south to Federal Way, but unexpectedly low tax revenue resulting from the Great Recession left Sound Transit without the funds to complete it.
Predecessors.
Transit in Seattle was first seriously considered in the Forward Thrust ballot measure placed on the ballot in 1968. The 1968 vote featured 13 different ballot measures, some for Seattle and some for all of King County. The rapid transit ballot measure failed at the ballot box. Four of these measures, including the rapid transit measure, was placed on the ballot again in 1970, but all four failed a second time. After the failed vote in 1970, the federal transit funding instead went to build the MARTA system in Atlanta.
Early years.
In 1996, voters in King, Pierce, and Snohomish counties approved increases in sales taxes and vehicle excise taxes to pay for a US$3.9 billion transit package that included $1.7 billion for a 25-mile light rail system. The system included a line in Tacoma, Washington, and another line from the University District in north Seattle to Sea-Tac Airport south of Seattle, originally planned to open in 2006. Two years later the recently created Sound Transit revealed an environmental impact study that increased the cost of the project to US$2.2 billion and added three miles to the line by adding connections to Northgate. However, the EIS was quickly met with objections from the poorer neighborhoods south Seattle in Rainier Valley that complained that the plan unfairly impacted their neighborhoods by having the line running on the surface instead of below ground like much of the rest of the route starting at Beacon Hill. Tukwila city leaders were also concerned that route bypassed the important shopping district around Southcenter Mall.
Dark years.
Beginning in early 1999, the light rail program became beset with problems that mired Sound Transit and local governments in political ire. In late February 1999, a financial analysis stated that building light rail out as far as Northgate might not be possible for over a dozen years due to decreases in the amount of federal grant money available to local transit authorities and Seattle-North King County having used so much of its local taxing authority and ability to borrow money to pay for light rail. A vote by the Sound Transit board on February 25, 1999, that made only minor modifications to the route, did little to ease the concerns Seattle's southern neighborhoods and northern and southern suburbs. Increasing land values and the changes to the route voted in by the board added hundreds of millions of dollars to the cost, requiring cuts to the plan to bring the project back to within budget. The cuts were finalized in a November vote that deferred construction on two stations, to only partially build the station under Beacon Hill, and route modifications.
Differences between the University of Washington and Sound Transit over station locations, impacts from the route's running under several science buildings on the campus, and construction impact deferments threatened to delay the project and raise costs. After months of negotiations, University regents and Sound Transit reached agreement in April 2000 with Sound Transit agreeing to install dampeners on the rails that run under the science buildings, air cushions to tables in the science buildings, and to mitigate environmental impacts due to construction and traffic impacts from having the station on university grounds. However, in November, the Sound Transit board voted to defer construction on the tunnel to the university when the construction estimate came in $171 million over budget. This news prompted concerns that Sound Transit could lose out on $500 million in federal grants, but King County Executive Ron Sims said he had been in contact with FTA officials who said the grant was still possible. This announcement coincided with the resignation of light rail's chief, Paul Bay. Two weeks later, Lyndon Wilson Jr., the man credited with turning around Portland's MAX Light Rail project, was tapped as the systems interim director.
Within days of Wilson's arrival, more bad news came out as new estimates from Sound Transit staff increased the cost of the 21-mile project from $1.9 billion to $3.8 billion and added three years to the construction time. The report cited the frequent changes made to the route in order to appease community members, third parties, and the wishes of board members and the ambitious construction schedule as reasons for the cost increase. Just days later, Capitol Hill business and civic leaders withdrew their support from the project due to concerns that two years of construction needed to build the station on Capitol Hill would drive customers away from area businesses and force those businesses to close.
In January 2001, the Sound Transit board accepted a $500 million grant from the FTA even though the FTA had not completed the review of the project it started when the cost overruns were announced in December and had not offered Sound Transit the grant. The decision effectively locked Sound Transit into building a 7-mile route from Lander Street to the University of Washington. Days later, the chairman of the House Appropriations transportation subcommittee, Hal Rogers (R-KY) sent a letter to Transportation Secretary Rodney Slater saying his committee could not approve the grant and requesting a review by the Inspector General. Despite this, Sound Transit was still optimistic that the grant would be approved later that week. Representative Jennifer Dunn (R-Bellevue), Washington's ranking House Republican, voiced her support for the independent audit, but stopped short of calling for the FTA to not approve the grant. Despite these questions, on his last day as Transportation Secretary, Rodney Slater, signed the agreement granting Sound Transit $500 million in annual installments through 2006.
However, the grant approval still was not enough to prevent the resignation of Sound Transit's executive director, Bob White. White cited a need for new leadership to restore public confidence in the agency.
March 2001 was another difficult month for the light rail project. On March 9, Sound Transit's citizen oversight committee criticized the agency's optimistic assumptions about building costs, its reliance on receiving an additional $931 million in federal grants, and that the agency was in danger of repeating prior mistakes. The next day, Representative Rogers summoned Sound Transit and its opponents to Washington, D.C. to testify in front of his subcommittee about the "problem" project. By the end of March, Link light rail was in danger of losing its first installment of federal grant money as Rogers noted the project's local opposition, cost overruns, and reliance on record levels of federal money as troubling.
In April, the Seattle City Council's unwavering support started to falter when a proposal requesting a Sound Transit citizen panel to explore alternatives to light rail was proposed by Councilman Nick Licata. The proposal would have had little to no effect on Sound Transit's plans if it had passed in its proposed form, but by the time it passed the contents of the proposal had been replaced with language praising the agency and explaining the cost overruns as unavoidable and out of Sound Transit's control. Avoiding the City Council's attack was only a short term victory as the next date the US Inspector General's office recommended that federal funding be suspended until the agency is able to provide a final estimate for the project. The Inspector General's report also estimated the cost of the project at $4.1 billion, meaning the cost of the project had increased by $2.5 billion in seven months. The day after the IG's report brought a suspension of the $75 million federal grant for the next year, Sound Transit learned that the $50 million grant from the current year was also in danger.
Shortening of the line.
On April 9, 2001, Mayor Paul Schell sent a letter requesting that due to the challenges facing the northern segment of the route (South Lander Street to the University District), Sound Transit should focus on building the southern fourteen miles of the line. Schell's proposal was supported by one of his mayoral election rivals, Greg Nickels, and King County Commissioner Ron Sims, but Sims also suggested continuing the line beyond South Lander and into the bus tunnel. However, Councilman Licata was of the opinion that Schell's proposal didn't go far enough because it did not consider scrapping light rail completely and focusing the money on carpool lanes and expanding the monorail.
Part of Schell's request was for the review board to find out if it would be possible to build the southern route without federal assistance, but within days Sound Transit's acting executive director said federal assistance would still be required, an opinion that was echoed by the acting light-rail director. The day after saying the southern route could not be built without federal money, Sound Transit admitted that its current plans for light rail was no longer feasible due to a decrease in the amount of money it expected to get from the federal government, which caused at least a $190 million shortfall. However, there was hope that with modifications to the route, stations, or the amount of tunneling the full 21 miles could still be built. By the end of the month, Sound Transit staffers revealed that it was unlikely that the whole project could be completed before the end of the decade, but some of it could be completed.
Despite all of the problems with cost overruns and schedule slippages related to the project, a poll conducted by Elway Research for The Seattle Times and Northwest Cable News between April 28 and May 1 revealed that only 40 percent of Puget Sound voters wanted to put a stop to a project, with 37 percent wanting to build a smaller line with existing funds, and 14 percent in favor of increasing taxes to pay for the full line. This contrasts with when Sound Move passed in 1996. At that time, 54 percent of Seattle residents favored stopping the project.
By late May 2001, Sound Transit's board began to seriously consider shortening the line, including what to do with the money allocated to light rail if it was scrapped. Support in the board began to form around four alternative plans, two of which included a tunnel through Capitol Hill that divided the board, with Ron Sims saying "Taking us to Capitol Hill is fatal to any light-rail project". Sims would later join a group of current and former community leaders sent a letter to the board urging them to develop a route through South Lake Union to avoid the tunnel through Capitol Hill.
In June, it was announced that two key staff members would be leaving the project: the interim director, Lyndon Wilson, and chief engineer, Bill Houppermans. Two current staffers were chosen as interim replacements.
The board decided to instruct staffers to focus their attention on building the southern segment of the line in late June and to provide alternatives to choose from by September. Supporters of the plan noted that by building the southern segment Sound Transit would be showing that they can get something built and that once it is built, money and support would follow. Critics said that by focusing on the southern segment the line wouldn't attract as many riders and that major population and job centers would not be serviced.
Light at the end of the tunnel.
The decision to shorten the line from 21 miles to 14 miles marked a turning point for the embattled project. While the path to completion would not be trouble-free, Sound Transit would at least make progress towards starting construction.
Amidst the turmoil caused by the resignation of two of the light rail project's high-ranking members and decisions regarding the shortening of the line, Sound Transit received some good news when a federal court judge lifted a court injunction preventing them from contacting Rainier Valley residents about purchasing their property and tossed out a majority of the lawsuit filed by other Rainier Valley residents. Of the three issues in the lawsuit, the judge removed two of the claims made by the residents' group, the first claim that was tossed out was that Sound Transit was violating the Fair Housing Act and the other that it was violating the National Environmental Policy Act. The one claim that the judge left in the lawsuit was whether Sound Transit intentionally discriminated against Rainier Valley by choosing a surface option instead of tunneling through the valley as it had done in more affluent and less racially and ethnically diverse neighborhoods. A month later, in August, the Rainier Valley group dropped the remaining issue of discrimination due to a lack of funds to continue the lawsuit and because Sound Transit had not yet finalized the route.
Light rail would soon have competition to provide mass transit to Seattle. All three of the major candidates for mayor of Seattle in 2001 endorsed a monorail project despite no details being known about the project. According to the head of the University of Washington's Transportation Research Center, "Maybe the best thing going for monorail is that it's not light rail." However, while the Seattle Monorail Project would ultimately pass a referendum in 2002, it too would be plagued by many of the same cost overruns and delays that afflicted Link Light Rail and in 2005, Seattle residents voted against a new plan and essentially killed the monorail project.
In September 2001, the Sound Transit Board announced that they had enough money to fund a 14-mile route, later to be called Central Link, that began in Downtown Seattle at the Washington State Convention and Trade Center, proceeded through Downtown in the Metro Transit Tunnel, then through Rainier Valley and Tukwila before ending one mile short of Sea-Tac Airport. The decision to stop this "starter" line a mile short of the airport would later be criticized by light rails opponents, but the explanation provided by Sound Transit was that it was that the designs were not completed for a planned remodel of Sea-Tac and that they only had $12 million to extend the line when the projected cost to do so was between $350 million and $500 million. An audit by Deloitte & Touche discovered that while Sound Transit was much better than before, it still ran a risk of cost overruns by not having better procedures to control scope creep.
On September 25, the Sound Transit Board finally voted to approve the new, shorter, 14-mile line with an estimated cost of $2.1 billion, clearing the way for construction to begin as early as the summer of 2002. While concerns were raised that the project was wasting money, others noted that it was time to get construction started. The line was officially approved on November 29, but some opponents threatened lawsuits to stop construction.
At the end of 2001 and beginning of 2002, the project encountered more conflict. After having most of their lawsuit dismissed by a federal judge in mid-July and then dropping the remainder in August, the Rainier Valley community group filed an appeal on December 26, stating the judge had incorrectly ruled when dismissing the discrimination claims. Tim Eyman, a political activist known in Washington for filing anti-tax initiatives and referendums, filed an initiative that would remove an excise tax on car tabs that goes to transit, while another group of opponents threatened a referendum to block light rail from using the Downtown bus tunnel. The result of the initiative, if passed, would remove $67 million of funding from Sound Transit's $270 million annual income. Yet another group questioned the legality of the shortened line, urged Sound Transit to have another public vote, and threatened legal action if Sound Transit did not listen to its urging. Sound Transit declined the request citing that they would be required to pay for both their court costs and their opponents, bonds were not needed for another two years, and the legal proceedings would tie Sound Transit's hands politically.
In late January 2002, Sound Transit began working to repair their image in the nation's capital and paid a visit to federal officials to show that the project had left behind its problems from the previous year.
Ron Sims, Sound Transit's chairman, announced that it may be possible to extend the line to the University of Washington without raising taxes as long as route modifications to the route saved enough money, they were able to get help from the federal government, and their financial plans were changed to allow more borrowing. The route to the University had previously been narrowed down to two options both with tunnels under Lake Washington Ship Canal, one under Montlake Cut and another near University Bridge.
Construction.
In March 2002, Sound Transit began the process of acquiring land in the Rainier Valley when its board authorized the agency to purchase all of 64 properties and parts of 232 others. Sound Transit was also informed that Link Light Rail received a rating of "Recommended" from the Federal Transit Administration, making it eligible for federal funding. Critics of the project viewed it as further troubles for the project because prior to the previous year's problems the project had a rating of "Highly Recommended", while supporters viewed the rating as an affirmation of the progress the project had made since then.
In an attempt to ease the worries of Rainier Valley residents about the impact of light rail, Mayor Nickels proposed over $50 million in investments in the neighborhood, including paying off small business loans, burying power lines, and other community developments. The proposal was unanimously approved by the city council, but not without some complaints that the timing of the funding was questionable as the city was facing budget cuts and that it was the city that was making the funding and not Sound Transit.
The main line from Seattle-Tacoma International Airport to Downtown Seattle (Westlake Center) opened in 2009. The extension from Downtown to the University of Washington via Capitol Hill opened March 19, 2016.
Temporary Link Light Rail Airport Connector Bus.
Sound Transit contracted with Pierce Transit to operate an interim shuttle bus from the initial endpoint of Central Link at Tukwila International Blvd Station to SeaTac/Airport Station until the extension to the airport was finished. Pierce Transit was awarded the contract in February 2009, as an expansion of their contract to operate a connector bus between Tacoma Dome Station and Lakewood Station. For the service Pierce Transit placed four 1991 Orion I coaches back into service that had been mothballed for several years. The Link airport connector ran every ten to fifteen minutes from both stops, and riders had to have a valid ticket, transfer, or pass to ride from Tukwila station to the Airport. This service ended at the end of the day on December 19, 2009, when direct service to the airport commenced.


Cattaraugus Reservation, Cattaraugus County, New York

Cattaraugus Reservation is an Indian reservation in Cattaraugus County, New York, United States. The population was 314 at the 2010 census. The majority of the residents are of the federally recognized Seneca Nation, one of the original Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy.
The majority of the reservation is in Erie County and a small part is in Chautauqua County. The main population center in this portion of the reservation is Versailles, which straddles the southern border of the reservation.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of 6.0 mi2 (15.5 km2). 5.8 mi2 (14.9 km2) of it is land and 0.2 mi2 (0.6 km2) of it (3.68%) is water.
Cattaraugus Creek runs through the middle of the reservation, and Lake Erie forms part of the western boundary.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 388 people, 127 households, and 94 families residing in the Indian reservation. The population density was 67.4/mi2 (26.0/km2). There were 136 housing units at an average density of 23.6/mi2 (9.1/km2). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 4.38% White and 95.62% Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.12% of the population.
There were 127 households, out of which 49.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.3% were married couples living together, 35.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.2% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.06 and the average family size was 3.52.
In the Indian reservation the population was spread out, with 36.1% under the age of 18, 10.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 2.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.9 males.
The median income for a household in the Indian reservation was $27,292, and the median income for a family was $26,458. Males had a median income of $21,750 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $12,443. About 25.3% of families and 24.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.


Wonalancet (sachem)

Wonalancet (16191697) also spelled Wannalancet and Wannalancit and probably Wanaloset and Wanalosett — was a sachem or sagamore of the Penacook Indians. He was the son of Passaconaway.
Biography.
Born 1619, Wonalancet spent most of his time with his tribe in the area known as "Augumtoocooke", which is now modern-day greater Lowell, Massachusetts. Europeans began to settle in the Augumtoocooke area around 1653, and established the town of Chelmsford, incorporated in 1655. In October 1665, Wonalancet's sister Bess, wife of Nobb How, sold Augumtoocooke to Captain John Evered for the sum of four yards of Duffill and one pound of tobacco. King Philip's War broke out in 1675.
Wonalancet became chief of the tribe when his father died in 1679. In accordance with the deathbed wish of his father, Wonalancet resolved never to fight the English settlers in New England and refused to participate in King Philip's War. Invited to attend a meeting with English settlers, he was treacherously imprisoned after he arrived. Eventually released, he returned home, but despairing of his relations with European settlers in the environs of New Hampshire and Maine.
So, in 1686, he left his home on Wickasee Island, which is now known as Tyngs Island, in Tyngsborough, Massachusetts, where Vesper Country Club now sits, he known as a hero in his death. Now, however, no one remembers him. and took his people to Canada.
Wonalancet died in 1697.
Legacy.
The name "Wonalancet" translates to "Pleasant Breathing". His name is or has been preserved by:
As well as a mill, street, lodge, and pair of U.S. Navy vessels, all listed here.


Britons in Mexico

Britons in Mexico or British Mexicans, are Mexicans of British descent or British-born persons who have become naturalized citizens of Mexico.
The British have had a presence in Mexico since the Colonial era. However, the greatest exchange occurred following independence, notably with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo.
History.
During the Colonial era, the Spanish restricted the entrance of other Europeans, however, some non-Spanish Europeans were present. In 1556, the English adventurer Robert Thomson encountered the Scotsman Tomás Blaque (Thomas Blake), who had been living in Mexico City for more than twenty years. Blaque is the first known Briton to have settled in what would become Mexico.
During his third voyage, the ship commanded by John Hawkins of Plymouth escaped destruction at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568). However, after becoming lost in the Gulf of Mexico and with a bloated crew, Hawkins abandoned more than one hundred men near Tampico. A group of the men went north (including David Ingram), while the rest went south and were captured by the Spanish. Notable among this group was who wrote a narrative detailing his and the other Englishmen's struggles. They were taken to Mexico City, given care at a hospital and imprisoned. After attempting to escape, they were sold as servants or slaves. Some were able to accumulate wealth by rising to the position of overseers at mines and other operations. However, after the establishment of the Mexican Inquisition, the men were stripped of any wealth and imprisoned as Lutheran heretics. Three of the men were burned, while some sixty were given penance.
In southern Baja California Sur, a few families retain the English surname "Green". This surname was established to be descended from Esteban (Steven) Green, an English whaler that settled in the region in 1834 after migrating from the United Kingdom.
The first great power that recognized the independence of Mexico was the United Kingdom in 1824, shortly after the sale of mines from Pachuca and Real del Monte occurred. The majority of migrants to this region came from what is now termed the Cornish "central mining district" of Camborne and Redruth. Real del Monte's steep streets, stairways and small squares are lined with low buildings and many houses with high sloping roofs and chimneys which indicate a Cornish influence. Mexican remittances from these miners helped to build the Wesleyan Chapel in Redruth.
The Panteón de Dolores, which became the largest cemetery in Mexico, was founded in 1875 by Juan Manuel Benfield, the son of Anglican immigrants. Benfield fulfilled his father's goal of creating a cemetery after his sister was refused burial in Catholic cemeteries and had to be interred at a beach.
According to the 1895 National Census, 3,263 residents were from the United Kingdom.
The twin silver mining settlements of Pachuca and Real del Monte are being marketed as of 2007 as 'Mexico's Little Cornwall' by the Mexican Embassy in London and represent the first attempt by the Spanish speaking part of the Cornish diaspora to establish formal links with Cornwall. The Mexican Embassy in London is also trying to establish a town twinning arrangement with Cornwall. In 2008 thirty members of the Cornish Mexican Cultural Society travelled to Mexico to try and re-trace the path of their ancestors who set off from Cornwall to start a new life in Mexico.
Culture.
The Cornish introduced institutionalized football to Mexico. A plaque was placed at the site of the first game in Real del Monte. The English also introduced other popular sports such as rugby union, tennis, cricket, polo, and chess. Football clubs founded by Britons included the British Club, Rovers FC Mexico and Reforma Athletic Club. The most successful club founded by Britons is C.F. Pachuca.
Cuisine.
The "paste" is a pastry with Cornish roots. Introduced by miners from Cornwall who were contracted in the towns of Real del Monte and Pachuca in Hidalgo. The Cornish miners may have also introduced the turnip to Mexico.
Demographics.
There were 3,589 UK-born residents in Mexico recorded during the 2010 census, up from the 3,172 individuals counted in the 2000 census. The census only requests place of birth (administrative division or country), the government does not ask its citizens for ancestry nor additional citizenship. According to the British Embassy in Mexico, there were about 15,000 British citizens living in Mexico.
Institutions.
British immigrants established several institutions of their own, among others:


Ekalluk River

The Ekalluk River (variations: "Ekalluktok", "Ekaluktuuk", "Ekaluk") is a river in the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut, Canada. It is located in central through southeastern Victoria Island. Its source is Tahiryuaq (Ferguson Lake), and it flows west to Wellington Bay and east to Albert Edward Bay. Nearby lakes include Keyhole Lake, Kitigaq, and Surrey Lake. The closest community is Cambridge Bay.
The people of the Ekalluk River area are called Ekalluktogmiut, a geographically defined Copper Inuit subgroup.
Iqaluktuuq.
The short span of the Ekalluk River that flows west from Tahiryuaq into eastern Wellington Bay is named Iqaluktuuq (Inuinnaqtun, meaning "place of big fish"). Having been inhabited for the last 4,000 years by Tuniit and Inuit, it is an important Nunavut archaeological area. The Iqaluktuuq is a source of char fishing and caribou hunting for local residents.
The people of Iqaluktuuq are called Iqaluktuurmiut.


British Columbia gold rushes

British Columbia gold rushes were important episodes in the history and settlement of European, Canadian and Chinese peoples in western Canada.
The presence of gold in what is now British Columbia is spoken of in many old legends that, in part, led to its discovery. The Strait of Anian, claimed to have been sailed by Juan de Fuca for whom today's Strait of Juan de Fuca is named, was described as passing through a land (Anian) "rich in gold, silver, pearls and fur". Bergi (meaning "mountains"), another legendary land near Anian, was also said to be rich in gold as well. Speculative maps of northwestern North America published before the area was mapped placed the legendary golden cities of Quivira and Cibola in the far inland northwest. No Spanish exploration parties in search of El Dorado, "the golden one" a reference to the legendary king of a lost golden city, are known to have ever reached British Columbia, although archaeological remains point to a brief Spanish presence in the Okanagan and Similkameen regions of the province's Southern Interior. The Muchalaht, the Nuu-chah-nulth group in the area of the community of Gold River, on Vancouver Island, which is a community at the end of a fjord that drains the west coast of Vancouver Island, tell a story of Spanish arriving then burning the valley searching for gold. Prospectors searching the valley have found old crude dug adits on the pass of the White River Valley and the Gold River Valley.
Queen Charlottes Gold Rush, 1850.
Gold was first formally discovered by non-indigenous people at Gold Harbour on the west coast of Moresby Island in the Queen Charlotte Islands, near the Haida village of Tasu on Mitchell Inlet, an arm of Gold Harbour (which is part of Tasu Sound). A brief gold rush - the Queen Charlottes Gold Rush - ensued in the following year, leading to the declaration of the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands to prevent the archipelago from being overrun by Americans and so claimed by the United States. The extent of the ore body proved superficial, and there are various stories of American prospecting parties harassed by the Haida people, who were still very numerous and powerful. In later times, Gold Harbour and Mitchell Inlet became the location of a modern mining operation, also called Tasoo or Tasu, but for iron rather than gold. In 1969, a local logger, Efrem Specogna and his brother-in-law, John Trinco made the initial gold discovery of the Specogna (Babe) Gold deposit west of Port Clements on Graham Island. By 1979, a 2 million ounce gold deposit was defined by exploratory drilling by major mining companies, Cominco, Kennco Explorations (a subsidiary of Kennecott) and Quintana Minerals. A junior exploration company continued drilling the project and a gold rush ensued from 1979-1981. The Specogna gold deposit remains an unmined deposit with over 3 million ounces of gold and is categorized as an epithermal type gold deposit.
Tranquille, Thompson, and Fraser Gold Rushes.
Gold discoveries are not reported in the journals of the early fur traders, and it became policy on the part of the fur companies to not advertise the presence of gold as the protection of the fur trade was the main corporate interest of their enterprise. Governor Etolin of Russian America expressly forbade news of gold discoveries as a serious crime against the state. Small quantities of gold were reported by traders in the 1830s and at some posts became current in local trading, though not common or in quantity. but Hudson's Bay Company policy, or the good judgement of the Chief Trader, kept news of such discoveries quiet until a large trove was brought into Fort Kamloops in 1856 by members of the nearby Tranquille tribe of the Secwepemc. When news of the find and a large poke of gold dust brought to James Douglas, Chief Factor of the Columbia Department at Fort Victoria and also Governor of Vancouver Island, decided to ship it to San Francisco for smelting. Some historians have suggested he did so deliberately to spread news of the gold find so as to provoke a gold rush so as to force Britain's hand on the status of the British mainland north of the 49th parallel, which since the Oregon Treaty had remained unincorporated and had remained solely the domain of the fur company and its native clientele. American miners had been appearing more frequently on British soil and Douglas felt he had to take action.
Fraser Rush and the founding of the Gold Colony.
News of the finds in what was then known as New Caledonia hit California at a time of economic depression, when the gold fields were depopulated and many miners were in San Francisco, where the news hit like wildfire and overloaded steamers full of men equipped with not much more than gold pans and the clothes on their back headed north, along with entrepreneurs of all kinds and others seeking to profit not from the mines, but from the miners. Victoria, until then a "sleepy English village" of a few hundred people, was transformed into a tent city of some 30,000 within weeks in the spring of 1858, among them 4000 were Chinese. After initial complaints of a "humbug", because high water levels prevented mining, thousands returned to California, only to be replaced by others as water levels dropped and mining began in earnest. The first major find, and among the largest on the river, was at Hill's Bar about 15 kilometers south of Fort Yale, which had become the epicenter of the gold rush as it was at the head of river navigation and at the foot of the Fraser Canyon and its difficult trails and rich gold-bearing bars. Hill's Bar's first claim, known as the "Boatmen of San Francisco", worked the bar alongside Chief Kowpelst and his people, the Spuzzum tribe of the Nlaka'pamux, whose village was just north of Fort Yale. The mining population, split into thirds about evenly between Americans, Chinese, and a mix of Britons and Europeans who had been in California, many since the California Gold Rush ten years earlier, entered into conflict when two French miners violated a Nlaka'pamux girl near Litton, then called "the Forks", and their beheaded bodies were seen floating down the river. In the ensuing unrest, known as the Fraser Canyon War, most of the mining population fled the Canyon for Spuzzum and Yale, and war parties composed of Americans, Germans, French and others (many who had been mercenaries in Nicaragua, or in service of France in Mexico), forayed up the canyon and made a peace with the Nlaka'pamux, though many were killed on both sides. News of the war had reached Victoria in the meantime and Governor Douglas was forced to take action to enforce British authority and sovereignty on the mainland and set out by steamer with Royal Marines and the newly arrived first contingent of Royal Engineers for the gold fields. En route, the party stopped at Fort Langley, then still located at Derby, where Douglas declared the Colony of British Columbia and was sworn in as its first Governor, on August 1, 1858. Proceeding without much incident to Yale, where news of the governor's journey upriver had travelled in advance, the Governor and his troops were greeted by the war parties or "Companies" that had engaged in the war, flying the British flag and greeting the Governor with a formal welcome. Admonishing them that the colony had been established and the Queen's Law would prevail, the governor appointed officials who would later lead to a series of events known as McGowan's War over the course of the next winter. Also while at Yale, Douglas decreed the creation of subscriptions by which parties of men could pay for the right to construct a new route to the "Upper Fraser" via the Lakes Route, as a way around the dangers of the canyon trail and continued fears about the Nlaka'pamux. the "Upper Fraser" was the area of Lillooet and Fountain and several thousand miners had arrived in that region via overland routes through Oregon and Washington Territory, despite an injunction from Douglas that all access to the goldfields would be through Victoria only. Those who came by those routes, the busiest but war-ridden Okanagan Trail, also spread farther afield in the Interior, leading to gold discoveries further and further afield and a string of small and large gold rushes including what would become the largest and most famous, the Cariboo Gold Rush. Not for nothing that among the most common sobriquet used at the time for the new Mainland Colony was "the Gold Colonies".
The Cariboo Gold Rush 1861-1867.
By 1860, there were gold discoveries in the middle basin of the Quesnel River around Keithley Creek and Quesnel Forks, just below and west of Quesnel Lake. Exploration of the region intensified as news of the discoveries got out, and because of the distances and times involved in communications and travel in those times, moreover because of the remoteness of the country, the Cariboo Rush did not begin in earnest until 1862 after the discovery of Williams Creek in 1861 and the relocation of the focus of the rush to the creek valleys in the northern Cariboo Plateau forming the headwaters of the Willow River and the north slope of the basin of the Quesnel. The rush, though initially discovered by American-based parties, became notably Canadian, Maritimer and British in character, with those who became established in the Cariboo among the vanguard of the movement to join Canada as the 1860s progressed. Many Americans returned to the United States at the opening of the Civil War. Others went on to the Fort Colvile Gold Rush, Idaho Gold Rush, and Colorado Gold Rush. Some went elsewhere in the Intermontane West, including other parts of British Columbia, in addition to those who had come and gone during the advent and wane of the Cariboo rush. To preserve British authority and retain control over the traffic of gold out of the region, the Governor commissioned the building of the Cariboo Road, a.k.a. the Queen's Highway, and a route from Lillooet and also established the Gold Escort, although that government agency never proved viable and private expressmen dominated the shipment of goods and mail into the gold fields, and gold out of it (see Francis Jones Barnard and B.X. Express). Among other events associated with the Cariboo Gold Rush was the Chilcotin War of 1864, provoked by an attempt to build a wagon road from Bute Inlet to Cariboo via the Homathko River. In addition to the gold rush's capital and destination of the Cariboo Road Barkerville, dozens of small towns and mining camps sprang up across the rainy, swampy hills of the Cariboo, some such as Bullion and Antler Creek attaining mining fame in their own right. The Cariboo gold fields have remained active to this day, and have also yielded other boomtowns, such as Wells, a one-time company town of 3,000 in the 1920s just a few kilometres west of Barkerville, which today is a museum town, and one of the larger deep-rock mines in the Cariboo mining district. The city of Quesnel, remained important after the wane of the rush as the jumping-off point for other goldfields discovered yet farther and farther north in the Omineca and Peace River Country to the north of Fort George (today's city of Prince George), then only a small fur post and Indian reserve.


Riverview, Umatilla County, Oregon

Riverview is an unincorporated historic community in Umatilla County, Oregon, United States. Riverview was a station of the Union Pacific Railroad, near the Columbia River and north of U.S. Route 730.


Wamsutta

Wamsutta ( 16341662), also known as Alexander Pokanoket, as he was called by New England colonists, was the eldest son of Massasoit (meaning Great Leader) Ousa Mequin of the Pokanoket Tribe and Wampanoag nation, and brother of Metacomet. His sale of Wampanoag lands to colonists other than those of the Plymouth Colony brought the Wampanoag considerable power, but aroused the suspicions of the Plymouth colonists. He was imprisoned for three days at Plymouth; he died shortly after release, causing tribal suspicion of the colonists. His death possibly contributed to King Philip's War of 1675. Wamsutta's name is memorialized in and around New Bedford, Massachusetts in various ways. He was honored in the naming of a United States Navy steamer in commission during the American Civil War between 1863 and 1865.
Life.
Wamsutta was born of royal blood in circa 1634 as the eldest son of Massasoit Ousa Mequin, leader of the Pokanoket. Wamsutta married Weetamoo.
Immediately following Ousa Mequin’s death, his oldest son, Wamsutta, inherited the Pokanoket sachemship, as was Pokanoket custom. Wamsutta, whom the English named Alexander, agreed to adhere to the peace established by his father. But rumors soon began to circulate that he was conspiring with the Narragansetts to attack the English. In 1662 the English accused Wamsutta of independently negotiating land sales. They marched him to Plymouth at gunpoint. He died of a "sudden illness" before returning home, leading the Pokanoket and many other natives to believe he had been poisoned by the English. At Wamsutta’s death, the Pokanoket sachemship and title of Massasoit passed to Ousa Mequin’s second son, Metacomet.
Metacomet (or Metacom), known as King Philip to the colonists and officials at Plymouth, signed an agreement with the English in 1662. Like Wamsutta and his father before him, Philip vowed not to needlessly or unjustly provoke or raise war with any other natives. In return, the colonists agreed to advise and aid Philip. However, it was an uneasy alliance. Hostilities between natives and colonists continued to grow.
It must be emphasized—the Royal House of Pokanoket was a hereditary kingship.
"Princes", "Nobles", "Blood Royal", and "Royalties" all were terms quite familiar to seventeenth century Europeans, who portrayed the governing system of the Pokanoket as similar to that of hereditary monarchies in their own countries.
After Massasoit's death, Wamsutta assumed leadership of the Pokanoket, becoming leader of all the Native American tribes between the Charles River in Massachusetts and Narraganset Bay in Rhode Island, including the tribes in eastern Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts. As a result of a collapse of the fur trade, he substantially increased the power of the Pokanoket by selling land to colonists. In 1662 he was summoned to and seized by the Plymouth Court. After being questioned, Wamsutta became ill and soon died.
The cause of death was disputed, and Wamsutta's brother Metacomet (who succeeded Wamsutta in leadership of the Pokanoket) suspected that he had been poisoned. Wamsutta's death was one of the factors that would eventually lead to the 1675 King Philip's War.
Some historians believe Wamsutta was poisoned or tortured by Governor Josiah Winslow, who saw him as a threat. But considering Winslow's father, Edward Winslow and Governor William Bradford (both of whom had died before this), and their previous peaceful relations with Wamsutta's father, Massasoit, such speculation is open to question. This issue is examined in the 2017 historical novel "My Father's Kingdom" by James W. George.
Legacy.
Wamsutta has been the namesake of businesses and places:
References.
https://vc.bridgew.edu/bmas/64/
Heath, Dwight B.
“A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth: Mourt’s Relation”, A relation or journal of the English Plantation settled at Plymouth in New England, by certain English adventurers both merchants and others. Edited from the original printing of 1622. p. 7.


William Logan (Indian agent)

William Logan was an Indian agent for the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1861 to 1865, and was appointed superintendent of The Dalles Mint. His death in the sinking of the "Brother Jonathan" in July 1865 was one reason that the mint was never completed.
On July 13, 1861, Logan was appointed a U.S. Indian agent under the Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs by the administration of President Abraham Lincoln. He was the U.S. agent representative in the 1864 treaty with the Klamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin band of Snake Indians that created the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. A find of gold in October 23, 1861 led to a gold rush centered on The Dalles, then known as "Dalles City." In 1864, the U.S. Congress agreed to establish a branch of the United States Mint in The Dalles to manage the flow of gold and help fund the ongoing American Civil War. In 1865, having established his reputation as an Indian agent, Logan was appointed the superintendent of the U.S. branch mint at The Dalles. He and his family were in San Francisco in 1865, and boarded the "Brother Jonathan" on July 28th to return to Oregon. Both William and his wife perished when the ship ran aground and sank on July 30th.


Wacanda Marine

From its inception in the late 1940s through about 1984, Wacanda Marine, Inc. was owned and operated by Forrest Collins, Colville, Washington. From 1984 to 1988, the company was owned by the Yakima Indian Nation, Wapato, Washington, although Mr. Collins managed the production
According to the company owner, the name of the company, "Wacanda", was in recognition that early on, about half the boats were being sold in Washington State, half in Canada.
During the course of its operations, Wacanda Marine Inc. produced a series of 12' to 21' fiberglass boats. The boats were typically operated on the lakes and white water rivers of the Pacific Northwest and western Canada. Mr. Collins has indicated that he does not know exactly how many boats the company produced over the years, although it was several thousand.
Early Innovation.
The earliest boats were 12' and 13' ("Fisherman") models and 15' ("Vandal") models. Wacanda boats were all built with fiberglass ribs, stringers and floors. The only wood (other than some interior parts) used in the boats were wooden motor mount beds. The boats were known to be extremely well built, with generous fiberglass lamination schedules. In the early to mid-1950s the boats had styling features fairly common to the era, such as dramatically dropped shear lines and tail-fins. Automotive safety glass windshields purchased from the Ford Motor Company were fitted to some of the earliest 16 foot V-hull models. By the late 1950s, Wacanda boats had evolved distinctive styling and performance features including on the v-hulls a flared and concave (hollow) bow profile and 'squared off' bow. These features resulted in a roomier interior, as well as a very dry boat.
Also, in the mid-1950s, Mr. Collins designed the V-hulls with an inset transom that carried forward through the end of production. This inset transom hull design was somewhat innovative at the time, although it was later seen on boats from other manufacturers.
Later Production.
In the 1960s through 1980s, the v-hull boats carried a shear line that gradually dropped down toward the stern, with the bulwarks rising above the beltline to maintain gunwale height. Some of the boats had a distinctive molded-in accent line on the sides.
In an early 1960s product brochure, the Evinrude Outboards featured a 16' Wacanda "Husky" v-hull model blasting through Snake River rapids (on the Idaho/Washington/Oregon border).
In the early 1970s, Wacanda began producing an 18' Tri-hull that was available in three configurations: cabin ("Dolphin"), open bow ("Viking") and a forward control version ("Barracuda"). Mr. Collins has indicated that the 18' Tri-hull was loosely based on a 17' Thompson Marine Co. tri-hull model.
During the last few years of production, the company introduced a 20' tri-hull, loosely based on the 18' model. All the 20' tri-hulls were sterndrive or jet powered.
Propulsion.
Wacanda was one of the earliest boat manufacturers to utilize inboard jet drives. In the late 1950s, the company began installing "Starfire" jet drive units, built in Spokane, Washington.
Inboard jet drives remained a power choice for Wacanda through the end of production in 1988, frequently with drives built by Berkley Pump Co. (California) or Eliminator Jet (Idaho). However, Wacanda boats were most commonly powered with outboard motors or inboard-outboard (stern drive) power plants.


Kiliaen van Rensselaer (fourth patroon)

Kiliaen van Rensselaer (died February 22, 1687), was the patroon of Manor of Rensselaerswyck.
Life.
Kiliaen van Rensselaer, who was born in Holland, was the eldest child of Johannes, and Elizabeth Van Twiller Van Rensselaer. When Kiliaen came of age, he travelled to Albany, and received naturalization papers from the English colonial government.
Manor of Rensselaerswyck.
Upon the death of his uncle, Jeremias Van Rensselaer, in 1674, he became patroon of Rensselaerswyck. As he was still a minor the property was managed by his uncle, the Rev. Nicholas Van Rensselaer. Young Kiliaen's aunt, the widow of Jeremias, Maria Van Rensselaer, and her brother, Stephanus Van Cortlandt served in an advisory capacity.
While he was Patroon, the patroonship changed to an English lordship, and so was the first Lord of Rensselaerwyck.
Personal life.
He married his cousin, Anna Van Rensselaer, daughter of Jeremias and Maria Van Cortlandt Van Rensselaer.
Death and succession.
Kiliaen died without issue at Watervliet, Albany county, about February 22, 1687. He was succeeded by his cousin and brother-in-law, Kiliaen van Rensselaer, son of Jeremias van Rensselaer.


William Owen Bush

William Owen Bush (July 4, 1832 – February 13, 1907) was an American farmer and politician who was elected to the Washington House of Representatives as part of the inaugural Washington State Legislature after its admission to the United States in 1889. He is noted for introducing the legislation that established Washington State University, for being the first African-American to serve in the Washington legislature, and for his tireless promotion of Washington agriculture.
Early life.
Bush was born in Clay County, Missouri on July 4, 1832. He was the son of George Washington Bush, a celebrated settler and veteran of the War of 1812 who inherited a portion of the substantial fortune of his father, Matthew, and Isabella James.
In 1844, at the age of 12, William Owen Bush traveled with his father, mother, and siblings from Missouri to Oregon in the company of five other families (including that of Michael Simmons, who would eventually found the city of Tumwater, Washington). By the time the family had reached the territory, the Provisional Government of Oregon had enacted legislation prohibiting land ownership by blacks. Undeterred, the elder Bush moved his family north, across the Columbia River, into what would eventually become the Territory of Washington (though was at the time contested land). There, the elder Bush went to work for the Hudson's Bay Company and eventually established a farm in Thurston County.
William Owen Bush's ancestry has been the subject of some confusion. Some of his descendants denied that his grandfather, Matthew, had any African ancestry at all. However, he himself identified as African-American, and was described in contemporary accounts as a negro. Bush's father, George Washington Bush, was of mixed race, while his mother was of German descent.
Career.
Agriculture.
In 1859 Bush married a widow, Mandana Kimsey, and established a farm 12 miles south of the family homestead. The couple had three children, George O., John Shotwell, and Mandana Isabella. George O. Bush died in infancy. After his father's death, William Owen Bush took control of the family farm, operating it together with his brothers and growing the family into increasing prosperity and wealth. In 1872 Bush helped found the Western Washington Industrial Association, which organized agricultural expositions, serving as the group's inaugural president. Grains from the Bush farm won gold medals at the 1876 Philadelphia World's Fair, and the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. In 1893 he was appointed to represent the United States on the Advisory Council of the World's Congress Auxiliary on Farm Culture and Cereal Industry.
Politics.
Following Washington's admission to the United States in 1889, Bush ran and was elected to the first sitting of the Washington House of Representatives as a member of the Republican Party. In 1890 he introduced and helped pass the state's first civil rights act, which prohibited racial discrimination in "public accommodations ... public conveyances on land or water, theatres and other places of public amusement and restaurants." Bush is also credited with introducing the legislation that led to the establishment of Washington State University. He was elected to the legislature a second time, serving until 1895.
Death.
Bush died in 1907 at St. Peter's Hospital in Olympia, Washington and was interred at Union Cemetery in Tumwater, Washington. In its obituary, the "Morning Olympian" newspaper described Bush as "one of the oldest and most famous pioneers of the state of Washington" and declared that "probably no resident of the state or territory throughout its history has done more to advertise the state than W. O. Bush."


Skuzzy (sternwheeler)

Skuzzy was a sternwheeler built by Canadian Pacific Railway contractor Andrew Onderdonk at Spuzzum, British Columbia, and was launched on the Fraser River on May 4, 1882.
"Skuzzy" was the first sternwheeler to ever navigate the perilous rapids north of Yale in the Fraser Canyon.
Andrew Onderdonk held the contract to build the section of railway from Boston Bar to Lytton. It was a contract worth $2,573,640. He built the "Skuzzy" with the intention of moving railway supplies by steamer to the camps north of Yale via the Fraser River instead of using pack trains over the Cariboo Road, which is a low but difficult pass between Yale and Spuzzum. A ship would save him $10 per ton in road tolls alone.
The "Skuzzy" was built to transport goods to the current places of construction of the CPR or, the Canadian Pacific Railway. Because transporting materials along the Cariboo Road took too long to get to the site, Andrew Onderdonk built the "Skuzzy" and used the Fraser River to his advantage. The "Skuzzy" would have to be piloted by an expert sailor as they would be navigating through the whirlpools and rapids of Hell's Gate.
After she was built, Ausbury Insley piloted the ship up river on May 17, 1882. Captain Insley was able to guide the "Skuzzy" upstream through the whirlpools and rapids and under the Alexandra Bridge which had been built by the Royal Engineers in 1863, but when Insley got the "Skuzzy" to the entrance of the Hell's Gate Canyon he could take her no further. The Fraser was at it highest point in forty years, and passage was impossible.
Onderdonk brought in a captain and engineer from Oregon. Under their command, on September 7, the "Skuzzy" again attempted the rapids at Hell's Gate and once again failed. Onderdonk then had ringbolts drilled into the canyon's walls, and he stationed 125 Chinese railway employees above. Observers were betting on the success of the journey, and odds were 100:1 against.
Finally, with the aid of her steam capstan winching in the cable and 125 men pulling at her tow rope, the "Skuzzy" made it through Hell's Gate. It took 16 days to make the 16 mile trip to Boston Bar. The "Skuzzy" became the first sternwheeler to arrive in Lytton.


Coffee Run Mission Site

Coffee Run Mission Site, also known as Coffee Run Church and St. Mary's Church, is a historic mission church site and national historic district located at Hockessin, New Castle County, Delaware. It encompasses two contributing buildings, both now demolished, and one contributing site. They were the Father Kenney House and stone barn with frame addition. The house was built in 1812, and was a two-story, three bay stone dwelling with a cross-gable roof. The Coffee Run cemetery is the burial ground of the first Catholic church in Delaware. It measures approximately 66 feet by 183 feet and includes over 50 carved headstones and 12 uncut stone markers. Located at the cemetery is a small cinder block building, which contains an altar, and stands at the site of the original log mission church built about 1790. It was the first Catholic church in Delaware out of which grew the present Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington. The house was demolished in March 2010 following an arson. The barn, also affected by arson, remained mostly intact but in a decaying condition. Trinity Community Church planned to restore it and incorporate it into a new church on the site, but discovered that the mortar was no longer sound. The barn was demolished in 2016 and the stone saved for reuse in the facade of the new church.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.


Burnside Triangle

The Burnside Triangle, also known as Pink Triangle or Vaseline Alley, was a triangular district in Portland, Oregon, United States, known for its relatively higher density of LGBT and gay-friendly businesses.
Description and history.
The Burnside Triangle was centered on Southwest Stark Street and comprises a triangular set of city blocks that anchors the north end and acts as a welcoming space to the district drawing visitors throughout the region to many different meeting spots, including bars and nightclubs.
The gay liberation, lesbian feminism, and the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s helped bring attention to the problems faced by the people in the LGBT community. Before this period, they had no civil rights or protections in employment, housing, or public accommodations. In addition, gay, bisexual, and transgender people did not have advocacy programs in their community; therefore, they constituted a largely invisible population. However, Burnside Triangle helped those in the LGBT community feel as though they were not invisible by providing bars and clubs as social gatherings.
The Burnside Triangle housed a combination of gay-friendly businesses such as independent shops, restaurants, housing, and social services. The Burnside Triangle was also known for their gay bars, including the infamous Three Sisters (now closed), Silverado, Scandals, and Boxxes (now closed).
In 2007, in an article about Portland's appeal to "queer travelers" (particularly lesbians), "The Advocate" noted that men dominate the bars and nightclubs along Stark Street and the Burnside Triangle. In 2008, "Willamette Week" said the Downtown Portland district "underwent a complete renaissance and is now thoroughly established as a LGBT enclave stretching over several energetic city blocks. The influence of Burnside spreads into nearby neighborhoods including the Pearl District (a former industrial section of old Portland that now booms with art and commerce) and the rather upscale and upbeat Northwest neighborhood."


Guatemalan Mexicans

There is a large Guatemalan diaspora in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 35,322 Guatemalan citizens living in Mexico, up from the 23,957 individuals counted in 2000.
Migration history.
There has been a Guatemalan presence in Mexico since at least 1895, when the National Census counted 14,004 individuals, however this dropped to 5,820 in 1900. Due to the devastating Guatemalan Civil War, many Guatemalans were allowed into Mexico as refugees. Some stayed only temporarily, but others settled down in the country. Recently, many Guatemalans have been immigrating to Mexico rather than the United States. Most settle around Guatemala-Mexico border states to keep in touch with family, but many move to Mexico City where a large community already exists, and some settle around Baja California and US-Mexico border states because of Guatemalan American communities existing in American border cities, some with relatives in the United States. Both countries share the Spanish language; their historical origins are common (part of the Spanish Empire).